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5,900 | Gilles_Deleuze | Gilles Deleuze (), (18 January 1925 – 4 November 1995) was a French philosopher of the late 20th century. From the early 1960s until his death, Deleuze wrote many influential works on philosophy, literature, film, and fine art. His most popular books were the two volumes of Capitalism and Schizophrenia: Anti-Oedipus (1972) and A Thousand Plateaus (1980), both co-written with Félix Guattari. His books Difference and Repetition (1968) and The Logic of Sense (1969) led Michel Foucault to declare that "one day, perhaps, this century will be called Deleuzian." Foucault, "Theatrum Philosophicum", Critique 282, p. 885. (Deleuze, for his part, said Foucault's comment was "a joke meant to make people who like us laugh, and make everyone else livid.") Negotiations, p. 4. However, in a later interview, Deleuze commented: "I don't know what Foucault meant, I never asked him" (Negotiations, p. 88). Life Deleuze was born in Paris and lived there for most his life. His initial schooling was undertaken during World War II, during which time he attended the Lycée Carnot. He also spent a year in khâgne at the Lycée Henri IV. In 1944 Deleuze went to study at the Sorbonne. His teachers there included several noted specialists in the history of philosophy, such as Georges Canguilhem, Jean Hyppolite, Ferdinand Alquié, and Maurice de Gandillac, and Deleuze's lifelong interest in the canonical figures of modern philosophy owed much to these teachers. Nonetheless, Deleuze also found the work of non-academic thinkers such as Jean-Paul Sartre strongly attractive. Dialogues, p. 12: "At the Liberation we were still strangely stuck in the history of philosophy. We simply plunged into Hegel, Husserl and Heidegger; we threw ourselves like puppies into a scholasticism worse than that of the Middle Ages. Fortunately there was Sartre. Sartre was our Outside, he was really the breath of fresh air from the backyard." He agrégated in philosophy in 1948. Deleuze taught at various lycées (Amiens, Orléans, Louis le Grand) until 1957, when he took up a position at the Sorbonne. In 1953, he published his first monograph, Empiricism and Subjectivity, on Hume. He married Denise Paul "Fanny" Grandjouan in 1956. From 1960 to 1964 he held a position at the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique. During this time he published the seminal Nietzsche and Philosophy (1962) and befriended Michel Foucault. From 1964 to 1969 he was a professor at the University of Lyon. In 1968 he published his two dissertations, Difference and Repetition (supervised by Gandillac) and Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza (supervised by Alquié). In 1969 he was appointed to the University of Paris VIII at Vincennes/St. Denis, an experimental school organized to implement educational reform. This new university drew a number of talented scholars, including Foucault (who suggested Deleuze's hiring), and the psychoanalyst Félix Guattari. Deleuze taught at Vincennes until his retirement in 1987. Deleuze, a heavy smoker, suffered from lung cancer. Another source mentions lung tuberculosis: Although he had a lung removed, the disease had spread throughout his pulmonary system. Deleuze underwent a tracheotomy, lost the power of speech A.P. Colombat, "November 4, 1995: Deleuze's death as an event", Continental Philosophy Review 29.3 (July 1996): 235-249. and considered himself 'chained like a dog' to an oxygen machine. Philip Goodchild, Deleuze and Guattari: An Introduction to the Politics of Desire (Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996). By the last years of his life, simple tasks such as handwriting required laborious effort. In 1995, he committed suicide, throwing himself from the window of his apartment. Upon Deleuze's death, his colleague Jean-François Lyotard sent a fax to Le Monde, in which he wrote of his friend: "He was too tough to experience disappointments and resentments — negative affections. In this nihilist fin de siècle, he was affirmation. Right through to illness and death. Why did I speak of him in the past? He laughed, he is laughing, he is here. It's your sadness, idiot, he'd say." J.-F. Lyotard, Misère de la philosophie (Paris: Galilée, 2000), p. 194. The novelist Michel Tournier, who knew Deleuze when both were students at the Sorbonne, described him thus: "The ideas we threw about like cottonwool or rubber balls he returned to us transformed into hard and heavy iron or steel cannonballs. We quickly learnt to be in awe of his gift for catching us red-handed in the act of cliché-mongering, talking rubbish, or loose thinking. He had the knack of translating, transposing. As it passed through him, the whole of worn-out academic philosophy re-emerged unrecognisable, totally refreshed, as if it has not been properly digested before. It was all fiercely new, completely disconcerting, and it acted as a goad to our feeble minds and our slothfulness." Mary Bryden (ed.), Deleuze and Religion (New York: Routledge, 2001), p. 201. Deleuze himself almost entirely demurred from autobiography. When once asked to talk about his life, he replied: "Academics' lives are seldom interesting." Negotiations, p. 137. When a critic seized upon Deleuze's unusually long, uncut fingernails as a revealing eccentricity, he drily noted a more obvious explanation: "I haven't got the normal protective whorls, so that touching anything, especially fabric, causes such irritation that I need long nails to protect them." Ibid., p. 5. Deleuze concludes his reply to this critic thus: "What do you know about me, given that I believe in secrecy? ... If I stick where I am, if I don't travel around, like anyone else I make my inner journeys that I can only measure by my emotions, and express very obliquely and circuitously in what I write. ... Arguments from one's own privileged experience are bad and reactionary arguments." Ibid., pp. 11-12. Philosophy Deleuze's works fall into two groups: on one hand, monographs interpreting the work of other philosophers (Spinoza, Leibniz, Hume, Kant, Nietzsche, Bergson, Foucault) and artists (Proust, Kafka, Francis Bacon); on the other, eclectic philosophical tomes organized by concept (e.g., difference, sense, events, schizophrenia, cinema, philosophy). Regardless of topic, however, Deleuze consistently develops variations on similar ideas. Metaphysics Deleuze's main philosophical project in his early works (i.e., those prior to his collaborations with Guattari) can be baldly summarized as a systematic inversion of the traditional metaphysical relationship between identity and difference. Traditionally, difference is seen as derivative from identity: e.g., to say that "X is different from Y" assumes some X and Y with at least relatively stable identities. To the contrary, Deleuze claims that all identities are effects of difference. Identities are neither logically nor metaphysically prior to difference, Deleuze argues, "given that there exist differences of nature between things of the same genus." "Bergson's Conception of Difference", in Desert Islands, p. 33. That is, not only are no two things ever the same, the categories we use to identify individuals in the first place derive from differences. Apparent identities such as "X" are composed of endless series of differences, where "X" = "the difference between x and x'", and "x" = "the difference between...", and so forth. Difference goes all the way down. To confront reality honestly, Deleuze claims, we must grasp beings exactly as they are, and concepts of identity (forms, categories, resemblances, unities of apperception, predicates, etc.) fail to attain difference in itself. "If philosophy has a positive and direct relation to things, it is only insofar as philosophy claims to grasp the thing itself, according to what it is, in its difference from everything it is not, in other words, in its internal difference." Ibid., p. 32. Like Kant and Bergson, Deleuze considers traditional notions of space and time as unifying forms imposed by the subject. Therefore he concludes that pure difference is non-spatio-temporal; it is an idea, what Deleuze calls "the virtual". (The coinage refers not to the "virtual reality" of the computer age, but to Proust's definition of what is constant in both the past and the present: "real without being actual, ideal without being abstract." Proust, Le Temps Retrouvé, ch. III: see the fourth line from the bottom of this page, or, in English translation, the thirteenth paragraph here: "I began to discover the cause by comparing those varying happy impressions which had the common quality of being felt simultaneously at the actual moment and at a distance in time, because of which common quality the noise of the spoon upon the plate, the unevenness of the paving-stones, the taste of the madeleine, imposed the past upon the present and made me hesitate as to which time I was existing in. Of a truth, the being within me which sensed this impression, sensed what it had in common in former days and now, sensed its extra-temporal character, a being which only appeared when through the medium of the identity of present and past, it found itself in the only setting in which it could exist and enjoy the essence of things, that is, outside Time. [...] Nothing but a moment of the past? Much more perhaps; something which being common to the past and the present, is more essential than both. [...] a marvellous expedient of nature had caused a sensation to flash to me—sound of a spoon and of a hammer, uneven paving-stones—simultaneously in the past which permitted my imagination to grasp it and in the present in which the shock to my senses caused by the noise had effected a contact between the dreams of the imagination and that of which they are habitually deprived, namely, the idea of existence—and thanks to that stratagem had permitted that being within me to secure, to isolate and to render static for the duration of a lightning flash that which it can never wholly grasp, a fraction of Time in its pure essence. When, with such a shudder of happiness, I heard the sound common, at once, to the spoon touching the plate, to the hammer striking the wheel, to the unevenness of the paving-stones in the courtyard of the Guermantes’ mansion and the Baptistry of St. Mark’s, it was because that being within me can only be nourished on the essence of things and finds in them alone its subsistence and its delight. It languishes in the observation by the senses of the present sterilised by the intelligence awaiting a future constructed by the will out of fragments of the past and the present from which it removes still more reality, keeping that only which serves the narrow human aim of utilitarian purposes. But let a sound, a scent already heard and breathed in the past be heard and breathed anew, simultaneously in the present and in the past, real without being actual, ideal without being abstract, then instantly the permanent and characteristic essence hidden in things is freed and our true being which has for long seemed dead but was not so in other ways awakes and revives, thanks to this celestial nourishment." ) While Deleuze's virtual ideas superficially resemble Plato's forms and Kant's ideas of pure reason, they are not originals or models, nor do they transcend possible experience; instead they are the conditions of actual experience, the internal difference in itself. "The concept they [the conditions] form is identical to its object." Desert Islands, p. 36. A Deleuzean idea or concept of difference is not a wraith-like abstraction of an experienced thing, it is a real system of differential relations that creates actual spaces, times, and sensations. See "The Method of Dramatization" in Desert Islands, and "Actual and Virtual" in Dialogues. Thus Deleuze, alluding to Kant and Schelling, at times refers to his philosophy as a transcendental empiricism. In Kant's transcendental idealism, experience only makes sense when organized by intellectual categories (such as space, time, and causality). Taking such intellectual concepts out of the context of experience, according to Kant, spawns seductive but senseless metaphysical beliefs. (For example, extending the concept of causality beyond possible experience results in unverifiable speculation about a first cause.) Deleuze inverts the Kantian arrangement: experience exceeds our concepts by presenting novelty, and this raw experience of difference actualizes an idea, unfettered by our prior categories, forcing us to invent new ways of thinking (see below, Epistemology). Simultaneously, Deleuze claims that being is univocal, i.e., that all of its senses are affirmed in one voice. Deleuze borrows the doctrine of ontological univocity from the medieval philosopher John Duns Scotus. In medieval disputes over the nature of God, many eminent theologians and philosophers (such as Thomas Aquinas) held that when one says that "God is good", God's goodness is only analogous to human goodness. Scotus argued to the contrary that when one says that "God is good", the goodness in question is the exact same sort of goodness that is meant when one says "Jane is good". That is, God only differs from us in degree, and properties such as goodness, power, reason, and so forth are univocally applied, regardless of whether one is talking about God, a man, or a flea. Deleuze adapts the doctrine of univocity to claim that being is, univocally, difference. "With univocity, however, it is not the differences which are and must be: it is being which is Difference, in the sense that it is said of difference. Moreover, it is not we who are univocal in a Being which is not; it is we and our individuality which remains equivocal in and for a univocal Being." Difference and Repetition, p. 39. Here Deleuze at once echoes and inverts Spinoza, who maintained that everything that exists is a modification of the one substance, God or Nature. For Deleuze, there is no one substance, only an always-differentiating process, an origami cosmos, always folding, unfolding, refolding. Deleuze summarizes this ontology in the paradoxical formula "pluralism = monism". A Thousand Plateaus, p. 20. Difference and Repetition is Deleuze's most sustained and systematic attempt to work out the details of such a metaphysics, but his other works develop similar ideas. In Nietzsche and Philosophy (1962), for example, reality is a play of forces; in Anti-Oedipus (1972), a "body without organs"; in What Is Philosophy? (1991), a "plane of immanence" or "chaosmos". Epistemology Deleuze's unusual metaphysics entails an equally atypical epistemology, or what he calls a transformation of "the image of thought". According to Deleuze, the traditional image of thought, found in philosophers such as Aristotle, Descartes, and Husserl, misconceives of thinking as a mostly unproblematic business. Truth may be hard to discover—it may require a life of pure theorizing, or rigorous computation, or systematic doubt—but thinking is able, at least in principle, to correctly grasp facts, forms, ideas, etc. It may be practically impossible to attain a God's-eye, neutral point of view, but that is the ideal to approximate: a disinterested pursuit that results in a determinate, fixed truth; an orderly extension of common sense. Deleuze rejects this view as papering over the metaphysical flux, instead claiming that genuine thinking is a violent confrontation with reality, an involuntary rupture of established categories. Truth changes what we think; it alters what we think is possible. By setting aside the assumption that thinking has a natural ability to recognize the truth, Deleuze says, we attain a "thought without image", a thought always determined by problems rather than solving them. "All this, however, presupposes codes or axioms which do not result by chance, but which do not have an intrinsic rationality either. It's just like theology: everything about it is quite rational if you accept sin, the immaculate conception, and the incarnation. Reason is always a region carved out of the irrational—not sheltered from the irrational at all, but traversed by it and only defined by a particular kind of relationship among irrational factors. Underneath all reason lies delirium, and drift." Desert Islands, p. 262. Deleuze's peculiar readings of the history of philosophy stem from this unusual epistemological perspective. To read a philosopher is no longer to aim at finding a single, correct interpretation, but is instead to present a philosopher's attempt to grapple with the problematic nature of reality. "Philosophers introduce new concepts, they explain them, but they don't tell us, not completely anyway, the problems to which those concepts are a response. [...] The history of philosophy, rather than repeating what a philosopher says, has to say what he must have taken for granted, what he didn't say but is nonetheless present in what he did say." Negotiations, p. 136. (See below, Deleuze's interpretations.) Likewise, rather than seeing philosophy as a timeless pursuit of truth, reason, or universals, Deleuze defines philosophy as the creation of concepts. For Deleuze, concepts are not identity conditions or propositions, but metaphysical constructions that define a range of thinking, such as Plato's ideas, Descartes's cogito, or Kant's doctrine of the faculties. A philosophical concept "posits itself and its object at the same time as it is created." What Is Philosophy?, p. 22. In Deleuze's view, then, philosophy more closely resembles practical or artistic production than it does an adjunct to a definitive scientific description of a pre-existing world (as in the tradition of Locke or Quine). In his later work (from roughly 1981 onward), Deleuze sharply distinguishes art, philosophy, and science as three distinct disciplines, each analyzing reality in different ways. While philosophy creates concepts, the arts create novel qualitative combinations of sensation and feeling (what Deleuze calls "percepts" and "affects"), and the sciences create quantitative theories based on fixed points of reference such as the speed of light or absolute zero (which Deleuze calls "functives"). According to Deleuze, none of these disciplines enjoy primacy over the others Negotiations, p. 123. : they are different ways of organizing the metaphysical flux, "separate melodic lines in constant interplay with one another." Negotiations, p. 125. Cf. Spinoza's claim that the mind and the body are different modes expressing the same substance. For example, Deleuze does not treat cinema as an art representing an external reality, but as an ontological practice that creates different ways of organizing movement and time. Philosophy, science, and art are equally, and essentially, creative and practical. Hence, instead of asking traditional questions of identity such as "is it true?" or "what is it?", Deleuze proposes that inquiries should be functional or practical: "what does it do?" or "how does it work?" Negotiations, p. 21: "We're strict functionalists: what we're interested in is how something works". Values In ethics and politics, Deleuze again echoes Spinoza, albeit in a sharply Nietzschean key. In a classical liberal model of society, morality begins from individuals, who bear abstract natural rights or duties set by themselves or a God. Following his rejection of any metaphysics based on identity, Deleuze criticizes the notion of an individual as an arresting or halting of differentiation (as the etymology of the word "individual" suggests). Guided by the ethical naturalism of Spinoza and Nietzsche, Deleuze instead seeks to understand individuals and their moralities as products of the organization of pre-individual desires and powers. In the two volumes of Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Deleuze and Guattari describe history as a congealing and regimentation of "desiring-production" (a concept combining features of Freudian drives and Marxist labor) into the modern individual (typically neurotic and repressed), the nation-state (a society of continuous control), and capitalism (an anarchy domesticated into infantilizing commodification). Deleuze, following Marx, welcomes capitalism's destruction of traditional social hierarchies as liberating, but inveighs against its homogenization of all values to the aims of the market. But how does Deleuze square his pessimistic diagnoses with his ethical naturalism? Deleuze claims that standards of value are internal or immanent: to live well is to fully express one's power, to go to the limits of one's potential, rather than to judge what exists by non-empirical, transcendent standards. Modern society still suppresses difference and alienates persons from what they can do. To affirm reality, which is a flux of change and difference, we must overturn established identities and so become all that we can become—though we cannot know what that is in advance. The pinnacle of Deleuzean practice, then, is creativity. "Herein, perhaps, lies the secret: to bring into existence and not to judge. If it is so disgusting to judge, it is not because everything is of equal value, but on the contrary because what has value can be made or distinguished only by defying judgment. What expert judgment, in art, could ever bear on the work to come?" Essays Critical and Clinical, p. 135. Deleuze's interpretations Deleuze's studies of individual philosophers and artists are purposely heterodox. In Nietzsche and Philosophy, for example, Deleuze claims that Nietzsche's On the Genealogy of Morality is an attempt to rewrite Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, Nietzsche and Philosophy, p. 88. even though Nietzsche nowhere mentions the First Critique in the Genealogy, and the Genealogys moral topics are far removed from the epistemological focus of Kant's book. Likewise, Deleuze claims that univocity is the organizing principle of Spinoza's philosophy, despite the total absence of the term from any of Spinoza's works. Deleuze once famously described his method of interpreting philosophers as "buggery (enculage)", as sneaking behind an author and producing an offspring which is recognizably his, yet also monstrous and different. Negotiations, p. 6. See also: Daniel W. Smith, "The Inverse Side of the Structure: Zizek on Deleuze on Lacan", Criticism (2004): "Deleuze's all-too-well-known image of philosophical "buggery," which makes thinkers produce their own "monstrous" children"; Robert Sinnerbrink (in "Nomadology or Ideology? Zizek’s Critique of Deleuze", Parrhesia 1 (2006): 62-87) describes the "popular topic" of Deleuze's "notorious remarks"; Donald Callen (in "The Difficult Middle", Rhizomes 10 (Spring 2005)) describes "intellectual buggery" as "what Deleuze himself famously said about his encounters with the works of other philosophers." Deleuze's buggery analogy is also cited by, among many others, Brian Massumi, A User's Guide to Capitalism and Schizophrenia (MIT Press, 1992), p. 2; Slavoj Žižek, Organs without Bodies (Routledge, 2003), p. 48; Ian Buchanan, A Deleuzian Century? (Duke UP, 1999), p. 8; Jean-Jacques Lecercle, Deleuze and Language (Macmillan, 2002), p. 37; Gregg Lambert, The Non-Philosophy of Gilles Deleuze (Continuum, 2002), p. x; Claire Colebrook, Understanding Deleuze (Allen & Unwin, 2003), p. 73; and Charles Stivale, Gilles Deleuze: Key Concepts (McGill-Queen's, 2005), p. 3. The various monographs thus are not attempts to present what Nietzsche or Spinoza strictly intended, but re-stagings of their ideas in different and unexpected ways. Rather than misinterpretation, then, Deleuze's peculiar readings aim to enact the creativity he believes is the acme of philosophical practice. Desert Islands, p. 144. A parallel in painting Deleuze points to is Francis Bacon's Study after Velázquez—it is quite beside the point to say that Bacon "gets Velasquez wrong". Francis Bacon: The Logic of Sensation, pp. 46f: "[Bacon] let loose ... presences" already in Velázquez's painting. Cf. the passage cited above, from Negotiations, p. 136: "The history of philosophy, rather than repeating what a philosopher says, has to say what he must have taken for granted, what he didn't say but is nonetheless present in what he did say." Similar considerations apply, in Deleuze's view, to his own uses of mathematical and scientific terms, pace critics such as Alan Sokal: "I'm not saying that Resnais and Prigogine, or Godard and Thom, are doing the same thing. I'm pointing out, rather, that there are remarkable similarities between scientific creators of functions and cinematic creators of images. And the same goes for philosophical concepts, since there are distinct concepts of these spaces." Negotiations, pp. 124-125. Reception Deleuze's ideas have not spawned a school, as Lacan's did. But his major collaborations with Guattari (Anti-Oedipus, A Thousand Plateaus, and What Is Philosophy?) were best-sellers in France, and remain heavily cited in English-speaking academe. In 1994 and 1995, L'Abécédaire de Gilles Deleuze, an eight-hour series of interviews between Deleuze and Claire Parnet, aired on France's Arte Channel (a still from the program appears in the infobox above). An English language summary can be found here: In the 1960s, Deleuze's portrayal of Nietzsche as a metaphysician of difference rather than a reactionary mystic contributed greatly to the plausibility of "left-wing Nietzscheanism" as an intellectual stance. See, e.g., the approving reference to Deleuze's Nietzsche study in Jacques Derrida's essay "Différance", or Pierre Klossowski's monograph Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle, dedicated to Deleuze. More generally, see D. Allison (ed.), The New Nietzsche (MIT Press, 1985), and L. Ferry and A. Renaut (eds.), Why We Are Not Nietzscheans (University of Chicago Press, 1997). In the 1970s, the Anti-Oedipus, written in a style by turns vulgar and esoteric, Sometimes in the same sentence: "one is thus traversed, broken, fucked by the socius" (Anti-Oedipus, p. 347). offering a sweeping analysis of the family, language, capitalism, and history via eclectic borrowings from Freud, Marx, Nietzsche, and dozens of other writers, was received as a theoretical embodiment of the anarchic spirit of May 1968. In the 1980s and 1990s, almost all of Deleuze's books were translated into English. Like his contemporaries Foucault, Derrida, and Lyotard, Deleuze's influence has been most strongly felt in North American humanities departments, particularly in literary theory. There, Anti-Oedipus and A Thousand Plateaus are oft regarded as major statements of post-structuralism and postmodernism, See, for example, Steven Best and Douglas Kellner, Postmodern Theory (Guilford Press, 1991), which devotes a chapter to Deleuze and Guattari. though neither Deleuze nor Guattari described their work in those terms. In an English-speaking context, Deleuze's work is also identified as part of "continental philosophy". Deleuze has attracted critics as well. The following list is not exhaustive, and gives only the briefest of summaries. In Modern French Philosophy (1979), Vincent Descombes argues that Deleuze's account of a difference that is not derived from identity (in Nietzsche and Philosophy) is incoherent, and that his analysis of history in Anti-Oedipus is 'utter idealism', criticizing reality for falling short of a non-existent ideal of schizophrenic becoming. In What Is Neostructuralism? (1984), Manfred Frank claims that Deleuze's theory of individuation as a process of bottomless differentiation fails to explain the unity of consciousness. In "The Decline and Fall of French Nietzscheo-Structuralism" (1994), Pascal Engel presents a global condemnation of Deleuze's thought. According to Engel, Deleuze's metaphilosophical approach makes it impossible to reasonably disagree with a philosophical system, and so destroys meaning, truth, and philosophy itself. Engel summarizes Deleuze's metaphilosophy thus: "When faced with a beautiful philosophical concept you should just sit back and admire it. You should not question it." Barry Smith (ed.), European Philosophy and the American Academy, p. 34. In The Mask of Enlightenment (1995) Stanley Rosen objects to Deleuze's interpretation of Nietzsche's eternal return. In Deleuze: The Clamor of Being (1997), Alain Badiou claims that Deleuze's metaphysics only apparently embraces plurality and diversity, remaining at bottom relentlessly monist. Badiou further argues that, in practical matters, Deleuze's monism entails an ascetic, aristocratic fatalism akin to ancient Stoicism. In Reconsidering Difference (1997), Todd May argues that Deleuze's claim that difference is ontologically primary ultimately contradicts his embrace of immanence, i.e., his monism. However, May believes that Deleuze can discard the primacy-of-difference thesis, and accept a Wittgensteinian holism without significantly altering his practical philosophy. In Fashionable Nonsense (1997), Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont accuse Deleuze of abusing mathematical and scientific terms, particularly by sliding between accepted technical meanings and his own idiosyncratic use of those terms in his philosophical system. (But see above, Deleuze's interpretations.) Deleuze's writings on subjects such as calculus and quantum mechanics are, according to Sokal and Bricmont, vague, meaningless, or unjustified. However, by Sokal and Bricmont's own admission, they suspend judgment about Deleuze's philosophical theories and terminology. In Organs without Bodies (2003), Slavoj Žižek claims that Deleuze's ontology oscillates between materialism and idealism, Slavoj Žižek, Organs without Bodies, pp. 19-32, esp. p. 21: "Is this opposition not, yet again, that of materialism versus idealism? In Deleuze, this means The Logic of Sense versus Anti-Oedipus." See also p. 28 for "Deleuze's oscillation between the two models" of becoming. and that the Deleuze of Anti-Oedipus ("arguably Deleuze's worst book"), Ibid., p. 21 the "political" Deleuze under the "'bad' influence" of Guattari, ends up, despite protestations to the contrary, as "the ideologist of late capitalism". Ibid., pp. 32, 20, and 184. Žižek also calls Deleuze to task for allegedly reducing the subject to "just another" substance and thereby failing to grasp the nothingness that, according to Lacan and Žižek, defines subjectivity. Ibid., p. 68: "This brings us to the topic of the subject that, according to Lacan, emerges in the interstice of the 'minimal difference,' in the minimal gap between two signifiers. In this sense, the subject is 'a nothingness, a void, which exists.' ... This, then, is what Deleuze seems to get wrong in his reduction of the subject to (just another) substance. Far from belonging to the level of actualization, of distinct entities in the order of constituted reality, the dimension of the 'subject' designates the reemergence of the virtual within the order of actuality. 'Subject' names the unique space of the explosion of virtuality within constituted reality." What remains worthwhile in Deleuze's oeuvre, Žižek finds, are precisely those concepts closest to Žižek's own ideas. In Out of this World: Deleuze and the Philosophy of Creation (2006), Peter Hallward argues that Deleuze's insistence that being is necessarily creative and always-differentiating entails that his philosophy can offer no insight into, and is supremely indifferent to, the material, actual conditions of existence. Thus Hallward claims that Deleuze's thought is literally other-worldly, aiming only at a passive contemplation of the dissolution of all identity into the theophanic self-creation of nature. Endnotes Bibliography (Near complete bibliography, including various translations) By Gilles Deleuze Empirisme et subjectivité (1953). Trans. Empiricism and Subjectivity (1991). Nietzsche et la philosophie (1962). Trans. Nietzsche and Philosophy (1983). La philosophie critique de Kant (1963). Trans. Kant's Critical Philosophy (1983). Proust et les signes (1964, 2nd exp. ed. 1976). Trans. Proust and Signs (1973, 2nd exp. ed. 2000). Le Bergsonisme (1966). Trans. Bergsonism (1988). Présentation de Sacher-Masoch (1967). Trans. Masochism: Coldness and Cruelty (1989). Différence et répétition (1968). Trans. Difference and Repetition (1994). Spinoza et le problème de l'expression (1968). Trans. Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza (1990). Logique du sens (1969). Trans. The Logic of Sense (1990). Spinoza - Philosophie pratique (1970, 2nd ed. 1981). Trans. Spinoza: Practical Philosophy (1988). Dialogues (1977, 2nd exp. ed. 1996, with Claire Parnet). Trans. Dialogues (1987, 2nd exp. ed. 2002). Superpositions (1979). Francis Bacon - Logique de la sensation (1981). Trans. Francis Bacon: Logic of Sensation (2003). Cinéma I: L'image-mouvement (1983). Trans. Cinema 1: The Movement-Image (1986). Cinéma II: L'image-temps (1985). Trans. Cinema 2: The Time-Image (1989). Foucault (1986). Trans. Foucault (1988). Le pli - Leibniz et le baroque (1988). Trans. The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque (1993). Périclès et Verdi: La philosophie de Francois Châtelet (1988). Pourparlers (1990). Trans. Negotiations (1995). Critique et clinique (1993). Trans. Essays Critical and Clinical (1997). Pure Immanence (2001). L'île déserte et autres textes (2002). Trans. Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953-1974 (2003). Deux régimes de fous et autres textes (2004). Trans. Two Regimes of Madness: Texts and Interviews 1975-1995 (2006). In collaboration with Félix Guattari Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 1. L'Anti-Œdipe (1972). Trans. Anti-Oedipus (1977). Kafka: Pour une Littérature Mineure (1975). Trans. Kafka: Toward a Theory of Minor Literature (1986). Rhizome (1976). Nomadology: The War Machine (1986). Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 2. Mille Plateaux (1980). Trans. A Thousand Plateaus (1987). Qu'est-ce que la philosophie? (1991). Trans. What Is Philosophy? (1996). In collaboration with Michel Foucault "The Intellectuals and Power: A Discussion Between Gilles Deleuze and Michel Foucault". TELOS 16 (Summer 1973). New York: Telos Press Most of Deleuze's courses''' are available, in several languages, here. Documentary L'Abécédaire de Gilles Deleuze'', with Claire Parnet, produced by Pierre-André Boutang. Editions Montparnasse. See also Affect (philosophy) Concept Deterritorialization Gilbert Simondon's theory of physical, biological, psychic and collective individuation Minority (philosophy) Percept Plane of immanence Problem of future contingents Rhizome (philosophy) Schizoanalysis Virtual External links A/V the International E-Journal for Deleuze Studies, with a network/community, streamed video lectures and a catalogue of links and online papers. Alain Badiou, "The Event in Deleuze." (English translation). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gilles Deleuze" -- Jon Roffe. Joseph Nechvatal, "A reflection on the influence of Deleuze on art." Lectures and notes on work by Deleuze and Guattari. Rhizomes. Online journal inspired by Deleuzian thought. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Gilles Deleuze" -- Daniel Smith & John Protevi. The Journal of French Philosophy - the online home of the Bulletin de la Société Américaine de Philosophie de Langue Française Web resources from Wayne State University. 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5,901 | Lincoln,_Nebraska | The City of Lincoln is the capital and the second most populous city of the U.S. state of Nebraska. Lincoln is also the county seat of Lancaster County and the home of the University of Nebraska. The population was 225,581 at the 2000 census. Lincoln started out as the village of Lancaster, which was founded in 1856, and became the county seat of the newly created Lancaster County in 1859. The capital of Nebraska Territory had been Omaha since the creation of the territory in 1854; however, most of the territory's population lived south of the Platte River. After much of the territory south of the Platte considered annexation to Kansas, the legislature voted to move the capital south of the river and as far west as possible. The village of Lancaster was chosen, in part due to the salt flats and marshes. However, Omaha interests attempted to derail the move by having Lancaster renamed after the recently assassinated President Abraham Lincoln. At the time, many of the people south of the river had been sympathetic towards the Confederate cause and it was assumed that the legislature would not pass the measure if the future capital was named after Lincoln. The ploy did not work, as Lancaster was renamed Lincoln and became the state capital upon Nebraska's admission to the Union on March 1, 1867. The city was recently named one of the healthiest cities in the United States as of 2008. Law and government Lincoln has a mayor-council government. The mayor and a seven-member city council are selected in nonpartisan elections. Four members are elected from city council districts; the remaining three members are elected at-large. Lincoln's health, personnel, and planning departments are joint city/county agencies; most city and Lancaster County offices are located in the County/City Building. Since Lincoln is the state capital, many Nebraska state agencies and offices are located in Lincoln, as are several United States Government agencies and offices. The city lies within the Lincoln Public Schools school district; the primary law enforcement agency for the city is the Lincoln Police Department. The Lincoln Fire and Rescue Department shoulders the cities fire fighting and ambulatory services while outlying areas of the city are supported by volunteer fire fighting units. The city's public library system is Lincoln City Libraries, which has eight branches. Lincoln City Libraries circulates more than three million items per year to the residents of Lincoln and Lancaster County. Lincoln City Libraries is also home to Polley Music Library and the Jane Pope Geske Heritage Room of Nebraska authors. Geography Lincoln is located at (40.809868, -96.675345). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 195.2 km² (75.4 sq mi). 193.3 km² (74.6 sq mi) of it is land and 1.9 km² (0.7 sq mi) of it (0.98%) is water. Lincoln is one of the few large cities of Nebraska not located along either the Platte River or the Missouri River. The city was originally laid out near Salt Creek and among the nearly flat saline wetlands of northern Lancaster County. The city's growth over the years has led to development of the surrounding land, much of which is composed of gently rolling hills. In recent years, Lincoln's northward growth has encroached on the habitat of the endangered Salt Creek tiger beetle. Metropolitan area The Lincoln metropolitan area consists of Lancaster County and Seward County, which was added to the metropolitan area in 2003. Lincoln has very little development outside its city limits and has no contiguous suburbs (the largest city that can be considered a suburb of Lincoln is Waverly.) This is due primarily to the fact that most land that would have developed as a suburban city has been annexed to the city of Lincoln itself. Neighborhoods Arnold Heights: Located in far northwest Lincoln, this neighborhood also known as Airpark began as base housing for the adjacent Lincoln Air Force Base during the Cold War. The area originally consisted of 1,000 housing units and was annexed by Lincoln in 1966, after the base closed. All 1,000 units were originally managed by the Lincoln Housing Authority, today about half of the homes in the neighborhood have been sold to private owners. The area was also formerly known as both Capehart Housing when completed in 1960 (north housing) and the "Military Construction Area" when built during 1956 (South housing). Additional housing subdivisions were built in the area in the 1980's and 1990's. With the most receant adding a mix of duplexes, and single family homes of various sizes along with a IGA grocery store and strip Mall. The area is adding development as of May 2009. Belmont:The Belmont neighborhood lies just north of Cornhusker Highway and south of Superior street between Interstate-180 and 27th street. Bethany: Bethany is located along Cotner Blvd. and Holdrege St. Originally laid out as a separate village by the Disciples of Christ, it was annexed by Lincoln in the late 1920s. Clinton: Located north of 27th and O Streets, Clinton is the target of ongoing revitalization efforts by the City of Lincoln. College View: College View is located along 48th St. and near Calvert St., adjacent to and surrounding the Union College campus; originally a separate village. The area is Anchored by Union College but has many of the builings of a small town down town area. This business area serves the college and the area. It has an electic mix of mostly local business's. Downtown Lincoln Downtown: Lincoln's business district has a mix of offices, bars, restaurants and some retail. Events, housing, and other information about Downtown Lincoln can be found on the Downtown Lincoln Association's website at www.downtownlincoln.org. Gaslight Village. Havelock: Havelock is located along Havelock Ave. east of 56th St. in northeast Lincoln; originally a separate village. Hartley: One of Lincoln's earliest suburbs, Hartley is located east of Downtown proper, east of 27th St and north of O St. It is a mainly residential neighborhood of houses built 1890-1940. Hawley: Located directly east of UNL's downtown campus, the Hawley Historic District is home to a diverse population living in houses built in the early 20th century. Haymarket: One of Lincoln's oldest neighborhoods, the Haymarket is a historic warehouse and industrial district. In recent decades, it has become a dining, specialty shopping, and urban living district, with a variety of visual and performing arts and nightlife. The Haymarket has a weekly farmers' market from May to October. With growth of both local and national shops incresing. It has gained importance with increased downtown redevlopment. The area's website can be found at www.historichaymarket.info Highlands: The Highlands is a newer residential neighborhood in northwest Lincoln, located north of I-80 and near Lincoln Airport. Huskerville: A now non-existent neighborhood built north of Arnold Heights. Constructed during World War II, Huskerville was once the Lincoln Army Air Field hospital area from 1942 until 1945. After the war the area was converted into college housing and was most noted for a polio outbreak in 1952. The area was either removed or demolished in the late 1960s. The chapel, now protected by the National Register of Historic Places, is all that remains of Huskerville. A new development is underway here however including the construction of a new elementary school as of 2008. Indian Village: The Indian Village neighborhood is located from Van Dorn on the north to Highway 2 on the south, from 9th St on the west to 20th St on the east. Many of the Streets in the area of named in honor of Native American Tribes. With the Indian Village Shopping center being at center of the area. Irvingdale: The Irvingdale neighborhood is located from South Street on the North, and Van Dorn on the South, from 9th St from the west to 22nd St on the east. The neighborhood has a mix of homes built in the early 1900s to more modern homes built in the 1950s, and is home to Irving Middle School, and the Stransky Park Concert Series. Near South The Near South neighborhood is located from G Street on the north to South Street on the south, and from 13th Street from the west to 27th on the east. The neighborhood is home to many of Lincoln's grand historic homes and is currently experiencing a strong revitalization effort by the Neighborhood Assn and City Officials. Many home-owners are deconverting properties that were once divided into apartments back into single-family homes. The areas is also popular among college students and artists.The area is full homes of historic and Architectural value. The area had undergone since the 1960’s and downturn which saw many home replaced with or divided into low income apartments. This process has been reversed and many atheistic and historic improvements have been made. The area is widespread and architecturally diverse with a variey of sizes and values of homes. The area has many places of worship including the historic First Plymouth,whose bell tower can be seen for miles away. The Near South has coffee shops, restaurants, banks, and many other businesses. It is also home to Lincoln's beautiful Sunken Gardens. North Bottoms: Directly north of UNL's downtown campus, the North Bottoms is an area in the floodplain of Salt Creek that holds many low income houses. It is now home to many college students. South Bottoms: South of the Haymarket district, the South Bottoms, like the North Bottoms, was a neighborhood founded by Germans from Russia. Today, the neighborhood is noted for its architecture. University Place: University Place is located along 48th St. between Leighton Ave. and Adams St., near Nebraska Wesleyan University and UNL East Campus. It was an incorporated community before its annexation by Lincoln in 1926. West Lincoln: Located along West Cornhusker Hwy., West Lincoln was founded in 1887 and was an incorporated community before its annexation by Lincoln in 1966. Fox Hollow Located in southeast Lincoln, from 70th Streets to 84th Street, between Van Dorn and Pioneers. Middle to upper class neighborhoods near Holmes Lake. Fox Hollow is a planned subdivision and was constructed during the 1970s to present. Parks Lincoln has an extensive park system, with over 100 individual parks. The largest parks in Lincoln's park system are: Antelope Park (which contains the Lincoln Children's Zoo and the Sunken Gardens), Woods Park, Holmes Park, Oak Lake Park, Pioneers Park, Tierra Park, and Wilderness Park. The parks are connected by a 159 km (99 mi.) system of recreational trails. The MoPac Trail extends through Lincoln. Climate Monthly Normal and Record High and Low Temperatures Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Rec High °F (°C) 73 (22.7) 84 (28.8) 89 (31.6) 97 (36.1) 99 (37.2) 107 (41.6) 108 (42.2) 107 (41.6) 106 (41.1) 94 (34.4) 85 (29.4) 70 (21.1) Norm High °F (°C) 33.2 (0.6) 39.3 (4.0) 51.2 (10.6) 63.5 (17.5) 73.8 (23.2) 84.9 (29.4) 89.6 (32) 87.1 (30.6) 78.8 (26) 66.5 (19.2) 49.1 (9.5) 36.8 (2.6) Norm Avg °F (°C) 22.4 (-5.3) 28.3 (-2.0) 39.4 (4.1) 51.2 (10.6) 62.0 (16.6) 72.7 (22.6) 77.8 (25.4) 75.4 (24.1) 66.0 (18.8) 53.5 (11.9) 38.1 (3.4) 26.5 (-3.0) Norm Low °F (°C) 11.5 (-11.4) 17.2 (-8.2) 27.5 (-2.5) 38.8 (3.7) 50.1 (10.0) 60.4 (15.7) 65.9 (18.8) 63.7 (17.6) 53.2 (11.7) 40.4 (4.6) 27 (-2.7) 16.2 (-8.7) Rec Low °F (°C) -33 (-36.1) -24 (-31.1) -19 (-28.3) 3 (-16.1) 24 (-4.4) 39 (3.8) 42 (5.5) 41 (5) 26 (-3.3) 8 (-13.3) -5 (-20.5) -27 (-32.7) Precip in. (mm) 0.67 (17.0) 0.66 (16.8) 2.21 (56.1) 2.9 (73.6) 4.23 (107.4) 3.51 (89.1) 3.54 (89.9) 3.35 (85.1) 2.92 (74.2) 1.94 (49.3) 1.58 (40.1) 0.86 (21.8)Source: USTravelWeather.com Economy Lincoln's economy is fairly typical of a mid-sized American city; most economic activity is derived from service industries. The state government and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln are both large contributors to the local economy. Other prominent industries in Lincoln include banking, information technology,education,call centers, insurance, and rail and truck transport. Four regional fast-food restaurant chains began in Lincoln: Amigos/Kings Classic, Runza Restaurants, daVinci's and Valentino's. Transportation The Eagle Fruit Store and Capitol Hotel in downtown Lincoln during the 1940s. Rail Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service to Lincoln, operating its California Zephyr daily in each direction between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco. Bus A public bus transit system, StarTran, operates in Lincoln. StarTran's fleet consists of 60 full-sized buses and 9 Handi-Vans. Air The Lincoln Airport provides passengers with daily non-stop service to United Airlines hubs O'Hare International Airport and Denver International Airport as well as Northwest Airlines hubs Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport and Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport, via United Express and Northwest Airlink regional jet aircraft, respectively. In the past Allegiant Air departed Wednesdays and Saturdays to McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas aboard their fleet of MD-80s. However, this service has ended in Lincoln and has been transferred to Grand Island Municipal Airport. The Lincoln Airport is also among the emergency landing sites for the NASA Space Shuttle, and the top location located within the non-coastal United States. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 225,581 people, 90,485 households, and 53,567 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,166.9/km² (3,022.2/sq mi). There were 95,199 housing units at an average density of 492.5/km² (1,275.4/sq mi). The racial makeup of the city was 89.25% White, 3.12% Asian, 3.09% African American, 0.68% Native American, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 1.81% from other races, and 1.99% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.61% of the population. There were 90,485 households out of which 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.3% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.8% were non-families. 30.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.99. In the city the population was spread out with 23.0% under the age of 18, 16.4% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 99.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $40,605, and the median income for a family was $52,558. Males had a median income of $33,899 versus $25,402 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,984. About 5.8% of families and 10.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.7% of those under age 18 and 6.0% of those age 65 or over. Sites of interest Nebraska State Capitol The Capitol at night Nebraska State Capitol: designed by Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue and constructed between 1922 and 1932. The capitol building is a skyscraper topped by a golden dome. The tower is crowned by a 6-meter (20 ft) statue of a farmer sowing grain on a pedestal of wheat and corn (sculptor: Lee Lawrie), to represent the state's agricultural heritage. City zoning rules prevent any other building from rivaling it in height, making it a landmark not only within the city but for the surrounding area. Inside, there are many paintings and iridescent murals depicting the Native American heritage and the history and culture of the early pioneers who settled Nebraska. It is the second tallest U.S. State Capitol building behind the Louisiana State Capitol building in Baton Rouge . Alice Abel Arboretum American Historical Society of Germans from Russia Museum Lincoln Children's Museum (nd) Lincoln Children's Museum website. Retrieved 7/6/07. Lincoln Children's Zoo (nd) Lincoln Children's Zoo website. Retrieved 7/6/07. Fairview Home, home of William Jennings Bryan Frank H. Woods Telephone Museum Haymarket Park Historic Haymarket Hyde Observatory Ice Box Iron Horse Park in the Haymarket Joshua C. Turner Arboretum Maxwell Arboretum Museum of American Speed (nd) Museum of American Speed website. Retrieved 7/6/07. National Museum of Roller Skating and the offices of USA Roller Sports Museum of Nebraska History Thomas P. Kennard House Nebraska Statewide Arboretum Pioneer Park Nature Center Schleich Red Wing Pottery Museum (nd) Schleich Red Wing Pottery Museum website. Retrieved 7/6/07. State Fair Park Arboretum Sunken Gardens (Nebraska) (nd) Sunken Gardens webpage. City of Lincoln. Retrieved 7/6/07. Downtown Lincoln (Nebraska) (nd) Downtown Lincoln Association webpage. Downtown Lincoln Association. Retrieved 3/6/08. Wyuka Cemetery University of Nebraska–Lincoln Bob Devaney Sports Center Great Plains Art Museum International Quilt Study Center & Museum The Kruger Collection in the College of Architecture Lentz Center for Asian Culture Lester F. Larsen Tractor Test & Power Museum Lied Center for Performing Arts Mary Riepma Ross Media Arts Center, aka The Ross Memorial Stadium: Home of the Cornhuskers football team, the stadium was built in 1923. The Robert Hillestad Textiles gallery Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery: built in the early 1960s; architect Philip Johnson. University of Nebraska State Museum: home to an extensive collection of Nebraska fossils Education Primary and secondary education Lincoln Public Schools is the sole public school district in the city. There are six high schools in the district: Lincoln High, East, Northeast, North Star, Southeast, and Southwest. There are several private/parochial elementary and middle schools located throughout the community. These schools like Lincoln Public Schools are broken into districts and most will allow attendance outside of boundary lines if certain critera is met. Private high schools located in Lincoln are College View Academy, Lincoln Christian, Lincoln Lutheran, Parkview Christian and Pius X High School. Colleges and universities The University of Nebraska–Lincoln, the flagship campus of the University of Nebraska system, is the largest university in Lincoln. Other colleges and universities based in Lincoln are BryanLGH College of Health Sciences, Nebraska Wesleyan University, and Union College. Colleges and universities with satellite locations in Lincoln are Bellevue University, Doane College, Kaplan University,and Southeast Community College. Sports teams Memorial Stadium Lincoln is best known for the University's football team, the Nebraska Cornhuskers. In total, the University of Nebraska fields 21 men's and women's teams in 14 NCAA Division I sports. Other sports teams are the Lincoln Saltdogs, an American Association independent minor league baseball team; the Lincoln Stars, a USHL junior ice hockey team. Lincoln is also home to the No Coast Derby Girls, a member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association. Arts, entertainment and culture Downtown Lincoln at night (14th and O Streets) Lincoln's primary venues for live music include: Pershing Auditorium (large tours and national acts), Knickerbockers, Box Awesome, Duffy's Tavern, Duggan's Pub (local/regional acts; smaller venues), and the Zoo Bar (blues). The Pla-Mor Ballroom is a staple of Lincoln's music and dance scene, featuring its house band, the award-winning Sandy Creek Band. The Lied Center is a venue for national tours of Broadway productions, concert music, and guest lectures. Lincoln has several performing arts venues. Plays are staged by UNL students in the Temple Building; community theater productions are held at the Lincoln Community Playhouse, the Loft at The Mill, and the Haymarket Theater. For movie viewing, the local Douglas Theatre Company (now owned by Marcus Theatres) owns 32 screens at four locations, and the University of Nebraska's Mary Riepma Ross Media Arts Center shows independent and foreign films. Standalone cinemas in Lincoln include the Joyo Theater and Rococo Theater. The Rococo Theater also also hosts benfits and other engagments. The downtown section of O Street is Lincoln's primary bar and nightclub district. Lincoln, Nebraska, is the hometown of Zager and Evans, known for their international #1 hit record, 'In the Year 2525'. In addition, Lincoln is the hometown of the 1970s Horn Rock Band, STRAIGHT, known for the hit singles 'Save Your Breath' and 'Half Heaven, Half Heartache'. Lincoln has a growing local music scene. Annual events March: Nebraska high school state boys' and girls' basketball tournaments First Sunday in May: Lincoln Marathon Early June: Cornhusker Boys' State and Cornhusker Girls' State Tuesday evenings in June: Jazz in June, an outdoor summer concert series Third Friday in June, July, and August: Dock Stock Late June: International Thespian Festival at the University of Nebraska Thursday evenings in July: Movies on the Green, movies shown on the green space near Kimball Hall Early August: Lancaster County Fair Second weekend in August: Capitol City Rib Fest Late August/early September: Nebraska State Fair In 2010, the Nebraska State Fair is moving to Grand Island, NE. (about 100 miles west) Late August to late November: Nebraska Cornhuskers football Early November: Nebraska high school state football championships at Memorial Stadium Early to mid-November: Anime NebrasKon First Saturday in December: Star City Parade Local media Television Lincoln has three broadcast television stations with original programming: KLKN (Channel 8; 8.2 DT) – [[American Broadcasting Company RTN affliate 8.2 KOLN (Channel 10; 10.2 DT) – CBS affiliate MY TV affiliate 10.2 KUON (Channel 12; 40 DT) – PBS affiliate, NET Television flagship station KCWL (Channel 51) – CW, no original programming The headquarters of Nebraska Educational Telecommunications (NET), which is affiliated with the Public Broadcasting System, National Public Radio and Public Radio International, are in Lincoln. Lincoln is one of the few cities without its own NBC affiliate; Omaha's WOWT-TV serves as the city's default NBC affiliate, while Hastings' KHAS-TV is available in satellite locals packages. Most of Omaha's other television stations can also be picked up in Lincoln with an antenna, and all are available on cable. Radio There are 22 radio stations in Lincoln. FM stations include: KLCV (88.5) – Religious talk KNBE (88.9) – Religious talk and gospel KZUM (89.3) – Variety Community radio KFLV (89.9) – Contemporary Christian KRNU (90.3) – Alternative / College radio UNL KUCV (91.1) – National Public Radio K220GT (91.9) – Contemporary Christian KTGL (92.9) – Classic Rock KJFT-LP (93.7) – Chinese-language Religious K233AN (94.5) – Contemporary Christian KRKR (95.1) – Light AC KZKX (96.9) – Country KFGE (98.1) – Country KLTQ (101.9) – Classic pop KBZR (102.7) – Catholic Radio KIBZ (104.1) – Active Rock KLNC (105.3) – Adult Hits KFRX (106.3) – Top-40 KBBK (107.3) – Hot AC AM stations include: KFOR(1240) – News/Talk KLIN (1400) -News/Talk KLMS (1480) – Sports Lincoln can also receive many radio signals from Omaha. Print The Lincoln Journal Star is the city's major daily newspaper. The Daily Nebraskan is the official campus paper of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. The Clocktower is the official campus paper of Union College. Notable People Alex Gordon, MLB player who was born and raised in Lincoln. Barrett Ruud, is a starting linebacker for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the National Football League. Bo Ruud, is an American football linebacker for the New England Patriots in the National Football League. Charles Starkweather, was an American spree killer who murdered 11 victims in Nebraska and Wyoming during a road trip with his underage girlfriend Caril Ann Fugate. Dick Cheney, Vice President of United States under George W. Bush, Secretary of Defense under George H.W. Bush, former CEO of Halliburton. Was born in Lincoln, NE but moved to Casper, WY Don Wilson, was an American announcer and occasional actor in radio and television. Gilbert N. Lewis, was a famous American physical chemist known for the discovery of the covalent bond. Hilary Swank, is a double Academy Award-winning American actress, who was born in Lincoln, NE. James Valentine, is a Musician, and guitarist for the band Maroon 5, and was born and raised in Lincoln. Joba Chamberlain, born in Lincoln, NE, is a pitcher for the New York Yankees. Johnny Carson, attended college at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Lindsey Shaw, is an American actress. She is perhaps best known for her starring roles as Jennifer Mosely on Nickelodeon's sitcom, Ned's Declassified School Survival Guide,[1] and Claire Tolchuck in Aliens in America. Loren Eiseley, was a highly respected anthropologist, science writer, ecologist, and poet. He published books of essays, biography, and general science in the 1950s through the 1970s. Mary Doyle, was an American theatre actress who appeared on TV between TV credits from 1956 to 1982. She was born in Lincoln, NE and was the sister of the late TV actor David Doyle. Mary Zimmerman, is an award winning theatre director and playwright. Matthew Sweet, Solo pop rock artist. Mignon Eberhart, was an American author of mystery novels. Nancy C. Andreasen, was born in Lincoln, and is a prominent American neuroscientist and neuropsychiatrist. Richard Cowan, was a United States Army soldier during World War II, and a posthumous recipient of the Medal of Honor. Robert Van Pelt, Served as U.S. District Judge in the District of Nebraska. Roscoe Pound, was a distinguished American legal scholar and educator. Shawn Redhage, a basketball player for the Perth Wildcats, grew up in Lincoln but represented Australia at the 2008 Summer Olympics. Ted Sorensen, best known as President John F. Kennedy’s special counsel and adviser, legendary speechwriter, and alter ego. President Kennedy once called him his “intellectual blood bank.” See also :Category:Buildings and structures in Lincoln, Nebraska List of people from Lincoln, Nebraska References External links City of Lincoln, Nebraska Lincoln Convention and Visitors Bureau ExploreLincoln UNL Extension in Lancaster County Mount Michael Benedictine High School A Virtual Tour of The Nebraska State Capitol Building on Roundus | Lincoln,_Nebraska |@lemmatized city:43 lincoln:116 capital:6 second:3 populous:1 u:3 state:25 nebraska:41 also:13 county:14 seat:2 lancaster:12 home:22 university:21 population:7 census:3 start:2 village:9 found:3 become:3 newly:1 create:1 territory:4 omaha:5 since:3 creation:1 however:4 live:4 south:17 platte:3 river:5 much:2 consider:2 annexation:3 kansas:1 legislature:2 vote:1 move:4 far:2 west:8 possible:1 choose:1 part:1 due:2 salt:4 flat:3 marsh:1 interest:2 attempt:1 derail:1 rename:2 recently:2 assassinate:1 president:4 abraham:1 time:1 many:14 people:4 sympathetic:1 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5,902 | Adolphe_Sax | Adolphe Sax (November 6, 1814 – February 4, 1894) Antoine-Joseph "Adolphe" Sax (November 6, 1814 – February 4, 1894 Many sources give alternative dates for Sax's death, mainly 3 February and 7 February. A sign at Sax's grave in Montmartre says 7 February, for example. However, 4 February appears in Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians (8th ed., Nicolas Slonimsky); and in both the 1980 and the online version of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians. ) was a Belgian musical instrument designer and musician (clarinetist), best known for inventing the saxophone. Biography Adolphe Sax was born in Dinant in Wallonia, Belgium. His father, Charles-Joseph Sax, was an instrument designer himself, who made several changes to the design of the horn. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his flutes and a clarinet into a competition at the age of fifteen. He subsequently studied those two instruments at the Royal School of Singing in Brussels. Having left the school, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his father continued to produce conventional instruments to bring money into the household. Adolphe's first important invention was an improvement of the bass clarinet design which he patented at the age of twenty. In 1841, Sax relocated permanently to Paris and began work on a new set of instruments which were exhibited there in 1844. They were valved bugles, and although he had not invented the instrument itself, his examples were so much more successful than those of his rivals that they became known as saxhorns. They range in approximately seven different sizes, and paved the path to the creation of the flugelhorn. Today, they are widely used in concert bands and sometimes in orchestras. The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern euphonium. Sax also developed the saxotromba family, valved brass instruments with narrower bore than the saxhorns, in 1845, though they survived only briefly. Viewed 4 January 2007 in Google Books. Saxhorn instruments spread rapidly throughout the world. The saxhorn valves were accepted as state of the art and are still largely unchanged today. The advances made by Adolphe Sax were soon followed by the formation of the famous British brass band movement which exclusively adopted the saxhorn range. An example is the Jedforest Instrumental Band which formed in 1854 within the Scottish Borders only a decade after saxhorn models became available. The period around 1840 saw Sax inventing the clarinette-bourdon, an early (and unsuccessful) design of contrabass clarinet. Most significantly, at this time he developed the instrument for which he is now best known, the saxophone, patented in 1846. The saxophone was invented for use in both orchestras and concert bands. Composer Hector Berlioz wrote approvingly of the new instrument in 1842. By 1846 Sax had designed, on paper, a full range of saxophones (from sopranino to subcontrabass). Although they never became standard orchestral instruments, the saxophones made his reputation, and secured him a job teaching at the Paris Conservatoire from 1867. Sax continued to make instruments later in life, as well as presiding over a new saxophone class at the Paris Conservatoire. However, rival instrument makers attacked the legitimacy of his patents and mounted a long campaign of litigation against Sax and his company, driving him into bankruptcy twice (in 1856 and 1873). Sax suffered from lip cancer between 1853 and 1858 but made a full recovery. He died in 1894 in Paris and was interred in section 5 (Avenue de Montebello) at the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris. References Bibliography Adolphe Sax, Malou Haine, Ed. Bruxelles University, 1980 Sax, Mule & Co, Jean-Pierre Thiollet, Paris, H & D, 2004. ISBN 2-914-266-03-0 External links extensive biography of Adolphe Sax Pictures of five Sax Saxophones (circa 1858-76) | Adolphe_Sax |@lemmatized adolphe:8 sax:19 november:2 february:6 antoine:1 joseph:2 many:1 source:1 give:1 alternative:1 date:1 death:1 mainly:1 sign:1 grave:1 montmartre:2 say:1 example:3 however:2 appear:1 baker:1 biographical:1 dictionary:2 musician:3 ed:2 nicolas:1 slonimsky:1 online:1 version:1 grove:1 music:1 belgian:1 musical:1 instrument:15 designer:2 clarinetist:1 best:2 know:3 invent:4 saxophone:7 biography:2 bear:1 dinant:1 wallonia:1 belgium:1 father:2 charles:1 make:6 several:1 change:1 design:5 horn:1 begin:3 early:2 age:3 enter:1 two:2 flute:1 clarinet:3 competition:1 fifteen:1 subsequently:1 study:1 royal:1 school:2 sing:1 brussels:1 leave:1 experiment:1 new:4 continue:2 produce:1 conventional:1 bring:1 money:1 household:1 first:1 important:1 invention:1 improvement:1 bass:1 patent:3 twenty:1 relocate:1 permanently:1 paris:6 work:1 set:1 exhibit:1 valved:2 bugle:1 although:2 much:1 successful:1 rival:2 become:3 saxhorn:7 range:3 approximately:1 seven:1 different:1 size:1 pave:1 path:1 creation:1 flugelhorn:1 today:2 widely:1 use:2 concert:2 band:4 sometimes:1 orchestra:2 also:2 lay:1 groundwork:1 modern:1 euphonium:1 develop:2 saxotromba:1 family:1 brass:2 narrow:1 bore:1 though:1 survive:1 briefly:1 view:1 january:1 google:1 book:1 spread:1 rapidly:1 throughout:1 world:1 valve:1 accept:1 state:1 art:1 still:1 largely:1 unchanged:1 advance:1 soon:1 follow:1 formation:1 famous:1 british:1 movement:1 exclusively:1 adopt:1 jedforest:1 instrumental:1 form:1 within:1 scottish:1 border:1 decade:1 model:1 available:1 period:1 around:1 saw:1 clarinette:1 bourdon:1 unsuccessful:1 contrabass:1 significantly:1 time:1 composer:1 hector:1 berlioz:1 write:1 approvingly:1 paper:1 full:2 sopranino:1 subcontrabass:1 never:1 standard:1 orchestral:1 reputation:1 secure:1 job:1 teach:1 conservatoire:2 later:1 life:1 well:1 preside:1 class:1 maker:1 attack:1 legitimacy:1 mount:1 long:1 campaign:1 litigation:1 company:1 drive:1 bankruptcy:1 twice:1 suffer:1 lip:1 cancer:1 recovery:1 die:1 inter:1 section:1 avenue:1 de:2 montebello:1 cimetière:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 malou:1 haine:1 bruxelles:1 university:1 mule:1 co:1 jean:1 pierre:1 thiollet:1 h:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 extensive:1 picture:1 five:1 circa:1 |@bigram adolphe_sax:6 biographical_dictionary:1 flute_clarinet:1 bass_clarinet:1 lay_groundwork:1 valved_brass:1 brass_instrument:1 contrabass_clarinet:1 hector_berlioz:1 cimetière_de:1 jean_pierre:1 external_link:1 |
5,903 | POSIX | POSIX () or "Portable Operating System Interface for Unix" is the name of a family of related standards specified by the IEEE to define the application programming interface (API), along with shell and utilities interfaces for software compatible with variants of the Unix operating system, although the standard can apply to any operating system. Originally, the name stood for IEEE Std 1003.1-1988, which, as the name suggests, was released in 1988. The family of POSIX standards is formally designated as IEEE 1003 and the international standard name is ISO/IEC 9945. The standards emerged from a project that began circa 1985. Formerly known as IEEE-IX, the term POSIX was suggested by Richard Stallman in response to an IEEE request for a memorable name. Overview The POSIX specifications for user and software interfaces to an operating system are codified in 17 separate documents. The standardized user command line and scripting interface were based on the Korn shell. Many user-level programs, services, and utilities including awk, echo, ed were also standardized, along with required program-level services including basic I/O (file, terminal, and network) services. POSIX also defines a standard threading library API which is supported by most modern operating systems. Currently POSIX documentation is divided in three parts: POSIX Kernel APIs (which include extensions for POSIX.1, Real-time Services, Threads Interface, Real-time Extensions, Security Interface, Network File Access and Network Process-to-Process Communications) POSIX Commands and Utilities (with User Portability Extensions, Corrections and Extensions, Protection and Control Utilities and Batch System Utilities) POSIX Conformance Testing A test suite for POSIX accompanies the standard. It is called PCTS or the POSIX Conformance Test Suite. There is a project instigated by free-rights campaigner Auriélien Bonnel in the late 1980s, for the Single UNIX Specification standard, which is open, accepts input from anyone, and is freely available on the Internet. Beginning in 1998 a joint working group, the Austin Group, began to develop a combined standard that would be known as the Single UNIX Specification Version 3. 512 vs 1024 byte blocks POSIX mandates 512 byte block sizes for the df and du utilities, reflecting the default size of blocks on disks. When rms and the GNU team were implementing POSIX for what would become GNU/Linux, they objected to these on the grounds that most people think in terms of 1024 byte (or 1k) blocks. The environmental variable POSIXLY_CORRECT was introduced to force the standards-compliant behaviour. http://groups.google.com/group/gnu.announce/msg/6c6e20b57ddb1a82?pli=1 The POSIX_ME_HARDER has also been discussed, http://www.linuxdevcenter.com/pub/a/linux/2004/12/22/rms_interview.html?page=2 but it's unclear whether this was ever actually implemented. http://www.wlug.org.nz/POSIX_ME_HARDER Versions POSIX has gone through a number of versions: POSIX.1, Core Services (incorporates Standard ANSI C) (IEEE Std 1003.1-1988) Process Creation and Control Signals Floating Point Exceptions Segmentation Violations Illegal Instructions Bus Errors Timers File and Directory Operations Pipes C Library (Standard C) I/O Port Interface and Control POSIX.1b, Real-time extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1b-1993) Priority Scheduling Real-Time Signals Clocks and Timers Semaphores Message Passing Shared Memory Asynch and Synch I/O Memory Locking Interface POSIX.1c, Threads extensions (IEEE Std 1003.1c-1995) Thread Creation, Control, and Cleanup Thread Scheduling Thread Synchronization Signal Handling POSIX-oriented operating systems Depending upon the degree of compliance with the standards, operating systems can be fully or partly POSIX compatible. Certified products can be found at the IEEE's website. Fully POSIX-compliant The following operating systems conform (i.e., are 100% compliant) to one or more of the various POSIX standards. A/UX AIX BSD/OS HP-UX INTEGRITY IRIX LynxOS Mac OS X v10.5 MINIX MPE/iX QNX (IEEE Std. 1003.13-2003 PSE52; see http://get.posixcertified.ieee.org/cert_prodlist.tpl) RTEMS (POSIX 1003.1-2003 Profile 52) Solaris OpenSolaris UnixWare velOSity VxWorks (IEEE Std. 1003.13-2003 PSE52; see http://get.posixcertified.ieee.org/cert_prodlist.tpl) Mostly POSIX-compliant The following are not officially certified as POSIX compatible, but they conform in large part. Nucleus RTOS RTEMS - POSIX API support designed to IEEE Std. 1003.13-2003 PSE52 FreeBSD GNU/Linux (most distributions — see LSB) NetBSD BeOS OpenBSD Sanos SkyOS Syllable VSTa POSIX for Windows Cygwin enables partial POSIX compliance for certain Microsoft Windows products. Microsoft POSIX subsystem, an optional Windows subsystem. Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX 3.5 – enables full POSIX compliance for certain Microsoft Windows products. For Windows NT-based operating systems up to Windows 2000, a POSIX layer was built in to the operating system, and UNIX Services for Windows provided a UNIX-like operating environment. For Windows XP, Windows Services for UNIX must be installed to provide POSIX compatibility. The UNIX Subsystem is built in to the Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista, but cannot be added separately to the other editions. UWIN from the AT&T Research implements a POSIX layer on top of the Win32 APIs. Compliant via compatibility feature The following are not officially certified as POSIX compatible, but they conform in large part to the standards by implementing POSIX support via some sort of compatibility feature, usually translation libraries, or a layer atop the kernel. Without these features, they are usually noncompliant. eCos POSIX is part of standard distribution, and used by many applications. 'external links' section below has more information. Plan 9 from Bell Labs APE - ANSI/POSIX Environment Symbian OS with PIPS (PIPS Is POSIX on Symbian) OpenVMS (through optional POSIX package) Windows NT kernel when using Microsoft SFU 3.5 or SUA Windows 2000 Server or Professional with Service Pack 3 or later. To be POSIX compliant, one must activate optional features of Windows NT and Windows 2000 Server. Windows XP Professional with Service Pack 1 or later Windows Server 2003 Windows Vista z/OS Notes and references Industrial resources International Journal of IT Standards and Standardization Research, IGI Global See also POSIX signal POSIX Threads TRON Project alternative OS standard to POSIX Interix a full-featured POSIX and Unix environment subsystem for Microsoft's Windows NT-based operating systems C POSIX library BIOS Real-time operating system External links Austin Group The Portable Application Standards Committee IEEE POSIX Certification Authority The Open Group The UNIX System Home Page The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 7, aka POSIX.1-2008 What could have been IEEE 1003.1e/2c | POSIX |@lemmatized posix:47 portable:2 operating:7 system:14 interface:9 unix:11 name:5 family:2 related:1 standard:19 specify:1 ieee:16 define:2 application:3 program:3 api:3 along:2 shell:2 utility:6 software:2 compatible:4 variant:1 although:1 apply:1 originally:1 stand:1 std:7 suggest:2 release:1 formally:1 designate:1 international:2 iso:1 iec:1 emerge:1 project:3 begin:3 circa:1 formerly:1 know:2 ix:2 term:2 richard:1 stallman:1 response:1 request:1 memorable:1 overview:1 specification:4 user:4 codify:1 separate:1 document:1 standardized:1 command:2 line:1 script:1 base:4 korn:1 many:2 level:2 service:10 include:3 awk:1 echo:1 ed:1 also:4 standardize:1 required:1 basic:1 file:3 terminal:1 network:3 threading:1 library:4 support:3 modern:1 operate:6 currently:1 documentation:1 divide:1 three:1 part:4 kernel:3 apis:2 extension:6 real:5 time:5 thread:6 security:1 access:1 process:3 communication:1 portability:1 correction:1 protection:1 control:4 batch:1 conformance:2 test:3 suite:2 accompany:1 call:1 pct:1 instigate:1 free:1 right:1 campaigner:1 auriélien:1 bonnel:1 late:1 single:2 open:3 accepts:1 input:1 anyone:1 freely:1 available:1 internet:1 joint:1 working:1 group:7 austin:2 develop:1 combined:1 would:2 version:3 vs:1 byte:3 block:4 mandate:1 size:2 df:1 du:1 reflect:1 default:1 disk:1 rms:1 gnu:4 team:1 implement:4 become:1 linux:3 object:1 ground:1 people:1 think:1 environmental:1 variable:1 introduce:1 force:1 compliant:6 behaviour:1 http:5 google:1 com:2 announce:1 msg:1 pli:1 discuss:1 www:2 linuxdevcenter:1 pub:1 html:1 page:2 unclear:1 whether:1 ever:1 actually:1 wlug:1 org:3 nz:1 go:1 number:1 core:1 incorporate:1 ansi:2 c:4 creation:2 signal:4 float:1 point:1 exception:1 segmentation:1 violation:1 illegal:1 instruction:1 bus:1 error:1 timer:2 directory:1 operation:1 pipe:1 port:1 priority:1 schedule:2 clock:1 semaphore:1 message:1 pass:1 share:1 memory:2 asynch:1 synch:1 lock:1 cleanup:1 synchronization:1 handle:1 orient:1 depend:1 upon:1 degree:1 compliance:3 fully:2 partly:1 certified:1 product:3 find:1 website:1 follow:3 conform:3 e:1 one:2 various:1 ux:2 aix:1 bsd:1 hp:1 integrity:1 irix:1 lynxos:1 mac:1 x:1 minix:1 mpe:1 qnx:1 see:4 get:2 posixcertified:2 tpl:2 rtems:2 profile:1 solaris:1 opensolaris:1 unixware:1 velosity:1 vxworks:1 mostly:1 officially:2 certify:2 large:2 nucleus:1 rtos:1 design:1 freebsd:1 distribution:2 lsb:1 netbsd:1 beos:1 openbsd:1 sanos:1 skyos:1 syllable:1 vsta:1 window:17 cygwin:1 enable:1 partial:1 certain:2 microsoft:6 subsystem:4 optional:3 enables:1 full:2 nt:4 layer:3 build:2 provide:2 like:1 environment:3 xp:2 windows:2 must:2 instal:1 compatibility:3 enterprise:1 ultimate:1 edition:2 vista:2 cannot:1 add:1 separately:1 uwin:1 research:2 top:1 via:2 feature:5 sort:1 usually:2 translation:1 atop:1 without:1 noncompliant:1 ecos:1 use:2 external:2 link:2 section:1 information:1 plan:1 bell:1 lab:1 ape:1 symbian:2 pip:2 openvms:1 package:1 sfu:1 sua:1 server:3 professional:2 pack:2 later:2 activate:1 z:1 note:1 reference:1 industrial:1 resource:1 journal:1 standardization:1 igi:1 global:1 tron:1 alternative:1 os:1 interix:1 bios:1 committee:1 certification:1 authority:1 home:1 issue:1 aka:1 could:1 |@bigram ieee_std:7 iso_iec:1 richard_stallman:1 korn_shell:1 gnu_linux:2 http_www:2 unclear_whether:1 posix_thread:2 posix_compatible:3 posix_compliant:3 hp_ux:1 microsoft_window:4 window_nt:3 window_xp:2 xp_windows:1 window_vista:2 external_link:2 bell_lab:1 windows_nt:1 nt_kernel:1 |
5,904 | Harmony_Society | The Harmony Society church in Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania. The Harmony Society was a Christian theosophy and pietist society founded in Iptingen, Germany, in 1785. Due to religious persecution by the Lutheran Church and the government in Württemberg, Robert Paul Sutton, Communal Utopias and the American Experience: Religious Communities (2003) p. 38 the Harmony Society moved to the United States on October 7, 1803, initially purchasing 3,000 acres (12 km²) of land in Butler County, Pennsylvania. On February 15, 1805, they, together with about 400 followers, formally organized the Harmony Society, placing all their goods in common. The Society was founded and led by Johann Georg Rapp (1757–1847) and his adopted son, Frederick (Reichert) Rapp (1775–1834), and lasted for 100 years – roughly from 1805 until 1905. Members of the society were sometimes called Harmonists, Harmonites, or Rappites. The Harmony Society is best known for its worldly successes, eventually building three successive communities, first at Harmony, Pennsylvania, then New Harmony, Indiana, finally settling in Economy (now Ambridge, Pennsylvania). George Rapp Main Article George Rapp Johann Georg Rapp (George Rapp) 1757-1847. Johann Georg Rapp (November 1, 1757 – August 7, 1847) was the founder of the religious sect called Harmonists, Harmonites, Rappites, or the Harmony Society. Born in Iptingen, Duchy of Württemberg, Germany, Rapp became inspired by the philosophies of Jakob Böhme, Philipp Jakob Spener, and Emanuel Swedenborg, among others. In the 1780s, George Rapp began preaching and soon started to gather a group of his own followers. His group officially split with the Lutheran Church in 1785 and was promptly banned from meeting. By 1798, Rapp and his group of followers had already begun to distance themselves from mainstream society. In the Lomersheimer Declaration, written in 1798, Rapp's followers refused to serve in the military or attend Lutheran schools. In 1803, when the government began to persecute Rapp's followers, he decided to move the entire group to the United States. The initial move scattered the followers and reduced Rapp's original group of 12,000 to many fewer persons. In 1804, Rapp was able to secure a large tract of land in Pennsylvania and started his first commune. This first commune, 'Harmonie', (Harmony), Butler County, Pennsylvania, soon grew to a population of about 800, and was highly profitable. At Harmony, the Harmony Society was created and its members contracted to hold all property in common, to submit to spiritual and material leadership by Rapp and associates, and adopted the celibate lifestyle. Rapp let new comers into the society and once these members tried out the society for six months, they were accepted as permanent members. In 1814, the first town was sold to Mennonites for 10 times the amount originally paid for the land, and the entire commune moved out west to Indiana where their new town was also known as Harmony. Ten years after the move to Indiana the commune moved again, this time it returned to Pennsylvania and named their town 'Ökonomie', Economy. The Indiana settlement was sold to Robert Owen, at which point it was renamed New Harmony, Indiana. Rapp produced a book with his ideas and philosophy, Thoughts on the Destiny of Man published in German in 1824 and in English a year later. George Rapp lived out his remaining days in the town of Economy, Pennsylvania, until August 7, 1847, when he died at the age of 89. Settlements First settlement Harmony Society building in Harmony, Pennsylvania, built in 1809. In December 1804, Rapp and a party of two others contracted to purchase 3,000 acres (12 km²) of land for $10,000 in Butler County, Pennsylvania, and to this place there followed 140 families. There they built the town of Harmony. Their small community held houses, a church, a school, and workshops for different work places. George Rapp was recognized as the spiritual head of the society. Some of the followers began referring to Rapp as "father", for he represented one that they went to for discussions, confessions and other matters that went on in the society. The exigency of their condition (they had but little money) forced him to put their money into a common fund. On February 15, 1805, they formally organized the Harmony Society, placing all their goods in common. Frederick Reichert was elected to be the manager of its business, commerce, etc., and a board of elders was also elected, for the enforcement of the society's rules and regulations. The society grew and improved, and the population rose to around 800. In 1807, celibacy was advocated by most, and, although Rapp did not entirely bar it, this gradually became a custom — there were few births in later years. Also, there were few marriages after that. Rapp's son Johannes was married in 1807, and was the last one on record for 10 years. Believing that the Second Coming of Christ was in their future, the Harmonists gave up tobacco and advocated celibacy. Agreeably to Rapp's request, Frederick Reichert became Rapp's adopted son and took the former's name. Under Frederick's management the society prospered, but he soon wished for a location better suited to commercial purposes. The Harmonists had some troubles with neighboring people who were not part of the society. They also began having difficulties growing grapes for wine making. As a result, the Harmonites decided to sell their first settlement to a group of Mennonites for $100,000, and make a new life for themselves elsewhere. Second settlement Harmony Society buildings in New Harmony, Indiana. The Harmony Society moved to Indiana in 1814, where it initially acquired 7,000 acres (28 km²) along the Wabash River in Posey Co. Here was built the town of New Harmony. The settlement entered into agriculture and manufacture on a larger scale, eventually acquiring around 30,000 acres (121 km²). In 1819, the Harmonites had many two story homes on the land, along with thriving shops and mills. During the two years of building New Harmony, many of the people fell sick from malaria. During this time the society lost about 120 people, and others fell ill until the conditions were improved and the swamps around the area were drained. Buildings that were constructed in New Harmony consisted of a church, a tavern, mills, and community homes. While the Harmonites were in Indiana, they had visitors from another communal religious society, the Shakers. The meeting consisted of a possible joining of the two societies. However, the religious differences between the two groups caused them not to join together, but members still remained close over the years. George Rapp's daughter and some others lived at the Shaker settlement in Kentucky for a time, and the Shakers helped a number of Harmonites learn the English language. Being in Indiana, the Harmonites were a great distance from the Eastern markets, and the trade in this location wasn't to their liking. They also had to deal with unfriendly neighbors (being Abolitionists in sentiment, disagreeable elements from Kentucky, only 15 miles (25 km) away, caused them much annoyance). In 1824, Frederick Rapp purchased a tract of 3,000 acres (12 km²) along the Ohio River, 18 miles (30 km) Northwest of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and soon they sold their land and buildings in Indiana to Robert Owen, the Welsh utopian thinker and social reformer, and to William Maclure for $150,000. The Harmony Society then returned to Pennsylvania. Third settlement The Rapp house in Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania. Grotto (far left) and statue of Harmonia in the Harmony Society gardens in Old Economy Village, Pennsylvania. The Harmonites named their last town Economy, after the spiritual notion of the Divine Economy. Here under the business acumen and efficient management of Frederick Rapp, they enjoyed such prosperity that by 1829 they dominated the trade and the markets of Pittsburgh and down the Ohio River. They were accused of being a monopoly,and it was advocated that the society be dissolved by the State. At this time the community was not neglectful of matters pertaining to art and culture. Frederick Rapp purchased and installed a museum, containing fine paintings and many curios and antiquities; they had a deer park, a floral park, and a maze, or labyrinth; they also had an orchestra, were fond of music, and gave much attention to its cultivation. In 1832 the society suffered a serious division. Of 750 members, 250 became alienated through the influence of Bernhard Müller (self-styled Count de Leon), who, with 40 followers (also at variance with the authorities in the old country), had come to Economy to affiliate with the society. Rapp and Leon could not agree; a separation and apportionment of the property were therefore agreed upon. This secession of one-third of the society, consisting mostly of the flower of young manhood and young womanhood who did not want to maintain the custom of celibacy, broke Frederick's heart. He died within two years. It resulted in a considerable fracturing of the community. Nevertheless, the society remained prosperous in business investments for many more years to come. After Frederick Rapp's death, in 1834, the business management passed successively into the hands of George Rapp, who died in 1847; R. L, Baker and Jacob Henrici, 1847-69; J. Henrici and Jonathan Lenz, 1869-92; J. S. Duss, 1892-1903; Susie C. Duss, 1903-06. The settlements were economically successful, producing many goods in a clothing factory, a sawmill, a tannery, and from their vineyards and distillery. They also produced high quality silk for garments. Rapp's granddaughter, Gertrude, began the silk production in Economy. This was planned in New Harmony, but fulfilled when they arrived at Economy. The Harmonites were industrious and utilized the latest technologies of the day in their factories. In Economy, the group aided the construction of the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad, established the Economy Savings Institution and the Economy Brick Works, and operated the Economy Oil Company, Economy Planing Mill, Economy Lumber Company, and eventually donated some land in Beaver Falls for the construction of Geneva College. The society exerted a major influence on the economic development of Western Pennsylvania. But since the group chose to adopt celibacy and the people in the group kept getting older, more work gradually had to be hired out. The high-water mark of the society's prosperity was at the close of the administration of R. L. Baker in 1868; its wealth at that time being probably $2,000,000. By 1890, however, it was hopelessly in debt, on the verge of bankruptcy, with a depleted membership of aged people. The society was overwhelmed with litigation on the part of would-be heirs. J. S. Duss won the lawsuits and paid the society's indebtedness. The great strain which he had undergone undermining his health, he was forced to resign his trusteeship in 1903. There being but few members left, the remaining land and assets were sold under the leadership of Duss's wife, and the society was formally dissolved in 1906. In 1916, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania acquired 6 acres (0.024 km²) and 17 buildings of Old Economy, which became the present-day historic site. Other parts of the society's land were acquired by the American Bridge Company to expand the town of Ambridge. Characteristics of the Harmonites Religious Views In 1791, George Rapp said, "I am a prophet, and I am called to be one" in front of the civil affairs official in Maulbronn, Germany, who promptly had him imprisoned for two days and threatened with exile if he did not cease preaching. Karl J. R. Arndt, George Rapp's Harmony Society, 1785-1847 (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1972) Donald E. Pitzer, America's Communal Utopias (University of North Carolina, 1997) p.57 To the great consternation of church and state authorities, this mere peasant from Iptingen had become the outspoken leader of several thousand Separatists in the southern German duchy of Württemberg. By 1802, the Separatists had grown in number to about 12,000 and the Württemberg government decided that they were a dangerous threat to social order. Rapp was summoned to Maulbronn for an interrogation and the government confiscated Separatist books. When released in 1803, Rapp told his followers to pool their assets and follow him on a journey for safety to the "land of Israel" in the United States, and soon over 800 people were living with him there. The Harmonites were Christian pietist separatists who split from the Lutheran Church in the late 18th century, and under the leadership of George Rapp left Württemberg, Germany, and came to the United States in 1803. Leaving due to the troubles they'd had in Europe, the group sought to establish a more perfect society in the American wilderness. They were nonviolent pacifists, refused to serve in the military, and tried to live by George Rapp's philosophy and literal interpretations of the New Testament. They first settled in (and built) the town of Harmony, Pennsylvania in 1804, and established the Harmony Society in 1805 as a religious commune. In 1807, celibacy was advocated as the preferred custom of the community in an attempt to purify themselves for the coming Millennium. Rapp believed that the events and wars going on in the world at the time were a confirmation of his views regarding the imminent Second Coming of Christ, and he also viewed Napoleon as the Antichrist. Frederic J. Baumgartner, Longing for the End: A History of Millennialism in Western Civilization (1999) p.166 In 1814, the society sold their first town in Pennsylvania to Mennonites and moved to New Harmony, Indiana, where they built their second town. Their Abolitionist sentiments caused some disagreements with those living South of that area. Then, at some point around 1824, they decided it was time to leave Indiana, and soon they sold New Harmony to Robert Owen and moved to their final settlement of Economy, Pennsylvania. Virgin Sophia design on doorway in Harmony, Pennsylvania, carved by Frederick Reichert Rapp (1775-1834). The Harmonites were Millennialists, in that they believed Jesus Christ was coming to earth in their lifetime to help usher in a thousand-year kingdom of peace on earth. This is perhaps why they believed that people should try to make themselves "pure" and "perfect", and share things with others while willingly living in communal "harmony" (Acts 4:32-37) and practicing celibacy. They believed that the old ways of life on earth were coming to an end, and that a new perfect kingdom on earth was about to be realized. They also practiced forms of Esoteric Christianity, Mysticism (Christian mysticism), and Rapp often spoke of the virgin spirit or Goddess named Sophia in his writings. Arthur Versluis, "Western Esotericism and The Harmony Society", Esoterica I (1999) pp. 20-47 Rapp was very influenced by the writings of Jakob Böhme, Philipp Jakob Spener, and Emanuel Swedenborg, among others. Also, in Economy, Pennsylvania, there are glass bottles and literature that seems to indicate that the group was interested in (and practiced) alchemy. Some other books that were found in the Harmony Society's library in Old Economy, Pennsylvania, include those by the following authors: Christoph Schütz, Gottfried Arnold, Justinus Kerner, Thomas Bromley, Jane Leade, Johann Scheible (Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses), Paracelsus, and Georg von Welling (Opus Mago-Cabalisticum), among others. The Harmonites tended to view unmarried celibate life as morally superior to marriage, based on Rapp's belief that God had originally created Adam as a "biune" (a human with no sexual organs). According to this view, when the female portion of Adam separated to form Eve, disharmony followed, but one could attempt to regain harmony through celibacy. George Rapp predicted that on September 15, 1829, the three and one half years of the Sun Woman would end and Christ would begin his reign on earth. Dissension grew when Rapp's predictions did not come to pass. In March of 1832, a third of the group left and some began following a man named Bernhard Müller who claimed to be the Lion of Judah. Nevertheless, most of the group stayed and Rapp continued to lead them until he died on August 7, 1847. His last words to his followers were, "If I did not so fully believe, that the Lord has designated me to place our society before His presence in the land of Canaan, I would consider this my last". William E. Wilson, The Angel and the Serpent: The Story of New Harmony (Indiana University Press, 1984) p.11 The Harmonites did not mark their graves with headstones or grave markers, because they thought it was unnecessary to do so. Today, their graveyards are fenced in grassy areas with signs posted nearby explaining this practice. Architecture The Harmony Society's architecture reflected their Swabian German traditions, as well as the German-American styles that were being developed in America during the 19th century. In the early days of the society, many of the homes were initially log cabins, but by the time they reached Economy the homes were mostly two-story brick houses. New Harmony consisted of a lovely brick church. William Herbert, a visitor to New Harmony wrote this about their building of the church: "These people exhibit considerable taste as well as boldness of design in some of their works. They are erecting a noble church, the roof of which is supported in the interior by a great number of stately columns, which have been turned from trees in their own forests. The kinds of wood made use of for this purpose are, I am informed, black walnut, cherry and sassafras. Nothing I think can exceed the grandeur of the joinery and the masonry and brickwork seem to be of the first order. The form of this church is that of a cross, the limbs being short and equal; and as the doors, which there are four, are placed at the end of the limbs, the interior of the building as seen from the entrance, has a most ample and spacious effect.... I could scarcely imagine myself to be in the woods of Indiana, on the borders of the Wabash, while pacing the long resounding aisles, and surveying the stately colonnades of this church." http://www.usi.edu/hnh/pdf/Expanded%20Text%20on%20the%20Harmonist%20Society.pdf Living Styles In every home of the Harmony Society, there lived 4 to 6 people. Even when the house contained those that were married, they were recommended to live like brother and sister since there was a suggestion and custom of practicing celibacy. Those of the Society woke between 5 and 6 a.m. They ate breakfast and did their chores and work for the day. At the end of the day, members met for meetings and had a curfew of 9 p.m. On Sundays, the members respected the "Holy day" and did no work, but attended church services and singing groups. Clothing Their style of dress reflected their Swabian German roots and traditions. Although the Harmonites typically wore plain clothing, they would wear their fine silk garments on Sundays and on other special occasions. The clothing did vary in color, but often carried the same designs. On a typical day, women wore ankle length dresses, while men wore pants with vests or coats and a hat. Technology The Harmonites were a prosperous agricultural and industrial people. They had many machines which helped them be successful in their trades. They even had steam-powered engines that ran the machines at some of their factories in Old Economy Village. They kept their machines up to date, and had many factories and mills. Work Each member of the society had a job in a certain craft or trade. Most of the work done by men consisted of manual labor, while the women dealt more with textiles or agriculture. As Economy became more technologically developed, they began to hire others from outside the society. Especially when their numbers decreased because of the custom of celibacy, and as they eventually let fewer new members join. Although the Harmonites did seek work-oriented help from the outside, they were known as a community that supported themselves and kept their ways of living in their community and mainly exported goods, and tried to import as little as possible. Rise and fall of Harmony Society George Rapp had an eloquent style, which matched his commanding presence, and he was the personality that led the group through all the different settlements. After Rapp's death in 1847, a number of members left the group because of disappointment and disillusionment over the fact that his prophecies regarding the return of Jesus Christ in his lifetime were not fulfilled. However, many stayed in the group, and the Harmony Society went on to become an even more profitable business community that had many worldly financial successes under the leadership of R. L. Baker and Jacob Henrici. Over time the group became more protective of itself, didn't allow many new members, moved further from its religious foundation to a more business-oriented and pragmatic approach, and the custom of celibacy eventually drained it of its membership. The land and financial assets of the Harmony Society were sold off by the few remaining members under the leadership of John S. and his wife Susanna C. Duss by the year 1906. Today, many of the Society's remaining buildings are preserved and listed as National Historic Landmarks. See also George Rapp Harmony, Pennsylvania New Harmony, Indiana Ambridge, Pennsylvania Old Economy Village Old Economy Old Economy, Pennsylvania Economy, Pennsylvania Harmony Historic District Harmony Township, Beaver County, Pennsylvania New Harmony Historic District Harmonie State Park, Indiana Freedom, Pennsylvania Geneva College Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad References Bibliography George Rapp, Thoughts on the destiny of man particularly with reference to the present times (Harmony Society in Indiana, 1824) Feurige Kohlen, der aufsteigenden Liebesflammen im Lustspiel der Weisheit; einer nachdenkenden Gesellschaft gewidmet (Harmony Society in Oekonomie, Pennsylvania, 1826) Karl Bernhard of Saxe Weimar Eisenach, Travels through North America, during the Years 1825 and 1826 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1828) Aaron Williams, The Harmony Society at Economy, Pennsylvania, Founded by George Rapp, A.D. 1805 (Pittsburgh, 1866) Charles Nordhoff, Communistic Societies of the United States (New York, 1874) Julian Rauscher, Des Separatisten G. Rapp Leben und Treiben Theologische Studien aus Württemberg 6, 1885, 253-313. Dr. J. Schneck, and Richard Owen, The Rappites : interesting notes about early New Harmony ; George Rapp's reform society based on the New Testament (Evansville, IN, 1890) George Browning Lockwood, The New Harmony Communities (Marion, IN, 1902) Alfred Hinds, American Communities (revised edition, Chicago, 1902) John Archibald Bole, The Harmony Society: a chapter in German American culture history (Philadelphia, 1904) Agnes M. Hays Gormly, Old Economy : the Harmony Society (Sewickley, PA, 1904) Agnes M. Hays Gormly, Economy : an unique community (Sewickley, PA, 1910) Carl Frederick Straube, Rise and Fall of Harmony Society, Economy, PA and Other Poems (Pittsburgh, PA, 1911) J. S. Duss, George Rapp and his Associates (Indianapolis, 1914) William A. Passavant, A Visit to Economy in the Spring of 1840. Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, IV (July 1921), 144-149. Joshua Thwing Brooks, Jacob Henrici (Sewickley, PA, 1922) John Matthew Tate, Some notes, pictures and documents relating to the Harmony Society and its homes at Harmony, Pennsylvania, New Harmony, Indiana and Economy, Pennsylvania (Sewickley, PA, 1925) Harrison Denning Mason, Old Economy as I knew it: impressions of the Harmonites, their village and its surroundings, as seen almost a half-century ago (Crafton, PA, 1926) Federal Writers' Project (Beaver County, PA), The Harmony Society in Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, PA, 1937) Arthur I. Stewart, and J.O. Gilbert, Harmony; commemorating the centennial of the Borough of Harmony, Pennsylvania, 1838-1938 (Harmony, PA, 1938) Ross Lockridge, Jr., The Labyrinth (New Harmony, Indiana, 1941) J. S. Duss, The Harmonists; a personal history (Harrisburg, PA, 1943) Marguerite Young, Angel in the Forest: A Fairy Tale of Two Utopias (New York, 1945) Arthur Bestor, Backwoods Utopias (University of Pennsylvania, 1950) Christiana F. Knoedler, The Harmony Society; a 19th-century American utopia (New York, 1954) Arthur I. Stewart, and Loran W. Veith, Harmony : commemorating the sesquicentennial of Harmony, Pennsylvania, 1805-1955 (Harmony, PA, 1955) Cecil K. Byrd, The Harmony Society and Thoughts on the Destiny of Man (Bloomington, IN, 1956) George A. Hays, Founders of the Harmony Society (Ambridge, PA, 1961) John W. Larner, Jr., Nails and Sundrie Medicines : Town Planning and Public Health in the Harmony Society, 1805-1840. The Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, Vol. 45, No. 2 (June 1962), 115-138. Lavinia P. Dudley, The Encyclopedia Americana International edition (New York, 1963) Don Blair, Harmonist Construction. Principally as found in the two-story houses built in Harmonie, Indiana, 1814-1824. IHS Publications Vol. 23, No. 2. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society, 1964. William E. Wilson, The Angel and the Serpent: The Story of New Harmony (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1964) George A. Hays, The Churches of the Harmony Society (Ambridge, PA, 1964) Karl J. R. Arndt, George Rapp's Harmony Society, 1785-1847 (Philadelphia, PA, 1965) Mark Holloway, Heavens on Earth: Utopian Communities in America, 1680-1880 (New York, 1966) Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Bibliography of the Harmony Society : with special reference to Old Economy (Ambridge, PA, 1968) Daniel B. Reibel, Bibliography of items related to the Harmony Society with special reference to Old Economy (Ambridge, PA: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, 1969, revised 1977) Daniel B. Reibel, A Guide to Old Economy (Old Economy, PA, 1969) Hermann Schempp, Gemeinschaftssiedlungen auf religiöser und weltanschaulicher Grundlage (Tübingen, 1969) Richard D. Wetzel, The Music of George Rapp's Harmony Society: 1805-1906 (University of Pittsburgh, 1970) Robert M. Dructor, The Harmonists: A Personal History (Pittsburgh, 1970) Evelyn P. Matter, The Great House [George Rapp House] Constructed 1826 and Frederick Rapp House Constructed about 1828 at Old Economy (Old Economy, PA, 1970) Karl J. R. Arndt, George Rapp's Successors and Material Heirs, 1847-1916 (Rutherford, NJ, 1971) Karl J. R. Arndt, The Indiana Decade of George Rapp's Harmony Society: 1814-1824 (Worcester, Mass., 1971) Melvin R. Miller, Education in the Harmony Society, 1805-1905 (University of Pittsburgh, 1972) Hilda Kring, The Harmonists: A Folk-Cultural Approach (Metuchen, NY, 1973) Daniel B. Reibel, and Patricia B. Reibel, A manual for guides, docents, hostesses, and volunteers of Old Economy (Ambridge, PA, 1974) Lois T. Henderson, The Holy Experiment : a novel about the Harmonist Society [Fiction] (Hicksville, NY, 1974) Norman C. Young, Old Economy-Ambridge sesqui-centennial historical booklet (Rochester, PA, 1974) Frank L. Cross, The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church 2nd edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974) Karl J. R. Arndt, A Documentary History of the Indiana Decade of the Harmony Society 1814-1824: Volume I, 1814-1819 (Indianapolis, 1975) Paul S. Douglas, The Material Culture of the Harmony Society. Pennsylvania Folklife Vol. XXIV, No. 3, Spring, 1975. Richard D. Wetzel, Frontier Musicians on the Connoquenessing, Wabash, and Ohio; a history of the music and musicians of George Rapp's Harmony Society (1805-1906) (Athens, OH, 1976) Henry W. Bowden, Dictionary of American Religious Biography (Westport, Conn., 1977) Karl J. R. Arndt, A Documentary History of the Indiana Decade of the Harmony Society 1814-1824: Volume II, 1820-1824 (Indianapolis, 1978) Harold B. Reibel, Readings concerning the Harmony Society in Pennsylvania : drawn from the accounts of travelers and articles in the Harmonie Herald (Harrisburg, PA, 1978) Daniel B. Reibel, Walking tour of the historic area of Ambridge, Pennsylvania: Being the former village of Economy, 1824-1902 (Ambridge, PA, 1978) Christine C. Ritter, Life in early America, Father Rapp and the Harmony Society. Early American Life 9, 1978, 40-43, 71-72. Donald E. Pitzer, and Josephine M. Elliott, New Harmony's first Utopians, 1814-1824 (Bloomington, IN, 1979) Karl J. R. Arndt, George Rapp's Separatists, 1700-1803 : the German prelude to Rapp's American Harmony Society : a documentary history (Worcester, Mass., 1980) Karl J. R. Arndt, Harmony on the Connoquenessing 1803-1815: George Rapp's First American Harmony (Worcester, Mass., 1980) Daniel B. Reibel, and Mary Lou Golembeski, Selected reprints from the Harmonie herald, 1966-1979 (Ambridge, PA, 1980) Robert S. Fogarty, Dictionary of American Communal and Utopian History (Westport, Connecticut, 1980) Robert M. Dructor, Guide to the Microfilmed Harmony Society Records, 1786-1951 in the Pennsylvania State Archives (Harrisburg, PA, 1983) Nancy Krueger, The Woolen and Cotton Manufactory of the Harmony Society with Emphasis on the Indiana Years 1814-1825 (State University of New York College at Oneonta, 1983) Karl J. R. Arndt, Harmony on the Wabash in Transition to Rapp's Divine Economy on the Ohio and Owen's New Moral World at New Harmony on the Wabash 1824-1826 (Worcester, Mass., 1984) Karl J. R. Arndt, Economy on the Ohio, 1826-1834 : the Harmony Society during the period of its greatest power and influence and its Messianic crisis : George Rapp's Third Harmony : a documentary history (Worcester, Mass., 1984) Karl J. R. Arndt, George Rapp's Years of Glory: Economy on the Ohio, 1834–1847 (New York, 1987) Anne Taylor, Visions of Harmony: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Millenarianism (Oxford, 1987) Yaacov Oved, Two Hundred Years of American Communes (New Jersey, 1987) Philip N. Dare, American Communes to 1860: A Bibliography (New York-London, 1990) Robert S. Fogarty, All Things New: American Communes and Utopian Movements, 1860-1914 (University Of Chicago Press, 1990) Karl J. R. Arndt, George Rapp's Disciples, Pioneers, and Heirs: A Register of the Harmonists in America Donald Pitzer and Leigh Ann Chamness (eds.) (University of Southern Indiana, 1992) Brian J. L. Berry, America's Utopian Experiments: Communal Havens from Long-Wave Crises (Hanover, New Hampshire, 1992) Karl J. R. Arndt, George Rapp's Re-Established Harmony Society: Letters and Documents of the Baker-Henrici Trusteeship, 1848–1868 (New York, 1993) Angela Sasse, The Religious Celibate Community in Indiana: Yesterday and Today. German Influence on Religion in Indiana in series Studies in Indiana German Americana, Vol. 2 , 1995, 38-52. Donald F. Durnbaugh, Radical Pietism as the Foundation of German-American Communitarian Settlements in Emigration and Settlement Patterns of German Communities in North America. Eberhard Reichmann, LaVern J. Rippley and Joerg Nagler (eds.). Indianapolis: Max Kade German-American Center, Indiana University-Purdue University, 1995, 31-54. Eberhard Reichmann, and Ruth Reichmann, The Harmonists: Two Points of View; emigration and settlement Patterns of German communities in North America. Eberhard Reichmann, LaVern J. Rippley and Joerg Nagler (eds.). Indianapolis: Max Kade German-American Center, Indiana University-Purdue University, 1995, 371-380. Fritz, Eberhard: Johann Georg Rapp (1757-1847) und die Separatisten in Iptingen. Mit einer Edition der relevanten Iptinger Kirchenkonventsprotokolle. Blätter für Wuerttembergische Kirchengeschichte 95/1995. S. 129-203. Donald E. Pitzer, America's Communal Utopias (University of North Carolina, 1997) Foster Stockwell, Encyclopedia of American Communes, 1663-1963 (Jefferson, North Carolina, 1998) Arthur Versluis, "Western Esotericism and The Harmony Society", Esoterica I (Michigan State University, 1999) pp. 20-47 Richard C. S. Trahair, Utopias and Utopians: An Historical Dictionary (Westport, Connecticut, 1999) Frederic J. Baumgartner, Longing for the End: A History of Millennialism in Western Civilization (New York, 1999) Clifford F. Thies, The Success of American Communes. Southern Economic Journal, Volume 67, Issue 1 (July 2000): 186-199. Daniel B. Reibel, and Art Becker, Old Economy Village : Pennsylvania trail of history guide (Mechanicsburg, PA, 2002) Ray E. Boomhower, New Harmony: Home to Indiana's Communal Societies. Traces of Indiana and Midwestern History: a Publication of the Indiana Historical Society 14.4 (2002): 36-37. Fritz, Eberhard: Radikaler Pietismus in Württemberg. Religioese Ideale im Konflikt mit gesellschaftlichen Realitaeten. Quellen und Forschungen zur wuerttembergischen Kirchengeschichte Band 18. Epfendorf 2003. Robert Paul Sutton, Communal Utopias and the American Experience: Religious Communities, 1732–2000 (Westport, Conn., 2003) Robert Paul Sutton, Communal Utopias and the American Experience: Secular Communities, 1824–2000 (Westport, Conn., 2004) James Matthew Morris and Andrea L. Kross, Historical Dictionary of Utopianism (Lanham, Maryland, 2004) Schwab, David, comp. "The Harmony Society." The Harmony Society. 3 December 2004. Fritz, Eberhard: Separatistinnen und Separatisten in Wuerttemberg und in angrenzenden Territorien. Ein biografisches Verzeichnis. Arbeitsbücher des Vereins für Familien- und Wappenkunde. Stuttgart 2005. (Register of Separatists in Wuerttemberg, including most of Rapp's followers.) Eileen A. English, A Brief Interlude of Peace for George Rapp's Harmony Society. Communal Societies 26.1 (2006): 37-45. Harmonie Society. Historic New Harmony, 2008. University of Southern Indiana. 16 April 2008. Larry R. Slater, Ambridge (Images of America: Pennsylvania), (Mount Pleasant, South Carolina, 2008) External links Old Economy Village museum in Old Economy, Pennsylvania, administered by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, interpreting the history of the Harmony Society. The Harmony Museum of Harmony, Pennsylvania, operated by Historic Harmony, Inc. Historic New Harmony of New Harmony, Indiana, administered by the University of Southern Indiana and the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites. 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5,905 | Liv_Ullmann | Liv Johanne Ullmann (born 16 December, 1938) is a Norwegian actress and was the muse of Swedish director Ingmar Bergman. A winner of the Golden Globe, Ullmann has also been nominated for both the Palme d'Or and twice for the Academy Award and the BAFTA Award. Personal life Ullmann was born in Tokyo, Japan, the daughter of Janna (née Lund) and Viggo Ullmann, an aircraft engineer who worked in Tokyo at the time. Liv Ullmann Biography (1939-) Ullmann grew up in Trondheim, Norway. She lived in Canada as a child during World War II and now lives in Miami, Florida. In addition to Norwegian, Ullmann speaks Swedish, English and other European languages. She is a UNICEF goodwill ambassador and has traveled widely for the organization. She is also honorary chair of the Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children. In 2005, King Harald V of Norway made Ullmann a Commander with Star of the Order of St Olav. In 2006, she received a Ph.D. honoris causa from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Ullmann has been married and divorced twice. Her first marriage was to Dr Hans Jacob Stang, a Norwegian psychiatrist, whom she divorced in the late 1960s. According to her biographer, Ketil Bjørnstad, the marriage was marred by infidelities on both sides. In the 1980s, she married Boston real estate developer Donald Saunders, whom she divorced in 1995. Nevertheless, in 2007 the couple still lived together. Donald L. Saunders Michael Scherer, Mother Jones, March 5, 2001 She has one child, Linn Ullmann, fathered by Ingmar Bergman according to her autobiography Changing in 1977 but born while Ullmann was married to Stang. Ullmann has two grandchildren, a boy and a girl, of her daughter's two marriages. Career She played lead in nine films by Bergman. A psychological actress, she was the object of critical acclaim during the 1960s and 1970s (awards include three Best Actress prizes from the National Society of Film Critics, two from the National Board of Review, a threesome from the New York Film Critics Circle, and one Golden Globe as well as a LAFCA honor). Her work with Bergman, especially in Scenes from a Marriage, turned her into a 1970s feminist and cultural icon, as well as one of the most respected actresses. In addition, her Nordic red-blond looks fit the 1970s vogue. Ullmann was nominated twice for an Academy Award (for The Emigrants and Face to Face), and published two autobiographies (Changing and Choices) while out of work in the late 1970s. At this time Ullmann appeared with Sir Laurence Olivier in Richard Attenborough's A Bridge Too Far (1977). Two of Ullmann's flops were musical adaptations of classic works. The film version of Lost Horizon was a critical and commercial disaster, and the Broadway production of I Remember Mama underwent numerous revisions during a long preview period, then closed after 108 performances. Ullmann has been a film director (notably with , Bergman drama Faithless) and reprised her role from Scenes from a Marriage in 2003's Saraband, Bergman's final telemovie. Faithless was close to be awarded with the Golden Palm at Cannes Film Festival, and the female lead, Swedish actress Lena Endre, won first prize for her performance in this film. Ullmann chaired the jury of Cannes Film Festival in 2002. She introduced her daughter, Linn Ullmann, to the audience with the words: "Here comes the woman whom Ingmar Bergman loves the most". Her daughter was about to receive the Prize of Honour on her famous father's behalf. In 2006 Ullmann gave up a dream of making a film based on Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen's play "A Doll's House". According to her, the Norwegian Film Fund worked against her and writer Kjetil Bjørnstad. Australian actress Cate Blanchett and British actress Kate Winslet were intended for lead roles in the movie. Ullmann narrated the Canada/Norway co-produced animated short film The Danish Poet, which won the Academy Award for Animated Short Film at the 79th Academy Awards in 2007. She was the recipient of The International Center in New York's Award of Excellence. Filmography As actress Year Film Role Notes 1966 Persona Elisabeth Vogler 1968 Shame Eva Rosenberg Guldbagge Award for Best ActressNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actress Hour of the Wolf Alma Borg National Board of Review Award for Best Actress 1969 The Passion of Anna Anna Fromm 1971 The Emigrants Kristina Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture DramaNominated — Academy Award for Best Actress 1972 Cries and Whispers Maria (and her mother) New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actress Pope Joan Pope Joan 1973 Scenes from a Marriage Marianne David di Donatello Award for Best Foreign ActressNational Society of Film Critics Award for Best ActressNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActressNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading RoleNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama 40 Carats Ann Stanley Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy Lost Horizon Katherine 1974 Zandy's Bride Hannah Lund The Abdication Queen Kristina 1976 Face to Face Dr. Jenny Isaksson Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best ActressNational Board of Review Award for Best ActressNew York Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActressNominated — Academy Award for Best ActressNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading RoleNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama 1977 The Serpent's Egg Manuela Rosenberg A Bridge Too Far Kate Ter Horst 1978 Autumn Sonata Eva David di Donatello Award for Best Foreign Actress 1984 The Bay Boy Mrs. Campbell 1987 Gaby: A True Story Sari Farewell Moscow David di Donatello for Best Actress 1988 La amiga María San Sebastián International Film Festival Award for Best Actress 1989 The Rose Garden Gabriele Nominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Drama 1991 Mindwalk Sonia Hoffman Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes Narrator (voice) 1992 The Long Shadow Katherine 1994 Drømspel Ticket Seller Zorn Emma Zorn (TV) 2003 Saraband Marianne (TV) 2006 The Danish Poet Narrator (voice) 2008Through a Glass, DarklyGrandmother As director Year Film Notes1992 Sofie Montreal World Film Festival Special Grand Prize of the JuryMontreal World Film Festival Prize of the Ecumenical JuryMontreal World Film Festival Most Popular Film1995 Kristin Lavransdatter Viewed by as much as two-thirds of the population, one of Norway's most domestically successful films ever -- an important cultural event. (from the novel by Sigrid Undset)1996 Private ConfessionsNominated — Chicago International Film Festival Gold Hugo2000 Faithless Amanda Ecumenical Film AwardGoya Award for Best European FilmNominated - Palme d'OrNominated — Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Director See also Ingmar Bergman Further reading Robert Emmet Long, ed. (2006), Liv Ullmann: Interviews. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-823-1, 1-57806-824-X (paper). Collected interviews with Ullmann Liv Ullmann (1984), Choices. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-394-53986-9. ISBN 978-0394539867. Autobiography David Outerbridge (1979), Without Makeup, Liv Ullmann: A Photo-Biography. New York: William Morrow. ISBN 0-68803441-1 Liv Ullmann (1977), Changing. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-394-41148-X. Autobiography References External links The Guardian/NFT interview with Shane Danielson, January 23, 2001 Peter Bradshaw review of Trolösa, The Guardian, February 9, 2001 | Liv_Ullmann |@lemmatized liv:6 johanne:1 ullmann:25 born:1 december:1 norwegian:6 actress:22 muse:1 swedish:3 director:4 ingmar:4 bergman:8 winner:1 golden:8 globe:7 also:3 nominate:4 palme:2 twice:3 academy:6 award:31 bafta:3 personal:1 life:1 bear:2 tokyo:2 japan:1 daughter:4 janna:1 née:1 lund:2 viggo:1 aircraft:1 engineer:1 work:5 time:2 biography:2 grow:1 trondheim:1 norway:4 live:3 canada:2 child:3 world:4 war:1 ii:1 miami:1 florida:1 addition:2 speaks:1 english:1 european:2 language:1 unicef:1 goodwill:1 ambassador:1 travel:1 widely:1 organization:1 honorary:1 chair:2 woman:3 commission:1 refugee:1 king:1 harald:1 v:1 make:2 commander:1 star:1 order:1 st:1 olav:1 receive:2 ph:1 honoris:1 causa:1 university:2 science:1 technology:1 marry:3 divorce:3 first:2 marriage:6 dr:2 han:1 jacob:1 stang:2 psychiatrist:1 late:2 accord:3 biographer:1 ketil:1 bjørnstad:2 mar:1 infidelity:1 side:1 boston:1 real:1 estate:1 developer:1 donald:2 saunders:2 nevertheless:1 couple:1 still:1 together:1 l:1 michael:1 scherer:1 mother:2 jones:1 march:1 one:4 linn:2 father:2 autobiography:4 changing:1 two:6 grandchild:1 boy:2 girl:1 career:1 play:2 lead:5 nine:1 film:28 psychological:1 object:1 critical:2 acclaim:1 include:1 three:1 best:25 prize:5 national:3 society:3 critic:9 board:3 review:4 threesome:1 new:6 york:8 circle:4 well:2 lafca:1 honor:1 especially:1 scene:3 turn:1 feminist:1 cultural:2 icon:1 respected:1 nordic:1 red:1 blond:1 look:1 fit:1 vogue:1 emigrant:2 face:4 publish:1 change:2 choice:2 appear:1 sir:1 laurence:1 olivier:1 richard:1 attenborough:1 bridge:2 far:3 flop:1 musical:2 adaptation:1 classic:1 version:1 lose:2 horizon:2 commercial:1 disaster:1 broadway:1 production:1 remember:1 mama:1 underwent:1 numerous:1 revision:1 long:3 preview:1 period:1 close:2 performance:2 notably:1 drama:4 faithless:3 reprise:1 role:3 saraband:2 final:1 telemovie:1 palm:1 cannes:2 festival:7 female:1 lena:1 endre:1 win:2 jury:1 introduce:1 audience:1 word:1 come:1 love:1 honour:1 famous:1 behalf:1 give:1 dream:1 base:1 playwright:1 henrik:1 ibsen:1 doll:1 house:1 fund:1 writer:1 kjetil:1 australian:1 cate:1 blanchett:1 british:1 kate:2 winslet:1 intend:1 movie:1 narrate:1 co:1 produce:1 animated:1 short:2 danish:2 poet:2 animate:1 recipient:1 international:3 center:1 excellence:1 filmography:1 year:2 note:1 persona:1 elisabeth:1 vogler:1 shame:1 eva:2 rosenberg:2 guldbagge:1 actressnational:3 hour:1 wolf:1 alma:1 borg:1 passion:1 anna:2 fromm:1 kristina:2 motion:5 picture:5 dramanominated:1 cry:1 whisper:1 maria:1 pope:2 joan:2 marianne:2 david:4 di:3 donatello:3 foreign:2 actressnew:2 actressnominated:3 rolenominated:2 carat:1 ann:1 stanley:1 comedy:1 katherine:2 zandy:1 bride:1 hannah:1 abdication:1 queen:1 jenny:1 isaksson:1 los:1 angeles:1 association:2 serpent:1 egg:1 manuela:1 ter:1 horst:1 autumn:1 sonata:1 bay:1 mr:1 campbell:1 gaby:1 true:1 story:1 sari:1 farewell:1 moscow:1 la:1 amiga:1 maría:1 san:1 sebastián:1 rise:1 garden:1 gabriele:1 mindwalk:1 sonia:1 hoffman:1 sadako:1 thousand:1 paper:2 crane:1 narrator:2 voice:2 shadow:1 drømspel:1 ticket:1 seller:1 zorn:2 emma:1 tv:2 glass:1 darklygrandmother:1 sofie:1 montreal:1 special:1 grand:1 jurymontreal:2 ecumenical:2 popular:1 kristin:1 lavransdatter:1 view:1 much:1 third:1 population:1 domestically:1 successful:1 ever:1 important:1 event:1 novel:1 sigrid:1 undset:1 private:1 confessionsnominated:1 chicago:2 gold:1 amanda:1 awardgoya:1 filmnominated:1 ornominated:1 see:1 reading:1 robert:1 emmet:1 ed:1 interview:3 press:1 mississippi:1 isbn:5 x:2 collect:1 knopf:2 outerbridge:1 without:1 makeup:1 photo:1 william:1 morrow:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 guardian:2 nft:1 shane:1 danielson:1 january:1 peter:1 bradshaw:1 trolösa:1 february:1 |@bigram ingmar_bergman:4 golden_globe:7 bafta_award:3 liv_ullmann:5 miami_florida:1 unicef_goodwill:1 goodwill_ambassador:1 st_olav:1 honoris_causa:1 real_estate:1 critical_acclaim:1 laurence_olivier:1 richard_attenborough:1 reprise_role:1 cannes_film:2 jury_cannes:1 henrik_ibsen:1 cate_blanchett:1 kate_winslet:1 motion_picture:5 picture_dramanominated:1 di_donatello:3 best_actressnominated:3 actressnominated_bafta:2 lead_rolenominated:2 rolenominated_golden:2 los_angeles:1 san_sebastián:1 william_morrow:1 external_link:1 |
5,906 | The_Louvre | The Musée du Louvre or officially the Grand Louvre — in English, the Louvre Museum or Great Louvre, or more simply the Louvre — is a historic monument in Paris and the national museum of France. It is a central landmark of the city, located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement (neighbourhood). It's the most visited museum in the world and arguably the most famous one. Nearly 35,000 objects from the 6th millennium BC to the 19th century AD are exhibited over an area of 60,600 square metres (652,300 square feet). The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace (Palais du Louvre) which began as a fortress built in the late 12th century under Philip II. Remnants of the fortress are still visible. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace. In 1672, Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including, from 1692, a collection of antique sculpture. Louvre Website- Chateau to Museum, 1672 and 1692 In 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years. Louvre Website- Chateau to Museum 1692 During the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum, to display the nation's masterpieces. The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being confiscated church and royal property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The size of the collection increased under Napoleon when the museum was renamed the Musée Napoléon. After his defeat at Waterloo, many works seized by Napoleon's armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and gifts since the Third Republic, except during the two World Wars. As of 2008, the collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; and Prints and Drawings. History Medieval, Renaissance, and Bourbon palace The only portion of the medieval Louvre still visible The Louvre Palace (Palais du Louvre) which houses the museum was begun as a fortress by Philip II in the 12th century, with remnants of this building still visible in the crypt. Mignot, p. 32 It is not known if this was the first building on that spot, but it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower. The etymology of the name Louvre is also uncertain: it may refer to the structure's status as the largest in late 12th century Paris (from the French L'Œuvre, masterpiece), its location in a forest (from the French rouvre, oak), or, according to Larousse, a wolf-hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire: lupara). Edwards, pp. 193–94 In Larousse Nouveau Dictionnaire étymologique et historique, Librairie Larousse, Paris, 1971, p. 430: ***loup 1080, Roland (leu, forme conservée dans à la queue leu leu, Saint Leu, etc.); du lat. lupus; loup est refait sur le fém. louve, où le *v* a empêché le passage du *ou* à *eu* (cf. Louvre, du lat. pop. lupara)*** the etymology of the word louvre is from lupara, feminine (pop. Latin) form of lupus. The Louvre Palace was altered frequently throughout the Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546, Francis I renovated the site in French Renaissance style. Edwards, p. 198 Francis acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvre's holdings, his acquisitions including Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa. After Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682, constructions slowed; however, the move permitted the Louvre to be used as a residence for artists. Mignot, p. 42 Nore, p. 274 By the mid-18th century there were an increasing number of proposals to create a public gallery with Lafont Saint-Yenne publishing, in 1747, a call for the royal collection's display. Carbonell, p. 56 In 1750, Louis XV agreed and sanctioned the display of some of the royal collection in the Louvre. A hall was opened for public viewing on Wednesdays and Saturdays and contained Andrea del Sarto's Charity and works by Raphael. Under Louis XVI, the royal museum idea became policy. The comte d'Angiviller broadened the collection and in 1776 proposed conversion of the Grande Galerie—which contained maps—into the "French Museum". Many proposals were offered for the Louvre's renovation into a museum, however none was agreed on. Hence the museum remained incomplete until the French Revolution. French Revolution During the French Revolution the Louvre was transformed into a public museum. In May 1791, the Assembly declared that the Louvre would be, "a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts". On 10 August 1792, Louis XVI was imprisoned and the royal collection in the Louvre became national property. Because of fear of vandalism or theft, on 19 August, the National Assembly pronounced the museum's preparation as urgent. In October, a committee to "preserve the national memory" began assembling the collection for display. Oliver, p. 21–22 Opening Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss was commissioned in 1787, and the first version was donated to the Louvre after the reign of Napoleon I in 1824. The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of the monarchy's demise. The public was given free access on three days per week, which was "perceived as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated". Oliver, p. 35 The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art. Three quarters were derived from the royal collections, the remainder from confiscated émigrés and Church property (biens nationaux). Mignot, pp. 68, 69 To expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated 100,000 livres per year. Nora, p. 278 In 1794, France's revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from across Europe, such as Laocoön and His Sons and the Apollo Belvedere, to establish the Louvre as a museum and as a "sign of popular sovereignty". McClellan, p. 7 The early days were hectic; artists lived in residence, and the unlabelled paintings hung "frame to frame from floor to ceiling". Alderson, p.24, 25 The building itself closed in May 1796 because of structural deficiencies. It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns. Napoleon I Under Napoleon I, a northern wing paralleling the Grande Galerie was begun, and the collection grew through successful military campaigns. Mignot, p. 52 Following the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801, Napoléon appointed the museum's first director, Dominique Vivant Denon. In tribute, the museum was renamed the "Musée Napoléon" in 1803, and Spanish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works were acquired as spoils. After the French defeat at Waterloo, the former owners sought their return. The Louvre's administrators were loath to comply and hid many works in their private collections. In response, foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help, and many pieces were returned, even some that had been restored by the Louvre. Alderson, p.25 Mignot, p. 69. According to Mignot, Mantegna's Calvary, Veronese's The Marriage of Cana, and Rogier van der Wyden's Annunciation were not returned. Restoration and Second Empire The Venus de Milo was added to the Louvre's collection during the reign of Louis XVIII. During the Restoration (1814–30), Louis XVIII and Charles X between them added 135 pieces at a cost of 720,000 francs. This was less than the amount given for rehabilitation of Versailles, and the Louvre suffered relative to the rest of Paris. After the creation of the French Second Republic in 1848, the new government allocated two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of the Galerie d'Apollon, the Salon Carré, and the Grande Galerie. On 2 December 1851, President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte staged a coup d'état, ushering in the Second French Empire. Between 1852 and 1870, the French economy grew; the museum added 20,000 new pieces to its collections, and the Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galerie were remodelled under architects Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel. Mignot, pp. 52–54 Third Republic and World Wars During the French Third Republic the Louvre acquired new pieces mainly via donations and gifts. The Société des Amis du Louvre donated the Pietà of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, and in 1863 an expedition uncovered the sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea. This piece, though heavily damaged, has been prominently displayed since 1884. More than 7,000 works arrived after the acquisition of the Campana, Durand, Salt, and Drovetti collections. The 389 item Collection Lacaze, included Rembrandts, such as Bathsheba at Her Bath. Mignot, pp. 70–71 Museum expansion slowed after World War I, and the collection did not acquire many significant new works; exceptions were Georges de La Tour's Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond de Rothschild's (1845–1934) 1935 donation of 4,000 engravings, 3,000 drawings, and 500 illustrated books. During World War II the museum removed most of the art and hid valuable pieces. On 27 August 1939, after two days of packing, truck convoys began to leave Paris. By 28 December, the museum was cleared of most works, except those that were too heavy and "unimportant paintings [that] were left in the basement". Simon, p. 23 In early 1945, after the liberation of France, art began returning to the Louvre. Simon, p. 177 21st century The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments with more than dedicated to the permanent collection. The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds. It is the world's most visited museum, averaging 15,000 visitors per day, 65 percent of whom are tourists. In popular culture, the Louvre was a point of interest in the book The Da Vinci Code and the 2006 film based on the book. The museum earned $2.5 million by allowing filming in its galleries. Lunn, p. 137 Administration The Louvre is owned by the French government; however, since the nineties it has become more independent. Since 2003, the museum has been required to generate funds for projects. By 2006, government funds had dipped from 75 percent of the total budget to 62 percent. In 2008, the French government provided $180 million of the Louvre's yearly $350 million budget; the remainder came from private contributions and ticket sales. The Louvre employs a staff of 2,000 led by Director Henri Loyrette, who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communications. Under Loyrette, who replaced Pierre Rosenberg in 2001, the Louvre has undergone policy changes that allow it to lend and borrow more works than before. In 2006, it loaned 1,300 works, which enabled it to borrow more foreign works. From 2006 to 2009, the Louvre will lend artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia, and will receive a $6.9 million payment to be used for renovations. In addition, the opening of the Louvre Abu Dhabi generated further income for the museum. Loyrette has tried to improve weak parts of the collection through income generated from loans of art and by guaranteeing that "20% of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions". He has more administrative independence for the museum and achieved 90 percent of galleries to be open daily, as opposed to 80 percent previously. He oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights and an increase in the acquisition budget to $36 million from $4.5 million. Grand Louvre and the Pyramids The Louvre Palace is an almost rectangular structure, composed of the square Cour Carrée and two wings which wrap the Cour Napoléon to the north and south. In the heart of the complex is the Louvre Pyramid, above the visitor's center. The museum is divided into three wings: the Sully Wing to the east, which contains the Cour Carrée and the oldest parts of the Louvre; the Richelieu Wing to the north; and the Denon Wing, which borders the Seine to the south. Mignot, p. 13 In 1983, French President François Mitterrand proposed the Grand Louvre plan to renovate the building and relocate the Finance Ministry, allowing displays throughout the building. Architect I. M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a glass pyramid for the central courtyard. Mignot, p. 66 The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15 October 1988. The second phase of the Grand Louvre plan, La Pyramide Inversée (The Inverted Pyramid), was completed in 1993. As of 2002, attendance had doubled since completion. Collections The Seated Scribe from Saqqara, Egypt, limestone and alabaster, circa 2600 and 2350 BCE Mignot, p. 92 The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments. Egyptian antiquities The department, comprising over 50,000 pieces, includes artifacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4,000 BCE to the 4th century CE. The collection, among the world's largest, overviews Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom, Coptic art, and the Roman, Ptolemaic, and Byzantine periods. Nave, pp.42-43 The department's origins lie in the royal collection, but it was augmented by Napoleon's 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant, the future director of the Louvre. Mignot, pp 76, 77 After Jean-François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone, Charles X decreed that an Egyptian Antiquities department be created. Champollion advised the purchase of three collections, the Durand, Salt and Drovetti; these additions added 7,000 works. Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mariette, after excavations at Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological finds including The Seated Scribe. Guarded by the Large Sphinx (c. 2000 BCE), the collection is housed in more than 20 rooms. Holdings include art, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewelry, games, musical instruments, and weapons. Pieces from the ancient period include the Gebel-el Arak knife from 3400 BCE, The Seated Scribe, and the Head of King Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, "known for its gold work and statues", moved from realism to idealization; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer. The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth. Human-headed winged bull, Assyria, limestone, 8th century BCE. Near Eastern antiquities Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and "first settlements", before the arrival of Islam. The department is divided into three geographic areas: the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Iran. The collection's development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul-Émile Botta's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II's palace. These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum, the precursor to today's department. The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash's Stele of the Vultures from 2,450 BCE and the stele erected by Naram-Suen, King of Akkad, to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains. The Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901, displays Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man could plead their ignorance. The Iranian portion contains work from the archaic period, like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I. The Nike of Samothrace (winged Victory), marble, circa 190 BCE Greek, Etruscan, and Roman The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century CE. The collection spans from the Cycladic period to the decline of the Roman Empire. This department is one of the museum's oldest; it began with appropriated royal art, some of which was acquired under Francis I. Mignot, pp. 155–58 Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the Venus de Milo. Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars, but these pieces were returned after Napoleon I's fall in 1815. In the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection, bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the Bibliothèque nationale. The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Auxerre, from 640 BCE; and the cylindrical Hera of Samos, circa 570–560 BCE. Hannan, p.252 After the 4th century BCE, focus on the human form increased, exemplified by the Borghese Gladiator. The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era, including The Winged Victory of Samothrace (190 BCE) and the Venus de Milo, symbolic of classical art. In the galleries paralleling the Seine, much of the museum's Roman sculpture is displayed. The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus; among the bronzes is the Greek Apollo of Piombino. Casket, ivory and silver, Muslim Spain, 966 CE Islamic art The Islamic art collection, the museum's newest, spans "thirteen centuries and three continents". These exhibits, comprising ceramics, glass, metalware, wood, ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than 5,000 works and 1,000 shards. Ahlund, p. 24 Originally part of the decorative arts department, the holdings became separate in 2003. Among the works are the Pyxide d'al-Mughira, a 10th century CE ivory box from Andalusia; the Baptistery of Saint-Louis, an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14 century Mamluk period; and the 10th century Shroud of Josse from Iran. Mignot, pp. 119–21 The collection contains three pages of the Shahnameh, an epic book of poems by Ferdowsi in Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase. Tomb of Philippe Pot, governor of Burgundy under Louis XI, by Antoine Le Moiturier Sculpture The sculpture department comprises work created before 1850 that does not belong in the Etruscan, Greek, and Roman department. The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for Michelangelo's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave. Mignot, 397–401 Initially the collection included only 100 pieces, the rest of the royal sculpture collection being at Versailles. It remained small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given control of the department. Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga door, respectively. The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 under Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider representation of French works. In 1986, all works from after 1850 were relocated to the new Musée d'Orsay. The Grand Louvre project separated the department into two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu wing, and foreign works in the Denon wing. The collection's overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th century Daniel in the Lions' Den and the 12th century Virgin of Auvergne. In the 16th century, Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more restrained, as seen in Jean Goujon's bas-reliefs, and Germain Pilon's Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th centuries are represented by Étienne Maurice Falconet's Woman Bathing and Amour menaçant and François Anguier's obelisks. Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss (1787). French stained glass panel, 13 century, depicting Saint Blaise Decorative arts The Objets d'art collection spans from the Middle Ages to the mid-19th century. The department began as a subset of the sculpture department, based on royal property and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saint-Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs that held the Coronation Sword of the Kings of France. Mignot, pp. 451–54 Among the budding collection's most prized works were pietre dure vases and bronzes. The Durand collection's 1825 acquisition added "ceramics, enamels, and stained glass", and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil. The onset of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded the department with 1,500 middle-age and faïence works. In 1862, the Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas, mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries. The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing's first floor and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme. The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV, Charles V's sceptre, and the 12th century porphyry vase. Lasko, p. 242 The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the tapestry Maximillian's Hunt. Nave, p 130 From later periods, highlights include Madame de Pompadour's Sèvres vase collection and Napoleon III's apartments. The Mona Lisa, Leonardo da Vinci, oil on panel, 1503-19, probably completed while the artist was at the court of Francis I. Painting The painting collection has more than 6,000 works from the 13th century to 1848 and is managed by 12 curators who oversee the collection's display. Nearly two-thirds are by French artists, and more than 1,200 are Northern European. The Italian paintings compose most of the remnants of Francis I and Louis XIV's collections, others are unreturned artwork from the Napoleon era, and some were bought. Hannan, p. 262 Mignot, pp. 199–201, 272–73, 333–35 The collection began with Francis, who acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo, According to Giorgio Vasari, Michelangelo's Leda and the Swan, (now lost) was acquired by Francis I. and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court. After the French Revolution, the Royal Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre. When the d'Orsay train station was converted into the Musée d'Orsay in 1986, the collection was split, and pieces completed after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum. French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu wing and Cour Carrée; Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon wing. Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pieta of Enguerrand Quarton; Jean Fouquet's King Jean le Bon, the oldest independent portrait in Western painting to survive from the postclassical era; Mignot, p. 201 Hyacinthe Rigaud's Louis XIV; Jacques-Louis David's The Coronation of Napoleon; and Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People. Northern European works include Johannes Vermeer's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer; Caspar David Friedrich's Tree of Crows; Rembrandt's The Supper at Emmaus, Bathsheba at Her Bath, and The Slaughtered Ox. The Italian holdings are notable, particularly the Renaissance collection. The works include Andrea Mantegna and Giovanni Bellini's Calvarys, which reflect realism and detail "meant to depict the significant events of a greater spiritual world". Hannan, p. 267 The High Renaissance collection includes Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa, Virgin and Child with St. Anne, St. John the Baptist, and Madonna of the Rocks. Caravaggio is represented by The Fortune Teller and Death of the Virgin. From 16th century Venice, the Louvre displays Titian's Le Concert Champetre, The Entombment and The Crowning with Thorns. Mignot, p. 378 Hannan, pp. 270–278 Three lion-like heads, Charles le Brun, France, pen and wash on squared paper, 1671 The La Caze Collection, a bequest to the Musée du Louvre in 1869 by Louis La Caze was the largest contribution of a person in the histroy of the Louvre. La Caze gave 584 paintings of his personal collection to the museum. The bequest included Antoine Watteau's Commedia dell'Arte player of Pierrot ("Gilles"). In 2007, this bequest was the topic of the exhibition "1869: Watteau, Chardin... entrent au Louvre. La collection La Caze". www.louvre.fr — Musée du Louvre - Exhibitions - Past Exhibitions - The La Caze Collection. Retrieved 2009-05-23 Prints and drawings The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper. Mignot, 496 The origins of the collection were the 8,600 works in the Royal Collection (Cabinet du Roi), which were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci's collection in 1806, and donations. The department opened on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces displayed in the Galerie d'Apollon. The collection is organized into three sections: the core Cabinet du Roi, 14,000 royal copper printing-plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books. The holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper medium, only a portion are displayed at one time. Satellite museums Lens In 2004, French officials decided to build a satellite museum on the site of an abandoned coal pit in the former mining town of Lens to relieve the crowded Paris Louvre, increase total museum visits, and improve the industrial north's economy. Six cities were considered for the project: Amiens, Arras, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Calais, Lens, and Valenciennes. In 2004, French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin chose Lens to be the site of the new building, called Le Louvre-Lens. Museum officials predicted that the new building, capable of receiving about 600 works of art, would attract up to 500,000 visitors a year when it opened in 2009. Abu Dhabi In March 2007, the Louvre announced that a Louvre museum would be completed by 2012 in Abu Dhabi. A 30-year agreement, signed by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan, will establish the museum in downtown Abu Dhabi in exchange for €832,000,000 (US$1.3 billion). The Louvre Abu Dhabi, designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel and the engineering firm of Buro Happold, will occupy and will be covered by a roof shaped like a flying saucer. France agreed to rotate between 200 and 300 artworks during a 10-year period; to provide management expertise; and to provide four temporary exhibitions a year for 15 years. The art will come from multiple museums, including the Louvre, the Georges Pompidou Centre, the Musée d'Orsay, Versailles, the Musée Guimet, the Musée Rodin, and the Musée du quai Branly. Controversies The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized during World War II by the Nazis and under Napoleon I. After Nazi occupation, more than 60,000 articles were returned to France. Nearly 2,000 objects that did not have clear ownership and were claimed by Israelis and Jews were retained by French museums, including the Louvre. In 1997, Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission to investigate the matter and "according to the government[,] the Louvre continues to hold 678 pieces of [claimed] artwork." Rickman, p. 294 Napoleon's campaigns acquired Italian and Northern European pieces and antiquities were taken during excavations, particularly in Egypt and the Near East. The Louvre administration has argued in favor of retaining these items despite requests by source nations for their return. The museum participates in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin. Merryman, abstract Location and access A map of the Louvre in the 1er arrondissement of Paris. Metro lines serving the area are shown, with stations colored red. Note that the RER is not shown. Landmarks are in black. The museum lies in the centre of Paris on the Right Bank. The neighborhood, known as the 1st arrondissement, is home to the destroyed Palais des Tuileries. The adjacent Tuileries Gardens, created in 1564 by Catherine de Medici, was designed in 1664 by André Le Nôtre. The gardens house the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, a contemporary art museum that was used to store Jewish cultural property from 1940 to 1944. Mroue, p. 176 Parallel to the Jeu de Paume is the Orangerie, home to the famous Waterlilly paintings by Monet. The Louvre is slightly askew of the axe historique (Historic Axis), a roughly eight-kilometre (five-mile) architectural line bisecting the city. It begins on the east in the Louvre courtyard and runs west along the Champs-Élysées. In 1871, the burning of the Tuileries Palace by the Paris Commune revealed that the Louvre was slightly askew of the Axe despite past appearances to the contrary. Rogers, p. 159 The Louvre can be reached by the Palais Royal – Musée du Louvre Métro or the Louvre-Rivoli stations. Gallery See also American Friends of the Louvre Centre de recherche et de restauration des musées de France List of museums in Paris List of works in the Louvre Musée de la Mode et du Textile Notes Works cited External links Official site of the Louvre Museum (in English) "A Closer Look" series - multimedia features focusing on masterpieces from the Louvre (Louvre official web site) | The_Louvre |@lemmatized musée:15 du:17 louvre:86 officially:1 grand:5 english:2 museum:54 great:2 simply:1 historic:2 monument:3 paris:10 national:5 france:8 central:2 landmark:2 city:4 locate:1 right:2 bank:2 seine:3 arrondissement:3 neighbourhood:1 visited:2 world:9 arguably:1 famous:2 one:3 nearly:3 object:5 millennium:1 bc:1 century:26 ad:1 exhibit:4 area:3 square:3 metre:1 foot:1 house:4 palace:10 palais:4 begin:11 fortress:3 build:2 late:3 philip:3 ii:5 remnant:3 still:3 visible:3 building:11 extend:1 many:6 time:3 form:5 present:2 louis:19 xiv:6 choose:3 versailles:5 household:1 leave:3 primarily:1 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5,907 | Monorail | The KL Monorail in Kuala Lumpur, a colorful straddle-beam monorail A monorail is a rail-based transportation system based on a single rail, which acts as its sole support and its guideway. The term is also used variously to describe the beam of the system, or the vehicles traveling on such a beam or track. The term originates from the contraction of the words mono (single) and rail, from as early as 1897 Etymology Online entry for monorail , as early systems used metal rails. The transportation system is often referred to as a railway Dictionary.com definitions of monorail . In contrast, a light rail system has two rails sharing support of the train which also share the responsibility of guiding the train. Differentiation from other transport systems Monorail systems have found shared applications in the transportation market in airport transfer and some medium capacity metro systems. To differentiate monorail systems from other transport modes, the Monorail Society further clarifies the definition of a monorail such that the beam in a monorail system is narrower than the vehicle Monorail Society, What is a monorail? . Similarities Monorails are often but not exclusively elevated, sometimes leading to confusion with other elevated systems such as the Docklands Light Railway, Vancouver SkyTrain and the JFK AirTrain. Monorail vehicles are often at first glance similar to other light rail vehicles, and can be both manned and unmanned. Monorail vehicles can also be found in singular rigid format, articulated single units, or as multiple units coupled into 'trains'. In common with other advanced rapid transit systems, some monorails are driven by linear induction motor. In common with other dual rail systems, the vehicle bodies are connected to the beam via bogies, allowing curves to be negotiated. Differences Unlike some trams and light rail systems, modern monorails are always partitioned from other traffic and pedestrians. Monorails are both guided and supported via interaction with the same single beam, in contrast to other guided systems such as Rubber-tyred metros, such as the Sapporo Municipal Subway; or guided buses or trams, such as Translohr. Monorails also do not use pantographs. Maglev Under the Monorail Society beam width criteria, some but not all maglev systems are considered monorails, such as the Transrapid and Linimo. Maglevs differ from all other monorail systems in that they do not (normally) physically contact the beam. History Gyroscopically balanced monorail (1907) by Brennan and Scherl Early years The first monorail was made in Russia in 1820 by Ivan Elmanov. Attempts at creating monorail alternatives to conventional railways have been made since the early part of the 19th century. The earliest patent was taken out by Henry Palmer in the in 1821, and the design was employed at Deptford Dockyard in South-East London, and a short line for moving stone from a quarry near Cheshunt, Hertfordshire to the River Lea. The Cheshunt line is notable as it was the world's first monorail to carry passengers, as well as the first railway line to be opened in Hertfordshire. Early designs centred on use of a double-flanged single metal rail alternative to the double rail of conventional railways. Wheels on this rail would both guide and support the monorail car. A surviving suspended version is the Wuppertal monorail. Into the 1900s, Gyro monorails, with cars gyroscopically balanced on top of a single rail, were tested but never developed beyond the prototype stage. The Ewing System, used in the Patiala State Monorail Trainways in Punjab, India, relies on a hybrid model with a load-bearing single rail and an external wheel for balance. One of the first systems put into practical use was that of French engineer Charles Lartigue, who built a monorail line between Ballybunion and Listowel in Ireland, which was opened in 1888 and closed in 1924 (due to damage from Ireland's Civil War). The Lartigue system uses a load-bearing single rail and two lower, external rails for balance, the three carried on triangular supports. 1900s-1950s The first half of the 20th century saw many further proposed designs, that either never left the drawing board or remained as short lived prototypes. 1950s-1980s In the latter half of the 20th century, monorail designs had settled on using larger beam or girder based track, with vehicles supported by one set of wheels and guided by another. These designs featured vehicles supported, suspended or cantilevered from the beams. In the 1950s the ALWEG straddle design emerged, followed by an updated suspended type, the SAFEGE system. During this period, major monorails were installed at Disneyland, California, Seattle, and Japan. Monorail systems were also heavily promoted as futuristic technology with exhibition installations and amusement park purchases, as seen by the number of legacy systems in use today. However, monorails gained little foothold compared to conventional transport systems. Niche private enterprise uses for monorails emerged, with the emergence of air travel and shopping malls, with many shuttle type systems being built. Perceptions of monorail as public transport From 1950 to 1980 the monorail concept may have suffered, as with all public transport systems, from competition with the automobile. Monorails in particular may have suffered from the reluctance of public transit authorities to invest in the perceived high cost of un-proven monorails when faced with cheaper mature alternatives. There were also many competing monorail technologies, splitting their case further. This high cost perception was challenged most-notably in 1963, when the ALWEG consortium proposed to finance the construction of a major monorail system in Los Angeles, in return for the right of operation. This was turned down by the city authorities in favour of no system at all, and the later subway system has faced criticism as it has yet to reach the scale of the proposed monorail. Several monorails initially conceived as transport systems survive today on revenues generated from tourism usage, benefitting from the unique views offered from the largely elevated monorail installations. Resurgence From the 1980s onwards, with the rise of traffic congestion and urbanization, monorails have experienced a resurgence in interest for mass transit usage, notable from the early use by Japan and now Malaysia. Tokyo Monorail, the world's busiest monorail line, averages 127,000 passengers per day and has served over 1.5 billion passengers since 1964. Monorails have also seen continuing use in niche shuttle markets, as well as amusement parks. Modern mass transit monorail systems have settled on developments of the ALWEG beam and tyre approach, with only two suspended types in large use. Monorail configurations have also been adopted by maglev trains. Types and technical aspects The Schwebebahn Wuppertal, the world's first suspended monorail Modern monorails depend on a large solid beam as the vehicles' running surface. There are a number of competing designs divided into two broad classes, straddle-beam and suspended monorails. The most common type of monorail in use today is the straddle-beam monorail, in which the train straddles a reinforced concrete beam in the range of two to three feet (~0.6-0.9 m) wide. A rubber-tired carriage contacts the beam on the top and both sides for traction and to stabilize the vehicle. The straddle-beam style was popularized by the German company ALWEG. There is also a form of suspended monorail developed by the French company SAFEGE in which the train cars are suspended beneath the wheel carriage. In this design the carriage wheels ride inside the single beam. The Chiba Urban Monorail is presently the world's largest suspended monorail network. Power Almost all modern monorails are powered by electric motors fed by dual third rails, contact wires or electrified channels attached to or enclosed in their guidance beams. However, diesel-powered monorail systems also exist. http://www.monorails.org/tMspages/Metrail1.html Magnetic levitation Transrapid maglev on monorail track Magnetic levitation train (maglev) systems by the German Transrapid were built as straddle-type monorails, as they are highly stable and allow rapid deceleration from great speed. When in full-speed operation maglev trains hover over the track and are thus not in physical contact with it. The maglev is the fastest train of any type, the experimental JR-Maglev having recorded a speed of 581 km/h (361 mph). The commercial Shanghai Maglev Train has run at 501 km/h (311 mph). In addition, Linimo was inaugurated in Japan in 2003. Switching Some early monorail systems--notably the suspended monorail of Wuppertal (Germany), dating from 1901 and still in operation--have a design that makes it difficult to switch from one line to another. Some other monorail systems avoid switching as much as possible, by operating in a continuous loop or between two fixed stations, as in Seattle, Washington. Current operating monorails are capable of more efficient switching than in the past. In the case of suspended monorails, switching may be accomplished by moving flanges inside the beamway to shift trains to one line or another. Straddle-beam monorails require that the beam structure itself be moved to accomplish switching, which originally was an almost prohibitively ponderous procedure. Now, however, the most common way of achieving this is to place a moving apparatus on top of a sturdy platform capable of bearing the weight of vehicles, beams and its own mechanism. Multiple-segmented beams move into place on rollers to smoothly align one beam with another to send the train in its desired direction, with the design originally developed by ALWEG capable of completing a switch in 12 seconds. Some of these beam turnouts are quite elaborate, capable of switching between several beams or even simulating a railroad double-crossover. In cases where it must be possible to move a monorail train from one beam to any of a number of other beams, as in storage or repair shops, a traveling beam not unlike a railroad transfer table may be employed. A single beam, at least long enough to carry a single monorail vehicle, is aligned at an entry beam to be mounted by the monorail cars. The entire beam then rolls with the vehicle to align with the desired storage beam. Advantages and disadvantages The high capacity Tama Toshi Monorail Line. Advantages The primary advantage of monorails over conventional rail systems is that they require minimal space, both horizontally and vertically. Monorail vehicles are wider than the beam, and monorail systems are commonly elevated, requiring only a minimal footprint for support pillars. A monorail track is usually less expensive to build than a comparable elevated conventional rail line of equal capacity. Due to a smaller footprint they are seen as more attractive than conventional elevated rail lines and block only a minimal amount of sky. Monorail is, by design, a grade-separated system. They do not interfere with existing transport modes. They are quieter, as modern monorails use rubber wheels on a concrete track (though some non-monorail subway systems, like certain lines of the Paris Métro and all of the Montreal metro and Mexico City metro, use the same technique and are equally quiet) Unlike conventional rail systems, straddle monorails wrap around their track and are thus not physically capable of derailing, unless the track itself suffers a catastrophic failure. Rubber-tired monorails can climb steeper grades better than ordinary steel wheel trains, with Hitachi monorails designed to cope with 6% grade. Steeper Grade, Smaller Curve Radius : Hitachi Rail Disadvantages The Mud Island Monorail, in Memphis, Tennessee (2005) Monorail vehicles are not compatible with any other type of rail infrastructure, which makes (for example) through services onto mainline tracks impossible. Monorail tracks do not easily accommodate at-grade intersections. In an emergency, passengers may not be able to immediately exit because an elevated monorail vehicle is high above ground and not all systems have emergency walkways. The passengers must sometimes wait until a rescue train, fire engine or a cherry picker comes to the rescue. Newer monorail systems resolve this by building emergency walkways alongside the entire track, at the expense of visual intrusion. Suspended railways resolve this by building aircraft style evacuation slides into the vehicles. Japanese systems use the next train to tow broken down trains to the next station, but this has yet to occur . Turnouts, especially at high speeds, tend to be difficult. Traversers might be substituted. Monorail infrastructure and vehicles are often made by separate manufacturers, with different manufacturers using incompatible designs. Monorail systems Main article: List of monorail systems References See also "Marge vs. the Monorail" - The Simpsons episode satirizing monorail development Slope car Transrapid External links Monorails in general Minirail at the Expo 67 Innovative Transportation Technologies - a website for the Transportation engineering and Urban planning programs at the University of Washington The Disneyland Monorail - Article on how a rubber-wheeled monorail works. The Monorail Society - home page of a volunteer organization promoting monorails, with separate pages on monorail switches and a backyard monorail "One-Track Wonders: Early Monorails" - Site with lots of images of imagined and real monorails The unknown russian monorail - in Russian Monorail advocacy groups 2045 Seattle - a grassroots movement that supports the construction of rapid transit monorail in Seattle, WA Austin Monorail Project - a non-profit advocating monorail transit for Austin, TX The Monorail Society - an all-volunteer organization founded to foster more awareness and promote this unique method of transportation Organizations/views opposing monorails Las Vegas Monorail: Troublesome Technology in a Unique "Niche" Application - a critical article on the Las Vegas Monorail from Light Rail Now!, a pro-light rail organization in Austin, TX opposed to monorails Monorail Capital Costs: Reality Check - a critical article on the capitial costs of monorails. From Light Rail Now! Monorails, Light Rail, and Automated vs. Non-Automated Transit Operation: Comparative Costs in Japan and USA - a critical article on the cost differences of monorails, whether they are automated or not. 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5,908 | Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso | Communications in Burkina Faso are limited due to the low penetration of electricity, even in major cities. Use of telecommunications is extremely low. According to the International Telecommunication Union, in 2004 there were only 479,000 telephone subscribers in the country of nearly 11 million people, with .061 main lines per 1000 inhabitants. This number climbs to 42.05 main lines/1000 in Ouagadougou, but still a very low penetration rate. The Burkinabé government, in its telecommunications development strategy, has stated its aims to make telecommunications a universal service accessible to all. A large portion of this strategy is the privatization of the National Telecommunications Office (ONATEL), with additional focus on a rural telephony promotion project. Internet use is also low in the country, with only 40 users per 10,000 inhabitants in 2004, and just over 53,000 users total, according to the International Telecommunication Union. The sector is beginning to improve following installation of a 22 Mbit/s fiber optic international link, a vast improvement over the previous 128 kbit/s link. Secondary access nodes are beginning to appear in the major cities, and cybercafés are providing Internet access to a broader spectrum of end users. Mobile phone technology has skyrocketed in Burkina Faso in the last decade, growing from 2,700 subscribers in 1998 to 398,000 in 2004. Mobile phone subscribers now represent 83% of all telephone users in the country. (International Telecommunication Union, 2006). The mobile telephone segment has benefitted from a competitive environment between operators Celtel, Télécel Faso, and Telmob, which has pushed rates down even as density and coverage area increased. Usage Statistics Telephones - main lines in use: 30,000 (1995) Telephones - mobile cellular: 1,050,000 (2007) Telephone system: all services only fair domestic: microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Radio broadcast stations: AM 2, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998) Radios: 370,000 (1997) Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997) Televisions: 100,000 (1997) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (1999) Country code: BF External links GSM World page on Burkina Faso PanAfriL10n page on Burkina Faso | Telecommunications_in_Burkina_Faso |@lemmatized communication:2 burkina:4 faso:5 limit:1 due:1 low:4 penetration:2 electricity:1 even:2 major:2 city:2 use:3 telecommunication:7 extremely:1 accord:2 international:5 union:3 telephone:6 subscriber:3 country:4 nearly:1 million:1 people:1 main:3 line:3 per:2 inhabitant:2 number:1 climb:1 ouagadougou:1 still:1 rate:2 burkinabé:1 government:1 development:1 strategy:2 state:1 aim:1 make:1 universal:1 service:3 accessible:1 large:1 portion:1 privatization:1 national:1 office:1 onatel:1 additional:1 focus:1 rural:1 telephony:1 promotion:1 project:1 internet:3 also:1 user:4 total:1 sector:1 begin:2 improve:1 follow:1 installation:1 mbit:1 fiber:1 optic:1 link:3 vast:1 improvement:1 previous:1 kbit:1 secondary:1 access:2 node:1 appear:1 cybercafés:1 provide:1 broad:1 spectrum:1 end:1 mobile:4 phone:2 technology:1 skyrocket:1 last:1 decade:1 grow:1 represent:1 segment:1 benefit:1 competitive:1 environment:1 operator:1 celtel:1 télécel:1 telmob:1 push:1 density:1 coverage:1 area:1 increase:1 usage:1 statistic:1 cellular:1 system:1 fair:1 domestic:1 microwave:1 radio:3 relay:1 open:1 wire:1 radiotelephone:1 station:4 satellite:1 earth:1 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:1 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:2 provider:1 isps:1 code:1 bf:1 external:1 gsm:1 world:1 page:2 |@bigram burkina_faso:4 fiber_optic:1 mobile_phone:2 mobile_cellular:1 radiotelephone_communication:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isps:1 external_link:1 |
5,909 | Bodhisattva | A statue of the Bodhisattva Akasagarbha. In Buddhism, a bodhisattva (, ; , Bodhishotto, ; Bawdithat, Vietnamese: Bồ Tát; , ; ; Japanese: 菩薩, bosatsu; ) means either "enlightened (bodhi) existence (sattva)" or "enlightenment-being" or, given the variant Sanskrit spelling satva rather than sattva, "heroic-minded one (satva) for enlightenment (bodhi)." Another translation is "Wisdom-Being." It is the name given to anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhichitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all living beings. The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, page 1, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0 Theravada Buddhism The term Bodhisatta (Pali language) was used by the Buddha in the Pāli Canon to refer to himself both in his previous lives and as a young man in his current life, prior to his enlightenment, in the period during which he was working towards his own liberation. When, during his discourses, he recounts his experiences as a young aspirant, he regularly uses the phrase "When I was an unenlightened Bodhisatta..." The term therefore connotes a being who is "bound for enlightenment," in other words, a person whose aim is to become fully enlightened. In the Pali Canon, the Bodhisatta is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement and delusion. Some of the previous lives of the Buddha as a bodhisattva are featured in the Jataka Tales. In the Pāli Canon, the Bodhisatta Siddhartha Gotama is described as thus: While Maitreya (Pali: Metteya) is mentioned in the Pāli Canon, he is not referred to as a bodhisattva, but simply the next fully-awakened Buddha to come into existence long after the current teachings of the Buddha are lost. In later Theravada literature, the term bodhisatta is used fairly frequently in the sense of someone on the path to liberation. The later tradition of commentary also recognizes the existence of two additional types of bodhisattas: the paccekabodhisatta who will attain Paccekabuddhahood, and the savakabodhisatta who will attain enlightenment as a disciple of a Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism, on the other hand, regards the Bodhisattva as a person who already has a considerable degree of enlightenment and seeks to use their wisdom to help other human beings to become liberated themselves. In this understanding of the word the Bodhisattva is an already wise person who uses skillful means to lead others to see the benefits of virtue and the cultivation of wisdom. The Mahayana encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vows. With these vows, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the six perfections. The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, pages 4-12, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0 Indelibly entwined with the Bodhisattva Vow is parinamana (Sanskrit; which may be rendered in English as "merit transference"). In Mahayana Buddhism life in this world is compared to people living in a house that is on fire A simile from the Lotus Sutra . They take this world as reality pursuing worldly projects and pleasures without realising that the house is on fire and will soon burn down (the inevitability of death). A Bodhisattva is the one who has determination to free sentient beings from samsara with the cycle of death, rebirth and suffering. This type of mind is known as bodhicitta; Sanskrit for mind of awakening. Bodhisattvas take bodhisattva vows in order to progress on the spiritual path towards buddhahood. There are a variety of different conceptions of the nature of a bodhisattva in Mahayana. According to some Mahayana sources a bodhisattva is someone on the path to full Buddhahood. Others speak of bodhisattvas renouncing Buddhahood. According to the Kun-bzang bla-ma'i zhal-lung, a bodhisattva can choose either of three paths to help sentient beings in the process of achieving buddhahood. They are: King-like Bodhisattva - one who aspires to become buddha as soon as possible and then help sentient beings in full fledge; Boatman-like Bodhisattva - one who aspires to achieve buddhahood along with other sentient beings and Shepherd-like Bodhisattva - one who aspires to delay buddhahood until all other sentient beings achieve buddhahood. Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Shantideva among others are believed to fall in this category. Tibetan doctrine (like Theravada, for different reasons) recognizes only the first of these, holding that Buddhas remain in the world, able to help others, so there is no point in delay. Geshe Kelsang Gyatso notes: "In reality, the second two types of bodhichitta are wishes that are impossible to fulfil because it is only possible to lead others to enlightenment once we have attained enlightenment ourself. Therefore, only king-like bodhichitta is actual bodhichitta. Je Tsongkhapa says that although the other Bodhisattvas wish for that which is impossible, their attitude is sublime and unmistaken. "Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, Joyful Path of Good Fortune: the Complete Buddhist Path to Enlightenment, p. 422 East Asian doctrinal traditions tend to emphasize the second and/or third, the idea of deliberately refraining from becoming a Buddha, perhaps forever. According to many traditions within Mahayana Buddhism, on the way to becoming a Buddha, a bodhisattva proceeds through ten, or sometimes fourteen, grounds or bhumi. Below is the list of the ten bhumis and their descriptions from The Jewel Ornament of Liberation, a treatise by Gampopa (an influential teacher of the Tibetan Kagyu school) and the Avatamsaka Sutra. Other schools give slightly variant descriptions. Before a bodhisattva arrives at the first ground, he or she first must travel the first two of the five paths: the path of accumulation the path of preparation The ten grounds of the bodhisattva then can be grouped into the next three paths Bhumi 1 the path of insight Bhumi 2-7 the path of meditation Bhumi 8-10 the path of no more learning Prince Siddhartha Gautama as a bodhisattva, before becoming a Buddha. He is characteristically depicted as a nobleman, posing with left hand on the hip, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century. The chapter of ten grounds in the Avatamsaka Sutra refers 52 stages, with the following 10 grounds Great Joy It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all sentient beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name. In this bhumi the bodhisattvas practice all virtues (paramita), but especially emphasizing generosity (dana). Stainless In accomplishing the second bhumi, the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this bhumi is named 'Stainless'. The emphasized virtue is moral discipline (śila). Luminous The third bhumi is named 'Luminous', because, for a bodhisattva who accomplishes this bhumi, the light of Dharma is said to radiate from the bodhisattva for others. The emphasized virtue is patience (). Radiant This bhumi is called 'Radiant', because it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized virtue is vigor (virya). Very difficult to train Bodhisattvas who attain this bhumi strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized virtue is meditative concentration (dhyāna). Obviously Transcendent "By depending on the perfection of wisdom awareness, he [the bodhisattva] does not abide in either or , so it is 'obviously transcendent'". The emphasized virtue is wisdom (prajña). Gone afar Particular emphasis is on the perfection of skilful means, or upaya-kaushalya, to help others. Immovable The emphasized virtue is aspiration. This, the 'Immovable' bhumi, is the bhumi at which one becomes able to choose his place of rebirth. Good Discriminating Wisdom The emphasized virtue is power. Cloud of dharma The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom. Chinese wood carving of Guanyin; Shanxi Province (A.D. 907-1125) After the ten bhumis, according to Mahayana Buddhism, one attains complete enlightenment and becomes a Buddha. With the 52 stages, the Shurangama Sutra in East Asia recognizes 57 stages. With the 10 grounds, various Vajrayana schools recognize 3-10 additional grounds 大圆满隆钦宁提派前行念诵文 编一遍智妙道注释 , mostly 6 more grounds with variant descriptions. 大圆藏密要诀、大圆满心性休息颂 Various traditions within Buddhism believe in certain specific bodhisattvas. Some bodhisattvas appear across traditions, but due to language barriers may be seen as separate entities. For example, Tibetan Buddhists believe in various forms of Chenrezig, who is Avalokitesvara in Sanskrit, Guanyin (other spellings: Kwan-yin, Kuan-yin) in China and Korea, Quan Am in Vietnam, and Kannon (formerly spelled and pronounced: Kwannon) in Japan. Jizo or Ti Tsang is another popular bodhisattva in Japan and China (Ksitigarbha in Sanskrit). Jizo is known for aiding those who are lost. His greatest compassionate Vow being: "If I do not go to the hell to help the suffering beings there, who else will go? ... if the hells are not empty I will not become a Buddha. Only when all living beings have been saved, will I attain Bodhi." Many followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider the 14th Dalai Lama and the Karmapa to be an incarnation of that same bodhisattva Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. The bodhisattva is a popular subject in Buddhist art. The place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement of enlightenment or the acts of dharma, is known as a bodhimanda, and may be a site of pilgrimage. Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimandas; for instance, the island of Putuoshan, located off the coast of Ningbo, is venerated by Chinese Buddhists as the bodhimanda of Avalokitesvara. Perhaps the most famous bodhimanda of all is the bodhi tree under which Shakyamuni achieved buddhahood. Important Bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara (Guan Yin in Chinese) Manjusri Samantabhadra Ksitigarbha Maitreya Vajrapani Sadaparibhuta Teaching story Pollock (2005): p.43) provides a teaching story that evocatively describes the "nature of a Bodhisattva" and mentions 'circumambulation' (Tibetan: skor ba): The nature of the Bodhisattva is apparent from a teaching story in which three people are walking through a desert. Parched and thirsty, they spy a high wall ahead. They approach and circumnavigate it, but it has no entrance or doorway. One climbs upon the shoulders of the others, looks inside, yells "Eureka" and jumps inside. The second then climbs up and repeats the actions of the first. The third laboriously climbs the wall without assistance and sees a lush garden inside the wall. It has cooling water, trees, fruit, etc. But, instead of jumping into the garden, the third person jumps back out into the desert and seeks out desert wanderers to tell them about the garden and how to find it. The third person is the Bodhisattva. Pollock, Neal (2005). Practices Supporting Dzogchen: The Great Perfection of Tibetan Buddhism. Source: (accessed: January 8, 2008) In popular culture Zhang Jigang organized and created the Thousand Hand Bodhisattva dance, performed by the China Disabled People's Performing Art Troupe. Jack Kerouac mentions Bodhisattva in The Dharma Bums several times. In the book, Japhy Ryder (Gary Snyder) tells Ray Smith (Kerouac) that he (Ray) is a "Bodhisattva, a great wise being or great wise angel". Kerouac uses the term several times in the novel, to describe himself and fellow zen Buddhists. In Move Under Ground, where Kerouac is a character, bodhisattva Kilaya accompanies him on his trek to defeat Cthulhu. The hip-hop group The Beastie Boys have a song called "Bodhisattva Vow" on their album Ill Communication. Ian Astbury's former rock band Holy Barbarians released a song called "Bodhisattva" from their only album Cream. The opening track from Steely Dan's 1973 album Countdown to Ecstasy is called "Bodhisattva". Patrick Swayze's character in the film Point Break was referred to as Bodhisattva or "Bodhi" for his search of the perfect wave. See also A Chinese wooden Bodhisattva, Jin Dynasty (1115-1234 AD), Shanghai Museum. Bodhisattva vows List of bodhisattvas Karuna ('compassion' in Sanskrit) Bodhicharyavatara (A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life) Vegetarianism in Buddhism Buddhist Ceremonies Notes References Gampopa; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Snow Lion Publications; ISBN 1-55939-092-1 White, Kenneth R.; The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment: Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo; The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005; ISBN 0-7734-5985-5 Lampert, K.; Traditions of Compassion: From Religious Duty to Social Activism. Palgrave-Macmillan; ISBN 1-4039-8527-8 Buddhanet.net tstang text Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0 Shantideva: Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life: How to Enjoy a Life of Great Meaning and Altruism, a translation of Shantideva's Bodhisattvacharyavatara with Neil Elliott, Tharpa Publications (2002) ISBN 978-0-948006-88-3 External links The Thirty-Seven Practices of Bodhisattvas, all-in-one page with memory aids & collection of different versions. What A Bodhisattva Does: Thirty-Seven Practices by Ngulchu Thogme with slide show format. 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5,910 | Fractal | The Mandelbrot set is a famous example of a fractal A fractal is generally "a rough or fragmented geometric shape that can be split into parts, each of which is (at least approximately) a reduced-size copy of the whole," a property called self-similarity.Roots of mathematical interest on fractals can be traced back to the late 19th Century, the term however was coined by Benoît Mandelbrot in 1975 and was derived from the Latin fractus meaning "broken" or "fractured." A mathematical fractal is based on an equation that undergoes iteration, a form of feedback based on recursion. A fractal often has the following features: It has a fine structure at arbitrarily small scales. It is too irregular to be easily described in traditional Euclidean geometric language. It is self-similar (at least approximately or stochastically). It has a Hausdorff dimension which is greater than its topological dimension (although this requirement is not met by space-filling curves such as the Hilbert curve). The Hilbert curve map is not a homeomorhpism, so it does not preserve topological dimension. The topological dimension and Hausdorff dimension of the image of the Hilbert map in R2 are both 2. Note, however, that the topological dimension of the graph of the Hilbert map (a set in R3) is 1. It has a simple and recursive definition. Because they appear similar at all levels of magnification, fractals are often considered to be infinitely complex (in informal terms). Natural objects that approximate fractals to a degree include clouds, mountain ranges, lightning bolts, coastlines, snow flakes, even various vegetables (cauliflower and broccoli). However, not all self-similar objects are fractals—for example, the real line (a straight Euclidean line) is formally self-similar but fails to have other fractal characteristics; for instance, it is regular enough to be described in Euclidean terms. Images of fractals can be created using fractal generating software. Images produced by such software are normally referred to as being fractals even if they do not have the above characteristics, as it is possible to zoom into a region of the image that does not exhibit any fractal properties. History Animated construction of a Sierpiński Triangle, only going nine generations of infinite—click for larger image. To create a Koch snowflake, one begins with an equilateral triangle and then replaces the middle third of every line segment with a pair of line segments that form an equilateral "bump." One then performs the same replacement on every line segment of the resulting shape, ad infinitum. With every iteration, the perimeter of this shape increases by one third of the previous length. The Koch snowflake is the result of an infinite number of these iterations, and has an infinite length, while its area remains finite. For this reason, the Koch snowflake and similar constructions were sometimes called "monster curves." The mathematics behind fractals began to take shape in the 17th century when mathematician and philosopher Leibniz considered recursive self-similarity (although he made the mistake of thinking that only the straight line was self-similar in this sense). It took until 1872 before a function appeared whose graph would today be considered fractal, when Karl Weierstrass gave an example of a function with the non-intuitive property of being everywhere continuous but nowhere differentiable. In 1904, Helge von Koch, dissatisfied with Weierstrass's very abstract and analytic definition, gave a more geometric definition of a similar function, which is now called the Koch curve. (The image at right is three Koch curves put together to form what is commonly called the Koch snowflake.) In 1915, Waclaw Sierpinski constructed his triangle and, one year later, his carpet. Originally these geometric fractals were described as curves rather than the 2D shapes that they are known as in their modern constructions. In 1918, Bertrand Russell recognized a "supreme beauty" within the emerging mathematics of fractals. The idea of self-similar curves was taken further by Paul Pierre Lévy, who, in his 1938 paper Plane or Space Curves and Surfaces Consisting of Parts Similar to the Whole described a new fractal curve, the Lévy C curve. Georg Cantor also gave examples of subsets of the real line with unusual properties—these Cantor sets are also now recognized as fractals. Iterated functions in the complex plane were investigated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by Henri Poincaré, Felix Klein, Pierre Fatou and Gaston Julia. However, without the aid of modern computer graphics, they lacked the means to visualize the beauty of many of the objects that they had discovered. In the 1960s, Benoît Mandelbrot started investigating self-similarity in papers such as How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension, which built on earlier work by Lewis Fry Richardson. Finally, in 1975 Mandelbrot coined the word "fractal" to denote an object whose Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension is greater than its topological dimension. He illustrated this mathematical definition with striking computer-constructed visualizations. These images captured the popular imagination; many of them were based on recursion, leading to the popular meaning of the term "fractal". Examples A Julia set, a fractal related to the Mandelbrot set A class of examples is given by the Cantor sets, Sierpinski triangle and carpet, Menger sponge, dragon curve, space-filling curve, and Koch curve. Additional examples of fractals include the Lyapunov fractal and the limit sets of Kleinian groups. Fractals can be deterministic (all the above) or stochastic (that is, non-deterministic). For example, the trajectories of the Brownian motion in the plane have a Hausdorff dimension of 2. Chaotic dynamical systems are sometimes associated with fractals. Objects in the phase space of a dynamical system can be fractals (see attractor). Objects in the parameter space for a family of systems may be fractal as well. An interesting example is the Mandelbrot set. This set contains whole discs, so it has a Hausdorff dimension equal to its topological dimension of 2—but what is truly surprising is that the boundary of the Mandelbrot set also has a Hausdorff dimension of 2 (while the topological dimension of 1), a result proved by Mitsuhiro Shishikura in 1991. A closely related fractal is the Julia set. Generating fractals <tr><td>The whole Mandelbrot set <tr><td>Mandelbrot zoomed 6x <tr><td>Mandelbrot Zoomed 100x <tr><td>Mandelbrot Zoomed 2000x Even 2000 times magnification of the Mandelbrot set uncovers fine detail resembling the full set. Four common techniques for generating fractals are: Escape-time fractals – (also known as "orbits" fractals) These are defined by a formula or recurrence relation at each point in a space (such as the complex plane). Examples of this type are the Mandelbrot set, Julia set, the Burning Ship fractal, the Nova fractal and the Lyapunov fractal. The 2d vector fields that are generated by one or two iterations of escape-time formulae also give rise to a fractal form when points (or pixel data) are passed through this field repeatedly. Iterated function systems – These have a fixed geometric replacement rule. Cantor set, Sierpinski carpet, Sierpinski gasket, Peano curve, Koch snowflake, Harter-Highway dragon curve, T-Square, Menger sponge, are some examples of such fractals. Random fractals – Generated by stochastic rather than deterministic processes, for example, trajectories of the Brownian motion, Lévy flight, fractal landscapes and the Brownian tree. The latter yields so-called mass- or dendritic fractals, for example, diffusion-limited aggregation or reaction-limited aggregation clusters. Strange attractors – Generated by iteration of a map or the solution of a system of initial-value differential equations that exhibit chaos. Classification Fractals can also be classified according to their self-similarity. There are three types of self-similarity found in fractals: Exact self-similarity – This is the strongest type of self-similarity; the fractal appears identical at different scales. Fractals defined by iterated function systems often display exact self-similarity. Quasi-self-similarity – This is a loose form of self-similarity; the fractal appears approximately (but not exactly) identical at different scales. Quasi-self-similar fractals contain small copies of the entire fractal in distorted and degenerate forms. Fractals defined by recurrence relations are usually quasi-self-similar but not exactly self-similar. Statistical self-similarity – This is the weakest type of self-similarity; the fractal has numerical or statistical measures which are preserved across scales. Most reasonable definitions of "fractal" trivially imply some form of statistical self-similarity. (Fractal dimension itself is a numerical measure which is preserved across scales.) Random fractals are examples of fractals which are statistically self-similar, but neither exactly nor quasi-self-similar. In nature Approximate fractals are easily found in nature. These objects display self-similar structure over an extended, but finite, scale range. Examples include clouds, snow flakes, crystals, mountain ranges, lightning, river networks, cauliflower or broccoli, and systems of blood vessels and pulmonary vessels. Coastlines may be loosely considered fractal in nature. Trees and ferns are fractal in nature and can be modeled on a computer by using a recursive algorithm. This recursive nature is obvious in these examples—a branch from a tree or a frond from a fern is a miniature replica of the whole: not identical, but similar in nature. The connection between fractals and leaves are currently being used to determine how much carbon is contained in trees. This connection is hoped to help determine and solve the environmental issue of carbon emission and control. "Hunting the Hidden Dimension." Nova. PBS. WPMB-Maryland. 10/28/2008. In 1999, certain self similar fractal shapes were shown to have a property of "frequency invariance"—the same electromagnetic properties no matter what the frequency—from Maxwell's equations (see fractal antenna). Hohlfeld,R., and Cohen, N.,"SELF-SIMILARITY AND THE GEOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS FOR FREQUENCY INDEPENDENCE IN ANTENNAE ", Fractals, Vol. 7, No. 1 (1999) 79-84 In creative works Fractal patterns have been found in the paintings of American artist Jackson Pollock. While Pollock's paintings appear to be composed of chaotic dripping and splattering, computer analysis has found fractal patterns in his work. Richard Taylor, Adam P. Micolich and David Jonas. Fractal Expressionism : Can Science Be Used To Further Our Understanding Of Art? Decalcomania, a technique used by artists such as Max Ernst, can produce fractal-like patterns. A Panorama of Fractals and Their Uses by Michael Frame and Benoît B. Mandelbrot It involves pressing paint between two surfaces and pulling them apart. Fractals are also prevalent in African art and architecture. Circular houses appear in circles of circles, rectangular houses in rectangles of rectangles, and so on. Such scaling patterns can also be found in African textiles, sculpture, and even cornrow hairstyles. Ron Eglash. African Fractals: Modern Computing and Indigenous Design. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press 1999. Applications As described above, random fractals can be used to describe many highly irregular real-world objects. Other applications of fractals include: Classification of histopathology slides in medicine Fractal landscape or Coastline complexity Enzyme/enzymology (Michaelis-Menten kinetics) Generation of new music Generation of various art forms Signal and image compression Creation of digital photographic enlargements Seismology Fractal in soil mechanics Computer and video game design, especially computer graphics for organic environments and as part of procedural generation Fractography and fracture mechanics Fractal antennas – Small size antennas using fractal shapes Small angle scattering theory of fractally rough systems T-shirts and other fashion Generation of patterns for camouflage, such as MARPAT Digital sundial Technical analysis of price series (see Elliott wave principle) See also Bifurcation theory Butterfly effect Chaos theory Complexity Constructal theory Contraction mapping theorem Diamond-square algorithm Droste effect Feigenbaum function Fractal art Fractal compression Fractal cosmology Fractal flame Fractals in wikimedia Fractal landscape Fractint Fracton Graftal Greeble Lacunarity List of fractals by Hausdorff dimension Publications in fractal geometry Newton fractal Recursionism Sacred geometry Self-reference Space-filling curve Strange loop Turbulence References Further reading Barnsley, Michael F., and Hawley Rising. Fractals Everywhere. Boston: Academic Press Professional, 1993. ISBN 0-12-079061-0 Falconer, Kenneth. Techniques in Fractal Geometry. John Willey and Sons, 1997. ISBN 0-471-92287-0 Jürgens, Hartmut, Heins-Otto Peitgen, and Dietmar Saupe. Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992. ISBN 0-387-97903-4 Benoît B. Mandelbrot The Fractal Geometry of Nature. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1982. ISBN 0-7167-1186-9 Peitgen, Heinz-Otto, and Dietmar Saupe, eds. The Science of Fractal Images. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988. ISBN 0-387-96608-0 Clifford A. Pickover, ed. Chaos and Fractals: A Computer Graphical Journey - A 10 Year Compilation of Advanced Research. Elsevier, 1998. ISBN 0-444-50002-2 Jesse Jones, Fractals for the Macintosh, Waite Group Press, Corte Madera, CA, 1993. ISBN 1-878739-46-8. Hans Lauwerier, Fractals: Endlessly Repeated Geometrical Figures, Translated by Sophia Gill-Hoffstadt, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1991. ISBN 0-691-08551-X, cloth. ISBN 0-691-02445-6 paperback. "This book has been written for a wide audience..." Includes sample BASIC programs in an appendix. Bernt Wahl, Peter Van Roy, Michael Larsen, and Eric Kampman Exploring Fractals on the Macintosh, Addison Wesley, 1995. ISBN 0-201-62630-6 Nigel Lesmoir-Gordon. "The Colours of Infinity: The Beauty, The Power and the Sense of Fractals." ISBN 1-904555-05-5 (The book comes with a related DVD of the Arthur C. Clarke documentary introduction to the fractal concept and the Mandelbrot set. Gouyet, Jean-François. Physics and Fractal Structures (Foreword by B. Mandelbrot); Masson, 1996. ISBN 2-225-85130-1, and New York: Springer-Verlag, 1996. ISBN 0-387-94153-1. Out-of-print. Available in PDF version at . 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5,911 | Hydrofoil | Jetfoil Toppi, a ferry connecting Yakushima, Tanegashima Island and Kagoshima port in Japan. A hydrofoil is a boat with wing-like foils mounted on struts below the hull. As the craft increases its speed the hydrofoils develop enough lift for the boat to become foilborne - i.e. to raise the hull up and out of the water. This results in a great reduction in drag and a corresponding increase in speed. The term "hydrofoil" is also used to refer to the foil itself, especially when the airfoil profile has been specifically designed for use in water (such as for a propeller blade). Hydrodynamics Since air and water are governed by similar fluid equations, albeit with different levels of viscosity and compressibility, the hydrofoil and airfoil create lift in identical ways (see Foil (fluid mechanics)). The foil is shaped to move smoothly through the water with faster flow over the top face of the foil the creating a pressure drop and subsequently an upwards force on the foil. This upward force lifts the body of the vessel, decreasing drag and increasing speed. The lifting force eventually balances with the weight of the craft, reaching a point where the hydrofoil no longer lifts out of the water, but remains in equilibrium. Since the force of the waves acts over a smaller area of the hydrofoil, there is a marked decrease in turbulence drag. Foils configurations Early hydrofoils used V-shape foils. Hydrofoils of this type are known as surface-piercing since portions of the V-shape hydrofoils will rise above the water surface when foilborne. Some modern hydrofoils use inverted T-shape foils which are fully submerged. Fully submerged hydrofoils are less subject to the effects of wave action, and are therefore more stable at sea and are more comfortable for the crew and passengers. This type of configuration, however, is not self-stabilizing. The angle of attack on the hydrofoils needs to be adjusted continuously in accordance to the changing conditions, a control process that is performed by sensors, computer and active surfaces. Hydrofoils are now being applied in multiple marine applications. History Prototypes Forlanini hydrofoil over Lake Maggiore, 1910. Between 1899 and 1901, the British boat designer John I Thornycroft worked on a series of models with a stepped hull and single bow foil. In 1909 his company built a full scale long boat, Miranda III, driven by engine that rode on a bowfoil and flat stern. The subsequent Miranda IV was credited with . . A March 1906 Scientific American article by American hydrofoil pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils. Alexander Graham Bell considered the invention of the hydroplane a very significant achievement. After reading this article Bell began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. With Casey Baldwin, he began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor Enrico Forlanini and began testing models based on his designs. This led him and Bell to the development of hydrofoil watercraft. During Bell's world tour of 1910-1911 he and Baldwin met with Forlanini in Italy. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck a number of designs were tried culminating in the HD-4. Using Renault engines a top speed of 87 km/h (54 mph) was achieved, accelerating rapidly, taking wave without difficulty, steering well and showing good stability. Bell's report to the United States Navy permitted him to obtain two 260 kW (350 horsepower) engines. On September 9, 1919 the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of 114 km/h (70.86 mph). This record stood for ten years. A full-scale replica of the HD-4 can be seen in the museum on the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site in Baddeck. First passengers boats Baron von Schertel worked on hydrofoils prior to and during World War II in Germany. After the war Schertel's team was captured by the Russians. As Germany was not authorized to build fast boats, Schertel himself went to Switzerland, where he established the Supramar company. In 1952, Supramar launched the first commercial hydrofoil, PT10 "Freccia d'Oro" (Golden Arrow), in Lake Maggiore, between Switzerland and Italy. The PT10 is of surface-piercing type, it can carry 32 passengers and travel at . In 1968, Hussain Najadi the Bahraini born banker, acquired the Supramar AG and expanded its operations into Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, UK, Norway and USA. General Dynamics of the United States became its licensee, and the Pentagon awarded its first R&D naval research project in the field of supercavitation. Hitachi Shipbuilding of Osaka, Japan, was another licensee of Supramar, as well as many leading ship owners and shipyards in the OECD countries. From 1952 to 1971, Supramar designed many models of hydrofoils: PT20, PT50, PT75, PT100 and PT150. All are of surface-piercing type, except the PT150 combining a surface-piercing foil forward with a fully-submerged foil in the aft location. Over 200 of Supramar's design were built, most of them by Rodriquez in Italy. In 1961, SRI International issued a study on "The Economic Feasibility of Passenger Hydrofoil Craft in U.S. Domestic and Foreign Commerce." Commercial use of hydrofoils in the U.S. first appeared in 1961 when two commuter vessels were commissioned by Harry Gale Nye, Jr.'s North American Hydrofoils to service the route from Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey to the financial district of Lower Manhattan. Military applications A Project 206M "Shtorm" (NATO - Turya class) patrol fast attack craft hydrofoil of the Cuban Navy The Canadian Navy built and tested a high-speed anti-submarine hydrofoil, the HMCS Bras d'Or, in the late 1960s, but the program was cancelled due to a shift away from ASW by the Canadian Navy. The Bras d'Or was a surface-piercing type which performed well during her trials, reaching a maximum speed of . The Soviet Union experimented extensively with hydrofoils, constructing hydrofoil river boats and ferries with streamlined designs, especially during the 1970s and 1980s. Such vessels include the Raketa (1957) type, followed by the larger Meteor type and the smaller Voskhod type. One of the most successful Soviet designer/inventor in this area was Rostislav Alexeyev who is considered as father of modern hydrofoil based on his design in 1950's which was world first high-speed hydrofoils. Later, circa 1970's, Rostislav Alexeyev also went further to create world first Ekranoplan. The Soviets introduced several hydrofoil-based fast attack craft into their navy The Turya class torpedo boat was introduced in 1972 and some are still in service The Matka class missile boat introduced in the 1980's and still in service The Muravey class patrol boat introduced in the 1980's and still in service The Sarancha class missile boat a unique vessel built in the 1970's The U.S. Navy operated combat hydrofoils, such as the Pegasus class, from 1977 through 1993. These hydrofoils were fast and well armed, and were capable of sinking all but the largest surface vessels. In their narcotics interdiction role, they were a nightmare for drug runners, being very fast, and having missiles and guns to stop anything they could not catch, as well as the ability to call in air support. The Italian Navy has used 6 hydrofoils of the Nibbio class from the late 1970s. These were armed with a 76 mm gun, two missiles and were capable of speed up to . Three similar boats were built for the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force Sailing and sports The French experimental sail powered hydrofoil Hydroptère is the result of a research project that involves advanced engineering skills and technologies. In January 2007, the Hydroptère has reached a top speed of 47.2 knots. A new kayak design, called Flyak, has hydrofoils that lift the kayak enough to significantly reduce drag, allowing speeds of up to 27 km/h. In 2001, the Moth dinghy has evolved to a radical foil configuration (Moth Foiler). Surfers have surfboards with hydrofoils, better suited for big waves further out to sea. Another trimaran sailboat is the Windrider Rave windrider(www.windrider.com). The Rave is a 17 foot, two person, hydrofoil trimaran, capable of reaching speads of 40 knots. The boat was designed by Jim Brown. Passengers boats today Sydney Ferries operated a hydrofoil service between Cirular Quay and Manly. From 1967 to 1991, a regular rapid hydrofoil service was offered alongside the larger, slower ferries. These were manufactured by Rodriquez Cantieri Navali and types in use ranged from the PT20 to RHS160F The hydrofoils were generally considered to be unreliable, because the models chosen were more suited to longer journeys as opposed to the short trip from Circular Quay to Manly. The SeaWorld San Diego (California) Adventure Park began hydrofoil operations soon after the park opened. Visitors could take a 10-minute, round trip into Mission Bay aboard a small fleet of surface-piercing hydrofoils. This popular attraction was halted in the mid-1980s, due to concerns about increasing personal watercraft traffic in the Bay. Current operation Some operators of hydrofoil include: TurboJET service, which speeds passengers across the Pearl River Delta between Hong Kong and Macau in less than an hour, with an average speed of 45 knots (83km/h), mainly using Boeing's Jetfoil. Also services Shenzhen, Guangzhou and Kowloon. Operated by Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited. Cometa service between Nijneangarsk and Irkutsk on the Lake Baikal. Cometa service between Vladivostok and Slavyanka. Meteor service between Saint Petersburg, Russia and the Peterhof, a summer palace of Russian tsars. Meteor service between Saint Petersburg, Russia and the Kronstadt, a strongly fortified Russian seaport town, located on Kotlin Island, near the head of the Gulf of Finland. It lies thirty kilometers west of Saint Petersburg. Meteor, Raketa and Voskhod hydrofoil types operate all over Volga, Don and Kama Rivers in Russia. Also the Lena River and Amur River. Meteor hydrofoils are operated by a number of tour operators in Croatia, mostly for packaged tours, but there are also some scheduled services to islands in Adriatic. Hydrofoils are regularly operated on the three major Italian Lakes by branches of Ministry Of Transportation: Navigazione Lago Maggiore services routes on the Lake Maggiore between Locarno and Arona, Navigazione Lago di Como services routes on the Lake Como and Navigazione Lago di Garda services routes on the Lake Garda. Three units of the Rodriquez RHS150 type operate on each lake, for a total of nine hydrofoils. Navigazione Lago di Como still operates the last Rodriquez RHS70 in active service in Italy. Former Russian hydrofoils are used in southern Italy for connection with islands of Lazio and Campania. SNAV has 5 RHS200, RHS160 and RHS150 used in the connections between Naples and the islands of Capri and Ischia. Regular hydrofoil service from Istanbul to Yalova. Fast Flying Ferries operated by Connexxion, provides a regular public transport service over the North Sea Canal between Amsterdam Central Station and Velsen-Zuid in The Netherlands, using Voskhod 2M hydrofoils. Hellenic Seaways operate their Flying Dolphins service over many routes in the Aegean, between the Cycladic islands, Saronic Gulf islands such as Aegina and Poros and Athens. Meteor (2), Polesye (4) and Voskhod (3) hydrofoil types operate in Hungary. MAHART PassNave Ltd. operates scheduled hydrofoil liners between Budapest, Bratislava and Vienna, inland liners between Budapest and the Danube Bend, and theme cruises to Komárom, Solt, Kalocsa and Mohács. Russian hydrofoils of the Kometa type operated on the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast connecting Varna, Nesebar, Burgas, Sozopol, Primorsko, and Tsarevo, and Raketa and Meteor models served the Bulgarian Danube ports between Rousse and Vidin. Both services were discontinued in the 1990s but may be reopened. Vietnamese Greenline Company operates hourly shuttle service between Ho Chi Minh city, Vung Tau and Con Dao island. Hydrofoil lines using the Russian-built Meteor type also connect Hai Phong, Ha Long and Mong Cai in North Vietnam, Phan Thiet and Phu Quy Island and between Rach Gia and Phu Quoc Island in the South. The service between Busan, South Korea and Fukuoka, Japan is operated by the two companies. Japanese JR Kyūshū Jet Ferry operates Beetle five times a day. Korean Miraejet operates Kobee three to four times a day. All of their fleets are Boeing 929. As of February 2008, all of the commercial lines in Japan use Boeing 929. The routes include: Sado Kisen operates the route between Sado and Niigata. Tōkai Kisen operates Seven Island, running between Tokyo and Izu Islands, via Tateyama or Yokosuka. The destinations include Izu Ōshima, Toshima, Niijima, Shikinejima, and Kōzushima. The same ship also liks Atami and Izu Ōshima. Kyūshū Yūsen operates the route between Fukuoka, Iki, and the two ports of Tsushima. Kyūshū Shōsen operates the route between Nagasaki and the two of Gotō Islands, namely Fukuejima and Nakadōrijima. Kagoshima Shōsen and Cosmo Line operate the various routes between Kagoshima and Tanegashima or Yakushima. Gallery See also Raketa (hydrofoil) Boeing hydrofoils Riverboat Hydroplaning Sailing hydrofoil Sit-down hydrofoil Flyak: hydrofoil kayak Hysucat Disco Volante (ship) The Hydrofoil Mystery (historical fiction) External links Flying Dolphin XXI 3d model Limitations of hydrofoils Boeing's Jetfoil Turbojet - Hong Kong to Macau Ferry Human-Powered-Hydrofoils.com Hydroptère Experimental sail powered hydrofoil The International Hydrofoil Society Classic Fast Ferries Magazine Kawasaki Jetfoil Rodriquez Cantieri Navali Directory of Soviet-made hydrofoils Feodosia shipbuilding company Morye Volga Shipyard Marine Technology Development Ltd. 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5,912 | John_William_Polidori | John William Polidori (7 September 1795 – 24 August 1821) was an Italian-English physician and writer, known for his associations with the Romantic movement and credited by some as the creator of the vampire genre of fantasy fiction. His most successful work was the 1819 novel The Vampyre, the first vampire story in English. Family John William Polidori was the oldest son of Gaetano Polidori, an Italian political émigré scholar, and Anna Maria Pierce, a governess. He had three brothers and four sisters. His sister Frances Polidori married exiled Italian scholar Gabriele Rossetti, and so John is the uncle of Maria Francesca Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Michael Rossetti and Christina Rossetti, though they were born after his death. Biography Polidori was one of the earliest pupils at recently established Ampleforth College from 1804, and in 1810 went up to the University of Edinburgh, where he wrote a thesis on sleepwalking and received his degree as a doctor of medicine on 1 August 1815 at the age of 19. In 1816 Dr. Polidori entered Lord Byron's service as his personal physician, and accompanied Byron on a trip through Europe. At the Villa Diodati, a house Byron rented by Lake Geneva in Switzerland, the pair met with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, and her husband-to-be, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and their companion (Mary's stepsister) Claire Clairmont. One night in June, after the company had read aloud from the Tales of the Dead, a collection of horror tales, Byron suggested that they each write a ghost story. Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote "A Fragment of a Ghost Story" and wrote down five ghost stories recounted by Matthew Gregory Lewis published posthumously as the "Journal at Geneva (including ghost stories) and on return to England, 1816", the journal entries beginning on August 18, 1816. Mary Shelley worked on a tale that would later evolve into Frankenstein. Byron wrote (and quickly abandoned) a fragment of a story, "Fragment of a Novel", about the main character Augustus Darvell, which Polidori used later as the basis for his own tale, "The Vampyre", the first vampire story published in English. Dismissed by Byron, Polidori travelled in Italy and then returned to England. His story, "The Vampyre", which featured the main character Lord Ruthven, was published in the April 1819 issue of New Monthly Magazine without his permission. Whilst in London he lived on Great Pulteney Street (Soho). Much to both his and Byron's chagrin, "The Vampyre" was released as a new work by Byron. Byron even released his own Fragment of a Novel in an attempt to clear up the mess, but, for better or worse, "The Vampyre" continued to be attributed to him. His long, Byron-influenced theological poem The Fall of the Angels, was published anonymously in 1821. He died in London on August 1821, weighed down by depression and gambling debts. Despite strong evidence that he committed suicide by means of prussic acid, the coroner gave a verdict of death by natural causes. Post mortem His sister Charlotte made a transcription of his Diaries, but censored "peccant passages" and destroyed the original. Based only on the transcription, The Diary of John Polidori was edited by William Michael Rossetti and first published in 1911 by Elkin Mathews (London). A reprint of this book, The diary of Dr. John William Polidori, 1816, relating to Byron, Shelley, etc was published by Folcroft Library Editions (Folcroft, Pa.) in 1975. Another reprint by the same title was printed by Norwood Editions (Norwood, Pa.) in 1978. A number of films have depicted John Polidori and the genesis of the Frankenstein and "Vampyre" stories in 1816: Gothic directed by Ken Russell (1986), Haunted Summer directed by Ivan Passer (1988) and Remando al viento (English title: Rowing with the Wind) directed by Gonzalo Suárez (1988). He also appears as a minor and unsympathetic character in the Tim Powers horror novel The Stress of Her Regard (1989), in which Polidori does not write about vampires but becomes directly involved with them. His name was also used for a character in a television movie adaptation of Mary Shelley's novel: Frankenstein: The True Story directed by Jack Smight (1973). Dr. John Polidori was the antagonist of "The Post-Modern Prometheus," an X-Files episode from the fifth season; he was portrayed by John O'Hurley. Paul West's novel "Lord Byron's Doctor" (1989) is a recreation, and ribald fictionalization, of Polidori's diaries. West memorably depicts him as a literary groupie whose attempts to emulate Byron eventually unhinge and destroy him. Polidori is a central character in the novel Gothic Romance (or Bravoure in the original French edition) by Emmanuel Carrère which, amongst other things, presents a fictionalised account of the events of 1816. Polidori is also the 'hero' of the novel Imposture (2007) by Benjamin Markovits. Polidori is a central character in Peter Ackroyd's novel The Casebook of Victor Frankenstein. Works A Medical Inaugural Dissertation which deals with the disease called Oneirodynia, for the degree of Medical Doctor, Edinburgh (1815) On the Punishment of Death (1816) An Essay Upon the Source of Positive Pleasure (1818) The Vampyre: A Tale (1819) Ernestus Berchtold; or, The Modern Oedipus: A Tale (1819) Ximenes, The Wreath and Other Poems (1819) The Fall of the Angels: A Sacred Poem (1821) The Diary of Dr. John William Polidori (1816) Sketches Illustrative Of The Manners And Costumes Of France, Switzerland And Italy( 1821) Sources Nigel Leask, "Polidori, John William (1795–1821)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 30 April 2006 References Further reading Christopher Frayling Vampyres: Lord Byron to Count Dracula (1992) ISBN 0-571-16792-6 Emmanuel Carrère Gothic Romance, orig. Bravoure (1984) ISBN 0-684-19199-7 External links The text of "The Vampyre" can be found at http://gothic.vei.net/lordruthven/rvampyre1.htm Project Gutenberg's E-Text of "The Vampyre" The Polidori Files The web's first link portal devoted entirely to John William Polidori, author of "The Vampyre". Polidori at Ampleforth College The Spanish Short Movie "The Vampyre by John W. Polidori", starred by Paul Naschy, can be seen here | John_William_Polidori |@lemmatized john:12 william:8 polidori:23 september:1 august:4 italian:3 english:4 physician:2 writer:1 know:1 association:1 romantic:1 movement:1 credit:1 creator:1 vampire:4 genre:1 fantasy:1 fiction:1 successful:1 work:4 novel:9 vampyre:11 first:4 story:10 family:1 old:1 son:1 gaetano:1 political:1 émigré:1 scholar:2 anna:1 maria:2 pierce:1 governess:1 three:1 brother:1 four:1 sister:3 france:2 marry:1 exiled:1 gabriele:1 rossetti:6 uncle:1 francesca:1 dante:1 gabriel:1 michael:2 christina:1 though:1 bear:1 death:3 biography:2 one:2 early:1 pupil:1 recently:1 establish:1 ampleforth:2 college:2 go:1 university:2 edinburgh:2 write:6 thesis:1 sleepwalking:1 receive:1 degree:2 doctor:3 medicine:1 age:1 dr:4 enter:1 lord:4 byron:14 service:1 personal:1 accompany:1 trip:1 europe:1 villa:1 diodati:1 house:1 rent:1 lake:1 geneva:2 switzerland:2 pair:1 meet:1 mary:4 wollstonecraft:1 godwin:1 husband:1 percy:2 bysshe:2 shelley:5 companion:1 stepsister:1 claire:1 clairmont:1 night:1 june:1 company:1 read:2 aloud:1 tale:6 dead:1 collection:1 horror:2 suggest:1 ghost:4 fragment:4 five:1 recount:1 matthew:1 gregory:1 lewis:1 publish:6 posthumously:1 journal:2 include:1 return:2 england:2 entry:1 begin:1 would:1 later:2 evolve:1 frankenstein:4 quickly:1 abandon:1 main:2 character:6 augustus:1 darvell:1 use:2 basis:1 dismiss:1 travel:1 italy:2 feature:1 ruthven:1 april:2 issue:1 new:2 monthly:1 magazine:1 without:1 permission:1 whilst:1 london:3 live:1 great:1 pulteney:1 street:1 soho:1 much:1 chagrin:1 release:2 even:1 attempt:2 clear:1 mess:1 good:1 bad:1 continue:1 attribute:1 long:1 influenced:1 theological:1 poem:3 fall:2 angel:2 anonymously:1 die:1 weigh:1 depression:1 gambling:1 debt:1 despite:1 strong:1 evidence:1 commit:1 suicide:1 mean:1 prussic:1 acid:1 coroner:1 give:1 verdict:1 natural:1 cause:1 post:2 mortem:1 charlotte:1 make:1 transcription:2 diary:5 censor:1 peccant:1 passage:1 destroy:2 original:2 base:1 edit:1 elkin:1 mathews:1 reprint:2 book:1 relate:1 etc:1 folcroft:2 library:1 edition:3 pa:2 another:1 title:2 print:1 norwood:2 number:1 film:1 depict:2 genesis:1 gothic:4 direct:4 ken:1 russell:1 haunt:1 summer:1 ivan:1 passer:1 remando:1 al:1 viento:1 rowing:1 wind:1 gonzalo:1 suárez:1 also:3 appear:1 minor:1 unsympathetic:1 tim:1 power:1 stress:1 regard:1 become:1 directly:1 involve:1 name:1 television:1 movie:2 adaptation:1 true:1 jack:1 smight:1 antagonist:1 modern:2 prometheus:1 x:1 file:2 episode:1 fifth:1 season:1 portray:1 hurley:1 paul:2 west:2 recreation:1 ribald:1 fictionalization:1 memorably:1 literary:1 groupie:1 whose:1 emulate:1 eventually:1 unhinge:1 central:2 romance:2 bravoure:2 french:1 emmanuel:2 carrère:2 amongst:1 thing:1 present:1 fictionalised:1 account:1 event:1 hero:1 imposture:1 benjamin:1 markovits:1 peter:1 ackroyd:1 casebook:1 victor:1 medical:2 inaugural:1 dissertation:1 deal:1 disease:1 call:1 oneirodynia:1 punishment:1 essay:1 upon:1 source:2 positive:1 pleasure:1 ernestus:1 berchtold:1 oedipus:1 ximenes:1 wreath:1 sacred:1 sketch:1 illustrative:1 manner:1 costume:1 nigel:1 leask:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 national:1 press:1 access:1 reference:1 far:1 christopher:1 frayling:1 vampyres:1 count:1 dracula:1 isbn:2 orig:1 external:1 link:2 text:2 find:1 http:1 vei:1 net:1 lordruthven:1 htm:1 project:1 gutenberg:1 e:1 web:1 portal:1 devote:1 entirely:1 author:1 spanish:1 short:1 w:1 star:1 naschy:1 see:1 |@bigram william_polidori:5 anna_maria:1 dante_gabriel:1 gabriel_rossetti:1 christina_rossetti:1 lord_byron:3 geneva_switzerland:1 mary_wollstonecraft:1 wollstonecraft_godwin:1 percy_bysshe:2 bysshe_shelley:2 claire_clairmont:1 read_aloud:1 publish_posthumously:1 mary_shelley:2 commit_suicide:1 post_mortem:1 fictionalised_account:1 peter_ackroyd:1 victor_frankenstein:1 external_link:1 project_gutenberg:1 |
5,913 | Evolutionism | Evolutionism refers to doctrines of evolution, specifically to a widely held 19th century belief that organisms are intrinsically bound to improve themselves, and that changes are progressive and arise through inheritance of acquired characters, as in Lamarckism. The belief was extended to include cultural evolution and social evolution. The term is sometimes also used to refer to acceptance of the modern evolutionary synthesis, a scientific theory that describes the causes of biological evolution. In addition, the term is used in a broader sense as a world-view covering a wide variety of topics, including chemical evolution as an alternative term for abiogenesis or for nucleosynthesis of chemical elements, galaxy formation and evolution, stellar evolution, spiritual evolution, technological evolution and universal evolution, which seeks to explain every aspect of the world in which we live. In the creation-evolution controversy, creationists often call those who accept the validity of the modern evolutionary synthesis "evolutionists" and the theory itself as "evolutionism." Some creationists and creationist organizations, such as the Institute of Creation Research, use these terms in an effort to make it appear that evolutionary biology is a form of secular religion. Nineteenth-century usage Before the 19th century there were a number of hypotheses regarding the evolution of all material phenomena: suns, moons, planets, earth, life, civilization, and society. The number of hypotheses being propounded increased dramatically in the middle of the 19th century. The term evolution was popularised during the 19th century by Herbert Spencer to mean cultural evolution; i.e. the increasing complexity of cultures (see History of the theory of cultural evolution) — it was only later that it acquired its biological meaning. Anthropologists and biologists refer to "evolutionists" in the 19th century as those who believed that the cultures or life forms being studied are evolving to a particular form (see Platonic form). This original theory of evolution was seen as pseudo-science by its contemporaries, similar in standing as phrenology. Very few scientists today, if any, believe that evolution in culture or biology works that way, and serious discussions generally take caution to distance themselves from that perspective. Evolutionary biology explains biotic changes in terms of internal processes and gradual development as a natural progression of previously existing lifeforms. Evolution neither denies nor requires a role for divine intervention. Modern usage In modern times, the term evolution is widely used, but the terms evolutionism and evolutionist are rarely used in scientific circles to refer to the biological discipline. The Institute for Creation Science, however, in order to treat evolution as a category of religions, including atheism, fascism, humanism and occultism, commonly uses the words evolutionism and evolutionist to describe the consensus of mainstream science and the scientists subscribing to it, thus implying through language that the issue is a matter of religious belief. The basis of this argument is to establish that the creation-evolution controversy is essentially one of interpretation of evidence, without any overwhelming proof (beyond current scientific theories) on either side. Creationists tend to use the term evolutionism in order to suggest that the theory of evolution and creationism are equal in a philosophical debate. The terms "evolutionism" and "evolutionist" are rarely used in the scientific community as self-descriptive terms. See also Darwinism Scientism Notes References Carneiro, Robert, Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History ISBN 0-8133-3766-6 (on the applicability of this notion to the study of social evolution). Review of Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise, The Times Tuesday, November 15, 1836; pg. 3; Issue 16261; col E. ("annihilates the doctrine of spontaneous and progressive evolution of life, and its impious corollary, chance") Review of Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals The Times Friday, December 13, 1872; pg. 4; Issue 27559; col A. ("His [Darwin's] thorough-going 'evolutionism' tends to eliminate...") Ruse, Michael. 2003. Is Evolution a Secular Religion? Science 299:1523-1524 (concluding that evolutionary biology is not a religion in any sense but noting that several evolutionary biologists, such as Edward O. Wilson, in their roles as citizens concerned about getting the public to deal with reality, have made statements like "evolution is a myth that is now ready to take over Christianity"). 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5,914 | Politics_of_Brazil | Politics of Brazil takes place in a framework of a. federal presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Brazil is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Congress. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Brazil is divided into 27 states, including the Federal District. Government of Brazil Executive branch |President |Luis Ignácio "Lula" da Silva |Worker's Party |1 January 2003 |- |Vice-President |José Alencar Gomes da Silva |elected by the Liberal Party, now in the Brazilian Republican Party |1 January 2003 |} The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government, made up of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president holds office for four years, with the right to re-election for an additional four-year term, and appoints his own cabinet. Legislative branch The bicameral National Congress or Congresso Nacional consists of the Federal Senate or Senado Federal, which has 81 seats—three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period; and the Chamber of Deputies or Câmara dos Deputados, which has 513 seats; deputies are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms. There are no limits on the number of terms one may serve for either chamber of the legislature. The seats are allotted proportionally to each state's population, but each state is eligible for a minimum of eight seats and a maximum of 70 seats. The result is a system weighted in favor of smaller states. Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. Since it is common for politicians to switch parties, the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly.Citation Needed Judicial branch Brazilian jurisdiction courts function under civil law and adversarial system. The Judicial branch is organized in states' and federal systems with different jurisdictions. The judges of the courts of first instance take office after public competitive examination. The second instance judges are promoted among the first instance judges. The Justices of the superior courts are appointed by the president for life and approved by the Senate. All the judges and justices must be graduated in law. Brazilian judges must retire at the age of 70. States' judicial branch The states are divided into judicial districts named comarcas, which are composed of one or more cities. Each comarca has at least one court of first instance. There are specialized courts of first instance for family litigation or bankruptcy in some cities and states. Judgments from theses district courts can be the subject of judicial review following appeals to the courts of second instance. Judgments of courts of first instance are usually made by only one judge. The Brazilian judiciary system uses jury trials only for judging crimes against the person. In all Brazilian states, there is one court of second instance, named the Justice Tribunal (Tribunal de Justiça in Portuguese). Some states, as São Paulo and Minas Gerais, used to have Courts of Appeals (Tribunal de Alçada) too, but with different jurisdictions. The highest court of a state is the Justice Tribunal. Second instance judgments are usually made by three judges, who, in the Justice Tribunals, are named desembargadores. Federal judicial branch The national territory is divided into five regions, which are composed of one or more states. Each region is divided in Judiciary Sections (Seções Judiciárias in Portuguese) with a territory that may not correspond to the states' comarcas. The Judiciary Sections has federal courts of first instance and each region has a Federal Regional Tribunal (Tribunal Regional Federal) as a court of second instance. There is a special federal court system for labor litigations called Labor Justice (Justiça do Trabalho) with its own courts. Superior Courts There are two national superior courts that grant writs of certiorari in civil and criminal cases: the Superior Justice Tribunal (Superior Tribunal de Justiça, STJ) and the federal supreme court, called the Supreme Federal Tribunal (). The STJ grants a Special Appeal (Recurso Especial) when a judgement of a court of second instance offends a federal statute disposition or when two or more second instance courts make different rulings on the same federal statute. There are parallel courts for labor law, electoral law and military law. The STF grants Extraordinary Appeals (Recurso Extraordinário) when judgements of second instance courts violate the constitution. The STF is the last instance for the writ of habeas corpus and for reviews of judgments from the STJ. The superior courts do not analyze any factual questions in their judgments, but only the application of the law and the constitution. Facts and evidences are judged by the courts of second instance, except in specific cases such as writs of habeas corpus. Constitution Brazil has had seven constitutions: Constitution of 1824 – the first Brazilian constitution, enacted by Dom Pedro I. It was monarchic, hereditary and highly centralized, permitting the vote only to property-holders. Constitution of 1891 – the republic was proclaimed in 1889, but a new constitution was not promulgated until 1891. This federalist, democratic constitution was heavily influenced by the U.S. model. However, women and illiterates were not permitted to vote. Constitution of 1934 – when Getúlio Vargas came to power in 1930, he canceled the 1891 constitution and did not permit a new one until 1934. The Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932 forced Vargas to enact a new democratic constitution that permitted women's suffrage. Getúlio Vargas was elected president by the Constitutional Assembly to a four-year term, beginning in 1933. Constitution of 1937 – Getúlio Vargas suppressed a Communist uprising in 1935 and used it as a pretext to establish autocratic rule. He instituted a corporatist constitution nicknamed the polish, written by Francisco Campos. Constitution of 1946 – after a military coup ousted dictatorial Getúlio Vargas, an Assembly wrote a democratic constitution. Constitution of 1967 – after the 1964 coup d'État against João Goulart, the military dictatorship passed the Institutional Acts, a supraconstitutional law. This strongly undemocratic constitution simply incorporated these Acts. Constitution of 1988 – the progressive redemocratization culminated in the current constitution. Very democratic, it is more expansive than a normal constitution – many statutory acts in other countries are written into this constitution, like Social Security and taxes. Political parties and elections As of October 2007, 9.3% of a Brazilian voters were affiliated to a political party. VERMELHO .:: A esquerda bem informada :: Political pressure groups and leaders The left wing of the Catholic Church, the Landless Workers' Movement, and labor unions pressure the government for more intense reforms on taxation and landed property, while the rightist DEM party is critical of the government's social and economic policies. States and municipalities Brazil is divided into two types of subnational units: states and municipalities. States The 26 Brazilian states are semi-autonomous self-governing entities organized with complete administration branches, relative financial independence and their own set of symbols, similar to those owned by the country itself. Despite their relative autonomy they all have the same model of administration, as set by the Constitution. States hold elections every four years and exercise a considerable amount of power. The 1988 constitution allows states to keep their own taxes, and mandates regular allocation of a share of the taxes collected locally by the federal government. The Executive role is held by the Governador (Governor) and his appointed Secretários (Secretaries); the Legislative role is held by the Assembléia Legislativa (Legislative Assembly); and the Judiciary role, by the Tribunal de Justiça (Justice Tribunal). The governors and the members of the assemblies are elected, but the members of the Judiciary are appointed by the governor from a list provided by the current members of the State Law Court containing only judges (these are chosen by merit in exams open to anyone with a Law degree). The name chosen by the governor must be approved by the Assembly before inauguration. The 1988 Constitution has granted the states the greatest amount of autonomy since the Old Republic. Each of the 26 state governors must achieve more than 50 per cent of the vote, including a second round run-off between the top two candidates if necessary. In contrast to the federal level, state legislatures are unicameral, although the deputies are elected through similar means, involving an open-list system in which the state serves as one constituency. State level elections occur at the same time as those for the presidency and Congress. In 2002, candidates from eight different parties won the gubernatorial contest while 28 parties are represented in the country’s state legislatures. The last set of elections took place in 2006. The most important Brazilian states (in terms of population and economic power) are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Rio Grande do Sul, Paraná, Bahia, Pernambuco and Santa Catarina. Municipalities Brazil has no clear distinction between towns and cities (in effect, the Portuguese word cidade means both). The only possible difference is regarding the municipalities that have a court of first instance and those that do not. The former are called Sedes de Comarca (seats of a comarca, which is the territory under the rule of that court). Other than that, only size and importance differs one from another. The municipality (município) is a territory comprising one urban area, the sede (seat), from which it takes the name, and several other minor urban or rural areas, the distritos (districts). The seat of a municipality must be the most populous urban area within it; when another urban area grows too much it usually splits from the original municipality to form another one. A municipality is relatively autonomous: it enacts its own "constitution", which is called organic law (Lei Orgânica), and it is allowed to collect taxes and fees, to maintain a municipal police force (albeit with very restricted powers), to pass laws on any matter that do not contradict either the state or the national constitutions, and to create symbols for itself (like a flag, an anthem and a coat-of-arms). However, not all municipalities exercise all of this autonomy. For instance, only a few municipalities keep local police forces, some of them do not collect some taxes (to attract investors or residents) and many of them do not have a flag (although they are all required to have a coat-of-arms). Municipalities are governed by an elected prefeito (Mayor) and a unicameral Câmara de Vereadores (Councillors' Chamber). In municipalities with more than 200,000 voters, the Mayor must be elected by more than 50% of the valid vote. The executive power is called Prefeitura. Brazilian municipalities can vary widely in area and population. The municipality of Altamira, in the State of Pará, with 161,445.9 square kilometres of area, is larger than many countries in the world. Several Brazilian municipalities have over 1,000,000 inhabitants, with São Paulo, at more than 9,000,000, being the most populous. Until 1974 Brazil had one state-level municipality, the State of Guanabara, now merged with the State of Rio de Janeiro, which comprised the city of Rio de Janeiro solely. The Federal District The Federal District is an anomalous unit of the federation, as it is not organized the same manner as a municipality, does not possess the same autonomy as a state (though usually ranked among them), and is closely related to the central power. It is considered a single and indivisible entity, constituted by the seat (Brasilia) and some urban districts (the so-called satellite cities). Satellite cities are created (in law) and governed directly by the Governor of the Federal District, and possess no true identity. International organization participation African Development Bank, Customs Cooperation Council, United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Food and Agriculture Organization, Group of 11, Group of 15, Group of 19, Group of 24, Group of 77, Inter-American Development Bank, International Atomic Energy Agency, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), International Civil Aviation Organization, International Chamber of Commerce, International Criminal Court, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Development Association, International Fund for Agricultural Development, International Finance Corporation, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, International Hydrographic Organization, International Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, Inmarsat, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, Interpol, International Olympic Committee, International Organization for Migration (observer), International Organization for Standardization, International Telecommunication Union, International Trade Union Confederation, Latin American Economic System, Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración, Mercosur, Non-Aligned Movement (observer), Nuclear Suppliers Group, Organization of American States, Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean, Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, Permanent Court of Arbitration, Rio Group, United Nations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka, United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor, United Nations University, Universal Postal Union, World Federation of Trade Unions, World Health Organization, World Intellectual Property Organization, World Meteorological Organization, World Tourism Organization, World Trade Organization History Throughout its history, Brazil has struggled to build a democratic and egalitarian society, despite its origins as a plantation colony and the strong influence of slavery. Empire In 1822 the Prince Pedro de Alcântara, son of Portuguese King, D. João VI, proclaimed the independence. He was the first Emperor (Pedro I) until his resignation in 1831 in favor of his elder son. Due to his young age (five years) a regency was established and the country had its first elections, though vote was still restricted to a minority of the population. Old Republic In 1889, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca declared the republic, by a coup d'état. Until 1930, Brazilian republic was formally a democracy, although the power was concentrated in the hands of powerful land owners. Vargas years In 1930, a bloodless coup led Getúlio Vargas to power. For about 15 years, he controlled the country's politics, with a brief three-year constitutional interregnum from 1934 to 1937. A longer, heavier regime, the (Estado Novo) had loose ties with European fascism and spanned the years 1938 to 1945. Populist years Like most of Latin America, Brazil experienced times of political instability after the Second World War. When Vargas was ousted from the presidency in another bloodless coup d'état, in 1945, a new and modern constitution was passed and the country had its first experience with an effective and widespread democracy. But the mounting tension between populist politicians (like Vargas himself and, later, Janio Quadros) and the right led to a crisis that ultimately brought up the military coup d'état in 1964, now known to have been supported by the Central Intelligence Agency. Military dictatorship In 1964 a military-led coup d'état deposed the democratically-elected president of Brazil, João Goulart. Between 1964 and 1985, Brazil was governed by the military, with a two-party system, with a pro-government National Renewal Alliance Party (ARENA) and an opposition Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB). Thousands of politicians (including former president Juscelino Kubitschek) had their political rights suspended, and military-sanctioned indirect elections were held for most elected positions until political liberalization during the government of João Figueiredo. New Republic (1985-1990) In 1985, the military were defeated in an election according to the scheme they had set up—as a consequence of the loss of political support among the elites. The opposition candidate, Tancredo Neves, was elected President, but did not take office before he died of natural causes. Fearing a political vacuum—that might stifle the democratic effort—Neves' supporters urged vice-president, José Sarney to take the oath and govern the country. Tancredo Neves had said that his election and the demise of military régime would create a "New Republic" and Sarney's term of government is often referred to by this name. Sarney's government was disastrous in almost every field. The ongoing economic recession and the soaring external debt drained the country's assets while ravaging inflation (which later turned into hyperinflation) demonetized the currency and prevented any stability. In an attempt to revolutionize the economy and defeat inflation, Sarney carried on an ambitious "heterodox" economic plan (Cruzado) in 1986, which included price controls, default on the external debts and reduction of salaries. The plan seemed successful for some months, but it soon caused wholesale shortages of consumer goods (especially of easily exportable goods like meat, milk, automobiles, grains, sugar and alcohol) and the appearance of a black market in which such goods were sold for higher prices. Sarney used the popularity ensued by the apparent success of the plan to secure the hugest electoral win in Brazilian history: the party he had just joined, Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB), won 26 out of 27 states and more than 3,000 municipalities. Just after the elections, Sarney's "corrections" to the economy failed to control inflation and the public perception that he had used an artificial control of inflation to win the elections proved to be his undoing: he never recovered his popularity and was plagued by strong criticism from most sectors of society until the end of his term. Despite popular rejection, Sarney managed to extend his term from four to five years and exerted pressure on the Constitutional Assembly that was drafting the new constitution to abort the adoption of Parliamentarism. Collor government (1990-1992) In 1989 Fernando Collor de Mello was elected president for the term from 1990-1994. The elections were marked by unanimous condemnation of José Sarney, with all candidates trying to keep distance from him. Collor made some very bold statements, like saying that the Brazilian industry (of which the Brazilians used to be very proud) was mostly obsolete and polluting or that defaulting the debt was equal to not paying the rent. He also took quite revolutionary measures, like reducing the number of ministries to only 12 and naming Zélia Cardoso de Mello Minister of Economy (the highest position so far enjoyed by a woman in Brazil) or removing existing barriers to importing of goods. His inflation control plan was based on an attempt to control prices and a complicated currency conversion process that prevented people from cashing their bank accounts for 18 months. All of this made him quite unpopular and denied him support in the parliament that he needed since his own party held few seats. At the beginning of his third year in office, he resigned as a result of in a huge corruption scandal. The charges against him would later be dropped, some on mere technicalities, some for actually being irrelevant or false. Collor desperately tried to resist impeachment by rallying the support of the youth and of the lower classes, but his call for help was answered by massive popular demonstrations, led mostly by students, demanding his resignation. Itamar government (1992-1994) In 1992, the vice-president, Itamar Franco, took office as president and managed to evade the most feared consequences of Collor's downfall. He had to face a country with hyper-inflation, high levels of misery and unemployment. Far-left organizations were trying to turn the anti-Collor campaign into a wider revolutionary fight to overthrow the regime. Itamar finally granted full powers to his Minister of Economy, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, so the minister could launch the Plano Real, a new economic plan that seemed to be just the same as the many unsuccessful plans launched by Sarney, Collor and their military predecessor. But the Real was a success, and terminated inflation in a few months. FHC government (1995-2003) In 1994, Cardoso launched his Plano Real, a successful economic reform that managed to permanently rid the country of the excessive inflation that had plagued it for more than forty years. The plan consisted of replacing the discredited old currency (cruzeiro and cruzeiro real) and pegging its value temporarily to the United States dollar. Inflation – which had become a fact of Brazilian life – was cut dramatically, a change that the Brazilians took years to get used to. Because of the success of Plano Real, Cardoso was chosen by his party to run for president and, with the strong support of Franco, eventually won, beating Luis Inácio Lula da Silva, who had emerged as the favorite only one year earlier. Cardoso's term was marked by other major changes in Brazilian politics and economy. Public services and state-owned companies were privatized (some for values supposedly too cheap according to his adversaries), the strong real made it easy to import goods, forcing Brazilian industry to modernize and compete (which had the side effect of causing many of them to be bought by foreign companies). During his first term, a constitutional amendment was passed to enable a sitting Executive chief to run for re-election, after which he again beat Lula in 1998. Lula government (2003-present) Meeting of the Cabinet of Luis Ignácio "Lula" da Silva in the Oval Room, Palácio do Planalto, 2007 In 2002, at his fourth attempt, Lula was elected president. In part his victory was derived from the considerable unpopularity of Cardoso's second term, which failed to decrease the economic inequality, and in part from a softening of his and the party's radical stance, including a vice-presidential candidate from the Liberal Party, acceptance of an International Monetary Fund (IMF) accord agreed to by the previous government and a line of discourse friendly to the financial markets. Despite some achievements in solving part of the country's biggest problems, his term was plagued by multiple corruption scandals that rocked his cabinet, forcing some members to resign their posts. In 2006 Lula regained part of his popularity and ran for re-election. After almost winning on the first round, he won the run-off against Geraldo Alckmin from the Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), by a margin of 20 million votes. See also Brazil Brazilian general election, 2006 Café com leite. ,.n.n.* Coronelismo History of Brazil Integralism Regional Electoral Courts Supreme Electoral Court (Brazil) References External links Global Integrity Report: Brazil reports on anti-corruption efforts | Politics_of_Brazil |@lemmatized politics:3 brazil:17 take:9 place:2 framework:1 federal:21 presidential:2 representative:1 democratic:9 republic:8 whereby:1 president:15 head:2 state:39 government:17 multi:1 party:21 system:9 executive:7 power:12 exercise:3 legislative:5 vest:1 two:7 chamber:5 national:6 congress:4 judiciary:6 independent:1 legislature:4 divide:5 include:5 district:9 branch:8 luis:3 ignácio:2 lula:7 da:5 silva:4 worker:2 january:2 vice:4 josé:3 alencar:1 gomes:1 elect:14 liberal:2 brazilian:23 republican:1 constitution:30 grant:6 broad:1 make:7 judicial:7 hold:7 office:5 four:8 year:19 right:3 election:15 additional:1 term:14 appoint:4 cabinet:3 bicameral:1 congresso:1 nacional:1 consists:1 senate:2 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5,915 | Cassandra | In Greek mythology, Cassandra (, "she who entangles men" This is Robert Graves' etymology. ; also known as Alexandra See Lycophron's poem Alexandra, which was about Cassandra. ) was the daughter of King Priam and Queen Hecuba of Troy. Her beauty caused Apollo to grant her the gift of prophecy. However, when she did not return his love, Apollo placed a curse on her so that no one would ever believe her predictions. History Ajax and Cassandra by Solomon Joseph Solomon, 1886. In an alternative version, she spent a night at Apollo's temple, at which time the temple snakes licked her ears clean so that she was able to hear the future. This is a recurring theme in Greek mythology, though sometimes it brings an ability to understand the language of animals rather than an ability to know the future. Compare Melampus; Athena cleaned the ears of Tiresias Apollo loved Cassandra, and when she did not return his love, he cursed her so that her gift would become a source of endless pain and frustration. In some versions of the myth, this is symbolized by the god spitting into her mouth; in other Greek versions, this act was sufficient to remove the gift so recently given by Apollo, but Cassandra's case varies. From the play Agamemnon, it appears that she made a promise to Apollo to become his consort, but broke it, thus incurring his wrath: though she retained the power of foresight, no one would believe her predictions. Telephus, the son of Heracles, loved Cassandra but she scorned him and instead helped him seduce her sister Laodice. While Cassandra foresaw the destruction of Troy (she warned the Trojans about the Trojan Horse, the death of Agamemnon, and her own demise), she was unable to do anything to forestall these tragedies since they did not believe her. Coroebus and Othronus came to the aid of Troy out of love for Cassandra. Cassandra was also the first to see the body of her brother Hector being brought back to the city. At the fall of Troy, she sought shelter in the temple of Athena, where she was violently abducted and raped by Ajax the Lesser. Cassandra was then taken as a concubine by King Agamemnon of Mycenae. Unbeknownst to Agamemnon, while he was away at war, his wife, Clytemnestra, had begun an affair with Aegisthus. Clytemnestra and Aegisthus then murdered both Agamemnon and Cassandra. Some sources mention that Cassandra and Agamemnon had twin boys, Teledamus and Pelops, both of whom were killed by Aegisthus. Homer. Iliad XXIV, 697-706; Homer. Odyssey XI, 405-434; Aeschylus. Agamemnon; Euripides. Trojan Women; Euripides. Electra; Apollodorus. Bibliotheke III, xii, 5; Apollodorus. Epitome V, 17-22; VI, 23; Virgil. Aeneid II, 246ff; Lycophron. Alexandra Modern adaptations Painting by Evelyn De Morgan. A modern psychological perspective on Cassandra is presented by Eric Shanower in Age of Bronze: Sacrifice. In this version, Cassandra, as a child, is molested by a man pretending to be a god. His warning "No one will believe you!" is one often spoken by abusers to their child victims. A similar situation occurred in Lindsay Clarke's novel The Return from Troy (presented as a reawakened memory), where a priest of Apollo forced himself upon Cassandra and was stopped only when she spat in his mouth. When the priest used his benevolent reputation to convince Priam that he was innocent of her wild claims, Cassandra subsequently went insane. The myth of Cassandra is also retold by German author Christa Wolf in Kassandra. She retells the story from the point of view of Cassandra at the moment of her death and uses the myth as an allegory for both the unheard voice of the woman writer and the oppression and strict censorship laws of East Germany. Ajax taking Cassandra, tondo of a red-figure kylix by the Kodros Painter, ca. 440-430 BC, Louvre Author William Faulkner, in his novel Absalom, Absalom!, writes of Rosa Coldfield, a principal character in the Sutpen Dynasty/Tragedy, and how her "childhood ... consisted of a Cassandra-like listening beyond closed doors", alluding to both mythological concerns that (1) Cassandra was locked away, or behind closed doors (as with Rosa's youth), and (2) that Cassandra's prophecies were true, yet fated to be ignored (as with Rosa's premonitions about Thomas Sutpen and his desire to forge a dynasty). The author Marion Zimmer Bradley wrote a historical novel called Firebrand, which presents a story from Cassandra's point of view. Marcus Sedgwick's novel The Foreshadowing features a protagonist named Alexandra who has the gift of foresight, though she sees mainly others' pain and death. In Clemence McLearn's Inside the Walls of Troy, Cassandra has a strong friendship with Queen Helen of Sparta when she came to Troy with Prince Paris. Cassandra essentially hates Helen but gives in to her unbearable joy and happiness and becomes Helen's "confidante". At the end of the story instead of Cassandra being raped and taken as Agamemnon's "battle prize", she simply joins her two sisters, Polyxena and Laodice, at the temple of Athena. The rest of her story is left untold. In the section Cassandra of Suggestions for Thought to Searchers after Religious Truth, Florence Nightingale protests the over-feminization of women into near helplessness, such as what Nightingale saw in her mother's and older sister's lethargic lifestyle despite their education. The work also reflects her fear of her ideas being ineffective, as were Cassandra's. In Hercules: The Animated Series (presented by Disney), Hercules befriends Icarus and Cassandra at his local high school. Cassandra is also noticed in an acclaimed novel that was originally a comic book written by Greg Rucka: Batman: No Man's Land. In the book she is known as "the future" of weapons. Modern usage righ|Michelangelo's depiction of the Delphic Sibyl, sometimes identified with Cassandra, and therefore with a specific allusion of the author to classical antiquity. (Fresco at the Sistine Chapel). In more modern literature, Cassandra has often served as a model for tragedy and Romance, and has given rise to the archetypal character of someone whose prophetic insight is obscured by insanity, turning their revelations into riddles or disjointed statements that are not fully comprehended until after the fact. Notable examples are the character of River Tam from the science fiction TV series Firefly, the character Cassandra in the TV series The X-Files (she played an alien abductee that nobody took seriously), and the science fiction short story "Cassandra" by C. J. Cherryh. "Cassandra" is the title of an episode of the British sci-fi comedy series Red Dwarf. In it a futuristic computer, Cassandra, is discovered to have the ability to predict the future. She foretells a number of conversations and events which each come true, save for one scene where one character kills another in a jealous rage. It emerges this is a lie to try to punish the killer for his responsibility for her own later death, which Cassandra correctly predicts he accidentally causes. The story in the episode deviates somewhat from myth in that she is not universally disbelieved. The theme of the futility of trying to change the future is explored at several points in the episode. Syrigx's demo EP cover "The Cassandra Syndrome" In the film The Scorpion King, Cassandra is a sorceress who can read the future and is key to the antagonist king's (Memnon) battle victories. Memnon is in love with her, but she eventually leaves him for Mathayus, the protagonist. At first, she claims to lose her foreseeing abilities when sleeping with a man, but it is later revealed, after an intimate night with Mathayus and pretending to lose her abilities, that this was merely pretense to prevent Memnon from taking advantage of her. Cassandra is played by Kelly Hu. In "Help," an episode of the television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer, a young girl named Cassandra "Cassie" Newton foresees her own death despite the attempts of the show's protagonist, Buffy Summers, to prevent it. She also foresees what will happen in Buffy's final battle with one of the show's antagonists, The First, and its army. In the episode "Hourglass" of the sci-fi series Smallville, the plot revolves around an old people's home where one of the residents who was blinded on the day of the meteor shower, Cassandra Carver, can apparently see the future. She also makes reference to the story of Troy when mentioning to Lex Luthor, who had brought her a bunch of flowers, that "It was the Greeks who also brought gifts." The resident also sees Lex's future and his ascendancy to the US Presidency. The Cassandra syndrome is a fictional condition used to describe someone who believes that he or she can see the future but cannot do anything about it. Comic writer Chris Claremont has used this syndrome as the motivation for the villainous actions of mutant terrorists Mystique and Destiny, the latter being a blind precognitive, whose attempts to prevent the destruction of the mutant race at the hands of humanity often lead to further anti-mutant hysteria. The term is also used to denote people who get either good advice on a subject or a warning of impending disaster but fail to heed or even acknowledge it because of its source, or the prejudices of the recipient of the warning. Occasionally people with various psychic (or "psi") abilities use this term when dealing with others who don't want to hear about such things, and don't want to believe in them or accept them either. In Wes Craven and Kevin Williamson's Scream 2, Sidney Prescott, the main character played by Neve Campbell, is a mirror of Cassandra in the sense that she is cursed by forever being susceptible to murder, conspiracy, and being alone, and actually appears in a play within the film titled "Cassandra", where she also plays the lead. During the rest of the trilogy, she has made clear that if it weren't for her, the plot of the movies, and for Sidney, the events in her life, would have never happened, and that continually surviving attacks has made the ones closest to her even more vulnerable to the characteristics that plague her life. Sidney is also seen speaking the line, "You know, I saw it all coming. I knew it wasn't over", referring to the murders in Scream 2. This is a prophecy revealed, a play on the curse that plagued Cassandra. Norwegian gothic metal pioneers Theatre of Tragedy wrote a song about Cassandra on their 1998 album Aégis. German power metal group Blind Guardian featured two songs about Cassandra and the Trojan War on their 2002 album A Night at the Opera, "Under the Ice" and "And Then There Was Silence", the latter of which was the title track of the 2001 "warmup" single for the album. Fear Before the March of Flames released a song on the album The Always Open Mouth titled "Taking Cassandra to the End of the World Party". The musical group ABBA released a song titled "Cassandra" as a B-side to the single, "The Day Before You Came" at the very end of their time as an active group. Anni-Frid Lyngstad has the lead vocal and sings about Cassandra's departure from a town after some unnamed disasters have occurred and her own regret about not believing Cassandra's warnings. The song has been included in subsequent compilation CD releases. In Woody Allen's Mighty Aphrodite, which features several appearances by classical Greek figures, Cassandra appears warning Allen's character not to move to the countryside. As usual, she is not listened to. She makes a later appearances, delivering the following line: "I see disaster. I see catastrophe. Worse, I see lawyers!" She is played by Danielle Ferland. In his 2007 movie Cassandra's Dream the main characters' boat is called "Cassandra's Dream". During the movie many characters have bad dreams. The final sequence is on board the boat. The Melbourne band Something for Kate released the song 'Cassandra Walks The Plank" as a B-side on their single "California" from 2007. Vocalist and guitarist Paul Dempsey later describes the song as a 'Straightforward angry rant' about warning signs in the modern world on their iTunes Originals release. David Murray Black also released a song called "Prophet of Doom" in his CD Sacred Ground about Cassandra. The Crüxshadows sing a song about Cassandra on their 2003 album Ethernaut on their song "Cassandra". The show Hercules: The Animated Series depicts Cassandra (voiced by Sandra Bernhard) as a rather goth teenager who has visions of awful things and is loved by Icarus. American progressive metal group Dream Theater refer to Cassandra fleetingly in a song called "Voices" in which they mock the prophetic message of modern day religion. The plight of Cassandra was a recurring motif in the 1995 film Twelve Monkeys. The character Cassandra Kirschbaum in the 2004 MGM film Saved! is likely named after the Greek Cassandra. Cassandra Kirschbaum is the only Jewish student at the Evangelical Christian high school that serves as the film's setting. Her character fills the role of "truth-teller" at the school, exposing other characters' hypocrisy. Cassandra Kirschbaum also appears in the Off-Broadway musical based on the film. Cassandra is featured as a playable character in the fantasy fighting game, Soul Calibur. Dr. Bocker, in John Wyndham's The Kraken Wakes mentions Cassandra fleetingly in "Phase 2", referring to the aspect of one who predicts the future but goes unheeded, with dire consequences. The quote can be found on page 107 of the 1973 publishing by Penguin Books. In Harry Potter it is revealed that Sybill Trelawney is the distant relative of the great seer and prophetess Cassandra. In the upcoming movie 2012, the character played by Woody Harrelson is a man who prophesies the end of the world and is considered crazy by others. Harrelson compared his character to the mythological Greek figure Cassandra, whose predictions were dismissed. In The Dresden Files by Jim Butcher, a condition called "Cassandra's Tears" gives its victims the gift of foresight, but afflicts them with epilepsy-like symptoms, which often cause their foretellings to be dismissed as hallucinations. The song "Helen and Cassandra" by Al Stewart includes a fairly straightforward reference to the mythological Cassandra. The manga unCassandra from the Monthly Shōnen Rival is named after Cassandra, and features her as a prominent character near the end. Rachel Maddow called Senator Bernie Sanders "the Cassandra of TARP" on her MSNBC show on February 3, 2009. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29013587/ The 2009 film Knowing is a modern day twist of Cassandra with a man who finds a time capsule with predictions, some that have already occurred, and others that are about to. On February 8, 2009, Maureen Dowd, reviewing concerns about U.S. President Barack Obama's early going, wrote "Vice President Joseph Biden, in another Cassandra moment, told House Democrats that even if the White House does everything right, 'there’s still a 30 percent chance we’ll get it wrong.'" "Op-Ed Columnist: Potomac’s Postpartisan Depression" by Maureen Dowd, The New York Times, Feb. 8, 2009, p. WK11, NY edition. Retrieved 2-8-09. While Dowd does not appear to have written a column about Biden's "six months/crisis/test" comments during the campaign "JOE D'OH PUTS O IN 'CRISIS' MODE: SAYS WORLD WOULD TEST YOUNG PREZ" by Carl Campanile in Belton, Mo., and Geoff Earle in Orlando, Fla., New York Post, October 21, 2008. Retrieved 2-8-09. Search of MDowd columns for "Biden." , it would seem that that was the previous moment to which she was referring in Biden's regard. The February 2009 use of Cassandra's name was the 11th by the columnist in 1275 indexed New York Times columns going back to 1995. Search of MDowd columns for "Cassandra." In the next-most-recent citation of Cassandra, Dowd speculated about Hillary Clinton's continued persistence in the '08 primary campaign as maybe "the Cassandra 'I told you so' gambit ... so that no one can blame her when [Obama] loses in November." (For the record, of course, Obama did not lose in November.) "Op-Ed Columnist: She’s Still Here!" by Maureen Dowd, The New York Times, June 4, 2008. Retrieved 2-8-09. Dowd also has cited the extensive Atreus (Agamemnon's father's) family in other analyses of modern Washington politics. Soul Calibur video game series usage for a character that is the daughter of gods. In series five of the UK version of The Apprentice, Margaret Mountford referred to contestant Lorraine Tighe as the "Cassandra", based on the fact that she was regularly correct in her assertions but no one from her team listened to her. Problems Negativity is often attached to Cassandra and her many ideas; her goodness and virtue are not examined as readily as the veractity of her predictions. By means of this 'Cassandra Effect' (see below), we fail to understand her hardship; the reality of her visions, and the partial helplessness she suffers as the result of her curse. 'The Cassandra effect' The Cassandra effect is when a person believes he or she knows the future happening of a catastrophic event, having already seen it in some way, or even experienced it first hand; however, the person knows there is nothing that can be done to stop the event from happening and that nobody will believe it even if he or she tries to tell others. For example, in finance, the more you warn your colleagues about the tail risks—the rare but devastating events that can bring the bank down—the more they roll their eyes, give a yawn and change the subject. This eventually leads to self-censorship. Playing financial chicken, The Economist, Jan 22nd 2009 References Further reading Clarke, Lindsay. The Return from Troy. HarperCollins (2005). ISBN 0-00-715027-X. Marion Zimmer Bradley. The Firebrand. ISBN 0-451-45924-5 Patacsil, Par. Cassandra. In The Likhaan Book of Plays 1997-2003. Villanueva and Nadera, eds. University of the Philippines Press (2006). ISBN 971-542-507-0 Schapira, Laurie L. The Cassandra Complex: Living with Disbelief: A Modern Perspective on Hysteria. Toronto: Inner City Books (1988). ISBN 0-919123-35-X. (This work is mentioned in the Cassandra (Metaphor) page in the Wiki.) 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5,916 | Archipelago | For other uses, see Archipelago (disambiguation) The Mergui Archipelago An archipelago () is a chain or cluster of islands that are formed tectonically. The word archipelago literally means "chief sea", from Italian arcipelago (), derived ultimately from Greek arkhon (arkhi-) ("leader") and pelagos ("sea"). In Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Archipelago (Greek: Αρχιπέλαγος) was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands (since the sea is remarkable for its large number of islands). It is now used to generally refer to any island group or, sometimes, to a sea containing a large number of scattered islands like the Aegean Sea. Types of archipelagos Archipelagos are usually found in the open sea; less commonly, a large land mass may neighbour them. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland. Archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but there are many other processes involved in their construction, including erosion, deposition, and land elevation. The five largest modern countries that are mainly archipelagos are Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and Indonesia (the world's largest archipelagic state according to the CIA World Factbook). The largest archipelago in the world by size is Indonesia.The archipelago with most islands is the Archipelago Sea in Finland, but these islands are generally small. See also Island arc Geography Earth science Geomorphology List of landforms Plate tectonics Island nation Earthsea The World Lists of islands: see List of archipelagos and List of islands References | Archipelago |@lemmatized us:1 see:3 archipelago:13 disambiguation:1 mergui:1 chain:1 cluster:1 island:13 form:2 tectonically:1 word:1 literally:1 mean:1 chief:1 sea:8 italian:2 arcipelago:1 derive:1 ultimately:1 greek:2 arkhon:1 arkhi:1 leader:1 pelagos:1 possibly:1 follow:1 tradition:1 antiquity:1 αρχιπέλαγος:1 proper:1 name:1 aegean:3 later:1 usage:1 shift:1 refer:2 since:1 remarkable:1 large:6 number:2 use:1 generally:2 group:1 sometimes:1 contain:1 scattered:1 like:1 type:1 usually:1 find:1 open:1 le:1 commonly:1 land:2 mass:1 may:1 neighbour:1 example:1 scotland:1 surround:1 mainland:1 often:1 volcanic:1 along:1 arcs:1 generate:1 subduction:1 zone:1 hotspot:1 many:1 process:1 involve:1 construction:1 include:1 erosion:1 deposition:1 elevation:1 five:1 modern:1 country:1 mainly:1 japan:1 philippine:1 new:1 zealand:1 united:1 kingdom:1 indonesia:2 world:4 archipelagic:1 state:1 accord:1 cia:1 factbook:1 size:1 finland:1 small:1 also:1 arc:1 geography:1 earth:1 science:1 geomorphology:1 list:4 landforms:1 plate:1 tectonics:1 nation:1 earthsea:1 reference:1 |@bigram aegean_sea:2 subduction_zone:1 plate_tectonics:1 |
5,917 | Khunjerab_Pass | Snow leopard, an endangered species, is found in the Khunjerab National Park Khunjerab Pass () (el. 4,693 m/15,397 ft.) is a high mountain pass in the Karakorum Mountains on the northern border of Pakistan and the Xinjiang Autonmous Region of China. The name is derived from Wakhi for Blood Valley. Sino-Pakistani Border Crossing The Khunjerab Pass is the highest paved border crossing in the world and the highest point on the Karakoram Highway. The roadway across the pass was completed in 1982, and has superseded the unpaved Mintaka Pass and Kilik Pass as the primary passage across the Karakorum Range. On the Pakistan side, the pass is 125 km from Sust, 270 km from Gilgit and 870 km from Islamabad. There is a security outpost in Dih, and a customs and immigration post near Sust. On the Chinese side, the pass is 130 km from Tashkurgan, 420 km from Kashgar and 1890 km from Urumqi. The Chinese port of entry is located on 1 km from the mountain in Tashkurgan County. The long flat pass is often snow-covered during the winter season and is closed from November 30 to May 1. There is excellent grazing on the Chinese side of the pass, and domesticated yaks and dzu (a cross between yaks and cows) may be seen from the road. On the Pakistani side, the highway travels about 50 km across the extensive Khunjerab National Park before reaching the security outpost of Dih. Since June 1, 2006, there has been a daily bus service across the boundary from Gilgit, Pakistan to Kashghar, China Road widening work has begun on 600 kilometers of the highway. Strategic Position Khunjerab Pass is in a strategic position between Pakistan and China. It is also very close to Indian-administered Kashmir. Railway In 2007, consultants Asia Times Online :: South Asia news : China-Pakistan rail link on horizon were engaged to investigate the construction of a railway through this pass to connect China with Pakistan. Television Khunjerab Pass can be seen in episode 13/30 of the NHK televisioni series The Silk Road. The series was first shown in Japan in the early 1980's. See also Sust Khunjerab National Park Karakoram Highway Northern Areas Footnotes References Curzon, George Nathaniel. 1896. The Pamirs and the Source of the Oxus. Royal Geographical Society, London. Reprint: Elibron Classics Series, Adamant Media Corporation. 2005. ISBN 1-4021-5983-8 (pbk; ISBN 1-4021-3090-2 (hbk). King, John 1989. Karakoram Highway : the high road to China. Hawthorn, Victoria, Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 0-86442-065-X | Khunjerab_Pass |@lemmatized snow:2 leopard:1 endanger:1 specie:1 find:1 khunjerab:7 national:3 park:3 pas:13 el:1 ft:1 high:4 mountain:2 karakorum:2 mountains:1 northern:2 border:3 pakistan:6 xinjiang:1 autonmous:1 region:1 china:6 name:1 derive:1 wakhi:1 blood:1 valley:1 sino:1 pakistani:2 cross:2 paved:1 crossing:1 world:1 point:1 karakoram:3 highway:5 roadway:1 across:4 complete:1 supersede:1 unpaved:1 mintaka:1 kilik:1 primary:1 passage:1 range:1 side:4 km:8 sust:3 gilgit:2 islamabad:1 security:2 outpost:2 dih:2 custom:1 immigration:1 post:1 near:1 chinese:3 tashkurgan:2 kashgar:1 urumqi:1 port:1 entry:1 locate:1 county:1 long:1 flat:1 often:1 cover:1 winter:1 season:1 close:2 november:1 may:2 excellent:1 graze:1 domesticate:1 yak:2 dzu:1 cow:1 see:3 road:4 travel:1 extensive:1 reach:1 since:1 june:1 daily:1 bus:1 service:1 boundary:1 kashghar:1 widen:1 work:1 begin:1 kilometer:1 strategic:2 position:2 also:2 indian:1 administer:1 kashmir:1 railway:2 consultant:1 asia:2 time:1 online:1 south:1 news:1 rail:1 link:1 horizon:1 engage:1 investigate:1 construction:1 connect:1 television:1 episode:1 nhk:1 televisioni:1 series:3 silk:1 first:1 show:1 japan:1 early:1 area:1 footnote:1 reference:1 curzon:1 george:1 nathaniel:1 pamirs:1 source:1 oxus:1 royal:1 geographical:1 society:1 london:1 reprint:1 elibron:1 classic:1 adamant:1 medium:1 corporation:1 isbn:3 pbk:1 hbk:1 king:1 john:1 hawthorn:1 victoria:1 lonely:1 planet:1 publication:1 x:1 |@bigram snow_leopard:1 endanger_specie:1 silk_road:1 isbn_pbk:1 isbn_hbk:1 lonely_planet:1 |
5,918 | Cache | Cache may refer to: Treasure trove, a valuable cache which has been lost, or left unclaimed by the owner, or a place where items are stored An underground weapons or logistics cache, as used by survivalists. Geocaching, an outdoor treasure-hunting game Cache (biology), a hidden place where animals store food Cache, in computers, a collection of data duplicating original values stored elsewhere Places Cache, Oklahoma, a city in Comanche County Cache Creek, British Columbia, a junction community northeast of Vancouver, Canada Cache Creek, several places Cache Junction, Utah, a census-designated place in Cache County, Utah Caché may also refer to: Caché (film), a 2005 film directed by Michael Haneke Caché (software), a database management system from InterSystems See also Cash, money in the form of liquid currency Cash flow, the balance of the amounts of cash being received and paid by a business during a defined period of time. Cachet, in philately, a design or inscription other than a cancellation or pre-printed postage | Cache |@lemmatized cache:10 may:2 refer:2 treasure:2 trove:1 valuable:1 lose:1 leave:1 unclaimed:1 owner:1 place:5 item:1 store:3 underground:1 weapon:1 logistics:1 use:1 survivalist:1 geocaching:1 outdoor:1 hunting:1 game:1 biology:1 hidden:1 animal:1 food:1 computer:1 collection:1 data:1 duplicate:1 original:1 value:1 elsewhere:1 oklahoma:1 city:1 comanche:1 county:2 creek:2 british:1 columbia:1 junction:2 community:1 northeast:1 vancouver:1 canada:1 several:1 utah:2 census:1 designated:1 caché:3 also:2 film:2 direct:1 michael:1 haneke:1 software:1 database:1 management:1 system:1 intersystems:1 see:1 cash:3 money:1 form:1 liquid:1 currency:1 flow:1 balance:1 amount:1 receive:1 pay:1 business:1 defined:1 period:1 time:1 cachet:1 philately:1 design:1 inscription:1 cancellation:1 pre:1 print:1 postage:1 |@bigram treasure_trove:1 |
5,919 | Gradius | The Gradius games, first introduced in 1985, is a series of scrolling shooter video games published by Konami for a variety of portable, console and arcade platforms. In many games in the series the player controls a ship known as the Vic Viper. In other games of the series, ships the player controls is the Lord British Space Destroyer, Metalion, Sabel Tiger, Thrasher, Vixen, Alpinia, Super Cobra, Jade Knight, and the Falchion Beta. Recurring gameplay elements There are several gameplay elements that are common to almost all the Gradius games. These include, but are not limited to: Power meter One of the defining characteristics of the Gradius series is the use of a "power meter". The power meter is powered by a power-up item, whose purpose, when collected, is to move a highlight to the next power-up on the power meter. When a power-up that the player wants becomes highlighted, they may activate it, causing the highlight to move back to the beginning again. Thus, when the player collects a power-up item for the first time, the first power-up (usually a speed increase) becomes highlighted. Gradius power meter with first power-up highlighted The player may now activate this power-up to increase their speed, in which case the meter will revert to its original unhighlighted state. If, however, the player does not activate the power-up, and collects another power-up item, the highlight moves to the next item; in the original game this was a missile. Gradius power meter with second power-up highlighted The player may now activate this to receive a missile weapon, again causing the bar to revert to its unhighlighted state, or choose to hold out for the next item, a double gun. Traditionally, the power-ups with greater effects are placed toward the end of the bar, so that the player must do more work to obtain them, although in some titles like Gradius III a harmful power-up exists at the end which will restore the default (weak) weapon configuration. Other games using a similar power-up method include Contra Force by Konami, Slap Fight by Toaplan, and Rare's Cobra Triangle. Weapon edit Weapon edit, first introduced in Gradius III, allows players to construct a custom weapon route from the basic categories, such as missile and laser, and replace these accordingly with a variation of a weapon of their choice. Core warships The concept of the "Core" is a central part of Gradius. Cores are usually blue, glowing masses of energy hidden within large warships and protected by a series of barriers. All cores must be targeted in order to defeat a warship, which normally comprises several phases and often uses the terrain to its advantage. Additionally, the announcer will normally urge the player to "Destroy the core!" or "Shoot the core!" prior to an encounter. For other types of bosses, like large beasts, the announcer may command the player to "Destroy the eye!" or "Destroy the mouth!", depending on the boss. Moai For reasons unknown, the famous Moai statues appear as enemies in several Gradius games. They are mounted on either side of the ground (which are flat free-floating platforms) and fire a series of colorful rings at the Vic Viper. The weak point is at the mouth, when open. Because they face at an angle or lie flat on the ground, the up-facing Moai are best destroyed with missiles. Since then they have become so intertwined with the series it is not uncommon for them to cameo in other Konami games. There have even been four games where the Moai have even been a playable character. The first being in an action platform game with Konami characters called Konami Wai Wai World and a platform/puzzle named Moai-kun, both for the Famicom. After turning up in the PlayStation battle game Poy Poy, they later appeared in a racing game titled Konami Krazy Racers for the Game Boy Advance and in the fighting game DreamMix TV World Fighters for the Nintendo GameCube and PlayStation 2. In the PS2 game Castlevania: Curse of Darkness, a player can collect a Moai item behind the castle, provided they have a Lament of Innocence save on the memory card. They make brief showings in the video game Tyrian by Epic Games. And a Moai mask also can be found on Hideo Kojima's Snatcher. In the Salamander OVA; the antagonist Paola deceived one of the protagonists (Eddie) into destroying a moai obelisk in the deserts of northern Gradius. Unknowing to Eddie; the moai statue was actually repelling the Bacterians from planet Gradius; whereas Paola lied that it was drawing the Dark Forces to the planet. Easy final bosses Unlike other scrolling shooters, as well as many video games in general, the final boss of most Gradius games (including its spin-offs) is surprisingly easy given the difficulty of the final stage and previous bosses (although one could say that the defenses immediately before the boss are so strong precisely because the boss is so weak--it desperately needs the protection). The final boss is usually brain-like in appearance and occasionally taunts the player in a brief "this is only the beginning"-type speech prior to destruction. They can usually be vanquished by shooting once at a number of cores without any retaliation from the boss. Sometimes, you don't need to shoot at all as some final bosses will die while the player waits (or if boss does attack, simply dodge). Multiple loops After the credits roll at the end of the game, the game restarts at the first stage with the Vic Viper stripped of all power-ups. Each loop becomes progressively harder as enemies gain greater speed and projectile capabilities. This cycle normally continues up to the limit specified within the settings for arcade based titles and indefinitely for certain console versions until the player exhausts all reserve ships and chooses not to continue. Boss Rush First introduced in Gradius II, and in some instances referred to as 'Boss on Parade', the Boss Rush is a sequence of boss encounters where the player must fend off four or more Core Warships and in some cases biological entities, some of which are recreations of preceding games. Option Hunter The Option Hunter (also called "Option Eater" and "Option Thief") appears from the left side of the screen at regular intervals if the player carries four Options. Before launching from the left, it briefly makes its presence known with a loud siren and temporarily mimics the player movement to better its chances of capturing Options. Unless the player takes evasive action, any or all Options may be removed. The Option Hunter has never appeared in any of the Salamander series. Series Gradius (1985) Originally released as an arcade game, and later ported to other platforms. It is known to exist on the following platforms: NES/Famicom, MSX, PC Engine, Sega Saturn, PlayStation, certain mobile phones, and computer (Saturn, Playstation and computer version are all packaged with Gradius 2 as Gradius Deluxe Pack), as well as a re-release of the NES version for Virtual Console). In some territories, Gradius was released under the name Nemesis. Salamander (1986) Set in the same universe as Gradius. The game is noteworthy for a number of reasons. Most prominently, the game switches between horizontal and vertical stages, one of the first games of its kind. Also, Salamander was one of the first shoot'em ups to include cooperative gameplay. The first player ship is Gradius'''s own Vic Viper ship, while the second ship is the Lord British space destroyer (sometimes called the "RoadBritish"). Unlike Gradius, Salamander uses a more conventional weapons system, with enemies leaving a wide-variety of distinct power-ups. The NES version of Salamander, called Life Force in North America (and marketed in that region as the "sequel" to the first Gradius), and the MSX port, used the more traditional power-up bar used in the Gradius series. There also exists an arcade game named Life Force that is identical to Salamander released in Japanese arcades the same year, except that a Gradius-style power-up bar is used instead of conventional power-up items, and the stages were recolored slightly and given some voiceovers to make the mission about travelling inside someone's body, rather than through space; stages took on names such as 'Kidney Zone' and 'Stomach'. An American release was also made, but it retained the original power-up system of Salamander, though it was renamed, rather confusingly, as Life Force.Gradius 2 (1987): The MSX Gradius 2 is unrelated to Gofer no Yabō (which used the Roman numeral 'II'). Instead of controlling Vic Viper, the available ship is called "Metalion" (code name N322). This game also has some semblance of a storyline, which is told by cut-scenes. The gameplay is mostly unchanged from the rest of the series, though there are some power-ups that temporarily gives the ship some enhancements. In addition, when the bosses are being defeated, if the Metalion flies where they are, a mini-level can be accessed in order to obtain new permanent upgrades, assured that the mini levels are successfully cleared. This version was ported to the Sharp X68000 computer under the name Nemesis '90 Kai, with a number of graphical and aural enhancements.Gofer no Yabō Episode II (1988):The second game of the series to be released for the MSX platform.Gradius II (1988):Bearing no relation to the MSX game titled Gradius 2, Gradius II is the sequel to Gradius in terms of chronology. The game was never released in North America in any form, until recently with its inclusion in the PlayStation Portable title Gradius Collection.Gradius III (1989): This title introduced the "edit mode" method of selecting weapons, which allowed players to create their own weapon array by choosing power-ups from a limited pool of available weapon types (some weapons in the preset weapon types are not selectable in Edit Mode, although it includes weapons not in any presets). The SNES/SFC version is not a very accurate port; levels, enemies, and weapons were altered. For example, two entire stages were cut from the Super NES version: a 3D stage which involved avoiding hitting cave walls from a unique first-person perspective behind the Vic Viper, and a crystal stage in which the Vic Viper was challenged by crystal blocks blocking off areas like a maze. Also, the order of stages was changed. The final stage in the SNES version was based on an early stage in the arcade version. The original arcade version's ending had the main boss in a mechanical setting, then going through a speed-up zone to escape the enemy base, where the SNES version had the player simply avoiding the final enemy's laughably simple and slow-moving attack patterns with no challenge afterward. However, the SNES version introduced the Rotate and Formation Option types, both of which were reused in Gradius V. The difficulty and major boss tactics were toned down to make it easier. The original arcade version is available for PlayStation 2 bundled with Gradius IV (Gradius III and IV), although the port has some slight differences from the original.Nemesis (1990):The first Gradius for a portable system, in this case Nintendo's Game Boy. The name Nemesis was kept for the game's worldwide release. It combined elements from Gradius and Gradius 2 (the MSX versions), as well as some all-new features.Gradius: The Interstellar Assault (1991):Another Gradius game exclusively for the Game Boy. It was one of the larger Game Boy carts in existence at the time (2-Megabits), and was completely different from the rest of the series - most of them used music, enemies, bosses and even levels from previous games in the series, but this one did not, except for the boss music from the first Gradius game with the addition of a small original part to the piece. A little bit of the "between levels" music from Gradius III can also be found at the very first part of the game. It was released as Nemesis II in Japan and as Nemesis II: Return of the Hero in Europe.Salamander 2 (1996):The follow-up to Salamander. Had several interesting features, such as the Option Shot, the ability to launch the Options as homing projectiles. After firing, an Option would revert to a smaller, less powerful unit called an Option Seed, which revolves around the ship firing the default shot. Weaponry includes Twin Laser, Ripple Laser, and standard Laser. Like its predecessor, Salamander 2 uses a power-up system, rather than the Life Meter. Upon acquiring a second power-up of the same type, your weapons are twice as powerful for a short duration (10 seconds). The game features variations of previous Salamander bosses, such as the Golem and Tetran.Gradius Gaiden (1997):The first Gradius produced exclusively for a home console. This is also the only Gradius game (other than GOFER no Yabou Episode II on the MSX) where players can select which ship they wish to use. Gradius Gaiden includes the Lord British Space Destroyer from Salamander and two (relative) newcomers -- the Jade Knight and the Falchion β (a variation of the ship from the Famicom Disk System game Falsion). It was originally released for the PlayStation console and ported in 2006 as part of Gradius Collection for the PlayStation Portable.Solar Assault (1997):Solar Assault is an arcade 3D rail shooter in the lines of Star Fox or Panzer Dragoon, with Gradius's settings. As usual, Vic Viper makes an appearance here. This game was very obscure and was never ported to any console system.Gradius IV Fukkatsu (1999):Released in Japanese arcades as Gradius IV Fukkatsu (Fukkatsu being Japanese for "revival", since it was the first arcade Gradius game in 10 years, following 1989's Gradius III). IV lacked the Weapon Edit function of its predecessor, but it had a bigger array of weaponry than the original Gradius games. Weapons exclusive to this game included the Vertical Mine missile (which detonates in a vertical line shortly after deployment) and the Armor Piercing laser (a shorter, more powerful laser). Released on the PS2 as a compilation pack together with the arcade version of Gradius III ("Gradius III & IV").Gradius Galaxies (2001):The first Gradius to be created by a development team other than Konami's own internal teams (by Mobile 21 Studios, to be exact). It exists for the Game Boy Advance. It is known as Gradius Advance in Europe, and as Gradius Generation in Japan. The Japanese version, being the last to be released, has a number of exclusive challenge modes added that the other versions did not, and includes an additional invisible 5000 point bonus in one of the levels.Gradius V (2004):Gradius V was released in September 2004 for the PlayStation 2. Graphics are rendered in full 3D, although gameplay is still mostly 2D; some areas change the position and perspective of the camera to emphasize the 3D environment. Treasure Co. Ltd (developers of the classic games Gunstar Heroes, Guardian Heroes, Radiant Silvergun and Ikaruga, among others) were primarily responsible for Gradius V development. In Japanese first press limited edition, the game included a book indicating inner design, the background, and the roadmap of Vic Viper series (i.e. Vic Viper is the name of a ship series, rather than a single ship), and pre-ordered North American copies included a DVD detailing the history of the series (including Scramble) and replays of Gradius V.Gradius ReBirth (2008): A Gradius title for WiiWare. Draws many elements from the Gameboy game, Nemesis, and could be considered a heavy remake of the said game. Spin-offsParodius series (1988-1997):The Parodius series, started in 1988, is similar to Gradius, but with more cartoony settings. The name is a portmanteau of "parody" and "Gradius". Many of the mainstays of the Gradius series are included, albeit in a parodied format; this includes neon-colored core warships, effeminate moai, and large dancing women as bosses. Early games focused mainly on parodying Gradius games, but more recent games have poked fun at other Konami franchises, including Castlevania and Ganbare Goemon. The games offer a large number of different characters to use, each with different weapons. The characters consist of ones created for the series, such as Takosuke, and popular Konami characters like Pentarou and Upa (from Bio Miracle Bokutte Upa). Vic Viper also appears in all titles.Otomedius (2007):The game features magical-anime girl versions of Vic Viper and Lord British. Otomedius spoofs Gradius, but in a mecha musume-style approach. The name is a portmanteau of "otome" (a Japanese word meaning "maiden") and "Gradius". Characters Though characters are rarely seen or mentioned; there are several characters from the MSX titles and the anime, including the recent Gradius Rebirth. James Burton Born in the year 6641, James Burton was the pilot of the Vic Viper in the first war with the bacterians at age 17 in 6658 (Gradius). In the year 6666 at age 25, he piloted Metalion to defeat Dr. Venom and became LARS XVIII (emperor) of Gradius/Nemesis. In Salamander, in the year 6709 he sends Iggy Rock and Zowie Scott to save planet Latis from the Zelos Force. He later dies in the year 6718. He reappears in the MSX title Nemesis 3 and Gradius Rebirth on the Wii. James and Dr. Venom are thus far the only reoccuring characters in the Gradius series (not to mention with large background info). Dr. Venom Previously the Director General of Gradius' Space Science Agency, Dr. Venom was banished to planet Sard by LARS XVII for a attempted coup d'état in the year 6664. One year later he escapes and attacks planet Gradius and the seven colony planets it controls; forming a unholy alliance with the Bacterians. He is apparently killed by James Burton at the end of Gradius 2 (MSX), but returns in Salamander in the year 6709, revived in the core of Zelos' warplanet; Salamander. He appears again in Gofer no Yabou: Episode 2/Nemesis 3. He attempts to kill a infant James Burton by joining forces with Gofer and traveling to the past; but is ultimately stopped by James' descendant David Burton. Dr. Venom is mentioned again by Bacterian in Gradius V and appears in Gradius Rebirth. Even more interesting, it is revealed that Dr. Venom himself developed both the Vic Viper and the Metalion space fighters. Van Landroth Frehley Though never seen in the game, Frehley is the head of the Imperial Space Archaeology Institute of planet Gradius. He is mentioned in the MSX Salamander's manual; describing the approaching crisis of the Zelos Force and planet Latis. Iggy Rock One of the pilots sent to save planet Latis from the Zelos Force in Salamander. He pilots the craft Sabel Tiger. Zowie Scott A second pilot sent to save planet Latis from the Zelos Force along side Iggy Rock. She pilots the craft Thrasher. David Burton A descendant of James Burton in Nemesis 3. In-game texts says he has as much pilot experience as James. He pilots the craft Vixen with his AI Gaudie and sets out to repel Bacterion and save an infant James Burton. Gaudie David Burton's ship AI. She gives David information throughout the course of the game's story. She also helps David's ancestor: James Burton; providing him with information inside the Vic Viper in Gradius Rebirth. LARS XVII The 17th ruler of Gradius who exiled Dr. Venom to planet Sard and was assassinated prior to the beginning of the game. He is never seen in the game. Dan A non-canon character from the Salamander (anime). He pilots one of the three Vic Vipers along with Eddie and Stephanie. He finds it awfully strange between Gradius ships mysteriously vanishing and how Paola seems so calm about the looming threats of the Bacterians. Dan is a leiutendant in the Gradius army. Eddie Evans A non-canon character from the Salamander anime based on the games. He pilots one of the three Vic Viper craft. He is said to have had top honors in Gradius' military academy. His family was exiled from planet Latis; but warmly welcomed by planet Gradius/Nemesis. In Salamander: Meditating Paola (based on Gradius), Eddie has a sharp tongue and grumpy attitude; but seem to soften when he meets Paola; a green-haired girl with telekinetic abilities he, Dan, and Stephanie rescued off a damaged ship orbiting not far from Gradius. Later after being demoted for disobeying orders not to engage the Bacterians to reveal a weakness; he sneaks Paola from observation so she can lead him to what is attracting the Bacterians. Taking a Vic Viper craft to the deserts of northern Gradius; there they find a moai obelisk that Paola tells him is attracting the dark forces....and destroys it. However; its revealed that the moai statue was actually repelling the Bacterians and that Paola had tricked him, revealing herself to be a bacterian and transforms into a massive dragon and flees; 'thanking' Eddie for his help; as well as taunting him that he , his friends, and the rest of Gradius will be eradicated by them. Heart-broken; he screams that he never trusted her to begin with, just like Dan. He even tries to convince her that he is not from planet Gradius/Nemesis; but from another planet. He eventually gives up and admits that racism exist on every planet; regarding his family's exile form Latis and Paola's hatred for Gradians. In the episode Salamander (based on Salamander) he travels with his friends to planet Latis to destroy planet Salamander; a planetoid deformed by the Bacterians (compared to the story in the MSX Salamander or the third level's song title; this may have been Planet Odysseus or [[Planet Ratis]]). He soon gets into a rotton relationship with Latis' ruler: Ike Lord British. After snooping around for clues about his father's origins on the planet, he leaves; claiming that he would rather give his life to protect planet Gradius rather than for a planet who exiled his family and to protect its selfish and overconfident ruler. When the others later engage the fire dragon at the core of Salamander; he returns with his Vic Viper and sacrifices himself to kill the apparently invincible dragon by flying his craft inside its body to buy his friends (claiming he wasn't dying for Ike Lord British or Latis; but his father's homeworld) enough time to destroy Salamander's core. When Dan, Stephanie, and Lord British return to planet Latis, Ike Lord British decides to erase the incident of the Evans Family and tells his advisors to record Eddie Evans name in Latis history and to make sure he is never forgotton; the hero who saved planet Latis. Dan reveals to Lord British that despite Eddie having a sharp tongue; that he did indeed die to save Lord British's planet and Gradius. Priest Doromo Lord British's chief advisor who predicts the coming of the fire dragon and the insane force calling itself Salamander. Out of desperation he calls for the aid of Gradius who had defeated the Bacterians before; much to his lord's annoyance. Zelos Zelos is the massive space dragon on the cover of the games Salamander and Life Force. Life Force's game manual says that Zelos was born from other's of his kind (Mom & Pa Zelos) and given the name Zelos for his unexplainable hostility towards other beings (his name meaning in their language: One mean son of a gun!). After growing up, Zelos traveled the universe and started feasting on planets and stars. Eventually he even started devouring whole galaxies and was said to have killed over 2,000,000,000,000 lifeforms as his dinner. At some point he turned to to one of Gradius' colony planets, Latis, as a desert course and planet Gradius itself as a side-dish. In the MSX Salamander, he surrounded planet Latis with his armada (the Zelos Force) and set up a stronghold on planet Odysseus and appearently changing its name to Salamander. Latis soon sent a distress signal to planet Gradius/Nemesis and LARS XVIII (James Burton) sent Iggy Rock (Sabel Tiger pilot) and Zowie Scott (Thrasher pilot) to assist them and destroy the Zelos Force in operation Crush Blow. In Life Force's manual, planet Latis sent it's best fighter, the Lord British Space Destroyer, to assist them while Gradius also sent Vic Viper. In the MSX Salamander's ending after the pilots reach the core of planet Salamander (Odysseus), Dr. Venom is reincarnated in the planet's core (the Zelos Sphere) and revealed to be the true mastermind of the invasion. Depending on the players actions in-game; Dr. Vemon kills the pilots and the entire operation (Crush Blow) becomes a complete failure. But it's a success if the player tries again and collects all the pieces of prophecy. In the Salamander OVA, Zelos is the planetoid green warship that was referred to as the super fortress XEAROUS in the European game manual of Nemesis. Giga The main antagonist of Salamander 2. Unlike most final bosses in the series; instead of being brain-like in appearance, Giga has a humanoid torso and three heads mounted atop his shoulders facing in opposite directions, in which he uses to spin around and fire numerous projectiles. He is also the only final boss'' to actually give the player a challedge after giving the usual "This is only the beginning" type speech. Plot-wise, Giga seems to have somehow revived the Zelos Force and a salamander for his invasion; as seen in the game's intro. Pilot of Vic Viper T-301 Though little is known about this male character, he is the current pilot of Vic Viper in Gradius V. He repel bacterion forces from a orbital military station near planet Gradius/Nemesis and at some point encounters himself from the future requesting aid in destroying Bacterion's fortress. He eventually travels through time and manages to obliterate Bacterion with the help of his future self. Though his name is not directly revealed; he seems to call "himself" "Vic Viper" when referring to himself such as when he say: "Can you read me...., This is Vic Viper." or "This is Vic Viper T-301, commencing attack on the enemy!" His catch-phrase seems to be "Lets Roll!"; for he says it on several occasions. The Pilot's voice is provided by Eric Kelso and the Vic Viper's CPU/voice provided by Buster Winters. 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5,920 | Duke_Kahanamoku | The Big Kahuna redirects here. For the film, see The Big Kahuna (film). Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku (August 24, 1890 – January 22, 1968) is generally regarded as the person who popularized the modern sport of surfing. He was also an Olympic champion in swimming. Early years The name "Duke" is not a title, but a given name. He was named after his father, Halapu Kahanamoku, who was christened "Duke" by Bernice Pauahi Bishop in honor of Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, who was visiting Hawaii at the time of the elder man's birth in 1869. The younger "Duke," as eldest son, inherited the name. Growing up on the outskirts of Waikiki (near the present site of the Hilton Hawaiian Village), Kahanamoku spent his youth as a bronzed beach boy. It was at Waikiki Beach where he developed his surfing and swimming skills. In his youth, Kahanamoku preferred an old-school (traditional) surf board, which he called his "papa nui", constructed after the fashion of ancient Hawaiian "olo" boards. Made from the wood of a koa tree, it was sixteen feet (4.8 m) long and weighed 114 pounds (52 kg). The board was without a skeg, which had yet to be invented. In his later career, he would often use smaller boards, but always preferred those made of wood. On August 11, 1911, in an amateur swim meet, Kahanamoku was timed at 55.4 seconds in the 100 yard (91 m) freestyle, beating the existing world record by 4.6 seconds, in the salt water of Honolulu Harbor. He also broke the record in the 220 yd (201 m) and equaled it in the 50 yd (46 m), but the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), in disbelief, would not recognize these feats until many years later. The AAU initially claimed that the judges must have been using alarm clocks rather than stopwatches, and later claimed that ocean currents aided Kahanamoku. "Duke Kahanamoku. Notable Asian Americans. Gale Research, 1995. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. 2007. Career and legacy Kahanamoku easily qualified for the U.S. Olympic swimming team in 1912, breaking the record for the 200 meter freestyle in his trial heat for the 4×200 relay. He went on to win a gold medal in the 100 meter freestyle in the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, and a silver with the relay team. During the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, he won gold medals both in the 100 meters, bettering fellow Hawaiian Pua Kealoha, and in the relay. He finished the 100 meters with a silver medal during the 1924 Olympics in Paris, the gold going to Johnny Weissmuller and the bronze to Duke's brother, Samuel Kahanamoku. He also showed up on the U.S. Water Polo team at the 1932 Summer Olympics. Between Olympic competitions, and after retiring from the Olympics, Kahanamoku traveled internationally, particularly Australia and the United States, to give swimming exhibitions. It was during this period that he popularized the sport of surfing, previously known only in Hawaii, by incorporating surfing exhibitions into these visits as well. His surfing exhibition at Sydney's Freshwater Beach on December 23, 1914 is widely regarded as the most significant day in the development of surfing in Australia. The board Kahanamoku used is retained by the Freshwater Surf Club. There is a statue of Kahanamoku on the headland at Freshwater. He also made surfing popular in mainland America first in Santa Cruz, California. This is where surfing first started in California. During his time living in Southern California, Kahanamoku performed in Hollywood as an extra and a character actor in several films. In this way, he made connections with people who could further publicity for the sport of surfing. Kahanamoku was involved with the Los Angeles Athletic Club, acting as lifeguard and competing on both swimming and water polo teams. While living in Newport Beach, California on June 14, 1925, Kahanamoku rescued eight men from a fishing vessel that capsized in heavy surf while attempting to enter the city's harbor. Twenty-nine fishermen went into the water and seventeen perished. Using his surfboard, he was able to make quick trips back and forth to shore to increase the number of sailors rescued. Two other surfers saved four more fishermen. Newport's police chief at the time called Duke's efforts "the most superhuman surfboard rescue act the world has ever seen." A modern Hawaiian life guard's surf board ready for use. In 1940, he married Nadine Alexander, who accompanied him when he traveled all over the world. Duke Kahanamoku was the first person to be inducted into both the Swimming Hall of Fame and the Surfing Hall of Fame. The Duke Kahanamoku Invitational Surfing Championships are named in his honor. He is a member of the U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame. He served as sheriff of Honolulu, Hawaii from 1932 to 1961, serving 13 consecutive terms. Hawaii music promoter Kimo Wilder McVay capitalized on Duke's popularity by naming his Waikiki showroom Duke Kahanamoku's, and giving Duke a piece of the financial action in exchange for the use of his name. Duke's was a major Waikiki showroom in the 1960s and is best remembered as the home of Don Ho & The Aliis from 1964 through 1969. Duke's name is currently being used by another business establishment, Duke's Canoe Club & Barefoot Bar, a beachfront bar and restaurant in the Outrigger Waikiki On The Beach Hotel. The decor includes many poster-size photos of Duke — with his brothers in Waikiki, and on his travels in other parts of the world. There is a chain of restaurants named after him in California and Hawaii called Duke's. A monument at Waikiki beach in Honolulu honors his memory. It shows Duke Kahanamoku standing in front of his surfboard with his arms outstretched. Many honor him by placing leis on his statue. In 2002, Kahanamoku was featured on a first class letter rate postage stamp of the United States Postal Service. USPS - July 30, 2002 - Father Of International Surfing To Be Honored On New Postage Stamp The Statue of Duke Kahanamoku at Waikiki Beach, Oahu. Duncan v. Kahanamoku Duke Kahanamoku was the pro forma defendant in the landmark Supreme Court case Duncan v. Kahanamoku. While Kahanamoku was a military police officer during World War II, he arrested Duncan for public intoxication. At the time, Hawaii, not yet a state, was being administered under the Hawaiian Organic Act which effectively instituted martial law on the island. Duncan was therefore tried by a military tribunal and appealed to the Supreme Court. In a post hoc ruling, the court ruled that trial by military tribunal was, in this case, unconstitutional. Death Kahanamoku died of a heart attack on January 22, 1968 at the age of 77. For his burial at sea, a long motorcade of mourners, accompanied by a 30-man police escort, moved solemnly across town to Waikiki Beach. Reverend Abraham Akaka, the pastor of Kawaiahao Church, performed the service. A group of beach boys sang Hawaiian songs, including "Aloha Oe." His ashes were then scattered into the ocean. References Articles "Who Owns the Duke?" - HONOLULU Magazine ~ November 2006 External links Kahanamoku Sons bio of Duke Moments with Duke highlights, pictures, & videos Surfline bio of Duke Undated photo of Kahanamoku from the Library of Congress collection Video of the Duke Kahanamoku Statue at the Surfers Hall of Fame in Huntington Beach, California Info on Hawaii, its people and history. Duke's restaurant website More on Duke Kahanamoku and other surfing heroes | Duke_Kahanamoku |@lemmatized big:2 kahuna:2 redirects:1 film:3 see:2 duke:28 paoa:1 kahinu:1 mokoe:1 hulikohola:1 kahanamoku:30 august:2 january:2 generally:1 regard:2 person:2 popularize:2 modern:2 sport:3 surf:12 also:4 olympic:4 champion:1 swim:4 early:1 year:2 name:9 title:1 give:3 father:2 halapu:1 christen:1 bernice:1 pauahi:1 bishop:1 honor:5 prince:1 alfred:1 edinburgh:1 visit:2 hawaii:7 time:5 elder:1 man:2 birth:1 young:1 eldest:1 son:2 inherit:1 grow:1 outskirt:1 waikiki:9 near:1 present:1 site:1 hilton:1 hawaiian:6 village:1 spend:1 youth:2 bronzed:1 beach:10 boy:2 develop:1 surfing:5 swimming:3 skill:1 prefer:2 old:1 school:1 traditional:1 board:6 call:3 papa:1 nui:1 construct:1 fashion:1 ancient:1 olo:1 make:5 wood:2 koa:1 tree:1 sixteen:1 foot:1 long:2 weigh:1 pound:1 kg:1 without:1 skeg:1 yet:2 invent:1 late:1 career:2 would:2 often:1 use:7 small:1 always:1 amateur:2 meet:1 second:2 yard:1 freestyle:3 beat:1 exist:1 world:5 record:3 salt:1 water:4 honolulu:4 harbor:2 break:2 yd:2 equal:1 athletic:2 union:1 aau:2 disbelief:1 recognize:1 feat:1 many:3 later:2 initially:1 claim:2 judge:1 must:1 alarm:1 clock:1 rather:1 stopwatch:1 ocean:2 current:1 aid:1 notable:1 asian:1 american:1 gale:2 research:1 reproduce:1 biography:1 resource:1 center:1 farmington:1 hill:1 mich:1 thomson:1 legacy:1 easily:1 qualify:1 u:3 team:4 meter:4 trial:2 heat:1 relay:3 go:3 win:2 gold:3 medal:3 olympics:5 stockholm:1 silver:2 antwerp:1 better:1 fellow:1 pua:1 kealoha:1 finish:1 paris:1 johnny:1 weissmuller:1 bronze:1 brother:2 samuel:1 show:2 polo:2 summer:1 competition:1 retire:1 travel:3 internationally:1 particularly:1 australia:2 united:2 state:3 exhibition:3 period:1 previously:1 know:1 incorporate:1 well:1 sydney:1 freshwater:3 december:1 widely:1 significant:1 day:1 development:1 retain:1 club:3 statue:4 headland:1 popular:1 mainland:1 america:1 first:4 santa:1 cruz:1 california:6 start:1 living:1 southern:1 perform:2 hollywood:1 extra:1 character:1 actor:1 several:1 way:1 connection:1 people:2 could:1 far:1 publicity:1 involve:1 los:1 angeles:1 act:3 lifeguard:1 compete:1 live:1 newport:2 june:1 rescue:3 eight:1 men:1 fishing:1 vessel:1 capsize:1 heavy:1 attempt:1 enter:1 city:1 twenty:1 nine:1 fisherman:2 seventeen:1 perish:1 surfboard:3 able:1 quick:1 trip:1 back:1 forth:1 shore:1 increase:1 number:1 sailor:1 two:1 surfer:2 save:1 four:1 police:3 chief:1 effort:1 superhuman:1 ever:1 life:1 guard:1 ready:1 marry:1 nadine:1 alexander:1 accompany:2 induct:1 hall:4 fame:4 invitational:1 championship:1 member:1 serve:2 sheriff:1 consecutive:1 term:1 music:1 promoter:1 kimo:1 wilder:1 mcvay:1 capitalize:1 popularity:1 showroom:2 piece:1 financial:1 action:1 exchange:1 major:1 best:1 remember:1 home:1 ho:1 aliis:1 currently:1 another:1 business:1 establishment:1 canoe:1 barefoot:1 bar:2 beachfront:1 restaurant:3 outrigger:1 hotel:1 decor:1 include:2 poster:1 size:1 photo:2 part:1 chain:1 monument:1 memory:1 stand:1 front:1 arm:1 outstretched:1 place:1 lei:1 feature:1 class:1 letter:1 rate:1 postage:2 stamp:2 postal:1 service:2 usps:1 july:1 international:1 new:1 oahu:1 duncan:4 v:2 pro:1 forma:1 defendant:1 landmark:1 supreme:2 court:3 case:2 military:3 officer:1 war:1 ii:1 arrest:1 public:1 intoxication:1 administer:1 organic:1 effectively:1 institute:1 martial:1 law:1 island:1 therefore:1 try:1 tribunal:2 appeal:1 post:1 hoc:1 ruling:1 rule:1 unconstitutional:1 death:1 die:1 heart:1 attack:1 age:1 burial:1 sea:1 motorcade:1 mourner:1 escort:1 move:1 solemnly:1 across:1 town:1 reverend:1 abraham:1 akaka:1 pastor:1 kawaiahao:1 church:1 group:1 sing:1 song:1 aloha:1 oe:1 ash:1 scatter:1 reference:1 article:1 magazine:1 november:1 external:1 link:1 bio:2 moment:1 highlight:1 picture:1 video:2 surfline:1 undated:1 library:1 congress:1 collection:1 huntington:1 info:1 history:1 website:1 hero:1 |@bigram eldest_son:1 waikiki_beach:5 weigh_pound:1 pound_kg:1 amateur_athletic:1 alarm_clock:1 duke_kahanamoku:9 farmington_hill:1 hill_mich:1 thomson_gale:1 meter_freestyle:2 gold_medal:2 johnny_weissmuller:1 summer_olympics:1 santa_cruz:1 los_angeles:1 newport_beach:1 hall_fame:4 honolulu_hawaii:1 arm_outstretched:1 postage_stamp:2 pro_forma:1 supreme_court:2 ash_scatter:1 external_link:1 huntington_beach:1 |
5,921 | Aleut | The Aleuts (self-denomination from Aleut language allíthuh 'community' According to G. Menovshchikov; quoted in "Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire", http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/aleuts.shtml ; older or regional self-denomination , Unangan or Unanga 'coastal people') are the indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, United States and Kamchatka Krai, Russia. The name Aleut was given to the Unangan by Russian fur traders in the mid 18th century http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/cultural/northamerica/aleuts.html Location The homeland of the Aleuts includes the Aleutian Islands, the Pribilof Islands, the Shumagin Islands, and the far western part of the Alaska Peninsula. During the 19th century, the Aleuts were deported from the Aleutian Islands to the Commander Islands (now part of Kamchatka Krai) by the Russian-American Company. History After the arrival of missionaries in the late 18th century, many Aleuts became Christian by joining the Russian Orthodox Church. One of the earliest Christian martyrs in North America was Saint Peter the Aleut. In 18th century, Russian furriers established settlements on the islands and exploited the people. (See Early history) There was a recorded revolt against Russian workers in Amchitka in 1784. It started from the exhaustion of necessities that the Russians provided to local people in return for furs they had made. (See: Aleuts' revolt) In 1811, Aleuts went to San Nicholas to hunt. There was argument over paying the Nicoleño for being allowed to hunt on their island, a battle began, and almost all of the native men were killed. By 1853, only one native was left. (See Island of the Blue Dolphins.) Prior to major influence from outside, there were approximately 25,000 Aleuts on the archipelago. Barbarities by outside corporations and foreign diseases soon reduced the population to less than one-tenth this number, The 1910 Census count showed 1,491 Aleuts. In the 2000 Census, 11,941 people reported they were of Aleut ancestry; nearly 17,000 said Aleuts were among their ancestors. "The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2000", Table 5 found at http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-15.pdf Alaskans generally recognize the Russian occupation left no full-blooded Aleuts. When Alaska Natives enrolled in their regional corporations under the terms of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971(ANCSA), the Aleut Corporation attracted only about 2,000 enrolees who could prove a blood quantum of 1/4 or more Alaska Native (including Aleut). In 1942, during World War II, Japanese forces occupied Attu and Kiska Islands in the western Aleutians, and later transported captive Attu Islanders to Hokkaidō, where they were held as prisoners of war. Hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs were evacuated by the United States government during WW2 and placed in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died. The Aleut Restitution Act of 1988 was an attempt by Congress to compensate the survivors. The World War II campaign to retake Attu and Kiska was a significant component of the operations of the Asian theater. Culture and technology A barabara (Aleut: ulax), the traditional Aleut winter house Aleuts constructed partially underground houses called Barabara. According to Lillie McGarvey, a 20th-century Aleut leader, barabaras keep "occupants dry from the frequent rains, warm at all times, and snugly sheltered from the high winds common to the area". Traditional arts of the Aleuts include hunting, weapon-making, building of baidarkas (special hunting boats), and weaving. 19th century craftsmen were famed for their ornate wooden hunting hats, which feature elaborate and colorful designs and may be trimmed with sea lion whiskers, feathers, and ivory. Aleut seamstresses created finely stitched waterproof parkas from seal gut, and some women still master the skill of weaving fine baskets from rye and beach grass. Aleut basketry is some of the finest in the world, and the tradition began in prehistoric times. Early Aleut women created baskets and woven mats of exceptional technical quality using only an elongated and sharpened thumbnail as a tool. Today, Aleut weavers continue to produce woven pieces of a remarkable cloth-like texture, works of modern art with roots in ancient tradition. The Aleut term for grass basket is qiigam aygaaxsii. Language While English and Russian are the dominant languages used by Aleuts living in the US and Russia respectively, the Aleut language is still spoken by several hundred people. The language belongs to the Eskimo-Aleut language family and includes three dialect groupings: Eastern Aleut, spoken on the Eastern Aleutian, Shumagin, Fox and Pribilof islands; Atkan, spoken on Atka and Bering islands; and the now extinct Attuan dialect. The Pribilof Islands boast the highest number of active speakers of Aleutian. In popular culture In Neal Stephenson's novel Snow Crash, the character Raven is an Aleut harpooner seeking revenge for the US's nuclear testing on Amchitka. The Aleut tribes are also the subject of the Sue Harrison's Ivory Carver Trilogy that includes Mother Earth Father Sky, My Sister the Moon, and Brother Wind. Aleuts are the subject of Irving Warner's 2007 historical novel about the Attuans held as prisoners of war in Japan, The War Journal of Lila Ann Smith. Dana Stabenow has published a series of mystery novels set in Alaska, U.S.A., the main character/ detective of which is an Aleut woman named Kate Shugak. See also Adamagan Aleutian tradition Benny Benson {Russian-Aleut-Swedish} designer of the flag of Alaska Eskimo Aleutian Islands References Further reading Jochelson, Waldemar. History, Ethnology, and Anthropology of the Aleut. Washington: Carnegie institution of Washington, 1933. Kohlhoff, Dean. When the Wind Was a River Aleut Evacuation in World War II. Seattle: University of Washington Press in association with Aleutian/Pribilof Islands Association, Anchorage, 1995. ISBN 0295974036 Murray, Martha G., and Peter L. Corey. Aleut Weavers. Juneau, AK: Alaska State Museums, Division of Libraries, Archives and Museums, 1997. Veltre, Douglas W. Aleut Unangax̂ Ethnobotany An Annotated Bibliography. Akureyri, Iceland: CAFF International Secretariat, 2006. ISBN 9979977809 External links Commander Islands, Kamchatka, Russia - About Commander Islands In Russian Aleut The AMIQ Institute - a research project documenting the Pribilof Islands and their inhabitants | Aleut |@lemmatized aleut:42 self:2 denomination:2 language:6 allíthuh:1 community:1 accord:2 g:2 menovshchikov:1 quote:1 red:1 book:2 people:7 russian:11 empire:1 http:3 www:3 eki:1 ee:1 redbook:1 shtml:1 old:1 regional:2 unangan:2 unanga:1 coastal:1 indigenous:1 aleutian:9 island:18 alaska:10 united:2 state:2 kamchatka:3 krai:2 russia:3 name:2 give:1 fur:2 trader:1 mid:1 century:6 mnsu:1 edu:1 emuseum:1 cultural:1 northamerica:1 aleuts:2 html:1 location:1 homeland:1 include:5 pribilof:5 shumagin:2 far:2 western:3 part:2 peninsula:1 deport:1 commander:3 american:2 company:1 history:3 arrival:1 missionary:1 late:1 many:2 become:1 christian:2 join:1 orthodox:1 church:1 one:3 early:3 martyr:1 north:1 america:1 saint:1 peter:2 furrier:1 establish:1 settlement:2 exploit:1 see:4 recorded:1 revolt:2 worker:1 amchitka:2 start:1 exhaustion:1 necessity:1 provide:1 local:1 return:1 make:1 go:1 san:1 nicholas:1 hunt:4 argument:1 pay:1 nicoleño:1 allow:1 battle:1 begin:2 almost:1 native:6 men:1 kill:1 leave:2 blue:1 dolphins:1 prior:1 major:1 influence:1 outside:2 approximately:1 archipelago:1 barbarity:1 corporation:3 foreign:1 disease:1 soon:1 reduce:1 population:2 less:1 tenth:1 number:2 census:3 count:1 show:1 report:1 ancestry:1 nearly:1 say:1 among:1 ancestor:1 indian:1 table:1 find:1 gov:1 prod:1 pdf:1 alaskans:1 generally:1 recognize:1 occupation:1 full:1 blood:2 enrol:1 term:2 claim:1 act:2 ancsa:1 attract:1 enrolees:1 could:1 prove:1 quantum:1 world:4 war:6 ii:3 japanese:1 force:1 occupy:1 attu:3 kiska:2 later:1 transport:1 captive:1 islander:1 hokkaidō:1 hold:2 prisoner:2 hundred:2 chain:1 pribilofs:1 evacuate:1 states:1 government:1 place:1 internment:1 camp:1 southeast:1 die:1 restitution:1 attempt:1 congress:1 compensate:1 survivor:1 campaign:1 retake:1 significant:1 component:1 operation:1 asian:1 theater:1 culture:2 technology:1 barabara:2 ulax:1 traditional:2 winter:1 house:2 construct:1 partially:1 underground:1 call:1 lillie:1 mcgarvey:1 leader:1 barabaras:1 keep:1 occupant:1 dry:1 frequent:1 rain:1 warm:1 time:2 snugly:1 shelter:1 high:2 wind:3 common:1 area:1 art:2 weapon:1 making:1 building:1 baidarkas:1 special:1 boat:1 weave:2 craftsman:1 famed:1 ornate:1 wooden:1 hunting:1 hat:1 feature:1 elaborate:1 colorful:1 design:1 may:1 trim:1 sea:1 lion:1 whisker:1 feather:1 ivory:2 seamstress:1 create:2 finely:1 stitch:1 waterproof:1 parka:1 seal:1 gut:1 woman:3 still:2 master:1 skill:1 fine:2 basket:3 rye:1 beach:1 grass:2 basketry:1 tradition:3 prehistoric:1 woven:2 mat:1 exceptional:1 technical:1 quality:1 use:2 elongate:1 sharpen:1 thumbnail:1 tool:1 today:1 weaver:2 continue:1 produce:1 piece:1 remarkable:1 cloth:1 like:1 texture:1 work:1 modern:1 root:1 ancient:1 qiigam:1 aygaaxsii:1 english:1 dominant:1 live:1 u:3 respectively:1 speak:3 several:1 belong:1 eskimo:2 family:1 three:1 dialect:2 grouping:1 eastern:2 fox:1 atkan:1 atka:1 bering:1 extinct:1 attuan:1 boast:1 active:1 speaker:1 popular:1 neal:1 stephenson:1 novel:3 snow:1 crash:1 character:2 raven:1 harpooner:1 seek:1 revenge:1 nuclear:1 test:1 tribe:1 also:2 subject:2 sue:1 harrison:1 carver:1 trilogy:1 mother:1 earth:1 father:1 sky:1 sister:1 moon:1 brother:1 irving:1 warner:1 historical:1 attuans:1 japan:1 journal:1 lila:1 ann:1 smith:1 dana:1 stabenow:1 publish:1 series:1 mystery:1 set:1 main:1 detective:1 kate:1 shugak:1 adamagan:1 benny:1 benson:1 swedish:1 designer:1 flag:1 reference:1 read:1 jochelson:1 waldemar:1 ethnology:1 anthropology:1 washington:3 carnegie:1 institution:1 kohlhoff:1 dean:1 river:1 evacuation:1 seattle:1 university:1 press:1 association:2 anchorage:1 isbn:2 murray:1 martha:1 l:1 corey:1 juneau:1 ak:1 museum:2 division:1 library:1 archive:1 veltre:1 douglas:1 w:1 unangax:1 ethnobotany:1 annotated:1 bibliography:1 akureyri:1 iceland:1 caff:1 international:1 secretariat:1 external:1 link:1 amiq:1 institute:1 research:1 project:1 document:1 inhabitant:1 |@bigram http_www:3 aleutian_island:4 fur_trader:1 pribilof_island:5 gov_prod:1 united_states:1 states_government:1 internment_camp:1 eskimo_aleut:1 neal_stephenson:1 annotated_bibliography:1 external_link:1 |
5,922 | Maryland | Maryland () For those who distinguish them, Maryland is pronounced as in merry , not as in the name Mary . (Random House Dictionary) is a state located in the Mid Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia and the District of Columbia to the south and west, Pennsylvania to the north, and Delaware to the east. Historically it was part of the Chesapeake Colonies where planters cultivated tobacco as a cash crop dependent on slave labor. U.S. Census Bureau While the U.S. Census Bureau designates Maryland as one of the South Atlantic States, most consider it to be a part of the Mid-Atlantic States and/or Northeastern United States. Examples include other U.S. government agencies (such as the Library of Congress, Geological Survey, Environmental Protection Agency, National Park Service, and Department of Energy), and public service organizations (such as Amtrak and the Princeton Review). Google's categorization scheme includes it in both the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions. It is comparable in size to the European country of Belgium. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Maryland has the highest median household income of any state at $68,080 in 2007, overtaking New Jersey in 2006. It was the seventh state to ratify the United States Constitution and bears two nicknames, the Old Line State and the Free State. Its history as a border state has led it to exhibit characteristics of both the Northern and Southern regions of the United States. Generally, rural Western Maryland resembles the West Virginian Panhandle the Southern and Eastern Shore regions of Maryland emulate a Southern culture, while densely-populated Central Maryland—radiating outward from Baltimore and the Washington Beltway—exhibits characteristics of the Northeast. Maryland is a life sciences hub with over 350 biotechnology firms, making it the third-largest such cluster in the nation. Institutions and agencies located throughout Maryland include the University System of Maryland, The Johns Hopkins University, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Celera Genomics, Human Genome Sciences (HGS), the J. Craig Venter Institute (JCVI), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), MedImmune (recently purchased by AstraZeneca), the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Geography Physical geography Maryland possesses a great variety of topography, hence its nickname, "America in Miniature." It ranges from sandy dunes dotted with seagrass in the east, to low marshlands teeming with wildlife and large bald cypress near the bay, to gently rolling hills of oak forest in the Piedmont Region, and pine groves in the mountains to the west. Tidal wetlands of the Chesapeake Bay, largest estuary in the United States and the largest physical feature in Maryland. Geographic regions of Maryland Maryland is bounded on the north by Pennsylvania, on the west by West Virginia, on the east by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south, across the Potomac River, by West Virginia and Virginia. The mid-portion of this border is interrupted on the Maryland side by Washington, DC, which sits on land that was originally part of Maryland. The Chesapeake Bay nearly bisects the state, and the counties east of the bay are known collectively as the Eastern Shore. Most of the state's waterways are part of the Chesapeake Bay watershed, with the exceptions of a portion of Garrett County (drained by the Youghiogheny River as part of the watershed of the Mississippi River), the eastern half of Worcester County (which drains into Maryland's Atlantic coastal bays), and a small portion of the state's northeast corner (which drains into the Delaware River watershed). So prominent is the Chesapeake in Maryland's geography and economic life that there has been periodic agitation to change the state's official nickname to the "Bay State," a name currently used by Massachusetts. The highest point in Maryland is Hoye Crest on Backbone Mountain, in the southwest corner of Garrett County, near the border with West Virginia and near the headwaters of the North Branch of the Potomac River. One of Maryland's ski areas, Wisp, is located close to Backbone Mountain. Close to the small town of Hancock, in western Maryland, about two-thirds of the way across the state, there is only about between its borders. This geographical curiosity makes Maryland the narrowest state, bordered by the Mason-Dixon Line to the north, and the north-arching Potomac River to the south. Maryland state welcome sign Portions of Maryland are included in various official and unofficial geographic regions. For example, the Delmarva Peninsula comprises the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland, the entire State of Delaware, and the two counties that make up the Eastern Shore of Virginia, while the westernmost counties of Maryland are considered part of Appalachia. Much of the Baltimore–Washington corridor lies just south of the Piedmont in the Coastal Plain, http://dnrweb.dnr.state.md.us/download/gp_coastal_west.pdf though it straddles the border between the two regions. A quirk of Maryland's geography is that the state contains no natural lakes. During the last Ice Age, glaciers did not reach as far south as Maryland, and therefore did not carve out deep natural lakes as exist in northern states. There are numerous man-made lakes, the largest being Deep Creek Lake, a reservoir in Garrett County. The lack of glacial history also accounts for Maryland's soil, which is more sandy and muddy than the rocky soils of New England. Human geography Maryland counties The majority of Maryland's population is concentrated in the cities and suburbs surrounding Washington, DC and Maryland's most populous city, Baltimore. Historically, these and many other Maryland cities developed along the fall line, the point at which rivers are no longer navigable from sea level due to the presence of rapids or waterfalls. Maryland's capital, Annapolis, is one exception to this rule, lying along the Severn River close to where it empties into the Chesapeake Bay. Other major population centers include suburban hubs Columbia in Howard County, Silver Spring, Rockville and Gaithersburg in Montgomery County, Frederick in Frederick County and Hagerstown in Washington County. The eastern, southern, and western portions of the state tend to be more rural, although they are dotted with cities of regional importance such as Salisbury and Ocean City and Chesapeake City on the Eastern Shore, Lexington Park and Waldorf in Southern Maryland, and Cumberland in Western Maryland. Climate Maryland has wide array of climates for a state of its size. It depends on numerous variables, such as proximity to water, elevation, and protection from colder weather due to downslope winds. The eastern half of Maryland lies on the Atlantic Coastal Plain, with very flat topography and very sandy or muddy soil. This region has a humid subtropical climate, with hot, humid summers and a short, mild to cool winter. This region includes the cities of Salisbury, Chesapeake City, Annapolis, Ocean City, and southern and eastern greater Baltimore. Sunset over a marsh at Cardinal Cove, on the Patuxent River. Beyond this region lies the Piedmont which lies in the transition between the humid subtropical climate zone and the subtropical highland zone (Köppen Cfb), with hot, humid summers and cool winters where average annual snowfall exceeds 20 inches and temperatures below 10°F are annual occurrences. This region includes Frederick, Hagerstown, Westminster, Gaithersburg and northern and western greater Baltimore. Extreme western Maryland, in the higher elevations of Allegany County and Garrett County lie completely in the subtropical highland (Köppen Cfb) World Köppen map zone, due to elevation (more typical of the Appalachian mountain region) with milder summers and cool, often snowy winters. Precipitation in the state is characteristic of the East Coast. Annual rainfall ranges from 35 to 45 inches (890 to 1150 mm) with more in higher elevations. Precipitation Map Nearly every part of Maryland receives 3.5–4.5 inches (95–110 mm) per month of precipitation. Snowfall varies from 9 inches (23 cm) in the coastal areas to over 100 inches (250 cm) a winter in the western mountains of the state. Snowfall Map Because of its location near the Atlantic Coast, Maryland is somewhat vulnerable to tropical cyclones, although the Delmarva Peninsula, and the outer banks of North Carolina to the south provide a large buffer, such that a strike from a major hurricane (category 3 or above) is not very likely. More often, Maryland might get the remnants of a tropical system which has already come ashore and released most of its wind energy. Maryland averages around 30–40 days of thunderstorms a year, and averages around six tornado strikes annually. NOAA National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved on October 24, 2006. Monthly normal high and low temperatures for various Maryland cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Hagerstown 38/21 42/23 52/31 63/41 74/51 82/60 86/64 84/62 77/55 66/43 54/35 43/27 Frederick 41/25 46/27 56/35 67/44 77/54 85/62 89/67 87/66 80/59 68/47 57/38 46/30 Baltimore 44/29 47/31 57/39 68/48 77/58 86/68 91/73 88/71 81/64 70/52 59/42 49/33 Ocean City 44/28 46/30 53/35 61/44 70/53 79/62 84/67 83/67 78/62 68/51 58/41 49/32 Flora and fauna The 2003 USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map for the state of Maryland As is typical of states on the East Coast, Maryland's plant life is abundant and healthy. A good dose of annual precipitation helps to support many types of plants, including seagrass and various reeds at the smaller end of the spectrum to the gigantic Wye Oak, a huge example of White oak, the state tree, which can grow in excess of 70 feet (20 m) tall. Maryland also possesses an abundance of pines and maples among its endemic tree life. Many foreign species are cultivated in the state, some as ornamentals, others as novelty species. Included among these are the Crape Myrtle, Italian Cypress, live oak in the warmer parts of the state, Zone Hardiness Map through Prairie Frontier and even hardy palm trees in the warmer central and eastern parts of the state. The History of Maryland, From its first settlement, in 1633, to the restoration, in 1660, with a copious introduction, and notes and illustrations. USDA plant hardiness zones in the state range from Zone 5 in the extreme western part of the state to 6 and 7 in the central part, and Zone 8 around the southern part of the coast, the bay area, and most of metropolitan Baltimore. Large areas of Maryland have problems with kudzu, an invasive plant species that chokes out growth of endemic plant life. Invasive Species of concern in Maryland Maryland's state flower, the Black-eyed Susan, grows in abundance in wild flower groups throughout the state where it often becomes a favorite of the state insect, the Baltimore Checkerspot Butterfly. Maryland at a glance 435 species of bird have been reported from Maryland. Sunset over Hunt Valley, Maryland. The state harbors a great number of deer, particularly in the woody and mountainous west of the state, and overpopulation can become a problem from year-to-year. The Chesapeake Bay provides the state with its huge cash crop of blue crabs, rockfish, and numerous seabirds. Mammals can be found ranging from the mountains in the west to the central areas and include bears, Maryland's Public Information Network Retrieved on 4-9-2008. mountain lions, foxes, raccoons, and Otters. Maryland is famous for its population of rare Assateague Island National Seashore Wild Ponies wild horses found on Assateague island. Every year an event occurs during which members of the horse population are captured and waded across a shallow bay to Chincoteague, Virginia. This conservation technique ensures the tiny island is not overrun by the horses. Another purebred animal from Maryland is the Chesapeake Bay Retriever dog, which was bred specifically for water sports, hunting and search and rescue in the Chesapeake area. Chesapeake Bay Retriever History The Chesapeake Bay Retriever was also the first breed recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1878. Maryland's reptile and amphibian population is led by the Diamondback Terrapin turtle, which was adopted as the mascot of University of Maryland. The state also hosts the Baltimore Oriole, which is the official state bird and mascot of the MLB team the Baltimore Orioles. Maryland Government Website – Maryland State Bird Lawns in Maryland carry a variety of species, mostly due to its location in the Transition Zone for lawngrasses. The western part of the state is cold enough to support Kentucky Bluegrass, and Fine Fescues, which are widespread from the foothills west. The area around the Chesapeake Bay is usually turfed with transition species such as Zoysia, Tall fescue, and Bermudagrass. St. Augustine grass can be grown in the parts of the state that are in Zone 8. Environmental awareness Maryland is one of the most environmentally friendly states in the country. Forbes.com rated Maryland as the fifth "Greenest" state in the country behind four of the Pacific States and Vermont. Maryland ranks 40th in total energy consumption nationwide, and it managed less toxic waste per capita than all but six states in 2005. Forbes.com – America's Greenest States In April 2007 Maryland joined the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI)—a regional initiative formed by all of the Northeastern states, Washington D.C., and three Canadian provinces to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. History Cecil Calvert, 1st Proprietor of the Maryland colony. In 1629, George Calvert, 1st Lord Baltimore in the Irish House of Lords, fresh from his failure further north with Newfoundland's Avalon colony, applied to Charles I for a new royal charter for what was to become the Province of Maryland. Calvert's interest in creating a colony derived from his Catholicism and his desire for the creation of a haven for Catholics in the new world. In addition, he was familiar with the fortunes that had been made in tobacco in Virginia, and hoped to recoup some of the financial losses he had sustained in his earlier colonial venture in Newfoundland. George Calvert died in April 1632, but a charter for "Maryland Colony" (in Latin, "Terra Maria") was granted to his son, Cæcilius Calvert, 2nd Lord Baltimore, on June 20, 1632. The new colony was named in honor of Henrietta Maria, Queen Consort of Charles I. The specific name given in the charter was phrased "Terra Mariae, anglice, Maryland". The English name was preferred over the Latin due in part to the undesired association of "Mariae" with the Spanish Jesuit Juan de Mariana. Leonard, Cecilius' younger brother, was put in charge of the expedition because Cecilius did not want to go. To try to gain settlers, Maryland used what is known as the headright system, which originated in Jamestown. The government awarded land to people who transported colonists to Maryland. On March 25, 1634, Lord Baltimore sent the first settlers into this area. Although most of the settlers were Protestants, Maryland soon became one of the few regions in the British Empire where Catholics held the highest positions of political authority. Maryland was also one of the key destinations of tens of thousands of British convicts. The Maryland Toleration Act of 1649 was one of the first laws that explicitly dictated religious tolerance, though toleration was limited to Trinitarian Christians. The royal charter granted Maryland the Potomac River and territory northward to the fortieth parallel. This proved a problem when Charles II granted a charter for Pennsylvania, because the grants (which were made using an inaccurate map) overlapped. Maryland's northern boundary would put Philadelphia, the major city in Pennsylvania, partially within Maryland, while Pennsylvania's southern boundary would encompass much of Maryland, resulting in conflict between the Calvert family, which controlled Maryland, and the Penn family, which controlled Pennsylvania. This led to the Cresap's War (also known as the Conojocular War), a border conflict between Pennsylvania and Maryland, fought in the 1730s. Hostilities erupted in 1730 with a series of violent incidents prompted by disputes over property rights and law enforcement, and escalated through the first half of the decade, culminating in the deployment of military forces by Maryland in 1736 and by Pennsylvania in 1737. The armed phase of the conflict ended in May 1738 with the intervention of King George II, who compelled the negotiation of a cease-fire. A final settlement was not achieved until 1767, when the Mason-Dixon Line was recognized as the permanent boundary between the two colonies. After Virginia made the practice of Anglicanism mandatory, a large number of Puritans migrated from Virginia to Maryland, and were given land for a settlement called Providence (now Annapolis). In 1650, the Puritans revolted against the proprietary government and set up a new government that outlawed both Catholicism and Anglicanism. In March 1654, the 2nd Lord Baltimore sent an army under the command of Governor William Stone to put down the revolt. His Roman Catholic army was decisively defeated by a Puritan army near Annapolis in what was to be known as the "Battle of the Severn". The Puritan revolt lasted until 1658. In that year the Calvert family regained control of the colony and re-enacted the Toleration Act. However, after England's "Glorious Revolution" of 1688, when William of Orange and his wife Mary came to the throne and firmly established the Protestant faith in England, Catholicism was again outlawed in Maryland, until after the American Revolutionary War. Many wealthy plantation owners built chapels on their land so they could practice their Catholicism in relative secrecy. During the persecution of Maryland Catholics by the Puritan revolutionary government, all of the original Catholic churches of southern Maryland were burned down. St. Mary's City was the largest site of the original Maryland colony, and was the seat of the colonial government until 1708. St Mary's is now an archaeological site, with a small tourist center. In 1708, the seat of government was moved to Providence, which had been renamed Annapolis. The city was renamed in honor of Queen Anne in 1694. Most of the English colonists arrived in Maryland as indentured servants, hiring themselves out as laborers for a fixed period to pay for their passage. In the early years the line between indentured servants and African slaves or laborers was fluid. Some Africans were allowed to earn their freedom before slavery became a lifelong status. Most of the free colored families formed in Maryland before the Revolution were descended from relationships or marriages between servant or free white women and enslaved, servant or free African or African-American men. Many such families migrated to Delaware, where land was cheaper. Paul Heinegg. Free African Americans in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware Accessed 15 Feb 2008 As the flow of indentured laborers to the colony decreased with improving economic conditions in England, more slaves were imported. The economy's growth and prosperity was based on slave labor, devoted first to the production of tobacco. An artist's rendering of the bombardment of Fort McHenry in Baltimore, which inspired the composition of the Star Spangled Banner. Maryland was one of the thirteen colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution. On February 2, 1781, Maryland became the 13th state to approve the ratification of the Articles of Confederation which brought into being the United States as a united, sovereign and national state. It also became the seventh state admitted to the U.S. after ratifying the new Constitution. The following year, in December 1790, Maryland ceded land selected by President George Washington to the federal government for the creation of Washington, D.C.. The land was provided from Montgomery and Prince George's Counties, as well as from Fairfax County and Alexandria in Virginia (though the lands from Virginia were later returned through retrocession). The land provided to Washington, D.C. is actually "sitting" inside the state of Maryland (land that is now defunct in theory). During the War of 1812, the British military attempted to capture the port of Baltimore, which was protected by Fort McHenry. It was during this bombardment that the Star Spangled Banner was written by Francis Scott Key. As in Virginia and Delaware, numerous planters in Maryland had freed their slaves in the twenty years after the Revolutionary War. By 1860 Maryland's free black population comprised 49.1% of the total of African Americans in the state. Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619-1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, pp.81-82 In addition, Governor Thomas Holliday Hicks temporarily suspended the legislature, and President Abraham Lincoln had many of its fire eaters arrested prior to its reconvening. Many historians contend that there would never have been sufficient votes for secession. Of the 115,000 men who joined the militaries during the Civil War, 85,000, or 77%, joined the Union army. To help ensure Maryland's inclusion in the Union, President Lincoln suspended several civil liberties, including the writ of habeas corpus, an act deemed illegal by Maryland native Chief Justice Roger Taney. Lincoln ordered U.S. troops to place artillery on Federal Hill to threaten the city of Baltimore, and helped ensure the election of a new pro-union governor and legislature. Lincoln went so far as to jail certain pro-South members of the state legislature at Fort McHenry, including the Mayor of Baltimore, George William Brown. The grandson of Francis Scott Key was included in those jailed. The constitutionality of these actions is still debated. Because Maryland remained in the Union, it was exempted from the anti-slavery provisions of the Emancipation Proclamation (The Emancipation Proclamation only applied to states in rebellion). In 1864 the state held a constitutional convention that culminated in the passage of a new state constitution. Article 24 of that document outlawed the practice of slavery. In 1867 the state extended suffrage to non-white males. Demographics Maryland population distribution As of 2006, Maryland has an estimated population of 5,615,727, which is an increase of 26,128, or 0.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 319,221, or 6.0%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 189,158 people (that is 464,251 births minus 275,093 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 116,713 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 129,730 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 13,017 people. In 2006, 645,744 were counted as foreign born, which represents mainly people from Latin America and Asia. About 4.0% are undocumented (illegal) immigrants. Turner Brinton, "Immigration Bill Could Impact Maryland," Capital News Service, 5 April 2006. Retrieved 22 July 2007. Maryland also has a large Korean American population. In fact, 1.7% are Korean, while as a whole, almost 6.0% are Asian. Most of the population of Maryland lives in the central region of the state, in the Baltimore Metropolitan Area and Washington Metropolitan Area, both of which are part of the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area. The Eastern Shore is less populous and more rural, as are the counties of western and southern Maryland. The two counties of Western Maryland, Allegany and Garrett, are mountainous and sparsely populated, resembling West Virginia more than they do the rest of Maryland. The center of population of Maryland is located on the county line between Anne Arundel County and Howard County, in the unincorporated town of Jessup. Ethnicity The five largest reported ancestries in Maryland are German (15.7%), Irish (11.7%), English (9%), unspecified American (5.8%), and Italian (5.1%). African-Americans are concentrated in Baltimore City, Prince George's County, and the southern Eastern Shore. Most of the Eastern Shore and Southern Maryland are populated by Marylanders of British ancestry, with the Eastern Shore traditionally Methodist and the southern counties Catholic. Western and northern Maryland have large German-American populations. Italians and Poles are centered mostly in the large city of Baltimore. Jews are numerous throughout Montgomery County and in Pikesville and Owings Mills northwest of Baltimore. Hispanics are numerous in Hyattsville/Langley Park, Wheaton and Gaithersburg. Maryland has one of the largest proportions of racial minorities in the country, trailing only the four minority-majority states. Religion Maryland was founded for the purpose of providing religious toleration of England's Roman Catholic minority. Nevertheless, Parliament later reversed that policy and discouraged the practice of Catholicism in Maryland. Due to immigration patterns, Catholics have not been a majority in Maryland since early Colonial times. Nonetheless, Catholicism is the largest single denomination in Maryland. The present religious composition of the state is shown below: <font size=3>Religions in MarylandChristianOtherProtestant56%Roman Catholic23%Jewish4%Baptist18%Other Christian3%Other Religions1%Methodist11%Non-Religious13%Lutheran6%Other Protestant21% Despite the Protestant majority, Maryland has been prominent in U.S. Catholic tradition, partially because it was intended by George Calvert as a haven for English Catholics. Baltimore was the seat of the first Catholic bishop in the U.S. (1789), and Emmitsburg was the home and burial place of the first American-born citizen to be canonized, St. Elizabeth Ann Seton. Georgetown University, the first Catholic University, was founded in 1789 in what was then part of Maryland. It became a part of the District of Columbia when that city was created in the 1790s. The Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary in Baltimore was the first Roman Catholic cathedral built in the United States. Economy The reverse side of the Maryland quarter shows the dome of the State House in Annapolis. The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Maryland's gross state product in 2006 was US$257 billion. http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/2007/pdf/gsp0607.pdf According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Maryland households are currently the wealthiest in the country, with a median household income of $68,080 which puts it ahead of New Jersey and Connecticut, which are second and third respectively. Two of Maryland's counties, Howard and Montgomery, are the third and seventh wealthiest counties in the nation respectively. Also, the state's poverty rate of 7.8% is the lowest in the country. U.S. Poverty Rate Drops; Ranks of Uninsured Grow washingtonpost.com. Maryland is ranked as richest state baltmioresun.com. US Poverty Rate Declines Significantly FOXNews.com. Per capita personal income in 2006 was US$43,500, 5th in the nation. Average household income in 2002 was US$53,043, also 5th in the nation. The State of Individual Giving in Maryland - 2005, The Association of Baltimore Area Grantmakers. Maryland's economic activity is strongly concentrated in the tertiary service sector, and this sector, in turn, is strongly influenced by location. One major service activity is transportation, centered around the Port of Baltimore and its related rail and trucking access. The port ranked 10th in the U.S. by tonnage in 2002 (Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, "Waterborne Commerce Statistics"). Although the port handles a wide variety of products, the most typical imports are raw materials and bulk commodities, such as iron ore, petroleum, sugar, and fertilizers, often distributed to the relatively close manufacturing centers of the inland Midwest via good overland transportation. The port also receives several different brands of imported motor vehicles and is the number two auto port in the U.S. A second service activity takes advantage of the close location of the center of government in Washington, D.C. and emphasizes technical and administrative tasks for the defense/aerospace industry and bio-research laboratories, as well as staffing of satellite government headquarters in the suburban or exurban Baltimore/Washington area. In addition, many educational and medical research institutions are located in the state. In fact, the various components of Johns Hopkins University and its medical research facilities are now the largest single employer in the Baltimore area. Altogether, white collar technical and administrative workers comprise 25% of Maryland's labor force, one of the highest state percentages in the country. Maryland has a large food-production sector. A large component of this is commercial fishing, centered in Chesapeake Bay, but also including activity off the short Atlantic seacoast. The largest catches by species are the blue crab, oysters, striped bass, and menhaden. The Bay also has uncounted millions of overwintering waterfowl in its many wildlife refuges. While not, strictly speaking, a commercial food resource, the waterfowl support a tourism sector of sportsmen. Agriculture is an important part of the state's economy. Maryland has large areas of fertile agricultural land in its coastal and Piedmont zones, although this land use is being encroached upon by urbanization. Agriculture is oriented to dairying (especially in foothill and piedmont areas) for nearby large city milksheads plus specialty perishable horticulture crops, such as cucumbers, watermelons, sweet corn, tomatoes, muskmelons, squash, and peas (Source:USDA Crop Profiles). In addition, the southern counties of the western shoreline of Chesapeake Bay are warm enough to support a tobacco cash crop zone, which has existed since early Colonial times but declined greatly after a state government buyout in the 1990s. There is also a large automated chicken-farming sector in the state's southeastern part; Salisbury is home to Perdue Farms. Maryland's food-processing plants are the most significant type of manufacturing by value in the state. Manufacturing, while large in dollar value, is highly diversified with no sub-sector contributing over 20% of the total. Typical forms of manufacturing include electronics, computer equipment, and chemicals. The once mighty primary metals sub-sector, which at one time included what was then the largest steel factory in the world at Sparrows Point, still exists, but is pressed with foreign competition, bankruptcies, and company mergers. During World War II the Glenn L. Martin Company (now part of Lockheed Martin) airplane factory near Essex, MD employed some 40,000 people. Mining other than construction materials is virtually limited to coal, which is located in the mountainous western part of the state. The brownstone quarries in the east, which gave Baltimore and Washington much of their characteristic architecture in the mid-1800s, were once a predominant natural resource. Historically, there used to be small gold-mining operations in Maryland, some surprisingly near Washington, but these no longer exist. Maryland imposes 5 income tax brackets, ranging from 2% to 6.25% of personal income. The city of Baltimore and Maryland's 23 counties levy local "piggyback" income taxes at rates between 1.25% and 3.2% of Maryland taxable income. Local officials set the rates and the revenue is returned to the local governments quarterly. The top income tax bracket of 9.45% is the fifth highest combined state and local income tax rates in the country, behind only New York City's 11.35%, California’s 10.3%, Rhode Island’s 9.9%, and Vermont’s 9.5%. Maryland's state sales tax is 6%. All real property in Maryland is subject to the property tax. Generally, properties that are owned and used by religious, charitable, or educational organizations or property owned by the federal, state or local governments are exempt. Property tax rates vary widely. No restrictions or limitations on property taxes are imposed by the state, meaning cities and counties can set tax rates at the level they deem necessary to fund governmental services. These rates can increase, decrease or remain the same from year to year. If the proposed tax rate increases the total property tax revenues, the governing body must advertise that fact and hold a public hearing on the new tax rate. This is called the Constant Yield Tax Rate process. Baltimore City is the eighth largest port in the nation, and was at the center of the February 2006 controversy over the Dubai Ports World deal because it was considered to be of such strategic importance. The state as a whole is heavily industrialized, with a booming economy and influential technology centers. Its computer industries are some of the most sophisticated in the United States, and the federal government has invested heavily in the area. Maryland is home to several large military bases and scores of high level government jobs. Transportation The Maryland Department of Transportation, headquartered in the Hanover area of unincorporated Anne Arundel County, "MDOT Departments." Maryland Department of Transportation. Retrieved on March 23, 2009. oversees transportation in the state. Roads The sign used to mark Maryland's state highways. Maryland, showing major cities and roads Maryland's Interstate highways include I-95, which enters the northeast portion of the state, goes through Baltimore, and becomes part of the eastern section of the Capital Beltway to the Woodrow Wilson Bridge. I-68 connects the western portions of the state to I-70 at the small town of Hancock. I-70 continues east to Baltimore, connecting Hagerstown and Frederick along the way. I-83 connects Baltimore to southern central Pennsylvania (Harrisburg and York, Pennsylvania). Maryland also has a portion of I-81 that runs through the state near Hagerstown. I-97, fully contained within Anne Arundel County and the shortest one- or two-digit Interstate highway outside of Hawaii, connects the Baltimore area to the Annapolis area. There are also several auxiliary Interstate highways in Maryland. Among them are two beltways encircling the major cities of the region: I-695, the McKeldin (Baltimore) Beltway, which encircles Baltimore; a portion of I-495, and the Capital Beltway, which encircles Washington, D.C. I-270, which connects the Frederick area with Northern Virginia and the District of Columbia through major suburbs to the northwest of Washington, is a major commuter route and is as wide as fourteen lanes at points. Both I-270 and the Capital Beltway are currently extremely congested; however, the ICC or Intercounty Connector, which began construction in November 2007, is hoped to alleviate some of the congestion over time. Construction of the ICC was a major part of the campaign platform of former Governor Robert Ehrlich, who was in office from 2003 until 2007, and of Governor Martin O'Malley, who succeeded him. The Chesapeake Bay Bridge, which connects Maryland's Eastern and Western Shores, is the most popular route for tourists to reach the resort town of Ocean City. Maryland also has a state highway system that contains routes numbered from 2 through 999, however most of the higher-numbered routes are either not signed or are relatively short. Major state highways include Routes 2 (Governor Ritchie Highway/Solomons Island Road), 4 (Solomons Island Road), 5 (Branch Avenue/Leonardtown Road/Point Lookout Road), 32, 45 (York Road), 97 (Georgia Avenue), 100 (Paul T. Pitcher Memorial Highway), 210 (Indian Head Highway), 235 (Three Notch Road), 295 (Baltimore-Washington Parkway), 355, and 404. Airports Maryland's largest airport is Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (formerly known as Friendship Airport and recently renamed for Baltimore-born former and first African-American Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall). The only other airports with commercial service are at Hagerstown and Salisbury. The Maryland suburbs of Washington, D.C., are also serviced by the other two airports in the region, Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport and Dulles International Airport, both in Northern Virginia. Trains Amtrak trains serve Baltimore's Penn Station, BWI Airport, New Carrollton, and Aberdeen along the Northeast Corridor. In addition, train service is provided to Rockville and Cumberland on the Amtrak Capitol Limited. MARC commuter trains, operated by the State's Transit Authority, connect nearby Washington, D.C., Frederick, Baltimore, and many towns between. The Washington Metro subway and bus system serve Montgomery County and Prince George's County. The Maryland Transit Administration's light rail and short subway system serve Baltimore City and adjacent suburbs. Shipping Canals Located on Maryland's Eastern Shore lies the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. It was established to connect the northern Delaware Bay to the Chesapeake Bay. Construction began in Chesapeake City, Maryland Law and government The Government of Maryland is conducted according to the state constitution. The Government of Maryland, like the other 49 state governments, has exclusive authority over matters that lie entirely within the state's borders, except as limited by the Constitution of the United States. Maryland is a republic; the United States guarantees her "republican form of government" although there is considerable disagreement about the meaning of that phrase. Power in Maryland is divided among three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial. The Maryland General Assembly is composed of the Maryland House of Delegates and the Maryland Senate. Maryland's governor is unique in the United States as the office is vested with significant authority in budgeting. The legislature may not increase the governor's proposed budget expenditures. Unlike most other states, significant autonomy is granted to many of Maryland's counties. Most of the business of government is conducted in Annapolis, the state capital. Virtually all state and county elections are held in even-numbered years not divisible by four, in which the President of the United States is not elected – this, as in other states, is intended to divide state and federal politics. The judicial branch of state government consists of one united District Court of Maryland that sits in every county and Baltimore City, as well as 24 Circuit Courts sitting in each County and Baltimore City, the latter being courts of general jurisdiction for all civil disputes over $30,000.00, all equitable jurisdiction and major criminal proceedings. The intermediate appellate court is known as the "Court of Special Appeals" and the state supreme court is the "Court of Appeals". The appearance of the judges of the Maryland Court of Appeals is unique in that Maryland is the only state whose judges wear red robes. Politics Since before the Civil War, Maryland politics has been largely controlled by the Democrats, even as the party's platform has changed considerably in that time. State politics is dominated by Baltimore and the populous suburban counties bordering Washington, D.C.: Montgomery and Prince George's. Forty-three percent of the state's population resides in these three jurisdictions, each of which contain large, traditionally Democratic voting bloc(s): African Americans in Baltimore and Prince George's, federal employees in Prince George's and Montgomery, and postgraduates in Montgomery. The remainder of the state, particularly Western Maryland and the Eastern Shore, is more supportive of Republicans. Spiro Agnew, former Vice President of the United States and the highest-ranking political leader in Maryland's history. Maryland has supported the Democratic nominee in each of the last five presidential elections, by an average margin of 15.4%. In 1980, it was one of only six states to vote for Jimmy Carter. Maryland is often among the Democratic nominees' best states. In 1992, Bill Clinton fared better in Maryland than any other state except his home state of Arkansas. In 1996, Maryland was Clinton's sixth best, in 2000 Maryland ranked fourth for Gore and in 2004 John Kerry showed his fifth best performance in Maryland. Barack Obama won the state's 10 electoral votes in 2008 with 61.9% of the vote to John McCain's 36.5%. Both of Maryland's U.S. Senators and seven of its eight Representatives in Congress are Democrats, and Democrats hold supermajorities in the state Senate and House of Delegates. The previous Governor, Robert Ehrlich, was the first Republican to be elected to that office in four decades, and after one term lost his seat to Baltimore Mayor Martin J. O'Malley, a Democrat. U.S. Congressman Steny Hoyer (MD-5), a Democrat, was elected as Majority Leader for the 110th Congress of the House of Representatives, and 111th Congress, serving in that post since January, 2007. His district covers parts of Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties, in addition to all of Charles, Calvert and St. Mary's counties in southern Maryland. Steny Hoyer, Fifth Congressional District of Maryland. U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved December 8, 2006 from http://hoyer.house.gov The 2006 election cycle brought no significant change in this pattern of Democratic dominance. After Democratic Senator Paul Sarbanes announced that he was retiring, Democratic Congressman Benjamin Cardin defeated Republican Lieutenant Governor Michael S. Steele, with 55% of the vote, against Steele's 44%. The governorship was also a point of interest, as Republican incumbent Robert Ehrlich was defeated by Democratic challenger Martin O'Malley, the Mayor of Baltimore, 53% to 46%. Montgomery County Executive Doug Duncan, another leading candidate for the Democratic slot, pulled out of the highly anticipated primary, announcing his withdrawal on June 22, 2006, citing clinical depression. While Maryland is a Democratic Party stronghold, perhaps its best known political figure is a Republican – former Governor Spiro Agnew, who served as United States Vice President under Richard Nixon. He was Vice President from 1969 to 1973, when he resigned in the aftermath of revelations that he had taken bribes while he was Governor of Maryland. In late 1973, a court found Agnew guilty of violating tax laws. Education Primary and secondary education Memorial Chapel at the University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland's largest university. Public primary and secondary education in Maryland is overseen by the Maryland State Department of Education, which is headquartered in Baltimore. "About MSDE." Maryland State Department of Education. Retrieved on March 22, 2009. The highest educational official in the state is the State Superintendent of Schools, currently Dr. Nancy Grasmick, who is appointed by the State Board of Education to a four-year term of office. The Maryland General Assembly has given the Superintendent and State Board autonomy to make educationally related decisions, limiting its own influence on the day to day functions of public education. Each county and county-equivalent in Maryland has a local Board of Education charged with running the public schools in that particular jurisdiction. Maryland has a broad range of private primary and secondary schools. Many of these are affiliated with various religious sects, including parochial schools of the Catholic Church, Quaker schools, Seventh-day Adventist schools, and Jewish schools. In 2003, Maryland law was changed to allow for the creation of publicly funded charter schools, although the charter schools must be approved by their local Board of Education and are not exempt from state laws on education, including collective bargaining laws. In 2008, the state led the entire country in the percentage of students passing Advanced Placement examinations. 23.4 percent of students earned passing grades on the AP tests given in May 2008. This marks the first year that Maryland earned this honor. Colleges and universities The oldest college in Maryland, and the third oldest college in the United States, is St. John's College, founded in 1696 as King William's School. Maryland has 18 other private colleges and universities, the most prominent of which is Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876 with a grant from Baltimore entrepreneur Johns Hopkins. The first and largest public university in the state is the University of Maryland, College Park, which was founded as the Maryland Agricultural College in 1856 and became a public land grant college in 1864. Towson University, founded in 1866, is the state's second largest university. Baltimore is home to the Maryland Institute College of Art. The majority of public universities in the state are affiliated with the University System of Maryland. Two state-funded institutions, Morgan State University and St. Mary's College of Maryland, as well as two federally funded institutions, the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences and the United States Naval Academy, are not affiliated with the University System of Maryland. Sports FedEx Field, the largest stadium in the NFL, is located in Landover With two major metropolitan areas, Maryland has a number of major and minor professional sports franchises. Two National Football League teams play in Maryland, the Baltimore Ravens in Baltimore and the Washington Redskins in Prince George's County. The Baltimore Orioles are the state's Major League Baseball franchise, with the Washington Nationals located nearby in Washington D.C. The National Hockey League's Washington Capitals and the National Basketball Association's Washington Wizards formerly played in Maryland, until the construction of a Washington arena in 1997 (originally known as MCI Center, renamed Verizon Center in 2006). Maryland enjoys considerable historical repute for the talented sports players of its past, including: Cal Ripken Jr. and Babe Ruth. Oriole Park at Camden Yards Other professional sports franchises in the state include five affiliated minor league baseball teams, one independent league baseball team, the Baltimore Blast indoor soccer team, two indoor football teams, and three low-level outdoor soccer teams. The official state sport of Maryland, since 1962, is jousting; the official team sport since 2004 is lacrosse. In 2008, intending to promote physical fitness for all ages, walking became the official state exercise. Maryland is the first state with an official state exercise. STATE SYMBOLS: Marylanders take a walk, and eat cake too. Retrieved September 30, 2008. Maryland is home to Olympic swimming medalists Michael Phelps and Katie Hoff. See also Index of Maryland-related articles Maryland Military Department References Further reading Robert J. Brugger. Maryland, A Middle Temperament: 1634-1980 (1996) Suzanne Ellery Greene Chappelle, Jean H. Baker, Dean R. Esslinger, and Whitman H. Ridgeway. Maryland: A History of its People (1986) Lawrence Denton. A Southern Star for Maryland (1995) External links Official website of the State of Maryland The Official Website for tourism in Maryland Energy Data & Statistics for Maryland USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Maryland U.S. Census Bureau List of Northeast-region states Catholic Encyclopedia article Maryland State Facts | Maryland |@lemmatized maryland:211 distinguish:1 pronounce:1 merry:1 name:5 mary:7 random:1 house:8 dictionary:1 state:148 locate:9 mid:5 atlantic:9 region:18 united:19 border:10 virginia:18 west:12 district:6 columbia:4 south:9 pennsylvania:10 north:8 delaware:9 east:8 historically:3 part:25 chesapeake:20 colony:11 planter:2 cultivate:2 tobacco:4 cash:3 crop:5 dependent:1 slave:5 labor:3 u:22 census:6 bureau:6 designate:1 one:17 consider:3 northeastern:3 example:3 include:23 government:24 agency:3 library:1 congress:4 geological:1 survey:1 environmental:2 protection:2 national:12 park:6 service:11 department:7 energy:4 public:9 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5,923 | H._G._Wells | Herbert George Wells (21 September 1866 – 13 August 1946), usually known as H. G. Wells, was an English author, best known for his work in the science fiction genre. Wells and Jules Verne are each sometimes referred to as "The Father of Science Fiction". Adam Charl PENIS es Roberts(2000), "The History of Science Fiction": Page 48 in Science Fiction, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-19204-8. Others who are popularly called the "Fathers of Science Fiction" include Hugo Gernsback. Wells was an outspoken socialist and a pacifist, and his later works became increasingly political and didactic. His middle period novels (1900-1920) were more realistic; they covered lower middle class life (The History of Mr Polly) and the 'New Woman' and the Suffragettes (Ann Veronica). He was a prolific writer in many genres, including contemporary novels, history, and social commentary. Biography Early life Herbert George Wells was born at Atlas House, 47 High Street, Bromley, in the county of Kent, on 21 September, 1866. Called "Bertie" in the family, he was the fourth and last child of Joseph Wells (a former domestic gardener, and at the time shopkeeper and amateur cricketer) and his wife Sarah Neal (a former domestic servant). The family was of the impoverished lower-middle-class. An inheritance had allowed them to purchase a shop in which they sold china and sporting goods, although it was never prosperous: the stock was old and worn out, and the location was poor. They managed to earn a meagre income, but little of it came from the shop; Joseph received an unsteady amount of money from playing professional cricket http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_and_professional_cricketers for the Kent county team. Smith, David C. (1986) H.G. Wells: Desperately mortal. A biography. Yale University Press, New Haven and London ISBN 0-300-03672-8 Payment for skilled bowlers and batters came from voluntary donations afterwards, or from small payments from the clubs where matches were played. A defining incident of young Wells's life was an accident he had in 1874, which left him bedridden with a broken leg. To pass the time he started reading books from the local library, brought to him by his father. He soon became devoted to the other worlds and lives to which books gave him access; they also stimulated his desire to write. Later that year he entered Thomas Morley's Commercial Academy, a private school founded in 1849 following the bankruptcy of Morley's earlier school. The teaching was erratic, the curriculum mostly focused, Wells later said, on producing copperplate handwriting and doing the sort of sums useful to tradesmen. Wells continued at Morley's Academy until 1880. In 1877, his father, Joseph Wells, fractured his thigh. The accident effectively put an end to Joseph's career as a cricketer, and his earnings as a shopkeeper were not enough to compensate for the loss. No longer able to support themselves financially, the family instead sought to place their boys as apprentices to various occupations. From 1881 to 1883, Wells had an unhappy apprenticeship as a draper at the Southsea Drapery Emporium: Hyde's. His experiences were later used as inspiration for his novels The Wheels of Chance and Kipps, which describe the life of a draper's apprentice as well as being critiques of the world's distribution of wealth. Wells's mother and father had never got along with one another particularly well (she was a Protestant, he a freethinker), and when she went back to work as a lady's maid (at Uppark, a country house in Sussex) one of the conditions of work was that she would not have space for her husband or children. Thereafter, she and Joseph lived separate lives, though they never divorced and neither ever developed any other liaison. As for Wells, he not only failed at being a draper, he also failed as a chemist's assistant, and after each failure, he would arrive at Uppark — "the bad shilling back again!" as he said — and stay there until a fresh start could be arranged for him. Fortunately for Wells, Uppark had a magnificent library in which he immersed himself, reading many classic works, including Plato's Republic, and More's Utopia. Teacher H. G. Wells in 1908 at the door of his house at Sandgate In 1883, Wells persuaded his parents to sign the papers releasing him from his draper's apprenticeship at Hyde's, seizing the opportunity to become a pupil and pupil teacher at Midhurst Grammar School in West Sussex. The years in Southsea had been the most miserable of his life thus far, but his good fortune at securing a position at Midhurst Grammar School meant that Wells could continue his self-education in earnest. The following year, Wells won a scholarship to the Normal School of Science (later the Royal College of Science in South Kensington, now part of Imperial College London) in London, studying biology under Thomas Henry Huxley. As an alumnus, he later helped to set up the Royal College of Science Association, of which he became the first president in 1909. Wells studied in his new school until 1887 with a weekly allowance of twenty-one shillings (a guinea) thanks to his scholarship. This ought to have been a comfortable sum of money (at the time many working class families had "round about a pound a week" as their entire household income) Reeves, M.S. Round About a Pound a Week. New York: Garland Pub., 1980. ISBN 0824001192 Some of the text is available online. yet in his Experiment in Autobiography, Wells speaks of constantly being hungry, and indeed, photographs of him at the time show a youth so thin as to be virtually starving. He soon entered the Debating Society of the school. These years mark the beginning of his interest in a possible reformation of society. At first approaching the subject through The Republic by Plato, he soon turned to contemporary ideas of socialism as expressed by the recently formed Fabian Society and free lectures delivered at Kelmscott House, the home of William Morris. He was also among the founders of The Science School Journal, a school magazine which allowed him to express his views on literature and society, as well as trying his hand at fiction: the first version of his novel The Time Machine was published in the journal under the title, The Chronic Argonauts. The school year 1886-1887 was the last year of his studies. In spite of having previously successfully passed his exams in both biology and physics, his lack of interest in geology resulted in his failure to pass and the loss of his scholarship. It was not until 1890 that Wells earned a Bachelor of Science degree in zoology from the University of London External Programme. Upon leaving the Normal School of Science, Wells was left without a source of income. His aunt Mary, a cousin of his father, invited him to stay with her for a while, so at least he did not face the problem of housing. During his stay with his aunt, he grew interested in her daughter, Isabel. In 1889-90 he managed to find a post as a teacher at Henley House School where he taught and admired A. A. Milne. Private lifeH.G.Wells' Home, Maybury Hill. In 1891 Wells married his cousin Isabel Mary Wells, but left her in 1894 for one of his students, Amy Catherine Robbins, whom he married in 1895. He had two sons with Amy: George Philip (known as 'Gip') in 1901 and Frank Richard in 1903. ThinkQuest Library. H. G. Wells Biography. During his marriage to Amy, Wells had liaisons with a number of women, including the American birth-control activist Margaret Sanger University of Illinois News Bureau, December 2001. New biography on H. G. Wells focuses on late-life loves. and novelist Elizabeth von Arnim. In 1909 he had a daughter, Anna-Jane, with the writer Amber Reeves, whose parents, William and Maud Pember Reeves, he had met through the Fabian Society; and in 1914, a son, Anthony West, by the novelist and feminist Rebecca West, twenty-six years his junior. Pegasos - A Literature Related Resource Site. H(erbert) G(eorge) Wells (1866-1946). In spite of Amy Catherine's knowledge of some of these affairs, she remained married to Wells until her death in 1927. Wells also had liaisons with Odette Keun and Moura Budberg. "I was never a great amorist," Wells wrote in Experiment in Autobiography (1934), "though I have loved several people very deeply." He was a pantheist. Artist As one method of self-expression, Wells tended to sketch a lot. One common location for these sketches was the endpapers and title pages of his own diaries, and they covered a wide variety of topics, from political commentary to his feelings toward his literary contemporaries and his current romantic interests. During his marriage to Amy Catherine, whom he nicknamed Jane, he sketched a considerable number of pictures, many of them being overt comments on their marriage. It was during this period, and this period only, that he called his sketches "picshuas." These picshuas have been the topic of study by Wells scholars for many years, and recently a book was published on the subject. Rinkel, Gene and Margaret. The Picshuas of H. G. Wells : A burlesque diary. Urbana : University of Illinois Press, 2006. ISBN 0-252-03045-1 (cloth : acid-free paper). Games Seeking a more structured way to play war games, Wells wrote Floor Games (1911) followed by Little Wars (1913). Little Wars is recognised today as the first recreational wargame and Wells is regarded by gamers and hobbyists as "the Father of Miniature War Gaming." The Miniatures Page. The World of Miniatures - An Overview. Writer Wells's first non-fiction bestseller was Anticipations (1901). World Transhumanist Association. Herbert George Wells. When originally serialised in a magazine it was subtitled, "An Experiment in Prophecy", and is considered his most explicitly futuristic work. Anticipating what the world would be like in the year 2000, the book is interesting both for its hits (trains and cars resulting in the dispersion of population from cities to suburbs; moral restrictions declining as men and women seek greater sexual freedom; the defeat of German militarism, and the existence of a European Union) and its misses (he did not expect successful aircraft before 1950, and averred that "my imagination refuses to see any sort of submarine doing anything but suffocate its crew and founder at sea"). Statue of a The War of the Worlds tripod, erected as a tribute to H. G. Wells in Woking town centre, UK. His early novels, called "scientific romances", invented a number of themes now classic in science fiction in such works as The Time Machine, The Island of Doctor Moreau, The Invisible Man, The War of the Worlds, When the Sleeper Wakes, and The First Men in the Moon (all except When the Sleeper Wakes have been made into films). He also wrote other, non-fantastic novels which have received critical acclaim, including Kipps and the satire on Edwardian advertising, Tono-Bungay. Wells wrote several dozen short stories and novellas, the best known of which is "The Country of the Blind" (1904). His short story "The New Accelerator" was the inspiration for the Star Trek episode Wink of an Eye. Though Tono-Bungay was not a science-fiction novel, radioactive decay plays a small but consequential role in it. Radioactive decay plays a much larger role in The World Set Free (1914). This book contains what is surely his biggest prophetic "hit." Scientists of the day were well aware that the natural decay of radium releases energy at a slow rate over thousands of years. The rate of release is too slow to have practical utility, but the total amount released is huge. Wells' novel revolves around an (unspecified) invention that accelerates the process of radioactive decay, producing bombs that explode with no more than the force of ordinary high explosive— but which "continue to explode" for days on end. "Nothing could have been more obvious to the people of the earlier twentieth century," he wrote, "than the rapidity with which war was becoming impossible... [but] they did not see it until the atomic bombs burst in their fumbling hands." Leó Szilárd acknowledged that the book inspired him to theorise the nuclear chain reaction. Wells also wrote nonfiction. His bestselling two-volume work, The Outline of History (1920), began a new era of popularised world history. It received a mixed critical response from professional historians. http://www.cs.clemson.edu/~tdoyle/hgwells/outline_hist.shtml Many other authors followed with 'Outlines' of their own in other subjects. Wells reprised his Outline in 1922 with a much shorter popular work, A Short History of the World, http://www.bartleby.com/86/ and two long efforts, The Science of Life (1930) and The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind (1931). The 'Outlines' became sufficiently common for James Thurber to parody the trend in his humorous essay, "An Outline of Scientists" — indeed, Wells's Outline of History remains in print with a new 2005 edition, while A Short History of the World has been recently reedited (2006). From quite early in his career, he sought a better way to organise society, and wrote a number of Utopian novels. The first of these was A Modern Utopia (1905), which shows a world-wide utopia with "no imports but meteorites, and no exports at all" A Modern Utopia ; two travellers from our world fall into its alternate history. The others usually begin with the world rushing to catastrophe, until people realise a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a comet causing people to behave rationally and abandoning a European war (In the Days of the Comet (1906)), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in The Shape of Things to Come (1933, which he later adapted for the 1936 Alexander Korda film, Things to Come). This depicted, all too accurately, the impending World War, with cities being destroyed by aerial bombs. He also portrayed the rise of fascist dictators in The Autocracy of Mr Parham (1930) and The Holy Terror (1939), though in the former novel, the tale is revealed at the last to have been Mr Parham's dream vision. H. G. Wells in 1943 Wells contemplates the ideas of nature versus nurture and questions humanity in books such as The Island of Doctor Moreau. Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, and in fact, Wells also wrote the first dystopia novel, When the Sleeper Wakes (1899, rewritten as The Sleeper Awakes, 1910), which pictures a future society where the classes have become more and more separated, leading to a revolt of the masses against the rulers. The Island of Doctor Moreau is even darker. The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like Gulliver on his return from the Houyhnhnms, he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures. Wells also wrote the preface for the first edition of W. N. P. Barbellion's diaries, The Journal of a Disappointed Man, published in 1919. Since "Barbellion" was the real author's pen name, many reviewers believed Wells to have been the true author of the Journal; Wells always denied this, despite being full of praise for the diaries, but the rumours persisted until Barbellion's death later that year. In 1927, Florence Deeks sued Wells for plagiarism, claiming that he had stolen much of the content of The Outline of History from a work, The Web, she had submitted to the Canadian Macmillan Company, but who held onto the manuscript for eight months before rejecting it. Despite numerous similarities in phrasing and factual errors, the court found Wells not guilty. In 1934, Wells predicted that the world war he had described in The Shape of Things to Come would begin in 1940, a prediction which ultimately came true one year early. La prochaine guerre en 1940 dit Wells, La Patrie, 5-9-1934 In 1936, before the Royal Institution, Wells called for the compilation of a constantly growing and changing World Encyclopedia, to be reviewed by outstanding authorities and made accessible to every human being. In 1938, he published a collection of essays on the future organisation of knowledge and education, World Brain, including the essay, "The Idea of a Permanent World Encyclopaedia." Near the end of the second World War, Allied forces discovered that the SS had compiled lists of intellectuals and politicians slated for immediate execution upon the invasion of England in the abandoned Operation Sea Lion. The name "H. G. Wells" appeared high on the list for the "crime" of being a socialist. Wells, as president of the International PEN (Poets, Essayists, Novelists), had already angered the Nazis by overseeing the expulsion of the German PEN club from the international body in 1934 following the German PEN's refusal to admit non-Aryan writers to its membership. Wells, Frank. H.G. Wells - A Pictorial Biography. London: Jupiter Books, 1977. Page 91. Politics Wells called his political views socialist. He was for a time a member of the socialist Fabian Society, but broke with them as he intended them to be an organization far more radical than they wanted. He later grew staunchly critical of them as having a poor understanding of economics and educational reform. He ran as a Labour Party candidate for London University in the 1922 and 1923 general elections after the death of his friend W. H. R. Rivers, but at that point his faith in the party was weak or uncertain. His most consistent political ideal was the World State. He stated in his autobiography that from 1900 onward he considered a World State inevitable. He envisioned the state to be a planned society that will advance science, end nationalism, and allow people to advance by merit rather than birth. During his work on the League of Nations charter, he opposed any mention of democracy. He feared the average citizen could never be educated or aware enough to decide major world issues. Therefore, he favoured suffrage to be limited to scientists, organisers, engineers, and others of merit, though he believed citizens should have as much freedom as possible without restricting the freedom of others. His values and political thinking came under increasing criticism from the 1920s and afterwards. Experiment in Autobiography 556. Also chapter four of Future as Nightmare: H. G. Wells and the Anti-Utopians by Mark Robert Hillegas. Lenin's attempts at reconstructing the shattered Russian economy, as his account of a visit (Russia in the Shadows; 1920) shows, also related towards that. This is because at first he believed Lenin might lead to the kind of planned world he envisioned. This was in spite of the fact that he was a strongly anti-Marxist socialist who would later state that it would have been better if Karl Marx had never been born. The leadership of Joseph Stalin led to a change in his view of the Soviet Union even though his initial impression of Stalin himself was mixed. He disliked what he saw as a narrow orthodoxy and obdurance to the facts in Stalin. However he did give him some praise saying in an article in the left-leaning New Statesman magazine, "I have never met a man more fair, candid, and honest" and making it clear that he felt the "sinister" image of Stalin was unfair or simply false. Nevertheless he judged Stalin's rule to be far too rigid, restrictive of independent thought, and blinkered to lead toward the Cosmopolis he hoped for. Experiment in Autobiography p. 215, 687-689 Wells believed in the theory of eugenics. In 1904 he discussed a survey paper by Francis Galton, co-founder of eugenics, saying "I believe .. It is in the sterilisation of failure, and not in the selection of successes for breeding, that the possibility of an improvement of the human stock lies." Some contemporary supporters even suggested connections between the "degenerate" man-creatures portrayed in The Time Machine and Wells's eugenic beliefs. For example, the economist Irving Fisher said in a 1912 address to the Eugenics Research Association: "The Nordic race will... vanish or lose its dominance if, in fact, the whole human race does not sink so low as to become the prey, as H. G. Wells images, of some less degenerate animal!" David M. Levy and Sandra J. Peart. "Eugenics Rides a Time Machine: H. G. Wells's outline of genocide". Reason Magazine. 26 March, 2002 Wells had given some moderate unenthusiastic support for Territorialism before the First World War, but later became a bitter opponent of the Zionist movement in general. He saw Zionism as an exclusive and separatist movement which challenged the collective solidarity he advocated in his vision of a world state. No supporter of Jewish identity in general, Wells had in his utopian writings predicted the ultimate assimilation of Jewry. Cheyette, Bryan. Constructions of "the Jew" in English Literature and Society. Cambridge University Press, 1995. (Pages 143-148) Hamerow, Theodore S. Why we watched: Europe, America, and the Holocaust. W. W. Norton & Company, 2008. (Pages 98-100, 219 ) "Desirable Aliens: British Men of Letters on The Jews". The Review of reviews Vol. XXXIII Jan-June 1906. (Page 378) In the end his contemporary political impact was limited. His efforts regarding the League of Nations became a disappointment as the organisation turned out to be a weak one unable to prevent World War II. The war itself increased the pessimistic side of his nature. In his last book Mind at the End of its Tether (1945) he considered the idea that humanity being replaced by another species might not be a bad idea. He also came to call the era "The age of frustration." Final years He spent his final years venting this frustration at various targets which included a neighbour who erected a large sign to a servicemen's club. As he devoted his final decades toward causes which were largely rejected by contemporaries, his literary reputation declined. One critic said, "Mr. Wells is a born storyteller who has sold his birthright for a pot of message." Encyclopedia Americana vol. 28 p. 616 and The Scientific Romance in Britain: 1890-1950 by Brian Stableford. Also The "pot of message" remark comes from a 1948 Theodore Sturgeon short story entitled Unite and Conquer, a character in the story was quoting a "Dr. Pierce". Wells was a diabetic and a co-founder in 1934 of what is now Diabetes UK, the leading charity for people living with diabetes in the UK. He died of unspecified causes on 13 August, 1946 at his home at 13 Hanover Terrace, Regent's Park, London. Some reports indicate the cause of death was diabetes or liver cancer. In his preface to the 1941 edition of The War in the Air, Wells had stated that his epitaph should be: "I told you so. You damned fools." but his wish was not granted as he was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 16 August, 1946 and his ashes were later scattered at sea. West, Anthony. "H. G. Wells: Aspects of a Life", p.153. London: Hutchinson & Co, 1984. ISBN 0 09 134540 5). A commemorative blue plaque in his honour was installed at his home in Regent's Park. Legacy In his lifetime and after his death, Wells was considered a prominent socialist thinker. In later years, however, Wells's image has shifted and he is now regarded as one of the pioneers of science fiction. In popular fiction H. G. Wells has been portrayed in a number of novels and films, including: A teenaged HG Wells is one of the heroes with a similarly youthful GK Chesterton in The Young Chesterton Chronicles, Volume I: The Tripods Attack!, a science fiction/ alternative history adventure series, written by John McNichol and published by Imagio Catholic Fiction, an imprint of Sophia Institute Press The novel The Time Ships, by British author Stephen Baxter, was designated by the Wells estate as an authorised sequel to The Time Machine, marking the centenary of its publication, and features characters, situations and technobabble from several of Wells's stories, as well as a representation of Wells (unnamed, and referred to as 'my friend, the Author'). In C. S. Lewis' novel That Hideous Strength, the character Jules is a caricature of Wells, and much of Lewis's science fiction was written both under the influence of Wells and as an antithesis to his work. The devoutly Christian Lewis was especially incensed at Wells's The Shape of Things to Come where a future world government systematically persecutes and completely obliterates Christianity (and all other religions), which the book presents as a positive and vitally necessary act. Wells's photo appears on a stairway wall of time traveller Alex Hartdegen's New York brownstone, in a 2002 version of The Time Machine, directed by Wells's great-grandson Simon Wells. The 1960 movie version has a plate on the Time Machine telling that it had been manufactured by "H. George Wells" (a.k.a. George, the protagonist of the film). Arthur Sammler, the main character of Saul Bellow's Mr. Sammler's Planet, knew Wells, and is urged by other characters to use that fact as the basis for writing a biography of Wells, a project about which Holocaust survivor and self-made philosopher Sammler has decidedly mixed feelings. Wells appears as the protagonist in the 1979 film Time After Time, and in the novel The Martian War by Kevin J. Anderson (as "Gabriel Mesta"). Both works use the conceit that Wells's works were based upon actual adventures he had. In the film, he meets and falls in love with a woman named Amy Robbins (the name of his real-life second wife). In an episode of Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, titled Tempus Fugitive, a time-travelling H. G. Wells (Terry Kiser) seeks out Superman's help to stop a criminal from the future whom Wells had accidentally unleashed on the present. The concept of Wells's time machine being stolen and used for evil closely resembles the plot of Time After Time. Both H. G. Wells and the criminal Tempus (Lane Davies) returned for three later episodes. In an adventure in the BBC's Doctor Who, the two-part, 90-minute "Timelash", the time-travelling Doctor (Colin Baker) encounters an excitable young man, Herbert, in the Scottish Highlands, taking him on an adventure that is revealed to have been inspirational when it is finally realised this is the pre-published Wells. In the Disney Channel series Phil of the Future, the title character attends a fictional school named H. G. Wells Junior High, the name of the school possibly drawn from the show's science fiction manner. In Ben Bova's short story "Inspiration", the narrator gets Wells to meet a young Albert Einstein and Lord Kelvin. In the end of the story he (Wells) gave a tip to a 6 year old Adolf Hitler. The movie Librarian:Quest for The Spear, ends with the main character, Flynn Carsen, getting a mission to retrieve H. G. Wells's Time Machine. Newt Gingrich, former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives and staunch Republican, praised Wells in his book To Renew America, writing "Our generation is still seeking its Jules Verne or H. G. Wells to dazzle our imaginations with hope and optimism". Gingrich, Newt. To Renew America. New York: HarperCollins, 1995. p. 189. In the movie The Maltese Falcon Kasper Gutman recounts the history of the bird emphasizing that "Those are facts, historical facts, not school book history, not Mr. Wells' history, but facts nevertheless." In the science/historical fiction novel And Having Writ..., Wells is a major character. Wells makes an appearance in the Stargate SG-1 book Roswell. H. G. Wells makes an appearance in Chapter 10 of The Hollow Lands by Michael Moorcock. This being the second book in The Dancers at the End of Time series. The hero has gone back in time and needs help returning to the future. Woody Allen's comedy film Sleeper (1973) is loosely based on Wells's novel, When the Sleeper Awakes. The Infinite Worlds of H. G. Wells is a 4hr dramatization of the origin of several of Wells' stories. Originally made for TV, the series has been released on DVD. In Libba Bray's novel The Sweet Far Thing, H. G. Wells makes an appearance in chapter twenty-four. Ronald Wright's 1998 novel A Scientific Romance imagines that a Wells contemporary built a working time machine, which the protagonist uses to travel 500 years into the future, where he explores England which has become overgrown with jungle, and the few remaining people live in stone age conditions with peculiar remnants of civilization. In the popular webcomic Irregular Webcomic! H. G. Wells is described as being a time traveler. In the TV series Lost Sawyer refers to Daniel as H. G. Wells Works Honours H. G. Wells is the name of a crater on the far side of the Moon. H. G. Wells was a honorary fellow of the Imperial College of Science and Technology See also H. G. Wells bibliography H. G. Wells Society Science Fiction Invasion literature Fabian Society Steampunk Cosmotheism Noosphere Omega Point Bolesław Prus, regarding Prus's review of Wells's Anticipations. List of coupled cousins References Further reading Gilmour, David. The Long Recessional: The Imperial Life of Rudyard Kipling. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002 (paperback, ISBN 0-374-18702-9); 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-374-52896-9). Gomme, A. W., Mr. Wells as Historian. Glasgow: MacLehose, Jackson, and Co., 1921. External links Sources - collections , pre-1923. Works by H. G. Wells at Project Gutenberg Australia, post-1923. Works by H. G. Wells at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) A Short History of the World, at bartleby.com. Sources - letters, essays and interviews "Stephen Crane. From an English Standpoint", by Wells, 1900. Rabindranath Tagore: In conversation with H. G. Wells. Rabindranath Tagore and Wells conversing in Geneva in 1930. "Introduction", to W. N. P. Barbellion's The Journal of a Disappointed Man, by Wells, 1919. "Woman and Primitive Culture", by Wells, 1895. Letter, to M. P. Shiel, by Wells, 1937. New Statesman - In the footsteps of H G Wells at www.newstatesman.com, H.G. Wells called for a Human Rights Act. Biography H. G. Wells: The Man and the Author. A biography of H. G. Wells by Roman Allemann (2000). "H. G. Wells". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Critical essays "An Appreciation of H. G. Wells", by Mary Austin, 1911. "Socialism and the Family" (1906) by Belfort Bax, Part 1, Part 2. "H. G. Wells warned us how it would feel to fight a War of the Worlds", by Niall Ferguson, in The Telegraph, 24 June 2005. "H. G. Wells's Idea of a World Brain: A Critical Re-assessment", by W. Boyd Rayward, in Journal of the American Society for Information Science 50 (15 May, 1999): 557-579 "Mr H. G. Wells and the Giants", by G. K. Chesterton, from his book Heretics (1908). "The Internet: a world brain?", by Martin Gardner, in Skeptical Inquirer, Jan-Feb 1999. "Science Fiction: The Shape of Things to Come", by Mark Bould, in The Socialist Review, May 2005. "Who needs Utopia? A dialogue with my utopian self (with apologies, and thanks, to H. G. Wells)", by Gregory Claeys in Spaces of Utopia: An Electronic Journal, no 1, Spring 2006. "When H. G. Wells Split the Atom: A 1914 Preview of 1945", by Freda Kirchwey, in The Nation, posted 4 September, 2003 (original 18 August, 1945 issue). "Wells, Hitler and the World State", by George Orwell. First published: Horizon. — GB, London. — August 1941. "War of the Worldviews", by John J. Miller, in The Wall Street Journal Opinion Journal, 21 June, 2005. "Wells's Autobiography", by John Hart, from New International, Vol.2 No.2, March 1935, pp.75-76 "History in the Science Fiction of H. G. Wells", by Patrick Parrinder, Cycnos, 22.2 (2006). "FROM THE WORLD BRAIN TO THE WORLDWIDE WEB", by Martin Campbell-Kelly, Gresham College Lecture, 9 November 2006. "The Beginning of Wisdom: On Reading H. G. Wells", by Vivian Gornick, "Boston Review", 31.1 (2007). Other John Hammond, The Complete List of Short Stories of H. G. 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5,924 | Epinephrine | Epinephrine (also referred to as adrenaline; see Terminology) is a hormone and neurotransmitter. Epinephrine increases the "fight or flight" response of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. It is a catecholamine, a sympathomimetic monoamine derived from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. The Latin roots ad-+renes and the Greek roots epi-+nephros both literally mean "on/to the kidney" (referring to the adrenal gland, which sits atop the kidneys and secretes epinephrine). Epinephrine is often shortened to E or to EPI in Medical jargon. Jokichi Takamine, a Japanese chemist and his assistant Keizo Uenaka, independently discovered the same hormone in 1900. In 1901 they successfully isolated and purified the hormone epinephrine from cow glands. Epinephrine was first artificially synthesized in 1904 by Friedrich Stolz. Triggers Epinephrine is a "fight or flight" hormone, and plays a central role in the short-term stress reaction. It is released from the adrenal glands when danger threatens or in an emergency, hence an Adrenaline rush. Such triggers may be threatening, exciting, or environmental stressor conditions such as high noise levels, or bright light and high ambient temperature (see Fight-or-flight response). Actions in the body When in the bloodstream, it rapidly prepares the body for action in emergency situations. The hormone boosts the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles, while suppressing other non-emergency bodily processes (digestion in particular). It increases heart rate and stroke volume, dilates the pupils, and constricts arterioles in the skin and gastrointestinal tract while dilating arterioles in skeletal muscles. It elevates the blood sugar level by increasing catabolism of glycogen to glucose in the liver, and at the same time begins the breakdown of lipids in fat cells. Like some other stress hormones, epinephrine has a suppressive effect on the immune system. Epinephrine - Online Medical Dictionary Although epinephrine does not have any psychoactive effects, stress or arousal also releases norepinephrine in the brain. Norepinephrine has similar actions in the body, but is also psychoactive. The type of action in various cell types depends on their expression of adrenergic receptors. Mechanism of action β-adrenergic receptors Further reading: adrenergic receptor Epinephrine's actions are mediated through adrenergic receptors. Epinephrine is a non-selective agonist of all adrenergic receptors. It activates α1, α2, β1, and β2 receptors to different extents. Specific functions include: It binds to α1 receptors of liver cells, which activate inositol-phospholipid signaling pathway, signaling the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase kinase (inactivating and activating them, respectively), leading to the latter activating another enzyme—glycogen phosphorylase—which catalises breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis) so as to release glucose to the bloodstream. Simultaneously protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) is inactivated, as in the active state PP1 would reverse all the previous phosphorylations. Epinephrine also activates β-adrenergic receptors of the liver and muscle cells, thereby activating the adenylate cyclase signaling pathway, which will in turn increase glycogenolysis. β2 receptors are found primarily in skeletal muscle blood vessels where they trigger vasodilation. However, α-adrenergic receptors are found in most smooth muscles and splanchnic vessels, and epinephrine triggers vasoconstriction in those vessels. Epinephrine is used as a drug to treat cardiac arrest and other cardiac dysrhythmias resulting in diminished or absent cardiac output; its action is to increase peripheral resistance via α1-adrenoceptor vasoconstriction, so that blood is shunted to the body's core, and the β1-adrenoceptor response which is increased cardiac rate and output (the speed and pronouncement of heart beats). This beneficial action comes with a significant negative consequence—increased cardiac irritability—which may lead to additional complications immediately following an otherwise successful resuscitation. Alternatives to this treatment include vasopressin, a powerful antidiuretic which also increases peripheral vascular resistance leading to blood shunting via vasoconstriction, but without the attendant increase in myocardial irritability. Due to its suppressive effect on the immune system, epinephrine is the drug of choice for treating anaphylaxis. It is also useful in treating sepsis. Allergy patients undergoing immunotherapy may receive an epinephrine rinse before the allergen extract is administered, thus reducing the immune response to the administered allergen. It is also used as a bronchodilator for asthma if specific beta2-adrenergic receptor agonists are unavailable or ineffective. Because of various expression of α1 or β2-receptors, depending on the patient, administration of epinephrine may raise or lower blood pressure, depending whether or not the net increase or decrease in peripheral resistance can balance the positive inotropic and chronotropic effects of epinephrine on the heart, effects which respectively increase the contractility and rate of the heart. Epinephrine can also be found in some brands of nasal spray. Its use in this form is to open air passages, however short-term this use may be. Epinephrine is synthesized from norepinephrine in a synthetic pathway shared by all catecholamines. Epinephrine is synthesized from norepinephrine in a synthetic pathway shared by all catecholamines, including L-dopa, dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. Epinephrine is synthesized via methylation of the primary distal amine of norepinephrine by phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) in the cytosol of adrenergic neurons and cells of the adrenal medulla (so-called chromaffin cells). PNMT is only found in the cytosol of cells of adrenal medullary cells. PNMT uses S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) as a cofactor to donate the methyl group to norepinephrine, creating epinephrine. For norepinephrine to be acted upon by PNMT in the cytosol, it must first be shipped out of granules of the chromaffin cells. This may occur via the catecholamine-H+ exchanger VMAT1. VMAT1 is also responsible for transporting newly synthesized epinephrine from the cytosol back into chromaffin granules in preparation for release. Regulation Epinephrine synthesis is solely under the control of the central nervous system (CNS). Several levels of regulation dominate epinephrine synthesis. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and the sympathetic nervous system stimulate the synthesis of epinephrine precursors by enhancing the activity of enzymes involved in catecholamine synthesis. The specific enzymes are tyrosine hydroxylase in the synthesis of dopa and enzyme dopamine-β-hydroxylase in the synthesis of norepinephrine. ACTH also stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which increases the expression of PNMT in chromaffin cells, enhancing epinephrine synthesis. This is most often done in response to stress. The sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulates the release of epinephrine. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and thus the release of epinephrine (and norepinephrine) into the bloodstream. Epinephrine (as with norepinephrine) does exert negative feedback to down-regulate its own synthesis at the presynaptic alpha-2 adrenergic receptor. A pheochromocytoma is a tumor of the adrenal gland (or, rarely, the ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system), which results in the uncontrolled secretion of catecholamines, usually epinephrine. In liver cells, epinephrine binds to the β-Adrenergic receptor which changes conformation and helps Gs, a G protein, exchange GDP to GTP. This trimeric G protein dissociates to Gs alpha and Gs beta/gamma subunits. Gs alpha binds to adenyl cyclase thus converting ATP into Cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP binds to the regulatory subunit of Protein Kinase A: Protein kinase A phosphorylates Phosphorylase Kinase. Meanwhile, Gs beta/gamma binds to the calcium channel and allows calcium ions to enter the cytoplasm. Calcium ions bind to calmodulin proteins, a protein present in all eukaryotic cells, which then binds to Phosphorylase Kinase and finishes its activation. Phosphorylase Kinase phosphorylates Phosphorylase which then phosphorylates glycogen and converts it to glucose-6-phosphate. Terminology This chemical is widely referred to as adrenaline outside of the US; however, the USAN and INN for this chemical is epinephrine because adrenaline bore too much similarity to the Parke, Davis & Co trademark Adrenalin (without the "e") which was registered in the U.S. The BAN and EP term for this chemical is adrenaline, and is indeed now one of the few differences between the INN and BAN systems of names. Amongst U.S. health professionals, the term epinephrine is used over adrenaline. However, it should be noted that universally, pharmaceuticals that mimic the effects of epinephrine are called adrenergics, and receptors for epinephrine are called adrenoceptors. It can also be spelled epinephrin (without the "e"). Isomers Natural epinephrine is the (R)-(−)-L-epinephrine stereoisomer. Therapeutic use Epinephrine ampule, 1 mg (Suprarenin) Autoinjectors Epinephrine is now also used in EpiPens and Twinjects. EpiPens are long narrow autoinjectors that administer epinephrine, Twinjects are similar but contain two doses of epinephrine. It is also used in medicines and usually the Epinephrine is extracted from adrenal glands of hogs, cattle, and sheep. Though both EpiPen and Twinject are trademark names, common usage of the terms are drifting toward the generic context of any epinephrine autoinjector. Preparations Aqueous preparations of adrenaline are obtained by use of hydrochloric acid or tartaric acid, because in the absence of acid medium, it undergoes oxidation. Borate salt is used in ophthalmology. Side effects and drug interactions Adverse reactions to epinephrine include palpitations, tachycardia, arrhythmia, anxiety, headache, tremor, hypertension, and acute pulmonary edema. About.com - "The Definition of Epinephrine" Use is contraindicated for patients on non-selective β-blockers because severe hypertension and even cerebral hemorrhage may result. Adrenaline Junkie Adrenaline Junkie is a term used to describe somebody who appears to be addicted to epinephrine (endogenous) and are sometimes described as getting "high" off of life. The term Adrenaline Junkie was popularly used in the 1991 movie Point Break for people who enjoy dangerous activities (such as extreme sports) for the adrenaline rush. Adrenaline junkies appear to favor stressful activities for the release of epinephrine as a stress response. Whether or not the positive response is caused specifically by epinephrine is difficult to determine as other things like the endogenous opioid painkillers such as the endorphins are also released during the fight-or-flight response. What Is An Adrenaline Junkie? What Can You Do If You Are One?By Elizabeth Scott, M.S.(Updated: November 1, 2007)About.com Health's Disease and Condition content is reviewed by the Medical Review Board Fight-or-Flight reaction - Explanations - Brain - ChangingMinds.org See also Anaphylaxis Adrenochrome Catechol-O-methyl transferase Adrenergic receptor References Notes General references | Epinephrine |@lemmatized epinephrine:52 also:15 refer:3 adrenaline:13 see:3 terminology:2 hormone:7 neurotransmitter:1 increase:12 fight:5 flight:5 response:8 sympathetic:5 division:1 autonomic:1 nervous:5 system:8 catecholamine:6 sympathomimetic:1 monoamine:1 derive:1 amino:1 acid:4 phenylalanine:1 tyrosine:2 latin:1 root:2 ad:1 renes:1 greek:1 epi:2 nephros:1 literally:1 mean:1 kidney:2 adrenal:8 gland:5 sit:1 atop:1 secretes:1 often:2 shorten:1 e:3 medical:3 jargon:1 jokichi:1 takamine:1 japanese:1 chemist:1 assistant:1 keizo:1 uenaka:1 independently:1 discover:1 successfully:1 isolate:1 purify:1 cow:1 first:2 artificially:1 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5,925 | Common_sense | Common sense (or, when used attributively as an adjective, commonsense, common-sense, or commonsensical), based on a strict construction of the term, consists of what people in common would agree on: that which they "sense" (in common) as their common natural understanding. Some people (such as the authors of Merriam-Webster Online) use the phrase to refer to beliefs or propositions that — in their opinion — most people would consider prudent and of sound judgment, without reliance on esoteric knowledge or study or research, but based upon what they see as knowledge held by people "in common". Thus "common sense" (in this view) equates to the knowledge and experience which most people allegedly have, or which the person using the term believes that they do or should have. Whatever definition one uses, identifying particular items of knowledge as "common sense" becomes difficult. Philosophers may choose to avoid using the phrase when using precise language. But common sense remains a perennial topic in epistemology and many philosophers make wide use of the concept or at least refer to it. Some related concepts include intuitions, pre-theoretic belief, ordinary language, the frame problem, foundational beliefs, good sense, endoxa, and axioms. Common-sense ideas tend to relate to events within human experience (such as good will), and thus appear commensurate with human scale. Humans lack any commonsense intuition of, for example, the behavior of the universe at subatomic distances; or speeds approaching that of light. Philosophy and common sense "Common sense" in philosophy has two general meanings: a sense of things being common to other things a sense of things common to humanity Aristotle and Ibn Sina According to Aristotle and Ibn Sina (Avicenna), common sense provides the place in which the senses come together, and which processes sense-data and makes the results available to consciousness. Thus the modern psychological term, "perception", fulfills the same function. Individuals could have different common senses depending on how their personal and social experience has taught them to categorize sensation. Locke and the Empiricists John Locke proposed one meaning of "common sense" in his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. This interpretation builds on phenomenological experience. Each of the senses gives input, and then something integrates the sense-data into a single impression. This something Locke sees as the common sense — the sense of things in common between disparate impressions. It therefore allies with "fancy", and opposes "judgment", or the capacity to divide like things into separates. (The French theologian Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet arguably developed this theory a decade before Locke.) Each of the empiricist philosophers approaches the problem of the unification of sense-data in their own way, giving various names to the operation. However, the approaches agree that a sense in the human understanding exists that sees commonality and does the combining: "common sense" has the same meaning. Epistemology Appeal to common sense characterises a general epistemological orientation called epistemological particularism (the appellation derives from Roderick Chisholm (1916-1999)). This orientation contrasts with epistemological methodism. The particularist gathers a list of propositions that seem obvious and unassailable and then requires consistency with this set of propositions as a condition of adequacy for any abstract philosophical theory. (Particularism allows, however, rejection of an entry on the list for inconsistency with other, seemingly more secure, entries.) Epistemological methodists, on the other hand, begin with a theory of cognition or justification and then apply it to see which of our pre-theoretical beliefs survive. Reid and Moore represent paradigmatic particularists, while Descartes and Hume stand as paradigmatic methodists. Methodist methodology tends toward skepticism, as the rules for acceptable or rational belief tend to the very restrictive (for instance, Descartes demanded the elimination of doubt; and Hume required the construction of acceptable belief entirely from impressions and ideas). Particularist methodology, on the other hand, tends toward a kind of conservatism, granting perhaps an undue privilege to beliefs in which we happen to have confidence. One interesting question asks whether epistemological thought can mix the methodologies. In such a case, does it not become problematical to attempt logic, metaphysics and epistemology absent original assumptions stemming from common sense? Particularism, applied to ethics and politics, may seem to simply entrench prejudice and other contingent products of social inculcation (compare cultural determinism). Can one provide a principled distinction between areas of inquiry where reliance on the dictates of common sense seems legitimate (because necessary) and areas where it seems illegitimate (as for example an obstruction to intellectual and practical progress)? A meta-philosophical discussion of common sense may then, indeed, proceed: What is common sense? Supposing that one cannot give a precise characterization of it: does that mean that appeal to common sense remains off-limits in philosophy? What utility does it have to discern whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not? And under what circumstances, if any, might one advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense? Should considerations of common sense play any decisive role in philosophy? If not common sense, then could another similar concept (perhaps "intuition") play such a role? In general, does epistemology have "philosophical starting points", and if so, how can one characterize them? Supposing that no beliefs exist which we will willingly hold come what may, do there though exist some we ought to hold more stubbornly at least? Alternative views Opponents of one of the traditional views of common sense sometime regard reliance on common sense (in its disguise as "received knowledge") as an impediment to abstract and even to logical thinking. This view appears especially popular in mathematics and physics, where human intuition often conflicts with "probably correct" or experimentally verified results. A definition attributed to Albert Einstein states: "Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen." Projects: collecting common sense McCarthy's advice-taker proposal of 1958 arguably represents the first scheme to use logic for representing common-sense knowledge in mathematical logic and using an automated theorem prover to derive answers to questions expressed in logical form. Compare Leibniz's calculus ratiocinator and characteristica universalis. The Cyc project attempts to provide a basis of common-sense knowledge for artificial-intelligence systems. The Open Mind Common Sense project resembles the Cyc project, except that it, like other on-line collaborative projects such as Wikipedia, depends on the contributions of thousands of individuals across the World Wide Web. See also Antonio Gramsci Appeal to tradition Common sense and the Diallelus Common sense conservative Common Sense, a pamphlet penned by Thomas Paine Commonsense reasoning (in Artificial intelligence) Convention (norm) Darwin Awards Frame problem John Ralston Saul Norm (sociology) Wisdom of repugnance History of philosophy in Poland Sapir–Whorf hypothesis Social Representations world view Notes | Common_sense |@lemmatized common:40 sense:41 use:9 attributively:1 adjective:1 commonsense:3 commonsensical:1 base:2 strict:1 construction:2 term:3 consist:1 people:5 would:2 agree:2 natural:1 understanding:3 author:1 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 phrase:2 refer:2 beliefs:2 proposition:3 opinion:1 consider:1 prudent:1 sound:1 judgment:2 without:1 reliance:3 esoteric:1 knowledge:7 study:1 research:1 upon:1 see:5 hold:3 thus:3 view:6 equate:1 experience:4 allegedly:1 person:1 believe:1 whatever:1 definition:2 one:8 identify:1 particular:1 item:1 become:2 difficult:1 philosopher:3 may:4 choose:1 avoid:1 precise:2 language:2 remain:2 perennial:1 topic:1 epistemology:4 many:1 make:2 wide:2 concept:3 least:2 related:1 include:1 intuition:4 pre:2 theoretic:1 belief:7 ordinary:1 frame:2 problem:3 foundational:1 good:2 endoxa:1 axiom:1 idea:2 tend:4 relate:1 event:1 within:1 human:6 appear:2 commensurate:1 scale:1 lack:1 example:2 behavior:1 universe:1 subatomic:1 distance:1 speed:1 approach:3 light:1 philosophy:5 two:1 general:3 meaning:3 thing:5 humanity:1 aristotle:2 ibn:2 sina:2 accord:1 avicenna:1 provide:3 place:1 sens:3 come:2 together:1 process:1 data:3 result:2 available:1 consciousness:1 modern:1 psychological:1 perception:1 fulfill:1 function:1 individual:2 could:2 different:1 depend:2 personal:1 social:3 teach:1 categorize:1 sensation:1 locke:4 empiricist:2 john:2 propose:1 essay:1 concern:1 interpretation:1 build:1 phenomenological:1 give:3 input:1 something:2 integrate:1 single:1 impression:3 disparate:1 therefore:1 ally:1 fancy:1 oppose:1 capacity:1 divide:1 like:2 separate:1 french:1 theologian:1 jacques:1 bénigne:1 bossuet:1 arguably:2 develop:1 theory:3 decade:1 unification:1 way:1 various:1 name:1 operation:1 however:2 exist:3 commonality:1 combining:1 appeal:3 characterise:1 epistemological:5 orientation:2 call:1 particularism:3 appellation:1 derive:2 roderick:1 chisholm:1 contrast:1 methodism:1 particularist:2 gather:1 list:2 seem:5 obvious:1 unassailable:1 require:2 consistency:1 set:1 condition:1 adequacy:1 abstract:2 philosophical:3 allow:1 rejection:1 entry:2 inconsistency:1 seemingly:1 secure:1 methodist:3 hand:2 begin:1 cognition:1 justification:1 apply:2 theoretical:1 survive:1 reid:1 moore:1 represent:3 paradigmatic:2 particularists:1 descartes:2 hume:2 stand:1 methodology:3 toward:2 skepticism:1 rule:1 acceptable:2 rational:1 restrictive:1 instance:1 demand:1 elimination:1 doubt:1 entirely:1 kind:1 conservatism:1 grant:1 perhaps:2 undue:1 privilege:1 happen:1 confidence:1 interesting:1 question:2 ask:1 whether:2 thought:1 mix:1 case:1 problematical:1 attempt:2 logic:3 metaphysics:1 absent:1 original:1 assumption:1 stem:1 ethic:1 politics:1 simply:1 entrench:1 prejudice:2 contingent:1 product:1 inculcation:1 compare:2 cultural:1 determinism:1 principled:1 distinction:1 area:2 inquiry:1 dictate:1 legitimate:1 necessary:1 illegitimate:1 obstruction:1 intellectual:1 practical:1 progress:1 meta:1 discussion:1 indeed:1 proceed:1 suppose:2 cannot:1 characterization:1 mean:1 limit:1 utility:1 discern:1 matter:1 circumstance:1 might:1 advocate:1 run:1 contrary:1 consideration:1 play:2 decisive:1 role:2 another:1 similar:1 start:1 point:1 characterize:1 willingly:1 though:1 ought:1 stubbornly:1 alternative:1 opponent:1 traditional:1 sometime:1 regard:1 disguise:1 receive:1 impediment:1 even:1 logical:2 thinking:1 especially:1 popular:1 mathematics:1 physic:1 often:1 conflict:1 probably:1 correct:1 experimentally:1 verified:1 attribute:1 albert:1 einstein:1 state:1 collection:1 acquire:1 age:1 eighteen:1 project:5 collect:1 mccarthy:1 advice:1 taker:1 proposal:1 first:1 scheme:1 mathematical:1 automated:1 theorem:1 prover:1 answer:1 express:1 form:1 leibniz:1 calculus:1 ratiocinator:1 characteristica:1 universalis:1 cyc:2 basis:1 artificial:2 intelligence:2 system:1 open:1 mind:1 resemble:1 except:1 line:1 collaborative:1 wikipedia:1 contribution:1 thousand:1 across:1 world:2 web:1 also:1 antonio:1 gramsci:1 tradition:1 diallelus:1 conservative:1 pamphlet:1 pen:1 thomas:1 paine:1 reasoning:1 convention:1 norm:2 darwin:1 award:1 ralston:1 saul:1 sociology:1 wisdom:1 repugnance:1 history:1 poland:1 sapir:1 whorf:1 hypothesis:1 representation:1 note:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 ibn_sina:2 sina_avicenna:1 jacques_bénigne:1 bénigne_bossuet:1 metaphysics_epistemology:1 albert_einstein:1 artificial_intelligence:2 antonio_gramsci:1 thomas_paine:1 sapir_whorf:1 whorf_hypothesis:1 |
5,926 | Mitosis | Mitosis is the process in which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two daughter nuclei. Rubenstein, Irwin, and Susan M. Wick. "Cell." World Book Online Reference Center. 2008. 12 January 2008 <http://www.worldbookonline.com/wb/Article?id=ar102240> It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two daughter cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle - the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. Mitosis divides the chromosomes in a cell nucleus. Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission. The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells. Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis" is often used interchangeably with "mitotic phase". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various different groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer. Overview The primary result of mitosis is the division of the parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. The genome is composed of a number of chromosomes - complexes of tightly-coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function. Because each resultant daughter cell should be genetically identical to the parent cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome before mitosis. This occurs during S phase, in interphase, the period that precedes the mitotic phase in the cell cycle where preparation for mitosis occurs. Each new chromosome now contains two identical copies of itself, called sister chromatids, attached together in a specialized region of the chromosome known as the centromere. Each sister chromatid is not considered a chromosome in itself, and a chromosome does not always contain two sister chromatids. In most eukaryotes, the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the cytoplasm disassembles. The chromosomes align themselves in a line spanning the cell. Microtubules, essentially miniature strings, splay out from opposite ends of the cell and shorten, pulling apart the sister chromatids of each chromosome. As a matter of convention, each sister chromatid is now considered a chromosome, so they are renamed to sister chromosomes. As the cell elongates, corresponding sister chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated sister chromosomes. As mitosis completes cytokinesis is well underway. In animal cells, the cell pinches inward where the imaginary line used to be (the pinching of the cell membrane to form the two daughter cells is called cleavage furrow), separating the two developing nuclei. In plant cells, the daughter cells will construct a new dividing cell wall between each other. Eventually, the mother cell will be split in half, giving rise to two daughter cells, each with an equivalent and complete copy of the original genome. Prokaryotic cells undergo a process similar to mitosis called binary fission. However, prokaryotes cannot be properly said to undergo mitosis because they lack a nucleus and only have a single chromosome with no centromere. Phases of cell cycle and mitosis Interphase The cell cycle The mitotic phase is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. It alternates with the much longer interphase, where the cell prepares itself for cell division. Interphase is therefore not part of mitosis. Interphase is divided into three phases, G1 (first gap), S (synthesis), and G2 (second gap). During all three phases, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S phase. Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (S), grows more and prepares for mitosis (G2), and finally divides (M) before restarting the cycle. Preprophase In plant cells only, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase stage. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the center of the cell before mitosis can begin. This is achieved through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse sheet of cytoplasm that bisects the cell along the future plane of cell division. In addition to phragmosome formation, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane around the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle. This band marks the position where the cell will eventually divide. The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles: with microtubules forming a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and then being organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear membrane breaks down. The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope disassembly and spindle formation in prometaphase. Prophase Micrograph showing condensed chromosomes in blue and the mitotic spindle in green during prometaphase of mitosis Normally, the genetic material in the nucleus is in a loosely bundled coil called chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin condenses together into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome. Since the genetic material has already been duplicated earlier in S phase, the replicated chromosomes have two sister chromatids, bound together at the centromere by the cohesion complex. Chromosomes are visible at high magnification through a light microscope. Close to the nucleus are structures called centrosomes, which are made of a pair of centrioles. The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell's microtubules. A cell inherits a single centrosome at cell division, which replicates before a new mitosis begins, giving a pair of centrosomes. The two centrosomes nucleate microtubules (which may be thought of as cellular ropes or poles) to form the spindle by polymerizing soluble tubulin. Molecular motor proteins then push the centrosomes along these microtubules to opposite side of the cell. Although centrosomes help organize microtubule assembly, they are not essential for the formation of the spindle, since they are absent from plants, and centrosomes are not always used in meiosis. Prometaphase The nuclear envelope disassembles and microtubules invade the nuclear space. This is called open mitosis, and it occurs in most multicellular organisms. Fungi and some protists, such as algae or trichomonads, undergo a variation called closed mitosis where the spindle forms inside the nucleus or its microtubules are able to penetrate an intact nuclear envelope. Each chromosome forms two kinetochores at the centromere, one attached at each chromatid. A kinetochore is a complex protein structure that is analogous to a ring for the microtubule hook; it is the point where microtubules attach themselves to the chromosome. Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, it is known that it contains some form of molecular motor. When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from ATP to "crawl" up the tube toward the originating centrosome. This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later separate the chromosome's two chromatids. When the spindle grows to sufficient length, kinetochore microtubules begin searching for kinetochores to attach to. A number of nonkinetochore microtubules find and interact with corresponding nonkinetochore microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle. Prometaphase is sometimes considered part of prophase. Metaphase A cell in late metaphase. All chromosomes (blue) but one have arrived at the metaphase plate. As microtubules find and attach to kinetochores in prometaphase, the centromeres of the chromosomes convene along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is equidistant from the two centrosome poles. This even alignment is due to the counterbalance of the pulling powers generated by the opposing kinetochores, analogous to a tug-of-war between people of equal strength. In certain types of cells, chromosomes do not line up at the metaphase plate and instead move back and forth between the poles randomly, only roughly lining up along the midline. Metaphase comes from the Greek μετα meaning "after." Because proper chromosome separation requires that every kinetochore be attached to a bundle of microtubules (spindle fibres), it is thought that unattached kinetochores generate a signal to prevent premature progression to anaphase without all chromosomes being aligned. The signal creates the mitotic spindle checkpoint. Anaphase When every kinetochore is attached to a cluster of microtubules and the chromosomes have lined up along the metaphase plate, the cell proceeds to anaphase (from the Greek ανα meaning “up,” “against,” “back,” or “re-”). Two events then occur; First, the proteins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, allowing them to separate. These sister chromatids, which have now become distinct sister chromosomes, are pulled apart by shortening kinetochore microtubules and move toward the respective centrosomes to which they are attached. Next, the nonkinetochore microtubules elongate, pushing the centrosomes (and the set of chromosomes to which they are attached) apart to opposite ends of the cell. The force that causes the centrosomes to move towards the ends of the cell is still unknown, although there is a theory that suggests that the rapid assembly and breakdown of microtubules may cause this movement. These two stages are sometimes called early and late anaphase. Early anaphase is usually defined as the separation of the sister chromatids, while late anaphase is the elongation of the microtubules and the microtubules being pulled farther apart. At the end of anaphase, the cell has succeeded in separating identical copies of the genetic material into two distinct populations. Telophase Telophase (from the Greek τελος meaning "end") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. It "cleans up" the after effects of mitosis. At telophase, the nonkinetochore microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the cell even more. Corresponding sister chromosomes attach at opposite ends of the cell. A new nuclear envelope, using fragments of the parent cell's nuclear membrane, forms around each set of separated sister chromosomes. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclei, unfold back into chromatin. Mitosis is complete, but cell division is not yet complete. Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is often mistakenly thought to be the final part of telophase; however, cytokinesis is a separate process that begins at the same time as telophase. Cytokinesis is technically not even a phase of mitosis, but rather a separate process, necessary for completing cell division. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei. In both animal and plant cells, cell division is also driven by vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the cell. In plants this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some green algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis. Each daughter cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase. Significance Mitosis is important for the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent cell. Transcription is generally believed to cease during mitosis, but epigenetic mechanisms such as bookmarking function during this stage of the cell cycle to ensure that the "memory" of which genes were active prior to entry into mitosis are transmitted to the daughter cells. Consequences of errors An abnormal (tripolar) mitoses (12 o'clock position) in a precancerous lesion of the stomach. H&E stain Although errors in mitosis are rare, the process may go wrong, especially during early cellular divisions in the zygote. Mitotic errors can be especially dangerous to the organism because future offspring from this parent cell will carry the same disorder. In non-disjunction, a chromosome may fail to separate during anaphase. One daughter cell will receive both sister chromosomes and the other will receive none. This results in the former cell having three chromosomes containing the same genes (two sisters and a homologue), a condition known as trisomy, and the latter cell having only one chromosome (the homologous chromosome), a condition known as monosomy. These cells are considered aneuploid, a condition often associated with cancer. Mitosis is a traumatic process. The cell goes through dramatic changes in ultrastructure, its organelles disintegrate and reform in a matter of hours, and chromosomes are jostled constantly by probing microtubules. Occasionally, chromosomes may become damaged. An arm of the chromosome may be broken and the fragment lost, causing deletion. The fragment may incorrectly reattach to another, non-homologous chromosome, causing translocation. It may reattach to the original chromosome, but in reverse orientation, causing inversion. Or, it may be treated erroneously as a separate chromosome, causing chromosomal duplication. The effect of these genetic abnormalities depends on the specific nature of the error. It may range from no noticeable effect to cancer induction or organism death. Endomitosis Endomitosis is a variant of mitosis without nuclear or cellular division, resulting in cells with many copies of the same chromosome occupying a single nucleus. This process may also be referred to as endoreduplication and the cells as endoploid. An example of a cell that goes through endomitosis is the megakaryocyte. Timeline in pictures Real mitotic cells can be visualized through the microscope by staining them with fluorescent antibodies and dyes. These light micrographs are included below. See also Meiosis Cytoskeleton Motor protein Aneuploidy Chromosomal disorder Binary fission References Further reading External links Science aid: Mitosis and meiosis: A simple account of the mitotic and meiotic processes. Mitosis Animation. Mitosis (Flash Animation) Video of a live amphibian lung cell undergoing mitosis. A Flash animation comparing Mitosis and Meiosis Animation from the Life Sciences Dept of University of North Texas Studying Mitosis in Cultured Mammalian Cells CCO The Cell-Cycle Ontology | Mitosis |@lemmatized mitosis:42 process:11 eukaryotic:2 cell:93 separate:12 chromosome:53 nucleus:18 two:21 identical:6 set:6 daughter:12 rubenstein:1 irwin:1 susan:1 wick:1 world:1 book:1 online:1 reference:2 center:4 january:1 http:1 www:1 worldbookonline:1 com:1 wb:1 article:1 id:1 generally:2 follow:1 immediately:1 cytokinesis:13 divide:9 cytoplasm:3 organelle:3 membrane:5 contain:7 roughly:2 equal:3 share:1 cellular:4 component:1 together:5 define:2 mitotic:11 phase:13 cycle:8 division:10 mother:2 genetically:2 parent:8 occur:9 exclusively:1 different:3 way:1 specie:1 example:2 animal:5 undergo:5 open:2 nuclear:11 envelope:7 break:3 fungi:3 aspergillus:1 nidulans:1 saccharomyces:1 cerevisiae:1 yeast:1 close:3 within:1 intact:2 prokaryotic:2 lack:3 call:11 binary:3 fission:3 complex:4 highly:3 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5,927 | Drink | A drink, or beverage, is a liquid specifically prepared for human consumption. In addition to basic needs, beverages form part of the culture of human society. Types of beverage A carbonated beverage. Water Despite the fact that most beverages, including juice, soft drinks, and carbonated drinks, have some form of water in them; water itself is often not classified as a beverage, and the word beverage has been recurrently defined as not referring to water. Essential to the survival of all organisms, water has historically been an important and life-sustaining drink to humans. Excluding fat, water composes approximately 70% of the human body by mass. It is a crucial component of metabolic processes and serves as a solvent for many bodily solutes. Health authorities have historically suggested at least eight glasses, eight fluid ounces each, of water per day (64 fluid ounces, or 1.89 litres), and the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 litres. The United States Environmental Protection Agency has determined that the average adult actually ingests 2.0 litres per day. Distilled (pure) water is rarely found in nature. Spring water, a natural resource from which much bottled water comes, is generally imbued with minerals. Tap water, delivered by domestic water systems in developed nations, refers to water piped to homes through a tap. All of these forms of water are commonly drunk, often purified through filtration. Alcoholic beverages An alcoholic beverage is a drink that contains ethanol, commonly known as alcohol (although in chemistry the definition of “alcohol” includes many other compounds). Beer has been a part of human culture for 8000 years. Non-alcoholic beverages Orange juice is usually served cold. Non-alcoholic beverages are drinks that would normally contain alcohol, such as beer and wine but are made with less than .5 percent alcohol by volume. The category includes drinks that have undergone an alcohol removal process such as non-alcoholic beers and de-alcoholized wines. Non-alcoholic variants: Low alcohol beer Non-alcoholic wine Sparkling cider Soft drinks The name "soft drink" specifies a lack of alcohol by way of contrast to the term "hard drink" and the term "drink", the latter of which is nominally neutral but often carries connotations of alcoholic content. Beverages like colas, sparkling water, iced tea, lemonade, squash, and fruit punch are among the most common types of soft drinks, while hot chocolate, hot tea, coffee, milk, tap water, alcohol, and milkshakes do not fall into this classification. Many carbonated soft drinks are optionally available in versions sweetened with sugars or with non-caloric sweeteners. Hot beverages A cup of coffee. Hot beverages Coffee-based beverages Cappuccino Coffee Espresso Café au lait Frappé Flavored coffees (mocha etc.) Latte Hot chocolate Hot cider Mulled cider Glühwein Tea-based beverages Flavored teas (chai etc.) Green tea Pearl milk tea Tea Herbal teas Yerba Mate Roasted grain beverages Sanka Others Masala buttermilk. Some substances may be called either food or drink, and accordingly may be eaten with a spoon or drunk, depending upon their thickness and solid ingredients. Buttermilk Soup Yogurt Measuring drinks UKUSUnitfl. oz (UK)mlfl. oz (US)mldash1/480.5921/480.616teaspoon1/83.551/64.93tablespoon1/214.21/214.8fluid ounce or pony128.413129.574shot, bar glass or jigger3/242.63/244.4can of Coke11.633012330pint2056816473bottle of spirits24.670025.3750bottle of wine26.475025.3750 See also Cocktails Drinking Food Kefir Nutrition Soda </div> References External links | Drink |@lemmatized drink:16 beverage:17 liquid:1 specifically:1 prepared:1 human:5 consumption:1 addition:1 basic:1 need:1 form:3 part:2 culture:2 society:1 type:2 carbonated:1 water:16 despite:1 fact:1 include:3 juice:2 soft:5 carbonate:2 often:3 classify:1 word:1 recurrently:1 define:1 refer:1 essential:1 survival:1 organism:1 historically:2 important:1 life:1 sustain:1 exclude:1 fat:1 composes:1 approximately:1 body:1 mass:1 crucial:1 component:1 metabolic:1 process:2 serf:1 solvent:1 many:3 bodily:1 solute:1 health:1 authority:1 suggest:1 least:1 eight:2 glass:2 fluid:2 ounce:3 per:2 day:2 litre:3 british:1 dietetic:1 association:1 recommend:1 united:1 state:1 environmental:1 protection:1 agency:1 determine:1 average:1 adult:1 actually:1 ingest:1 distil:1 pure:1 rarely:1 find:1 nature:1 spring:1 natural:1 resource:1 much:1 bottle:1 come:1 generally:1 imbue:1 mineral:1 tap:3 deliver:1 domestic:1 system:1 developed:1 nation:1 refers:1 pip:1 home:1 commonly:2 drunk:2 purify:1 filtration:1 alcoholic:8 contain:2 ethanol:1 know:1 alcohol:8 although:1 chemistry:1 definition:1 compound:1 beer:4 year:1 non:6 orange:1 usually:1 serve:1 cold:1 would:1 normally:1 wine:3 make:1 less:1 percent:1 volume:1 category:1 undergo:1 removal:1 de:1 alcoholize:1 variant:1 low:1 sparkle:2 cider:3 name:1 specify:1 lack:1 way:1 contrast:1 term:2 hard:1 latter:1 nominally:1 neutral:1 carry:1 connotation:1 content:1 like:1 cola:1 iced:1 tea:7 lemonade:1 squash:1 fruit:1 punch:1 among:1 common:1 hot:6 chocolate:2 coffee:5 milk:2 milkshake:1 fall:1 classification:1 optionally:1 available:1 version:1 sweeten:1 sugar:1 caloric:1 sweetener:1 cup:1 base:2 cappuccino:1 espresso:1 café:1 au:1 lait:1 frappé:1 flavor:2 mocha:1 etc:2 latte:1 mull:1 glühwein:1 chai:1 green:1 pearl:1 herbal:1 teas:1 yerba:1 mate:1 roast:1 grain:1 sanka:1 others:1 masala:1 buttermilk:2 substance:1 may:2 call:1 either:1 food:2 accordingly:1 eat:1 spoon:1 depend:1 upon:1 thickness:1 solid:1 ingredient:1 soup:1 yogurt:1 measure:1 ukusunitfl:1 oz:2 uk:1 mlfl:1 u:1 bar:1 see:1 also:1 cocktails:1 kefir:1 nutrition:1 soda:1 div:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram carbonated_beverage:1 soft_drink:5 fluid_ounce:2 dietetic_association:1 alcoholic_beverage:4 orange_juice:1 café_au:1 milk_tea:1 external_link:1 |
5,928 | Papua_New_Guinea | Papua New Guinea (, also or ; Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands (the western portion of the island is a part of Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua). It is located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, in a region defined since the early 19th century as Melanesia. Its capital, and one of its few major cities, is Port Moresby. It is one of the most diverse countries on Earth, with over 850 indigenous languages and at least as many traditional societies, out of a population of just under 6 million. It is also one of the most rural, with only 18 per cent of its people living in urban centres. The country is also one of the world's least explored, culturally and geographically, and many undiscovered species of plants and animals are thought to exist in the interior of Papua New Guinea. The majority of the population live in traditional societies and practise subsistence-based agriculture. These societies and clans have some explicit acknowledgement within the nation's constitutional framework. The PNG Constitution (Preamble 5(4)) expresses the wish for traditional villages and communities to remain as viable units of Papua New Guinean society, and for active steps to be taken in their preservation. The PNG legislature has enacted various laws in which a type of tenure called "customary land title" is recognised, meaning that the traditional lands of the indigenous peoples have some legal basis to inalienable tenure. This customary land notionally covers most of the usable land in the country (some 97% of total land area); alienated land is either held privately under State Lease or is government land. Freehold Title (also known as fee simple) can only be held by Papua New Guinea citizens. See footnote 30 which explains that the precise reference in legislation was not found. The country's geography is similarly diverse and, in places, extremely rugged. A spine of mountains runs the length of the island of New Guinea, forming a populous highlands region. Dense rainforests can be found in the lowland and coastal areas. This terrain has made it difficult for the country to develop transportation infrastructure. In some areas, planes are the only mode of transport. After being ruled by three external powers since 1884, Papua New Guinea gained its independence from Australia in 1975. It remains a Commonwealth realm. History Human remains have been found which have been dated to about 50,000 years ago. These ancient inhabitants probably had their origins in Southeast Asia. Agriculture was independently developed in the New Guinea highlands around 9,000 years ago, making it one of the few areas of original plant domestication in the world. A major migration of Austronesian speaking peoples came to coastal regions roughly 2,500 years ago, and this is correlated with the introduction of pottery, pigs, and certain fishing techniques. More recently, some 300 years ago, the sweet potato entered New Guinea having been introduced to the Moluccas from South America by the then-locally dominant colonial power, Portugal. Swaddling (1996) p. 282 The far higher crop yields from sweet potato gardens radically transformed traditional agriculture; sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and gave rise to a significant increase in population in the highlands. Little was known in the West about the island until the nineteenth century, although traders from Southeast Asia had been visiting New Guinea as long as 5,000 years ago collecting bird of paradise plumes, Swaddling (1996) "Such trade links and the nominal claim of the Sultan of Ceram over New Guinea constituted the legal basis for the Netherlands' claim over West New Guinea and ultimately that of Indonesia over what is new West Papua" and Spanish and Portuguese explorers had encountered it as early as the sixteenth century (1526 and 1527 Dom Jorge de Meneses). The country's dual name results from its complex administrative history before Independence. The word papua is derived from pepuah a Malay word describing the frizzy Melanesian hair, and "New Guinea" (Nueva Guinea) was the name coined by the Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez, who in 1545 noted the resemblance of the people to those he had earlier seen along the Guinea coast of Africa. The northern half of the country came into German hands in 1884 as German New Guinea. During World War I, it was occupied by Australia, which had begun administering British New Guinea, the southern part, as the re-named Papua in 1904. After World War I, Australia was given a mandate to administer the former German New Guinea by the League of Nations. Papua, by contrast, was deemed to be an External Territory of the Australian Commonwealth, though as a matter of law it remained a British possession, an issue which had significance for the country's post-Independence legal system after 1975. This difference in legal status meant that Papua and New Guinea had entirely separate administrations, both controlled by Australia. The two territories were combined into the Territory of Papua and New Guinea after World War II, which later was simply referred to as "Papua New Guinea". The Administration of Papua was now also open to United Nations oversight. However, certain statutes For example, the Creditors Remedies Act (Papua), Ch 47 of the Revised Laws of Papua New Guinea. continued (and continue) to have application only in one of the two territories, a matter considerably complicated today by the adjustment of the former boundary among contiguous provinces with respect to road access and language groups, so that such statutes apply on one side only of a boundary which no longer exists. Peaceful independence from Australia, the de facto metropolitan power, occurred on September 16, 1975, and close ties remain (Australia remains the largest bilateral aid donor to Papua New Guinea). A secessionist revolt in 1975-76 on the island of Bougainville resulted in an eleventh-hour modification of the draft Constitution of Papua New Guinea to allow for Bougainville and the other eighteen districts of pre-Independence Papua New Guinea to have quasi-federal status as provinces. The revolt recurred and claimed 20,000 lives from 1988 until it was resolved in 1997. Autonomous Bougainville recently elected Joseph Kabui as president but his death from a heart attack has meant deputy John Tabinaman is now its leader. Politics Papua New Guinea is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and Queen Elizabeth II is the head of state. It had been expected by the constitutional convention, which prepared the draft constitution, and by Australia, the outgoing metropolitan power, that Papua New Guinea would choose not to retain its link with the British monarchy. The founders, however, considered that imperial honours had a cachet that the newly independent state would not be able to confer with a purely indigenous honours system — the Monarchy was thus maintained. The Queen is represented in Papua New Guinea by the Governor-General, currently Sir Paulias Matane. Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are unusual among Commonwealth realms in that their Governors-General are effectively selected by the legislature rather than by the executive, as in some parliamentary democracies within or formerly within the Commonwealth whose non-executive ceremonial president is similarly chosen and as would have been the case had the link with the monarchy been severed at independence such that the governor-general was an autochthonous head of state. Actual executive power lies with the Prime Minister, who heads the cabinet. The unicameral National Parliament has 109 seats, of which 20 are occupied by the governors of the 19 provinces and the NCD. Candidates for members of parliament are voted upon when the prime minister calls a national election, a maximum of five years after the previous national election. In the early years of independence, the instability of the party system led to frequent votes of no-confidence in Parliament with resulting falls of the government of the day and the need for national elections, in accordance with the conventions of parliamentary democracy. In recent years, successive governments have passed legislation preventing such votes sooner than 18 months after a national election. This has arguably resulted in greater stability though, perhaps, at a cost of reducing the accountability of the executive branch of government. Elections in PNG attract large numbers of candidates. After independence in 1975, members were elected by the first past the post system, with winners frequently gaining less than 15% of the vote. Electoral reforms in 2001 introduced the Limited Preferential Vote system (LPV), a version of the Alternative Vote. The 2007 general election was the first to be conducted using LPV. Law The unicameral Parliament enacts legislation in the same manner as in other jurisdictions having "cabinet," "responsible government," or "parliamentary democracy": it is introduced by the executive government to the legislature, debated and, if passed, becomes law when it receives royal assent by the Governor-General. Most legislation is actually regulation implemented by the bureaucracy under enabling legislation previously passed by Parliament. All ordinary statutes enacted by Parliament must be consistent with the Constitution and the courts have jurisdiction to rule on the constitutionality of statutes, both in disputes before them and on a reference where there is no dispute but only an abstract question of law. Unusual among developing countries, the judicial branch of government in Papua New Guinea has remained remarkably independent and successive executive governments have continued to respect its authority. The "underlying law" — that is, the common law of Papua New Guinea — consists of Australian common law as it stood on September 16, 1975 (the date of Independence), and thereafter the decisions of PNG’s own courts. The courts are directed by the Constitution and, latterly, the Underlying Law Act, to take note of the "custom" of traditional communities, with a view to determining which customs are common to the whole country and may be declared also to be part of the underlying law. In practice, this has proved extremely difficult and has been largely neglected. Statutes are largely adapted from overseas jurisdictions, primarily Australia and England. Advocacy in the courts follows the adversarial pattern of other common law countries. Regions, provinces and districts Papua New Guinea is divided into four regions, which are not the primary administrative divisions, but are quite significant in many aspects of government, commercial, sporting and other activities. The nation has 20 province-level divisions: eighteen provinces, the Autonomous Region of Bougainville and the National Capital District. Each province is divided into one or more districts, which in turn are divided into one or more Local Level Government areas. Provinces The Constitution of Papua New Guinea sets out the names of the 19 provinces at the time of Independence. Several provinces have changed their names; such changes are not strictly speaking official without a formal constitutional amendment, though "Oro," for example, is universally used in reference to that province. are the primary administrative divisions of the country. Provincial governments are branches of the national government — Papua New Guinea is not a federation of provinces. The province-level divisions are as follows: Central Chimbu (Simbu) Eastern Highlands East New Britain East Sepik Enga Gulf Madang Manus Milne Bay<li>Morobe <li>New Ireland <li>Northern (Oro Province) <li>Bougainville (autonomous region) <li>Southern Highlands <li>Western Province (Fly) <li>Western Highlands <li>West New Britain <li>West Sepik (Sandaun) <li>National Capital DistrictProvinces of Papua New Guinea Geography Map of Papua New Guinea At , Papua New Guinea is the world's fifty-fourth largest country (after Cameroon). It is comparable in size to Sweden, and somewhat larger than the US state of California. Papua New Guinea is mostly mountainous (highest peak: Mount Wilhelm at 4,509 m; 14,793 ft) and mostly covered with tropical rainforest, as well as very large wetland areas surrounding the Sepik and Fly rivers. Papua New Guinea is surrounded by coral reefs which are under close watch to preserve them. The country is situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the point of collision of several tectonic plates. There are a number of active volcanoes and eruptions are frequent. Earthquakes are relatively common, sometimes accompanied by tsunamis. The mainland of the country is the eastern half of New Guinea island, where the largest towns are also located, including the capital Port Moresby and Lae; other major islands within Papua New Guinea include New Ireland, New Britain, Manus and Bougainville. Papua New Guinea is one of the few regions close to the equator that experience snowfall, which occurs in the most elevated parts of the mainland. Ecology Papua New Guinea is part of the Australasia ecozone, which also includes Australia, New Zealand, eastern Indonesia, and several Pacific island groups, including the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Geologically, the island of New Guinea is a northern extension of the Indo-Australian tectonic plate, forming part of a single landmass Australia-New Guinea (also called Sahul or Meganesia). It is connected to the Australian segment by a shallow continental shelf across the Torres Strait, which in former ages had lain exposed as a land bridge — particularly during ice ages when sea levels were lower than at present. The green jungle of Papua New Guinea bears a stark contrast to the nearby desert of Australia Consequently, many species of birds and mammals found on New Guinea have close genetic links with corresponding species found in Australia. One notable feature in common for the two landmasses is the existence of several species of marsupial mammals, including some kangaroos and possums, which are not found elsewhere. Many of the other islands within PNG territory, including New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville, the Admiralty Islands, the Trobriand Islands, and the Louisiade Archipelago, were never linked to New Guinea by land bridges, and they lack many of the land mammals and flightless birds that are common to New Guinea and Australia. Australia and New Guinea are portions of the ancient supercontinent of Gondwana, which started to break into smaller continents in the Cretaceous era, 130–65 million years ago. Australia finally broke free from Antarctica about 45 million years ago. All the Australasian lands are home to the Antarctic flora, descended from the flora of southern Gondwana, including the coniferous podocarps and Araucaria pines, and the broadleafed southern beech (Nothofagus). These plant families are still present in Papua New Guinea. As the Indo-Australian Plate (which includes landmasses of India, Australia, and the Indian Ocean floor in-between) drifts north, it collides with the Eurasian Plate, and the collision of the two plates pushed up the Himalayas, the Indonesian islands, and New Guinea's Central Range. The Central Range is much younger and higher than the mountains of Australia, so high that it is home to rare equatorial glaciers. New Guinea is part of the humid tropics, and many Indomalayan rainforest plants spread across the narrow straits from Asia, mixing together with the old Australian and Antarctic floras. Mount Tarvurvur in Papua New Guinea. PNG includes a number of terrestrial ecoregions: Admiralty Islands lowland rain forests Central Range montane rain forests Huon Peninsula montane rain forests Louisiade Archipelago rain forests New Britain-New Ireland lowland rain forests New Britain-New Ireland montane rain forests New Guinea mangroves Northern New Guinea lowland rain and freshwater swamp forests Northern New Guinea montane rain forests Solomon Islands rain forests (includes Bougainville and Buka) Southeastern Papuan rain forests Southern New Guinea freshwater swamp forests Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests Trobriand Islands rain forests Trans Fly savanna and grasslands Central Range sub-alpine grasslands Economy Port Moresby Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by rugged terrain, the high cost of developing infrastructure, serious law and order problems and the system of land title, which makes identifying the owners of land for the purpose of negotiating appropriate agreements problematic. Agriculture provides a subsistence livelihood for 85% of the population. Mineral deposits, including oil, copper, and gold, account for 72% of export earnings. Former Prime Minister Sir Mekere Morauta tried to restore integrity to state institutions, stabilize the kina, restore stability to the national budget, privatize public enterprises where appropriate, and ensure ongoing peace on Bougainville following the 1997 agreement which ended Bougainville's secessionist unrest. The Morauta government had considerable success in attracting international support, specifically gaining the backing of the IMF and the World Bank in securing development assistance loans. Significant challenges face the current Prime Minister Sir Michael Somare, including gaining further investor confidence, continuing efforts to privatize government assets, and maintaining the support of members of Parliament. The third quarter (September, 2004) Reserve Bank Report by the Governor of Bank of PNG showed positive economic stance by the Government, with inflation at zero. In March 2006 the United Nations Committee for Development Policy called for Papua New Guinea's designation of developing country to be downgraded to least-developed country because of protracted economic and social stagnation. However, an evaluation by the International Monetary Fund in late 2008 found that "a combination of prudent fiscal and monetary policies, and high global prices for mineral commodity exports, have underpinned Papua New Guinea's recent buoyant economic growth and macroeconomic stability. Real GDP growth, at over 6 percent in 2007, was broad-based and is expected to continue to be strong in 2008." http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2008/pr08107.htm "Statement of an IMF Mission at the Conclusion of the Staff Visit to Papua New Guinea" Land tenure Only some 3% of the land of Papua New Guinea is in private hands; it is privately held under 99 year State Lease, or it is held by the State. There is virtually no freehold title; the few existing freeholds are automatically converted to State Lease when they are transferred between vendor and purchaser. Unalienated land is owned under customary title by traditional landowners. The precise nature of the seisin varies from one culture to another. Many writers portray land as in the communal ownership of traditional clans; however, closer studies usually show that the smallest portions of land whose ownership cannot be further divided are held by the individual heads of extended families and their descendants, or their descendants alone if they have recently died. This is a matter of vital importance because a problem of economic development is identifying the membership of customary landowning groups, and the owners. Disputes between mining and forestry companies and landowner groups often devolve on the issue of whether the companies entered into contractual relations for the use of land with the true owners. Customary property — usually land — cannot be devised by will; it can only be inherited according to the custom of the deceased's people. Demographics Huli Wigman from the Southern Highlands Papua New Guinea is one of the most heterogeneous nations in the world. There are hundreds of ethnic groups indigenous to Papua New Guinea, the majority being from the group known as Papuans, whose ancestors arrived in the New Guinea region tens of thousands of years ago. The others are Austronesians, their ancestors having arrived in the region less than four thousand years ago. There are also numerous people from other parts of the world now resident, including Chinese, Europeans, Australians, Filipinos, Polynesians and Micronesians. Papua New Guinea has more languages than any other country, with over 820 indigenous languages, representing twelve percent of the world's total. Indigenous languages are classified into two large groups: Austronesian languages and non-Austronesian (or Papuan languages). There are three official languages for Papua New Guinea. English is an official language, and is the language of government and the education system, but it is not widely spoken. The primary lingua franca of the country is Tok Pisin (commonly known in English as New Guinea Pidgin or Melanesian Pidgin), in which much of the debate in Parliament is conducted, many information campaigns and advertisements are presented, and until recently a national newspaper, Wantok, was published. The only area where Tok Pisin is not prevalent is the southern region of Papua, where people often use the third official language, Hiri Motu. Although it lies in the Papua region, Port Moresby has a highly diverse population which primarily uses Tok Pisin, and to a lesser extent English, with Motu spoken as the indigenous language in outlying villages. With an average of only 7,000 speakers per language, Papua New Guinea has a greater density of languages than any other nation on earth except Vanuatu. PNG has the highest incidence of HIV and AIDS in the Pacific region and is the fourth country in the Asia Pacific region to fit the criteria for a generalised HIV/AIDS epidemic. Lack of HIV/AIDS awareness is a major problem, especially in rural areas. HIV/AIDS in Papua New Guinea Religion The courts and government practice uphold the constitutional right to freedom of speech, thought, and belief, and no legislation to curb those rights has been adopted, though Sir Arnold Amet, the immediately previous Chief Justice of Papua New Guinea and an outspoken proponent of Pentecostal Christianity, frequently urged legislative and other curbs on the activities of Muslims in the country. The 2000 census showed 96 percent of citizens were members of a Christian church; however, many citizens combine their Christian faith with some pre-Christian traditional indigenous practices. The census percentages were as follows: Roman Catholic Church (27.0%) Evangelical Lutheran Church of Papua New Guinea (19.5%) United Church (11.5%) Seventh-day Adventist Church (10.0%) Pentecostal (8.6%) Evangelical Alliance (5.2%) Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea (3.2%) Members Church of God International (2.0%) Baptist (0.5%) Church of Christ (0.4%) Jehovah's Witnesses (0.3%) Salvation Army (0.2%) Other Christian (8.0%) Minority religions include the Bahá'í Faith (15,000 or 0.3%), while Islam in Papua New Guinea accounts for approximately 1,000 to 2,000 or about 0.04%, (largely foreign residents of African and Southeast Asian origin, but with some Papua New Guinean converts in the towns). Non-traditional Christian churches and non-Christian religious groups are active throughout the country. The Papua New Guinea Council of Churches has stated that both Muslim and Confucian missionaries are active, and foreign missionary activity in general is high. Traditional religions were often animist and some also tended to have elements of ancestor worship though generalisation is suspect given the extreme heterogeneity of Melanesian societies. Prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in masalai, or evil spirits, which are blamed for "poisoning" people, causing calamity and death. For a discussion of one (West Papuan) society's traditional religion by way of example, see the article on the Korowai of West Papua. Culture Resident of Bago-bago, an island in the southeast of Papua New Guinea 20th century wooden Abelam ancestor figure (nggwalndu). The culture of Papua New Guinea is multi-faceted and complex. It is estimated that more than a thousand different cultural groups exist in PNG. Because of this diversity, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group has created its own expressive forms in art, dance, weaponry, costumes, singing, music, architecture and much more. Most of these different cultural groups have their own language. People typically live in villages that rely on subsistence farming. In some areas people hunt and collect wild plants (such as yam roots) to supplement their diets. Those who become skilled at hunting, farming and fishing earn a great deal of respect. On the Sepik river, there is a famous tradition of wood carving, often in the form of plants or animals, representing ancestor spirits. Sea shells are no longer the currency of Papua New Guinea, as they were in some regions — sea shells were abolished as currency in 1933. However, this heritage is still present in local customs; in some cultures, to get a bride, a groom must bring a certain number of golden-edged clam shells (Web archive) as a bride price. In other regions, bride price is paid in lengths of shell money, pigs, cassowaries or cash; elsewhere, bride price is unknown and it is brides who must pay dowry. People of the highlands engage in colourful local rituals that are called "sing sings". They paint themselves, and dress up with feathers, pearls and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits. Sometimes an important event, such as a legendary battle, is enacted at such a musical festival. (See also Music of Papua New Guinea.) Education The University of Papua New Guinea based in the National Capital District offers various degrees to national and international students. Teaching language is English. University of Papua New Guinea at www.upng.ac.pg The Papua New Guinea University of Technology is based outside of Lae, in Morobe Province. Sport Sport is an important part of PNG culture. The national sport, although not official, is considered to be rugby league. PNG National Sport In a nation where communities are far apart and many people live at a minimal subsistence level, rugby league has been described as a replacement for tribal warfare as a way of explaining the local enthusiasm for the game (a matter of life and death). Many Papua New Guineans have become instant celebrities by representing their country or playing in an overseas professional league. Even Australian rugby league players who have played in the annual (Australian) State of Origin clash, which is celebrated feverishly every year in PNG, are among the most well known identities throughout the nation. The Papua New Guinea national rugby league team usually play against the Australian national rugby league team each year in Port Moresby. It is such a popular fixture that thousands of people can't get into the ground once it's full, causing people to climb onto the stadium roof or up trees outside the ground in order to see the match. The limited capacity of the stadium for this fixture often sparks riots. Spectators clashed with riot police during this fixture in 2006. Scenes of celebration as Papua New Guinea are crowned International AFL champions after defeating New Zealand in the 2008 Australian Football International Cup Grand Final. The Papua New Guinea national Australian rules football team competed at both the 2002 and 2005 International Cups and were runners-up both times (to Ireland and New Zealand respectively). The 2008 Australian Football International Cup saw Papua New Guinea win the competition for the first time defeating New Zealand 7.12. 54 to 7.4. 46 in the Final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. AFL-PNG is the governing body of the sport in Papua New Guinea. Mal Michael is a famous Papua New Guinean footballer in the AFL, and his popularity has helped increase awareness of the game in his homeland. Other major sports which have a part in the PNG sporting landscape are soccer, rugby union and, in eastern Papua, cricket. The national rugby union team have in the past attempted to qualify for the Rugby World Cup, but have yet to debut. Transport Transport in Papua New Guinea is heavily limited by the country's mountainous terrain. Port Moresby is not linked by road to any of the other major towns and many remote villages can only be reached by light aircraft or on foot. As a result, air travel is the single most important form of transport. Papua New Guinea has 578 airstrips, most of which are unpaved. See also Awards system of Papua New Guinea Biodiversity protection efforts in Papua New Guinea Communications in Papua New Guinea Education in Papua New Guinea Foreign relations of Papua New Guinea List of diplomatic missions in Papua New Guinea List of Papua New Guineans Lists of cities & towns in Papua New Guinea by population List of Districts and Local Level Governments of Papua New Guinea Military of Papua New Guinea Tourism of Papua New Guinea Notes References External links Government Government of Papua New Guinea Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Papua New Guinea at UCB Libraries GovPubs Papua New Guinea focused wiki Papua New Guinea Business Directory be-x-old:Папуа-Новая Ґвінэя | Papua_New_Guinea |@lemmatized papua:95 new:125 guinea:106 also:13 tok:4 pisin:4 niugini:1 officially:1 independent:3 state:13 country:25 oceania:1 occupy:3 eastern:5 half:3 island:20 numerous:2 offshore:1 western:3 portion:3 part:10 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5,929 | Geography_of_Namibia | Detailed map of Namibia based on the radar map shown below. Topographic map of Namibia Location: Southern Africa, bordering the South Atlantic Ocean, between Angola and South Africa Geographic coordinates: Map references: Africa Area: total: 825 418 km² land: 825 418 km² water: 0 km² Land boundaries: total: 3 824 km border countries: Angola 1 376 km, Botswana 1 360 km, South Africa 855 km, Zambia 233 km Coastline: 1 572 km Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm Climate: desert; hot, dry; rainfall sparse and erratic Terrain: mostly high plateau; Namib Desert along coast; Kalahari Desert in east Elevation extremes: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m highest point: Königstein 2 606 m Natural resources: diamonds, copper, uranium, gold, lead, tin, lithium, cadmium, zinc, salt, vanadium, natural gas, hydropower, fish note: suspected deposits of oil, coal, and iron ore Land use: arable land: 0.99% (1998 est.) 1% (1993 est.) permanent crops: 0% (1998, 1993 est.) permanent pastures: 46% (1993 est.) forests and woodland: 22% (1993 est.) other: 99.01 (1998 est.), 31% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 70 km² (1998 est.), 60 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards: prolonged periods of drought Environment - current issues: very limited natural freshwater resources; desertification Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements See also Namibia Towns in Namibia List of rivers of Africa Rivers in Namibia | Geography_of_Namibia |@lemmatized detailed:1 map:4 namibia:5 base:1 radar:1 show:1 topographic:1 location:1 southern:1 africa:5 border:2 south:3 atlantic:2 ocean:2 angola:2 geographic:1 coordinate:1 reference:1 area:1 total:2 land:5 water:1 boundary:1 km:6 country:1 botswana:1 zambia:1 coastline:1 maritime:1 claim:1 contiguous:1 zone:2 nm:3 exclusive:1 economic:1 territorial:1 sea:2 climate:2 desert:3 hot:1 dry:1 rainfall:1 sparse:1 erratic:1 terrain:1 mostly:1 high:2 plateau:1 namib:1 along:1 coast:1 kalahari:1 east:1 elevation:1 extreme:1 low:1 point:2 königstein:1 natural:4 resource:3 diamond:1 copper:1 uranium:1 gold:1 lead:1 tin:1 lithium:1 cadmium:1 zinc:1 salt:1 vanadium:1 gas:1 hydropower:1 fish:1 note:1 suspect:1 deposit:1 oil:1 coal:1 iron:1 ore:1 use:1 arable:1 est:9 permanent:2 crop:1 pasture:1 forest:1 woodland:1 irrigated:1 hazard:1 prolong:1 period:1 drought:1 environment:2 current:1 issue:1 limited:1 freshwater:1 desertification:2 international:1 agreement:2 party:1 antarctic:1 marine:1 living:1 biodiversity:1 change:1 endanger:1 specie:1 hazardous:1 waste:1 law:1 ozone:1 layer:1 protection:1 wetland:1 sign:1 ratified:1 none:1 selected:1 see:1 also:1 town:1 list:1 river:2 |@bigram topographic_map:1 atlantic_ocean:2 geographic_coordinate:1 coastline_km:1 contiguous_zone:1 namib_desert:1 kalahari_desert:1 iron_ore:1 arable_land:1 permanent_crop:1 permanent_pasture:1 forest_woodland:1 woodland_est:1 est_irrigated:1 irrigated_land:1 biodiversity_climate:1 desertification_endanger:1 endanger_specie:1 hazardous_waste:1 ozone_layer:1 protection_wetland:1 sign_ratified:1 ratified_none:1 |
5,930 | Group_(mathematics) | The possible manipulations of this Rubik's Cube form a group. In mathematics, a group is an algebraic structure consisting of a set together with an operation that combines any two of its elements to form a third element. To qualify as a group, the set and the operation must satisfy a few conditions called group axioms, namely closure, associativity, identity and invertibility. While these are familiar from many mathematical structures, such as number systems—for example, the integers endowed with the addition operation form a group—the formulation of the axioms is detached from the concrete nature of the group and its operation. This allows one to handle entities of very different mathematical origins in a flexible way, while retaining essential structural aspects of many objects in abstract algebra and beyond. The ubiquity of groups in numerous areas—both within and outside mathematics—makes them a central organizing principle of contemporary mathematics. : "The idea of a group is one which pervades the whole of mathematics both pure and applied." Groups share a fundamental kinship with the notion of symmetry. A symmetry group encodes symmetry features of a geometrical object: it consists of the set of transformations that leave the object unchanged, and the operation of combining two such transformations by performing one after the other. Such symmetry groups, particularly the continuous Lie groups, play an important role in many academic disciplines. Matrix groups, for example, can be used to understand fundamental physical laws underlying special relativity and symmetry phenomena in molecular chemistry. The concept of a group arose from the study of polynomial equations, starting with Évariste Galois in the 1830s. After contributions from other fields such as number theory and geometry, the group notion was generalized and firmly established around 1870. Modern group theory—a very active mathematical discipline—studies groups in their own right. To explore groups, mathematicians have devised various notions to break groups into smaller, better-understandable pieces, such as subgroups, quotient groups and simple groups. In addition to their abstract properties, group theorists also study the different ways in which a group can be expressed concretely (its group representations), both from a theoretical and a computational point of view. A particularly rich theory has been developed for finite groups, which culminated with the monumental classification of finite simple groups completed in 1983. Since mid-1980s geometric group theory, which studies finitely generated groups as geometric objects, has become a particularly active area in group theory. Definition and illustration First example: the integers One of the most familiar groups is the set of integers Z which consists of the numbers ..., −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ... The following properties of integer addition serve as a model for the abstract group axioms given in the definition below. For any two integers a and b, the sum a + b is also an integer. In other words, the process of adding integers two at a time can never yield a result that is not an integer. This property is known as closure under addition. For all integers a, b and c, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c). Expressed in words, adding a to b first, and then adding the result to c gives the same final result as adding a to the sum of b and c, a property known as associativity. If a is any integer, then 0 + a = a + 0 = a. Zero is called the identity element of addition because adding it to any integer returns the same integer. For every integer a, there is an integer b such that a + b = b + a = 0. The integer b is called the inverse element of the integer a and is denoted −a. Definition The integers, together with the operation "+", form a mathematical object belonging to a broad class sharing similar structural aspects. To appropriately understand these structures without dealing with every concrete case separately, the following abstract definition is developed to encompass the above example along with many others, one of which is the symmetry group detailed below. A group is a set, G, together with an operation "•" that combines any two elements a and b to form another element denoted . The symbol "•" is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation, such as the addition above. To qualify as a group, the set and operation, , must satisfy four requirements known as the group axioms: Closure For all a, b in G, the result of the operation a • b is also in G. Associativity For all a, b and c in G, the equation (a • b) • c = a • (b • c) holds. Identity element There exists an element e in G, such that for all elements a in G, the equation e • a = a • e = a holds. Inverse element For each a in G, there exists an element b in G such that a • b = b • a = e, where e is the identity element. The order in which the group operation is carried out can be significant. In other words, the result of combining element a with element b need not yield the same result as combining element b with element a; the equation a • b = b • a may not always be true. This equation does always hold in the group of integers under addition, because a + b = b + a for any two integers (commutativity of addition). However, it does not always hold in the symmetry group below. Groups for which the equation a • b = b • a always holds are called abelian (in honor of Niels Abel). Thus, the integer addition group is abelian, but the following symmetry group is not. Second example: a symmetry group The symmetries (i.e., rotations and reflections) of a square form a group called a dihedral group, and denoted D4. The following symmetries occur: id (keeping it as is) r1 (rotation by 90° right) r2 (rotation by 180° right) r3 (rotation by 270° right) fv (vertical flip) fh (horizontal flip) fd (diagonal flip) fc (counter-diagonal flip) The elements of the symmetry group of the square (D4). The vertices are colored and numbered only to visualize the operations. the identity operation leaving everything unchanged, denoted id; rotations of the square by 90° right, 180° right, and 270° right, denoted by r1, r2 and r3, respectively; reflections about the vertical and horizontal middle line (fh and fv), or through the two diagonals (fd and fc). Any two symmetries a and b can be composed; i.e., applied one after another. The result of performing first a and then b is written symbolically from right to left as b • a ("apply the symmetry b after performing the symmetry a". The right-to-left notation stems from composition of functions). The group table on the right lists the results of all such compositions possible. For example, rotating by 270° right (r3) and then flipping horizontally (fh) is the same as performing a reflection along the diagonal (fd). Using the above symbols, highlighted in blue in the group table: fh • r3 = fd.</li> + Group table of D4 • id r1 r2 r3 fv fh fd fc id id r1 r2 r3 fv fh fd fc r1 r1 r2 r3 id fc fd fv fh r2 r2 r3 id r1 fh fv fc fd r3 r3 id r1 r2 fd fc fh fv fv fv fd fh fc id r2 r1 r3 fh fh fc fv fd r2 id r3 r1 fd fd fh fc fv r3 r1 id r2 fc fc fv fd fh r1 r3 r2 id The elements id, r1, r2, and r3 form a subgroup, highlighted in red (upper left region). A left and right coset of this subgroup is highlighted in green (in the last row) and yellow (last column), respectively. Given this set of symmetries and the described operation, the group axioms can be understood as follows: <li> The closure axiom demands that the composition b • a of any two symmetries a and b is also a symmetry. Another example for the group operation is r3 • fh = fc, i.e. rotating 270° right after flipping horizontally equals flipping along the counter-diagonal (fc). Indeed every other combination of two symmetries still gives a symmetry, as can be checked using the group table. <li> The associativity constraint deals with composing more than two symmetries: given three elements a, b and c of D4, there are two possible ways of computing "a then b then c". The requirement (a • b) • c = a • (b • c) means that the composition of the three elements is independent of the priority of the operations, i.e. composing first a after b, and c to the result thereof amounts to performing a after the composition of b and c. For example, (fd • fv) • r2 = fd • (fv • r2) can be checked using the group table at the right {|style="text-align:center"| |(fd • fv) • r2|| = ||r3 • r2|| = ||r1, which equals |- |fd • (fv • r2)|| = ||fd • fh|| = ||r1. |} The identity element is the symmetry id leaving everything unchanged: for any symmetry a, performing id after a (or a after id) equals a, in symbolic form, id • a = a, a • id = a. An inverse element undoes the transformation of some other element. Every symmetry can be undone: each of transformations—identity id, the flips fh, fv, fd, fc and the 180° rotation r2—is its own inverse, because performing each one twice brings the square back to its original orientation. The rotations r3 and r1 are each other's inverse, because rotating one way and then by the same angle the other way leaves the square unchanged. In symbols, fh • fh = id, r3 • r1 = r1 • r3 = id. In contrast to the group of integers above, where the order of the operation is irrelevant, it does matter in D4: fh • r1 = fc but r1 • fh = fd. In other words, D4 is not abelian, which makes the group structure more difficult than the integers introduced first. History The modern concept of an abstract group developed out of several fields of mathematics. The original motivation for group theory was the quest for solutions of polynomial equations of degree higher than 4. The 19th-century French mathematician Évariste Galois, extending prior work of Paolo Ruffini and Joseph-Louis Lagrange, gave a criterion for the solvability of a particular polynomial equation in terms of the symmetry group of its roots (solutions). The elements of such a Galois group correspond to certain permutations of the roots. At first, Galois' ideas were rejected by his contemporaries, and published only posthumously. More general permutation groups were investigated in particular by Augustin Louis Cauchy. Arthur Cayley's On the theory of groups, as depending on the symbolic equation θn = 1 (1854) gives the first abstract definition of a finite group. Geometry was a second field in which groups were used systematically, especially symmetry groups as part of Felix Klein's 1872 Erlangen program. After novel geometries such as hyperbolic and projective geometry had emerged, Klein used group theory to organize them in a more coherent way. Further advancing these ideas, Sophus Lie founded the study of Lie groups in 1884. The third field contributing to group theory was number theory. Certain abelian group structures had been used implicitly in Carl Friedrich Gauss' number-theoretical work Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1798), and more explicitly by Leopold Kronecker. In 1847, Ernst Kummer led early attempts to prove Fermat's Last Theorem to a climax by developing groups describing factorization into prime numbers. The convergence of these various sources into a uniform theory of groups started with Camille Jordan's Traité des substitutions et des équations algébriques (1870). Walther von Dyck (1882) gave the first statement of the modern definition of an abstract group. As of the 20th century, groups gained wide recognition by the pioneering work of Ferdinand Georg Frobenius and William Burnside, who worked on representation theory of finite groups, Richard Brauer's modular representation theory and Issai Schur's papers. The theory of Lie groups, and more generally locally compact groups was pushed by Hermann Weyl, Élie Cartan and many others. Its algebraic counterpart, the theory of algebraic groups, was first shaped by Claude Chevalley (from the late 1930s) and later by pivotal work of Armand Borel and Jacques Tits. The University of Chicago's 1960–61 Group Theory Year brought together group theorists such as Daniel Gorenstein, John G. Thompson and Walter Feit, laying the foundation of a collaboration that, with input from numerous other mathematicians, classified all finite simple groups in 1982. This project exceeded previous mathematical endeavours by its sheer size, in both length of proof and number of researchers. Research is ongoing to simplify the proof of this classification. These days, group theory is still a highly active mathematical branch crucially impacting many other fields. Simple consequences of the group axioms Basic facts about all groups that can be obtained directly from the group axioms are commonly subsumed under elementary group theory. For example, repeated applications of the associativity axiom show that the unambiguity of a • b • c = (a • b) • c = a • (b • c) generalizes to more than three factors. Because this implies that parentheses can be inserted anywhere within such a series of terms, parentheses are usually omitted. The axioms may be weakened to assert only the existence of a left identity and left inverses. Both can be shown to be actually two-sided, so the resulting definition is equivalent to the one given above. Uniqueness of identity element and inverses Two important consequences of the group axioms are the uniqueness of the identity element and the uniqueness of inverse elements. There can be only one identity element in a group, and each element in a group has exactly one inverse element. Thus, it is customary to speak of the identity, and the inverse of an element. To prove the uniqueness of an inverse element of a, suppose that a has two inverses, denoted l and r. Then {| |l ||=||l • e || ||as e is the identity element |- | ||=||l • (a • r) || ||because r is an inverse of a, so e = a • r |- | ||=||(l • a) • r || ||by associativity, which allows to rearrange the parentheses |- | ||=||e • r|| ||since l is an inverse of a, i.e. l • a = e |- | ||=||r|| || for e is the identity element |} Hence the two extremal terms l and r are connected by a chain of equalities, so they agree. In other words there is only one inverse element of a. Division In groups, it is possible to perform division: given elements a and b of the group G, there is exactly one solution x in G to the equation x • a = b. In fact, right multiplication of the equation by a−1 gives the solution x = x • a • a−1 = b • a−1. Similarly there is exactly one solution y in G to the equation a • y = b, namely y = a−1 • b. In general, x and y need not agree. Basic concepts The following sections use mathematical symbols such as X = {x, y, z} to denote a set X containing elements x, y, and z, or alternatively x ∈ X to restate that x is an element of X. The notation means f is a function assigning to every element of X an element of Y. To understand groups beyond the level of mere symbolic manipulations as above, more structural concepts have to be employed. There is a conceptual principle underlying all of the following notions: to take advantage of the structure offered by groups (which for example sets—being "structureless"—don't have) constructions related to groups have to be compatible with the group operation. This compatibility manifests itself in the following notions in various ways. For example, groups can be related to each other via functions called group homomorphisms. By the mentioned principle, they are required to respect the group structures in a precise sense. The structure of groups can also be understood by breaking them into pieces called subgroups and quotient groups. The principle of "preserving structures"—a recurring topic in mathematics throughout—is an instance of working in a category, in this case the category of groups. Group homomorphisms Group homomorphisms are functions that preserve group structure. A function a: G → H between two groups is a homomorphism if the equation a(g • k) = a(g) • a(k). holds for all elements g, k in G, i.e. the result is the same when performing the group operation after or before applying the map a. This requirement ensures that a(1G) = 1H, and also a(g)−1 = a(g−1) for all g in G. Thus a group homomorphism respects all the structure of G provided by the group axioms. Two groups G and H are called isomorphic if there exist group homomorphisms a: G → H and b: H → G, such that applying the two functions one after another (in each of the two possible orders) equal the identity function of G and H, respectively. That is, a(b(h)) = h and b(a(g)) = g for any g in G and h in H. From an abstract point of view, isomorphic groups carry the same information. For example, proving that g • g = 1 for some element g of G is equivalent to proving that a(g) • a(g) = 1, because applying a to the first equality yields the second, and applying b to the second gives back the first. Subgroups Informally, a subgroup is a group H contained within a bigger one, G. Concretely, the identity element of G is contained in H, and whenever h1 and h2 are in H, then so are and h1−1, so the elements of H, equipped with the group operation on G restricted to H, form indeed a group. In the example above, the identity and the rotations constitute a subgroup R = {id, r1, r2, r3}, highlighted in red in the group table above: any two rotations composed are still a rotation, and a rotation can be undone by (i.e. is inverse to) the complementary rotations 270° for 90°, 180° for 180°, and 90° for 270° (note that rotation in the opposite direction is not defined). The subgroup test is a necessary and sufficient condition for a subset H of a group G to be a subgroup: it is sufficient to check that for all elements g, h ∈ H. Knowing the subgroups is important in understanding the group as a whole. Given any subset S of a group G, the subgroup generated by S consists of products of elements of S and their inverses. It is the smallest subgroup of G containing S. In the introductory example above, the subgroup generated by r2 and fv consists of these two elements, the identity element id and fh = fv • r2. Again, this is a subgroup, because combining any two of these four elements or their inverses (which are, in this particular case, these same elements) yields an element of this subgroup. Cosets In many situations it is desirable to consider two group elements the same if they differ by an element of a given subgroup. For example, in D4 above, once a flip is performed, the square never gets back to the r2 configuration by just applying the rotation operations (and no further flips), i.e. the rotation operations are irrelevant to the question whether a flip has been performed. Cosets are used to formalize this insight: a subgroup H defines left and right cosets, which can be thought of as translations of H by arbitrary group elements g. In symbolic terms, the left and right coset of H containing g are gH = {gh, h ∈ H} and Hg = {hg, h ∈ H}, respectively. The cosets of any subgroup H form a partition of G; that is, the union of all left cosets is equal to G and two left cosets are either equal or have an empty intersection. The first case g1H = g2H happens precisely when , i.e. if the two elements differ by an element of H. Similar considerations apply to the right cosets of H. The left and right cosets of H may or may not be equal. If they are, i.e. for all g in G, gH = Hg, then H is said to be a normal subgroup. One may then simply refer to N as the set of cosets. In D4, the introductory symmetry group, the left cosets gR of the subgroup R consisting of the rotations are either equal to R, if g is an element of R itself, or otherwise equal to U = fvR = {fv, fd, fh, fc} (highlighted in green). The subgroup R is also normal, because fvR = U = Rfv and similarly for any element other than fv. Quotient groups In addition to disregarding the internal structure of a subgroup by considering its cosets, it is desirable to endow this coarser entity with a group law called quotient group or factor group. For this to be possible, the subgroup has to be normal. Given any normal subgroup N, the quotient group is defined by G / N = {gN, g ∈ G}, "G modulo N". This set inherits a group operation (sometimes called coset multiplication, or coset addition) from the original group G: (gN) • (hN) = (gh)N for all g and h in G. This definition is motivated by the idea (itself an instance of general structural considerations outlined above) that the map that associates to any element g its coset gN be a group homomorphism, or by general abstract considerations called universal properties. The coset eN = N serves as the identity in this group, and the inverse of gN in the quotient group is (gN)−1 = (g−1)N. • R U R R U U U RGroup table of the quotient group . The elements of the quotient group are R itself, which represents the identity, and U = fvR. The group operation on the quotient is shown at the right. For example, U • U = fvR • fvR = (fv • fv)R = R. Both the subgroup R = {id, r1, r2, r3}, as well as the corresponding quotient are abelian, whereas D4 is not abelian. Building bigger groups by smaller ones, such as D4 from its subgroup R and the quotient is abstracted by a notion called semidirect product. Quotient and subgroups together form a way of describing every group by its presentation: any group is the quotient of the free group over the generators of the group, quotiented by the subgroup of relations. The dihedral group D4, for example, can be generated by two elements r and f (for example, r = r1, the right rotation and f = fv the vertical (or any other) flip), which means that every symmetry of the square is a finite composition of these two symmetries or their inverses. Together with the relations r 4 = f 2 = (rf)2 = 1, the group is completely described. A presentation of a group can also be used to construct the Cayley graph, a device used to graphically capture discrete groups. Sub- and quotient groups are related in the following way: a subset H of G can be seen as an injective map , i.e. any element of the target has at most one element that maps to it. The counterpart to injective maps are surjective maps (every element of the target is mapped onto), such as the canonical map . Interpreting subgroup and quotients in light of these homomorphisms emphasizes the structural concept inherent to these definitions alluded to in the introduction. In general, homomorphisms are neither injective nor surjective. Kernel and image of group homomorphisms and the first isomorphism theorem address this phenomenon. Examples and applications Examples and applications of groups abound. A starting point is the group Z of integers with addition as group operation, introduced above. If instead of addition multiplication is considered, one obtains multiplicative groups. These groups are predecessors of important constructions in abstract algebra. Groups are also applied in many other mathematical areas. Mathematical objects are often examined by associating groups to them and studying the properties of the corresponding groups. For example, Henri Poincaré founded what is now called algebraic topology by introducing the fundamental group. By means of this connection, topological properties such as proximity and continuity translate into properties of groups. For example, elements of the fundamental group are represented by loops. The second image at the right shows some loops in a plane minus a point. The blue loop is considered null-homotopic (and thus irrelevant), because it can be continuously shrunk to a point. The presence of the hole prevents the orange loop from being shrunk to a point. The fundamental group of the plane with a point deleted turns out to be infinite cyclic, generated by the orange loop (or any other loop winding once around the hole). This way, the fundamental group detects the hole. In more recent applications, the influence has also been reversed to motivate geometric constructions by a group-theoretical background. In a similar vein, geometric group theory employs geometric concepts, for example in the study of hyperbolic groups. Further branches crucially applying groups include algebraic geometry and number theory. for example, class groups and Picard groups; see , in particular §§I.12 and I.13 In addition to the above theoretical applications, many practical applications of groups exist. Cryptography relies on the combination of the abstract group theory approach together with algorithmical knowledge obtained in computational group theory, in particular when implemented for finite groups. Applications of group theory are not restricted to mathematics; sciences such as physics, chemistry and computer science benefit from the concept. Numbers Many number systems, such as the integers and the rationals enjoy a naturally given group structure. In some cases, such as with the rationals, both addition and multiplication operations give rise to group structures. Such number systems are predecessors to more general algebraic structures known as rings and fields. Integers The group of integers Z under addition, denoted (Z, +), has been described above. The integers, with the operation of multiplication instead of addition, (Z, ·) do not form a group. The closure, associativity and identity axioms are satisfied, but inverses do not exist: for example, a = 2 is an integer, but the only solution to the equation a · b = 1 in this case is b = 1/2, which is a rational number, but not an integer. Hence not every element of Z has a (multiplicative) inverse. Rationals The desire for the existence of multiplicative inverses suggests considering fractions Fractions of integers (with b nonzero) are known as rational numbers. The set of all such fractions is commonly denoted Q. There is still a minor obstacle for the rationals with multiplication, being a group: because the rational number 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse (i.e., there is no x such that x · 0 = 1), (Q, ·) is still not a group. However, the set of all nonzero rational numbers Q \ {0} = {q ∈ Q, q ≠ 0} does form an abelian group under multiplication, denoted . Associativity and identity element axioms follow from the properties of integers. The closure requirement still holds true after removing zero, because the product of two nonzero rationals is never zero. Finally, the inverse of a/b is b/a, therefore the axiom of the inverse element is satisfied. The rational numbers (including 0) also form a group under addition. Intertwining addition and multiplication operations yields more complicated structures called rings and—if division is possible, such as in Q—fields, which occupy a central position in abstract algebra. Group theoretic arguments therefore underlie parts of the theory of those entities. Nonzero integers modulo a prime For any prime number p, modular arithmetic furnishes the multiplicative group of integers modulo p. Its elements are integers not divisible by p, considered modulo p, i.e. two numbers are considered equivalent if their difference is divisible by p. For example, if p = 5, there are exactly four group elements 1, 2, 3, 4: multiples of 5 are excluded and 6 and −4 are both equivalent to 1 etc. The group operation is given by multiplication. Therefore, 4 · 4 = 1, because the usual product 16 is equivalent to 1, for 5 divides 16 − 1 = 15, denoted 16 ≡ 1 (mod 5). The primality of p ensures that the product of two integers neither of which is divisible by p is not divisible by p either, hence the indicated set of classes is closed under multiplication. The identity element is 1, as usual for a multiplicative group, and the associativity follows from the corresponding property of integers. Finally, the inverse element axiom requires that given an integer a not divisible by p, there exists an integer b such that a · b ≡ 1 (mod p), i.e. p divides the difference . The inverse b can be found by using Bézout's identity and the fact that the greatest common divisor equals 1. In the case p = 5 above, the inverse of 4 is 4, and the inverse of 3 is 2, as 3 · 2 = 6 ≡ 1 (mod 5). Hence all group axioms are fulfilled. Actually, this example is similar to (Q\{0}, ·) above, because it turns out to be the multiplicative group of nonzero elements in the finite field Fp, denoted Fp×. These groups are crucial to public-key cryptography. Cyclic groups The 6th complex roots of unity form a cyclic group. z is a primitive element, but z2 is not, because the odd powers of z are not a power of z2. A cyclic group is a group all of whose elements are powers (when the group operation is written additively, the term 'multiple' can be used) of a particular element a. In multiplicative notation, the elements of the group are: ..., a−3, a−2, a−1, a0 = e, a, a2, a3, ..., where a2 means a • a, and a−3 stands for a−1 • a−1 • a−1=(a • a • a)−1 etc. Such an element a is called a generator or a primitive element of the group. A typical example for this class of groups is the group of n-th complex roots of unity, given by complex numbers z satisfying zn = 1 (and whose operation is multiplication). Any cyclic group with n elements is isomorphic to this group. Using some field theory, the group Fp× can be shown to be cyclic: for p = 5, 3 is a generator since 31 = 3, 32 = 9 ≡ 4, 33 ≡ 2, and 34 ≡ 1. An infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +), the group of integers under addition introduced above. As these two prototypes are both abelian, so is any cyclic group. The study of abelian groups is quite mature, including the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups; and reflecting this state of affairs, many group-related notions, such as center and commutator, describe the extent to which a given group is not abelian. Symmetry groups Symmetry groups are groups consisting of symmetries of given mathematical objects—be they of geometric nature, such as the introductory symmetry group of the square, or of algebraic nature, such as polynomial equations and their solutions. Conceptually, group theory can be thought of as the study of symmetry. Symmetries in mathematics greatly simplify the study of geometrical or analytical objects. A group is said to act on another mathematical object X if every group element performs some operation on X compatibly to the group law. In the rightmost example below, an element of order 7 of the (2,3,7) triangle group acts on the tiling by permuting the highlighted warped triangles (and the other ones, too). By a group action, the group pattern is connected to the structure of the object being acted on. Rotations and flips form the symmetry group of a great icosahedron. In chemical fields, such as crystallography, space groups and point groups describe molecular symmetries and crystal symmetries. These symmetries underlie the chemical and physical behavior of these systems, and group theory enables simplification of quantum mechanical analysis of these properties. . See also For example, group theory is used to show that optical transitions between certain quantum levels cannot occur simply because of the symmetry of the states involved. Not only are groups useful to assess the implications of symmetries in molecules, but surprisingly they also predict that molecules sometimes can change symmetry. The Jahn-Teller effect is a distortion of a molecule of high symmetry when it adopts a particular ground state of lower symmetry from a set of possible ground states that are related to each other by the symmetry operations of the molecule. Likewise, group theory helps predict the changes in physical properties that occur when a material undergoes a phase transition, for example, from a cubic to a tetrahedral crystalline form. An example is ferroelectric materials, where the change from a paraelectric to a ferroelectric state occurs at the Curie temperature and is related to a change from the high-symmetry paraelectric state to the lower symmetry ferroelectic state, accompanied by a so-called soft phonon mode, a vibrational lattice mode that goes to zero frequency at the transition. Such spontaneous symmetry breaking has found further application in elementary particle physics, where its occurrence is related to the appearance of Goldstone bosons. Buckminsterfullerene displaysicosahedral symmetry.Ammonia, NH3. Its symmetry group is of order 6, generated by a 120° rotation and a reflection.Cubane C8H8 features octahedral symmetry.Hexaaquacopper(II) complex ion, [Cu(OH2)6]2+. Compared to a perfectly symmetrical shape, the molecule is vertically dilated by about 22% (Jahn-Teller effect).The (2,3,7) triangle group, a hyperbolic group, acts on this tiling of the hyperbolic plane. Finite symmetry groups such as the Mathieu groups are used in coding theory, which is in turn applied in error correction of transmitted data, and in CD players. Another application is differential Galois theory, which characterizes functions having antiderivatives of a prescribed form, giving group-theoretic criteria for when solutions of certain differential equations are well-behaved. Geometric properties that remain stable under group actions are investigated in (geometric) invariant theory. General linear group and representation theory Two vectors (the left illustration) multiplied by matrices (the middle and right illustrations). The middle illustration represents a clockwise rotation by 90°, while the right-most one stretches the x-coordinate by factor 2. Matrix groups consist of matrices together with matrix multiplication. The general linear group GL(n, R) consists of all invertible n-by-n matrices with real entries. Its subgroups are referred to as matrix groups or linear groups. The dihedral group example mentioned above can be viewed as a (very small) matrix group. Another important matrix group is the special orthogonal group SO(n). It describes all possible rotations in n dimensions. Via Euler angles, rotation matrices are used in computer graphics. Representation theory is both an application of the group concept and important for a deeper understanding of groups. It studies the group by its group actions on other spaces. A broad class of group representations are linear representations, i.e. the group is acting on a vector space, such as the three-dimensional Euclidean space R3. A representation of G on an n-dimensional real vector space is simply a group homomorphism ρ: G → GL(n, R) from the group to the general linear group. This way, the group operation, which may be abstractly given, translates to the multiplication of matrices making it accessible to explicit computations. Given a group action, this gives further means to study the object being acted on. On the other hand, it also yields information about the group. Group representations are an organizing principle in the theory of finite groups, Lie groups, algebraic groups and topological groups, especially (locally) compact groups. Galois groups Galois groups have been developed to help solve polynomial equations by capturing their symmetry features. For example, the solutions of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by Exchanging "+" and "−" in the expression, i.e. permuting the two solutions of the equation can be viewed as a (very simple) group operation. Similar formulae are known for cubic and quartic equations, but do not exist in general for degree 5 and higher. (see in particular p. 273 for concrete examples) Abstract properties of Galois groups associated with polynomials (in particular their solvability) give a criterion for polynomials that have all their solutions expressible by radicals, i.e. solutions expressible using solely addition, multiplication, and roots similar to the formula above. The problem can be dealt with using field theory: considering the splitting field of a polynomial shifts the problem into the realm of field theory. Modern Galois theory generalizes the above type of Galois groups to field extensions and establishes—via the fundamental theorem of Galois theory—a precise relationship between fields and groups, underlining once again the ubiquity of groups in mathematics. Finite groups A group is called finite if it has a finite number of elements. The number of elements is called the order of the group G. An important class is the symmetric groups SN, the groups of permutations of N letters. For example, the symmetric group on 3 letters S3 is the group consisting of all possible swaps of the three letters ABC, i.e. contains the elements ABC, ACB, ..., up to CBA, in total 6 (or 3 factorial) elements. This class is fundamental insofar as any finite group can be expressed as a subgroup of a symmetric group SN for a suitable integer N (Cayley's theorem). Parallel to the group of symmetries of the square above, S3 can also be interpreted as the group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle. The order of an element a in a group G is the least positive integer n such that a n = e, where a n represents i.e. application of the operation • to n copies of a. (If • represents multiplication, then an corresponds to the nth power of a.) In infinite groups, such an n may not exist, in which case the order of a is said to be infinity. The order of an element equals the order of the cyclic subgroup generated by this element. More sophisticated counting techniques, for example counting cosets, yield more precise statements about finite groups: Lagrange's Theorem states that for a finite group G the order of any finite subgroup H divides the order of G. The Sylow theorems give a partial converse. The dihedral group (discussed above) is a finite group of order 8. The order of r1 is 4, as is the order of the subgroup R it generates (see above). The order of the reflection elements fv etc. is 2. Both orders divide 8, as predicted by Lagrange's Theorem. The groups Fp× above have order . Classification of finite simple groups Mathematicians often strive for a complete classification (or list) of a mathematical notion. In the context of finite groups, this aim quickly leads to difficult and profound mathematics. According to Lagrange's theorem, finite groups of order p, a prime number, are necessarily cyclic (abelian) groups Zp. Groups of order p2 can also be shown to be abelian, a statement which does not generalize to order p3, as the non-abelian group D4 of order 8 = 23 above shows. . See also for similar results. Computer algebra systems can be used to list small groups, but there is no classification of all finite groups. An intermediate step is the classification of finite simple groups. A nontrivial group is called simple if its only normal subgroups are the trivial group and the group itself. The Jordan-Hölder theorem exhibits finite simple groups as the building blocks for all finite groups. Listing all finite simple groups was a major achievement in contemporary group theory. 1998 Fields Medal winner Richard Borcherds succeeded to prove the monstrous moonshine conjectures, a surprising and deep relation of the largest finite simple sporadic group—the "monster group"—with certain modular functions, a piece of classical complex analysis, and string theory, a theory supposed to unify the description of many physical phenomena. Groups with additional structure Many groups are simultaneously groups and examples of other mathematical structures. In the language of category theory, they are group objects in a category, meaning that they are objects (that is, examples of another mathematical structure) which come with transformations (called morphisms) that mimic the group axioms. For example, every group (as defined above) is also a set, so a group is a group object in the category of sets. Topological groups The unit circle in the complex plane under complex multiplication is a Lie group and, therefore, a topological group. It is topological since complex multiplication and division are continuous. It is a manifold and thus a Lie group, because every small piece, such as the red arc in the figure, looks like a part of the real line (shown at the bottom). Some topological spaces may be endowed with a group law. In order for the group law and the topology to interweave well, the group operations must be continuous functions, that is, and g−1 must not vary wildly if g and h vary only little. Such groups are called topological groups, and they are the group objects in the category of topological spaces. The most basic examples are the reals R under addition, , and similarly with any other topological field such as the complex numbers or p-adic numbers. All of these groups are locally compact, so they have Haar measures and can be studied via harmonic analysis. The former offer an abstract formalism of invariant integrals. Invariance means, in the case of real numbers for example: for any constant c. Matrix groups over these fields fall under this regime, as do adele rings and adelic algebraic groups, which are basic to number theory. Galois groups of infinite field extensions such as the absolute Galois group can also be equipped with a topology, the so-called Krull topology, which in turn is central to generalize the above sketched connection of fields and groups to infinite field extensions. An advanced generalization of this idea, adapted to the needs of algebraic geometry, is the étale fundamental group. Lie groups Lie groups (in honor of Sophus Lie) are groups which also have a manifold structure, i.e. they are spaces looking locally like some Euclidean space of the appropriate dimension. Again, the additional structure, here the manifold structure, has to be compatible, i.e. the maps corresponding to multiplication and the inverse have to be smooth. A standard example is the general linear group introduced above: it is an open subset of the space of all n-by-n matrices, because it is given by the inequality det (A) ≠ 0, where A denotes an n-by-n matrix. Lie groups are of fundamental importance in physics: Noether's theorem links continuous symmetries to conserved quantities. Rotation, as well as translations in space and time are basic symmetries of the laws of mechanics. They can, for instance, be used to construct simple models—imposing, say, axial symmetry on a situation will typically lead to significant simplification in the equations one needs to solve to provide a physical description. Another example are the Lorentz transformations, which relate measurements of time and velocity of two observers in motion relative to each other. They can be deduced in a purely group-theoretical way, by expressing the transformations as a rotational symmetry of Minkowski space. The latter serves—in the absence of significant gravitation—as a model of space time in special relativity. The full symmetry group of Minkowski space, i.e. including translations, is known as the Poincaré group. By the above, it plays a pivotal role in special relativity and, by implication, for quantum field theories. Symmetries that vary with location are central to the modern description of physical interactions with the help of gauge theory. Generalizations In abstract algebra, more general structures are defined by relaxing some of the axioms defining a group. For example, if the requirement that every element has an inverse is eliminated, the resulting algebraic structure is called a monoid. The natural numbers N (including 0) under addition form a monoid, as do the nonzero integers under multiplication , see above. There is a general method to formally add inverses to elements to any (abelian) monoid, much the same way as is derived from , known as the Grothendieck group. Groupoids are similar to groups except that the composition a • b need not be defined for all a and b. They arise in the study of more complicated forms of symmetry, often in topological and analytical structures, such as the fundamental groupoid. The table gives a list of several structures generalizing groups. See also Group ring Group algebra Euclidean group Free group Finitely presented group Fundamental group Grothendieck group Symmetry in physics Notes Citations References General references , Chapter 2 contains an undergraduate-level exposition of the notions covered in this article. , Chapter 5 provides a layman-accessible explanation of groups. . , an elementary introduction. . . . . . . Special references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Historical references . . . 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5,931 | Robert_Koch | Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German physician. He became famous for isolating Bacillus anthracis (1877), the Tuberculosis bacillus (1882) and the Vibrio cholera (1883) and for his development of Koch's postulates He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his tuberculosis findings in 1905. He is considered one of the founders of microbiology—he inspired such major figures as Paul Ehrlich and Gerhard Domagk. Biography Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch was born in Clausthal, Germany as the son of a mining official. He studied medicine under Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle at the University of Göttingen and graduated in 1866. He then served in the Franco-Prussian War and later became district medical officer in Wollstein (Wolsztyn), Prussian Poland. Working with very limited resources, he became one of the founders of bacteriology, the other major figure being Louis Pasteur. After Casimir Davaine showed the direct transmission of the anthrax bacillus between cows, Koch studied anthrax more closely. He invented methods to purify the bacillus from blood samples and grow pure cultures. He found that, while it could not survive outside a host for long, anthrax built persisting endospores that could last a long time. These endospores, embedded in soil, were the cause of unexplained "spontaneous" outbreaks of anthrax. Koch published his findings in 1876, and was rewarded with a job at the Imperial Health Office in Berlin in 1880. In 1881, he urged the sterilization of surgical instruments using heat. In Berlin, he improved the methods he used in Wollstein, including staining and purification techniques, and bacterial growth media, including agar plates (thanks to the advice of Angelina and Walther Hesse) and the Petri dish, named after its inventor, his assistant Julius Richard Petri. These devices are still used today. With these techniques, he was able to discover the bacterium causing tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in 1882 (he announced the discovery on 24 March). Tuberculosis was the cause of one in seven deaths in the mid-19th century. In 1883, Koch worked with a French research team in Alexandria, Egypt, studying cholera. Koch identified the vibrio bacterium that caused cholera, though he never managed to prove it in experiments. The bacterium had been previously isolated by Italian anatomist Filippo Pacini in 1854, but his work had been ignored due to the predominance of the miasma theory of disease. Koch was unaware of Pacini's work and made an independent discovery, and his greater preeminence allowed the discovery to be widely spread for the benefit of others. In 1965, however, the bacterium was formally renamed Vibrio cholera Pacini 1854. In 1885, he became professor of hygiene at the University of Berlin, then in 1891 he was made Honorary Professor of the medical faculty and Director of the new Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (eventually renamed as the Robert Koch Institute), a position from which he resigned in 1904. He started traveling around the world, studying diseases in South Africa, India, and Java. Probably as important as his work on tuberculosis, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize (1905), are Koch's postulates, which say that to establish that an organism is the cause of a disease, it must be: found in all cases of the disease examined prepared and maintained in a pure culture capable of producing the original infection, even after several generations in culture retrievable from an inoculated animal and cultured again. After Koch's success the quality of his own research declined (especially with the fiasco over his ineffective TB cure "tuberculin"), although his pupils found the organisms responsible for diphtheria, typhoid, pneumonia, gonorrhoea, cerebrospinal meningitis, leprosy, bubonic plague, tetanus, and syphilis, among others, by using his methods. Robert Koch died on 27 May 1910 from a heart-attack in Baden-Baden, aged 66. Honors and awards The crater Koch on the Moon is named after him. The Robert Koch Prize and Medal were created to honour Microbiologists who make groundbreaking discoveries or who contribute to global health in a unique way. The now-defunct Robert Koch Hospital at Koch, Missouri (south of St. Louis, Missouri), was also named in his honor. A hagiographic account of Koch's career can be found in the 1939 Nazi propaganda film Robert Koch, der Bekämpfer des Todes (The fighter against death), directed by Hans Steinhoff and starring Emil Jannings as Koch See also History of medicine Timeline of medicine and medical technology References External links Robert Koch Biography at the Nobel Foundation website Robert Koch Biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science original microscope out of the laboratory Robert Koch used in Wollstein (1877) microscope objectives as they were used by Robert Koch for his first photos of microorganisms (1877 - 1878) | Robert_Koch |@lemmatized heinrich:2 hermann:2 robert:11 koch:23 december:1 may:2 german:1 physician:1 become:4 famous:1 isolate:2 bacillus:4 anthracis:1 tuberculosis:6 vibrio:3 cholera:4 development:1 postulate:2 award:3 nobel:3 prize:3 physiology:1 medicine:4 finding:2 consider:1 one:3 founder:2 microbiology:1 inspire:1 major:2 figure:2 paul:1 ehrlich:1 gerhard:1 domagk:1 biography:3 bear:1 clausthal:1 germany:1 son:1 mining:1 official:1 study:4 friedrich:1 gustav:1 jakob:1 henle:1 university:2 göttingen:1 graduate:1 serve:1 franco:1 prussian:3 war:1 later:1 district:1 medical:3 officer:1 wollstein:3 wolsztyn:1 poland:1 work:5 limited:1 resource:1 bacteriology:1 louis:2 pasteur:1 casimir:1 davaine:1 show:1 direct:2 transmission:1 anthrax:4 cow:1 closely:1 invent:1 method:3 purify:1 blood:1 sample:1 grow:1 pure:2 culture:4 find:4 could:2 survive:1 outside:1 host:1 long:2 build:1 persist:1 endospore:2 last:1 time:1 embed:1 soil:1 cause:5 unexplained:1 spontaneous:1 outbreak:1 publish:1 reward:1 job:1 imperial:1 health:2 office:1 berlin:3 urge:1 sterilization:1 surgical:1 instrument:1 use:6 heat:1 improve:1 include:2 staining:1 purification:1 technique:2 bacterial:1 growth:1 medium:1 agar:1 plate:1 thanks:1 advice:1 angelina:1 walther:1 hesse:1 petri:2 dish:1 name:3 inventor:1 assistant:1 julius:1 richard:1 device:1 still:1 today:1 able:1 discover:1 bacterium:4 mycobacterium:1 announce:1 discovery:4 march:1 seven:1 death:2 mid:1 century:1 french:1 research:2 team:1 alexandria:1 egypt:1 identify:1 though:1 never:1 manage:1 prove:1 experiment:1 previously:1 italian:1 anatomist:1 filippo:1 pacini:3 ignore:1 due:1 predominance:1 miasma:1 theory:1 disease:5 unaware:1 make:3 independent:1 great:1 preeminence:1 allow:1 widely:1 spread:1 benefit:1 others:2 however:1 formally:1 rename:2 professor:2 hygiene:1 honorary:1 faculty:1 director:1 new:1 institute:3 infectious:1 eventually:1 position:1 resign:1 start:1 travel:1 around:1 world:1 south:2 africa:1 india:1 java:1 probably:1 important:1 say:1 establish:1 organism:2 must:1 case:1 examine:1 prepared:1 maintain:1 capable:1 produce:1 original:2 infection:1 even:1 several:1 generation:1 retrievable:1 inoculate:1 animal:1 success:1 quality:1 decline:1 especially:1 fiasco:1 ineffective:1 tb:1 cure:1 tuberculin:1 although:1 pupil:1 responsible:1 diphtheria:1 typhoid:1 pneumonia:1 gonorrhoea:1 cerebrospinal:1 meningitis:1 leprosy:1 bubonic:1 plague:1 tetanus:1 syphilis:1 among:1 die:1 heart:1 attack:1 baden:2 age:1 honor:2 crater:1 moon:1 medal:1 create:1 honour:1 microbiologist:1 groundbreaking:1 contribute:1 global:1 unique:1 way:1 defunct:1 hospital:1 missouri:2 st:1 also:2 hagiographic:1 account:1 career:1 nazi:1 propaganda:1 film:1 der:1 bekämpfer:1 des:1 todes:1 fighter:1 han:1 steinhoff:1 star:1 emil:1 jannings:1 see:1 history:2 timeline:1 technology:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 foundation:1 website:1 bibliography:1 virtual:1 laboratory:2 max:1 planck:1 science:1 microscope:2 objective:1 first:1 photo:1 microorganism:1 |@bigram bacillus_anthracis:1 koch_postulate:2 nobel_prize:2 prize_physiology:1 physiology_medicine:1 paul_ehrlich:1 franco_prussian:1 louis_pasteur:1 petri_dish:1 mycobacterium_tuberculosis:1 infectious_disease:1 bubonic_plague:1 baden_baden:1 external_link:1 max_planck:1 |
5,932 | Nerve | Nerves (yellow) A nerve is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of peripheral axons (the long, slender projections of neurons). A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses that are transmitted along each of the axons. Nerves are found only in the peripheral nervous system. In the central nervous system, the analogous structures are known as tracts. Neurons are sometimes called nerve cells, though this term is technically inaccurate since many neurons do not form nerves, and nerves also include non-neuronal Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin. Anatomy Nerves are categorized into three groups based on the direction that signals are conducted: Afferent nerves conduct signals from sensory neurons to the central nervous system, for example from the mechanoreceptors in skin. Efferent nerves conduct signals from the central nervous system along motor neurons to their target muscles and glands.Mixed nerves contain both afferent and efferent axons, and thus conduct both incoming sensory information and outgoing muscle commands in the same bundle. Nerves can be categorized into two groups based on where they connect to the central nervous system: Spinal nerves innervate much of the body, and connect through the spinal column to the spinal cord. They are given letter-number designations according to the vertebra through which they connect to the spinal column. Cranial nerves innervate parts of the head, and connect directly to the brainstem. They are typically assigned Roman numerals from 1 to 12, although cranial nerve zero is sometimes included. In addition, cranial nerves have descriptive names.Each nerve is covered externally by a dense sheath of connective tissue, the epineurium. Underlying this is a layer of flat cells, the perineurium, which forms a complete sleeve around a bundle of axons. Perineurial septae extend into the nerve and subdivide it into several bundles of fibers. Surrounding each such fibre is the endoneurium. This forms an unbroken tube which extends from the surface of the spinal cord to the level at which the axon synapses with its muscle fibers, or ends in sensory receptors. The endoneurium consists of an inner sleeve of material called the glycocalyx and an outer, delicate, meshwork of collagen fibers. Nerves are bundled along with blood vessels, since the neurons of a nerve have fairly high energy requirements. Within the endoneurium, the individual nerve fibers are surrounded by a low protein liquid called endoneurial fluid. The endoneurium has properties analogous to the blood-brain barrier, in that it prevents certain molecules from crossing from the blood into the endoneurial fluid. In this respect, endoneurial fluid is similar to cerebro-spinal fluid in the central nervous system.During the development of nerve edema from nerve irritation or (injury), the amount of endoneurial fluid may increase at the site of irritation. This increase in fluid can be visualized using Magnetic resonance neurography, and thus MR neurography can identify nerve irritation and/or injury. Physiology A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (known as nerve impulses or action potentials) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse, the message is converted from electrical to chemical and then back to electrical. Nerves can be categorized into two groups based on function:Sensory nerves conduct sensory information from their receptors to the central nervous system, where the information is then processed. Thus they are synonymous with afferent nerves.Motor nerves conduct signals from the central nervous system to muscles. Thus they are synonymous with efferent nerves. Clinical importance Damage to nerves can be caused by physical injury, swelling (e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome), autoimmune diseases (e.g. Guillain-Barré syndrome), infection (neuritis), diabetes or failure of the blood vessels surrounding the nerve. A pinched nerve'' occurs when pressure is placed on a nerve, usually from swelling due to an injury or pregnancy. Nerve damage or pinched nerves are usually accompanied by pain, numbness, weakness, or paralysis. Patients may feel these symptoms in areas far from the actual site of damage, a phenomenon called referred pain. Referred pain occurs because when a nerve is damaged, signalling is defective from all parts of the area from which the nerve receives input, not just the site of the damage. Neurologists usually diagnose disorders of the nerves by a physical examination, including the testing of reflexes, walking and other directed movements, muscle weakness, proprioception, and the sense of touch. This initial exam can be followed with tests such as nerve conduction study and electromyography (EMG). Nerve Growth & stimulation Nerve growth normally ends in adolescence, but can be re-stimulated with a molecular mechanism known as "Notch signaling", working on a Notch receptor: Yale Study Shows Way To Re-Stimulate Brain Cell Growth ScienceDaily (Oct. 22, 1999) — Results Could Boost Understanding Of Alzheimer's, Other Brain Disorders http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/1999/10/991022005127.htm See also Nervous system Dermatome (Anatomy) Nerve injury Neuropathy Additional images References | Nerve |@lemmatized nerve:46 yellow:1 enclosed:1 cable:1 like:1 bundle:5 peripheral:2 axon:6 long:1 slender:1 projection:1 neuron:9 provide:1 common:1 pathway:1 electrochemical:2 impulse:5 transmit:1 along:3 find:1 nervous:9 system:9 central:7 analogous:2 structure:1 know:3 tract:1 sometimes:2 call:4 cell:4 though:1 term:1 technically:1 inaccurate:1 since:2 many:1 form:4 also:2 include:3 non:1 neuronal:1 schwann:1 coat:1 myelin:1 anatomy:2 categorize:3 three:1 group:3 base:3 direction:1 signal:6 conduct:7 afferent:3 sensory:5 example:1 mechanoreceptors:1 skin:1 efferent:3 motor:2 target:1 muscle:5 gland:1 mixed:1 contain:1 thus:4 incoming:1 information:4 outgo:1 command:1 two:2 connect:4 spinal:6 innervate:2 much:1 body:1 column:2 cord:2 give:1 letter:1 number:1 designation:1 accord:1 vertebra:1 cranial:3 part:2 head:1 directly:1 brainstem:1 typically:1 assign:1 roman:1 numeral:1 although:1 zero:1 addition:1 descriptive:1 name:1 cover:1 externally:1 dense:1 sheath:1 connective:1 tissue:1 epineurium:1 underlie:1 layer:1 flat:1 perineurium:1 complete:1 sleeve:2 around:1 perineurial:1 septae:1 extend:2 subdivide:1 several:1 fiber:4 surround:3 fibre:1 endoneurium:4 unbroken:1 tube:1 surface:1 level:1 synapses:1 end:2 receptor:3 consist:1 inner:1 material:1 glycocalyx:1 outer:1 delicate:1 meshwork:1 collagen:1 blood:4 vessel:2 fairly:1 high:1 energy:1 requirement:1 within:1 individual:2 low:1 protein:1 liquid:1 endoneurial:4 fluid:6 property:1 brain:3 barrier:1 prevent:1 certain:1 molecule:1 cross:2 respect:1 similar:1 cerebro:1 development:1 edema:1 irritation:3 injury:5 amount:1 may:2 increase:2 site:3 visualize:1 use:1 magnetic:1 resonance:1 neurography:2 mr:1 identify:1 physiology:1 conveys:1 action:1 potential:1 carry:1 make:1 extremely:1 fast:1 myelinated:1 speed:1 travel:1 one:1 another:1 synapse:1 message:1 convert:1 electrical:2 chemical:1 back:1 function:1 process:1 synonymous:2 clinical:1 importance:1 damage:5 cause:1 physical:2 swell:2 e:2 g:2 carpal:1 tunnel:1 syndrome:2 autoimmune:1 disease:1 guillain:1 barré:1 infection:1 neuritis:1 diabetes:1 failure:1 pinched:2 occur:1 pressure:1 place:1 usually:3 due:1 pregnancy:1 accompany:1 pain:3 numbness:1 weakness:2 paralysis:1 patient:1 feel:1 symptom:1 area:2 far:1 actual:1 phenomenon:1 refer:2 occurs:1 defective:1 receive:1 input:1 neurologist:1 diagnose:1 disorder:2 examination:1 testing:1 reflex:1 walking:1 direct:1 movement:1 proprioception:1 sense:1 touch:1 initial:1 exam:1 follow:1 test:1 conduction:1 study:2 electromyography:1 emg:1 growth:3 stimulation:1 normally:1 adolescence:1 stimulate:2 molecular:1 mechanism:1 notch:2 work:1 yale:1 show:1 way:1 sciencedaily:2 oct:1 result:1 could:1 boost:1 understanding:1 alzheimer:1 http:1 www:1 com:1 release:1 htm:1 see:1 dermatome:1 neuropathy:1 additional:1 image:1 reference:1 |@bigram nerve_impulse:3 peripheral_nervous:1 schwann_cell:1 sensory_neuron:1 motor_neuron:1 spinal_cord:2 cranial_nerve:3 connective_tissue:1 muscle_fiber:1 collagen_fiber:1 nerve_fiber:1 magnetic_resonance:1 carpal_tunnel:1 autoimmune_disease:1 guillain_barré:1 muscle_weakness:1 nerve_conduction:1 http_www:1 www_sciencedaily:1 sciencedaily_com:1 |
5,933 | Lollardy | John Wycliffe gives his Bible translation to Lollard followers Lollardy was the political and religious movement of the Lollards from the mid-14th century to the English Reformation. The term Lollards refers to the followers of John Wycliffe, Chris Roberts, Heavy Words Lightly Thrown: The Reason Behind Rhyme, Thorndike Press,2006 (ISBN 0-7862-8517-6) a prominent theologian who was thrown out of University of Oxford in the 1350s for criticism of the traditional church. Its demands were primarily for reform of Western Christianity. Doctrine It taught the concept of the "Church of the Saved", meaning that Christ's true Church was the community of the faithful, which overlapped with but was not the same as the official Church of Rome. It taught a form of predestination. It advocated apostolic poverty and taxation of Church properties. Other doctrines include consubstantiation in favour of transubstantiation , although some of its followers went further. A Lollard blacksmith in Lincolnshire declared that he could make "as good a sacrament between ii yrons as the prest doth vpon his auter (altar)". Confession of William Ayleward, Register of Bishop Chedworth of Lincoln, Lincoln Archive Office REG 20, fol. 61r. Etymology Lollard, Lollardi or Loller was the popular derogatory nickname given to those without an academic background, educated if at all only in English, who were reputed to follow the teachings of John Wycliffe in particular, and were certainly considerably energised by the translation of the Bible into the English language. By the mid-15th century the term lollard had come to mean a 'heretic' in general. The alternative, Wycliffite, is generally accepted to be a more neutral term covering those of similar opinions, but having an academic background. The term was coined by the Anglo-Irish cleric, Henry Crumpe, but the origin of the term is uncertain. Four possibilities suggest themselves: the Dutch word, lollaerd, meaning someone who mutters, a mumbler. This is also related to the Dutch word, lull or lollen, as in "a mother lulls her child to sleep", or "to sing or chant"; the Latin name lolium (Common Vetch or tares, as a noxious weed mingled with the good Catholic wheat); after the Franciscan, Lolhard, who converted to the Waldensian way, becoming eminent as a preacher in Guienne. That part of France was then under English domination, influencing lay English piety. He was burned at Cologne in the 1370s; the Middle English loller, "a lazy vagabond, an idler, a fraudulent beggar", likely a later usage. The Dutch derivation is the most likely, due to the influence on Lollardy of the informal lay communities, originating in Deventer in Overijssel around the teaching of Gerhard Groote, in the last two decades of the 14th century; but the Latin lolium (tares) is an interesting alternative. Beliefs Map of Lollardy's influence Although Lollardy can be said to have originated from interest in the writings of John Wycliffe, the Lollards had no central belief system and no official doctrine. Likewise, being a decentralized movement, Lollardy neither had nor proposed any singular authority. The movement associated itself with many different ideas, but individual Lollards did not necessarily have to agree with every tenet. Fundamentally, Lollards were anticlerical, meaning that they disapproved of the allegedly corrupt nature of the Western Church and the belief in divine appointment of Church leaders. Believing the Roman Catholic Church to be perverted in many ways, the Lollards looked to Scripture as the basis for their religious ideas. To provide an authority for religion outside of the Church, Lollards began the movement towards a translation of the bible into the vernacular which enabled more of the English peasantry to read the Bible. Wycliffe himself translated many passages until his death in 1384. One group of Lollards petitioned Parliament with The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards by posting them on the doors of Westminster Hall in February 1395. While by no means a central authority of the Lollards, the Twelve Conclusions reveal certain basic Lollard ideas. The first Conclusion rejects the acquisition of temporal wealth by Church leaders as accumulating wealth leads them away from religious concerns and toward greed. The fourth Conclusion deals with the Lollard view that the Sacrament of eucharist is a contradictory topic that is not clearly defined in the Bible. Whether the bread remains bread or becomes the literal body of Christ is not specified uniformly in the gospels. The sixth Conclusion states that officials of the Church should not concern themselves with secular matters when they hold a position of power within the Church because this constitutes a conflict of interest between matters of the spirit and matters of the State. In the eighth Conclusion points out the ludicrousness, in the minds of Lollards, of the reverence that is directed toward images in the Church. As Anne Hudson states in her Reformation Ideology, "if the cross of Christ, the nails, spear, and crown of thorns are to be honoured, then why not honour Judas's lips, if only they could be found?" (306). The Lollards stated that the Roman Catholic Church had been corrupted by temporal matters and that its claim to be the true church was not justified by its heredity. Part of this corruption involved prayers for the dead and chantries. These were seen as corrupt since they distracted priests from other work and that all should be prayed for equally. Lollards also had a tendency toward iconoclasm. Lavish church fixtures were seen as an excess; they believed effort should be placed on helping the needy and preaching rather than working on lavish decoration. Icons were also seen as dangerous since many seemed to worship the icon rather than God, leading to idolatry. Believing in a lay priesthood, the Lollards challenged the Church’s ability to invest or deny the divine authority to make a man a priest. Denying any special authority to the priesthood, Lollards thought confession unnecessary since a priest did not have any special power to forgive sins. Lollards challenged the practice of clerical celibacy and believed priests should not hold political positions since temporal matters should not interfere with the priests’ spiritual mission. Believing that more attention should be given to the message in the scriptures rather than to ceremony and worship, the Lollards denounced the ritualistic aspects of the Church such as transubstantiation, exorcism, pilgrimages, and blessings. These focused too much on powers the Church supposedly did not have and led to a focus on temporal ritual over God and his message. The other Conclusions deal with gospel teachings against killing as punishment for a crime (capital punishment), rejection of religious celibacy, and belief that members of the Clergy be accountable to civil laws. The Conclusions also rejected pilgrimages, ornamentation of churches, and religious images because these were said to take away from the true nature of worship: focus on God. Also denounced in the Conclusions were , violence, and abortion. "Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards." Wikisource Outside of the Twelve Conclusions, the Lollards had many beliefs and traditions. Their scriptural focus led Lollards to refuse the taking of oaths. Lollards also had a tradition of millenarianism. Some criticized the Church for not focusing enough on Revelation. Many Lollards believed they were near the end of days, and several Lollard writings claim the Pope to be the antichrist. In actuality, Lollards did not believe that any one Pope , as a human being, was the antichrist. They believed that the papal system as a whole, however, embodied the prophecy of the antichrist. History Beginning of the Gospel of John from a pocket Wycliffe translation that may have been used by a roving Lollard preacher (late 14th century) Immediately upon going public, Lollardy was attacked as heresy. At first, Wycliffe and Lollardy were protected by John of Gaunt and anti-clerical nobility, who may have been interested in using Lollard-advocated clerical reform to create a new source of revenue from England’s monasteries, as Henry VIII would finally succeed in doing. The University of Oxford also protected Wycliffe and allowed him to hold his position at the university in spite of his views on the grounds of academic freedom, which also gave some protection to the academics who supported it within that institution. Lollardy first faced serious persecution after the Peasant’s Revolt in 1381. While Wycliffe and other Lollards opposed the revolt, one of the peasants’ leaders, John Ball, preached Lollardy. The royalty and nobility then found Lollardy to be a threat not just to the Church, but to all the English social order. The Lollards' small measure of protection evaporated. This change in status was also affected by the removal of John of Gaunt from the scene, when he left England in pursuit of the throne of Castile, which he claimed through his second wife. Lollardy was strongly resisted by both the religious and secular authorities. Among those opposing it was Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of Canterbury. King Henry IV (despite being John of Gaunt's son) passed the De heretico comburendo in 1401, not specifically against the Lollards, but prohibiting the translating or owning of the Bible and authorising the burning of heretics at the stake. Sir John Oldcastle being burnt for insurrection and Lollard heresy In the early 15th century, Lollardy went underground after more extreme measures were taken by the Church and State. One measure was the burning at the stake of John Badby, a layman and artisan who refused to renounce his Lollard views. His was the first execution of a layman in England for the crime of heresy. The Lollard Knights were a group of gentry active during the reign of Richard II, known either during their lives or after for an inclination to the religious reforms of John Wycliffe. Henry Knighton, in his Chronicle, identifes the principal Knights as Sir Thomas Latimer, Sir John Trussel, Sir Lewis Clifford, Sir John Peachey, Sir Richard Storey, and Sir Reginald Hilton. Thomas Walsingham's Chronicle adds William Nevil and John Clanvowe to the list, and other potential members of this circle have been identified by their wills, which contain Lollard-inspired language about how their bodies are to be plainly buried and permitted to return to the soil from whence they came. There is little indication that the Lollard Knights were specifically known as such during their lifetimes; they were men of discretion, and unlike Sir John Oldcastle years later, rarely gave any hint of open rebellion. What is remarkable about them is how long they managed to hold important positions without falling victim to any of the several prosecutions of the followers of Wycliffe during their lifetimes. Unfortunately, Henry IV turned out to be a very enthusiastic opponent of the Lollards, and through legislation such as the Act De haeretico comburendo of 1401, showed himself virulently opposed to any such sentiments. Sir John Oldcastle, a close friend of King Henry V (and the basis for Falstaff in the Shakespearean history Henry IV) was brought to trial in 1413 after evidence of his Lollard beliefs was uncovered. Oldcastle escaped from the Tower of London and organized an insurrection, which included an attempted kidnapping of the king. The rebellion failed, and Oldcastle was executed. Oldcastle's revolt made Lollardy seem even more threatening to the state, and the persecution of Lollards became more severe. A variety of other martyrs for the Lollard cause were executed over the following century, including Thomas Harding who died at White Hill, Chesham, in 1532, one of the last Lollards to be persecuted. A gruesome reminder of this persecution is the 'Lollards Pit' in Thorpe Wood, Norfolk, where men are customablie burnt.Rackham, Oliver (1976) Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape. Pub. J.M.Dent & Sons. ISBN 0-460-04183-5. P. 137 -138. Lollards were effectively absorbed into Protestantism during the English Reformation, in which Lollardy played a role. Since Lollardy had been underground for more than a hundred years, the extent of Lollardy and its ideas at the time of the Reformation is uncertain and a point of debate. However, many critics of the Reformation, including Thomas More, associated Protestants with Lollards. Leaders of the English Reformation, including Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, referred to Lollardy as well, and Bishop Cuthbert of London called Lutheranism as the "foster-child" of the Wycliffite heresy. Documents on the changing status of the English Vernacular, 1500-154 http://www.ric.edu/faculty/rpotter/statutes.html (retrieved 3/11/08) Whether Protestants actually drew influence from Lollardy or whether they referred to it to create a sense of tradition is debated by scholars. The extent of Lollardy in the general populace at this time is also unknown, but the prevalence of Protestant iconoclasm in England suggests Lollard ideas may still have had some popular influence if Zwingli was not the source, as Lutherans did not advocate iconoclasm. The similarity between Lollards and later English Protestant groups such as the Baptists, Puritans and Quakers also suggests some continuation of Lollard ideas through the Reformation. See also Piers Plowman Waldensians William Langland Jan Hus Nicholas Love (monk) References Duffy, Eamon. The Stripping of the Altars. Yale University Press, 1992. Hudson, Anne. The Premature Reformation: Wycliffite Texts and Lollard History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988. McFarlane, K B. The Origins of Religious Dissent in England. 1952. Rex, Richard. The Lollards: Social History in Perspective. New York: Palgrave, 2002. Lollards of Coventry, 1486-1522, ed. and trans. Shannon McSheffrey and Norman Tanner, Camden Fifth Series 23 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press for the Royal Historical Society, 2003). Shannon McSheffrey, "Heresy, Orthodoxy and English Vernacular Religion 1480–1525," Past & Present, 186, 2005, № 1, 47-80. Robert Lutton, Lollardy and Orthodox Religion in Pre-Reformation England (Woodbridge and Suffolk, U.K.: Boydell and Brewer, 2006). Lowe, Ben. "Teaching in the 'Schole of Christ': Law, Learning, and Love in Early Lollard Pacifism.” Catholic Historical Review 90, no. 3 (2004): 405-438. Footnotes External links The Lollard Society - society dedicated to providing a forum for the study of the Lollards The Lollards - a sympathetic view of the Lollards from an Anabaptist perspective Lollards in the Catholic Encyclopedia - Lollardy as a heresy, from the Roman Catholic perspective. Lollards - essay on Lollards on Medieval Church website, including extensive list of secondary sources. | Lollardy |@lemmatized john:17 wycliffe:11 give:5 bible:6 translation:4 lollard:21 follower:4 lollardy:21 political:2 religious:8 movement:4 lollards:41 mid:2 century:6 english:13 reformation:9 term:5 refers:1 chris:1 robert:2 heavy:1 word:3 lightly:1 throw:2 reason:1 behind:1 rhyme:1 thorndike:1 press:4 isbn:2 prominent:1 theologian:1 university:5 oxford:3 criticism:1 traditional:1 church:24 demand:1 primarily:1 reform:3 western:2 christianity:1 doctrine:3 teach:2 concept:1 saved:1 meaning:1 christ:4 true:3 community:2 faithful:1 overlap:1 official:3 rome:1 form:1 predestination:1 advocate:2 apostolic:1 poverty:1 taxation:1 property:1 include:6 consubstantiation:1 favour:1 transubstantiation:2 although:2 go:3 far:1 blacksmith:1 lincolnshire:1 declare:1 could:2 make:3 good:2 sacrament:2 ii:2 yrons:1 prest:1 doth:1 vpon:1 auter:1 altar:2 confession:2 william:3 ayleward:1 register:1 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5,934 | History_of_Lesotho | The area now known as Lesotho () goes back as many as 40,000 years, beginning with the Khoi Khoi (Qhuaique). The present Lesotho (then called Basutoland) emerged as a single polity under paramount chief Moshoeshoe I in 1822. Under Mashoeshoe I, Basutoland joined other tribes in their struggle against the Mfecane associated with the reign of Shaka Zulu from 1818 to 1828. Subsequent evolution of the state was shaped by contact with the British and Dutch colonists from Cape Colony. Missionaries invited by Moshoeshoe I developed orthography and printed works in the Sotho language between 1837 and 1855. The country set up diplomatic channels and acquired guns for use against the encroaching Europeans and the Korana people. Territorial conflicts with both British and Boer settlers arose periodically, including Moshoeshoe's notable victory over the Boers in the Free State-Basotho War, but the final war in 1867 with an appeal to Queen Victoria, who agreed to make Basutoland a British protectorate. In 1869, the British signed a treaty at Aliwal with the Boers that defined the boundaries of Basutoland and later Lesotho, which by ceding the western territories effectively reduced Moshoeshoe's kingdom to half its previous size. The extent to which the British exerted direct control over Basutoland waxed and waned until Basutoland's independence in 1966, when it became the Kingdom of Lesotho. However, when the ruling Basotho National Party (BNP) lost the first post-independence general elections to the Basotho Congress Party (BCP), Leabua Jonathan refused to cede and declared himself Tona Kholo (Sesotho translation of prime minister). The BCP began an insurrection that culminated in a January 1986 military coup forced the BNP out of office. Power was transferred to King Moshoeshoe II, until then a ceremonial monarch, but forced into exile when he lost favour with the military the following year. His son was installed as King Letsie III. Conditions remained tumultuous, including an August 1994 coup by Letsie III, until 1998 when the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) came to power in elections which were deemed fair by international observers. Despite protests from opposition parties, the country has remained relatively stable since. Ancient history At some stage during their migration south from a tertiary dispersal area Bantu speaking peoples came to settle the lands that now make up Lesotho as well as a more extensive territory of fertile lands that surround modern day Lesotho. These people spoke a unique "South Sotho" dialect seSotho and called themselves the Basotho. There were several severe disruptions to the Basotho peoples in the early 19th century. Firstly marauding Zulu clans, displaced from Zululand as part of the Lifaqane (or Mfecane), wrought havoc on the Basotho peoples they encountered as they moved first west and then north. Secondly no sooner than the Zulu has passed to the north than the first Voortrekkers arrived, some of whom obtained hospitality during their difficult trek north. Early Voortrekker accounts describe how the lands surrounding the mountain retreat of the Basotho had been burnt and destroyed, in effect leaving a vacuum that subsequent Voortrekkers began to occupy. However, this interpretation of history for the entire southern region of Africa has been refuted by Norman Etherington in The Great Treks: The Transformation of Southern Africa, 1815-1854 (Longman, 2001). Etherington argues that no such thing as the Mfecane occurred, the Zulu were no more marauding than any other group in the region, and the land the Voortrekkers saw as empty was not settled by either Zulu or Basotho because those people did not value open lowland plains as pasture. Basutoland In 1818, Moshoeshoe I () consolidated various Basotho groupings and became their King. During Moshoeshoe's reign (1823-1870), a series of wars (1856-68) were fought with the Boers who had settled in traditional Basotho lands. These wars resulted in the extensive loss of land, now known as the "Lost Territory". A treaty had been signed with the Boer of Griqualand in 1843 and an agreement made with the British in 1853 following a minor war. However, the disputes with the Boer over land were revived in 1858 and more seriously in 1865. The Boer had a number of military successes, killing possibly 1500 Basotho soldiers, and annexed an expanse of arable land which they were able to retain following a treaty at Thaba Bosiu. In order to protect his people, Moshoeshoe appealed to the British for assistance, and in March 1868 the land was placed under British protection and the Boer were ordered to leave. A treaty was signed at Aliwal in 1869 between the British and the Boer defining the boundaries of the protectorate, the arable land west of the Caledon River remained in Boer hands and is referred to as the Lost or Conquered Territory. Moshoeshoe died in 1870. In 1871 the protectorate was annexed to Cape Colony. The Basotho resisted the British and in 1879 a southern chief, Moorosi, rose in revolt. The rising was crushed and Moorosi was killed in the fighting. The Basotho then began to fight amongst themselves over the division of Moorosi's lands. The British extended the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878 to cover Basutoland and attempted to disarm the natives. Much of the colony rose in revolt in the Gun War (1880-1881), incurring significant casualties upon colonial British forces sent to subdue it. An 1881 peace treaty failed to quell sporadic fighting. Cape Town's inability to control the territory led to its return to crown control in 1884 as the Territory of Basutoland. The colony was bound by the Orange River Colony, Natal Colony, and Cape Colony it was divided into seven administrative districts - Berea, Leribe, Maseru, Mohales Hock, Mafeteng, Qacha's Nek and Quthing. The colony was ruled by the British Resident Commissioner, who worked through the pitso (national assembly) of hereditary native chiefs under one paramount chief. Each chief ruled a ward within the territory. The first paramount chief was Lerothodi, the son of Moshoeshoe. During the Second Boer War the colony was neutral. The population was around 125,000 (1875), 310,000 (1901) and 349,000 (1904). When the Union of South Africa was founded in 1910 the colony was still controlled by the British and moves were made to transfer it to the Union. However the people of Basutoland opposed this and when the South African Nationalist party put its apartheid policies into place the possibility of annexation was halted. In 1959, a new constitution gave Basutoland its first elected legislature. This was followed in April 1965 with general legislative elections. The differing fates of the seSotho-speaking peoples in the Protectorate of Basotholand and in the lands that became the Orange Free State are worth noting. The Orange Free State became a Boer-ruled territory. However at the end of the Boer War it was colonised by the British, and this colony was subsequently incorporated by Britain into the Union of South Africa as one of four provinces. It is still part of the modern day Republic of South Africa, now known as the Free State. In contrast Basotholand, along with the two other British Protectorates in the sub-Saharan region (Bechuanaland and Swaziland), was precluded from incorporation into the Union of South Africa. These protectorates were individually brought to independence by Britain in the 1960s in line with the trend towards self-government and independence that swept the British Empire following the close of the Second World War, a trend that reached its peak in Africa in the late 1950s and early 1960s. By becoming a protectorate Basotholand and its inhabitants were not subjected to Afrikaner rule, which saved them from experiencing Apartheid, and so generally prospered under more benevolent British rule. Basotho resident in Basotholand had access to better health services and to education, and came to experience greater political emancipation through independence. These lands protected by the British, however, had a much smaller capacity to generate income and wealth than the "lost territory" had, which had been granted to the Boers. After a 1955 request by the Basutoland Council to legislate its internal affairs, in 1959 a new constitution gave Basutoland its first elected legislature. This was followed in April 1965 with general legislative elections with universal adult suffrage in which the Basotho National Party (BNP) won 31 and the Basutoland Congress Party (BCP) won 25 of the 65 seats contested. Kingdom of Lesotho On October 4, 1966, the Kingdom of Lesotho attained full independence, governed by a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral Parliament consisting of a Senate and an elected National Assembly. Early results of the first post-independence elections in January 1970 indicated that the BNP might lose control. Under the leadership of Prime Minister Chief Leabua Jonathan, the ruling Basotho National Party (BNP) refused to cede power to the rival Basotholand Congress Party (BCP), although the BCP was widely believed to have won the elections. Citing election irregularities, Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan nullified the elections, declared a national state of emergency, suspended the constitution, and dissolved the Parliament. In 1973, an appointed Interim National Assembly was established. With an overwhelming progovernment majority, it was largely the instrument of the BNP, led by Prime Minister Jonathan. In addition to the Jonathan regime's alienation of Basotho powerbrokers and the local population, South Africa had virtually closed the country's land borders because of Lesotho support of cross-border operations of the African National Congress (ANC). Moreover, South Africa publicly threatened to pursue more direct action against Lesotho if the Jonathan government did not root out the ANC presence in the country. This internal and external opposition to the government combined to produce violence and internal disorder in Lesotho that eventually led to a military takeover in 1986. Under a January 1986 Military Council decree, state executive and legislative powers were transferred to the King who was to act on the advice of the Military Council, a self-appointed group of leaders of the Royal Lesotho Defense Force (RLDF). A military government chaired by Justin Lekhanya ruled Lesotho in coordination with King Moshoeshoe II and a civilian cabinet appointed by the King. In February 1990, King Moshoeshoe II was stripped of his executive and legislative powers and exiled by Lekhanya, and the Council of Ministers was purged. Lekhanya accused those involved of undermining discipline within the armed forces, subverting existing authority, and causing an impasse on foreign policy that had been damaging to Lesotho's image abroad. Lekhanya announced the establishment of the National Constituent Assembly to formulate a new constitution for Lesotho with the aim of returning the country to democratic, civilian rule by June 1992. Before this transition, however, Lekhanya was ousted in 1991 by a mutiny of junior army officers that left Phisoane Ramaema as Chairman of the Military Council. Because Moshoeshoe II initially refused to return to Lesotho under the new rules of the government in which the King was endowed only with ceremonial powers, Moshoeshoe's son was installed as King Letsie III. In 1992, Moshoeshoe II returned to Lesotho as a regular citizen until 1995 when King Letsie abdicated the throne in favor of his father. After Moshoeshoe II died in a car accident in 1996, King Letsie III ascended to the throne again. In 1993, a new constitution was implemented leaving the King without any executive authority and proscribing him from engaging in political affairs. Multiparty elections were then held in which the BCP ascended to power with a landslide victory. Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle headed the new BCP government that had gained every seat in the 65-member National Assembly. In early 1994, political instability increased as first the army, followed by the police and prisons services, engaged in mutinies. In August 1994, King Letsie III, in collaboration with some members of the military, staged a coup, suspended Parliament, and appointed a ruling council. As a result of domestic and international pressures, however, the constitutionally elected government was restored within a month. In 1995, there were isolated incidents of unrest, including a police strike in May to demand higher wages. For the most part, however, there were no serious challenges to Lesotho's constitutional order in the 1995-96 period. In January 1997, armed soldiers put down a violent police mutiny and arrested the mutineers. In 1997, tension within the BCP leadership caused a split in which Dr. Mokhehle abandoned the BCP and established the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) followed by two-thirds of the parliament. This move allowed Mokhehle to remain as Prime Minister and leader of a new ruling party, while relegating the BCP to opposition status. The remaining members of the BCP refused to accept their new status as the opposition party and ceased attending sessions. Multiparty elections were again held in May 1998. Although Mokhehle completed his term as Prime Minister, due to his failing health, he did not vie for a second term in office. The elections saw a landslide victory for the LCD, gaining 79 of the 80 seats contested in the newly expanded Parliament. As a result of the elections, Mokhehle's Deputy Prime Minister, Pakalitha Mosisili, became the new Prime Minister. The landslide electoral victory caused opposition parties to claim that there were substantial irregularities in the handling of the ballots and that the results were fraudulent. The conclusion of the Langa Commission, a commission appointed by Southern African Development Community (SADC) to investigate the electoral process, however, was consistent with the view of international observers and local courts that the outcome of the elections was not affected by these incidents. Despite the fact that the election results were found to reflect the will of the people, opposition protests in the country intensified. The protests culminated in a violent demonstration outside the royal palace in early August 1998 and in an unprecedented level of violence, looting, casualties, and destruction of property. In early September, junior members of the armed services mutinied. The Government of Lesotho requested that a SADC task force intervene to prevent a military coup and restore stability to the country. To this end, Operation Boleas, consisting of South African and (later) Botswana troops, entered Lesotho on September 22, 1998 to put down the mutiny and restore the democratically elected government. The army mutineers were brought before a court-martial. After stability returned to Lesotho, the SADC task force withdrew from the country in May 1999, leaving only a small task force (joined by Zimbabwean troops) to provide training to the LDF. In the meantime, an Interim Political Authority (IPA), charged with reviewing the electoral structure in the country, was created in December 1998 and devised a proportional electoral system to ensure that there be opposition in the National Assembly. The new system retained the existing 80 elected Assembly seats, but added 40 seats to be filled on a proportional basis. Elections were held under this new system in May 2002, and the LCD won again, gaining 54% of the vote. For the first time, however, opposition political parties won significant numbers of seats, and despite some irregularities and threats of violence from Major General Lekhanya, Lesotho experienced its first peaceful election. Nine opposition parties now hold all 40 of the proportional seats, with the BNP having the largest share (21). The LCD has 79 of the 80 constituency-based seats. 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5,935 | MIPS_Technologies | MIPS Technologies, Inc. (), formerly MIPS Computer Systems, Inc., is most widely known for developing the MIPS architecture and a series of pioneering RISC CPUs. MIPS provides processor architectures and cores for digital consumer, networking, personal entertainment, communications and business applications. MIPS Computer Systems Inc. was founded in 1984 by a group of researchers from Stanford University that included John L. Hennessy, as a vendor of microprocessor chips. MIPS made its first initial public offering (IPO) on Nasdaq in November 1989 (after which it was acquired by Silicon Graphics, SGI, spun-off, then IPOed again in 1998). After being successful in the market with the R2000 and R3000 microprocessors, a management change brought along the larger dreams of being a computer vendor. The company found itself unable to compete in the computer market against much larger companies and was struggling to support the costs of developing both the chips and the systems (MIPS Magnum). To secure the supply of future generations of MIPS microprocessors (the 64-bit R4000), SGI acquired the company in 1992 for $333 million and ran it as MIPS Technologies Inc. (MTI), a wholly owned subsidiary of SGI. During SGI's ownership of MTI, the company introduced the R8000 in 1994 and the R10000 in 1996 and a follow up, the R12000 in 1998. During this time, two future microprocessors code-named The Beast and Capitan were in development. These were cancelled after SGI decided to migrate to the Itanium architecture in 1998. As a result, MTI was spin out as an intellectual property licensing company offering licences to the MIPS architecture as well as microprocessor core designs. MTI made an IPO on 30 June 1998, i.e. it was no longer wholly owned by SGI since the IPO. SGI spun it off completely on 20 June 2000 by distributing all its interest as stock dividend to the stock holders. Shares of the company are publicly traded on NASDAQ with the symbols MIPS . Besides its headquarters in Mountain View, California, MIPS has development facilities in Shanghai in China and Beaverton, Oregon. It also has offices in Hsin-chu, Taiwan; Tokyo, Japan; Remscheid, Germany and Haifa, Israel. Company Press Release. “Synopsys Acquires Analog Business Group of MIPS TechnologiesSynopsys Acquires Analog Business Group of MIPS Technologies.” May 8, 2009. Retrieved May 8, 2009. Company timeline 1981: Dr. John Hennessy at Stanford University leads research in building a microprocessor using RISC principles. 1984: MIPS Computer Systems, Inc. co-founded by Dr. John Hennessy, Skip Stritter, and Dr. John Moussouris John Hennessy 1989: First IPO in November as MIPS Computer Systems with Bob Miller as CEO 1992: SGI acquires MIPS Computer Systems. Transform it into internal MIPS Group, and then incorporates and renames it to MIPS Technologies, Inc. (a wholly owned subsidiary of SGI) 1998: Re-IPO as MIPS Technologies, Inc 2002: acquires Algorithmics Ltd, a UK-based MIPS development hardware/software and consultancy company. September 6, 2005: acquired First Silicon Solutions (FS2), a Lake Oswego, Oregon company as a wholly owned subsidiary. FS2 specializes in silicon IP, design services and OCI (On-Chip Instrumentation) development tools for programming, testing, debug and trace of embedded systems in SoC, SOPC, FPGA, ASSP and ASIC devices. 2007: MIPS Technologies acquires Portugal-based mixed-signal intellectual property company Chipidea May 8, 2009: Chipidea is sold to Synopsys. References External links www.mips.com | MIPS_Technologies |@lemmatized mips:23 technology:6 inc:7 formerly:1 computer:7 system:7 widely:1 know:1 develop:2 architecture:4 series:1 pioneer:1 risc:2 cpu:1 provide:1 processor:1 core:2 digital:1 consumer:1 networking:1 personal:1 entertainment:1 communication:1 business:3 application:1 found:2 group:4 researcher:1 stanford:2 university:2 include:1 john:5 l:1 hennessy:4 vendor:2 microprocessor:6 chip:3 make:2 first:3 initial:1 public:1 offering:2 ipo:5 nasdaq:2 november:2 acquire:6 silicon:3 graphic:1 sgi:9 spun:1 ipoed:1 successful:1 market:2 management:1 change:1 bring:1 along:1 large:2 dream:1 company:11 find:1 unable:1 compete:1 much:1 struggle:1 support:1 cost:1 magnum:1 secure:1 supply:1 future:2 generation:1 bit:1 million:1 run:1 mti:4 wholly:4 owned:3 subsidiary:3 ownership:1 introduce:1 follow:1 time:1 two:1 code:1 name:1 beast:1 capitan:1 development:4 cancel:1 decide:1 migrate:1 itanium:1 result:1 spin:2 intellectual:2 property:2 licensing:1 licence:1 well:1 design:2 june:2 e:1 longer:1 since:1 completely:1 distribute:1 interest:1 stock:2 dividend:1 holder:1 share:1 publicly:1 trade:1 symbol:1 besides:1 headquarters:1 mountain:1 view:1 california:1 facility:1 shanghai:1 china:1 beaverton:1 oregon:2 also:1 office:1 hsin:1 chu:1 taiwan:1 tokyo:1 japan:1 remscheid:1 germany:1 haifa:1 israel:1 press:1 release:1 synopsys:2 analog:2 technologiessynopsys:1 acquires:2 may:3 retrieve:1 timeline:1 dr:3 lead:1 research:1 build:1 use:1 principle:1 co:1 skip:1 stritter:1 moussouris:1 bob:1 miller:1 ceo:1 transform:1 internal:1 incorporates:1 rename:1 algorithmics:1 ltd:1 uk:1 base:2 hardware:1 software:1 consultancy:1 september:1 solution:1 lake:1 oswego:1 specialize:1 ip:1 service:1 oci:1 instrumentation:1 tool:1 programming:1 test:1 debug:1 trace:1 embedded:1 soc:1 sopc:1 fpga:1 assp:1 asic:1 device:1 portugal:1 mixed:1 signal:1 chipidea:2 sell:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 www:1 com:1 |@bigram mips_architecture:2 offering_ipo:1 graphic_sgi:1 wholly_owned:3 owned_subsidiary:3 haifa_israel:1 external_link:1 |
5,936 | Kansas_State_University | Kansas State University, officially named Kansas State University of Agriculture and Applied Science KSUCVM - Kansas State University but commonly shortened to K-State, is an institution of higher learning located in Manhattan, Kansas, in the United States. The university has an official spring enrollment of 21,154 students for the 2008–2009 school year. A branch campus is located in Salina, Kansas, housing the College of Technology and Aviation. Another branch campus, known as the Olathe Innovation Campus, is presently under construction in Olathe, Kansas. When completed, the Olathe facility will be the academic research presence within the Kansas Bioscience Park, and will research bioenergy, animal health, plant science and food safety and security. The university is classified as a research university with very high research (RU/VH) by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. History Kansas State University, originally named Kansas State Agricultural College, was founded during the American Civil War on February 16, 1863, as a Land Grant institution under the Morrill Act. The school was the first Land Grant college newly created under the Morrill Act, although several other universities claim to be the oldest Land Grant school. K-State is the fourth-oldest school in the Big 12 Conference and the oldest public university in the state of Kansas. The effort to establish the school began in 1861, when Kansas was admitted to the United States. One of the first things the new state Legislature needed to do was establish a state university. That year, the delegation from Manhattan introduced a bill to convert the old Bluemont Central College (a private college incorporated in Manhattan by the Kansas Territorial legislature in 1858) into the state university. But the bill establishing the university in Manhattan was controversially vetoed by Governor Charles L. Robinson of Lawrence, and an attempt to override the veto in the Legislature failed by one vote. In 1862, another bill to make Manhattan the site of the state university failed by one vote. Finally, on the third attempt, on February 16, 1863, the state accepted Manhattan's offer to donate the Bluemont College building and grounds, and established the state's Land-grant university at the site – the institution that would become Kansas State University. When its first session opened in September 1863, the college became one of the earliest public institutions of higher learning to offer mixed-sex education. 19th century The early years of the institution witnessed debate over whether the college should provide a focused agricultural education or a full liberal arts education. During this era, the tenor of the school shifted with the tenure of the Presidents. For example, President John A. Anderson (1873-1879) favored a limited education and President George T. Fairchild (1879-1897) favored a classic liberal education. Also during this era, in 1882, the study of home economics originated at Kansas State. Currently, the university offers a full range of majors and many graduate programs. Dickens Hall, from a 1907 postcard Recent history The name of the school was changed in 1931 to Kansas State College of Agriculture and Applied Science. In 1959, the name was changed again to Kansas State University to reflect a growing number of graduate programs. From 1943 to 1950, Milton S. Eisenhower was President of the University, being succeeded by Dr. James McCain, who served from 1950 to 1975. Buildings, including residence halls and a student union, were added to the campus in the 1950s. The 1960s witnessed demonstrations against the Vietnam War, though fewer than at other college campuses. Enrollment was relatively high through most of the 1970s, but the university endured a downward spiral from approximately 1976 to 1986, when enrollment decreased to 17,570 and a number of faculty resigned. In 1986, Dr. Jon Wefald assumed the presidency of Kansas State University. The university community responded well to Wefald's management style, and enrollment and donations increased under his leadership. Wefald also introduced an innovative student recruitment office, which lured students from all over Kansas and the United States, and expanded the international student program. On May 12, 2008, Wefald announced that he would retire at the end of the 2008-2009 academic year. On February 11, 2009, the Kansas Board of Regents announced that Kirk H. Schulz, vice president for research and economic development at Mississippi State University, will replace Wefald when he retires on June 15, 2009. Several of the buildings on the campus were heavily damaged by an EF4 tornado on June 11, 2008. Total damage estimates were at $20 million plus. Wichita Eagle-Beacon Tornadoes rip Manhattan, KSU damage more than $20 million Historic buildings The university moved from the location of Bluemont Central College to its present site in 1875. The first new building erected after the move was Holtz Hall, in 1876. It is now the oldest free-standing building on campus. The signature building at Kansas State University, Anderson Hall, was erected in three stages between 1877 and 1884. The building, now listed on the National Register of Historic Places, has housed the University's administrative offices for more than a century. Academic profile Anderson Hall Since 1986, Kansas State ranks first nationally among state universities in its total of Rhodes, Marshall, Truman, Goldwater, and Udall scholars with 124 recipients. Kansas State University has 60 academic departments in nine colleges: Agriculture; Architecture, Planning, and Design; Arts and Sciences; Business Administration; Education; Engineering; Human Ecology; Technology and Aviation; and Veterinary Medicine. The graduate school offers nearly 100 master's degree programs and nearly 50 doctoral programs. In 1991, the former Kansas Technical Institute in Salina, Kansas was merged with Kansas State University by an act of the Kansas legislature. The College of Technology and Aviation is located at the Salina campus, and is commonly referred to as K-State Salina. K-State is also known for several distinguished lecture series: Landon Lecture, Lou Douglas Lecture, Huck Boyd Lecture, and Dorothy L. Thompson Civil Rights Lectures. K-State implemented an academic honor code in 1999. When students are admitted, it is implied that they will adhere to the Honor Pledge: "On my honor, as a student, I have neither given nor received unauthorized aid on this academic work." Research and cultural resources Physics Hale LibraryAmong the university's research facilities are the James R. Macdonald Laboratory for research in atomic, molecular and optical physics and the NASA Center for Gravitational Studies in Cellular and Developmental Biology. The excimer laser, which made LASIK eye surgery possible, is among the inventions discovered by Kansas State researchers. Other research facilities include: Institute for Environmental Research The National Gas Machinery Laboratory TRIGA Mark II Nuclear Research Facility Semiconductor Materials and Radiological Technologies (S.M.A.R.T.) Laboratory Center for Complex Fluid Flows Agriculture The university has had a long-standing interest in agriculture, particularly native Great Plains plant and animal life. The Kansas State University Gardens is an on-campus horticulture display garden that serves as an educational resource and learning laboratory for K-State students and the public. The Konza Prairie is a native tallgrass prairie preserve located south of Manhattan, which is co-owned by The Nature Conservancy and Kansas State University and operated as a field research station by the Department of Biology. The university also owns an additional across the state that it operates as Agricultural Experiment Stations in research centers in Hays, Garden City, Colby, and Parsons. Arts and culture The university is home to several museums, including the Marianna Kistler Beach Museum of Art, the KSU Historic Costume and Textile Museum, and the Chang, Chapman, and Kemper Galleries which feature faculty and student artwork. The university also offers an annual cycle of performance art, including concerts, plays and dance, at McCain Auditorium. Waters Quad just North of Hale Library Landon Lecture Series The Landon Lecture Series is offered by Kansas State University for students, faculty and the community. The Landon Lecture Series is named in honor of former Kansas governor and presidential candidate, Alfred Landon. Prominent leaders and former leaders, primarily political or heads of government, have given speeches in the series. On January 23, 2006, U.S. President George W. Bush delivered the University's 143rd Landon Lecture at Bramlage Coliseum. On March 2, 2007, his predecessor, Bill Clinton, delivered the 149th Landon Lecture. On September 23, 2008, former Mexican president Vicente Fox gave the 152nd Landon Lecture on that afternoon. Overall, six U.S. Presidents and three foreign presidents have given Landon Lectures at K-State. There are approximately four speakers per year. Intercollegiate athletics Kansas State's sports teams are called the Wildcats. They participate in the NCAA's Division I and the Big 12 Conference. The official color of the teams is Royal Purple, making Kansas State one of very few schools (including also Syracuse and Harvard) that have only one official color; white and silver are commonly used as complementary colors. Sports sponsored by the school include football, basketball, cross country and track, baseball, golf, tennis, rowing, equestrian and volleyball. The head football coach is Bill Snyder, the head men's basketball coach is Frank Martin, the head women's basketball coach is Deb Patterson and the head baseball coach is Brad Hill. Notable alumni Beginning with the first graduating class in 1867 , a number of Kansas State alumns have gone on to distinguished careers. Presently, both U.S. Senators from Kansas are graduates of Kansas State University. Other graduates currently serve as the Vice-President of Liberia, the Chancellor of the University of Colorado-Boulder, and the Chief Operating Officer of the Cincinnati Reds. Kansas State alums have been enshrined in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and the College Football Hall of Fame, and have earned Emmy Awards and Olympic gold medals. Campus The main campus of Kansas State University in Manhattan covers . Since 1986, Kansas State has added over 2 million square feet (186,000 m²) of buildings to the campus, including a new library, art museum and plant sciences building. Main campus buildings Northern Campus in October Ackert Hall Ahearn Field House Anderson Hall Beach Museum of Art Bill Snyder Family Football Stadium Bluemont Hall Boyd Hall Bramlage Coliseum Brandeberry Indoor Complex Burt Hall Bushnell Hall Call Hall Calvin Hall Campus Creek Complex Cardwell Hall Chalmers Hall Chemistry & Biochemistry Building Chester E. Peters Recreation Complex Coles Hall College Court Building Danforth & All Faiths Chapels Davenport Building Derby Food Center Dickens Hall Dole Hall Durland Hall Dykstra Hall Edwards Hall Eisenhower Hall English/Counseling Services Environmental Research Lab Extension Forestry Facilities Fairchild Hall Bluemont Bell and Dickens Hall Feed Technology Fiedler Hall Ford Hall Gen. Richard B. Myers Hall Goodnow Hall Greenhouse D - Conservatory Hale Library Haymaker Hall Hoeflin Stone House Holton Hall Holtz Hall International Student Center Jardine Terrace Apartments Justin Hall Kansas Artificial Breeding Service Unit K-State Student Union Kedzie Hall King Hall Kramer Food Center Leasure Hall Margaret Ahlborn/Ula Dow Cottage Marlatt Hall McCain Auditorium Memorial Stadium Moore Hall Mosier Hall Nichols Hall Pittman Building Power Plant Putnam Hall Rathbone Hall Seaton Hall Shellenberger Hall Straube House, UFM Community Learning Center Thompson Hall Throckmorton Hall Trotter Hall Umberger Hall Van Zile Hall Ward Hall Waters Hall Weber Hall West Hall Willard Hall Wind Erosion Laboratory (destroyed by June 12th, 2008 Tornado) Student life Residential life Kansas State has 10 residence halls on campus: Boyd Hall, Ford Hall, Goodnow Hall, Haymaker Hall, Marlatt Hall, Moore Hall, West Hall, Putnam Hall, Van Zile Hall, and Smurthwaite as well as the KSU Jardine Apartments. Ford and Boyd Halls are all female and Marlatt Hall is all male. The residence halls are divided into three complexes: Derby, Kramer, and Strong. K-State Housing and Dining Services Student organizations Kansas State has more than 400 student organizations. Student organizations The Student Governing Association is the largest organization of student leaders composed of elected and appointed officials. The Student Governing Association is modeled after the U.S. government, with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The Executive Branch of SGA is composed of a Student Body President and Student Body Vice President (elected at large by the student body) and their appointed cabinet members, who must be approved by the Student Senate. The Legislative Branch of SGA is composed of a Student Senate; Senators are elected by the students who are part of his or her respective college in which they run to represent, and serve one-year terms. It is also composed of five standing committees, which are the Student Council Allocations Committee, Governmental Relations Committee, Senate Operations Committee, Privilege Fee Committee, and the University Relations Committee. The Judicial Branch of SGA is composed of five main judicial boards - Student Tribunal, Student Review Board, Parking Citations Appeals Board, Judicial Council, and Housing & Dining Services Judicial Boards - and other judges appointed through a needed Ad Hoc judicial board when deemed necessary by the student Attorney General and judicial branch advisor. Judicial board members are nominated by the SGA Attorney General and the Student Body President, in consultation with the Student Senate Chair and must be approved by the Student Senate. Judicial board members serve one-year terms. Student Governing Association The highest ranking of these judicial boards is the Student Tribunal, where its members, the Chancellor and Associate Justices, interpret the Constitution of SGA, tries bills of impeachment, and acts as the final appellate court of the judiciary before appeals go to the University President. All SGA judicial boards are headed by the student Attorney General; he or she is nominated by the Attorney General Nominee Interview Committee, which is composed of six student senators appointed by the Student Senate Chair, and three judicial members appointed by the current Attorney General or Chancellor of the Student Tribunal, where they recommend the selected student to the Student Body President for appointment. GSA is the Graduate Student Association, members include KSU Master of Business students. Student media Radio Station: Wildcat 91.9 Student Radio Newspaper: Kansas State Collegian Yearbook: Royal Purple Yearbook Television: Purple Power Hour & Manhattan Matters References External links Official website Official Athletics website | Kansas_State_University |@lemmatized kansa:30 state:50 university:42 officially:1 name:5 agriculture:5 apply:1 science:5 ksucvm:1 commonly:3 shorten:1 k:9 institution:6 high:6 learning:2 locate:4 manhattan:10 united:3 official:6 spring:1 enrollment:4 student:44 school:10 year:7 branch:7 campus:16 salina:4 housing:3 college:16 technology:5 aviation:3 another:2 know:2 olathe:3 innovation:1 presently:2 construction:1 complete:1 facility:5 academic:6 research:14 presence:1 within:1 bioscience:1 park:2 bioenergy:1 animal:2 health:1 plant:4 food:3 safety:1 security:1 classify:1 ru:1 vh:1 carnegie:1 classification:1 education:7 history:2 originally:1 agricultural:3 found:1 american:1 civil:2 war:2 february:3 land:4 grant:4 morrill:2 act:4 first:6 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landon_lecture:8 developmental_biology:1 excimer_laser:1 nature_conservancy:1 presidential_candidate:1 w_bush:1 bill_clinton:1 vicente_fox:1 intercollegiate_athletics:1 ncaa_division:1 colorado_boulder:1 hall_fame:2 emmy_award:1 gold_medal:1 judicial_branch:3 legislative_branch:1 ad_hoc:1 appellate_court:1 external_link:1 |
5,937 | Foreign_relations_of_Ghana | Ghana is active in the United Nations and many of its specialized agencies, the World Trade Organization, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of African Unity (OAU), what is now is the African Union (AU) and the Economic Community of West African States. Generally, it follows the consensus of the Nonaligned Movement and the OAU on economic and political issues not directly affecting its own interests. Ghana has been extremely active in international peacekeeping activities under UN auspices in Lebanon, Afghanistan, Rwanda, the Balkans, and Pakistan, in addition to an eight-year sub-regional initiative with its ECOWAS partners to develop and then enforce a cease-fire in Liberia. Ghana is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). Guiding principles and objectives Ghana's foreign policy since independence has been characterized by a commitment to the principles and ideals of nonalignment and Pan-Africanism as first enunciated by Kwame Nkrumah in the early 1960s. For Nkrumah, nonalignment meant complete independence from the policies and alliances of both East and West and support for a worldwide union of so-called nonaligned nations as a counter to both East and West power blocs. PanAfricanism , by contrast, was a specifically African policy that envisioned the liberation of African peoples from Western colonialism and the eventual economic and political unity of the African continent. Owusu, Maxwell. "Guiding Principles and Objectives". A Country Study: Ghana (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The PNDC, like most of its predecessors, made serious and consistent attempts at the practical application of these ideals and principles, and its successor, the NDC government, promises to follow in the PNDC's footsteps. Under the NDC, Ghana remains committed to the principle of nonalignment in world politics. Ghana is also opposed to interference in the internal affairs of both small and large countries. This is a departure from Nkrumah's foreign policy approach; Nkrumah was frequently accused of subverting African regimes, such as Togo and Côte d'Ivoire, which he considered ideologically conservative. The NDC government, like the PNDC before it, believes in the principle of selfdetermination , including the right to political independence and the right of people to pursue their economic and social development free from external interference. Another feature of NDC rule carried over from the PNDC era is faithfulness to what a leading scholar of Africa has called "one of the most successful neoclassical economic reform efforts supported by the IMF and the World Bank." The broad objectives of Ghana's foreign policy thus include maintaining friendly relations and cooperation with all countries that desire such cooperation, irrespective of ideological considerations, on the basis of mutual respect and noninterference in each other's internal affairs. Africa and its liberation and unity are naturally the cornerstones of Ghana's foreign policy. As a founding member of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), NDC policy is to adhere faithfully to the OAU Charter. Another important principle of Ghana's foreign policy involves the closest possible cooperation with neighboring countries with which the people of Ghana share cultural history, ties of blood, and economics. The results have included various bilateral trade and economic agreements and permanent joint commissions involving Ghana and its immediate neighbors, sometimes in the face of latent ideological and political differences and mutual suspicion, as well as numerous reciprocal state visits by high-ranking officials. These measures have contributed significantly to subregional cooperation, development, and the reduction of tension. As an example of Ghana's interest in regional cooperation, the country enthusiastically endorsed formation of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in 1975. This organization was created specifically to foster inter-regional economic and political cooperation. It has served as a useful vehicle for contacts with neighboring West African governments and for channeling increased Ghanaian exports to regional markets. Since 1990 ECOWAS has been engaged in a peacekeeping mission in Liberia to which Ghana has contributed a large contingent of troops. Ghana has participated in other international peacekeeping efforts as well, sending soldiers to operations of the United Nations (UN) in Cambodia in 1992-93 and Rwanda in 1993-94. In August 1994, Rawlings became ECOWAS chairman, a post that had eluded him since the PNDC came to power. He immediately undertook several initiatives to reduce tensions and conflict in West Africa. Notable among them was the Akosombo Accord of September 12, designed to end civil war in Liberia. References See also Ghana Ghanaian diplomatic missions Minister for Foreign Affairs (Ghana) List of diplomatic missions in Ghana | Foreign_relations_of_Ghana |@lemmatized ghana:18 active:2 united:2 nation:3 many:1 specialized:1 agency:1 world:3 trade:2 organization:4 non:1 align:1 movement:2 african:10 unity:4 oau:4 union:2 au:1 economic:8 community:2 west:6 state:3 generally:1 follow:2 consensus:1 nonaligned:2 political:5 issue:1 directly:1 affect:1 interest:2 extremely:1 international:3 peacekeeping:3 activity:1 un:2 auspex:1 lebanon:1 afghanistan:1 rwanda:2 balkan:1 pakistan:1 addition:1 eight:1 year:1 sub:1 regional:4 initiative:2 ecowas:4 partner:1 develop:1 enforce:1 cease:1 fire:1 liberia:3 also:3 member:2 criminal:1 court:1 bilateral:2 immunity:1 agreement:2 protection:1 u:1 military:1 cover:1 article:2 guiding:1 principle:7 objective:3 foreign:6 policy:8 since:3 independence:3 characterize:1 commitment:1 ideal:2 nonalignment:3 pan:1 africanism:1 first:1 enunciate:1 kwame:1 nkrumah:4 early:1 mean:1 complete:1 alliance:1 east:2 support:2 worldwide:1 call:2 counter:1 power:2 bloc:1 panafricanism:1 contrast:1 specifically:2 envision:1 liberation:2 people:3 western:1 colonialism:1 eventual:1 continent:1 owusu:1 maxwell:1 guide:1 country:5 study:1 la:1 verle:1 berry:1 editor:1 library:1 congress:1 federal:1 research:1 division:1 november:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:1 public:1 domain:1 pndc:5 like:2 predecessor:1 make:1 serious:1 consistent:1 attempt:1 practical:1 application:1 successor:1 ndc:5 government:3 promise:1 footstep:1 remain:1 committed:1 politics:1 oppose:1 interference:2 internal:2 affair:3 small:1 large:2 departure:1 approach:1 frequently:1 accuse:1 subvert:1 regime:1 togo:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 consider:1 ideologically:1 conservative:1 believe:1 selfdetermination:1 include:3 right:2 pursue:1 social:1 development:2 free:1 external:1 another:2 feature:1 rule:1 carry:1 era:1 faithfulness:1 lead:1 scholar:1 africa:3 one:1 successful:1 neoclassical:1 reform:1 effort:2 imf:1 bank:1 broad:1 thus:1 maintain:1 friendly:1 relation:1 cooperation:6 desire:1 irrespective:1 ideological:2 consideration:1 basis:1 mutual:2 respect:1 noninterference:1 naturally:1 cornerstone:1 founding:1 adhere:1 faithfully:1 charter:1 important:1 involve:2 close:1 possible:1 neighboring:1 share:1 cultural:1 history:1 tie:1 blood:1 economics:1 result:1 various:1 permanent:1 joint:1 commission:1 immediate:1 neighbor:2 sometimes:1 face:1 latent:1 difference:1 suspicion:1 well:2 numerous:1 reciprocal:1 visit:1 high:1 ranking:1 official:1 measure:1 contribute:2 significantly:1 subregional:1 reduction:1 tension:2 example:1 enthusiastically:1 endorse:1 formation:1 create:1 foster:1 inter:1 serve:1 useful:1 vehicle:1 contact:1 channel:1 increased:1 ghanaian:2 export:1 market:1 engage:1 mission:3 contingent:1 troop:1 participate:1 send:1 soldier:1 operation:1 cambodia:1 august:1 rawlings:1 become:1 chairman:1 post:1 elude:1 come:1 immediately:1 undertake:1 several:1 reduce:1 conflict:1 notable:1 among:1 akosombo:1 accord:1 september:1 design:1 end:1 civil:1 war:1 reference:1 see:1 diplomatic:2 minister:1 list:1 |@bigram unity_oau:2 nonaligned_movement:1 bilateral_immunity:1 guiding_principle:1 pan_africanism:1 kwame_nkrumah:1 la_verle:1 verle_berry:1 côte_ivoire:1 peacekeeping_mission:1 diplomatic_mission:2 foreign_affair:1 |
5,938 | Digital_cinema | Digital cinema refers to the use of digital technology to distribute and project motion pictures. A movie can be distributed via hard drives, optical disks or satellite and projected using a digital projector instead of a conventional film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and in particular, is not dependent on using television or HDTV standards, aspect ratios, or frame rates. Digital projectors capable of 2K resolution began deploying in 2005, and since 2006, the pace has accelerated. (2K refers to images with 2048 horizontal pixel resolution.) Technology To match or improve the theater experience of movie audiences, a digital cinema system must provide high-quality image and sound. Additionally, theater managers require server controls for managing and displaying content in multiple theaters, and studios want their content encrypted with secure delivery, playback, and reporting of play times to the distribution company. Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI), a joint venture of the six major studios, published a system specification for digital cinema. Briefly, the specification calls for picture encoding using the ISO/IEC 15444-1 "JPEG2000" (.jp2) standard and use of the CIE XYZ color space at 12 bits per component encoded with a 2.6 gamma applied at projection, and audio using the "Broadcast Wave" (.wav) format at 24 bits and 48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling, controlled by an XML-format Composition Playlist, into an MXF-compliant file at a maximum data rate of 250 Mbit/s. Details about encryption, key management, and logging are all discussed in the specification as are the minimum specifications for the projectors employed including the color gamut, the contrast ratio and the brightness of the image. While much of the specification codifies work that had already been ongoing in the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE), the specification is important in establishing a content owner framework for the distribution and security of first-release motion picture content. Digital cinema conforming to the DCI Standard is referred to within the film industry as D-Cinema while all other forms of digital cinema are referred to as E-Cinema. Thus, while D-Cinema is a defined standard, though one that is still partly being framed by SMPTE as of 2007, E-Cinema may be anything, ranging from a DVD player connected to a consumer projector to something that approaches the quality of D-Cinema without conforming to some of the standards. Even D-Cinema itself has evolved over time before the DCI standards were framed. However, the current DCI standards were made with the intention of standing the test of time, much like 35 mm film which has evolved but still retained compatibility over a substantial part of a century. In addition to DCI's work, the National Association of Theatre Owners (NATO) released its Digital Cinema System Requirements. The document addresses the requirements of digital cinema systems from the operational needs of the exhibitor, focusing on areas not addressed by DCI, including access for the visually impaired and hearing impaired, workflow inside the cinema, and equipment interoperability. In particular, NATO's document details requirements for the Theatre Management System (TMS), the governing software for digital cinema systems within a theatre complex, and provides direction for the development of security key management systems. As with DCI's document, NATO's document is also important to the SMPTE standards effort. Digital capture As of 2007 the most common acquisition medium for digitally projected features is 35 mm film scanned and processed at 2K (2048×1080) or 4K (4096×2160) resolution via digital intermediate. Most digital features to date have been shot at 1920x1080 HD resolution using cameras such as the Sony CineAlta, Panavision Genesis or Thomson Viper. New cameras such as the Arriflex D-20 and Silicon Imaging's SI-2K can capture 2K resolution images, and the Red Digital Cinema Camera Company's Red One can record 4K redcode *RAW. The marketshare of 2K projection in digital cinemas is over 98%. Currently in development are other cameras capable of recording 4K RAW, such as Dalsa Corporation's Origin, and cameras capable of recording 5K *RAW, such as the RED EPIC, and cameras capable of recording 3K *RAW (for budget filmmakers) such as the RED SCARLET. (Raw redcode is a proprietary wavelet compression scheme offered on the redone camera. It can be defined further on user sites such at reduser, but is not by definition RAW, and does potentially contain compression artifacts.) Digital post-production In the post-production process, camera-original film negatives (the film that physically ran through the camera) are scanned into a digital format on a scanner or high-resolution telecine. Data from digital motion picture cameras may be converted to a convenient image file format for work in a facility. All of the files are 'conformed' to match an edit list created by the film editor, and are then color corrected under the direction of the film's staff. The end result of post-production is a digital intermediate used to record the motion picture to film and/or for the digital cinema release. Digital mastering When all of the sound, picture, and data elements of a production have been completed, they may be assembled into a Digital Cinema Distribution Master (DCDM) which contains all of the digital material needed for projection. The images and sound are then compressed, encrypted, and packaged to form the Digital Cinema Package (DCP). Digital cinema fulfillment Technicolor, Deluxe Entertainment Services Group Inc., XDC, Arts Alliance Media, and Cinedigm (formerly Access Integrated Technologies) are the leading companies in digital motion picture fulfillment. Other companies that engage in digital fulfillment are Kodak, Ascent Media, Dolby, Ymagis and Motion Picture Solutions. Digital projection There are currently two types of projectors for digital cinema. Early DLP projectors, which were deployed primarily in the U.S., used limited 1280×1024 resolution or the equivalent of 1.3 MP (megapixels). They are still widely used for pre-show advertising but not usually for feature presentations. The DCI specification for digital projectors calls for three levels of playback to be supported: 2K (2048×1080) or 2.2 MP at 24 frames per second, 4K (4096×2160) or 8.85 MP at 24 frames per second, and 2K or 2.2 MP at 48 frames per second. Three manufacturers have licensed the DLP Cinema technology developed by Texas Instruments (TI): Christie Digital Systems, Barco, and NEC. Christie, long established in traditional film projector technology, is the maker of the CP2000 line of projectors—the most widely deployed platform globally (approximately 5,500 units in total). Barco launched the DP-series of 2K DCI-compliant Digital cinema projectors; next to this Barco designs and develops visualization products for a variety of selected professional markets. NEC manufactures the Starus NC2500S, NC1500C and NC800C 2K projectors for large, medium and small screen respectively and the Starus Digital Cinema Server system, as well as other equipment to connect PCs, analog/digital tape decks and satellite receivers, DVD, and off-air broadcast, etc. for pre-show and special presentations. While NEC is a relative newcomer to Digital Cinema, Christie is the main player in the U.S. and Barco takes the lead in Europe and Asia. In addition Digital Projection Incorporated (DPI) designed and sold a few DLP Cinema units when TI's 2K technology first debuted but then abandoned the D-Cinema market while continuing to offer DLP-based projectors for non-cinema purposes. Although based on the same 2K TI "light engine" as those of the major players they are so rare as to be virtually unknown in the industry. As of January, 2009, there are more than 6,000 DLP-based Digital Cinema systems installed worldwide, of which 80% are located in North America. The other technology is made by Sony and is labeled "SXRD" technology. The projectors, the SRXR210 and SRXR220, offer 4096x2160 (4K) resolution and produce four times the number of pixels of 2K projection, yet Sony's systems are priced competitively with the lower resolution 2048x1080 (2K) or 2.2 MP (megapixels) DLP projectors. Other manufacturers have been developing digital projector technology, but these have not yet been deployed into motion picture theaters and are not commercially available in versions that conform to the DCI specification. Live broadcasting to movie theaters Digital cinemas can deliver live broadcasts from performances or events. For example, there are regular . Recent developments As of October 2007, there are over 5000 DLP-based Digital Cinema Systems installed. In China, an E-Cinema System called "dMs" was established on June 2005, and is used in over 15000 screens spread across China's 30 provinces. dMS estimates that the system will expand to 40000 screens in 2009. China Digital Cinema Development Center By October 2007, DG2L Technologies was reported to have supplied 1500 Digital Cinema Systems to UFO Moviez Ltd. in India and Europe. As of July 2007, there are some cinemas in Singapore showing digital 4K films to public using Sony's 4K digital projector. They are located at Golden Village Cinema in Vivocity (Hall 11), Eng Wah Cinema in Suntec (Hall 3), Shaw Cinema in Bugis (Hall 1 & 3) and at Cathay Cineplex (Hall 7). In September 2007, Muvico Theaters Rosemont 18 in Rosemont, Illinois became the first theater in North America to have Sony's 4K digital projectors for all 18 screens. As of July, 2007, 1400 screens in the U.S. have been equipped with digital cinema projectors including a dozen theaters where the Sony 4K projector has been installed. In continental Europe, XDC is servicing over 300 screens in 10 countries, where Germany has the leading territory with over 100 installations. The UK is home to Europe's first DCI-compliant fully digital multiplex cinemas. Odeon Hatfield and Odeon Surrey Quays (London) have a total of 18 digital screens and were both launched on Friday 9 February 2007. In June 2007, Arts Alliance Media announced the first European commercial digital cinema VPF agreements (with Twentieth Century Fox and Universal Pictures). As of March 2007, with the release of Disney's Meet the Robinsons, about 600 screens have been equipped with 2K digital projectors that feature Real D Cinema's stereoscopic 3D technology, marketed under the Disney Digital 3-D brand. In mid 2006, about 400 theaters have been equipped with 2K digital projectors with the number increasing every month. In February 2005, Arts Alliance Media was selected to roll out the UK Film Council’s Digital Screen Network (DSN), a $20M contract to install and operate Europe’s largest 2K digital cinema network. By March 2007, 230 of the 241 screens had been installed on schedule, with the remaining 11 to be installed later in 2007 when cinemas have completed building works or construction. Chicken Little from Disney, with its experimental release of the film in digital 3D, increased the number of projectors using the 2K format. Several digital 3D films surfaced in 2006 and several prominent filmmakers have committed to making their next productions in stereo 3D. By early 2006, Access Integrated Technologies (AccessIT) had announced agreements with nearly all of the major film studios and several exhibitors that enable the company to roll-out its end-to-end digital cinema systems. In August 2006, the Malayalam digital movie Moonnamathoral was distributed via satellite to cinemas; thus becoming the first Malayalam digital film to be so distributed. This was done using the end-to-end digital cinema system developed by Singapore based DG2L Technologies. In March 2009 AMC Theatres announced that it closed on a $315 million deal with Sony to replace all of its movie projectors with digital projectors starting in the second quarter of 2009 and completing in 2012. AMC to Get Sony Digital Projectors - New York Times - March 29, 2009 Economics Savings in distribution Digital distribution of movies has the potential to save money for film distributors. A single film print can cost around US$1200 (or $30,000 for a 1-time print of an 80-minute feature Frazer, Bryant. Animating a Personal Flash Epic. Studio Daily. May 22, 2008. Accessed on: May 22, 2008. ), so making 4,000 prints for a wide-release movie might cost $5 million. In contrast, at the maximum 250 megabit-per-second data rate (as defined by DCI for digital cinema), a typical feature-length movie could fit comfortably on an off the shelf 300 GB hard drive—which sell for as little as $70 and can even be returned to the distributor for reuse after a movie's run. With several hundred movies distributed every year, industry savings could potentially reach $1 billion or more. Alternative content An added incentive for exhibitors is the ability to show alternative content such as live special events, sports, pre-show advertising and other digital or video content. Some low-budget films that would normally not have a theatrical release because of distribution costs might be shown in smaller engagements than the typical large release studio pictures. The cost of duplicating a digital "print" is very low, so adding more theaters to a release has a small additional cost to the distributor. Movies that start with a small release could scale to a much larger release quickly if they were sufficiently successful, opening up the possibility that smaller movies could achieve box office success previously out of their reach. Greater protection for content A last incentive for copyright holders for digital distribution is the possibility of greater protection against piracy. With traditional film prints, distributors typically stagger the film's release in various markets, shipping the film prints around the globe. In the subsequent markets, pirated copies of a film (i.e. a cam) may be available before the movie is released in that market. A simultaneous worldwide release would mitigate this problem to some degree. Simultaneous worldwide releases on film have been used on The Da Vinci Code, Lord of the Rings: Return of the King, Star Wars: Revenge of the Sith, Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle and Mission: Impossible III amongst others. With digital distribution, a simultaneous worldwide release would not cost significantly more than a staggered release. Costs On the downside, the initial costs for converting theaters to digital are high: up to $150,000 per screen or more. Theaters have been reluctant to switch without a cost-sharing arrangement with film distributors. Recent negotiations have involved the development of a Virtual Print License fee which the studios will pay for their products which allows financiers and system developers to pay for deployment of digital systems to the theaters, thus providing investors a certain payback. While a theater can purchase a film projector for US$50,000 and expect an average life of 30–40 years, a digital cinema playback system including server/media block/and projector can cost 3–4 times as much, and is at higher risk for component failures and technological obsolescence. Experience with computer-based media systems show that average economic lifetimes are only on the order of 5 years with some units lasting until about 10 years before they are replaced. Archiving digital material is also turning out to be both tricky and costly. In a 2007 study, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences found the cost of storing 4K digital masters to be "enormously higher - 1100% higher - than the cost of storing film masters." Furthermore, digital archiving faces challenges due to the insufficient temporal qualities of today's digital storage: no current media, be it optical discs, magnetic hard drives or digital tape, can reliably store a film for a hundred years, something that properly stored and handled film can do. History Digital media playback of hi-resolution 2K files has at least a twenty year history with early RAIDs feeding custom frame buffer systems with large memories. Content was usually restricted to several minutes of material. Transfer of content between remote locations was slow and had limited capacity. It wasn't until the late 1990s that feature length projects could be sent over the 'wire' (Internet or dedicated fiber links). There were many prototype systems developed that claim a first in some form of digital presentation. However, few of these had a significant impact on the advance of the industry. Key highlights in the development of digital cinema would likely include: demonstrations by TI of their DMD technology, real-time playback of compressed hi-resolution files by various vendors, and early HD presentations from D5 tape to digital projectors. Standards development The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers began work on standards for digital cinema in 2001. It was clear by that point in time that HDTV did not provide a sufficient technological basis for the foundation of digital cinema playback. (In Europe and Japan however, there is still a significant presence of HDTV for theatrical presentations. Agreements within the ISO standards body have led to these systems being referred to as Electronic Cinema Systems (E-Cinema).) Digital Cinema Initiatives (DCI) was formed in March 2002 as a joint project of the motion picture studios (Disney, Fox, MGM, Paramount, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Universal and Warner Bros. Studios) to develop a system specification for digital cinema. In cooperation with the American Society of Cinematographers, DCI created standard evaluation material (the ASC/DCI StEM material) and developed tests of 2K and 4K playback and compression technologies. DCI published their specification in 2005. Claims to significant events One claim for the first digital cinema demonstration comes from JVC. On March 19, 1998, they collaborated on a digital presentation at a cinema in London. Several clips from popular films were encoded onto a remote server, and sent via fibre optic for display to a collection of interested Industry parties. The Last Broadcast apparently made cinematic history on October 23, 1998, when it became the first feature to be theatrically released digitally, via satellite download to theaters across the United States. An effort headed by Wavelength Releasing, Texas Instruments, Digital Projection Inc. and Loral Space, it successfully demonstrated what would become a template for future releases. In 1999, it was repeated utilizing QuVIS technology across Europe, including the Cannes Film Festival, making The Last Broadcast the first feature to be screened digitally at the Cannes Film Festival. Several feature films were shown in 1999 using DLP prototype projectors and early wavelet based servers. For example, Walt Disney Pictures Bicentennial Man was presented using a Qubit server manufactured by QuVIS of Topeka, Kansas. DVD ROM was used to store the compressed data file. The DVD ROMs were loaded into the QuBit server hard drives for playout. The file size for Bicentennial Man was 42 GB with an average data rate of 43 Mbit/s. In 2000, Walt Disney, Texas Instruments and Technicolor with the cooperation of several U.S. and international exhibitors, began to deploy prototype Digital Cinema systems in commercial theatres. The systems were assembled and installed by Technicolor using the TI mark V prototype projector, a special Christie lamphouse, and the QuBit server with custom designed automation interfaces. Technicolor manufactured the DVDs for uploading on these test systems and was responsible for sending technicians out to the locations for every new feature film that was played. The technicians would typically spend ten or so hours to load the files from the DVD to the QuBit, set up the server to play the files, and then set up the projector. A full rehearsal screening of the feature was mandatory as was the requirement to have back up DVDs and backup QuBits available should something fail. The systems were eventually replaced or upgraded after TI made improvements to the projectors and Technicolor developed a purpose-built digital cinema server in a venture with Qualcomm, the engineering giant from San Diego best known for advanced mobile phone technology. The new systems were called AMS for Auditorium Management Systems and were the first digital cinema servers designed to be user friendly and operate reliably in a computer-hostile environment such as a projection booth. Most importantly, they provided a complete solution for content security. The AMS used removable hard disk drives as the transport mechanism for the files. This eliminated the time required to upload the DVD ROMs to the local hard drives and provided the ability to switch programs quickly. For security, the AMS used a media block type system that placed a sealed electronics package within the projector housing. The server output only 3DES encrypted data and the media block did the decryption at the point just before playout. The first secure encrypted digital cinema feature was Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones. The system functioned well but was eventually replaced because of the need to create a standard data package for D-cinema distribution. Universal Pictures used their film Serenity as the first DCI-compliant DCP to be delivered shown to an audience at a remote theater, although it was not distributed this way to the public. Inside Man was their first DCP cinema release, and was transmitted to 20 theatres in the United States along with two trailers. In April 2005, DG2L Technologies announced that it had been awarded the multi-million dollar contract for the world's largest satellite based MPEG4 digital cinema deployment to be done in India, which encompassed 2000 theaters for UFO (United Film Organizers), a subsidiary of the Valuable Media Group. In March 2006, United Film Organizers Moviez (UFO Moviez), had reached a significant milestone—surpassing 30,000 shows using the DG2L Cinema System platform. This figure increased to 100,000 shows in August 2006. In September 2006, UFO Moviez acquired 51% stake in DG2L Technologies in a deal estimated at around $50 million. Stereo 3-D images In late 2005, interest in digital 3-D stereoscopic projection has led to a new willingness on the part of theaters to co-operate in installing a limited number of 2K stereo installations to show Disney's Chicken Little in 3-D film. Six more digital 3-D movies were released in 2006 and 2007 (including Beowulf, Monster House and Meet the Robinsons). The technology combines two digital projectors fitted with polarizing filters with the use of polarized glasses and silver screens. A single projector can also be used in conjunction with a simple adapter in the front (a single-cell LCD screen that acts as a quarter-wave retarder, also known as a zscreen) that rotates the polarity of projector's light output several times per second to alternate quickly the left-and-right-eye views. Another system used by DOLBY makes use of a special color filter and glasses and has the advantage that doesn't require a silver screen. Also, some theaters use a system that requires no modification on the screen or the projector but uses active liquid crystal shutter glasses that quickly block the views of each eye alternatively. List of digital cinema companies AIRSCREEN Company ; manufacturer of inflatable screens for digital outdoor cinema projections Arts Alliance Media (Arts Alliance Digital Cinema) — theater system integrator Barco — digital projector manufacturer Christie — digital projector manufacturer Cinedigm (formerly Access Integrated Technologies, Inc. or AccessIT) — theater system integrator d2 () — digital cinema integrator Deluxe Digital Studios — distributor and theater system integrator Digital Genius () — digital cinema integrator Doremi Cinema — manufacturer of digital cinema servers and mastering systems Dolby Laboratories — theater system integrator GDC Technology (gdc-tech.com) — manufacturer of digital cinema servers and mastering systems INTEG Process Group — JNIOR used as an Automation device to talk to digital cinema servers, lighting systems, sound systems, projectors and other devices intoPIX — JPEG 2000 compression for theater system Kodak — theater system integrator Motion Picture Solutions — Digital Cinema Mastering NEC — digital projector manufacturer RED Digital Cinema Camera Company — digital cinema camera manufacturer Sony — manufacturer of digital projector and digital cinema servers and theater system integrator Technicolor — distributor and theater system integrator Texas Instruments — developers of DLP projector technology Qube Cinema — manufacturer of digital cinema servers and mastering systems XDC — theater system integrator Ymagis — theater system integrator See also Digital cinematography Digital projector Digital intermediate Digital film post-production Digital Cinema Initiatives Display resolution List of film-related topics (extensive alphabetical listing) Asian Academy Of Film & Television References and notes External links CNN story on Star Wars Episode II Digital Cinema FAQs — information targeted for exhibitors HD at Sundance Panavision / Canon presentation on digital camera specs Digital Cinema Industry News and Equipment Buyers 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5,939 | Johan_Cruyff | Johan Cruyff (born Hendrik Johannes Cruijff) ( born 25 April 1947 in Amsterdam, Netherlands) is a former Dutch football player and manager. He was named European Footballer of the Year three times (1971, 1973, 1974) which is a record jointly held with Michel Platini and Marco van Basten. Cruyff was the most famous exponent of the football philosophy known as Total Football, explored by Rinus Michels. After his retirement from playing in 1984, Cruyff became highly successful as manager of Ajax and later FC Barcelona; he remains an influential advisor to both clubs. His son, Jordi, also went on to play football professionally. In 1999, Cruyff was voted European Player of the Century in an election held by the IFFHS, and came second, behind Pelé in their World Player of the Century poll. He came third in a vote organised by the French weekly magazine France Football consulting their former Ballon d'Or winners to elect their Football Player of the Century. Style of play Through his career Cruyff became synonymous with the playing style of "Total Football." It is a system where a player who moves out of his position is replaced by another from his team, thus allowing the team to retain their intended organizational structure. In this fluid system no footballer is fixed in their intended outfield role; anyone can be successively an attacker, a midfielder and a defender. The style was honed by Ajax coach Rinus Michels around the time Cruyff came to prominence. Strictly speaking, Cruyff played centre forward in this system. But he would drop deep to confuse his markers or suddenly move to the wing with devastating effect. No one had seen a centre forward like that before. Due to the way Cruyff played his game he is still referred to as "the total footballer." Cruyff was known for his technical ability, speed and acceleration, but his greatest quality was vision, based on an acute sense of his team-mates' positions as an attack unfolded. The sports writer David Miller believed Cruyff superior to any previous player in his ability to extract the most from others. He dubbed him "Pythagoras in boots" for the complexity and precision of his angled passes and wrote: "Few have been able to exact, both physically and mentally, such mesmeric control on a match from one penalty area to another." Cruyff also perfected a move now known as the "Cruyff Turn". To do this move, Cruyff would look to pass or cross the ball. However, instead of kicking it, he would drag the ball behind his planted foot with the inside of his other foot and turn through 180 degrees and accelerate away outside a defender. Club career Cruyff played for Ajax, FC Barcelona, Los Angeles Aztecs, Washington Diplomats, Levante and Feyenoord. Ajax Cruyff joined Ajax youth system on his 10th birthday. He made his first team debut on 15 November 1964 in the Eredivisie, against Groningen, scoring the only goal for Ajax in a 3–1 defeat. That year Ajax finished in their lowest position since the establishment of professional football, 13th. http://www.eredivisie.nl/history/1964-1965.html Cruyff really started to make an impression in the 1965–66 season. Cruyff established himself as a regular first team player after scoring two goals against DWS in the Olympic stadion on 24 October 1965 (in a 2–0 victory). In the seven games that winter he scored eight times and in March 1966 he scored the first 3 goals in a league game against Telstar (6–2 win). Four days later, in a cup game against Veendam (7–0 win), he scored 4 goals. In total that season, Cruyff scored 25 goals in 23 games, and Ajax won the league championship. In 1966-1967 Ajax again won the league championship, but also won the KNVB Cup, for Cruyff's first "double". Cruyff ended the season as the leading goalscorer in the Eredivisie with 33. Cruyff won the league for the third successive year in the 1967–68 season. He was also named Dutch footballer of the year for the second successive time, a feat he would repeat in 1969. On 28 May 1969, Cruyff played in his first European Cup final against Milan, but the Italian team ended up winning 4-1. In the 1969–70 season Cruyff won his second league and cup "double", but at the beginning of the 1970-1971 season Cruyff suffered a long-term groin injury. He made his comeback on 30 October 1970 against PSV Eindhoven. In this game he did not wear his usual number 9 which was in use by Gerrie Mühren, but instead used number 14. Ajax won the game 1–0. Although it was very uncommon in those days for the starters of a game not to play with numbers 1 to 11, from that moment onwards Cruyff's number was 14, even using the number with the Dutch national team. There has even been a documentary on Cruyff titled Nummer 14 Johan Cruyff and in his native Holland there is a magazine by Voetbal International titled "Nummer 14". In a league game against AZ '67 on 29 November 1970 Cruyff scored no less than six goals in an 8–1 victory. After winning a replayed KNVB Cup final against Sparta Rotterdam (2–1), Ajax won in Europe for the first time. On 2 June 1971, in London, they won the European Cup by defeating Panathinaikos 2–0. In spite of speculation that Cruyff would move to another club (Feyenoord and Barcelona were interested) on 12 July 1971, he signed a seven-year contract at Ajax. At the end of the season, he became not only the Dutch, but also the European Footballer of the Year for 1971. 1972 was a particular successful year for Ajax and Cruyff. Ajax won a second European Cup, beating Internazionale 2–0 in the final, with Cruyff scoring both goals. This victory prompted Dutch newspapers to announce the demise of the Italian style of defensive football in the face of Total Football. Soccer: The Ultimate Encyclopaedia says: "Single-handed, Cruyff not only pulled Internazionale of Italy apart in the 1972 European Cup Final, but scored both goals in Ajax's 2–0 win." Cruyff also scored in the 3–2 victory over Den Haag in the KNVB Cup final. In the league Cruyff was the topscorer with 25 goals as Ajax became champions. In the autumn Ajax won the Intercontinental Cup beating Argentina's Independiente (1–1 and 3–0) and then in January 1973 they won the European Super Cup by beating Rangers 3–1 away and 3–2 in Amsterdam. Curiously Cruyff's only own goal came on 20 August 1972 against Amsterdam. A week later against Go Ahead Eagles (6–0) Cruyff scored four times for Ajax. The 1972–73 season was concluded with the another league championship victory and a third successive Europe Cup (Ajax-Juventus 1–0). In the summer of 1973 Cruyff was sold to Barcelona for 6 million guilder (approx. US$ 2 million, c.1973). On 19 August 1973, he played his last match for Ajax (Ajax-Amsterdam 6–1), the 2nd match of the 1973–74 season. FC Barcelona At FC Barcelona, Cruyff quickly won over the Barça fans when he told the European press he chose Barça over Real Madrid because he could not play for a club associated with Franco. He further endeared himself when he chose a Catalan name, Jordi, for his son. He helped the club win La Liga for the first time since 1960, along the way defeating Real Madrid 5–0 at their home of Bernabéu. He was also crowned European Footballer of the Year. During his time at FC Barcelona Cruyff scored one of his most famous goals, The 'Phantom' Goal. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2mme7xdbTeE In a game against Atlético Madrid Cruyff leapt into the air, twisted his body so he was facing away from the goal and kicked the ball past Miguel Reina in the Atlético Madrid goal with his right heel (the ball was at about neck height and had already traveled past the far post), the goal was featured in the documentary in which fans of Cruyff attempted to recreate that moment, the goal has been dubbed (Cruyff's impossible goal). United States At the age of 32, he signed a lucrative deal with the Los Angeles Aztecs of the North American Soccer League (NASL). He had previously been rumored to be joining the New York Cosmos but the deal did not materialize. However, he did play exhibition games for the Cosmos. He stayed at the Aztecs for only one season, but was voted NASL Player of the Year in that time. The following season he moved to play for the Washington Diplomats; he played the whole 1980 campaign for Washington, leaving soon after the start of the 1981 season. Back in the Netherlands After his spell in the USA and a short-lived stay at Levante in Spain, Cruyff returned to play in his homeland, rejoining Ajax 30 November 1980 as "technical advisor" of trainer Leo Beenhakker, Ajax being 8th in the ranking of the table of the Dutch League then after 13 games. Ajax would finish 2nd in 1980–81 in June 1981 after 34 games. In January 1981 Cruijff played three friendly matches for DS'79 from Dordrecht. March 1981 Cruyff started to play for Levante Union Deportiva Valencia, a Spanish 2nd Division club. The club did not keep the financial agreements however. May 1981 Cruyff played as a guest player for Milan, in a tournament, getting injured. As a result he missed almost the entire American soccer season thereafter. In December 1981 Cruyff signed a new contract as player for Ajax. His already since November 1980 expected return was on December 6 1981 against Haarlem (4–1 home win), Cruyff scored the first goal. In the seasons 1981–82 and 1982–83 Ajax with Cruyff became league champions, 1982–83 Ajax also won the Dutch Cup (KNVB-Beker). One notable incident from this era was a famous goal he scored against Helmond Sport in 1982 while playing for Ajax. Cruyff scored a penalty the same way Rik Coppens had already done it 25 years earlier Who took the first two-man penalty? 26 October, 2005. Excite 30 March, 2008. "Penalty in two times by Rik Coppens", Youtube 22 August, 2007. . He put the ball down as for a routine penalty kick, but instead of shooting at goal, Cruyff nudged the ball sideways to his Ajax teammate Jesper Olsen who in return passed it back to Cruyff who tapped the ball into the empty net, as Otto Versfeld, the bemused Helmond goalkeeper, looked on. At the end of the 1982–83 season Ajax decided not to offer Cruyff a new contract. This angered Cruyff, who responded by signing for Ajax's archrivals Feyenoord. Cruyff's season at Feyenoord was a successful one, in which the club won the Eredivisie for the first time in a decade, part of a league and cup double. International career As a Dutch international he played 48 matches, scoring 33 goals. In his second Dutch national team match, a friendly against Czechoslovakia, Cruyff was the first Dutch international to receive a red card. He received a one-year suspension from the Dutch KNVB. Accusations of Cruyff's 'aloofness' were not rebuffed by his habit of wearing a shirt with only two black stripes along the sleeves, as opposed to Adidas' usual design feature of three, worn by all the other Dutch players. Cruyff, however, had a separate sponsorship deal with Puma. Cruyff led the Netherlands to a runners-up medal in the 1974 FIFA World Cup and was named the player of the tournament. Thanks to his team's mastery of Total Football, they coasted all the way to the final, knocking out Argentina (4–0), East Germany (2–0) and Brazil (2–0) along the way. Cruyff himself scored twice against Argentina in one of his team's most dominating performances, then he scored the second goal against Brazil to knock out the defending champions. The Netherlands faced hosts West Germany in the final. Cruyff kicked off and the ball was passed around the Oranje team thirteen times before returning to Cruyff, who then went on a rush that eluded Berti Vogts and ended when he was fouled by Uli Hoeneß inside the box. Teammate Johan Neeskens scored from the spot kick to give the Netherlands a 1–0 lead, and the Germans had not even touched the ball. Only during the latter half of the final was his playmaking influence stifled by the effective marking of Berti Vogts, while Franz Beckenbauer, Uli Hoeneß and Wolfgang Overath dominated the midfield, enabling West Germany to win 2–1. Cruyff received a yellow card during half time for talking to the referee. Cruyff retired from international football in October 1977, having helped the national team qualify for the upcoming World Cup. Without him, the Netherlands finished runners-up in the World Cup again. Initially the reason given for missing the 1978 FIFA World Cup were political reasons given a military dictatorship was in power in Argentina at that time. In 2008, however, Cruyff stated to Catalunya Ràdio that he and his family were involved in a kidnap attempt in Barcelona a year before the tournament, and that this had caused his retirement. "To play a World Cup you have to be 200%, there are moments when there are other values in life." Guardian Football Managerial career Ajax After retiring from playing, Cruyff followed in the footsteps of his mentor Rinus Michels, coaching a young Ajax side to victory in the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1987 (final: Ajax-Lokomotiv Leipzig 1–0, goal: Marco van Basten). May/June 1985 Cruyff returned to Ajax again. In the season 1985–86 the league title was lost to PSV, despite Ajax having a goal difference of +85 (120-35). In the seasons 1985–86 and 1986–87 Ajax won the Dutch Cup (KNVB-Beker). It was during this period as manager that Cruyff was able to implement his favoured team formation. 3 mobile centre halves plus 1 covering space, almost a holding midfielder rather than sweeper (from Boeve, Blind, Silooy, Spelbos). 2 controlling midfielders (from Winter, Wouters, Mühren, Witschge) with responsibilities to feed the attack-minded players. 1 shadow striker (Bosman, Scholten). 2 touchline-hugging wingers (from Bergkamp, van 't Schip, De Wit, Dick) and 1 all-round centre forward (Van Basten). So successful was this system that Ajax won the Champions League in 1995 playing Cruyff's system. Terry Venables as England manager was an advocate of this system, based on free-flowing football and intelligent and incisive individuals carrying out seemingly simple functions, in the Euro '96 semi-final versus Germany, England used this system effectively. FC Barcelona In 1988 Cruyff returned to Barcelona as manager. At FC Barcelona Cruyff brought in players such as Josep Guardiola, José Mari Bakero, Txiki Beguiristáin, Goikoetxea, Ronald Koeman, Michael Laudrup, Romário, Gheorghe Hagi and Hristo Stoichkov. Under Cruyff, Barcelona won La Liga four times between 1991 and 1994, and beat Sampdoria in both the 1989 European Cup Winners' Cup final and the 1992 European Cup final at Wembley. They also won a Copa del Rey in 1990, the European Super Cup in 1992 and three Supercopa de España. Cruyff used to smoke 20 cigarettes a day prior to undergoing double heart bypass surgery in 1991 while he was the coach of FC Barcelona, after which he gave up smoking. He also led the anti-smoking campaign developed by the Health Department of the Catalan autonomous government. And Cruyff juggled a cigarette pack 16 times in an anti-tobacco video sponsored by the Catalan Department of Health. http://books.google.com/books?id=H2T0ZD5S86QC&printsec=frontcover#PPA476,M1 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnUBXCiICnk http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rtfcGLHPgbI With 11 trophies, Cruyff has been FC Barcelona's most successful manager to date as he had more trophies to show for his tenure, as well as being the club's longest serving manager. However, in his final two seasons, he failed to win any trophies, and fell out with chairman Josep Lluís Núñez; this resulted in his departure from the club, and he vowed never to coach again. While at Barcelona, he was in negotiations with the KNVB to manage the national team for the 1994 World Cup finals, but talks broke off at the last minute. His open support helped candidate Joan Laporta to victory in Barcelona's latest presidential elections. He continues to be an adviser for him, although he holds no official post at Barcelona. Known as a player's coach with deep convictions with regard to his philosophy of the game, he is considered a visionary and his presence at Barcelona was said to have changed many things and his was the beginning of what is known as the 'Dutch influence' at Barcelona. Proposed return to Ajax On 20 February 2008, in the wake of a major research on the ten-year-mismanagement, it was announced that Johan Cruyff would be the new technical director at his boyhood club Ajax—this would be his fourth stint at the Amsterdam club. However, Cruyff announced in March that he is pulling out of his planned return to Ajax because of "professional difference of opinion" between him and Ajax's new manager, Marco van Basten. Van Basten said that Cruyff's plans were "going too fast", because he was "not so dissatisfied with how things are going now". Honours As player Ajax Eredivisie: 1966, 1967, 1968, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1982, 1983 KNVB Cup: 1967, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1983 European Cup: 1971, 1972, 1973 Intercontinental Cup: 1972 UEFA Super Cup: 1972, 1973 FC Barcelona La Liga: 1974 Copa del Rey: 1978 Feyenoord Eredivisie: 1984 KNVB Cup: 1984 European Player of the Century XX IFFHS Golden Player of the Netherlands As manager Ajax KNVB Cup: 1986, 1987 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1987 FC Barcelona Copa del Rey: 1990 La Liga: 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1989 European Cup: 1992 UEFA Super Cup: 1992 Individual European Footballer of the Year: 1971, 1973, 1974 FIFA World Cup Golden Ball: 1974 FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1974 Dutch Golden Shoe: 1984 World Soccer Awards Manager of the Year: 1987 Coach of the Year: 1992, 1994 Statistics |- |1964-65||rowspan="10"|Ajax||rowspan="10"|Eredivisie||10||4||0||0||0||0||10||4 |- |1965-66||19||16||4||9||0||0||23||25 |- |1966-67||30||33||5||5||6||3||41||41 |- |1967-68||33||25||5||6||3||2||41||33 |- |1968-69||29||24||3||3||10||6||42||33 |- |1969-70||33||23||5||6||8||4||46||33 |- |1970-71||25||21||6||5||6||1||37||27 |- |1971-72||32||25||4||3||9||5||45||33 |- |1972-73||26||16||0||0||6||3||32||19 |- |1973-74||2||3||0||0||0||0||2||3 |- |1973-74||rowspan="5"|FC Barcelona||rowspan="5"|La Liga||26||16||0||0||0||0||26||16 |- |1974-75||30||7||0||0||8||0||38||7 |- |1975-76||29||6||0||0||9||2||38||8 |- |1976-77||30||14||0||0||7||5||37||19 |- |1977-78||28||5||7||1||10||5||45||11 |- |1979||Los Angeles Aztecs||NASL||27||16||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||27||16 |- |1980||Washington Diplomats||NASL||27||10||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||27||10 |- |1980-81||Levante||Segunda División||10||2||0||0||0||0||10||2 |- |1981||Washington Diplomats||NASL||5||2||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||5||2 |- |1981-82||rowspan="2"|Ajax||rowspan="2"|Eredivisie||15||7||1||0||0||0||16||7 |- |1982-83||21||7||7||2||2||0||30||9 |- |1983-84||Feyenoord||Eredivisie||33||11||7||1||4||1||44||13 308||215||48||40||54||25||410||280 153||50||7||1||34||12||184||63 59||28||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||59||28 520||293||55||41||88||37||663||371 |} Further honours In 1996 the Dutch Supercup was named Johan Cruijff-schaal. In November 2003, to celebrate UEFA's Jubilee, he was selected as the Golden Player of the Netherlands by the KNVB as their most outstanding player of the past 50 years. On 22 May 2006, Cruyff was presented a Lifetime Achievement Award for his contribution to football by Laureus in their annual World Sports Awards. Johan Cruyff | Laureus Cruyff received a lifetime achievement award from the KNVB in August 2006. In 2006, Cruyff played in Dennis Bergkamp's Testimonial as a second-half substitute with Ajax. On April 18 2007, Ajax decided to retire the number 14 shirt in honour of Johan Cruyff and in celebration of his birthday. Outside football Statements In the Netherlands and, to some extent, Spain, Cruijff is famous for his one-liners that usually hover between brilliant insight and simple logic. They are famous for their Amsterdam dialect and incorrect grammar. In Spain, his most famous statement is En un momento dado. The quote has been used for the title of a documentary about Cruijff’s life; Johan Cruijff - En un momento dado. In the Netherlands, his most famous one-liner is Ieder nadeel heb z'n voordeel (Every disadvantage has its advantage) and his way of expressing himself has been dubbed “Cruijffiaans”. Some of his most famous statements are: Voetbal is een spel van fouten. Wie de minste fouten maakt wint. (Football is a game of mistakes. The one who makes the least mistakes wins.) Je gaat het pas zien als je het door hebt. (You won’t see it until you've got it.) Ieder voordeel heb z’n nadeel. (Every disadvantage has its advantage) Als je een speler ziet sprinten, is hij te laat vertrokken. (When you see a player sprinting, he left too late.) Je moet schieten anders kan je niet scoren. (You’ve got to shoot or you can’t score.) Italianen kennen niet van je winnen, maar je ken wel van ze verliezen. (Italians can’t defeat you but you can lose to them.) Voetbal is simpel, maar het moeilijkste wat er is, is simpel voetballen. (Football is simple, but the hardest thing there is, is to play simple football.) Je moet altijd zorgen dat je één doelpunt meer scoort als de tegenstander. (You always have to make sure that you score one goal more than your opponent.) Je ken beter ten onder gaan met je eigen visie als met de visie van een ander. (It’s better to lose with your own vision than with someone else’s.) Als wij de bal hebben, kennen zij niet scoren. (If we have the ball, they can’t score.) Als ik iets eerder begin te lopen, dan lijk ik sneller. (If I start running a little earlier, I’ll seem faster.) Als ik zou willen dat je het begreep, zou ik het wel beter uitleggen. (If I wanted you to understand, I would explain it better.) Trivia In November 2003, Cruyff invoked legal proceedings against the publisher Tirion Uitgevers, over its photo book Johan Cruyff de Ajacied, which used photographs by Guus de Jong. Cruyff was working on another book, also using De Jong's photographs, and claimed unsuccessfully that Tirion's book violated his trademark and portrait rights. In 2004 he ended sixth place in the election of De Grootste Nederlander (The Greatest Dutchman). In 2004, a documentary film was made about Cruyff's life, entitled Johan Cruijff - En un momento dado. Johan Cruyff has a small hit (No 21 in the charts) in the Netherlands with 'Oei Oei Oei (Dat Was Me Weer een Loei). Upon arriving in Barcelona, the Spanish branch of Polydor decided to release the single in Spain as well, where it was rather popular. Football: Knowledge - does Shay Given really carry holy water with him at every match? | Football | guardian.co.uk The artistic beauty and elegance of Johan Cruyff inspired Dutch and English poets. Family On 2 December 1968, Cruyff married Danny Coster. Johan and Danny have 3 children: Chantal (16 November 1970), Susila (27 January 1972) and Jordi (9 February 1974). The family lives in Barcelona. His son, Jordi, has played for teams such as Barcelona (while his father was manager), Manchester United and Alavés. Interestingly, the younger Cruyff sports "Jordi" on his shirt to distinguish himself from his famous father, which also reflects the common Spanish practice of referring to players by given names alone or by nicknames. It is also related to the commercial claim of "name and fame" of his father to the name Cruyff-Cruijff. References External links FIFA - Page on Johan Cruyff Johan Cruyff Institute for Sport Studies - Sport Management for Sports People: Educating athletes worldwide from institutes in Amsterdam, Barcelona and Mexico. Also partner of the Johan Cruyff Universities (Bachelor) and Johan Cruyff Colleges (Vocational Education) in The Netherlands. Johan Cruyff Foundation - The Cruyff Foundation supports sport projects for disabled and under served children. It also implements Cruyff Courts worldwide. 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5,940 | Inorganic_chemistry | Inorganic compounds show rich variety: A: Diborane features unusual bonding B: Caesium chloride has an archetypal crystal structure C: Fp2 is an organometallic complex D: Silicone's uses range from breast implants to Silly Putty E: Grubbs' catalyst won the 2005 Nobel Prize for its discoverer F: Zeolites find extensive use as molecular sieves G: Copper(II) acetate surprised theoreticians with its diamagnetism Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. This field covers all chemical compounds except the myriad organic compounds (compounds containing C-H bonds), which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. Key concepts The structure of the ionic framework in potassium oxide, K2O The bulk of inorganic compounds occur as salts, the combination of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding. Examples of cations are sodium Na+, and magnesium Mg2+ and examples of anions are oxide O2− and chloride Cl−. As salts are neutrally charged, these ions form compounds such as sodium oxide Na2O or magnesium chloride MgCl2. The ions are described by their oxidation state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential (for cations) or from the electron affinity (anions) of the parent elements. Important classes of inorganic compounds are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates and the halides. Many inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points. Inorganic salts typically are poor conductors in the solid state. Another important feature is their solubility in e.g. water (see: solubility chart), and ease of crystallization. Where some salts (e.g. NaCl) are very soluble in water, others (e.g. SiO2) are not. The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state. In redox reactions one reactant, the oxidant, lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the reductant, has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of electrons. Electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e.g. in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry. When one reactant contains hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in acid-base chemistry. In a more general definition, an acid can be any chemical species capable of binding to electron pairs is called a Lewis acid; conversely any molecule that tends to donate an electron pair is referred to as a Lewis base. As a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory takes into account polarizability and size of ions. Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals. Soil may contain iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum. Inorganic compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules: as electrolytes (sodium chloride), in energy storage (ATP) or in construction (the polyphosphate backbone in DNA). The first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium nitrite for soil fertilization through the Haber process. Inorganic compounds are synthesized for use as catalysts such as vanadium(V) oxide and titanium(III) chloride, or as reagents in organic chemistry such as lithium aluminium hydride. Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry, cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry. These fields are active areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts, superconductors, and therapies. Industrial inorganic chemistry Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science. Traditionally, the scale of a nation's economy could be evaluated by their productivity of sulfuric acid. The top 20 inorganic chemicals manufactured in Canada, China, Europe, Japan, and the US (2005 data): "Facts & Figures Of The Chemical Industry” Chemical and Engineering News, July 10, 2006. aluminium sulfate, ammonia, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate, carbon black, chlorine, hydrochloric acid, hydrogen, hydrogen peroxide, nitric acid, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphoric acid, sodium carbonate, sodium chlorate, sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate, sodium sulfate, sulfuric acid, and titanium dioxide. The manufacturing of fertilisers is another practical application of industrial inorganic chemistry. Descriptive inorganic chemistry Descriptive inorganic chemistry focuses on the classification of compounds based on their properties. Partly the classification focuses on the position in the periodic table of the heaviest element (the element with the highest atomic weight) in the compound, partly by grouping compounds by their structural similarities. When studying inorganic compounds, one often encounters parts of the different classes of inorganic chemistry (an organometallic compound is characterized by its coordination chemistry, and may show interesting solid state properties). Different classifications are: Coordination compounds EDTA chelates an octahedrally-coordinated Co3+ ion in [Co(EDTA)]− Classical coordination compounds feature metals bound to "lone pairs" of electrons residing on the main group atoms of ligands such as H2O, NH3, Cl−, and CN−. In modern coordination compounds almost all organic and inorganic compounds can be used as ligands. The "metal" usually is a metal from the groups 3-13, as well as the trans-lanthanides and trans-actinides, but from a certain perspective, all chemical compounds can be described as coordination complexes. The stereochemistry of coordination complexes can be quite rich, as hinted at by Werner's separation of two enantiomers of [Co((OH)2Co(NH3)4)3]6+, an early demonstration that chirality is not inherent to organic compounds. A topical theme within this specialization is supramolecular coordination chemistry. Lehn, J. M., Supramolecular Chemistry: Concepts and Perspectives, VCH: Weinhiem, 1995 Examples: [Co(EDTA)]−, [Co(NH3)6]3+, TiCl4(THF)2. Main group compounds Tetrasulfur tetranitride, S4N4, is a main group compound that continues to intrigue chemists These species feature elements from groups 1, 2 and 13-18 (excluding hydrogen) of the periodic table. Due to their often similar reactivity, the elements in group 3 (Sc, Y, and La) and group 12 (Zn, Cd, and Hg) are also generally included. Greenwood, N. N.; & Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edn.), Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4. Main group compounds have been known since the beginnings of chemistry, e.g. elemental sulfur and the distillable white phosphorus. Experiments on oxygen, O2, by Lavoisier and Priestley not only identified an important diatomic gas, but opened the way for describing compounds and reactions according to stoichiometric ratios. The discovery of a practical synthesis of ammonia using iron catalysts by Carl Bosch and Fritz Haber in the early 1900’s deeply impacted mankind, demonstrating the significance of inorganic chemical synthesis. Typical main group compounds are SiO2, SnCl4, and N2O. Many main group compounds can also be classed as “organometallic”, as they contain organic groups, e.g. B(CH3)3). Main group compounds also occur in nature, e.g. phosphate in DNA, and therefore may be classed as bioinorganic. Conversely, organic compounds lacking (many) hydrogen ligands can be classed as “inorganic”, such as the fullerenes, buckytubes and binary carbon oxides. Examples: tetrasulfur tetranitride S4N4, diborane B2H6, silicones, buckminsterfullerene C60. Transition metal compounds Copper phthalocyanine is a transition metal compound related to haem Compounds containing metals from group 4 to 11 are considered transition metal compounds. Compounds with a metal from group 3 or 12 are sometimes also incorporated into this group, but also often classified as main group compounds. Transition metal compounds show a rich coordination chemistry, varying from tetrahedral for titanium (e.g. TiCl4) to square planar for some nickel complexes to octahedral for coordination complexes of cobalt. A range of transition metals can be found in biologically important compounds, such as iron in hemoglobin. Examples: iron pentacarbonyl, titanium tetrachloride, cisplatin Organometallic compounds Organolithium reagents are most often found in polymeric form, such as n-butyllithium shown here Usually, organometallic compounds are considered to contain the M-C-H group. C. Elschenbroich, A. Salzer ”Organometallics : A Concise Introduction” (2nd Ed) (1992); Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. ISBN 3-527-28165-7 The metal (M) in these species can either be a main group element or a transition metal. Operationally, the definition of an organometallic compound is more relaxed to include also highly lipophilic complexes such as metal carbonyls and even metal alkoxides. Organometallic compounds are mainly considered a special category because organic ligands are often sensitive to hydrolysis or oxidation, necessitating that organometallic chemistry employs more specialized preparative methods than was traditional in Werner-type complexes. Synthetic methodology, especially the ability to manipulate complexes in solvents of low coordinating power, enabled the exploration of very weakly coordinating ligands such as hydrocarbons, H2, and N2. Because the ligands are petrochemicals in some sense, the area of organometallic chemistry has greatly benefited from its relevance to industry. Examples: Cyclopentadienyliron dicarbonyl dimer (C5H5)Fe(CO)2CH3, Ferrocene Fe(C5H5)2, Molybdenum hexacarbonyl Mo(CO)6, Diborane B2H6, Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) Pd[P(C6H5)3]4 Cluster compounds Decaborane is a powerfully toxic cluster compound of boron Iron-sulfur clusters are central components of iron-sulfur proteins, essential for human metabolism Clusters can be found in all classes of chemical compounds. According to the commonly accepted definition, a cluster consists minimally of a triangular set of atoms that are directly bonded to each other. But metal-metal bonded dimetallic complexes are highly relevant to the area. Clusters occur in "pure" inorganic systems, organometallic chemistry, main group chemistry, and bioinorganic chemistry. The distinction between very large clusters and bulk solids is increasingly blurred. This interface is the chemical basis of nanoscience or nanotechnology and specifically arise from the study of quantum size effects in cadmium selenide clusters. Thus, large clusters can be described as an array of bound atoms intermediate in character between a molecule and a solid. Examples: Fe3(CO)12, B10H14, [Mo6Cl14]2−, 4Fe-4S Bioinorganic compounds The octahedral cobalt centre of Vitamin B12 See also Bioorganometallic chemistry By definition, these compounds occur in nature, but the subfield includes anthropogenic species, such as pollutants (e.g. methylmercury) and drugs (e.g. Cisplatin). S. J. Lippard, J. M. Berg “Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry” University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA; 1994. ISBN 0-935702-73-3. The field, which incorporates many aspects of biochemistry, includes many kinds of compounds, e.g. the phosphates in DNA, and also metal complexes containing ligands that range from biological macromolecules, commonly peptides, to ill-defined species such as humic acid, and to water (e.g. coordinated to gadolinium complexes employed for MRI). Traditionally bioinorganic chemistry focuses on electron- and energy-transfer in proteins relevant to respiration. Medicinal inorganic chemistry includes the study of both non-essential and essential elements with applications to diagnosis and therapies. Examples: hemoglobin, methylmercury, carboxypeptidase Solid state compounds YBa2Cu3O7, or YBCO, is a high temperature superconductor able to levitate above a magnet when colder than its critical temperature of about 90 K (−183°C) This important area focuses on structure, Wells, A.F. (1984). Structural Inorganic Chemistry, Oxford: Clarendon Press. bonding, and the physical properties of materials. In practice, solid state inorganic chemistry uses techniques such as crystallography to gain an understanding of the properties that result from collective interactions between the subunits of the solid. Included in solid state chemistry are metals and their alloys or intermetallic derivatives. Related fields are condensed matter physics, mineralogy, and materials science. Examples: silicon chips, zeolites, YBa2Cu3O7 Theoretical inorganic chemistry An alternative perspective on the area of inorganic chemistry begins with the Bohr model of the atom and, using the tools and models of theoretical chemistry and computational chemistry, expands into bonding in simple and then more complex molecules. Precise quantum mechanical descriptions for multielectron species, the province of inorganic chemistry, is difficult. This challenge has spawned many semi-quantitative or semi-empirical approaches including molecular orbital theory and ligand field theory, In parallel with these theoretical descriptions, approximate methodologies are employed, including density functional theory. Exceptions to theories, qualitative and quantitative, are extremely important in the development of the field. For example, CuII2(OAc)4(H2O)2 is almost diamagnetic below room temperature whereas Crystal Field Theory predicts that the molecule would have two unpaired electrons. The disagreement between qualitative theory (paramagnetic) and observation (diamagnetic) led to the development of models for "magnetic coupling." These improved models led to the development of new magnetic materials and new technologies. Qualitative theories Crystal field theory explains why [FeIII(CN)6]3− has only one unpaired electron Inorganic chemistry has greatly benefited from qualitative theories. Such theories are easier to learn as they require little background in quantum theory. Within main group compounds, VSEPR theory powerfully predicts, or at least rationalizes, the structures of main group compounds, such as an explanation for why NH3 is pyramidal whereas ClF3 is T-shaped. For the transition metals, crystal field theory allows one to understand the magnetism of many simple complexes, such as why [FeIII(CN)6]3− has only one unpaired electron, whereas [FeIII(H2O)6]3+ has five. A particularly powerful qualitative approach to assessing the structure and reactivity begins with classifying molecules according to electron counting, focusing on the numbers of valence electrons, usually at the central atom in a molecule. Molecular symmetry group theory Nitrogen dioxide, NO2, exhibits C2v symmetry A central construct in inorganic chemistry is the theory of molecular symmetry. Cotton, F. A., Chemical Applications of Group Theory, John Wiley & Sons: New York, 1990 Mathematical group theory provides the language to describe the shapes of molecules according to their point group symmetry. Group theory also enables factoring and simplification of theoretical calculations. Spectroscopic features are analyzed and described with respect to the symmetry properties of the, inter alia, vibrational or electronic states. Knowledge of the symmetry properties of the ground and excited states allows one to predict the numbers and intensities of absorptions in vibrational and electronic spectra. A classic application of group theory is the prediction of the number of C-O vibrations in substituted metal carbonyl complexes. The most common applications of symmetry to spectroscopy involve vibrational and electronic spectra. As an instructional tool, group theory highlights commonalities and differences in the bonding of otherwise disparate species, such as WF6 and Mo(CO)6 or CO2 and NO2. Reaction pathways The theory of chemical reactions is more challenging than the theory for a static molecule. Marcus theory provides a powerful linkage between bonding, mechanism, and reactivity. The relative strengths of metal-ligand bonds, which can be calculated theoretically, anticipates the kinetically accessible pathways. Thermodynamics and inorganic chemistry An alternative quantitative approach to inorganic chemistry focuses on energies of reactions. This approach is highly traditional and empirical, but it is also useful. Broad concepts that are couched in thermodynamic terms include redox potential, acidity, phase changes. A classic concept in inorganic thermodynamics is the Born-Haber cycle, which is used for assessing the energies of elementary processes such as electron affinity, some of which cannot be observed directly. Mechanistic inorganic chemistry An important and increasingly popular aspect of inorganic chemistry focuses on reaction pathways. The mechanisms of reactions are discussed differently for different classes of compounds. Main group elements and lanthanides The mechanisms of main group compounds of groups 13-18 are usually discussed in the context of organic chemistry (organic compounds are main group compounds, after all). Elements heavier than C, N, O, and F often form compounds with more electrons than predicted by the octet rule, as explained in the article on hypervalent molecules. The mechanisms of their reactions differ from organic compounds for this reason. Elements lighter than carbon (B, Be, Li) as well as Al and Mg often form electron-deficient structures that are electronically akin to carbocations. Such electron-deficient species tend to react via associative pathways. The chemistry of the lanthanides mirrors many aspects of chemistry seen for aluminium. Transition metal complexes Mechanisms for the reactions of transition metals are discussed differently from main group compounds. R. G. Wilkins "Kinetics and Mechanism of Reactions of Transition Metal Complexes" Wiley-VCH Verlag; 2nd, 1991) ISBN 3-527-28389-7 The important role of d-orbitals in bonding strongly influences the pathways and rates of ligand substitution and dissociation. These themes are covered in articles on coordination chemistry and ligand. Both associative and dissociative pathways are observed. An overarching aspect of mechanistic transition metal chemistry is the kinetic lability of the complex illustrated by the exchange of free and bound water in the prototypical complexes [M(H2O)6]n+: [M(H2O)6]n+ + 6 H2O* → [M(H2O*)6]n+ + 6 H2O where H2O* denotes isotopically enriched water, e.g. H217O The rates of water exchange varies by 20 orders of magnitude across the periodic table, with lanthanide complexes at one extreme and Ir(III) species being the slowest. Redox reactions Redox reactions are prevalent for the transition elements. Two classes of redox reaction are considered: atom-transfer reactions, such as oxidative addition/reductive elimination, and electron-transfer. A fundamental redox reaction is "self-exchange", which involves the degenerate reaction between an oxidant and a reductant. For example, permanganate and its one-electron reduced relative manganate exchange one electron: [MnO4]− + [Mn*O4]2− → [MnO4]2− + [Mn*O4]− Reactions at ligands Coordinated ligands display reactivity distinct from the free ligands. For example, the acidity of the ammonia ligands in [Co(NH3)6]3+ is elevated relative to NH3 itself. Alkenes bound to metal cations are reactive toward nucleophiles whereas alkenes normally are not. The large and industrially important area of catalysis hinges on the ability of metals to modify the reactivity of organic ligands. Homogeneous catalysis occurs in solution and heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids. Traditionally homogeneous catalysis is considered part of organometallic chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis is discussed in the context of surface science, a subfield of solid state chemistry. But the basic inorganic chemical principles are the same. Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such as CO, H2, O2, and C2H4. The industrial significance of these feedstocks drives the active area of catalysis. Characterization of inorganic compounds Because of the diverse range of elements and the correspondingly diverse properties of the resulting derivatives, inorganic chemistry is closely associated with many methods of analysis. Older methods tended to examine bulk properties such as the electrical conductivity of solutions, melting points, solubility, and acidity. With the advent of quantum theory and the corresponding expansion of electronic apparatus, new tools have been introduced to probe the electronic properties of inorganic molecules and solids. Often these measurements provide insights relevant to theoretical models. For example, measurements on the photoelectron spectrum of methane demonstrated that describing the bonding by the two-center, two-electron bonds predicted between the carbon and hydrogen using Valence Bond Theory is not appropriate for describing ionisation processes in a simple way. Such insights led to the popularization of molecular orbital theory as fully delocalised orbitals are a more appropriate simple description of electron removal and electron excitation. Commonly encountered techniques are: X-ray crystallography: This technique allows for the 3D determination of molecular structures. Various forms of spectroscopy Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy: Historically, this has been an important tool, since many inorganic compounds are strongly colored NMR spectroscopy: Besides 1H and 13C many other "good" NMR nuclei (e.g. 11B, 19F, 31P, and 195Pt) give important information on compound properties and structure. Also the NMR of paramagnetic species can result in important structural information. Proton NMR is also important because the light hydrogen nucleus is not easily detected by X-ray crystallography. Infrared spectroscopy: Mostly for absorptions from carbonyl ligands Electron-nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy Mössbauer spectroscopy Electron-spin resonance: ESR (or EPR) allows for the measurement of the environment of paramagnetic metal centres. Electrochemistry: Cyclic voltammetry and related techniques probe the redox characteristics of compounds. Synthetic inorganic chemistry Although some inorganic species can be obtained in pure form from nature, most are synthesized in chemical plants and in the laboratory. Inorganic synthetic methods can be classified roughly according the volatility or solubility of the component reactants. Girolami, G. S.; Rauchfuss, T. B. and Angelici, R. J., Synthesis and Technique in Inorganic Chemistry, University Science Books: Mill Valley, CA, 1999 Soluble inorganic compounds are prepared using methods of organic synthesis. For metal-containing compounds that are reactive toward air, Schlenk line and glove box techniques are followed. Volatile compounds and gases are manipulated in “vacuum manifolds” consisting of glass piping interconnected through valves, the entirety of which can be evacuated to 0.001 mm Hg or less. Compounds are condensed using liquid nitrogen (b.p. 78K) or other cryogens. Solids are typically prepared using tube furnaces, the reactants and products being sealed in containers, often made of fused silica (amorphous SiO2) but sometimes more specialized materials such as welded Ta tubes or Pt “boats”. Products and reactants are transported between temperature zones to drive reactions. References See also Important publications in inorganic chemistry Links Links to Online Inorganic Chemistry Journals | Inorganic_chemistry |@lemmatized inorganic:51 compound:68 show:4 rich:3 variety:1 diborane:3 feature:5 unusual:1 bonding:5 b:5 caesium:1 chloride:5 archetypal:1 crystal:4 structure:8 c:7 organometallic:13 complex:19 silicone:2 us:1 range:4 breast:1 implant:1 silly:1 putty:1 e:15 grubbs:1 catalyst:4 win:1 nobel:1 prize:1 discoverer:1 f:4 zeolite:2 find:6 extensive:1 use:11 molecular:6 sieve:1 g:17 copper:2 ii:1 acetate:1 surprise:1 theoretician:1 diamagnetism:1 chemistry:58 branch:1 concern:1 property:11 behavior:1 field:9 cover:2 chemical:13 except:1 myriad:1 organic:13 contain:7 h:2 bond:9 subject:1 distinction:2 two:7 discipline:2 far:1 absolute:1 much:1 overlap:1 importantly:1 sub:1 key:2 concepts:1 ionic:2 framework:1 potassium:1 oxide:6 bulk:3 occur:7 salt:5 combination:1 cation:4 anion:3 join:1 example:13 sodium:8 na:1 magnesium:2 cl:2 neutrally:1 charge:1 ion:5 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5,941 | Giuseppe_Peano | Giuseppe Peano (27 August 1858 – 20 April 1932) was an Italian mathematician, whose work was of exceptional philosophical value. The author of over 200 books and papers, he was a founder of mathematical logic and set theory, to which he contributed much notation. The standard axiomatization of the natural numbers is named in his honor. As part of this axiomatization effort, he made key contributions to the modern rigorous and systematic treatment of the method of mathematical induction. He spent most of his career teaching mathematics at the University of Turin. Biography Peano was born and raised on a farm at Spinetta, a hamlet near Cuneo, Piedmont, Italy. He enrolled at the University of Turin in 1876, graduating in 1880 with high honours, after which the University employed him to assist first Enrico D'Ovidio, and then Angelo Genocchi, the Chair of infinitesimal calculus. Due to Genocchi's poor health, Peano took over the teaching of the infinitesimal calculus course within 2 years. His first major work, a textbook on calculus, was published in 1884 and was credited to Genocchi. Three years later, Peano published his first book dealing with mathematical logic. Here the modern symbols for the union and intersection of sets appeared for the first time. In 1887, Peano married Carola Crosio, the daughter of the Turin-based painter Luigi Crosio, known for painting the Refugium Peccatorum Madonna. In 1886, he began teaching concurrently at the Royal Military Academy, and was promoted to Professor First Class in 1889. The next year, the University of Turin also granted him his full professorship. Peano's famous space-filling curve appeared in 1890 as a counterexample. He used it to show that a continuous curve cannot always be enclosed in an arbitrarily small region. This was an early example of what came to be known as a fractal. The following year Peano started the Formulario Project. It was to be an "Encyclopedia of Mathematics", containing all known formulae and theorems of mathematical science using a standard notation invented by Peano. In 1897, the first International Congress of Mathematicians was held in Zürich. Peano was a key participant, presenting a paper on mathematical logic. He also started to become increasingly occupied with Formulario to the detriment of his other work. In 1898 he presented a note to the Academy about binary numeration and its ability to be used to represent the sounds of languages. He also became so frustrated with publishing delays (due to his demand that formulae be printed on one line) that he purchased a printing press. Paris was the venue for the Second International Congress of Mathematicians in 1900. The conference was preceded by the First International Conference of Philosophy where Peano was a member of the patronage committee. He presented a paper which posed the question of correctly formed definitions in mathematics, i.e. "how do you define a definition?". This became one of Peano's main philosophical interests for the rest of his life. At the conference Peano met Bertrand Russell and gave him a copy of Formulario. Russell was so struck by Peano's innovative logical symbols that he left the conference and returned home to study Peano's text. Peano's followers presented papers (using Peano's teachings) at the mathematics conference, but Peano did not. A resolution calling for the formation of an "international auxiliary language" to facilitate the spread of mathematical (and commercial) ideas, was proposed; Peano fully supported it. By 1901, Peano was at the peak of his mathematical career. He had made advances in the areas of analysis, foundations and logic, made many contributions to the teaching of calculus and also contributed to the fields of differential equations and vector analysis. Peano played a key role in the axiomatization of mathematics and was a leading pioneer in the development of mathematical logic. Peano had by this stage become heavily involved with the Formulario project and his teaching began to suffer. In fact, he became so determined to teach his new mathematical symbols that the calculus in his course was neglected. As a result he was dismissed from the Royal Military Academy but retained his post at Turin University. In 1903 Peano announced his work on an international auxiliary language called Latino sine flexione ("Latin without flexions," later called Interlingua, but which should not be confused with the later Interlingua of the IALA). This was an important project for him (along with finding contributors for 'Formulario'). The idea was to use Latin vocabulary, since this was widely known, but simplify the grammar as much as possible and remove all irregular and anomalous forms to make it easier to learn. In one speech, he started speaking in Latin and, as he described each simplification, introduced it into his speech so that by the end he was talking in his new language. The year 1908 was big for Peano. The fifth and final edition of the Formulario project, titled Formulario Mathematico, was published. It contained 4200 formulae and theorems, all completely stated and most of them proved. The book received little attention since much of the content was dated by this time. However, it remains a significant contribution to mathematical literature. The comments and examples were written in Latino sine flexione. Also in 1908, Peano took over the chair of higher analysis at Turin (this appointment was to last for only two years). He was elected the director of Academia pro Interlingua. Having previously created Idiom Neutral, the Academy effectively chose to abandon it in favor of Peano's Latino sine flexione. After his mother died in 1910, Peano divided his time between teaching, working on texts aimed for secondary schooling including a dictionary of mathematics, and developing and promoting his and other auxiliary languages, becoming a revered member of the international auxiliary language movement. He used his membership of the Accademia dei Lincei to present papers written by friends and colleagues who were not members (the Accademia recorded and published all presented papers given in sessions). In 1925 Peano switched Chairs unofficially from Infinitesimal Calculus to Complementary Mathematics, a field which better suited his current style of mathematics. This move became official in 1931. Giuseppe Peano continued teaching at Turin University until the day before he died, when he suffered a fatal heart attack. Milestones and honors received 1881: Published first paper. 1884: Calcolo Differenziale e Principii di Calcolo Integrale. 1887: Applicazioni Geometriche del Calcolo Infinitesimale. 1889: Appointed Professor First Class at the Royal Military Academy. 1890: Appointed Extraordinary Professor of infinitesimal calculus at the University of Turin. 1891: Made a member of the Academy of Science, Torino. 1893: Lezioni di Analisi Infinitesimale, 2 vols. 1895: Promoted to Ordinary Professor. 1901: Made Knight of the Order of Saints Maurizio and Lazzaro. 1903: Announces Latino sine flexione. 1905: Made Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy. Elected a corresponding member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome, the highest Italian honour for scientists. 1908: Fifth and final edition of the Formulario mathematico. 1917: Made an Officer of the Crown of Italy. 1921: Promoted to Commendatore of the Crown of Italy. Bibliography Peano's writings in English translation 1889. "The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method" in Jean van Heijenoort, 1967. A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931. Harvard Univ. Press: 83-97. 1973. Selected works of Giuseppe Peano. Kennedy, Hubert C., ed. and transl. With a biographical sketch and bibliography. London: Allen & Unwin. Secondary literature Gillies, Douglas A., 1982. Frege, Dedekind, and Peano on the foundations of arithmetic. Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum. Ivor Grattan-Guinness, 2000. The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940. Princeton University Press. Kennedy, Hubert C., 1980. Peano: Life and Works of Giuseppe Peano. Reidel. Biography with complete bibliography (p. 195-209). External links Collection of articles on life and mathematics of Peano (1960s to 1980s). | Giuseppe_Peano |@lemmatized giuseppe:4 peano:34 august:1 april:1 italian:2 mathematician:3 whose:1 work:7 exceptional:1 philosophical:2 value:1 author:1 book:4 paper:7 founder:1 mathematical:12 logic:6 set:2 theory:1 contribute:2 much:3 notation:2 standard:2 axiomatization:3 natural:1 number:1 name:1 honor:2 part:1 effort:1 make:8 key:3 contribution:3 modern:2 rigorous:1 systematic:1 treatment:1 method:2 induction:1 spend:1 career:2 teach:5 mathematics:9 university:8 turin:8 biography:2 bear:1 raise:1 farm:1 spinetta:1 hamlet:1 near:1 cuneo:1 piedmont:1 italy:4 enrol:1 graduate:1 high:3 honour:2 employ:1 assist:1 first:9 enrico:1 ovidio:1 angelo:1 genocchi:3 chair:3 infinitesimal:4 calculus:7 due:2 poor:1 health:1 take:2 teaching:4 course:2 within:1 year:6 major:1 textbook:1 publish:5 credit:1 three:1 later:2 deal:1 symbol:3 union:1 intersection:1 appear:2 time:3 marry:1 carola:1 crosio:2 daughter:1 base:1 painter:1 luigi:1 know:4 paint:1 refugium:1 peccatorum:1 madonna:1 begin:2 concurrently:1 royal:3 military:3 academy:6 promote:4 professor:4 class:2 next:1 also:5 grant:1 full:1 professorship:1 famous:1 space:1 filling:1 curve:2 counterexample:1 use:6 show:1 continuous:1 cannot:1 always:1 enclose:1 arbitrarily:1 small:1 region:1 early:1 example:2 come:1 fractal:1 following:1 start:3 formulario:8 project:4 encyclopedia:1 contain:2 formula:2 theorem:2 science:2 invent:1 international:6 congress:2 hold:1 zürich:1 participant:1 present:6 become:7 increasingly:1 occupied:1 detriment:1 note:1 binary:1 numeration:1 ability:1 represent:1 sound:1 language:6 frustrated:1 publishing:1 delay:1 demand:1 formulae:1 print:1 one:3 line:1 purchase:1 printing:1 press:3 paris:1 venue:1 second:1 conference:5 precede:1 philosophy:1 member:5 patronage:1 committee:1 pose:1 question:1 correctly:1 form:2 definition:2 e:2 define:1 main:1 interest:1 rest:1 life:3 meet:1 bertrand:1 russell:2 give:2 copy:1 struck:1 innovative:1 logical:1 leave:1 return:1 home:1 study:1 text:2 follower:1 resolution:1 call:3 formation:1 auxiliary:4 facilitate:1 spread:1 commercial:1 idea:2 propose:1 fully:1 support:1 peak:1 advance:1 area:1 analysis:3 foundation:2 many:1 field:2 differential:1 equation:1 vector:1 play:1 role:1 lead:1 pioneer:1 development:1 stage:1 heavily:1 involve:1 suffer:2 fact:1 determine:1 new:3 neglect:1 result:1 dismiss:1 retain:1 post:1 announce:1 latino:4 sine:4 flexione:4 latin:3 without:1 flexion:1 interlingua:3 confuse:1 late:1 iala:1 important:1 along:1 find:1 contributor:1 vocabulary:1 since:2 widely:1 simplify:1 grammar:1 possible:1 remove:1 irregular:1 anomalous:1 easy:1 learn:1 speech:2 speak:1 describe:1 simplification:1 introduce:1 end:1 talk:1 big:1 fifth:2 final:2 edition:2 title:1 mathematico:2 completely:1 state:1 prove:1 receive:2 little:1 attention:1 content:1 date:1 however:1 remain:1 significant:1 literature:2 comment:1 write:2 appointment:1 last:1 two:1 elect:2 director:1 academia:1 pro:1 previously:1 create:1 idiom:1 neutral:1 effectively:1 choose:1 abandon:1 favor:1 mother:1 die:2 divide:1 aim:1 secondary:2 school:1 include:1 dictionary:1 develop:1 revered:1 movement:1 membership:1 accademia:3 dei:2 lincei:2 friend:1 colleague:1 record:1 presented:1 session:1 switch:1 unofficially:1 complementary:1 well:1 suit:1 current:1 style:1 move:1 official:1 continue:1 day:1 fatal:1 heart:1 attack:1 milestone:1 calcolo:3 differenziale:1 principii:1 di:2 integrale:1 applicazioni:1 geometriche:1 del:1 infinitesimale:2 appoint:2 extraordinary:1 torino:1 lezioni:1 analisi:1 vols:1 ordinary:1 knight:2 order:2 saint:1 maurizio:1 lazzaro:1 announces:1 crown:3 corresponding:1 rome:1 scientist:1 officer:1 commendatore:1 bibliography:3 writing:1 english:1 translation:1 principle:1 arithmetic:2 jean:1 van:2 heijenoort:1 source:1 harvard:1 univ:1 select:1 kennedy:2 hubert:2 c:2 ed:1 transl:1 biographical:1 sketch:1 london:1 allen:1 unwin:1 gillie:1 douglas:1 frege:1 dedekind:1 assen:1 netherlands:1 gorcum:1 ivor:1 grattan:1 guinness:1 search:1 root:1 princeton:1 reidel:1 complete:1 p:1 external:1 link:1 collection:1 article:1 |@bigram giuseppe_peano:4 mathematical_induction:1 infinitesimal_calculus:4 bertrand_russell:1 differential_equation:1 latino_sine:4 sine_flexione:4 accademia_dei:2 dei_lincei:2 van_heijenoort:1 harvard_univ:1 univ_press:1 biographical_sketch:1 allen_unwin:1 grattan_guinness:1 external_link:1 |
5,942 | Cuboctahedron | In geometry, a cuboctahedron is a polyhedron with eight triangular faces and six square faces. A cuboctahedron has 12 identical vertices, with two triangles and two squares meeting at each, and 24 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a square. As such it is a quasiregular polyhedron, i.e. an Archimedean solid, being vertex-transitive and edge-transitive. Its dual polyhedron is the rhombic dodecahedron. __TOC__ Other Names Heptaparallelohedron (Buckminster Fuller) http://dymaxion.org/dymaxion.shtml Fuller applied the name "Dymaxion" http://dymaxion.org/dymaxion.shtml and Vector Equilibrium http://www.angelfire.com/mt/marksomers/92.html to this shape, used in an early version of the Dymaxion map. Rectified cube or rectified octahedron (Norman Johnson) Also cantellated tetrahedron by a lower symmetry. Triangular gyrobicupola (analog to Triangular orthobicupola) Area and volume The area A and the volume V of the cuboctahedron of edge length a are: Cartesian coordinates The Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a cuboctahedron (of edge length √2) centered at the origin are: (±1,±1,0) (±1,0,±1) (0,±1,±1) Geometric relations A cuboctahedron can be obtained by taking an appropriate cross section of a four-dimensional cross-polytope. A cuboctahedron has octahedral symmetry. Its first stellation is the compound of a cube and its dual octahedron, with the vertices of the cuboctahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either. The cuboctahedron is a rectified cube and also a rectified octahedron. It is also a cantellated tetrahedron. With this construction it is given the Wythoff symbol: 3 3 | 2. A skew cantellation of the tetrahedron produces a solid with faces parallel to those of the cuboctahedron, namely eight triangles of two sizes, and six rectangles. While its edges are unequal, this solid remains vertex-uniform: the solid has the full tetrahedral symmetry group and its vertices are equivalent under that group. The edges of a cuboctahedron form four regular hexagons. If the cuboctahedron is cut in the plane of one of these hexagons, each half is a triangular cupola, one of the Johnson solids; the cuboctahedron itself thus can also be called a triangular gyrobicupola, the simplest of a series (other than the gyrobifastigium or "digonal gyrobicupola"). If the halves are put back together with a twist, so that triangles meet triangles and squares meet squares, the result is another Johnson solid, the triangular orthobicupola. Both triangular bicupolae are important in sphere packing. The distance from the solid's centre to its vertices is equal to its edge length. Each central sphere can have up to twelve neighbors, and in a face-centered cubic lattice these take the positions of a cuboctahedron's vertices. In a hexagonal close-packed lattice they correspond to the corners of the triangular orthobicupola. In both cases the central sphere takes the position of the solid's centre. Cuboctahedra appear as cells in three of the convex uniform honeycombs and in nine of the convex uniform polychora. The volume of the cuboctahedron is 5/6 of that of the enclosing cube and 5/8 of that of the enclosing octahedron. Related polyhedra CubeTruncated cubecuboctahedronTruncated octahedronOctahedron Related polytopes The cuboctahedron can be decomposed into a regular octahedron and eight irregular but equal octahedra in the shape of the convex hull of a cube with two opposite vertices removed. This decomposition of the cuboctahedron corresponds with the cell-first parallel projection of the 24-cell into 3 dimensions. Under this projection, the cuboctahedron forms the projection envelope, which can be decomposed into 6 square faces, a regular octahedron, and 8 irregular octahedra. These elements correspond with the images of 6 of the octahedral cells in the 24-cell, the nearest and farthest cells from the 4D viewpoint, and the remaining 8 pairs of cells, respectively. Cultural occurrences In the Star Trek episode By Any Other Name, crew members were changed into cuboctahedra. The "Geo Twister" fidget toy is a flexible cuboctahedron. See also Cube Icosidodecahedron Octahedron Rhombicuboctahedron Truncated cuboctahedron References (Section 3-9) External links The Uniform Polyhedra Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra | Cuboctahedron |@lemmatized geometry:1 cuboctahedron:19 polyhedron:6 eight:3 triangular:8 face:5 six:2 square:6 identical:2 vertex:9 two:4 triangle:5 meet:3 edge:8 separate:1 quasiregular:1 e:1 archimedean:1 solid:8 transitive:2 dual:2 rhombic:1 dodecahedron:1 name:3 heptaparallelohedron:1 buckminster:1 fuller:2 http:3 dymaxion:6 org:2 shtml:2 apply:1 vector:1 equilibrium:1 www:1 angelfire:1 com:1 mt:1 marksomers:1 html:1 shape:2 use:1 early:1 version:1 map:1 rectify:2 cube:6 octahedron:9 norman:1 johnson:3 also:5 cantellated:2 tetrahedron:3 low:1 symmetry:3 gyrobicupola:3 analog:1 orthobicupola:3 area:2 volume:3 v:1 length:3 cartesian:2 coordinate:2 center:2 origin:1 geometric:1 relation:1 obtain:1 take:3 appropriate:1 cross:2 section:2 four:2 dimensional:1 polytope:1 octahedral:2 first:2 stellation:1 compound:1 locate:1 midpoint:1 either:1 rectified:2 construction:1 give:1 wythoff:1 symbol:1 skew:1 cantellation:1 produce:1 parallel:2 namely:1 size:1 rectangle:1 unequal:1 remain:2 uniform:4 full:1 tetrahedral:1 group:2 equivalent:1 form:2 regular:3 hexagon:2 cut:1 plane:1 one:2 half:2 cupola:1 thus:1 call:1 simplest:1 series:1 gyrobifastigium:1 digonal:1 put:1 back:1 together:1 twist:1 result:1 another:1 bicupolae:1 important:1 sphere:3 packing:1 distance:1 centre:2 equal:2 central:2 twelve:1 neighbor:1 cubic:1 lattice:2 position:2 hexagonal:1 close:1 pack:1 correspond:3 corner:1 case:1 cuboctahedra:2 appear:1 cell:7 three:1 convex:3 honeycomb:1 nine:1 polychora:1 enclose:2 relate:2 cubetruncated:1 cubecuboctahedrontruncated:1 octahedronoctahedron:1 polytopes:1 decompose:2 irregular:2 hull:1 opposite:1 remove:1 decomposition:1 projection:3 dimension:1 envelope:1 element:1 image:1 near:1 farthest:1 viewpoint:1 pair:1 respectively:1 cultural:1 occurrence:1 star:1 trek:1 episode:1 crew:1 member:1 change:1 geo:1 twister:1 fidget:1 toy:1 flexible:1 see:1 icosidodecahedron:1 rhombicuboctahedron:1 truncate:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 virtual:1 reality:1 polyhedra:1 encyclopedia:1 |@bigram archimedean_solid:1 vertex_transitive:1 dual_polyhedron:1 rhombic_dodecahedron:1 buckminster_fuller:1 http_www:1 dymaxion_map:1 triangular_orthobicupola:3 cartesian_coordinate:2 octahedral_symmetry:1 regular_octahedron:2 convex_hull:1 star_trek:1 external_link:1 uniform_polyhedron:1 reality_polyhedra:1 polyhedra_encyclopedia:1 |
5,943 | Accrington | Accrington is a town in Lancashire, within the borough of Hyndburn. It lies about east of Blackburn, north of Manchester city centre and north of Greater Manchester, and is situated on the mostly culverted River Hyndburn. The town has a population of 35,203 according to the 2001 census and the urban area has a population of over 70,000. The town is a former centre of the cotton and textile machinery industries. The town is famed for manufacturing the hardest and densest building bricks in the world, "The Accrington NORI" (iron), which were used in the construction of the Empire State Building and for the foundations of Blackpool Tower; famous for its football team and for having Europe's largest collection of Tiffany Glass. Accrington is commonly abbreviated by locals to "Accy". (said Acky).Nish back for Accy History There are two derivations for the name of Accrington. Both agree that "ton" means "a town or enclosure of", from Anglo-Saxon; however one derivation states that ring means "the people of" and "accr" is a distortion of a family called alker. Nevertheless there is little evidence of this as it would have been the chief or land owner in the area. The alternative derivation states that "accring" is derived from "acorn ringed" which is plausible due to the numerous oak trees which formerly encircled the town but were lost during the industrial revolution. This is still reflected in the name of the district's largest park, Oak Hill Park. The King's Highway which passes above the town was at one time used by the kings and queens of England when they used the area for hunting when it was one of the four forests of the hundred of Blackburnshire. For many decades the textile industry was the central activity of the town. Mills and dye works provided work for the inhabitants; but often in very difficult conditions. There was regular conflict with employers, most famously in the 1842 'plug riots' where a general strike spread from town to town. The workers unplugged the boilers needed for the operation of the machinery as thousands of strikers walked over the hills from one town to another to persuade people to join the strike. The strike joined up with the Chartist movement but eventually proved unsuccessful in its aims. Accrington Pals One well-known association the town has is with the 'Accrington Pals', the nickname given to the smallest home town battalion of volunteers formed to fight in the first world war. The Pals battalions were a peculiarity of the 1914-18 war: Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War, believed that it would help recruitment if friends and work-mates from the same town were able to join up and fight together. Strictly speaking, the 'Accrington Pals' battalion is properly known as the '11th East Lancashire Regiment': the nickname is a little misleading, since of the four 250-strong companies that made up the original battalion only one was actually composed of men from Accrington. The rest volunteered from other east Lancashire towns such as Burnley, Blackburn and Chorley. The Pals' first day of action, Saturday July 1, 1916, took place in Serre in the north of France. It was part of the 'Big Push' (later known as the Battle of the Somme) that was intended to force the German Army into a retreat from the Western Front, a line they had held since late 1914. The German defences in Serre were supposed to have been obliterated by sustained, heavy, British shelling during the preceding week; however, as the battalion advanced it met with fierce resistance. 235 men were killed and a further 350 wounded — more than half of the battalion — within half an hour. Similarly desperate losses were suffered elsewhere on the front, in a disastrous day for the British Army. Later in the year, the East Lancashire Regiment was rebuilt with new volunteers — in all, 865 Accrington men were killed during World War I. All of these names are recorded on a war memorial, an imposing white stone cenotaph, which stands in Oak Hill Park in the south of the town. The cenotaph also lists the names of 173 local fatalities from World War II. After the Great War and until 1986, Accrington Corporation buses were painted in the regimental colours of red and blue with gold lining. The mudguards were painted black as a sign of mourning. Geography The Conurbation The 2001 census gave the population of Accrington town as 35 203. The figure for the urban area was 71,224, up 1.1% from 70,442 in 1991. This total includes Accrington, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Oswaldtwistle. For comparison purposes that is approximately the same size as Aylesbury, Carlisle, Guildford or Scunthorpe urban areas. The borough as a whole has a population of 81 496. This includes Accrington Urban Area and other outlying towns and villages such as; Altham, Aspden, Baxenden, part of Belthorn, Huncoat, Rishton and Stanhill. The River Hyndburn and its tributaries flow through the area and the borough and constituency are named after it. Transport The town has strong local travel links as Accrington railway station lies on the East Lancashire Line serving trains running locally and trains running from Blackpool to York. There are also buses to Manchester every thirty minutes as well as more frequent services to other towns in east Lancashire. The main road running through the town centre is the A680 running from Rochdale to Whalley. The town is served by junction seven of the M65 and is linked from the A680 and the A56 dual carriageway which briefly merge; linking to the M66 motorway heading towards Manchester. The closest airports are Manchester Airport at , Blackpool Airport at and Leeds Bradford Airport at . There was once a rail link south to Manchester via Haslingden and Bury, but this was closed in the 1960s as part of cuts following the Beeching Report. The trackbed from Accrington to Baxenden is now an attractive linear treelined cycleway/footpath. Social Governance Accrington is represented in parliament] as a part of the constituency of Hyndburn. Note that the constituency boundaries do not align exactly with those of the district of the same name. Accrington was first represented nationally after the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 after the 1885 general election by Accrington (UK Parliament constituency). This seat was abolished in the 1983 general election and replaced with the present constituency of Hyndburn (UK Parliament constituency). Hyndburn consists of 16 wards of 35 councillors. Due to its size Accrington is represented by a number of wards in the Borough of Hyndburn. The town largely consists of the Milnshaw, Peel, Central, Barnfield and Spring Hill wards, although some parts of those wards are in other towns in the borough. Accrington became incorporated as a municipal borough in 1878. Under the Local Government Act 1972, since 1974, the town has formed part of the larger Borough of Hyndburn including the former Urban Districts of Oswaldtwistle, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Rishton. Accrington Library Education The schools of Accrington include: Accrington St Christopher's C of E High, a Church of England secondary school which holds specialist Technology College status. Accrington Academy, a specialist Sports College Accrington and Rossendale College, a further education college Mount Carmel Roman Catholic High School, a secondary school serving the Catholic community of Hyndburn and those who support its ethos. The school holds specialist Science College status. Rhyddings Business and Enterprise High School, in nearby Oswaldtwistle, also serves the area. Accrington Acorn PHCC under construction Health The local hospital is Accrington Victoria Hospital however, as it only deals with minor issues, A&E is provided by the Royal Blackburn Hospital. Other services are provided at the Accrington Pals Primary Health Care Centre and the Accrington Acorn Primary Health Care Centre. Some wards in Accrington rank amongst the most deprived in terms of healthcare and life expectancy in the country. According to the 1991 census 28% of houses in the borough were considered 'unfit', chiefly those in Accrington and Church. A current urban regeneration scheme, Elevate East Lancashire, is attempting to remedy these problems. Media The chief publications in the area are the Accrington Observer, part of MEN media, and the Lancashire Telegraph. Sports The town's other famous association is with Accrington Stanley F.C. Accrington Stanley F.C. , the butt of many (largely affectionate) jokes. The club's name is often invoked as a symbol of British sport's legion of plucky but hopeless causes (much like British ski-jumping's 'heroic failure' Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards). The club entered the Football League in 1921 with the formation of the old Third Division (North); after haunting the lower reaches of English football for forty years, they eventually resigned from the League in 1962, due to financial problems, and folded in 1965. The club was reformed for three years later and then worked their way through the 'non-league' divisions to reach the Nationwide Conference in 2003 and in the 2005-06 season Accrington Stanley, after winning against Woking with 3 matches to spare, secured a place back in the Football League and the town celebrated with a small parade and honours places on senior executives of the team. Coincidentally, one of the teams relegated - and thus being replaced by Stanley - were Oxford United F.C., who were voted into the Football League to replace the previous Accrington Stanley. The football stadium is called the Fraser Eagle Stadium, with the Fraser Eagle coach & bus company, who are also sponsors of Burnley F.C., sponsoring the team. Accrington is the smallest town in England and Wales with a Football League club. Towns Represented in League Two 2007-8 Accrington Stanley Football Club has officially had its own pub in the town since July 2007 – The Crown. The club was ridiculed during the 1980s with a milk advert on television, in which a young boy boasted that Ian Rush had told him that if he didn't drink milk, he'd grow up only good enough to play for Accrington Stanley. An earlier club, Accrington F.C., were one of the twelve founder members of the Football League in 1888. However, their time in league football was even less successful and considerably briefer than that of Accrington Stanley: they dropped out of the league in 1893 and folded shortly afterwards due to financial problems. The town of Accrington thus has the unique 'distinction' of having lost two separate clubs from league football, over the years. Tiffany Glass The Haworth Art Gallery Haworth Art Gallery in Accrington contains an outstanding collection of Tiffany glassware presented to the town by Joseph Briggs, an Accrington man who had joined Tiffany’s in the late 19th century and eventually became art director and assistant manager. The Art Nouveau vases are considered to be the most important such group in Europe. One of the most striking items is a glass mosaic exhibition piece, designed by Briggs himself and entitled "Sulphur Crested Cockatoos". Notable residents Jon Anderson, singer with rock band Yes David "Bumble" Lloyd, a former cricketer, now a pundit for Sky Sports. Graeme Fowler, Foxy Fowler, (cricketer), former England batsman, cricket coach and occasional pundit on BBC Radio's Test Match Special Jeanette Winterson, an author whose Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit is an account of her childhood in the town. Harrison Birtwistle (composer). John Virtue, artist Ron Hill, long-distance and marathon runner, born 25th of September, 1938, won Commonwealth Marathon Gold in 1970. John Rex Whinfield, chemist, inventor of Terylene (polyester), the first completely synthetic fibre invented in UK. Julie Hesmondhalgh, an actress who plays Hayley Cropper in the TV Soap Coronation Street. Yvette Livesey, ex beauty-queen and former squeeze of the late Tony Wilson The footballer Mike Duxbury was born in the town and is best remembered for being part of the Manchester United side of the 1980s which won two FA Cups and regularly finished among the top sides in the league placings. Andy Hargreaves, Thomas More Brennan Chair in Education at the Lynch School of Education at Boston College. Famous ex-residents include darts player Ronnie Baxter, and former Lancashire all rounder Bob Ratcliffe Mystic Meg was born in the town as Margaret Anne Lake on 27 July 1942. Tony Mills (born 1950), ex-body building champion and renowned bare fisted boxer. He died in 2007. Netherwood Hughes, World War I veteran who died in 2009 at age 108. Diana Vickers, X Factor finalist of 2008. See also Howard & Bullough References Further reading William Turner Pals: the 11th (Service) Battalion (Accrington), East Lancashire Regiment ISBN 0-9507892-4- External links Hyndburn Borough Council Accrington Observer Local newspaper's website Accrington Web Accrington forum and town information The Bee The local radio station It's HYNDBURN Local news and information portal Accrington Market Accrington Victorian Market Hall and Out Door Market Accrington Moorhead Sports College A 3D map of Accrington You can see the town of Accrington and parking | Accrington |@lemmatized accrington:53 town:37 lancashire:10 within:2 borough:9 hyndburn:11 lie:2 east:8 blackburn:3 north:4 manchester:7 city:1 centre:5 great:4 situate:1 mostly:1 culverted:1 river:2 population:4 accord:2 census:3 urban:6 area:9 former:6 cotton:1 textile:2 machinery:2 industry:2 famed:1 manufacture:1 hard:1 dense:1 building:3 brick:1 world:5 nori:1 iron:1 use:3 construction:2 empire:1 state:4 foundation:1 blackpool:3 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5,944 | AGM-88_HARM | The AGM-88 High-speed Anti-Radiation Missile (HARM) is a tactical, air-to-surface missile designed to home in on electronic transmissions coming from surface-to-air radar systems. It was originally developed by Texas Instruments (TI) as a replacement for the AGM-45 Shrike and AGM-78 Standard ARM system. Production was later taken over by Raytheon Corporation (RAYCO) when they purchased TI's defense business. Operation The AGM-88 can detect, attack and destroy a radar antenna or transmitter with minimal aircrew input. The proportional guidance system that homes in on enemy radar emissions has a fixed antenna and seeker head in the missile's nose. A smokeless, solid-propellant, dual-thrust rocket motor propels the missile at speeds over Mach 2. HARM, a Navy-led program, was initially integrated onto the A-6E, A-7 and F/A-18 and later onto the EA-6B. RDT&E for use on the F-14 was begun, but not completed. The Air Force introduced HARM on the F-4G Wild Weasel and later on specialized F-16's equipped with the HARM Targeting System (HTS). Deployment The HARM missile was approved for full production in March 1983 and deployed in late 1985 with VA-72 and VA-46 aboard the aircraft carrier USS America. It was soon used in combat; in March 1986 against a Libyan SA-5 site in the Gulf of Sidra, and then Operation Eldorado Canyon in April. HARM was used extensively by the United States Navy and the United States Air Force for Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War of 1991. "Magnum" is spoken over the radio to announce the launch of an AGM-88. OPERATIONAL BREVITY WORDS AND TERMINOLOGY During the Gulf War, if an aircraft was illuminated by enemy radar a bogus "Magnum" call on the radio was often enough to convince the operators to power down. The Transformation of American Air Power: A RAND Research Study By Benjamin S. Lambeth Variants AGM-88E. The newest upgrade is the AGM-88E Advanced Anti Radiation Guided Missile (AARGM) built by Alliant Techsystems, which is a joint venture by the Italian Ministry of Defense and the US Department of Defense. The AARGM will feature the latest software, enhanced capabilities intended to counter radar shutdown, passive radar and active millimeter wave seekers. It will be released in November 2010. Gulf War friendly fire incident During the Gulf War, the HARM was involved in a friendly fire incident when the pilot of an F-4G Wild Weasel escorting a B-52 bomber mistook the latter's tail gun radar for an Iraqi AAA site. (This was after the tail gunner of the B-52 had targeted the F-4G, mistaking it for an Iraqi MiG). The pilot launched the missile and then saw that the target was the B-52, which was hit. It survived with shrapnel damage to the tail. The B-52 was subsequently renamed "In HARM’s Way". The B-52 Stratofortress : steeljawscribe blog See also Anti-radiation missile AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon List of missiles References External links AGM-88 data sheet (PDF format) from Raytheon Information on AGM-88 HARM from FAS AGM-88 HARM information by Globalsecurity.org AGM-88@Designation-Systems AGM-88 HARM by Carlo Kopp | AGM-88_HARM |@lemmatized agm:13 high:1 speed:2 anti:3 radiation:3 missile:9 harm:11 tactical:1 air:5 surface:2 design:1 home:2 electronic:1 transmission:1 come:1 radar:7 system:5 originally:1 develop:1 texas:1 instrument:1 ti:2 replacement:1 shrike:1 standard:1 arm:1 production:2 later:3 take:1 raytheon:2 corporation:1 rayco:1 purchase:1 defense:3 business:1 operation:3 detect:1 attack:1 destroy:1 antenna:2 transmitter:1 minimal:1 aircrew:1 input:1 proportional:1 guidance:1 enemy:2 emission:1 fix:1 seeker:2 head:1 nose:1 smokeless:1 solid:1 propellant:1 dual:1 thrust:1 rocket:1 motor:1 propels:1 mach:1 navy:2 lead:1 program:1 initially:1 integrate:1 onto:2 f:6 ea:1 rdt:1 e:1 use:3 begin:1 complete:1 force:2 introduce:1 wild:2 weasel:2 specialize:1 equip:1 target:3 hts:1 deployment:1 approve:1 full:1 march:2 deploy:1 late:2 va:2 aboard:1 aircraft:2 carrier:1 uss:1 america:1 soon:1 combat:1 libyan:1 sa:1 site:2 gulf:5 sidra:1 eldorado:1 canyon:1 april:1 extensively:1 united:2 state:2 desert:1 storm:1 war:4 magnum:2 speak:1 radio:2 announce:1 launch:2 operational:1 brevity:1 word:1 terminology:1 illuminate:1 bogus:1 call:1 often:1 enough:1 convince:1 operator:1 power:2 transformation:1 american:1 rand:1 research:1 study:1 benjamin:1 lambeth:1 variant:1 new:1 upgrade:1 advanced:1 guide:1 aargm:2 build:1 alliant:1 techsystems:1 joint:2 venture:1 italian:1 ministry:1 u:1 department:1 feature:1 software:1 enhance:1 capability:1 intend:1 counter:1 shutdown:1 passive:1 active:1 millimeter:1 wave:1 release:1 november:1 friendly:2 fire:2 incident:2 involve:1 pilot:2 escort:1 b:5 bomber:1 mistake:2 latter:1 tail:3 gun:1 iraqi:2 aaa:1 gunner:1 mig:1 saw:1 hit:1 survive:1 shrapnel:1 damage:1 subsequently:1 rename:1 way:1 stratofortress:1 steeljawscribe:1 blog:1 see:1 also:1 standoff:1 weapon:1 list:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 data:1 sheet:1 pdf:1 format:1 information:2 fas:1 globalsecurity:1 org:1 designation:1 carlo:1 kopp:1 |@bigram radar_antenna:1 solid_propellant:1 wild_weasel:2 gulf_sidra:1 joint_venture:1 tail_gunner:1 iraqi_mig:1 b_stratofortress:1 missile_agm:1 joint_standoff:1 standoff_weapon:1 external_link:1 agm_harm:3 globalsecurity_org:1 |
5,945 | Benjamin_D._Santer | Dr. Benjamin D. Santer is a climate researcher at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. He specializes mainly in statistical analysis of climate data sets, and detection/attribution of climate change forcings. He was the convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group I Report, which addressed the global warming issue. Honors In 1998 Santer was awarded a MacArthur Foundation "genius" grant of $270,000 for research supporting the finding that human activity contributes to global warming. He has also received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award and a Distinguished Scientist Fellowship from the U.S. Department of Energy and the Norbert Gerbier/MUMM award from the World Meteorological Organization. He ranks #12 amongst climate scientists in a 2002 assessment of most influential scientists . Controversy The Science & Environmental Policy Project in 1996 accused Santer of altering Chapter 8 of the 1995 IPCC report on the science of climate change, deleting phrases that suggested scientific doubts about human influences on climate to make the report conform to the IPCC Summary for Policymakers. The charge was repeated by Frederick Seitz in a June 12, 1996 editorial-page piece "A Major Deception on 'Global Warming'" in the Wall Street Journal. Seitz stated that the alterations made to Chapter 8, after a November 1995 IPCC meeting held in Madrid were in violation of IPCC rules of procedure, and that their effect was to "deceive policy makers and the public into believing that the scientific evidence shows human activities are causing global warming." Similar claims were made by the Global Climate Coalition (GCC), a consortium of industry interests. Santer and 40 other scientists responded to the Wall Street Journal that all IPCC procedural rules were followed, and that IPCC procedures required changes to the draft in response to comments from governments, individual scientists, and non-governmental organizations. They stated that the pre- and post-Madrid versions of Chapter 8 were equally cautious in their statements; that roughly 20% of Chapter 8 is devoted to the discussion of uncertainties in estimates of natural climate variability and the expected "signal" due to human activities; and that both versions of the chapter reached the same conclusion: "Taken together, these results point towards a human influence on climate." References Santer, BD, Wigley, TML, Barnett TP, and Anyamba, E (1995). Detection of climate change and attribution of causes, in Houghton, JT et al.. Climate Change 1995, Cambridge Univ. Press. External links The Many Travails of Ben Santer, Paul D. Thacker, Environmental Science & Technology 2002 Interview Communication between Santer and others about Global Warming National Energy Research Science Computer Center article on Santer | Benjamin_D._Santer |@lemmatized dr:1 benjamin:1 santer:8 climate:11 researcher:1 lawrence:2 livermore:1 national:2 laboratory:1 specialize:1 mainly:1 statistical:1 analysis:1 data:1 set:1 detection:2 attribution:2 change:5 forcings:1 convene:1 lead:1 author:1 chapter:6 ipcc:7 work:1 group:1 report:3 address:1 global:6 warming:3 issue:1 honor:1 award:3 macarthur:1 foundation:1 genius:1 grant:1 research:2 support:1 finding:1 human:5 activity:3 contribute:1 also:1 receive:1 ernest:1 orlando:1 distinguished:1 scientist:5 fellowship:1 u:1 department:1 energy:2 norbert:1 gerbier:1 mumm:1 world:1 meteorological:1 organization:2 rank:1 amongst:1 assessment:1 influential:1 controversy:1 science:4 environmental:2 policy:2 project:1 accuse:1 alter:1 delete:1 phrase:1 suggest:1 scientific:2 doubt:1 influence:2 make:3 conform:1 summary:1 policymakers:1 charge:1 repeat:1 frederick:1 seitz:2 june:1 editorial:1 page:1 piece:1 major:1 deception:1 warm:2 wall:2 street:2 journal:2 state:2 alteration:1 november:1 meet:1 hold:1 madrid:2 violation:1 rule:2 procedure:2 effect:1 deceive:1 maker:1 public:1 believe:1 evidence:1 show:1 cause:2 similar:1 claim:1 coalition:1 gcc:1 consortium:1 industry:1 interest:1 respond:1 procedural:1 follow:1 require:1 draft:1 response:1 comment:1 government:1 individual:1 non:1 governmental:1 pre:1 post:1 version:2 equally:1 cautious:1 statement:1 roughly:1 devote:1 discussion:1 uncertainty:1 estimate:1 natural:1 variability:1 expected:1 signal:1 due:1 reach:1 conclusion:1 take:1 together:1 result:1 point:1 towards:1 reference:1 bd:1 wigley:1 tml:1 barnett:1 tp:1 anyamba:1 e:1 houghton:1 jt:1 et:1 al:1 cambridge:1 univ:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 many:1 travail:1 ben:1 paul:1 thacker:1 technology:1 interview:1 communication:1 others:1 computer:1 center:1 article:1 |@bigram lawrence_livermore:1 livermore_national:1 detection_attribution:1 global_warming:3 summary_policymakers:1 et_al:1 cambridge_univ:1 univ_press:1 external_link:1 |
5,946 | Huey,_Dewey,_and_Louie | Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck are a trio of ducks who appear in animated cartoons and comic books published by the Walt Disney Company. Identical triplets, the three are Donald Duck's nephews. Huey, Dewey, and Louie were created by Ted Osborne and Al Taliaferro, and first appeared in a newspaper comic strip on October 17, 1937. Their first animated appearance was in the theatrical short Donald's Nephews, released April 15, 1938. The boys are V.I.P members of the Mickey Mouse Club. On a few occasions, there is a fourth nephew that appears, slipping through by a mistake of the artist. He has been named "Phooey Duck" by Disney comic editor Bob Foster. One short Egmont-licensed Disney comic explained Phooey's sporadic appearances as a freak incident of nature. Much Ado About Phooey - Indexed Mailing list entry from writer Lars Jensen, near bottom of entry Character background Huey, Dewey, and Louie are the sons of Donald's sister Della Duck; in Donald's Nephews, their mother is instead named Dumbella. In the original theatrical shorts, they were originally sent to visit Donald for only one day; in the comics, the three were sent to stay with Donald on a temporary basis, until their father came back from the hospital (the boys ended up sending him there after a practical joke of putting firecrackers under his chair). In both the comics and animated shorts, the boys' parents were never heard from or referred to again after these instances, with the boys ending up permanently living with Donald, in keeping with Disney's usual elimination of characters' parents. Examples include Donald Duck's close relationship with his uncle Scrooge, and Mickey Mouse caring for his nephews Morty and Ferdy. All four of them live in the fictional city of Duckburg, in the fictional state of Calisota. The boys are noted for having both identical appearances and personalities in most appearances, with the three sometimes shown as finishing each others' sentences as a running joke. In the theatrical shorts, Huey, Dewey, and Louie would often behave in a rambunctious manner, sometimes committing retaliation or revenge on their uncle Donald for something he did to them. In the comics, however, as developed by Al Taliaferro and Carl Barks, the boys usually are shown in a more well-behaved manner, usually helping their uncle Donald and great-uncle Scrooge McDuck in the adventure at hand. In the early Barks comics, the ducklings were still wild and unruly, but their character improved considerably due to their membership in the Junior Woodchucks and the good influence of their wise old great-grandmother Elvira Coot "Grandma" Duck. Colors of Huey, Dewey, and Louie's caps In early comic books, the caps of Huey, Dewey, and Louie were colored randomly; in some cases there have been yellow or orange capped nephews. The colors of Huey, Dewey, and Louie's caps were random depending on the whim of the comic book colorist. In one cartoon (Donald's Happy Birthday, 1949), all three nephews wore red. It slowly became established that Huey is dressed in red, Dewey in blue, and Louie in green. Disney's archivist Dave Smith, in "Disney A to Z," said, "Note that the brightest hue of the three is red (Huey), the color of water, dew, is blue (Dewey), and that leaves Louie, and leaves are green." Animation Huey, Dewey, and Louie appeared in a large number of theatrical shorts with Donald, starting with Donald's Nephews, released in 1938. From there on, they appeared alongside Donald in the following shorts: Good Scouts Donald's Golf Game Hockey Champ Sea Scouts Mr. Duck Steps Out Fire Chief The Nifty Nineties 'Truant Officer DonaldDonald's Snow Fight Home DefenseDonald Duck and the GorillaDonald's Off DayDonald's CrimeStraight ShootersSoup's OnDonald's Happy BirthdayLion AroundLucky NumberTrick or TreatDon's Fountain of YouthCanvas Back DuckSpare the RodDonald's DiaryThe LitterbugDonald Duck Presents DuckTales Mickey Mouse Works House of Mouse Quack Pack Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse Mickey's House of Villains Later Appearances DuckTales They later starred in the 1987 animated television series DuckTales, in which they appeared in adventures with their great-uncle, Scrooge McDuck (Donald having enlisted in the U.S. Navy). The boys' personalities in this series were mainly based on their comic book appearances versus the theatrical shorts. Minor Appearances Movies In the 1988 film Who Framed Roger Rabbit, Huey, Dewey, and Louie appear in a picture on a newspaper in Eddie Valiant's office. In 1990, the boys also made an appearance in the anti-drug TV special Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue. Huey, Dewey, and Louie as teenagers in Quack Pack. After DuckTales Huey, Dewey, and Louie also starred in the 1990s series Quack Pack, in which the three were portrayed as teenagers, and their names were given as Hubert, Deuteronomy and Louis Duck. In Quack Pack, the boys were given distinct personalities, with Huey serving as the group's leader, Dewey as a computer whiz, and Louie as enjoying sports. After Quack Pack, the boys were reverted to their original ages in future appearances, including 2000s series Mickey Mouse Works and then re-aged in House of Mouse. Voices Clarence Nash, Donald's voice actor, gave the voices to the boys in the cartoon shorts, making them just as unintelligible as Donald's. Huey, Dewey, and Louie were all voiced by Russi Taylor in DuckTales. In Quack Pack, they were voiced by Jeannie Elias, Pamela Segall, and Elizabeth Daily, respectively. Tony Anselmo voiced the characters in House of Mouse and Mickey Mouse Works, but Russi Taylor still voices the trio in other projects, such as the video games Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers and Mickey's Speedway USA, and the direct-to-video films Mickey's Once and Twice Upon a Christmas. Comics Within the comics, Huey, Dewey, and Louie often play a major role in most stories involving either their uncle Donald or great-uncle Scrooge McDuck, accompanying them on most of their adventures. Also seen in the comics is the boys' membership in the Boy Scouts of America-like organization, the Junior Woodchucks, including their use of the Junior Woodchucks Guidebook, a manual containing all manner of information on virtually every subject possible (however, there are some resources, such as the ancient libraries of Tralla La, that hold information not found in the guidebook). This excellent youth organization, which has twin goals of preserving knowledge and preserving the environment, was instrumental in transforming the three brothers from little hellions to upstanding young ducks. In Disney comic writer Don Rosa's (unofficial) continuity, Huey, Dewey, and Louie Duck were born around 1940 in Duckburg. True to his jocular style, Rosa occasionally makes subtle references to the untold mystery of the three boys' life: What became of their parents? In his epic comic series, Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck, Rosa pictures how Scrooge first met Donald and his nephews, saying: "I'm not used to relatives, either! The few I had seem to have... disappeared!" Huey, Dewey, and Louie answer: "We know how that feels, Unca Scrooge!" In Some Heir Over the Rainbow, Huey, Dewey, and Louie, along with Donald Duck and Gladstone Gander, are tested by Scrooge McDuck, who wants to pick a heir to his fortune. Using the legend of gold at the end of rainbow, Scrooge secretly gives US$ 3,000 (One thousand to Huey, Dewey, and Louie, another for Gladstone, and the last one for Donald). Donald uses his money for a down payment of a new car, now being $1,000 in debt. Gladstone, considering himself too lucky to need the money this soon, hides the money for when and if he needs it, causing Scrooge to consider him a better option than Donald. Huey, Dewey, and Louie lend their money to a man who claims to need the money to search for a treasure. Initially thinking they were tricked out of the money, Scrooge actually considers leaving his fortune to Gladstone, even though he sees that as "an awful injustice to the world", but the man actually finds the treasure and pays the kids back. Scrooge makes Huey, Dewey, and Louie his heirs. Although this is disregarded in a number of later comics, it seems to be the most solidly canon indication of Scrooge's plans. Origin of names According to interviews by Taliaferro, Huey, Dewey, and Louie were originally named after two political figures and an animator of the time: Huey was named after Huey Long (1893-1935) of Louisiana. Dewey was named after Admiral George Dewey (1837-1917) of the Spanish-American War. Louie was named after animator Louie Schmitt (1908-1993).. Cultural influences In the 1972 science fiction film Silent Running directed by Douglas Trumbull, the main character, Lowell, befriends three robot drones and renames them Huey, Dewey and Louie. Video game appearances Huey, Dewey, and Louie appear in the third Magical Quest game. The object of the game is to rescue them from the clutches of the villainous King Pete. Kingdom Hearts series In Kingdom Hearts they work in the item shop in the First District of Traverse Town. In Kingdom Hearts II, they run an item shop (Huey), a weapon shop (Louie) and an accessory shop (Dewey) in Hollow Bastion. In both endings, they are all seen going back to Disney Castle. References External links Toonopedia page about Huey, Dewey, and Louie Disney shorts enclopedia page about Huey, Dewey, and Louie The boys' profile on the Disney HooZoo | Huey,_Dewey,_and_Louie |@lemmatized huey:30 dewey:30 louie:30 duck:15 trio:2 appear:8 animated:2 cartoon:4 comic:17 book:4 publish:1 walt:1 disney:10 company:1 identical:2 triplet:1 three:9 donald:25 nephew:8 create:1 ted:1 osborne:1 al:2 taliaferro:3 first:4 newspaper:2 strip:1 october:1 animate:2 appearance:10 theatrical:5 short:10 release:2 april:1 boy:15 v:1 p:1 member:1 mickey:11 mouse:9 club:1 occasion:1 fourth:1 slip:1 mistake:1 artist:1 name:8 phooey:3 editor:1 bob:1 foster:1 one:5 egmont:1 licensed:1 explain:1 sporadic:1 freak:1 incident:1 nature:1 much:1 ado:1 indexed:1 mail:1 list:1 entry:2 writer:2 lars:1 jensen:1 near:1 bottom:1 character:5 background:1 son:1 sister:1 della:1 mother:1 instead:1 dumbella:1 original:2 originally:2 send:3 visit:1 day:1 stay:1 temporary:1 basis:1 father:1 come:1 back:4 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leaf:1 animation:1 large:1 number:2 start:1 alongside:1 following:1 scout:3 golf:1 game:5 hockey:1 champ:1 sea:1 mr:1 step:1 fire:1 chief:1 nifty:1 ninety:1 truant:1 officer:1 donalddonald:1 snow:2 fight:1 home:1 defensedonald:1 gorilladonald:1 daydonald:1 crimestraight:1 shooterssoup:1 ondonald:1 birthdaylion:1 aroundlucky:1 numbertrick:1 treatdon:1 fountain:1 youthcanvas:1 duckspare:1 roddonald:1 diarythe:1 litterbugdonald:1 present:1 ducktales:6 work:4 house:5 quack:6 pack:6 upon:3 christmas:4 twice:2 movie:2 treasure:3 lose:1 lamp:1 magical:2 villain:1 later:2 star:3 television:1 series:6 enlist:1 u:2 navy:1 mainly:1 base:1 versus:1 minor:1 film:3 frame:1 roger:1 rabbit:1 picture:2 eddie:1 valiant:1 office:1 also:3 make:4 anti:1 drug:1 tv:1 special:1 rescue:2 teenager:2 portray:1 give:4 hubert:1 deuteronomy:1 louis:1 distinct:1 serve:1 group:1 leader:1 computer:1 whiz:1 enjoy:1 sport:1 revert:1 age:2 future:1 voice:7 clarence:1 nash:1 actor:1 unintelligible:1 russi:2 taylor:2 jeannie:1 elia:1 pamela:1 segall:1 elizabeth:1 daily:1 respectively:1 tony:1 anselmo:1 project:1 video:3 goin:1 quackers:1 speedway:1 usa:1 direct:2 within:1 play:1 major:1 role:1 story:1 involve:1 either:2 accompany:1 see:3 america:1 like:1 organization:2 use:4 guidebook:2 manual:1 contain:1 information:2 virtually:1 every:1 subject:1 possible:1 resource:1 ancient:1 library:1 tralla:1 la:1 hold:1 find:2 excellent:1 youth:1 twin:1 goal:1 preserve:2 knowledge:1 environment:1 instrumental:1 transform:1 brother:1 little:1 hellion:1 upstanding:1 young:1 rosa:3 unofficial:1 continuity:1 bear:1 around:1 true:1 jocular:1 style:1 occasionally:1 subtle:1 reference:2 untold:1 mystery:1 life:2 epic:1 time:2 meet:1 relative:1 seem:2 disappear:1 answer:1 know:1 feel:1 unca:1 heir:3 rainbow:2 along:1 gladstone:4 gander:1 test:1 want:1 pick:1 fortune:2 legend:1 gold:1 secretly:1 thousand:1 another:1 last:1 money:6 payment:1 new:1 car:1 debt:1 consider:2 lucky:1 need:3 soon:1 hide:1 cause:1 option:1 lend:1 man:2 claim:1 search:1 initially:1 think:1 trick:1 actually:2 considers:1 even:1 though:1 awful:1 injustice:1 world:1 pay:1 kid:1 although:1 disregard:1 late:1 solidly:1 canon:1 indication:1 plan:1 origin:1 accord:1 interview:1 two:1 political:1 figure:1 animator:2 long:1 louisiana:1 admiral:1 george:1 spanish:1 american:1 war:1 schmitt:1 cultural:1 science:1 fiction:1 silent:1 douglas:1 trumbull:1 main:1 lowell:1 befriend:1 robot:1 drone:1 rename:1 third:1 quest:1 object:1 clutch:1 villainous:1 king:1 pete:1 kingdom:3 heart:3 item:2 shop:4 district:1 traverse:1 town:1 ii:1 weapon:1 accessory:1 hollow:1 bastion:1 ending:1 go:1 castle:1 external:1 link:1 toonopedia:1 page:2 enclopedia:1 profile:1 hoozoo:1 |@bigram huey_dewey:24 dewey_louie:24 louie_duck:2 animated_cartoon:1 walt_disney:1 donald_duck:4 al_taliaferro:2 comic_strip:1 mickey_mouse:5 uncle_scrooge:4 carl_bark:1 scrooge_mcduck:5 junior_woodchuck:3 elvira_coot:1 grandma_duck:1 happy_birthday:1 quack_pack:6 russi_taylor:2 boy_scout:1 gladstone_gander:1 science_fiction:1 douglas_trumbull:1 external_link:1 |
5,947 | Politics_of_Kazakhstan | The politics of Kazakhstan takes place in the framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Kazakhstan is head of state and nominates the head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. Political parties and elections On December 4, 2005, Nursultan Nazarbayev was reelected in a land-slide victory. The electoral commission announced that he had won over 90% of the vote. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) concluded the election did not meet international standards despite some improvements in the administration of the election. Xinhua News Agency reported that Chinese observers, responsible in overseeing 25 polling stations in Astana, found that voting in those polls was conducted in a "transparent and fair" manner. International organization participation In 1999, Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly. The official response of the Assembly was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at the Council until their democracy and human rights records improved. AsDB, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS (associate), ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, NAM (observer), NSG, OAS (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, SCO, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer) See also Government of Kazakhstan External links Will Kazakhstan Be Next? - On Political Developments in Kazakstan by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Central Asia Commerce | Politics_of_Kazakhstan |@lemmatized politics:1 kazakhstan:6 take:1 place:1 framework:1 presidential:1 republic:1 whereby:1 president:1 head:2 state:1 nominate:1 government:4 executive:1 power:2 exercise:1 legislative:1 vest:1 two:1 chamber:1 parliament:1 political:2 party:1 election:3 december:1 nursultan:1 nazarbayev:1 reelect:1 land:1 slide:1 victory:1 electoral:1 commission:1 announce:1 win:1 vote:1 organization:2 security:1 cooperation:1 europe:3 osce:2 conclude:1 meet:1 international:3 standard:1 despite:1 improvement:1 administration:1 xinhua:1 news:1 agency:1 report:1 chinese:1 observer:5 responsible:1 oversee:1 polling:1 station:1 astana:1 find:1 voting:1 poll:1 conduct:1 transparent:1 fair:1 manner:1 participation:1 apply:2 status:2 council:2 parliamentary:1 assembly:2 official:1 response:1 could:1 full:1 membership:1 partially:1 locate:1 would:1 grant:1 whatsoever:1 democracy:1 human:1 right:1 record:1 improve:1 asdb:1 ci:1 eapc:1 ebrd:1 ece:1 eco:1 escap:1 fao:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 associate:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 itu:1 nam:1 nsg:1 oas:1 oic:1 opcw:1 pfp:1 sco:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wcl:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 next:1 development:1 kazakstan:1 carnegie:1 endowment:1 peace:1 central:1 asia:1 commerce:1 |@bigram nursultan_nazarbayev:1 xinhua_news:1 eapc_ebrd:1 ebrd_ece:1 fao_iaea:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nsg_oas:1 oas_observer:1 observer_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wcl:1 wcl_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 external_link:1 carnegie_endowment:1 |
5,948 | Bundestag | The Bundestag (Federal Diet) is the parliament of Germany. It was established with Germany's constitution of 1949 (the Grundgesetz) and is the successor of the earlier Reichstag. Its current President is Norbert Lammert. History The Bundestag was also the nickname of the governing body of the German Confederation from 1815 to 1866 (officially called Bundesversammlung, Federal Assembly). This body met in Frankfurt and was presided over by the Austrian delegate. As one of the chief instruments of the reactionary forces opposed to democracy and nationalism, it was dissolved during the liberal revolution of 1848 but reconvened in 1850. It is a predecessor to the modern Bundestag in name only. While the modern parliament is elected by the people, the Bundestag of the German Confederation was appointed by the various princes and the governments of the free cities. With the dissolution of the German Confederation in 1866 and the founding of the German Empire (Deutsches Reich) in 1871, the Reichstag was established as the German parliament in Berlin. Two decades later, the current parliament building was erected. The Reichstag delegates were elected by direct and equal male suffrage (and not the three-class electoral system prevailing in Prussia until 1918). The Reichstag did not participate in the appointment of the Chancellor until the parliamentary reforms of October 1918. After the Revolution of November 1918 and the establishment of the Weimar Constitution, women were given the right to vote for (and serve in) the Reichstag, and the parliament could use the no-confidence vote to force the chancellor or any cabinet member to resign. In March 1933, one month after the Reichstag fire, parliament ceded its powers to the Federal Government of Chancellor Adolf Hitler by passing the infamous Enabling act of 1933. Afterward it met only rarely to unanimously rubber-stamp the decisions of the government. It was last convened on 26 April 1942. With the new constitution of 1949, the Bundestag was established as the new (West) German parliament. Because West Berlin was not officially under the jurisdiction of the Constitution and because of the Cold War, the Bundestag met in Bonn in several different buildings, including (provisionally) a former water works facility. In addition, citizens of West Berlin were unable to vote in elections to the Bundestag, and were instead represented by 20 non-voting delegates, indirectly elected by the city's House of Representatives. The Bundeshaus in Bonn is the former Parliament Building of Germany. The sessions of the German Bundestag were held there from 1949 until its move to Berlin in 1999. Today it houses the International Congress Centre Bundeshaus Bonn and in the north areas the branch office of the Bundesrat (Upper House). The southern areas will become part of the “UN Campus” in 2008. The former Reichstag building housed a history exhibition (Fragen an die deutsche Geschichte) and served occasionally as a conference center. The Reichstag building was also occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the Bundesversammlung, the body which elects the German Federal President. However the Soviets harshly protested against the use of the Reichstag building by institutions of the Federal Republic of Germany and tried to disturb the sittings by flying supersonic jets close to the building. Since 1999, the German parliament has again assembled in Berlin in its original Reichstag building, which dates from the 1890s and underwent a significant renovation under the lead of British architect Sir Norman Foster. In 2005, a small aircraft crashed close to the German parliament. It was then decided to ban private air traffic over Central Berlin. Tasks Together with the Bundesrat, the Bundestag is the legislative branch of the German political system. Although most legislation is initiated by the executive branch, the Bundestag considers the legislative function its most important responsibility, concentrating much of its energy on assessing and amending the government's legislative program. The committees (see below) play a prominent role in this process. Plenary sessions provide a forum for members to engage in public debate on legislative issues before them, but they tend to be well attended only when significant legislation is being considered. The Bundestag members are the only federal officials directly elected by the public; the Bundestag in turn elects the Chancellor and, in addition, exercises oversight of the executive branch on issues of both substantive policy and routine administration. This check on executive power can be employed through binding legislation, public debates on government policy, investigations, and direct questioning of the chancellor or cabinet officials. For example, the Bundestag can conduct a question hour (Fragestunde), in which a government representative responds to a previously submitted written question from a member. Members can ask related questions during the question hour. The questions can concern anything from a major policy issue to a specific constituent's problem. Use of the question hour has increased markedly over the past forty years, with more than 20,000 questions being posed during the 1987-90 term. Understandably, the opposition parties are active in exercising the parliamentary right to scrutinize government actions. One striking difference when comparing the Bundestag with the British Parliament is the lack of time spent on serving constituents in Germany. In part, that difference results from the fact that only 50 percent of Bundestag deputies are directly elected to represent a specific geographic district; the other half are elected as party representatives (see below). The political parties are thus of great importance in Germany's electoral system, and many voters tend not to see the candidates as autonomous political personalities but rather as agents of the party. A practical constraint on the expansion of constituent service is the limited personal staff of Bundestag deputies. Despite these constraints especially those deputies that are elected directly normally try to keep close contact with their constituents and to help them with their problems, particularly when they are related to federal policies or agencies. Constituent service does also take place in the form of the Petition Committee. In 2004, the Petition Committee received over 18,000 complaints from citizens and was able to negotiate a mutually satisfactory solution to more than half of them. Election Then President of Russia Vladimir Putin addresses the Bundestag on 25 September 2001. Members serve four-year terms; elections are held every four years, or earlier in the relatively rare case that the Bundestag is being dissolved prematurely by the president. The Bundestag can be dissolved by the president on the recommendation of the chancellor if the latter has lost a vote of confidence in the Bundestag. This has happened three times as of 2005: 1972 under Chancellor Willy Brandt, 1982 under Chancellor Helmut Kohl and 2005 under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder. All candidates must be at least eighteen years old; there are no term limits. The election uses the MMP electoral system, a hybrid of the first-past-the-post election system and party-list proportional representation. In addition, the Bundestag has a minimum threshold of either 5% of the national party vote or three (directly elected) constituency representatives for a party to gain additional representation through the system of proportional representation. Thus, small (and often extremist) minority parties cannot easily enter the Bundestag and prevent the formation of stable majority governments as they could under the Weimar constitution. Since 1961, only two new parties (Bündnis 90/Die Grünen and Die Linke) have entered the Bundestag. The additional member system results in a varying number of seats; since the 2005 elections, there have been 614 seats. The distribution of the seats is calculated by the Largest remainder method. The additional seats are distributed to ensure that the combined total of direct and additional seats is proportional to the vote; this is calculated separately for each state. Sometimes parties win more seats directly than what their proportional share would entitle them to — these are known as overhang seats. Unlike the situation in some German state parliaments, overhang seats are not compensated in the Bundestag. Distribution of seats in the Bundestag Half of the Members of the Bundestag are elected directly from 299 constituencies (first-past-the-post election system), the other half on the parties’ Land lists (party-list proportional representation). Ballot for electoral district 252, Würzburg. Constituency vote on left, party list vote on right. Top five persons on each party list are named on the ballot. Accordingly, each voter has two votes in the elections to the Bundestag. The first vote (first-past-the-post election system), allowing voters to elect their local representatives to the Bundestag, decides which candidates are sent to Parliament from the constituencies. The second vote (party-list proportional representation) is cast for a party list. And it is this second vote that determines the relative strengths of the parties represented in the Bundestag. At least 598 Members of the Bundestag are elected in this way. In addition to this, there are certain circumstances in which some candidates win what are known as overhang seats when the seats are being distributed. The 598 seats are distributed among the parties that have gained more than 5% of the second votes or at least 3 direct mandates. Each of these parties is allocated seats in the Bundestag in proportion to the number of votes it has received (Largest remainder method until the 2005 election, now Sainte-Laguë method). When the total number of mandates gained by a party has been determined, they are distributed between the Land lists. The distribution of the seats of that party to the 16 Lands is proportional to that party's second vote results in the Lands. The first of the mandates allocated to each Land go to the candidates who have won direct mandates in that Land. The rest are assigned in order to the candidates on the Land list put forward before the election. Overhang seat: If a party has gained more direct mandates in a Land than it is entitled to according to the results of the second vote, it does not forfeit these mandates because all directly elected candidates are guaranteed a seat in the Bundestag. Detail of the Land list seats won by each party Election result Seats by party (16th Bundestag) + CDU and CSU: 223 (36.4%) including 4 overhang seats + SPD: 222 (36.3%) including 9 overhang seats + FDP: 61 (10.0%) + The Left: 53 (8.7%) + Alliance '90/Greens: 51 (8.3%) + Independents/No parliamentary group: 2 (0.3%) including 1 overhang seat (attributable to the CDU) After the election on 2005-09-18, the CDU/CSU had 226 seats (180 CDU, including 7 overhang seats; 46 CSU), the Left had 54 seats, and there were no independents. The Bundestag had a total of 614 seats. Members that leave the Bundestag don't get replaced if their (original) party has an overhang seat in the Land where they were elected. See the List of Bundestag Members for lists of changes and current members. List of Bundestag by session Historic seat distribution in the German Bundestag (at the beginning of each session) Bundestag Session Seats CDU/CSU SPD FDP Alliance '90 /The Greens1 The Left2 German Party Others1st Bundestag 1949–1953 402 139 131 52 – – 17 633 2nd Bundestag 1953–1957 487 243 151 48 – – 15 304 3rd Bundestag 1957–1961 497 270 169 41 – – 17 – 4th Bundestag 1961–1965 499 242 190 67 – – – – 5th Bundestag 1965–1969 496 245 202 49 – – – – 6th Bundestag 1969–1972 496 242 224 30 – – – – 7th Bundestag 1972–1976 496 225 230 41 – – – – 8th Bundestag 1976–1980 496 243 214 39 – – – – 9th Bundestag 1980–1983 497 226 218 53 – – – – 10th Bundestag 1983–1987 498 244 193 34 27 – – – 11th Bundestag 1987–1990 497 223 186 46 42 – – – 12th Bundestag 1990–1994 662 319 239 79 8 17 – – 13th Bundestag 1994–1998 672 294 252 47 49 30 – – 14th Bundestag 1998–2002 669 245 298 43 47 36 – – 15th Bundestag 2002–2005 603 248 251 47 55 2 – – 16th Bundestag since 2005 614 226 222 61 51 54 – – 1 1983 to 1990 The Greens, 1990 to 1994 Alliance 90, since 1994 Alliance 90/The Greens 2 1990 to 2005 PDS (Party of Democratic Socialism), 2005 to 2007 The Left Party.PDS, since 2007 The Left 3 BP 17, KPD 15, WAV 12, Centre Party 10, DKP-DRP 5, SSW 1, Independents 3 4 GB-BHE 27, Centre Party 3 Historic seat distribution in the German Bundestag (at the beginning of each session). The graph shows not the absolute number of seats, but rather the relation of the number of seats a party has to the overall number of seats in that session, in percent. The colours stand for the following parties: Black: CDU/CSU, red: SPD, yellow: FDP, green: Greens, pink: PDS/Left Party, brown: German Party, grey: others. Presidents since 1949 Presidents of the Bundestag Name Party Beginning of term End of term Length of term 1 Erich Köhler* (1892–1958)CDU7 September 194918 October 19501 year 1 month 11 days 2 Hermann Ehlers** (1904–1954)CDU19 October 195029 October 19544 years 10 days 3 Eugen Gerstenmaier*** (1906–1986)CDU16 November 195431 January 196914 years 2 months 15 days 4 Kai-Uwe von Hassel (1913–1997)CDU5 February 196913 December 19723 years 10 months 8 days5Annemarie Renger† (1919-2008)SPD13 December 197214 December 19764 years 1 day 6 Karl Carstens§ (1914–1992)CDU14 December 197631 May 19792 years 5 months 17 days 7 Richard Stücklen (1916–2002)CSU31 May 197929 March 19833 years 9 months 29 days 8 Rainer Barzel*** (1924–2006)CDU29 March 198325 October 19841 year 6 months 26 days 9 Philipp Jenninger*** (b. 1932)CDU5 November 198411 November 19884 years 6 days 10Rita Süssmuth (b. 1937)CDU25 November 198826 October 19989 years 11 months 1 day11Wolfgang Thierse (b. 1943) SPD26 October 199818 October 20056 years 11 months 22 days 12 Norbert Lammert (b. 1948) CDU18 October 2005 *resigned for medical reasons **died in office ***resigned for political reasons †first woman and Social Democrat to hold the post § resigned when he became President of Germany Organization The Marie-Elisabeth-Lueders-Haus, one of the official buildings of the complex Parliamentary groups The most important organizational structures within the Bundestag are parliamentary groups (Fraktionen; sing. Fraktion), which are formed by political parties represented in the chamber which have gained more than 5% of the total votes; CDU and CSU have always formed a single united Fraktion. The size of a party's Fraktion determines the extent of its representation on legislative committees, the time slots allotted for speaking, the number of committee chairs it can hold, and its representation in executive bodies of the Bundestag. The Fraktionen, not the members, receive the bulk of government funding for legislative and administrative activities. The leadership of each Fraktion consists of a parliamentary party leader, several deputy leaders, and an executive committee. The leadership's major responsibilities are to represent the Fraktion, enforce party discipline, and orchestrate the party's parliamentary activities. The members of each Fraktion are distributed among working groups focused on specific policy-related topics such as social policy, economics, and foreign policy. The Fraktion meets every Tuesday afternoon in the weeks in which the Bundestag is in session to consider legislation before the Bundestag and formulate the party's position on it. Parties which do not fulfill the criterion for being a Fraktion but which have at least three seats by direct elections (i.e. which have at least three MPs representing a certain electoral district) in the Bundestag can be granted the status of a group of the Bundestag. This applied to the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) from 1990-1998. This status entails some privileges which are in general less than those of a Fraktion. In the current Bundestag, there are no such groups (the PDS only had two MPs in parliament until 2005 and was thus not even considered a group anymore; the party has now returned to the Bundestag with full Fraktion status). Executive bodies The Bundestag's executive bodies include the Council of Elders and the Presidium. The council consists of the Bundestag leadership, together with the most senior representatives of each Fraktion, with the number of these representatives tied to the strength of the party in the chamber. The council is the coordination hub, determining the daily legislative agenda and assigning committee chairpersons based on party representation. The council also serves as an important forum for interparty negotiations on specific legislation and procedural issues. The Presidium is responsible for the routine administration of the Bundestag, including its clerical and research activities. It consists of the chamber's president (usually elected from the largest Fraktion) and vice presidents (one from each Fraktion). Committees Most of the legislative work in the Bundestag is the product of standing committees, which exist largely unchanged throughout one legislative period. The number of committees approximates the number of federal ministries, and the titles of each are roughly similar (e.g., defense, agriculture, and labor). Between 1987 and 1990, the term of the eleventh Bundestag, there were twenty-one standing committees. The distribution of committee chairs and the membership of each committee reflect the relative strength of the various parties in the chamber. In the eleventh Bundestag, the CDU/CSU chaired eleven committees, the SPD eight, the FDP one, and the environmentalist party, the Greens (Die Grünen), one. Members of the opposition party can chair a significant number of standing committees. These committees have either a small staff or no staff at all. Principle of discontinuation As some other parliaments, the Bundestag is subject to the principle of discontinuation, meaning that a newly elected Bundestag is legally regarded to be a body and entity being completely different to the Bundestag in its former composition. This leads to the result, that any motion, application or action submitted to the previous Bundestag, e.g. a bill referred to the Bundestag by the Federal Government, is regarded as completed by non-decision (German terminology: “Die Sache fällt der Diskontinuität anheim”). Thus, any bill which had not been decided upon by the beginning of the new electoral period, would have to be brought in by the government again, if it aims to uphold the motion, this procedure in effect delaying the passing of the bill. Furthermore, any newly elected Bundestag will have to freshly decide about the rules of procedure (Geschäftsordnung), which is ritually done by a formal decision of taking over such rules from the preceding Bundestag by reference. Any Bundestag is only considered dissolved once a newly elected Bundestag has actually gathered in order to constitute itself (Article 39 sec. 1 sentence 2 of the Basic Law), which has to happen within 30 days of its election (Article 39 sec. 2 of the Basic Law). Thus, it may happen (and it has happened) that the old Bundestag gathers and takes decisions even after the elections to a new Bundestag which had not gathered in order to constitute itself. For example, the elections to the 16th Bundestag took place on 2005-09-18, but the 15th Bundestag still convened after that election day to take some decisions on German military engagement abroad, and was entitled to do so, as the newly elected 16th Bundestag did not convene for its first time before 2005-10-18. > See also Politics of Germany Bundesrat External links Official website 2002 elections German election database Map of constituencies References | Bundestag |@lemmatized bundestag:86 federal:9 diet:1 parliament:15 germany:8 establish:3 constitution:5 grundgesetz:1 successor:1 early:1 reichstag:10 current:4 president:10 norbert:2 lammert:2 history:2 also:5 nickname:1 govern:1 body:7 german:19 confederation:3 officially:2 call:1 bundesversammlung:2 assembly:1 meet:4 frankfurt:1 preside:1 austrian:1 delegate:3 one:9 chief:1 instrument:1 reactionary:1 force:2 oppose:1 democracy:1 nationalism:1 dissolve:4 liberal:1 revolution:2 reconvene:1 predecessor:1 modern:2 name:3 elect:20 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still:1 military:1 engagement:1 abroad:1 politics:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 database:1 map:1 |@bigram adolf_hitler:1 rubber_stamp:1 legislative_branch:1 plenary_session:1 vladimir_putin:1 chancellor_willy:1 willy_brandt:1 chancellor_helmut:1 helmut_kohl:1 chancellor_gerhard:1 gerhard_schröder:1 proportional_representation:4 bündnis_die:1 die_grünen:2 overhang_seat:9 cdu_csu:6 bundestag_bundestag:15 vice_president:1 external_link:1 |
5,949 | Nucleolus | The nucleolus is contained within the cell nucleus. Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. Organelles: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosomes (little dots) (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (6) Golgi apparatus (7) Cytoskeleton (8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytoplasm (12) lysosome (13) centrioles within centrosome The nucleolus (also called nucleole) is a non-membrane bound structure http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/nucleus/nucleolus.html composed of protein and nucleic acids found within the nucleus. The ribosomal RNA is transcribed within the nucleolus. The nucleolus ultrastructure can be visualized through an electron microscope, while the organization and dynamics can be studied through fluorescent protein tagging and fluorescent recovery after photobleaching (FRAP). Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause for several human diseases. It is the main part of the cell that directs all of the cells functions. History Prior to 1964, the nucleolus was recognized as a morphological element within the nucleus, but little was known of its function. During that year, a study of nucleoli by John Gurdon and Donald Brown in the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis, generated increasing interest in the function and detailed structure of the nucleolus. They found that 25% of the frog eggs had no nucleolus and that such eggs were not capable of life. Half of the eggs had one nucleolus and 25% had two. They concluded that the nucleolus had a function necessary for life. In 1966 Max L. Birnstiel and Hugh Wallace showed via hybridization experiments that nucleoli code for ribosomal RNA. The nucleolus is roughly spherical and appears under an electron microscope as a mass of densely stained granules and fibers. It consists of nucleolar organizers, which are specialized regions of some chromosomes with multiple copies of genes for ribosome synthesis, along with a considerable amount of RNA and proteins representing ribosomes in various stages of production. Structure Three main components of the nucleolus are recognized: the fibrillar centers (FC), the dense fibrillar component (DFC) and granular components (GC). However, it has been proposed that this particular organization is only observed in higher eukaryotes and that it evolved from a bipartite organization with the transition from anamniotes to amniotes. Reflecting the substantial increase in the rDNA intergenic region, an original fibrillar component would have separated into the FC and the DFC 7. Thiry, M., Lafontaine, L. J. (2005) Birth of a nucleolus: the evolution of nucleolar compartments. TRENDS in Cell Biology 15 . Another structure identified within many nucleoli, (particularly in plants) is a clear area in the center of the structure referred to as a nucleolar vacuole. Function and ribosome assembly Nucleoli are formed around specific genetic loci called Nucleolar Organizing Regions (NOR's), first described by Barbara McClintock. Because of this non-random organization, the nucleolus is defined as a "genetically determined element." Raška, I. Shaw, P. J., Cmarko, D. (2006) New Insights into Nucleolar Architecture and Activity A NOR is composed of tandem repeats of rRNA genes, which can be found in several different chromosomes. The human genome for example, contains more than 200 clustered copies of the rRNA genes on five different chromosomes(13,14,15,21,22). In a typical eukaryote, a rRNA gene consists of a promoter, internal and external transcribed spacers (ITS/ETS), rRNA coding sequences (18S, 5.8S, 28S) and an external non-transcribed spacer. Bruce Alberts, et al. (2002) The Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th edition). Garland Science 331-333 In the ribosome biogenesis, three eukaryotic RNA polymerases (pol I, II, III) are required which function in a coordinated manner. In an initial stage, the RNA genes are transcribed as a single unit within the nucleolus by RNA pol I. In order for this transcription to occur, several pol I-associated factors and rDNA-specific transacting factors are required. In yeast, the most important are: UAF (upstream activating factor), TBP (tata-box binding protein) and CF (core factor), which bind promoter elements and form the pre-initiation complex (PIC), which is in turn recognized by RNA pol I. In humans, a similar PIC is assembled with SLI, the promoter selectivity factor (composed of TBP and TBP-associated factors, or TAFs), IF (the transcription initiation factor) and UBF (upstream binding factor). Transcription of the ribosomal gene yields a long precursor molecule (45S pre-rRNA) which still contains the ITS and ETS. Further processing, which involves methylation and endo/exonuclease activity is therefore needed to generate the 18S RNA, 5.8S and 28S rRNA molecules. In eukaryotes, the RNA modifying enzymes are brought to their respective recognition sites through interaction with guide RNA's which bind these specific sequences. These guide RNA's belong to the class of small nucleolar RNA's (snoRNA's) which are complexed with proteins and exist as small-nucr-ribonucleoprotein (RNP) particles (snoRNP's). Once rRNA is processed, the rRNA molecules are ready to be assembled into ribosomes. However, an additional RNA molecule, the 5S rRNA, is necessary for this biogenesis. In yeast, the 5S rDNA sequence is localized in the external non-transcribed spacer and is transcribed in the nucleolus by RNA pol III. In higher eukaryotes and plants, the situation is more complex, for the 5S rDNA sequence lies outside the NOR and is transcribed in the nucleoplasm after which it finds its way into the nucleolus to participate in the ribosome assembly. This assembly not only involves the rRNA, but ribosomal proteins as well. The genes encoding these r-proteins are transcribed by pol II in the nucleoplasm by a "conventional" pathway of protein synthesis (transcription, pre-mRNA processing, nuclear export of mature mRNA and translation on cytoplasmic ribosomes). The mature r-proteins are then "imported" into the nucleolus. Association and maturation of rRNA's and r-proteins result in the formation of the 40S and 60S subunits of the ribosome. These are exported through the nuclear pore complexes to the cytoplasm where they remain free or will become associated with the endoplasmic reticulum. Geoffrey M. Cooper, Robert E. Hausman. The Cell, A Molecular Approach (4th edition). Sinauer Associates 371-379 A continuous chain between the nucleoplasm and the inner parts of the nucleolus exists through a network of nucleolar channels. In this way, macromolecules with a molecular weight up to 2000 kDa are easily distributed throughout the nucleolus. Nucleolar dominance Nucleolar dominance has also been shown for RNA genes. In some organisms, particularly plants, when two nuclei are combined into a single cell during hybridization the developing organism can "choose" one set of rRNA genes for transcription. The rRNA genes of the other parent are suppressed and not generally transcribed, though reactivation of the suppressed rRNA genes may occasionally occur. This selective preference of transcription of rRNA genes is termed nucleolar dominance. See also Transcription (genetics) Cancer RNA Paraspeckle Notes References Hernandez-Verdun, D. (2006) Nucleolus: from structure to dynamics. Histochem Cell Biol 125: 127-137 Hernandez-Verdun, D. (2006) The nucleolus: a model for the organisation of nuclear functions. Histochem Cell Biol 126: 135-148 Olson, M. O. J., Dundr, M., (2005) The moving parts of the Nucleolus. Histochem Cell Biol 123: 203-216 Olson, Mark O.J. (2004). The Nucleolus Georgetown, Texas : Landes Bioscience / Eurekah.Com. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York. ISBN 0-306-47873-0 Khadzhiolov, Asen A. (1985). The nucleolus and ribosome biogenesis Wien : Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-211-81790-5 Thiry, Marc & Guy Goessens (1996). The nucleolus during the cell cycle Hong Kong : Springer ; Austin, Tex. : R.G. Landes Company. New York. ISBN 3-540-61352-8 External links Nucleolus under electron microscope II at uni-mainz.de Recent concerns about nucleolus at hgu.mrc.ac.uk | Nucleolus |@lemmatized nucleolus:33 contain:3 within:7 cell:13 nucleus:6 schematic:1 typical:2 animal:1 show:3 subcellular:1 component:5 organelle:1 ribosome:10 little:2 dot:1 vesicle:1 rough:1 endoplasmic:3 reticulum:3 er:2 golgi:1 apparatus:1 cytoskeleton:1 smooth:1 mitochondrion:1 vacuole:2 cytoplasm:2 lysosome:1 centriole:1 centrosome:1 also:3 call:2 nucleole:1 non:4 membrane:1 bound:1 structure:6 http:1 micro:1 magnet:1 fsu:1 edu:1 html:1 compose:3 protein:10 nucleic:1 acid:1 find:4 ribosomal:4 rna:16 transcribe:6 ultrastructure:1 visualize:1 electron:3 microscope:3 organization:4 dynamic:2 study:2 fluorescent:2 tagging:1 recovery:1 photobleaching:1 frap:1 malfunction:1 cause:1 several:3 human:3 disease:1 main:2 part:3 direct:1 function:7 history:1 prior:1 recognize:3 morphological:1 element:3 know:1 year:1 john:1 gurdon:1 donald:1 brown:1 african:1 clawed:1 frog:2 xenopus:1 laevis:1 generate:2 increase:2 interest:1 detailed:1 egg:3 capable:1 life:2 half:1 one:2 two:2 conclude:1 necessary:2 max:1 l:2 birnstiel:1 hugh:1 wallace:1 via:1 hybridization:2 experiment:1 nucleoli:1 code:1 roughly:1 spherical:1 appear:1 mass:1 densely:1 stain:1 granule:1 fiber:1 consist:2 nucleolar:10 organizer:1 specialized:1 region:3 chromosome:3 multiple:1 copy:2 gene:12 synthesis:2 along:1 considerable:1 amount:1 represent:1 various:1 stage:2 production:1 three:2 fibrillar:3 center:2 fc:2 dense:1 dfc:2 granular:1 gc:1 however:2 propose:1 particular:1 observe:1 high:2 eukaryote:4 evolve:1 bipartite:1 transition:1 anamniotes:1 amniote:1 reflect:1 substantial:1 rdna:4 intergenic:1 original:1 would:1 separate:1 thiry:2 lafontaine:1 j:4 birth:1 evolution:1 compartment:1 trend:1 biology:2 another:1 identify:1 many:1 particularly:2 plant:3 clear:1 area:1 refer:1 assembly:3 form:2 around:1 specific:3 genetic:1 locus:1 organizing:1 first:1 describe:1 barbara:1 mcclintock:1 random:1 define:1 genetically:1 determine:1 raška:1 shaw:1 p:1 cmarko:1 new:3 insight:1 architecture:1 activity:2 tandem:1 repeat:1 rrna:15 different:2 genome:1 example:1 clustered:1 five:1 promoter:3 internal:1 external:4 transcribed:3 spacers:1 ets:2 coding:1 sequence:4 spacer:2 bruce:1 albert:1 et:1 al:1 molecular:3 edition:2 garland:1 science:1 biogenesis:3 eukaryotic:1 polymerase:1 pol:6 ii:3 iii:2 require:2 coordinated:1 manner:1 initial:1 single:2 unit:1 order:1 transcription:7 occur:2 associate:3 factor:8 transact:1 yeast:2 important:1 uaf:1 upstream:2 activate:1 tbp:3 tata:1 box:1 bind:3 cf:1 core:1 pre:3 initiation:2 complex:3 pic:2 turn:1 similar:1 assemble:2 sli:1 selectivity:1 tafs:1 ubf:1 binding:1 yield:1 long:1 precursor:1 molecule:4 still:1 processing:2 involve:2 methylation:1 endo:1 exonuclease:1 therefore:1 need:1 modifying:1 enzyme:1 bring:1 respective:1 recognition:1 site:1 interaction:1 guide:2 belong:1 class:1 small:2 snorna:1 complexed:1 exist:1 nucr:1 ribonucleoprotein:1 rnp:1 particle:1 snornp:1 process:1 ready:1 additional:1 localize:1 situation:1 lie:1 outside:1 nucleoplasm:3 way:2 participate:1 well:1 encode:1 r:4 conventional:1 pathway:1 mrna:2 nuclear:3 export:2 mature:2 translation:1 cytoplasmic:1 import:1 association:1 maturation:1 result:1 formation:1 subunit:1 pore:1 remain:1 free:1 become:1 associated:1 geoffrey:1 cooper:1 robert:1 e:1 hausman:1 approach:1 sinauer:1 continuous:1 chain:1 inner:1 exists:1 network:1 channel:1 macromolecule:1 weight:1 kda:1 easily:1 distribute:1 throughout:1 dominance:3 organism:2 combine:1 develop:1 choose:1 set:1 parent:1 suppress:1 generally:1 though:1 reactivation:1 suppressed:1 may:1 occasionally:1 selective:1 preference:1 termed:1 see:1 genetics:1 cancer:1 paraspeckle:1 note:1 reference:1 hernandez:2 verdun:2 histochem:3 biol:3 model:1 organisation:1 olson:2 dundr:1 move:1 mark:1 georgetown:1 texas:1 landes:2 bioscience:1 eurekah:1 com:1 kluwer:1 academic:1 plenum:1 publisher:1 york:2 isbn:3 khadzhiolov:1 asen:1 wien:1 springer:2 verlag:1 marc:1 guy:1 goessens:1 cycle:1 hong:1 kong:1 austin:1 tex:1 g:1 company:1 link:1 uni:1 mainz:1 de:1 recent:1 concern:1 hgu:1 mrc:1 ac:1 uk:1 |@bigram subcellular_component:1 organelle_nucleolus:1 nucleolus_nucleus:1 nucleus_ribosome:1 vesicle_rough:1 rough_endoplasmic:1 endoplasmic_reticulum:3 reticulum_er:2 er_golgi:1 golgi_apparatus:1 apparatus_cytoskeleton:1 cytoskeleton_smooth:1 smooth_endoplasmic:1 mitochondrion_vacuole:1 vacuole_cytoplasm:1 cytoplasm_lysosome:1 lysosome_centriole:1 fsu_edu:1 protein_nucleic:1 nucleic_acid:1 ribosomal_rna:2 electron_microscope:3 barbara_mcclintock:1 rrna_gene:7 et_al:1 molecular_biology:1 rna_polymerase:1 rna_pol:3 pre_mrna:1 mature_mrna:1 nuclear_pore:1 sinauer_associate:1 kluwer_academic:1 springer_verlag:1 hong_kong:1 external_link:1 |
5,950 | Liverpool_F.C. | Liverpool Football Club is a professional association football club based in Liverpool, England. The club plays in the Premier League, and has won more trophies than any other English club. The club has won a joint-record eighteen league titles http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/eng_prem/8038259.stm , seven FA Cups and seven League Cups. The club has won the European Cup five times which is an English record. The club was founded in 1892, and quickly became a strong force in English football, winning five league championships between 1900 and 1947. However, Liverpool spent several years in the Second Division (level 2) during the late 1950s, and did not win promotion again until the appointment of Bill Shankly as manager in 1959. The club traditionally played in red and white, but this was changed to all red in the 1960s. Under Shankly's management, Liverpool won three League Championship titles, two FA Cups and a UEFA Cup; the club's first European trophy. In the past 30 years, they have been one of the most successful clubs in English and European football; they won four European Cups between 1977 and 1984. The club experienced a lean period during the 1990s, but saw a revival when they won a cup treble in 2001 and the club's fifth European Cup in 2005. The Heysel Stadium disaster made the club infamous in Europe; 39 Juventus fans died after a wall collapsed as they fled from charging Liverpool fans. The club was involved in another disaster four years later—the Hillsborough Disaster— which saw the death of 96 Liverpool fans in a crush against perimeter fencing. Flames were added to the club's crest in honour of the Liverpool fans who lost their lives at Hillsborough. Both disasters have had wide-ranging impacts on English and European football, and the club to this day. Liverpool F.C. has played at Anfield since its formation, but plans to move to a new stadium in Stanley Park, which was due to be completed by 2011 but has been put on hold until economic conditions improve. Liverpool has a large and diverse fan base, which holds long-standing rivalries with several clubs. The most notable of these is their rivalry with Manchester United, and Everton, with whom they regularly contest the Merseyside derby. History Liverpool F.C. was founded after a dispute between Everton and John Houlding, the leaseholder of Anfield and Everton director. Fundamental difference emerged in how the club should be run when the club assessed the purchase the whole of the Anfield site. Houlding was accused of motives for personal financial gain. Everton who had been playing at Anfield for eight years departed from Houlding and Anfield moving to a new stadium in Goodison Park. Liverpool F.C. was founded by Houlding to play at the vacated Anfield. The original name was to be Everton F.C. and Athletic Grounds, Ltd., or Everton Athletic for short, but it was changed to Liverpool F.C. in June 1892 when The Football Association refused to recognise the team as Everton. The club won the Lancashire League in their first season, and successfully applied to join the Second Division for the following season. They won the league and were promoted to the First Division. They won their first title in 1900–01, and were champions again in 1905–06. They reached their first FA Cup final in 1914 but lost 1–0 to Burnley. The club won back-to-back championships in 1921–22 and 1922–23, but after this the club did not win another trophy until 1946–47 when they won the League for a fifth time. The club reached the FA Cup final in 1950, but lost to Arsenal. Liverpool struggled afterwards, and the club was relegated to the Second Division in the 1953–54 season. Liverpool floundered until the appointment of Bill Shankly as manager in 1959. On his appointment he released 24 players and began to reshape the team. Promotion to the First Division was achieved in 1961–62, and the club won the League for the first time in 17 years in 1963–64. Another League title followed in 1965–66, after the club had won their first FA Cup the previous season. The club won the League and UEFA Cup in 1972–73 and the FA Cup again a year later; after this, Shankly retired and was replaced by his assistant Bob Paisley. Paisley was even more successful than Shankly and the club won the League and UEFA Cup in 1975–76, his second season as manager. The following season they retained the League title, won the European Cup for the first time, but lost in the FA Cup final, narrowly missing out on a treble. Liverpool retained the European Cup the next season, and the season after won the League again with 68 points—a domestic record, conceding only 16 goals in 42 league matches. During the nine seasons Paisley managed the club, Liverpool won 21 trophies, including three European Cups, a UEFA Cup, six league titles and three consecutive League Cups. The only domestic trophy to elude him was the FA Cup. Paisley retired in 1983 and (as Shankly had done) handed the reins to his assistant, veteran coach Joe Fagan. The succession of coaches came from the Anfield Boot Room where the Liverpool staff discussed strategy and allegedly stored gin. Liverpool won three trophies in Fagan's first season in charge: the League, League Cup and European Cup, becoming the first English side to win three trophies in a season. Liverpool reached the European Cup final again in 1985. The match was against Juventus at the Heysel Stadium. Before kick-off, disaster struck: Liverpool fans breached a fence which separated the two groups of supporters and charged the Juventus fans. The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse, killing 39 fans, mostly Italians. The match was played regardless and Liverpool lost 1–0 to Juventus. English clubs were consequently banned from participating in European competition for five years; Liverpool received a ten-year ban, which was later reduced to six years. Fourteen of their fans received convictions for involuntary manslaughter. The statue of former manager Bill Shankly, outside Anfield Fagan resigned after the disaster and Kenny Dalglish was appointed as player-manager. During his reign, the club won another three League Championships and two FA Cups, including a League and Cup "Double" in 1985–86. Liverpool's success was overshadowed by the Hillsborough Disaster: in an FA Cup semi-final against Nottingham Forest on 15 April 1989, hundreds of Liverpool fans were crushed. 94 fans died that day; the 95th victim died in hospital from his injuries four days later, and the 96th died nearly four years later without regaining consciousness. After the Hillsborough tragedy there was a governmental review of stadium safety. Known as the Taylor Report, it paved the way for legislation which required top-division teams to have all-seater stadiums. The report ruled that the main reason for the disaster was overcrowding due to a failure of police control. Dalglish cited the Hillsborough Disaster and its repercussions as the reason for his resignation in 1991. He was replaced by former player Graeme Souness. Apart from winning the FA Cup in 1992, Souness achieved little success and was replaced by a former member of the "Boot Room", Roy Evans. Evans fared little better: a League Cup victory in 1995 was his only trophy. Gérard Houllier was appointed as co-manager in 1998–99, but was left in sole charge after Evans resigned in November 1998. In his second season in charge Liverpool won a unique treble of the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup. In the 2001-02 season, during which Houllier underwent major heart surgery, Liverpool finished second behind Arsenal. The following seasons failed to live up to expectations and Houllier was replaced by Rafael Benítez. The club finished fifth in his first season in charge but won the UEFA Champions League by beating Milan 3–2 in a penalty shootout after the match finished 3–3. The following season Liverpool finished third with 82 points—their highest total since 1988. They won the FA Cup as they had the Champions League victory the previous season, by beating West Ham United in penalty shootout after the match finished at 3–3. In 2006–07, the club's search for investment came to an end when American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks became the owners of Liverpool in a deal which valued the club and its outstanding debts at £218.9 million. That season, the club reached another Champions League final, but this time they lost 2–1 to AC Milan. Colours and crest Liverpool traditionally played in red and white, but this was changed to an all red kit in the mid 1960s. Red has not always been used, in the early days, when the club took over Anfield from Everton; they used the Toffees' colours of blue and white. Their kit was almost identical to that worn by the Everton team of the time. By 1894 Liverpool had chosen red, and in 1901 the city's liver bird was adopted as the club's badge. For the next 60 years Liverpool's kit was red shirts with white shorts. The socks were changed over the years from red, to black, to white, and back to red again. In 1964, then-Liverpool manager Bill Shankly decided to send the team out in all red for the first time against Anderlecht, as Ian St. John recalled in his autobiography: Liverpool's away colours are traditionally either white shirts and black shorts or all yellow. However, in 1987 an all grey kit was introduced, which was used until the centenary season of 1991–92, when it was replaced by a combination of green shirts and white shorts. After various colour combinations in the 1990s, including gold and navy, bright yellow, black and grey, and ecru, the club alternated between yellow and white away kits until the 2008–09 season, when they re-introduced the grey kit. The current kits are designed by Adidas, who made the club's kits between 1985 and 1996. The only other branded shirts worn by the club were made by Umbro until 1985 and Reebok for ten seasons starting in 1996. A third kit, consisting of a turquoise top and black shorts, has been designed primarily for Champions League away games, but is used for any domestic games where both red and grey would clash. Liverpool was the first British professional club to have a sponsor's logo on their shirts, after they agreed to a deal with Hitachi in 1979. Since then they have been sponsored by Crown Paints, Candy and Carlsberg. The contract with Carlsberg, which was signed in 1992, is the longest-standing current agreement in English top-flight football. The current Liverpool badge is based around the city's liver bird, which is placed inside a shield. Above the shield is a representation of the Shankly Gates with the title of club's famous anthem, "You'll Never Walk Alone". The twin flames at either side are symbolic of the Hillsborough memorial outside Anfield, where an eternal flame burns in memory of those who died in the disaster. Stadia Liverpool has played at Anfield since they were founded in 1892. Anfield was built in 1884 on land adjacent to Stanley Park, and was originally used by Everton. They left the ground in 1892 over a dispute about rent with the owner of Anfield, John Houlding, who decided to form a new club to play at the ground. The capacity of the stadium was 20,000, although only 100 spectators attended Liverpool's first match at Anfield. In 1906, the banked stand at one end of the ground was formally renamed the Spion Kop after a hill in Natal. The hill was the site of the Battle of Spion Kop in the Second Boer War, where over 300 men of the Lancashire Regiment died, many of whom were from Liverpool. At its largest, the stand could hold 28,000 spectators, and was one of the largest single tier stands in the world. Many stadia in England had stands named after the Spion Kop, but Anfield's was the largest Kop in the country at the time; it was able to hold more supporters than some entire football grounds. The stand was considerably reduced in capacity due to safety measures brought in following the Hillsborough Disaster. It was completely rebuilt as an all-seater stand in 1994, and remains a single tier stand with a reduced capacity of 12,390. The Kop, as it stands after redevelopment in 1994. The picture shows Liverpool in a match against Israeli side Maccabi Haifa on 8 August, 2006. The Anfield Road stand is positioned at the opposite end to the Kop, and houses the away team's fans. Rebuilt in 1998 with a capacity of 9,074, it is the newest stand at Anfield. The two stands adjacent to these are the Main Stand, with a capacity of 12,227, and the Centenary Stand, which has a capacity of 11,762. The Main Stand is the oldest part of Anfield, and has remained largely untouched since its redevelopment in 1973. It houses the players' changing rooms and the director's box, and the dug-outs are in front of the stand. The Centenary Stand was previously known as the Kemlyn Road Stand until it was rebuilt for the club's centenary in 1992. The redevelopment saw the houses in Kemlyn Road demolished and the address become non-existent. The capacity of the stadium is 45,362. It is rated as a four-star stadium in the UEFA Stadia List. On 30 July 2004, the Liverpool City Council granted the club planning permission to build a new 60,000-seat stadium just away from Anfield at Stanley Park, and on 8 September 2006 the Council agreed to grant Liverpool F.C. a 999-year lease on the land on the proposed site. Following the takeover of the club in February 2007 by George Gillett and Tom Hicks, the proposed stadium was redesigned. In November 2007, the new design was approved by the Council, and construction started in June 2008. HKS, Inc. are building the new stadium which is expected to be completed in 2011. Training ground Melwood, in West Derby, Liverpool, has been the home of Liverpool's training ground since the 1950s. It is not attached to The Academy, which is in Kirkby. The ground previously belonged to St Francis Xavier, a local school. Supporters Shankly Gates Liverpool has a large and loyal fan-base, and nearly all home matches sell out. During the current season, Liverpool has the fifth-highest average League attendance for an English club: 43,398, which is 95.6% of available capacity. Liverpool fans often refer to themselves as "Kopites", which is a reference to the fans who once stood, and now sit, on the Kop at Anfield. The song "You'll Never Walk Alone", originally from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel and later recorded by Liverpool musicians Gerry & The Pacemakers, is the club's anthem, and has been sung by the Anfield crowd since the early 1960s. It has since gained popularity among fans of other clubs around the world. Cavanagh, John. Songlines, BBC Radio Scotland. December 2006. The song's title adorns the top of the Shankly Gates, which were unveiled on 2 August 1982 in memory of the former manager Bill Shankly. The "You'll Never Walk Alone" portion of the Shankly Gates is also reproduced on the club's crest. Liverpool's longest-established rivalry is with fellow Merseyside team Everton, against whom they contest the Merseyside derby. This stems from Liverpool's formation and the dispute with Everton officials and the then owners of Anfield. Religious differences have been cited as a cause of division, although both teams stem from a Methodist origin, which undermines the notion of a Catholic–Protestant split. The Merseyside derby is usually a sell-out fixture. More players have been sent off in it than in any other fixture in Premier League history. It is one of the few local derbies that does not enforce fan segregation. Liverpool has a rivalry with its neighbours Manchester United. This is mostly due to the success enjoyed by the two clubs and the proximity of the two cities. The rivalry is so intense that the last player to be transferred between the two clubs was Phil Chisnall in 1964, when he moved to Liverpool from United. The club's supporters have been involved in two major tragic events. The first was the Heysel Stadium disaster, in which 39 Juventus fans were killed. They were penned into a corner by Liverpool fans who charged in their direction, the sheer number of fans cornered caused a wall to collapse. After the final UEFA laid the blame for the incident solely on the fans of Liverpool, English clubs were banned from European competition for five years and Liverpool served an extra year, a six-year ban. There were 27 arrests on suspicion of manslaughter – the only extraditable offence applicable to events at Heysel. The majority of these people were from Merseyside. Some of these people had previous convictions for football-related violence. In 1989, after a 5-month trial in Belgium, fourteen Liverpool fans were given 3-year sentences for involuntary manslaughter. Half the terms were suspended and it is unclear how many served their sentences. The second was during an FA Cup semi-final in 1989 between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest, 96 Liverpool fans died due to overcrowding in what became known as the Hillsborough Disaster. The Sun newspaper published an article entitled "The Truth", in which it claimed that Liverpool fans had robbed and urinated on the dead and had attacked the police. Subsequent investigations proved the allegations to be false, and this led to a city-wide boycott of the newspaper. Many organisations were set up as a result of the disaster, such as the Hillsborough Justice Campaign, which represents bereaved families, survivors and supporters, who campaign for justice for the 96 people who died in Sheffield on 15 April 1989. Ownership and finances Liverpool is owned by George Gillett and Tom Hicks, who acquired the club on 6 February 2007 from previous chairman David Moores. The deal valued the club and its outstanding debts at £218.9 million. The pair paid £5,000 per share, or £174.1m for the total shareholding in the club, and £44.8m to cover the club's debts. Disagreements between Gillett and Hicks, and their lack of the fans' support, have precipitated rumours that Dubai International Capital (DIC), who were interested in buying the club before Gillett and Hicks took over, would bid for the club. Another group, Share Liverpool FC, also expressed interest in purchasing the club. They proposed to pay £500m, which would be funded by 100,000 fans contributing £5,000 each for a club share. However, the group have been unable to raise the required capital to make an offer for the club. In April 2008, business magazine Forbes ranked Liverpool as the fourth most valuable football team in the world, after Manchester United, Real Madrid and Arsenal. They valued the club at $1.0bn (£605m), excluding debt. Accountants Deloitte rate Liverpool eighth in the 2008 Deloitte Football Money League, which ranks the world's football clubs in terms of revenue. Liverpool's income of £133.9m in the 2006–07 season moved them up from tenth the previous season. Liverpool in popular culture As one of the most successful teams in the history of English football, Liverpool is often featured when football is depicted in British culture and has appeared in a number of media "firsts". The club appeared in the first edition of the BBC's Match of the Day, which screened highlights of their match against Arsenal at Anfield on 22 August 1964. The club was also the subject of television's first colour football transmission, which showed their match against West Ham United live. Liverpool fans feature in the Pink Floyd song "Fearless", in which they sang excerpts from "You'll Never Walk Alone. Liverpool released a song known as the "Anfield Rap" in 1988. It was the club's FA Cup anthem for the final against Wimbledon, and featured John Barnes performing a rap with other members of the squad participating. A documentary drama on the Hillsborough Disaster written by Jimmy McGovern was screened in 1996. It features Christopher Eccleston as Trevor Hicks, whose story formed the focus of the script. Hicks, who lost two teenage daughters in the disaster, went on to campaign for safer stadia and helped to form the Hillsborough Families Support Group. Liverpool feature in the film The 51st State (also known as Formula 51). Ex-hitman Felix DeSouza (Robert Carlyle) is an avid fan of the team and the last scene of the film takes place at a match between Liverpool and Manchester United. The club was featured in a children's television show called Scully; the plot revolved around a young boy, Francis Scully, who tried to win a trial with Liverpool. The show featured prominent Liverpool players of the time such as Kenny Dalglish. Statistics and records Liverpool's first competitive game was an 8–0 victory in the Lancashire League against Higher Walton. Ian Callaghan holds Liverpool's overall appearance record—he played 857 matches over the course of 19 seasons from 1958 to 1978— and the record for League appearances with 640. Of the current squad, Jamie Carragher has the most appearances; he played his 500th game for the club early in 2008. Liverpool's all-time leading scorer is Ian Rush, who scored 346 goals while at the club from 1980 to 1987 and 1988 to 1996. Rush holds the record for the most goals in a season with 47 in 1983–84. However, during his career, Rush could not surpass Roger Hunt's record number of league goals, which has stood at 245 since 1970. In the 1961–62 season, Hunt scored 41 goals, which is the club record for league goals in a single season. Gordon Hodgson, the club's third highest scorer with 240 goals, holds the club record of 17 hat tricks. The most goals scored by a player in a single match is five; John Miller, Andy McGuigan, John Evans, Ian Rush and Robbie Fowler have achieved this feat. Fowler also holds the club and Premier League record for the fastest hat trick: he scored three goals in four minutes, 32 seconds against Arsenal in the 1994–95 season. Steven Gerrard is Liverpool's all-time leading goalscorer in European competition with 29 goals. Liverpool's biggest victory is 11–0 against Strømsgodset IF in 1974. Liverpool's 10–1 defeat of Rotherham Town in 1896 was its largest league win. This margin of victory was matched when Crystal Palace were defeated 9–0 at Anfield in 1989. Liverpool's heaviest defeat, 1–9, came against Birmingham City in 1954. Liverpool's 8–0 win against Beşiktaş J.K. in the Champions League was the largest victory in the competition's history at the time. Current squad As of 26 March 2009. First team players Players out on loan Notable players Reserves and Academy squad Managers Rafael Benítez, manager of Liverpool since 2004 Liverpool has had 17 permanent managers and one caretaker manager since the club's first appointed, W.E. Barclay and John McKenna as professional managers in 1892. The longest-serving manager in terms of time was Tom Watson, who managed Liverpool for 19 years from 1896 to 1915. Bill Shankly managed the club for more games than any other manager; he served for 783 matches. Kenny Dalglish was the first player-manager in English football when he was appointed in 1985. Bob Paisley, who won 19 trophies during his tenure, was the club's most successful manager. Current coaching staff As of 1 December 2008. Position Name Nationality Manager Rafael Benítez Assistant manager Sammy Lee First team coach Mauricio Pellegrino Reserve team coach Gary Ablett Goalkeeping coach Xavi Valero Fitness Coach Paco de Miguel Physiotherapist Rob Price Chief Scout Eduardo Macia Honours Liverpool has won the English League Championship eighteen times (a record they share with Manchester United), the FA Cup seven times and the League Cup a record seven times. The club achieved a League and FA Cup "Double" in 1986, and has won the League and European Cup double twice, in 1977 and 1984. They also won the League Cup in 1984 to complete a unique treble, a feat they repeated (albeit with different trophies) in 2001 when they won the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup. Liverpool has won the European Cup, Europe's primary club competition, five times, which is an English record. Only Real Madrid and Milan has won the competition on more occasions. The club's fifth triumph meant that they won the trophy outright and was awarded the UEFA Badge of Honour. The club has won the UEFA Cup, Europe's secondary club competition, three times, a record they share with Juventus and Internazionale. Domestic League Football League First Division (English football champions) (level 1) Winners (18): 1900–01, 1905–06, 1921–22, 1922–23, 1946–47, 1963–64, 1965–66, 1972–73, 1975–76, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1979–80, 1981–82, 1982–83, 1983–84, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1989–90 Second Division (level 2) Winners (4): 1893–94, 1895–96, 1904–05, 1961–62 Lancashire League Winners (1): 1892–93 Cups FA Cup Winners (7): 1965, 1974, 1986, 1989, 1992, 2001, 2006 League Cup Winners (7): 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1995, 2001, 2003 FA Charity Shield / FA Community Shield Winners (15, 10 outright and 5 shared): 1964 (shared), 1965 (shared), 1966, 1974, 1976, 1977 (shared), 1979, 1980, 1982, 1986 (shared), 1988, 1989, 1990 (shared), 2001, 2006 Super Cup Winners (1): 1986 European European Cup and UEFA Champions League Winners (5): 1977, 1978, 1981, 1984, 2005 UEFA Cup Winners (3): 1973, 1976, 2001 UEFA Super Cup Winners (3): 1977, 2001, 2005 References Bibliography External links Liverpool F.C. Official Website Official page for Liverpool Echo and Daily Post stories covering Liverpool F.C. LFCHistory.net – Articles and statistics relating to Liverpool F.C. be-x-old:ФК Лівэрпул | Liverpool_F.C. |@lemmatized liverpool:88 football:19 club:83 professional:3 association:2 base:4 england:2 play:11 premier:3 league:48 win:40 trophy:11 english:15 joint:1 record:16 eighteen:2 title:8 http:1 news:1 bbc:3 co:2 uk:1 hi:1 stm:1 seven:4 fa:21 cup:52 european:18 five:6 time:18 found:4 quickly:1 become:5 strong:1 force:1 championship:5 however:4 spend:1 several:2 year:18 second:10 division:9 level:3 late:1 promotion:2 appointment:3 bill:6 shankly:14 manager:19 traditionally:3 red:11 white:8 change:4 management:1 three:8 two:9 uefa:14 first:25 past:1 one:6 successful:4 four:6 experience:1 lean:1 period:1 saw:3 revival:1 treble:4 fifth:5 heysel:4 stadium:16 disaster:16 make:4 infamous:1 europe:3 juventus:6 fan:28 die:8 wall:3 collapse:3 flee:1 charge:7 involve:2 another:6 later:6 hillsborough:11 death:1 crush:2 perimeter:1 fencing:1 flame:3 add:1 crest:3 honour:3 lose:7 life:1 wide:2 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5,951 | Bishopric_of_Brandenburg | The Bishopric of Brandenburg was a Roman Catholic diocese established by Otto the Great in 948, including the territory between the Elbe on the west, the Oder on the east, and the Schwarze Elster on the south, and taking in the Uckermark to the north. Its seat was Brandenburg. It was a state of the Holy Roman Empire for some time, but never managed to gain control over a significant territory, being overshadowed by the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which was originally seated in the same city. Brandenburg Cathedral, nineteenth century History The diocese was originally under the archiepiscopal jurisdiction of Mainz, but in 968 was transferred to that of Magdeburg. The disturbances of 983 practically annihilated it; bishops continued to be named, but they were merely titular, until the downfall of the Wends in the twelfth century and the German settlement of that region revived the bishopric. Bishop Wigers (1138–60) was the first of a series of bishops of the Premonstratensian Order, which chose the occupants of the see until 1447; in that year a bull of Nicholas V gave the right of nomination to the elector of Brandenburg, with whom the bishops stood in a close feudal relation. The last actual bishop was Matthias von Jagow (d. 1544), who took the side of the Reformation, married, and in every way furthered the undertakings of Elector Joachim II. There were two more nominal bishops, but on the petition of the latter of these, the electoral prince John George, the secularization of the bishopric was undertaken and finally accomplished, in spite of legal proceedings to have the bishopric declared immediately dependent on the Empire and so to preserve it, which dragged on into the seventeenth century. Bishops of Brandenburg Dietmar (949-968) Dodilo (968-980) Volkmar (980-1004) Wigo (992-1018) Luizo (1022-1032) Rudolf ( -1048) Dankwart ( -1051) Dietrich I (1068-1080) Volkmar II (1080-1092) Hartbert (1100-1122) Ludolf (1124-1137) Landbert (1137-1138) Wiggar (1138-1160) Wilman (1160-1173) Sigfried I (1173-1179) Baldran (1179-1190) Alexius (1190-1192) Norbert (1192-1205) Baldwin (1205-1216) Siegfried II (1216-1220) Ludolf von Schanebeck (1221-1222) - claimant, but not enthroned Wichmann von Arnstein (1221-1222) - counter-claimant, also not enthroned Gernot (1222-1241) Rutger von Ammendorf (1241-1251) Otto von Mehringen (1251-1261) Heinrich I von Osthenen (or Ostheeren) (1261-1278) Gebhard (1278-1287) Heidenreich (1287-1290) Richard (1290-1291) - did not accept the appointment Dietrich (1291-1296) - not enthroned Vollrad von Krempa (1296-1302) Friedrich von Plötzkau (1303-1316) Johann I von Tuchen (1316-1324) Heinrich II Count of Barby (1324-1327) - not enthroned Ludwig Schenk von Reindorf (or Neuendorf) (1327-1347) Dietrich II Kothe (1347-1365) Dietrich III von der Schulenburg (1366-1393) Heinrich III von Bodendiek (or Bodendleck) (1393-1406) Henning von Bredow (1406-1414) Friedrich von Grafeneck, Prince-Bishop of Augsburg (1414) Johann von Waldow, Bishop of Lebus (1415-1420) Friedrich von Grafeneck, again (1420) Stephan Bodecker (1421-1459) Dietrich IV von Stechow (1459-1472) Arnold von Burgsdorff (1472-1485) Joachim I von Bredow (1485-1507) Hieronymus Schulz, later Bishop of Havelberg (1507-1520) Dietrich V von Hardenberg (1520-1526), Protestant Matthias von Jagow (1526-1544), Protestant Sede vacante (1544-1546) Joachim II, Duke of Ziębice (Münsterberg) and Oels (1546-1560) John George, Elector of Brandenburg, Regent (Verweser) (1560-1569/71) Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg (1569/71) References | Bishopric_of_Brandenburg |@lemmatized bishopric:4 brandenburg:8 roman:2 catholic:1 diocese:2 establish:1 otto:2 great:1 include:1 territory:2 elbe:1 west:1 oder:1 east:1 schwarze:1 elster:1 south:1 take:2 uckermark:1 north:1 seat:2 state:1 holy:1 empire:2 time:1 never:1 manage:1 gain:1 control:1 significant:1 overshadow:1 margraviate:1 originally:2 city:1 cathedral:1 nineteenth:1 century:3 history:1 archiepiscopal:1 jurisdiction:1 mainz:1 transfer:1 magdeburg:1 disturbance:1 practically:1 annihilate:1 bishops:1 continue:1 name:1 merely:1 titular:1 downfall:1 wends:1 twelfth:1 german:1 settlement:1 region:1 revive:1 bishop:9 wigers:1 first:1 series:1 premonstratensian:1 order:1 choose:1 occupant:1 see:1 year:1 bull:1 nicholas:1 v:2 give:1 right:1 nomination:1 elector:4 stand:1 close:1 feudal:1 relation:1 last:1 actual:1 matthias:2 von:21 jagow:2 side:1 reformation:1 marry:1 every:1 way:1 undertaking:1 joachim:4 ii:6 two:1 nominal:1 petition:1 latter:1 electoral:1 prince:2 john:2 george:2 secularization:1 undertaken:1 finally:1 accomplish:1 spite:1 legal:1 proceeding:1 declare:1 immediately:1 dependent:1 preserve:1 drag:1 seventeenth:1 dietmar:1 dodilo:1 volkmar:2 wigo:1 luizo:1 rudolf:1 dankwart:1 dietrich:6 hartbert:1 ludolf:2 landbert:1 wiggar:1 wilman:1 sigfried:1 baldran:1 alexius:1 norbert:1 baldwin:1 siegfried:1 schanebeck:1 claimant:2 enthrone:4 wichmann:1 arnstein:1 counter:1 also:1 gernot:1 rutger:1 ammendorf:1 mehringen:1 heinrich:3 osthenen:1 ostheeren:1 gebhard:1 heidenreich:1 richard:1 accept:1 appointment:1 vollrad:1 krempa:1 friedrich:3 plötzkau:1 johann:2 tuchen:1 count:1 barby:1 ludwig:1 schenk:1 reindorf:1 neuendorf:1 kothe:1 iii:2 der:1 schulenburg:1 bodendiek:1 bodendleck:1 henning:1 bredow:2 grafeneck:2 augsburg:1 waldow:1 lebus:1 stephan:1 bodecker:1 iv:1 stechow:1 arnold:1 burgsdorff:1 hieronymus:1 schulz:1 later:1 havelberg:1 hardenberg:1 protestant:2 sede:1 vacante:1 duke:1 ziębice:1 münsterberg:1 oels:1 regent:1 verweser:1 frederick:1 reference:1 |@bigram margraviate_brandenburg:1 nineteenth_century:1 elector_brandenburg:3 sede_vacante:1 joachim_frederick:1 |
5,952 | Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation | The Australian Broadcasting Corporation, commonly referred to as "the ABC", is Australia's national public broadcaster. With a total budget of AUD$1.13 Billion annually, Budget Paper No. 4 2009-2010, Retrieved 12 May 2009 "http://www.budget.gov.au/2009-10/content/bp4/html/bp4_agency_resourcing_04_bcde.htm" the corporation provides television, radio, online and mobile services throughout metropolitan and regional Australia, as well as overseas through the Australia Network and Radio Australia. Founded in 1929 as the Australian Broadcasting Company, it was subsequently nationalised and made a state-owned corporation on 1 July 1932, as the Australian Broadcasting Commission. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983 changed the name of the organisation to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, effective 1 July 1983. History 1920s to the 1940s The first public radio station in Australia opened in Sydney on 13 November 1923 under the call sign 2SB with other stations in Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Perth and Hobart following. A licensing scheme, administered by the Postmaster-General's Department, was soon established allowing certain stations government funding, albeit with restrictions placed on their advertising content. Following a 1927 Royal Commission inquiry into radio licensing issues, the government established the National Broadcasting Service which subsequently took over a number of the larger funded stations. It also nationalised the Australian Broadcasting Company which had been created by entertainment interests to supply programs to various radio stations. On 1 July 1932, the Australian Broadcasting Commission was established, taking over the operations of the National Broadcasting Service and eventually establishing offices in each of Australia's capital cities. The ABC's Perth headquarters in 1937. Over the next four years the stations were reformed into a cohesive broadcasting organisation through regular program relays, coordinated by a centralised bureaucracy. The Australian broadcast radio spectrum was constituted of the ABC and the commercial sector. In 1942 The Australian Broadcasting Act was passed, giving the ABC the power to decide when, and in what circumstances, political speeches should be broadcast. Directions from the Minister about whether or not to broadcast any matter now had to be made in writing, and any exercise of the power had to be mentioned in the Commission's Annual Report. It was used only once, in 1963. In the same year, "Kindergarten of the Air" began on ABC Radio in Perth, and was later broadcast nationally. 1950s to the 1970s The commission commenced television broadcasting in Sydney and Melbourne in 1956. ABN-2 Sydney was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of Australia, Robert Menzies, on 5 November with ABV-2 Melbourne following two weeks later, on 18 November. These two stations were later joined by additional services in Brisbane (ABQ-2), Adelaide (ABS-2), Perth (ABW-2), Hobart (ABT-2) and, eventually, Darwin (ABD-6). James Dibble read the first television news bulletin for the ABC. Australian Broadcasting Corporation, "About the ABC: History of the ABC: James Dibble". Accessed 3 September 2008. James Dibble reading the first ABC News bulletin in 1956. Although radio programs could be broadcast nationally by landline, television relay facilities were not put in place until the early 1960s. This meant that news bulletins had to be sent to each capital city by teleprinter, to be prepared and presented separately in each city, with filmed materials copied manually and sent to each state. Other television programs at the time included the popular Six O'Clock Rock hosted by Johnny O'Keefe, Mr Squiggle, as well as operas and plays. The "wavelength" logo that was used from 1 January 1975 to 31 December 2000 In the early years of television, the ABC had been using Lissajous curves as fillers in-between programs. A staff competition was conducted in 1963 to create a new logo for use on television, stationery, publications, microphone badges and vehicles. After a suggestion by space engineer, Doug Rickard, the ABC's senior graphic designer, Bill Kennard, submitted a design in 1965 which was part of the waveform of an oscilloscope. The letters A-B-C were added to the wavelength design and it was adopted as the ABC's official logo. Kennard was paid A£25 for his design. In 1975, colour television was introduced in Australia, and within a decade, the ABC had moved into satellite broadcasting, greatly enhancing its ability to distribute content nationally. In the same year, the ABC introduced a 24 hour-a-day AM rock station in Sydney, 2JJ (Double Jay), which was eventually expanded into the national Triple J FM network. A year later, a national classical music network was established on the FM band, broadcasting from Adelaide. It was initially known as ABC-FM - referring both to its 'fine music' programming and radio frequency. In 1978 the ABC NSW Staff Association organised a strike against budget cuts and political interference. Sydney ABC was off air for four days. Molomby, Tom, Is there a moderate on the roof? ABC Years, William Heinemann Australia, Port Melbourne, 1991, p.110 A packed free concert in support was held at the Regent Theatre and compared by Bob Hudson. It featured Fred Dagg and Robyn Archer. Molomby, Tom, Is there a moderate on the roof? ABC Years, William Heinemann Australia, Port Melbourne, 1991, p.114 The ABC budget began to decline in 1976 and was not reversed until 1985. However Tom Molomby writes: "The effects of the budget reductions had been so badly handled that the organisation was to remain seriously crippled for years." Molomby, Tom, Is there a moderate on the roof? ABC Years, William Heinemann Australia, Port Melbourne, 1991, p.160 1980s to the 1990s The Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983 changed the name of the organisation from the "Australian Broadcasting Commission" to the "Australian Broadcasting Corporation" effective 1 July 1983. At the same time, the newly-formed Corporation underwent significant restructuring - program production in indigenous affairs, comedy, social history and current affairs was significantly expanded, while the Corporation's output of drama was boosted. Local production trebled from 1986-91 with the assistance of co-production, co-financing, and pre-sales arrangements. The changes also led to the split of television and radio operations into two separate divisions, with an overhaul of management, finance, property and engineering undertaken. Geoffrey Whitehead was the initial Managing Director, however following his resignation in 1986, David Hill (at the time chair of the ABC Board) took over his position. A new Concert Music department was formed in 1985 to coordinate the corporation's six symphony orchestras, which in turn received a greater level of autonomy in order to better respond to local needs. Open-air free concerts and tours, educational activities, and joint ventures with other music groups were undertaken at the time to expand the Orchestras' audience reach. ABC Radio was restructured significantly in 1985 - Radio One became the Metropolitan network, while Radio 2 became known as Radio National (callsigns, however, were not standardised until 1990). New programs such as The World Today, Australia All Over, and The Coodabeen Champions were introduced, while ABC-FM established an Australian Music Unit in 1989. Radio Australia began to focus on the Asia-Pacific region, with coverage targeted at the south west and central Pacific, south-east Asia, and north Asia. Radio Australia also carried more news coverage, with special broadcasts during the 1988 Fiji coup, Tianmen Square massacre, and the First Gulf War. The ABC's Sydney headquarters in Ultimo. In 1991, the Corporation's Sydney radio and orchestral operations moved to a new building built by Leighton Holdings on a single site in the inner-city suburb of Ultimo. In Melbourne, the ABC Southbank Centre was completed in 1994, and now houses the radio division in Victoria as well as the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra. The ABC Multimedia Unit was established in July, 1995, to manage the new ABC website (launched in August). Funding was allocated later that year specifically for online content, as opposed to reliance on funding for television and radio content. The first online election coverage was put together in 1996, and included news, electorate maps, candidate information and live results. By the early 1990s, all major ABC broadcasting outlets moved to 24 hour-a-day operation, while regional radio coverage in Australia was extended with 80 new transmitters. Live television broadcasts of selected parliamentary sessions started in 1990. ABC NewsRadio, a continuous news network broadcast on the Parliamentary and News Network when parliament is not sitting, was launched on 5 October 1994. International television service Australia Television International was established in 1993, while at the same Radio Australia increased its international reach. Reducing funding in 1997 for Radio Australia resulted in staff and programming cuts. Australia Television was sold to the Seven Network in 1998, however the service continued to show ABC news and current affairs programming up until its closure in 2001. The ABC's television operation joined its radio and online divisions at the corporation's Ultimo headquarters in 2000. 2000s In 2001, digital television commenced after four years of preparation. In readiness, the ABC had fully digitised its production, post-production and transmission facilities - heralded at the time as 'the greatest advance in television technology since the introduction of colour'. The first programs to be produced in widescreen were drama series Something in the Air, Grass Roots and In the Mind of the Architect. At the same time, the ABC's Multimedia division was renamed 'ABC New Media', becoming an output division of the ABC alongside Television and Radio. Legislation allowed the ABC to provide 'multichannels' - additional, digital-only, television services managed by the New Media division. Soon after the introduction of digital television in 2001, Fly TV and the ABC Kids Channel launched, showing a mix of programming aimed at teenagers and children. In 2002, the ABC launched ABC Asia Pacific - the replacement for the defunct Australia Television channel operated previously by the Seven Network. Much like its predecessor, and companion radio network Radio Australia, the service provided a mix of programming targeted at audiences throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Funding cuts in 2003 led to the closure of Fly and the ABC Kid's Channel. ABC2 launched on 7 March 2005. ABC2, a second attempt at a digital-only television channel, launched on 7 March 2005. Unlike its predecessors the new service was not dependent on government funding, instead running on a budget of AUD$3 million per year. Minister for Communications Helen Coonan inaugurated the channel at Parliament House three days later. Genre restrictions limiting the types of programming the channel could carry were lifted in October, 2006 - ABC2 was henceforth able to carry programming classified as comedy, drama, national news, sport and entertainment. A high incidence of breast cancer in female staff working at the ABC's offices in Brisbane led to the closure of the site, based in Toowong, on 21 December 2006. Sixteen women were diagnosed with the disease in a period spanning 1994 to 2007. A progress report released in March, 2007, by an independent panel formed to investigate the occurrences found that the rate of occurrence for breast cancer rate at the offices was eleven times higher than elsewhere - since the closure of the site, the ABC's Brisbane-based television and radio operations were moved to alternate locations around the city, including Ten Brisbane's studios at Mt Coot-tha. The ABC's Managing Director, Mark Scott, announced in August, 2007 that new studios would be built on the site, following the final release of the Review and Scientific Investigation Panel's report. . The new home of the ABC in Brisbane will be at South Bank, next to the Conservatorium and QPAC. http://www.abc.net.au/corp/pubs/media/s2442316.htm At midday on 8 February 2008, ABC TV was rebranded as ABC1, complementing the existing ABC2 digital-only channel which was launched on 7 March 2005. A new online video-on-demand service launched in July of the same year, titled ABC iView. Corporation Structure Below is the divisional structure of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. ABC SecretariatDirector of Editorial PoliciesChief of StaffDirector of Corporate DevelopmentGeneral CounselRob SimpsonChief Operating OfficerDavid Pendleton ABC BoardManaging DirectorMark Scott InnovationDirectorIan CarrollRadio and Regional ContentDirectorSue HowardTelevisionDirectorKim DaltonNews and Current AffairsDirectorJohn CameronInternational, Corporate Strategy & GovernanceDirectorMurray GreenCommercialDirectorLynley MarshallCommunicationsDirectorvacant Management The operations of the ABC are governed by a board of directors , consisting of a Managing Director, five to seven Directors, and until 2006, a staff-elected director. The Managing Director is appointed by the board for a period of up to five years, but is eligible for renewal. The authority and guidelines for the appointment of directors is provided for in the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983. Appointments to the ABC Board made by successive governments have often resulted in criticism of the appointees' political affiliation, background, and relative merit. Past appointments have associated directly with political parties - five of fourteen appointed chairmen have been accused of political affiliation or friendship, include Richard Downing and Ken Myer (both of whom publicly endorsed the Australian Labor Party at the 1972 election), as well as Sir Henry Bland. David Hill was close to Neville Wran, while Donald McDonald was considered to be a close friend of John Howard. From 2003 the Howard Government also made several controversial appointments to the ABC Board, including prominent ABC critic Janet Albrechtsen, , Ron Brunton, and Keith Windschuttle. During their 2007 federal election campaign, Labor announced plans to introduce a new system, similar to that of the BBC, for appointing members to the board. Under the new system, ABC candidates would be considered by a panel established "at arm's length" from the Communications Minister. If the Minister chose someone not on the panel's shortlist, they would be required to justify this to parliament. The ABC Chairman would be nominated by the Prime Minister and endorsed by the Leader of the Opposition. The new merit-based appointment system was announced on October 16, in advance of the new triennial funding period starting in 2009. John Gallagher QC and Ron Brunton both retired from the Board in February and May 2008, respectively. No replacement has yet been appointed. The board's members, since May, 2008: Mark Scott - Managing Director, appointed 5 July 2006 Maurice Newman AC - Chairperson, appointed 1 January 2007 Janet Albrechtsen - appointed 24 February 2005 Steven Skala - appointed 6 October 2005 Peter Hurley - appointed 14 June 2006 Keith Windschuttle - appointed 14 June 2006 Funding As opposed to many of its international counterparts such as the BBC, the ABC is funded entirely by the Australian government, in addition to some revenue received from its retail outlets. In the 2006-07 federal budget, the ABC received A$823 million of government funding, increased to $840 million in 2008-09. Until 1948, the ABC was funded directly by radio licence fees; amendments were also made to the Australian Broadcasting Act that meant the ABC would receive its funding directly from the federal government. Licence fees remained until 1973 when they were abolished by the Whitlam Labor government, on the basis that the near-universality of television and radio services meant that public funding was a fairer method of providing revenue for government-owned radio and television broadcasters. The term "where your 8 cents a day goes", coined in the late 1980s during funding negotiations, is often used in reference to the services provided by the ABC. It is estimated that the cost of the ABC per head of population per day is now 7.1 cents a day, based on the Corporation's 2007-08 'base funding' of $543 million. The Australian Communications Minister, Senator Stephen Conroy indicated strong support from the Government for the ABC's funding submission for the next budget, saying the organisation had been underfunded for many years. http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/sbs-and-abc-to-get-extra-money/2008/12/12/1228585118324.html Politics and criticism The ABC has been accused of bias by both sides of politics. Coalition members of parliament and right-wing commentators such as Andrew Bolt, Piers Akerman, Tim Blair and Gerard Henderson have all accused the Corporation of left-wing bias, however similar criticism has come from the left, including former New South Wales premier Neville Wran, Bob Hawke, and Paul Keating.. Conservative Liberal Party governments in the 1960s and 1970s attempted to influence the Corporation's political coverage by threatening to reduce funding for its news and current affairs division, while the Hawke Labor government unsuccessfully proposed merging it with the Special Broadcasting Service. Soon after coming to office in 1996, the Liberal Party government of John Howard reduced the ABC's operating grants by ten percent. Senator K. Lundy, Adjournment speech, Senate Hansard, 10 September 1996 The appointment of Jonathan Shier, managing director at the time, was also controversial. A 2004 Roy Morgan media credibility survey found that twenty-five percent of Australian journalists viewed the ABC as Australia's most partisan media outlet, second only to News Limited. At the same time, the poll found that ABC Radio was seen as the most accurate news source in the country. Why Australians Don’t Respect The Media South Australian state treasurer Kevin Foley accused ABC Radio of right-wing bias in February 2008 for its reporting of state economic issues, claiming that it is not "an objective media organisation". A number of former journalists and presenters have moved from positions at the corporation to politics. State and federal Labor MPs Bob Carr, Alan Carpenter, Clare Martin, Mary Delahunty and Maxine McKew, as well as the Liberal Party's Pru Goward , Rob Messenger , Peter Collins and Eoin Cameron all held, or hold, positions at the ABC. Research undertaken by the broadcaster has indicated that out of a total of 19 former staffers moving into party political positions, 10 have joined the Labor Party, and 9 the Liberal Party. In 2008, the ABC faced criticism over Planet Slayer, a controversial environment website for children produced by ABC Online. The site, first published in 2003, features a greenhouse calculator which states the age a person needs to die if they are not to 'overuse their share of the earth'. The site has been criticised for attacking those who eat meat, blue collared workers such as loggers, as well as nuclear energy. Managing director Mark Scott said the site was not designed to offend anyone, but prompt children to think about environmental issues. Services Radio The ABC operates 46 local radio stations, in addition to four national networks and international service Radio Australia. In addition, DiG Radio launched on digital platforms in 2002, currently offering three separate stations. ABC Local Radio is the Corporation's flagship radio station in each broadcast area. There are 46 individual stations, each with a similar format consisting of locally presented light entertainment, news, talk back, music, sport and interviews, in addition to some national programming such as AM, PM, The World Today, sporting events and Nightlife. ABC Radio National broadcasts more than 60 special interest programs per week covering a range of topics including music, comedy, book readings, radio dramas, poetry, science, health, the arts, religion, social history and current affairs. ABC NewsRadio is a rolling news service, previously known as the Parliamentary and News Network. The service was established to broadcast federal parliamentary sittings, to relieve the local ABC radio network from this intermittent task, and to provide a news service at other times. The network broadcasts news on a 24/7 format with updates on the quarter-hour. Much of its news content is produced by the ABC itself, however many programs are relayed from the BBC World Service, NPR, Deutsche Welle, Radio Netherlands and CNN Radio. ABC Classic FM was the ABC's first FM radio service. It was originally known simply as "ABC FM", and for a short time "ABC Fine Music". Its format borrowed heavily from community stations that eventually founded the Fine Music Network, as well as BBC Radio 3. Triple J is the national youth radio network, and broadcasts contemporary alternative and independent music; it is targeted at people aged 18–35. While the network plays music from around the world, it has a strong focus on local artists. Triple J was formerly known as "Double Jay" when it launched in Sydney on 19 January 1975. Television Within Australia, the ABC operates two channels. ABC1, the Corporation's original television service, receives the bulk of funding for television and shows first-run comedy, drama, documentaries, and news and current affairs. In each state and territory a local news bulletin is shown at 7.00pm nightly. In 2001 ABC TV launched its digital service. ABC2, launched in 2005, is a digital-only channel that shows repeated programs from ABC1, as well as some original content including news programs, children's shows, animation, and music shows. ABC HD, a high-definition simulcast of ABC1 Sydney, is also available in most areas. In September 2007, the Australian government announced a proposal to launch a new digital-only children's channel, to be named ABC3. An ABC3 channel appeared on television receivers in 2008, as a placeholder for the future ABC3 channel. At present it is a simulcast of ABC1. ABC3 was considered by the Australia 2020 Summit and given as one of the recommendations to the Government. In April 2009, the Government's official response to the Summit approved the idea, and in the 2009-10 Commonwealth Budget $67 million was allocated towards ABC3 as part of the Government's $167 million funding increase to the ABC. The channel is expected to launch later in 2009. Plans for ABC4 have been released, with a content focus of Business, Politics and News Online An experimental Multimedia Unit was established in 1995, charged with developing policy for the ABC's work in web publishing. This unit continued until 2000, when the New Media division was formed, bringing together the ABC's online output as a division similar to Television or Radio. The division had over a million pages of material published by late 2003. In 2001 the New Media division became New Media and Digital Services, reflecting the broader remit to develop content for digital platforms such as digital television. In addition to ABC Online, the division also had responsibility over the ABC's two digital television services, Fly TV and the ABC Kids Channel, until their closure in 2003. In March 2005 the division oversaw the launch of ABC2, a free-to-air digital television channel, in effect a replacement for ABC Kids and Fly. In conjunction with the ABC's radio division, New Media and Digital Services implemented the ABC's first podcasts in December 2004. By mid-2006 the ABC had become an international leader in podcasting with over fifty podcast programs delivering hundreds of thousands of downloads per week, including trial video podcasts of The Chaser's War on Everything and jtv. In February 2007, the New Media & Digital Services division was dissolved and divided up amongst other areas of the ABC. It was replaced by a new Innovations area, to manage ABC Online and investigate new technologies for the ABC. International The Australia Network is an international satellite television service operated by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, funded by advertising and grants from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Aimed at the Asia-Pacific region, the service broadcasts a mixture of English language programming, including general entertainment, sport, and current affairs. ABC Radio Australia is an international shortwave, satellite and internet radio service with transmissions aimed at East Asia and the Pacific Islands, although its signals are also audible in many other parts of the world. It features programs in various languages spoken in these regions, including Mandarin, Indonesian, Vietnamese, Khmer and Tok Pisin. Radio Australia bulletins are also carried on the World Radio Network, available via satellite in Europe and North America. Commercial ABC Commercial is the division of the ABC responsible for pursuing new sources of revenue for the Corporation. It is composed of ABC Retail, ABC Consumer Publishing and Content Sales, as well as ABC Resource Hire. ABC retail outlets were established in 1974. All profits from the sale of consumer product and production services return to the Corporation to reinvest in program-making. Orchestras Up until the installation of disc recording equipment in 1935, all content broadcast on the ABC was produced live, including music. For this purpose, the ABC established broadcasting orchestras in each state, and in some centres also employed choruses and dance bands. This became known as the ABC Concert Music Division, which was controlled by the Federal Director of Music - the first of whom was W.G. James Phillip Sametz: Play On, ABC Books, Sydney, 1992; p. 35 . There are currently six state symphony orchestras: Adelaide Symphony Orchestra Melbourne Symphony Orchestra Sydney Symphony The Queensland Orchestra Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra West Australian Symphony Orchestra The orchestras were corporatised in the 1990s but remain under ABC ownership, co-ordinated by Symphony Australia. See also Timeline of Australian radio References External links ABC website ABC Corporate Communications Friends of the ABC Film Australia Digital Learning – digital resources tagged with ‘ABC’ | Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation |@lemmatized australian:27 broadcasting:22 corporation:25 commonly:1 refer:2 abc:114 australia:30 national:12 public:3 broadcaster:3 total:2 budget:10 aud:2 billion:1 annually:1 paper:1 retrieve:1 may:3 http:3 www:3 gov:1 au:3 content:11 html:2 htm:2 provide:7 television:34 radio:53 online:10 mobile:1 service:30 throughout:2 metropolitan:2 regional:3 well:9 overseas:1 network:18 found:2 company:2 subsequently:2 nationalise:2 make:5 state:9 july:7 commission:6 act:5 change:3 name:3 organisation:6 effective:2 history:4 first:11 station:13 open:2 sydney:11 november:3 call:1 sign:1 melbourne:9 brisbane:6 adelaide:4 perth:4 hobart:2 follow:5 licensing:2 scheme:1 administer:1 postmaster:1 general:2 department:3 soon:3 establish:13 allow:2 certain:1 government:18 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5,953 | Ivo_Caprino | Ivo Caprino (17 February 1920 – 8 February 2001) was a Norwegian film director and writer, best known for his puppet films. His most famous film is Flåklypa Grand Prix ("Pinchcliffe Grand Prix"), made in 1975. Caprino was the son of furniture designer Mario Caprino and the artist Ingeborg Gude, who was a granddaughter of the painter Hans Gude. In the mid 1940s, he helped his mother design puppets for a puppet theatre, which inspired him to try making a film using his mother's designs. The result of their collaboration was Tim og Tøffe, an 8 minute film released in 1949 . Several films followed in the next couple of years, including two 15 minute shorts that are still shown regularly in Norway today, Veslefrikk med Fela (Little Freddy and his Fiddle), based on a Norwegian folk tale, and Karius og Baktus, a story by Thorbjørn Egner of two little trolls, representing Caries and Bacterium, living in a boy's teeth. Ingeborg Gude made the puppets for these films as well, as she would continue to do up until her death in the mid sixties. When making Tim og Tøffe, Caprino invented an ingenious method for controlling the puppet's movements in real time. The technique can be described as a primitive, mechanical version of animatronics. Caprino's films received rave reviews, and he quickly became a celebrity in Norway. In particular, the public were fascinated with the secret technology used to make his films. When he switched to traditional stop motion, Caprino tried to maintain the impression that he was still using some kind of "magic" technology to make the puppets move, even though all his later films were made with traditional stop motion techniques. In addition to the short films, Caprino produced dozens of advertising films with puppets. In 1959, he directed a live action feature film, Ugler i Mosen, which also contained stop motion sequences. He then embarked on his most ambitious project, a feature film about Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, who travelled around Norway in the 19th century collecting traditional folk tales. The plan was to use live action for the sequences showing Asbjørnsen, and then to realise the folk tales using stop motion. Unfortunately, Caprino was unable to secure funding for the project, so he ended up making the planned folk tale sequences as separate 16 minute puppet films, bookended by live action sequences showing Asbjørnsen. In 1970, Caprino and his small team of collaborators, started work on a 25 minutes TV special, which would eventually become The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix. Based on a series of books by Norwegian cartoonist and author Kjell Aukrust, it featured a group of eccentric characters all living in the small village of Pinchcliffe. The TV special was a collection of sketches based on Aukrust's books, with no real story line. After 1.5 years of work, it was decided that it didn't really work as a whole, so production on the TV special was stopped (with the exception of some very short clips, no material from it has ever been seen by the public), and Caprino and Aukrust instead wrote a screenplay for a feature film using the characters and environments that had already been built. The result was The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix, which stars Theodore Rimspoke (No. Reodor Felgen) and his two assistants, Sonny Duckworth (No. Solan Gundersen), a cheerful and optimistic bird, and Lambert (No. Ludvig), a nervous, pessimistic and melancholic hedgehog. Theodore works as a bicycle repairman, though he spends most of his time inventing weird Rube Goldberg-like contraptions. One day, the trio discover that one of Theodore's former assistants, Rudolph Gore-Slimey ([[Norwegian language [No]]. Rudolf Blodstrupmoen), has stolen his design for a race car engine, and has become a world champion Formula 1 driver. Sonny secures funding from an Arab oil sheik who happens to be vacationing in Pinchcliffe, and the trio then build a gigantic racing car, Il Tempo Gigante - a fabulous construction with two engines, radar and its own blood bank. Theodore then enters a race, and ends up winning, beating Gore-Slimey despite his attempts at sabotage. The film was made in 3.5 years by a team of approximately 5 people. Caprino directed and animated, Bjarne Sandemose (Caprino's principal collaborator throughout his career) built the sets and the cars, and was in charge of the technical side, Ingeborg Riiser modeled the puppets and Gerd Alfsen made the costumes and props. When it came out in 1975 , The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix was an enormous success in Norway, selling 1 million tickets in its first year of release. It remains the biggest box office hit of all time in Norway (Caprino Studios claim it has sold 5.5 million tickets to date) and was also released in many other countries. To help promote the film abroad, Caprino and Sandemose built a full scale replica of Il Tempo Gigante that is legal for public roads, but is usually exposited at Hunderfossen familiepark. Except for some TV work in the late seventies, Caprino made no more puppet films, focusing instead on creating attractions for the Hunderfossen theme park outside Lillehammer based on his folk tale movies, and making tourist films using a custom built multi camera setup of his own design that shoots 280 degrees panorama movies. Since Caprino's death, his son Remo has had great success developing a computer game based on The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix. Ivo Caprino was born and died in Oslo, but lived all of his life at Snarøya in Bærum. 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5,954 | Lions_Clubs_International | Lions Clubs International (LCI) is the world's largest secular service organization with over 44,500 clubs and more than 1.4 million members in 203 countries around the world. Headquartered in Oak Brook, Illinois, United States, the organization strives to meet the needs of communities on a local and global scale. A diverse organization, LCI currently supports the eleven following languages: Cantonese, English, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish. Lions Clubs International was founded in the United States in 1917 by Melvin Jones, a Chicago businessman. Jones asked, with regard to his colleagues, "What if these men who are successful because of their drive, intelligence and ambition, were to put their talents to work improving their communities?" Jones' personal code, "You can't get very far until you start doing something for somebody else," reminds many Lions of the importance of community service. At the local, zone, region, district, and international level, Lions members exemplify their motto “We Serve.” Lions Clubs focus on programming related to sight conservation, hearing and speech conservation, diabetes awareness, youth outreach, international relations, environmental issues, and other programs that support the local communities where Lions live. Lions are also passionate about developing effective leadership skills in their members and have an extensive leadership development program including an online Lions Learning Center and several leadership institutes. Purpose Lions International purposes include the following: To create and foster a spirit of understanding among the peoples of the world. To promote the principles of good government and good citizenship. To take an active interest in the civic, cultural, social and moral welfare of the community. To unite the clubs in the bonds of friendship, good fellowship and mutual understanding. To provide a forum for the open discussion of all matters of public interest; provided, however, that partisan politics and sectarian religion shall not be debated by club members. To encourage service-minded people to serve their community without personal financial reward, and to encourage efficiency and promote high ethical standards in commerce, industry, professions, public works and private endeavors. Charitable work Lions plaque posted a location where a local club meets Much of the focus of Lions Clubs International work as a service club organization is to raise money for worthy causes. All funds raised by Lions Clubs from the general public are used for charitable purposes, and administrative costs are kept strictly separate and paid for by members. Some of the money raised for a club’s charity account goes toward projects that benefit the local community of an individual club. Service projects Lions Clubs plan and participate in a wide variety of service projects that meet the international goals of Lions Clubs International as well as the needs of their local communities. Examples include donations to hospices, or community campaigns such as Message in a bottle, a United Kingdom initiative which places a plastic bottle with critical medical information inside the refrigerators of vulnerable people. Money is also raised for international purposes. Some of this is donated in reaction to events such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Other money is used to support international campaigns, coordinated by the Lions Clubs International Foundation (LCIF), such as Sight First and Lions World Sight Day, which was launched in 1998 to draw world media attention to the plight of sight loss in the third world. Lions focus on work for the blind and visually impaired began when Helen Keller addressed the International Convention at Cedar Point, Ohio on 30 June 1925 and charged Lions to be Knights to the Blind. Lions also have a strong commitment to community hearing- and cancer-screening projects. In Perth, Western Australia, they have conducted hearing screening for over 30 years and provided seed funding for the Lions Ear and Hearing Institute established September 9, 2001, a center of excellence in the diagnosis, management, and research of ear and hearing disorders. In Perth, Lions have also been instrumental in the establishment of the Lions Eye Institute. In Brisbane, Queensland, the Lions Medical Research Foundation provides funding to a number of researchers. Prof. Ian Frazer's initial work, leading to the development of a HPV vaccine for cervical cancer, was funded by the Lions Medical Research Foundation. Lions Clubs International has supported the work of the United Nations since that organization's inception in 1945, when it was one of the non-governmental organizations invited to assist in the drafting of the United Nations Charter in San Francisco, California. Lions Club Bridge, a symbol for International Friendship and Cooperation (location: Aachen-Lichtenbusch, German-Belgian Border checkpoint) Lions Clubs International Foundation Lions Clubs International Foundation is “Lions helping Lions serve the world.” Donations provide funding in the form of grants to financially assist Lions districts with large-scale humanitarian projects that are too expansive and costly for Lions to finance on their own. The Foundation aids Lions in making a greater impact in their local communities, as well as around the world. Through LCIF, Lions ease pain and suffering and bring healing and hope to people worldwide. Major initiatives of the foundation include the following: SightFirst programs Childhood Blindness Project Lions Eye Health Program (LEHP, pronounced "leap") River Blindness/Trachoma SightFirst China Action Sight for Kids Other sight programs Core 4 Preschool Vision Screening Disability programs Lions World Services for the Blind Diabetes Prevention/Treatment Habitat for Humanity Partnership Lions Affordable Hearing Aid Project Low Vision Special Olympics Opening Eyes Youth Programs Lions Quest Membership The Lions member is at the center of the organization. Membership is by invitation, though dedicated individuals are rarely turned away, and attendance at meetings is expected on a monthly or fortnightly basis. Since Lions Clubs International is a community-based organization with a well-developed hierarchy, members have the opportunity to advance from a local club to an office at the zone, district, national (also known as multiple district) and international levels. Lions welcome any individual, regardless of age (as long as you're at least 18), gender, political or religious affiliation, or bb | url= http://www.lionsclubs.org/EN/content/lions_mem.shtml | title= How to become a member | accessdate= 2007-11-06 }}</ref> Spread of Lionism International Lion Club Hong Kong Lions Clubs around the world The organization became international on 12 March 1920, when the first club in Canada was established in Windsor, Ontario. Lions Clubs have since spread across the globe. Listed below are the dates of entry for some countries and regions. 1917 United States of America 1920 Canada 1926 China (Tianjin) 1927 Mexico (Nuevo Laredo) 1927 Cuba (Havana) 1949 Philippines (Manila) 1950 Finland 1952 Brazil 1955 Hong Kong and Macau 1963 Turkey on 4 January with Law 3512 signed by President Cemal Gürsel 2002 People's Republic of China (Guangdong and Shenzhen, chartered on May 14, are the first international service clubs to be granted permission by the government of the PRC to operate in mainland China) 2007 Iraq Extensions of the Lions family In addition to adult Lions Clubs, the Lions family includes high school Leo Clubs and Campus Lions Clubs. These divisions are important parts of Lions Clubs International. They allow service-minded individuals the opportunity to build better communities at the high school and college or university level. Lioness Clubs Lioness Club Membership is generally to service-minded Ladies, with expections of men also becoming Lioness members now-a-days. They are formed under a parent Lions Club. The Lions Club thus becomes the Parent Club for the Lioness Club. Naming of the Club is also like that of the Lions Club. Eg. Lions Club of Vadodara (Race Course Circle) Dist 323F-1 forming & sponsoring a Lioness Club of Vadodara (Race Course Circle) Dist 323F-1. Leo Clubs The Leo Club Program began in 1957, and has grown to include more than 5,500 clubs in more than 130 countries. There are approximately 140,000 Leos worldwide. The objective of the Leo Program is "to provide the youth of the world an opportunity for development and contribution, individually and collectively, as responsible members of the local, national, and international community." The name Leo originated as an acronym that stood for the motto of the clubs, "Leadership, Experience, Opportunity." Campus Lions Clubs Many Leos join a Campus Lions Club if they attend a university or college after high school graduation. There are more than 125 Campus Lions clubs in the world including nearly 2,500 members on college and university campuses in Australia, Brazil, China, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, England, Ethiopia, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Mongolia, Nepal, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Uganda, United States, Venezuela, Kenya and Zimbabwe. Campus Lions Clubs empower their members to create meaningful change in their communities while developing leadership and professional skills. International Convention An international convention is held annually in cities across the globe for members to meet other Lions, elect the coming year's officers, and partake in the many activities planned. At the convention, Lions can participate in elections and parades, display and discuss fundraisers and service projects, and trade pins and other souvenirs. The first convention was held in 1917, the first year of the club’s existence, in Dallas, Texas. The 2006 convention was due to be held in New Orleans, but damage sustained during Hurricane Katrina meant that the convention had to be relocated to Boston. Past conventions Past convention locations include the following: 92nd 2009 Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States 91st 2008 Bangkok, Thailand 90th 2007 Chicago, Illinois, United States 89th 2006 Boston, Massachusetts, United States 88th 2005 Hong Kong, People's Republic of China 87th 2004 Detroit, Michigan, United States 86th 2003 Denver, Colorado, United States 85th 2002 Osaka, Japan 84th 2001 Indianapolis, Indiana, United States 83rd 2000 Honolulu, Hawaii, United States 82nd 1999 San Diego, California, United States 81st 1998 Birmingham, United Kingdom 80th 1997 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States 79th 1996 Montreal, Quebec, Canada 78th 1995 Seoul, South Korea 77th 1994 Phoenix, Arizona, United States 76th 1993 Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States 75th 1992 Hong Kong 74th 1991 Brisbane, Australia 69th 1986 New Orleans, Louisiana, United States 68th 1985 Dallas, Texas, United States 35th 1952 Mexico City, Mexico Lions Band Many clubs sponsor a Lions Band to compete in the International Lions Parade at the International Convention. The parade champion for 25 years between 1951 and 2007 was the Lions Band from Mississippi, United States. Mississippi Lions All State Band has won five championships consecutively, more than any other band competing in the entire history of this event. Lions Clubs International in the news In a survey released on July 5, 2007, the Lions Clubs International Foundation (LCIF) was ranked best among non-governmental organizations (NGOs) worldwide. The survey asked 445 companies about their involvement with non-governmental organizations. From 34 global organizations, LCIF came in first for its execution of programs, demonstrated accountability, communications internally and externally, program adaptability to the surrounding community, and understanding the goals of its corporate supporters. LCIF ranked above organizations such as Rotary International, Habitat for Humanity, UNESCO and UNICEF. The ratings were compiled by the Financial Times in association with the Dalberg Global Development Advisors and the United Nations Global Compact. The assessment was published in the Financial Times' Corporate Citizenship and Philanthropy Special Report and highlights companies' growing interest in long-term partnerships to tackle an expanding range of social issues. The list was released at a meeting of executives of NGOs and the UN in Geneva in Switzerland. References External links LionMember Online Directory of Lions Club Members. Lions Clubs International History The history of Lions Clubs International Helen Keller's Speech The full text of Helen Keller's speech at the 1925 International Convention SightFirst Program The Lions Clubs International program SightFirst Lions Day with the United Nations The relationship between Lions and the United Nations LionNet International, 'On the Net, We Serve' An International directory of Lions clubs with websites Lions Eye Institute The Lions Eye Institute in Perth, Western Australia Ear Science Institute Australia The Ear Science Institute Australia (formerly the Lions Ear and Hearing Institute) in Perth, Western Australia Lions Medical Research Foundation The Lions Medical Research Foundation in Brisbane, Queensland Lions International Stamp Club LISC Hammonton Lions Club, New Jersey INDIA Bangalore North Lions Club Lions International Amateur (Ham) Radio Club Station VU2LCI Perry Township Lions Club, Stark County, Ohio The Skippack Lions Club, Skippack, Pennsylvania South Carolina Lions Clubs Lions in Great Britain and Ireland Leo club of Chittagong Southern , Bangladesh | Lions_Clubs_International |@lemmatized lion:84 club:63 international:38 lci:2 world:12 large:2 secular:1 service:11 organization:13 million:1 member:14 country:3 around:3 headquarter:1 oak:1 brook:1 illinois:2 united:25 state:19 strive:1 meet:4 need:2 community:16 local:9 global:4 scale:2 diverse:1 currently:1 support:4 eleven:1 follow:1 language:1 cantonese:1 english:1 finnish:1 french:1 german:2 italian:1 japanese:1 korean:1 mandarin:1 portuguese:1 spanish:1 swedish:1 found:1 melvin:1 jones:3 chicago:2 businessman:1 ask:2 regard:1 colleague:1 men:2 successful:1 drive:1 intelligence:1 ambition:1 put:1 talent:1 work:7 improve:1 personal:2 code:1 get:1 far:1 start:1 something:1 somebody:1 else:1 remind:1 many:4 importance:1 zone:2 region:2 district:4 level:3 exemplify:1 motto:2 serve:4 focus:3 program:14 relate:1 sight:6 conservation:2 hearing:4 speech:3 diabetes:2 awareness:1 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5,955 | Cem_Karaca | Muhtar Cem Karaca (April 5, 1945 - February 8, 2004), also called as Cem Baba (Cem the Father) by his fans, was a prominent Turkish rock musician and one of the most important figures in the Anatolian rock movement. Biography He was the only child of İrma Felekyan (Toto Karaca) of Armenian origin , a popular opera, theatre and movie actress, and Mehmet İbrahim Karaca of Azeri origin. His first group was called Dynamites and was a classic rock cover band. Later he joined Jaguars, an Elvis Presley cover band. In 1967, he started to write his own music, forming the band Apaşlar (Apachees), his first Turkish-language group. In 1969, Karaca and bass-player Serhan Karabay left Apaşlar and started an original Anatolian group called Kardaşlar (Brothers). In 1972, Karaca joined the group Moğollar (Mongols) and wrote one of his best-known songs, "Namus Belası". However, Cahit Berkay, the leader of Moğollar, wanted an international name for his band, and he left for France to take the group to another level. Karaca, who wanted to continue his Anatolian beat sound, left Moğollar and started his own band Dervişan (Dervishes) in 1974. Karaca and Dervişan sang poetic and progressive songs. In the 1970s, Turkey's image was damaged by political violence between supporters of the left and the right, separatist movements and the rise of Islamism. As the country fell into chaos, the government suspected Cem Karaca of involvement. At times he was accused of treason for being a separatist thinker and a Marxist-Leninist. The Turkish government tried to portray Karaca as a man, who was unknowingly writing songs to start a revolution. One politician was quoted as saying, "Karaca is simply calling citizens to a bloody war against the state." Dervişan was ultimately dissolved at the end of 1977. He later founded in 1978 Edirdahan, an acronym for "from Edirne to Ardahan"; the westernmost and the easternmost provinces of Turkey. He recorded one LP with Edirdahan. In early 1979, he left for West Germany for business reasons. Turkey continued to spin out of control with military curfews and eventually a military coup on September 12, 1980. General Kenan Evren took over the government and temporarily closed all the nation's political parties. After the coup, many intellectual people, including writers, artists and journalists, were arrested. A warrant was issued for the arrest of Karaca by the government of Turkey. The state invited Karaca back to the country several times, but Karaca, not knowing what would happen upon his return, decided not to come back. While he was in Germany, his father died, but he could not return to attend the funeral. After some time, the Turkish government decided to strip Cem Karaca of his Turkish citizenship, keeping the arrest warrant active. Several years later, in 1987, the prime minister and leader of the Turkish Motherland Party, Turgut Özal, issued an amnesty for Karaca. Shortly afterwards, he returned to Turkey. His return also brought a new album by him, Merhaba Gençler ve Her zaman Genç Kalanlar ("Hello Young Ones and Everyone Who'd Always Felt Young"), one of his most powerful works. His return home was greeted happily by his fans, but during his absence, Karaca had lost the youthful audience and acquired few new listeners. He died on February 8 2004 and was interred at Karacaahmet Cemetery in Üsküdar district of Istanbul. Discography 45s Emrah/Karacaoğlan (1967) (with Apaşlar) Hudey / Vahşet / Bang Bang / Shakin' All Over (1967) (with Apaşlar) Emrah / Hücum / Karacaoğlan / Ayşen (1967) (with Apaşlar) Ümit Tarlaları/Anadolu Oyun Havası/Suya Giden Allı Gelin/Nasıl Da Geçtin (1967) (with Apaşlar) İstanbul'u Dinliyorum/Oy Bana Bana (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Oy Babo/Hikaye (1968) (with Apaşlar) İstanbul/Why (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Emrah 1970/Karanlık Yollar (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Resimdeki Gözyaşları/Emrah (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Resimdeki Gözyaşları/Şans Çocuğu (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Tears/No, No, No (1968) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Ayrılık Günümüz/Gılgamış (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Zeyno/Niksar (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Bu Son Olsun/Felek Beni (1969) (with Apaşlar and Ferdy Klein Band) Emmioğlu/O Leyli (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) Kendim Ettim kendim Buldum/Erenler (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) Adsız/Unut Beni (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) Muhtar/Baba (1970) (with Ferdy Klein Band) Dadaloğlu/Kalender (1970) (with Kardaşlar) Oy Gülüm Oy/Kara Sevda (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Tatlı Dillim/Demedim Mi (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Kara Yılan/Lümüne (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Acı Doktor (Kısım 1)/Acı Doktor (Kısım 2) (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Kara Üzüm/Mehmet'e Ağıt (1971) (with Kardaşlar) Askaros Deresi/Üryan Geldim (1972) (with Kardaşlar) Obur Dünya/El Çek Tabib (1973) (with Moğollar) Gel Gel/Üzüm Kaldı (1973) (with Moğollar) Namus Belası/Gurbet (1974) (with Moğollar) Beyaz Atlı/Yiğitler (1974) (with Dervişan) Tamirci Çırağı/Nerdesin ? (1975) (with Dervişan) Mutlaka Yavrum/Kavga (1975) (with Dervişan) Beni Siz Delirttiniz/Niyazi (1975) (with Dervişan) Parka/İhtarname (1976) (with Dervişan) Mor Perşembe/Bir Mirasyediye Ağıt (1977) (with Dervişan) 1 Mayıs/Durduramayacaklar Halkın Coşkun Akan Selini (1977) (with Dervişan) LPs Apaslar-Kardaslar (1972) Cem Karaca'nın Apaşlar, Kardaşlar, Moğollar ve Ferdy Klein Orkestrasına Teşekkürleriyle (1974) Nem Kaldi (1975) Parka (1977) Yoksulluk Kader Olamaz (1977) (1) Safinaz (1978) (2) Hasret (1980) (It was sold as LP and tape) Bekle Beni(1982) (It was sold as tape only) Die Kanaken (1984) Merhaba Gençler ve Her Zaman Genç Kalanlar (1987) (It was sold as compact cassette and CD) Other albums Töre (1988) (It was sold as CD) by Oğuz Abadan Orchestra Yiyin Efendiler (1990) Nerde Kalmistik (1992) Bindik Bir Alamete (1999) Kahpe Bizans (2000) Hayvan Terli (2004) (Single) Collection albums The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 1 (1996) The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 2 (1997) The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 3 (2000) The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 4 (2001) The Best of Cem Karaca Volume 5 (2002) Ölümsüzler (2004) (After his death) Ölümsüzler 2 (2005) (After his death) Mutlaka Yavrum (2006 (After his death) (1) It was released again with different cover, sort of songs and songs in 2003. (2) It was released again as compact cassette and CD in 1994 and with different cover after Cem Karaca's death) He has also appeared as a guest artist on several recordings. References External links A website featuring Cem Karaca | Cem_Karaca |@lemmatized muhtar:2 cem:13 karaca:24 april:1 february:2 also:3 call:4 baba:2 father:2 fan:2 prominent:1 turkish:6 rock:3 musician:1 one:6 important:1 figure:1 anatolian:3 movement:2 biography:1 child:1 rma:1 felekyan:1 toto:1 armenian:1 origin:2 popular:1 opera:1 theatre:1 movie:1 actress:1 mehmet:2 brahim:1 azeri:1 first:2 group:5 dynamite:1 classic:1 cover:4 band:18 later:3 join:2 jaguar:1 elvis:1 presley:1 start:4 write:3 music:1 form:1 apaşlar:17 apachees:1 language:1 bass:1 player:1 serhan:1 karabay:1 leave:4 original:1 kardaşlar:9 brother:1 moğollar:7 mongol:1 best:6 know:2 song:5 namus:2 belası:2 however:1 cahit:1 berkay:1 leader:2 want:2 international:1 name:1 france:1 take:2 another:1 level:1 continue:2 beat:1 sound:1 dervişan:10 dervish:1 sang:1 poetic:1 progressive:1 turkey:5 image:1 damage:1 political:2 violence:1 supporter:1 left:1 right:1 separatist:2 rise:1 islamism:1 country:2 fell:1 chaos:1 government:5 suspect:1 involvement:1 time:3 accuse:1 treason:1 thinker:1 marxist:1 leninist:1 try:1 portray:1 man:1 unknowingly:1 revolution:1 politician:1 quote:1 say:1 simply:1 citizen:1 bloody:1 war:1 state:2 ultimately:1 dissolve:1 end:1 found:1 edirdahan:2 acronym:1 edirne:1 ardahan:1 westernmost:1 easternmost:1 province:1 record:1 lp:2 early:1 west:1 germany:2 business:1 reason:1 spin:1 control:1 military:2 curfew:1 eventually:1 coup:2 september:1 general:1 kenan:1 evren:1 temporarily:1 close:1 nation:1 party:2 many:1 intellectual:1 people:1 include:1 writer:1 artist:2 journalist:1 arrest:3 warrant:2 issue:2 invite:1 back:2 several:3 would:1 happen:1 upon:1 return:5 decide:2 come:1 die:3 could:1 attend:1 funeral:1 strip:1 citizenship:1 keep:1 active:1 year:1 prime:1 minister:1 motherland:1 turgut:1 özal:1 amnesty:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 bring:1 new:2 album:3 merhaba:2 gençler:2 zaman:2 genç:2 kalanlar:2 hello:1 young:2 everyone:1 always:1 felt:1 powerful:1 work:1 home:1 greet:1 happily:1 absence:1 lose:1 youthful:1 audience:1 acquire:1 listener:1 inter:1 karacaahmet:1 cemetery:1 üsküdar:1 district:1 istanbul:1 discography:1 emrah:4 karacaoğlan:2 hudey:1 vahşet:1 bang:2 shakin:1 hücum:1 ayşen:1 ümit:1 tarlaları:1 anadolu:1 oyun:1 havası:1 suya:1 giden:1 allı:1 gelin:1 nasıl:1 da:1 geçtin:1 stanbul:2 u:1 dinliyorum:1 oy:4 bana:2 ferdy:14 klein:14 babo:1 hikaye:1 karanlık:1 yollar:1 resimdeki:2 gözyaşları:2 şans:1 çocuğu:1 tear:1 ayrılık:1 günümüz:1 gılgamış:1 zeyno:1 niksar:1 bu:1 son:1 olsun:1 felek:1 beni:4 emmioğlu:1 leyli:1 kendim:2 ettim:1 buldum:1 erenler:1 adsız:1 unut:1 dadaloğlu:1 kalender:1 gülüm:1 kara:3 sevda:1 tatlı:1 dillim:1 demedim:1 mi:1 yılan:1 lümüne:1 acı:2 doktor:2 kısım:2 üzüm:2 e:1 ağıt:2 askaros:1 deresi:1 üryan:1 geldim:1 obur:1 dünya:1 el:1 çek:1 tabib:1 gel:2 kaldı:1 gurbet:1 beyaz:1 atlı:1 yiğitler:1 tamirci:1 çırağı:1 nerdesin:1 mutlaka:2 yavrum:2 kavga:1 siz:1 delirttiniz:1 niyazi:1 parka:2 htarname:1 mor:1 perşembe:1 bir:2 mirasyediye:1 mayıs:1 durduramayacaklar:1 halkın:1 coşkun:1 akan:1 selini:1 lps:1 apaslar:1 kardaslar:1 nın:1 orkestrasına:1 teşekkürleriyle:1 nem:1 kaldi:1 yoksulluk:1 kader:1 olamaz:1 safinaz:1 hasret:1 sell:4 tape:2 bekle:1 kanaken:1 compact:2 cassette:2 cd:3 töre:1 oğuz:1 abadan:1 orchestra:1 yiyin:1 efendiler:1 nerde:1 kalmistik:1 bindik:1 alamete:1 kahpe:1 bizans:1 hayvan:1 terli:1 single:1 collection:1 volume:5 ölümsüzler:2 death:4 release:2 different:2 sort:1 appear:1 guest:1 recording:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 featuring:1 |@bigram cem_karaca:11 elvis_presley:1 marxist_leninist:1 arrest_warrant:2 prime_minister:1 shortly_afterwards:1 bang_bang:1 apaşlar_ferdy:9 ferdy_klein:14 compact_cassette:2 karaca_volume:5 external_link:1 |
5,956 | Edmund_Spenser | Edmund Spenser (c. 1552 – 13 January 1599) was an important English poet best known for The Faerie Queene, an epic poem celebrating, through fantastical allegory, the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. He is recognized as one of the premier craftsmen of Modern English verse in its infancy. Life Edmund Spenser was born in London around 1552. As a young boy, he was educated in London at the Merchant Taylors' School and matriculated as a sizar at Pembroke College, Cambridge. The Edmund Spenser Home Page: Biography In July 1580 Spenser went to Ireland, in the service of the newly appointed lord deputy, Arthur Lord Grey de Wilton. Then he served with the English forces during the Second Desmond Rebellion. After the defeat of the rebels he was awarded lands in County Cork that had been confiscated in the Munster Plantation during the Elizabethan reconquest of Ireland. Among his acquaintances in the area was Walter Raleigh, a fellow colonist. Through his poetry Spenser hoped to secure a place at court, which he visited in Raleigh's company to deliver his most famous work, the Faerie Queene. However, he boldly antagonized the queen's principal secretary, Lord Burghley, and all he received in recognition of his work was a pension in 1591. When it was proposed that he receive payment of 100 pounds for his epic poem, Burghley remarked, "What, all this for a song!" Portrait of Edmund Spenser, artist unknown In the early 1590s, Spenser wrote a prose pamphlet titled, A View of the Present State of Ireland. This piece remained in manuscript until its publication and print in the mid-seventeenth century. It is probable that it was kept out of print during the author's lifetime because of its inflammatory content. The pamphlet argued that Ireland would never be totally 'pacified' by the English until its indigenous language and customs had been destroyed, if necessary by violence. Spenser recommended scorched earth tactics, such as he had seen used in the Desmond Rebellions, to create famine. Although it has been highly regarded as a polemical piece of prose and valued as a historical source on 16th century Ireland, the View is seen today as genocidal in intent. Spenser did express some praise for the Gaelic poetic tradition, but also used much tendentious and bogus analysis to demonstrate that the Irish were descended from barbarian Scythian stock. Later on, during the Nine Years War in 1598, Spenser was driven from his home by Irish rebels. His castle at Kilcolman, near Doneraile in North Cork was burned, and it is thought one of his infant children died in the blaze - though local legend has it that his wife also died. He possessed a second holding to the south, at Rennie, on a rock overlooking the river Blackwater in North Cork. The ruins of it are still visible today. A short distance away grew a tree, locally known as "Spenser's Oak" until it was destroyed in a lightning strike in the 1960s. Local legend has it that he penned some or all of "the Faerie Queene" under this tree. Queen Victoria is said to have visited the tree while staying in nearby Convamore House during her state visit to Ireland before she died. In the following year Spenser traveled to London, where he died in distressed circumstances, aged forty-six. It was arranged for his coffin to be carried by other poets, upon which they threw many pens and pieces of poetry into his grave with many tears. Spenser was admired by William Wordsworth, John Keats, Lord Byron and Alfred Lord Tennyson, among others. The language of his poetry is purposely archaic, reminiscent of earlier works such as The Canterbury Tales of Geoffrey Chaucer, whom Spenser greatly admired. Spenser's Epithalamion is the most admired of its type in the English language. It was written for his wedding to his young bride, Elizabeth Boyle. The poem consists of 365 long lines, corresponding to the days of the year; 68 short lines, representing the sum of the 52 weeks, 12 months, and 4 seasons of the annual cycle; and 24 stanzas, corresponding to the diurnal and sidereal hours. Structure of the Spenserian stanza and sonnet Spenser used a distinctive verse form, called the Spenserian stanza, in several works, including The Faerie Queene. The stanza's main meter is iambic pentameter with a final line in iambic hexameter (having six feet or stresses, known as an Alexandrine), and the rhyme scheme is ababbcbcc. The Spenserian Sonnet is based on a fusion of elements of both the Petrarchan sonnet and the Shakespearean sonnet. It is similar to the Shakespearan sonnet in the sense that its set up is based more on the 3 quatrains and a couplet,a system set up by Shakespeare; however it is more like the Petrarchan tradition in the fact that the conclusion follows from the argument or issue set up in the earlier quatrains. There is also a great use of the parody of the blason and the idealization or praise of the mistress, a literary device used by many poets. It is a way to look at a woman through the appraisal of her features in comparison to other things. In this description, the mistress's body is described part by part, i.e., much more of a scientific way of seeing one. As William Johnson states in his article "Gender Fashioning and Dynamics of Mutuality in Spenser's Amoretti," the poet-love in the scenes of Spenser's sonnets in Amoretti, is able to see his lover in an objectified manner by moving her to another, or more clearly, an item. The purpose of Spenser doing this is to bring the woman from the "transcendental ideal" to a woman in everyday life. "Through his use of metonymy and metaphor, by describing the lady not as a whole being but as bodily parts, by alluding to centuries of topoi which remove her in time as well as space, the poet transforms the woman into a text, the living 'other' into an inanimate object" (503). The opposite of this also occurs in The Faerie Queen. The counter-blason, or the opposition of appraisal, is used to describe Duessa. She is not objectified, but instead all of her flaws are highlighted. Without A Rhyme or Reason Spenser is also the man believed to have crafted the phrase "without reason or a rhyme". He was promised payment from the Queen of one hundred pounds, a so called, "reason for the rhyme". The Lord High Treasurer William Cecil, however, considered the sum too much. After a long while without receiving his payment, he sent her this quatrain: I was promis'd on a time, To have a reason for my rhyme: But from that time unto this season, I had neither rhyme or reason. She immediately ordered Cecil to send Spenser his due sum. List of works Iambicum TrimetrumThe Shepheardes Calender (1579)The Faerie Queene (1590, 1596, 1609)Complaints Containing sundrie small Poemes of the Worlds Vanitie (1591) The Ruines of Time The Teares of the Muses Virgil's Gnat Prosopopoia, or Mother Hubberds Tale Ruines of Rome: by Bellay Muiopotmos, or the Fate of the Butterflie Visions of the worlds vanitie The Visions of Bellay The Visions of PetrarchDaphnaïda. An Elegy upon the death of the noble and vertuous Douglas Howard, Daughter and heire of Henry Lord Howard, Viscount Byndon, and wife of Arthure Gorges Esquier (1594)Colin Clouts Come home againe (1595)Astrophel. A Pastoral Elegie upon the death of the most Noble and valorous Knight, Sir Philip Sidney (1595)Amoretti (1595)Epithalamion (1595)Four Hymns (1596)Prothalamion (1596)Dialogue on the State of Ireland (c. 1598) References Rust, Jennifer. "Spenser's The Faerie Queen." Saint Louis University, St. Louis. 10 October 2007. Johnson, William. "The struggle between good and evil in the first book of "The Faerie Queene". English Studies, Vol. 74, No. 6. (December 1993) p. 507-519. External links Edmund Spenser at Luminarium.org The Edmund Spenser Home Page at the Cambridge University A View of the Present State of Ireland Project Gutenberg edition of Biography of Edmund Spenser'' by John W. Hales Poetry Archive: 154 poems of Edmund Spenser Preceded by:John SkeltonEnglish Poet LaureateSucceeded by:Samuel Daniel | Edmund_Spenser |@lemmatized edmund:8 spenser:26 c:2 january:1 important:1 english:6 poet:6 best:1 know:3 faerie:8 queene:6 epic:2 poem:4 celebrating:1 fantastical:1 allegory:1 tudor:1 dynasty:1 elizabeth:2 recognize:1 one:4 premier:1 craftsman:1 modern:1 verse:2 infancy:1 life:2 bear:1 london:3 around:1 young:2 boy:1 educate:1 merchant:1 taylor:1 school:1 matriculate:1 sizar:1 pembroke:1 college:1 cambridge:2 home:4 page:2 biography:2 july:1 go:1 ireland:8 service:1 newly:1 appoint:1 lord:7 deputy:1 arthur:1 grey:1 de:1 wilton:1 serve:1 force:1 second:2 desmond:2 rebellion:2 defeat:1 rebel:2 award:1 land:1 county:1 cork:3 confiscate:1 munster:1 plantation:1 elizabethan:1 reconquest:1 among:2 acquaintance:1 area:1 walter:1 raleigh:2 fellow:1 colonist:1 poetry:4 hop:1 secure:1 place:1 court:1 visit:3 company:1 deliver:1 famous:1 work:5 however:3 boldly:1 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5,957 | Isaiah | Isaiah's Lips Anointed with Fire by Benjamin West (1782, Bob Jones University Museum and Gallery). Isaiah ( ; Greek: , Ēsaiās ; , Ash'iyā' ; "Salvation of/is YHWH") is the main figure in the Biblical Book of Isaiah, and is traditionally considered to be its author. He was an 8th-century BC Judean prophet. Part of his message was: "The land will be completely laid waste and totally plundered. The LORD has spoken this word." (Isaiah 24:3). Isaiah therefore warns the people of Israel to turn back to God. Christianity regards Isaiah as a saint and as prophet. Judaism considers the Book of Isaiah a part of its canon, and regards Isaiah as the first of the major prophets. Bible Following biblical chronology, the prophet Isaiah was believed to be born in the 8th century BC to a man named Amoz (). He married a woman known as "the prophetess" (). Isaiah had two sons by her, who bore symbolic names () - Shear-jashub, 'Remnant will return' (; see , 'Only a remnant will return') and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, 'Pillage hastens, looting speeds' (). The Book of Isaiah. He prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah (or Azariah), Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (1:1), the kings of Judah. Uzziah reigned fifty-two years in the middle of the 8th century BC, and Isaiah must have begun his career a few years before Uzziah's death, probably in the 740s BC. He lived till the fourteenth year of Hezekiah (who died 698 BC), and may have been contemporary for some years with Manasseh. Thus Isaiah may have prophesied for the long period of at least forty-four years. In early youth Isaiah must have been moved by the invasion of Israel by the Assyrian monarch Tiglath-Pileser III (); and again, twenty years later, when he had already entered on his office, by the invasion of Tiglath-Pileser and his career of conquest. Ahaz, king of Judah, at this crisis refused to co-operate with the kings of Israel and Syria in opposition to the Assyrians, and was on that account attacked and defeated by Rezin of Damascus and Pekah of Israel (; ). Ahaz, thus humbled, sided with Assyria, and sought the aid of Tiglath-Pileser against Israel and Syria. The consequence was that Rezin and Pekah were conquered and many of the people carried captive to Assyria (, ; ). The Prophet Isaiah, by Ugolino di Nerio, (c. 1317-1327, National Gallery, London). Soon after this Shalmaneser V determined wholly to subdue the kingdom of Israel, Samaria was taken and destroyed (722 BC). So long as Ahaz reigned, the kingdom of Judah was unmolested by the Assyrian power; but on his accession to the throne, Hezekiah, who was encouraged to rebel "against the king of Assyria" (), entered into an alliance with the king of Egypt (). This led the king of Assyria to threaten the king of Judah, and at length to invade the land. Sennacherib (701 BC) led a powerful army into Judah. Hezekiah was reduced to despair, and submitted to the Assyrians (). But after a brief interval war broke out again, and again Sennacherib led an army into Judah, one detachment of which threatened Jerusalem (; ). Isaiah on that occasion encouraged Hezekiah to resist the Assyrians (), whereupon Sennacherib sent a threatening letter to Hezekiah, which he "spread before the lord" (). Russian icon of the Prophet Isaiah, 18th century (iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). According to the account in Kings (and its derivative account in Chronicles) the judgment of God now fell on the Assyrian army. "Like Xerxes in Greece, Sennacherib never recovered from the shock of the disaster in Judah. He made no more expeditions against either southern Palestine or Egypt." The remaining years of Hezekiah's reign were peaceful (). Isaiah probably lived to its close, and possibly into the reign of Manasseh, but the time and manner of his death are not specified in either the Bible or recorded history. There is a tradition (reported in both the Martyrdom of Isaiah and the Lives of the Prophets) that he suffered martyrdom by Manasseh due to pagan reaction. Both Jewish and Christian traditions state that he was killed by being sawed in half with a wooden saw. Some interpreters believe that this is what is referred to in the New Testament verse , which states that some prophets were "sawn in two". Rabbinic literature According to the Rabbinic literature, Isaiah was a descendant of Judah and Tamar (Sotah 10b). His father was a prophet and the brother of King Amaziah (Talmud tractate Megillah 15a). Isaiah at Jewish Encyclopedia Three “Isaiah”s Some scholarship, including some of the Roman Catholic Church, sees “Isaiah” as “a long, inspired tradition” including the prophet of Jerusalem (“First Isaiah”) and continuing through his disciples including “Second Isaiah” and “Third Isaiah”. The Catholic Study Bible, Oxford University Press, 1990, RG297 et. Seq. First Isaiah: Preached between 740 and 687 BCE. A city person who insisted upon faith and was fearless in opposing leaders. Second Isaiah: A master of sound and music with sweeping visions of mountains collapsing and valleys lifted up. Third Isaiah: Most influenced by earlier Isaiahs. Dreamed of new heavens and new earth. References External links Sermons on Isaiah Isaiah (Isaias) at the Catholic Encyclopedia Avraham Gileadi's new translation and commentary on Isaiah Prophet Isaiah Orthodox icon and synaxarion | Isaiah |@lemmatized isaiah:34 lip:1 anoint:1 fire:1 benjamin:1 west:1 bob:1 jones:1 university:2 museum:1 gallery:2 greek:1 ēsaiās:1 ash:1 iyā:1 salvation:1 yhwh:1 main:1 figure:1 biblical:2 book:3 traditionally:1 consider:2 author:1 century:4 bc:7 judean:1 prophet:11 part:2 message:1 land:2 completely:1 lay:1 waste:1 totally:1 plundered:1 lord:2 speak:1 word:1 therefore:1 warn:1 people:2 israel:6 turn:1 back:1 god:2 christianity:1 regard:2 saint:1 judaism:1 canon:1 first:3 major:1 bible:3 follow:1 chronology:1 believe:2 bear:1 man:1 name:2 amoz:1 marry:1 woman:1 know:1 prophetess:1 two:3 son:1 bore:1 symbolic:1 shear:1 jashub:1 remnant:2 return:2 see:2 maher:1 shalal:1 hash:1 baz:1 pillage:1 hastens:1 loot:1 speed:1 prophesy:2 reign:5 uzziah:3 azariah:1 jotham:1 ahaz:4 hezekiah:7 king:9 judah:8 fifty:1 year:7 middle:1 must:2 begin:1 career:2 death:2 probably:2 live:2 till:1 fourteenth:1 die:1 may:2 contemporary:1 manasseh:3 thus:2 long:3 period:1 least:1 forty:1 four:1 early:2 youth:1 move:1 invasion:2 assyrian:6 monarch:1 tiglath:3 pileser:3 iii:1 twenty:1 later:1 already:1 enter:2 office:1 conquest:1 crisis:1 refuse:1 co:1 operate:1 syria:2 opposition:1 account:3 attack:1 defeat:1 rezin:2 damascus:1 pekah:2 humble:1 side:1 assyria:4 seek:1 aid:1 consequence:1 conquer:1 many:1 carry:1 captive:1 ugolino:1 di:1 nerio:1 c:1 national:1 london:1 soon:1 shalmaneser:1 v:1 determine:1 wholly:1 subdue:1 kingdom:2 samaria:1 take:1 destroy:1 unmolested:1 power:1 accession:1 throne:1 encourage:2 rebel:1 alliance:1 egypt:2 lead:3 threaten:2 length:1 invade:1 sennacherib:4 powerful:1 army:3 reduce:1 despair:1 submit:1 brief:1 interval:1 war:1 break:1 one:1 detachment:1 jerusalem:2 occasion:1 resist:1 whereupon:1 send:1 threatening:1 letter:1 spread:1 russian:1 icon:2 iconostasis:1 transfiguration:1 church:2 kizhi:1 monastery:1 karelia:1 russia:1 accord:2 derivative:1 chronicle:1 judgment:1 fell:1 like:1 xerxes:1 greece:1 never:1 recover:1 shock:1 disaster:1 make:1 expedition:1 either:2 southern:1 palestine:1 remain:1 peaceful:1 close:1 possibly:1 time:1 manner:1 specify:1 recorded:1 history:1 tradition:3 report:1 martyrdom:2 life:1 suffer:1 due:1 pagan:1 reaction:1 jewish:2 christian:1 state:2 kill:1 saw:2 half:1 wooden:1 interpreter:1 refer:1 new:4 testament:1 verse:1 sawn:1 rabbinic:2 literature:2 descendant:1 tamar:1 sotah:1 father:1 brother:1 amaziah:1 talmud:1 tractate:1 megillah:1 encyclopedia:2 three:1 scholarship:1 include:3 roman:1 catholic:3 inspired:1 continue:1 disciple:1 second:2 third:2 study:1 oxford:1 press:1 et:1 seq:1 preach:1 bce:1 city:1 person:1 insist:1 upon:1 faith:1 fearless:1 oppose:1 leader:1 master:1 sound:1 music:1 sweeping:1 vision:1 mountain:1 collapse:1 valley:1 lift:1 influence:1 dream:1 heaven:1 earth:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 sermon:1 isaias:1 avraham:1 gileadi:1 translation:1 commentary:1 orthodox:1 synaxarion:1 |@bigram isaiah_isaiah:2 ahaz_hezekiah:1 tiglath_pileser:3 pileser_iii:1 accession_throne:1 iconostasis_transfiguration:1 kizhi_monastery:1 monastery_karelia:1 karelia_russia:1 rabbinic_literature:2 talmud_tractate:1 et_seq:1 external_link:1 icon_synaxarion:1 |
5,958 | Controlled-access_highway | REDIRECT Limited-access road | Controlled-access_highway |@lemmatized redirect:1 limit:1 access:1 road:1 |@bigram |
5,959 | Meitnerium | Meitnerium () is a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Mt and atomic number 109. Mt is a synthetic element whose most stable isotope, Mt-278, has a predicted half-life of a half-hour. Discovery profile Meitnerium was first synthesized on August 29, 1982 by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt. "Observation of one correlated α-decay in the reaction 58Fe on 209Bi→267109", Gottfried Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A., 1982, 309, 1. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 The team bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of iron-58 and detected a single atom of the isotope meitnerium-266: + → + Proposed names Historically, element 109 has been referred to as eka-iridium. The name meitnerium (Mt) was suggested in honor of the Austrian physicist Lise Meitner, but there was an element naming controversy as to what the elements from 104 to 109 were to be called; thus IUPAC adopted unnilennium ( unnilennium - Definitions from Dictionary.com or , symbol Une) as a temporary, systematic element name. In 1997, however, the dispute was resolved and the current name was adopted. Electronic structure Meitnerium is element 109 in the Periodic Table. The two forms of the projected electronic structure are: Bohr model2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2Quantum mechanical model "Dirac-Hartree-Fock studies of X-ray transitions in meitnerium", Christian Thierfelder, Peter Schwerdtfeger, Fritz Peter Heßberger and Sigurd Hofmann , Eur. Phys. J. A, 2008, 36 227 Retrieved on 2008-05-16 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d106p67s25f146d7 Extrapolated chemical properties of meitnerium Physical properties Mt should be a very heavy metal with a density around 30 g/cm3 (Co: 8.9, Rh: 12.5, Ir: 22.5) and a high melting point around 2600-2900°C (Co: 1480, Rh: 1966, Ir: 2454). It should be very corrosion resistant more than Ir which is already the most corrosion resistant metal. Oxidation states Meitnerium is projected to be the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals and the heaviest member of group 9 in the Periodic Table, below cobalt, rhodium and iridium. This group of transition metals is the first to show lower oxidation states and the +9 state is not known. The latter two members of the group show a maximum oxidation state of +6, whilst the most stable states are +4 and +3 for iridium and +3 for rhodium. Meitnerium is therefore expected to form a stable +3 state but may also portray stable +4 and +6 states. Chemistry The +VI state in group 9 is known only for the fluorides which are formed by direct reaction. Therefore, meitnerium should form a hexafluoride, MtF6. This fluoride is expected to be more stable than iridium(VI) fluoride, as the +6 state becomes more stable as the group is descended. In combination with oxygen, rhodium forms Rh2O3 whilst iridium is oxidised to the +4 state in IrO2. Meitnerium may therefore show a dioxide, MtO2, if eka-iridium reactivity is shown. The +3 state in group 9 is common in the trihalides (except fluorides) formed by direct reaction with halogens. Meitnerium should therefore form MtCl3, MtBr3 and MtI3 in an analogous manner to iridium. History of synthesis of isotopes in cold fusion 209Bi(58Fe,xn)267-xMt (x=1) The first success in this reaction was in 1982 by the GSI team in their discovery experiment with the identification of a single atom of 266Mt in the 1n neutron evaporation channel. The GSI team used the parent-daughter correlation technique. After an initial failure in 1983, in 1985 the team at the FLNR, Dubna, observed alpha decays from the descendant 246Cf indicating the formation of meitnerium. The GSI synthesised a further 2 atoms of 266Mt in 1988 and continued in 1997 with the detection of 12 atoms during the measurement of the 1n excitation function. "New results on element 109", Gottfried Munzenberg et al., Z. Phys. A., 1988, 330, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 "Excitation function for the production of 265108 and 266109", Sigurd Hofmann et al., Z. Phys. A., 1997, 358, 4. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 208Pb(59Co,xn)267-xMt (x=1) This reaction was first studied in 1985 by the team in Dubna. They were able to detect the alpha decay of the descendant 246Cf nuclei indicating the formation of meitnerium atoms. In 2007, in a continuation of their study of the effect of odd-Z projectiles on yields of evaporation residues in cold fusion reactions, the team at LBNL synthesised 266Mt and were able to correlate the decay with known daughters. 181Ta(86Kr,xn)267-xMt There are indications that this cold fusion reaction using a tantalum target was attempted in August 2001 at the GSI. No details can be found suggesting that no atoms of meitnerium were detected. History of synthesis by hot fusion reactions 238U(37Cl,xn)275-xMt In 2002-2003, the team at LBNL attempted the above reaction in order to search for the isotope 271Mt with hope that it may be sufficiently stable to allow a first study of the chemical properties of meitnerium. Unfortunately, no atoms were detected and a cross section limit of 1.5 pb was measured for the 4n channel at the projectile energy used. "The search for 271Mt via the reaction 238U + 37Cl", Zielinski et al.., GSI Annual report, 2003. Retrieved on 2008-03-01 254Es(22Ne,xn)276-xMt Attempts to produce long-living isotopes of meitnerium were first performed by Ken Hulet at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in 1988 using the asymmetric hot fusion reaction above. They were unable to detect any product atoms and established a cross section limit of 1 nb. see reference 4 for reference to an internal report from LLNL Synthesis of isotopes as decay products Isotopes of meitnerium have also been detected in the decay of heavier elements. Observations to date are shown in the table below: Evaporation Residue Observed Mt isotope 288115 276Mt 287115 275Mt 282113 274Mt 278113 270Mt 272Rg 268Mt Chronology of isotope discovery Isotope Year discovered discovery reaction 266Mt 1982 209Bi(58Fe,n) 267Mt unknown 268Mt 1994 209Bi(64Ni,n) see roentgenium for details 269Mt unknown 270Mt 2004 209Bi(70Zn,n) see ununtrium for details 271Mt unknown 272Mt unknown 273Mt unknown 274Mt 2006 237Np(48Ca,3n) 275Mt 2003 243Am(48Ca,4n) see ununpentium for details 276Mt 2003 243Am(48Ca,3n) Chemical yields of isotopes Cold Fusion The table below provides cross-sections and excitation energies for cold fusion reactions producing meitnerium isotopes directly. Data in bold represents maxima derived from excitation function measurements. + represents an observed exit channel. Projectile Target CN 1n 2n 3n 58Fe 209Bi 267Mt 7.5 pb 59Co 208Pb 267Mt 2.6 pb , 14.9 MeV Isomerism in meitnerium nuclides 270Mt Two atoms of 270Mt have been identified in the decay chains of 278113. The two decays have very different lifetimes and decay energies and are also produced from two apparently different isomers in 274Rg. The first isomer decays by emission of an 10.03 MeV alpha particle with a lifetime 7.2 ms. The other decays by emitting an alpha particle with a lifetime of 1.63 s. An assignment to specific levels is not possible with the limited data available. Further research is required. 268Mt The alpha decay spectrum for 268Mt appears to be complicated from the results of several experiments. Alpha lines of 10.28,10.22 and 10.10 MeV have been observed. Half-lives of 42 ms, 21 ms and 102 ms have been determined. The long-lived decay is associated with alpha particles of energy 10.10 MeV and must be assigned to an isomeric level. The discrepancy between the other two half-lives has yet to be resolved. An assignment to specific levels is not possible with the data available and further research is required. References External links WebElements.com - Meitnerium Apsidium - Meitnerium | Meitnerium |@lemmatized meitnerium:22 chemical:4 element:9 periodic:3 table:5 symbol:2 mt:6 atomic:1 number:1 synthetic:1 whose:1 stable:7 isotope:12 predict:1 half:4 life:3 hour:1 discovery:4 profile:1 first:7 synthesize:1 august:2 german:1 research:4 team:8 lead:1 peter:3 armbruster:1 gottfried:3 münzenberg:1 institute:1 heavy:4 ion:1 gesellschaft:1 für:1 schwerionenforschung:1 darmstadt:1 observation:2 one:1 correlate:2 α:1 decay:13 reaction:13 munzenberg:2 et:4 al:4 z:4 phys:4 retrieve:5 bombard:1 target:3 bismuth:1 accelerated:1 nucleus:1 iron:1 detect:6 single:2 atom:9 propose:1 name:4 historically:1 refer:1 eka:2 iridium:7 suggest:2 honor:1 austrian:1 physicist:1 lise:1 meitner:1 naming:1 controversy:1 call:1 thus:1 iupac:1 adopt:2 unnilennium:2 definition:1 dictionary:1 com:2 une:1 temporary:1 systematic:1 however:1 dispute:1 resolve:2 current:1 electronic:2 structure:2 two:6 form:7 projected:1 bohr:1 mechanical:1 model:1 dirac:1 hartree:1 fock:1 study:4 x:3 ray:1 transition:3 christian:1 thierfelder:1 schwerdtfeger:1 fritz:1 heßberger:1 sigurd:2 hofmann:2 eur:1 j:1 extrapolated:1 property:3 physical:1 metal:4 density:1 around:2 g:1 co:2 rh:2 ir:3 high:1 melting:1 point:1 c:1 corrosion:2 resistant:2 already:1 oxidation:3 state:11 project:1 sixth:1 member:3 series:1 group:6 cobalt:1 rhodium:3 show:5 low:1 know:2 latter:1 maximum:2 whilst:2 therefore:4 expect:2 may:3 also:3 portray:1 chemistry:1 vi:2 fluoride:4 direct:2 hexafluoride:1 becomes:1 descend:1 combination:1 oxygen:1 oxidise:1 dioxide:1 reactivity:1 common:1 trihalides:1 except:1 halogen:1 analogous:1 manner:1 history:2 synthesis:3 cold:5 fusion:7 xn:5 xmt:5 success:1 gsi:5 experiment:2 identification:1 neutron:1 evaporation:3 channel:3 use:4 parent:1 daughter:2 correlation:1 technique:1 initial:1 failure:1 flnr:1 dubna:2 observe:3 alpha:7 descendant:2 indicate:2 formation:2 synthesise:2 continue:1 detection:1 measurement:2 excitation:4 function:3 new:1 result:2 production:1 able:2 nuclei:1 continuation:1 effect:1 odd:1 projectile:3 yield:2 residue:2 lbnl:2 known:1 indication:1 tantalum:1 attempt:3 detail:4 find:1 hot:2 order:1 search:2 hope:1 sufficiently:1 allow:1 unfortunately:1 cross:3 section:3 limit:2 pb:3 measure:1 energy:4 via:1 zielinski:1 annual:1 report:2 produce:3 long:2 living:1 perform:1 ken:1 hulet:1 lawrence:1 livermore:1 national:1 laboratory:1 llnl:2 asymmetric:1 unable:1 product:2 establish:1 nb:1 see:4 reference:3 internal:1 date:1 chronology:1 year:1 discover:1 n:3 unknown:5 roentgenium:1 ununtrium:1 ununpentium:1 provide:1 directly:1 data:3 bold:1 represent:2 derive:1 observed:1 exit:1 cn:1 mev:4 isomerism:1 nuclides:1 identify:1 chain:1 different:2 lifetime:3 apparently:1 isomer:2 emission:1 particle:3 emit:1 assignment:2 specific:2 level:3 possible:2 limited:1 available:2 require:2 spectrum:1 appear:1 complicate:1 several:1 line:1 determine:1 live:1 associate:1 must:1 assign:1 isomeric:1 discrepancy:1 yet:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 apsidium:1 |@bigram periodic_table:3 stable_isotope:1 et_al:4 lise_meitner:1 hartree_fock:1 corrosion_resistant:2 cold_fusion:5 xn_xmt:5 team_flnr:1 alpha_decay:3 team_lbnl:2 al_gsi:1 lawrence_livermore:1 livermore_national:1 pb_pb:1 mev_alpha:1 isomeric_level:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 |
5,960 | Acacia | Acacia () is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus in 1773. The plants tend to be thorny and pod-bearing. The name derives from ακις (akis) which is Greek for a sharp point, due to the thorns in the type-species Acacia nilotica ("Nile Acacia") from Egypt. http://allafrica.com/stories/200712130315.html. Accessed 9/16/2008. Acacias are also known as thorntrees or wattles, including the yellow-fever acacia and umbrella acacias. There are roughly 1300 species of Acacia worldwide, about 960 of them native to Australia, with the remainder spread around the tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Europe, Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas. Classification Acacia pycnantha <center>Acacia berlandieri</center> Acacia smallii The genus Acacia is evidently not monophyletic. This discovery has led to the breaking up of Acacia into 5 new genera as discussed in: List of Acacia species. In common parlance, the term "acacia" is occasionally misapplied to species of the genus Robinia, which also belongs in the pea family. Robinia pseudoacacia, an American species locally known as Black locust, is sometimes called "false acacia" in cultivation in the United Kingdom. Geography The southernmost species in the genus are Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle), Acacia longifolia (Coast Wattle or Sydney Golden Wattle), Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle), and Acacia melanoxylon (Blackwood), reaching 43°30' S in Tasmania, Australia, while Acacia caven (Espinillo Negro) reaches nearly as far south in northeastern Chubut Province of Argentina. Australian species are usually called wattles, while African and American species tend to be known as acacias. Acacia retinodes Acacia albida, Acacia tortilis and Acacia iraqensis can be found growing wild in the Sinai desert and the Jordan valley. It is found in the savanna vegetation of the tropical continental climate. Description The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks (petioles) become vertically flattened, and serve the purpose of leaves. These are known as phyllodes. The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as Acacia glaucoptera) lack leaves or phyllodes altogether, but possess instead cladodes, modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves. |Acacia dealbata The small flowers have five very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, even purple (Acacia purpureapetala) or red (Acacia leprosa Scarlet Blaze). Acacia flowers can be distinguished from those of a large related genus, Albizia, by their stamens which are not joined at the base. Also, unlike individual Mimosa flowers, those of Acacia have more than 10 stamens. . The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. Acacia armata is the Kangaroo-thorn of Australia and Acacia erioloba is the Camelthorn of Africa. Symbiosis Acacia collinsii Thorns In the Central American Acacia sphaerocephala, Acacia cornigera, and Acacia collinsii (collectively known as the bullthorn acacias), the large thorn-like stipules are hollow and afford shelter for ants, which feed on a secretion of sap on the leaf-stalk and small, lipid-rich food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets called Beltian bodies; in return they add protection to the plant against herbivores. Some species of ants will also fight off competing plants around the acacia, cutting off the offending plant's leaves with their jaws and ultimately killing it, while other ant species will do nothing to benefit their host. Similar mutualisms occur on Acacia trees in Africa. The Acacias provide nectar in extrafloral nectaries for their symbiotic ants. The ants protect the plant by attacking large mammalian herbivores and stem-boring beetles that damage the plant. Pests <center>Acacia tree near the end of its range in the Negev Desert of southern Israel. In Australia, Acacia species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetus including A. ligniveren. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other Lepidoptera larvae which have been recorded feeding on Acacia include Brown-tail, Endoclita malabaricus and Turnip Moth. The leaf-mining larvae of some bucculatricid moths also feed on Acacia: Bucculatrix agilis feeds exclusively on Acacia horrida and Bucculatrix flexuosa feeds exclusively on Acacia nilotica. Acacias contain a number of organic compounds that defend them from pests and grazing animals. Chemistry of Acacias from South Texas Uses Food uses Acacia seeds are often used for food and a variety of other products. In Burma, Laos and Thailand, the feathery shoots of Acacia pennata (common name cha-om, ชะอม and su pout ywet in Burmese) are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries. Honey made by bees using the acacia flower as forage is considered a delicacy, appreciated for its mild flowery taste, soft running texture and glass-like appearance. Acacia honey is one of the few honeys which does not crystallize. In Mexico the seeds are known as Guajes: Guajes or huajes are the flat, green pods of an acacia tree. The pods are sometimes light green or deep red in color—both taste the same. Guaje seeds are about the size of a small lima bean and are eaten raw with guacamole, sometimes cooked and made into a sauce. They can also be made into fritters. The ground seeds are used to impart a slightly garlicy flavor to a mole called guaxmole (huaxmole). The dried seeds may be toasted and salted and eaten as a snack referred to as "cacalas". Purchase whole long pods fresh or dried at Mexican specialty markets. Acacia is listed as an ingredient in Fresca, a citrus soft drink, Barq's root beer, Full Throttle Unleaded Energy Drink, Strawberry-Lemonade Powerade as well as in Läkerol pastille candies, Altoids mints,Langer's Pineapple coconut Juice and Wrigley's Eclipse chewing gum. Gum Various species of acacia yield gum. True gum arabic is the product of Acacia senegal, abundant in dry tropical West Africa from Senegal to northern Nigeria. Acacia arabica is the gum-Arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-Arabic. |Acacia covenyi Medicinal uses Many Acacia species have important uses in traditional medicine. Most all of the uses have been shown to have a scientific basis, since chemical compounds found in the various species have medicinal effects. In Ayurvedic medicine, Acacia nilotica is considered a remedy that is helpful for treating premature ejaculation. A 19th century Ethiopian medical text describes a potion made from an Ethiopian species of Acacia (known as grar) mixed with the root of the tacha, then boiled, as a cure for rabies. Richard Pankhurst, An Introduction to the Medical History of Ethiopia (Trenton: Red Sea Press, 1990), p. 97 An astringent medicine, called catechu or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from Acacia catechu, by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract. An OCR'd version of the US Dispensatory by Remington and Wood, 1918. Dietary consumption The most well known visitor to the Acacia is the known giraffe. Giraffes eat the most famous in Africa, the Acacia Tree. The Acacia tree is famous for its marvelous leaves. Ornamental uses A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in gardens; the most popular perhaps is Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as "mimosa" in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus Mimosa. Another ornamental acacia is Acacia xanthophloea (Fever Tree). Southern European florists use Acacia baileyana, Acacia dealbata, Acacia pycnantha and Acacia retinodes as cut flowers and the common name there for them is mimosa. World Wide Wattle Ornamental species of acacia are also used by homeowners and landscape architects for home security. The sharp thorns of some species deter unauthorized persons from entering private properties, and may prevent break-ins if planted under windows and near drainpipes. The aesthetic characteristics of acacia plants, in conjunction with their home security qualities, makes them a considerable alternative to artificial fences and walls. Paints The ancient Egyptians used Acacia in paints and stuff. Excerpt from A Consumer's Dictionary of Cosmetic Ingredients: Fifth Edition (Paperback) Amazon.com Perfume Acacia farnesiana Acacia farnesiana is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance. The use of Acacia as a fragrance dates back centuries. In the Bible, burning of acacia wood as a form of incense is mentioned several times. Symbolism and ritual The Acacia is used as a symbol in Freemasonry, to represent purity and endurance of the soul, and as funerary symbolism signifying resurrection and immortality. The tree gains its importance from the description of the burial of Hiram Abiff, the builder of King Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem. Several parts (mainly bark, root and resin) of Acacia are used to make incense for rituals. Acacia is used in incense mainly in India, Nepal, Tibet and China. Smoke from Acacia bark is thought to keep demons and ghosts away and to put the gods in a good mood. Roots and resin from Acacia are combined with rhododendron, acorus, cytisus, salvia and some other components of incense. Both people and elephants like an alcoholic beverage made from acacia fruit. Naturheilpraxis Fachforum (German) According to Easton's Bible Dictionary, the Acacia tree may be the “burning bush” (Exodus 3:2) which Moses encountered in the desert. Easton's Bible Dictionary: Bush Also, when God gave Moses the instructions for building the Tabernacle, he said to "make an ark of acacia wood" and "make a table of acacia wood" (Exodus 25:10 & 23, Revised Standard Version) In Russia, Italy and other countries it is customary to present women with yellow mimosas (among other flowers) on International Women's Day (March 8). These "mimosas" are actually from Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle). Tannin A bottle of tannic acid. The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include Acacia pycnantha (Golden Wattle), Acacia decurrens (Tan Wattle), Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle) and Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle). + Tannin Content of Various Acacia SpeciesBarkDried LeavesSeed PodsSpeciesTannins [%]Tannins [%]Tannins [%]Acacia albida 2-28% Purdue University 5-13%Acacia cavenia 32% Google Books Select Extra-tropical Plants Readily Eligible for Industrial Culture Or Naturalization By Ferdinand von Mueller Acacia dealbata 19.1% Plants for a Future Database Acacia decurrens 37-40% Acacia farnesiana 23% Plants for a Future Database Acacia mearnsii 25-35% Acacia melanoxylon 20% Acacia nilotica 18-23%* Acacia penninervis18% Acacia pycnantha 30-45% 15-16% Acacia saligna 21.5% Plants for a Future Database <span style="font-size:87%">Notes: * - Inner bark</font> Black Wattle is grown in plantations in South Africa. Most Australian acacia species introduced to South Africa have become an enormous problem, due to their naturally aggressive propagation. The pods of Acacia nilotica (under the name of neb-neb), and of other African species are also rich in tannin and used by tanners. Wood |Acacia koa Wood Some Acacia species are valuable as timber, such as Acacia melanoxylon (Blackwood) from Australia, which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and Acacia omalophylla (Myall Wood, also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber used for ornaments. Acacia seyal is thought to be the Shittah-tree of the Bible, which supplied shittim-wood. According to the Book of Exodus, this was used in the construction of the Ark of the Covenant. Acacia koa from the Hawaiian Islands and Acacia heterophylla from Réunion island are both excellent timber trees. Depending on abundance and regional culture, some Acacia species (eg. Acacia fumosa), are traditionally used locally as firewoods. Acacia heterophylla Wood + Approximate wood densities of various acacia speciesDensityHeartwood DensitySapwood DensitySpecies[kg/m³]</center>[kg/m³][kg/m³]Acacia acuminata 1040 Aussie Fantom Acacia amythethophylla 1170 The timber properties of Acacia species and their uses Acacia catechu 880 FAO Acacia confusa 690-750 Acacia erioloba 1230Acacia galpinii 800Acacia goetzii 1025Acacia karoo 800Acacia leucophloea 760 Acacia mellifera subsp. mellifera 1100Acacia nilotica 700 1170</center>Acacia nilotica subsp. adstringens 827-945 Acacia nilotica subsp. nilotica 800 1170</center>Acacia polyacantha subsp. campylacantha 705 Acacia sieberiana 655 In Indonesia (mainly in Sumatra) and in Malaysia (mainly in Sarawak) plantations of Acacia mangium are being established to supply pulpwood to the paper industry. Phytochemistry of Acacia Alkaloids Egyptian goddess Isis As mentioned previously, Acacias contain a number of organic compounds that defend them from pests and grazing animals. Many of these compounds are psychoactive in humans. The alkaloids found in Acacias include dimethyltryptamine (DMT), 5-methoxy-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) and N-methyltryptamine (NMT). The plant leaves, stems and/or roots are sometimes made into a brew together with some MAOI-containing plant and consumed orally for healing, ceremonial or religious uses. Egyptian mythology has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the tree of life (see the article on the Myth of Osiris and Isis). + Acacias Known to Contain Psychoactive Alkaloids Acacia acuminata Up to 1.5% alkaloids, mainly consisting of tryptamine in leaf Lycaeum Acacia adunca β-methyl-phenethylamine, 2.4% in leaves Acacia alpina || Active principles in leaf Shaman Australis Acacia aneura Ash used in Pituri. Duboisia hopwoodii - Pituri Bush - Solanaceae - Central America Ether extracts about 2-6% of the dried leaf mass. Wattle Seed Workshop Proceedings 12 March 2002, Canberra March 2003 RIRDC Publication No 03/024, RIRDC Project No WS012-06 Not known if psychoactive per se. Acacia angustissima β-methyl-phenethylamine , NMT and DMT in leaf (1.1-10.2 ppm) English Title: Nutritive value assessment of the tropical shrub legume Acacia angustissima: anti-nutritional compounds and in vitro digestibility. Personal Authors: McSweeney, C. S., Krause, D. O., Palmer, B., Gough, J., Conlan, L. L., Hegarty, M. P. Author Affiliation: CSIRO Livestock Industries, Long Pocket Laboratories, 120 Meiers Road, Indooroopilly, Qld 4068, Australia. Document Title: Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2005 (Vol. 121) (No. 1/2) 175-190 Acacia aroma Tryptamine alkaloids. Maya Ethnobotanicals Significant amount of tryptamine in the seeds. Acacia (Polish) Acacia auriculiformis 5-MeO-DMT in stem bark Lycaeum <center>Acacia baileyana 0.02% tryptamine and β-carbolines, in the leaf, Tetrahydroharman www.serendipity.com Acacia beauverdiana Psychoactive www.bushfood.net Ash used in Pituri. Acacia berlandieri || DMT, amphetamines, mescaline, nicotine Ask Dr. Shulgin Online: Acacias and Natural Amphetamine |----- | Acacia catechu || DMT Sacred Elixirs and other tryptamines in leaf, bark |----- | Acacia caven || Tryptamines |----- | Acacia chundra || DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark |----- | Acacia colei || DMT www.abc.net.au |----- | Acacia complanata || 0.3% alkaloids in leaf and stem, almost all N-methyl-tetrahydroharman, with traces of tetrahydroharman, some of tryptamine Acacia Complanata Phytochemical Studies Lycaeum -- Acacias and Entheogens Lycaeum |----- |Acacia concinna || Nicotine SBEPL |----- | Acacia confusa || DMT & NMT in leaf, stem & bark 0.04% NMT and 0.02% DMT in stem. Also N,N-dimethyltryptamine N-oxide NMR spectral assignments of a new chlorotryptamine alkaloid and its analogues from Acacia confusa Malcolm S. Buchanan, Anthony R. Carroll, David Pass, Ronald J. Quinn Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry Volume 45, Issue 4 , Pages359 - 361. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. |----- | Acacia constricta || β-methyl-phenethylamine |----- |Acacia coriacea || Ash used in Pituri. Index of Rätsch, Christian. Enzyklopädie der psychoaktiven Pflanzen, Botanik, Ethnopharmakologie und Anwendungen, 7. Auflage. AT Verlag, 2004, 941 Seiten. ISBN 3855025703 at Not known if psychoactive. |----- |Acacia cornigera || Psychoactive, Tryptamines |----- | Acacia cultriformis || Tryptamine, in the leaf, stem and seeds. Phenethylamine in leaf and seeds |----- | Acacia cuthbertsonii || Psychoactive |----- | Acacia delibrata || Psychoactive |----- | Acacia falcata || Psychoactive, but less than 0.02% alkaloids Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen By Robert Hegnauer |----- |Acacia farnesiana || Traces of 5-MeO-DMT Lycaeum in fruit. β-methyl-phenethylamine, flower. Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases Ether extracts about 2-6% of the dried leaf mass. Alkaloids are present in the bark www.bpi.da.gov.ph and leaves. Purdue University Amphetamines and mescaline also found in tree. |----- | Acacia filiciana || Added to Pulque, but not known if psychoactive |----- | Acacia floribunda || Tryptamine, phenethylamine, in flowers other tryptamines, www.bluelight.ru phenethylamines Lycaeum (Acacia floribunda) |----- | Acacia greggii || N-methyl-β-phenethylamine, phenethylamine |----- | Acacia harpophylla || Phenethylamine, hordenine at a ratio of 2:3 in dried leaves, 0.6% total |----- | Acacia holoserica || Hordenine, 1.2% in bark |----- |Acacia horrida || Psychoactive |----- | Acacia implexa Psychoactive wiki.magiskamolekyler.org (Swedish) Acacia jurema DMT, NMT Acacia karroo Psychoactive Acacia kempeana Used in Pituri, but not known if psychoactive. Acacia kettlewelliae 1.5 Fitzgerald, J.S. Alkaloids of the Australian Legumuminosae -- The Occurrence of Phenylethylame Derivatives in Acacia Species, Aust. J . Chem., 1964, 17, 160-2. -1.88% Acacia kettlewelliae alkaloids, 92% consisting of phenylethylamine. 0.9% N-methyl-2- phenylethylamine found a different time. Acacia laeta DMT, in the leaf Acacia lingulata Used in Pituri, but not known if psychoactive. Acacia longifolia 0.2% tryptamine in bark, leaves, some in flowers, phenylethylamine in flowers, 0.2% DMT in plant. Lycaeum Acacia longifolia Histamine alkaloids. Acacia longifolia var. sophorae Tryptamine in leaves, bark Acacia macradenia Tryptamine Acacia maidenii 0.6% NMT and DMT in about a 2:3 ratio in the stem bark, both present in leaves Acacia mangium Psychoactive Acacia melanoxylon DMT, in the bark and leaf, extentech.sheetster.com but less than 0.02% total alkaloidsAcacia mellifera DMT, in the leaf Acacia nilotica DMT, in the leaf Acacia nilotica subsp. adstringens Psychoactive, DMT in the leaf Acacia obtusifolia Tryptamine, DMT, NMT, other tryptamines, wiki.magiskamolekyler.org (Swedish) 0.4-0.5% in dried bark, 0.07% in branch tips. Acacia obtusifolia Phytochemical Studies Acacia oerfota Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf, Plants Containing DMT (German) NMT Acacia penninervis Psychoactive Acacia phlebophylla 0.3% DMT in leaf, NMT Acacia podalyriaefolia Tryptamine in the leaf, 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark, phenethylamine, trace amounts Acacia polyacantha DMT in leaf and other tryptamines in leaf, bark [[Acacia polyacantha ssp. campylacantha|Acacia polyacanthassp. campylacantha]] Less than 0.2% DMT in leaf, NMT; DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark Hortipedia Acacia prominens Phenylethylamine, β-methyl-phenethylamine Acacia pruinocarpa Ash used in Pituri. Not known if psychoactive. Acacia pycnantha Ash used in Pituri, but less than 0.02% total alkaloids. Not known if psychoactive. Acacia retinodes DMT, NMT, Pflanzentabelle APB (German) nicotine, but less than 0.02% total alkaloids found Acacia rigidula DMT, NMT, tryptamine, amphetamines, mescaline, nicotine and others Magiska Molekylers wiki Acacia roemeriana β-methyl-phenethylamine Acacia salicina Ash used in Pituri. Not known if psychoactive. Acacia sassa Psychoactive Acacia schaffneri β-methyl-phenethylamine, Phenethylamine Amphetamines and mescaline also found. Acacia schottii β-methyl-phenethylamine Acacia senegal Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf, NMT, other tryptamines. DMT in plant, DMT in bark. Acacia seyal DMT, in the leaf. Ether extracts about 1-7% of the dried leaf mass. Acacia sieberiana DMT, in the leaf Acacia simplex DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and trunk bark, 0.81% DMT in bark, MMT Arbeitsstelle für praktische Biologie (APB) Acacia taxensis β-methyl-phenethylamine Acacia tortilis DMT, NMT, and other tryptamines Acacia vestita Tryptamine, in the leaf and stem, but less than 0.02% total alkaloids Acacia victoriae Tryptamines, 5-MeO-alkyltryptamine List of acacia species having little or no alkaloids in the material sampled: 0% C 0.02%, C...Concentration of Alkaloids [%] Acacia acinacea Acacia baileyana Acacia decurrens Acacia dealbata Acacia mearnsii Acacia drummondii Acacia elata Acacia falcata Acacia leprosa Acacia linearis Acacia melanoxylon Acacia pycnantha Acacia retinodes Acacia saligna Acacia stricta Acacia verticillata Acacia vestita Cyanogenic glycosides Nineteen different species of Acacia in the Americas contain cyanogenic glycosides, which, if exposed to an enzyme which specifically splits glycosides, can release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the acacia "leaves." Cyanogenic Glycosides in Ant-Acacias of Mexico and Central America David S. Seigler, John E. Ebinger The Southwestern Naturalist, Vol. 32, No. 4 (December 9, 1987), pp. 499-503 doi:10.2307/3671484 This sometimes results in the poisoning death of livestock. If fresh plant material spontaneously produces 200 ppm or more HCN, then it is potentially toxic. This corresponds to about 7.5 μmol HCN per gram of fresh plant material. It turns out that, if acacia "leaves" lack the specific glycoside-splitting enzyme, then they may be less toxic than otherwise, even those containing significant quantities of cyanic glycosides. Some Acacia species containing cyanogens: Acacia erioloba Acacia cunninghamii Acacia obtusifolia Acacia sieberiana Acacia sieberiana var. woodii FAO Kamal M. Ibrahim, The current state of knowledge on Prosopis juliflora... Species There are over 1,300 species of Acacia. See List of Acacia species for a more complete listing. Famous acacia Perhaps the most famous acacia is the Arbre du Ténéré in Niger. The reason for the tree's fame is that it used to be the most isolated tree in the world, approximately 400 km from any other tree. The tree was knocked down by a truck driver in 1973. Identification gallery Flowers Bark Foliage Seed pods Seeds Thorns Tree Wood See also List of Acacia species Plant defense against herbivory Psychedelic plants Notes General references Clement, B.A., Goff, C.M., Forbes, T.D.A. Toxic Amines and Alkaloids from Acacia rigidula, Phytochem. 1998, 49(5), 1377. Shulgin, Alexander and Ann, TiHKAL the Continuation. Transform Press, 1997. ISBN 0-9630096-9-9 External links World Wide Wattle Acacia-world Wayne's Word on "The Unforgettable Acacias" The genus Acacia and Entheogenic Tryptamines, with reference to Australian and related species, by mulga A description of Acacia from Pomet's 1709 reference book, History of Druggs www.serendipity.com Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases Flora identification tools from the State Herbarium of South Australia Tannins in Some Interrelated Wattles List of Acacia Species in the U.S. FAO Timber Properties of Various Acacia Species FAO Comparison of Various Acacia Species as Forage Long-term effects of roller chopping on antiherbivore defenses in three shrub species, Jason R. Schindlera, Timothy E. Fulbright Vet. Path. ResultsAFIP Wednesday Slide Conference - No. 21 February 24, 1999 Acacia cyanophylla lindl as supplementary feed/for small stock in Libya Description of Acacia Morphology Nitrogen Fixaton in Acacias Acacias with Cyagenic Compounds Acacia Alarm System | Acacia |@lemmatized acacia:261 genus:9 shrub:3 tree:20 belong:2 subfamily:1 mimosoideae:1 family:2 fabaceae:1 first:1 describe:2 africa:8 swedish:3 botanist:1 carolus:1 linnaeus:1 plant:23 tend:2 thorny:1 pod:6 bearing:1 name:4 derive:1 ακις:1 akis:1 greek:1 sharp:2 point:1 due:3 thorn:6 type:1 specie:44 nilotica:11 nile:1 egypt:1 http:1 allafrica:1 com:5 story:1 html:1 access:1 also:14 know:19 thorntrees:1 wattle:18 include:6 yellow:4 fever:2 umbrella:1 roughly:1 worldwide:1 native:1 australia:7 remainder:1 spread:1 around:2 tropical:5 warm:1 temperate:1 region:2 hemisphere:1 europe:1 southern:3 asia:1 america:4 classification:1 pycnantha:6 center:7 berlandieri:2 smallii:1 evidently:1 monophyletic:1 discovery:1 lead:1 break:2 new:2 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5,961 | Bruces'_Philosophers_Song | Bruces' Philosophers Song (Bruces' Song) was a popular Monty Python song written by Eric Idle, a feature of the group's stage appearances as well as of its recordings, and ostensibly rendered by a number of Australian university lecturers. They were all called Bruce and taught at the Philosophical Department of the University of Woolloomooloo. (Woolloomooloo is an inner suburb of Sydney. There is actually no university there, though the real-life Sydney University is not far away.) Although the Bruces sketch previously appeared in the TV show Monty Python's Flying Circus, the song itself was original to the stage show. The song's lyrics make a series of scurrilous allegations against a number of highly respected philosophers, usually with regard to their capacity or incapacity for imbibing intoxicating liquors. There is some debate over whether the sixth line is officially supposed to be "Schopenhauer and Hegel" or just "Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel". The reason for the confusion is that existing live recordings of the song (included in the Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl film and on the albums Live at Drury Lane and Live at City Center) have the "Schopenhauer and Hegel" version, while the studio recording on Matching Tie and Handkerchief features the "Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel" version. However, the publication of the lyrics with the release of Monty Python Sings suggests that the Hegel version is the official one. All the thinkers whom the song mentions were dead by the time it appeared, apart from Martin Heidegger. Philosophers mentioned in the song (in order): Immanuel Kant Martin Heidegger David Hume Arthur Schopenhauer (some versions) G.W.F. Hegel Ludwig Wittgenstein Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel Friedrich Nietzsche Socrates (the only one mentioned twice in the song) John Stuart Mill Plato Aristotle Thomas Hobbes René Descartes References Some of the philosophers are portrayed according to their works. Kant being "very rarely stable" harkens to his theory of a stable universe. Ironically, Nietzsche abstained from alcohol. John Stuart Mill becoming ill "on his own free will" alludes to his work On Liberty, which argues for liberty that does no harm to others. The Descartes line, "I drink therefore I am", is a twist on his well known phrase "Cogito, ergo sum," or "I think therefore I am." The assertion that Heidegger "could think you under the table", is another of the plays on "think" vs. "drink". See also Monty Python's Flying Circus Bruces sketch External links | Bruces'_Philosophers_Song |@lemmatized bruce:5 philosopher:4 song:9 popular:1 monty:5 python:5 write:1 eric:1 idle:1 feature:2 group:1 stage:2 appearance:1 well:2 recording:2 ostensibly:1 render:1 number:2 australian:1 university:4 lecturer:1 call:1 taught:1 philosophical:1 department:1 woolloomooloo:2 inner:1 suburb:1 sydney:2 actually:1 though:1 real:1 life:1 far:1 away:1 although:1 sketch:2 previously:1 appear:2 tv:1 show:2 fly:2 circus:2 original:1 lyric:2 make:1 series:1 scurrilous:1 allegation:1 highly:1 respect:1 usually:1 regard:1 capacity:1 incapacity:1 imbibe:1 intoxicating:1 liquor:1 debate:1 whether:1 sixth:1 line:2 officially:1 suppose:1 schopenhauer:3 hegel:6 wilhelm:3 friedrich:4 reason:1 confusion:1 exist:1 live:4 include:1 hollywood:1 bowl:1 film:1 album:1 drury:1 lane:1 city:1 center:1 version:4 studio:1 record:1 match:1 tie:1 handkerchief:1 however:1 publication:1 release:1 sings:1 suggest:1 official:1 one:2 thinker:1 mention:3 dead:1 time:1 apart:1 martin:2 heidegger:3 order:1 immanuel:1 kant:2 david:1 hume:1 arthur:1 g:1 w:1 f:1 ludwig:1 wittgenstein:1 karl:1 schlegel:1 nietzsche:2 socrates:1 twice:1 john:2 stuart:2 mill:2 plato:1 aristotle:1 thomas:1 hobbes:1 rené:1 descartes:2 reference:1 portray:1 accord:1 work:2 rarely:1 stable:2 harkens:1 theory:1 universe:1 ironically:1 abstain:1 alcohol:1 become:1 ill:1 free:1 alludes:1 liberty:2 argue:1 harm:1 others:1 drink:2 therefore:2 twist:1 know:1 phrase:1 cogito:1 ergo:1 sum:1 think:3 assertion:1 could:1 table:1 another:1 play:1 v:1 see:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram monty_python:5 eric_idle:1 fly_circus:2 wilhelm_friedrich:3 friedrich_hegel:2 drury_lane:1 martin_heidegger:2 immanuel_kant:1 david_hume:1 arthur_schopenhauer:1 ludwig_wittgenstein:1 friedrich_nietzsche:1 stuart_mill:2 plato_aristotle:1 thomas_hobbes:1 rené_descartes:1 cogito_ergo:1 ergo_sum:1 external_link:1 |
5,962 | Allan_Dwan | Allan Dwan (April 3, 1885 – December 28, 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer and screenwriter. Early life Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, his family moved to the United States when he was 11 years old. At the University of Notre Dame, he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in Chicago. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in 1911, Dwan began working part time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the Motion Picture Directors Association. Career After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband, Douglas Fairbanks, notably in the acclaimed 1922 Robin Hood. Following the introduction of the talkies, in 1937 he directed child-star Shirley Temple in Heidi and Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm the following year. Over his long and successful career spanning over 50 years, he directed over 400 motion pictures, many of them highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office smash, Sands of Iwo Jima. He directed his last movie in 1961. He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery, Mission Hills, California. Allan Dwan has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood. Selected films As a director: The Gold Lust (1911) The Restless Spirit (1913) Back to Life (1913) Bloodhounds of the North (1913) The Lie (1914) The Honor of the Mounted (1914) Remember Mary Magdelen (1914) Discord and Harmony (1914) The Embezzler (1914) The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf (1914) The End of the Feud (1914) The Tragedy of Whispering Creek (1914) The Unlawful Trade (1914) The Forbidden Room (1914) The Hopes of Blind Alley (1914) Richelieu (1914) Wildflower (1914) A Small Town Girl (1915) David Harum (1915) Manhattan Madness (1916) Fairbanks Fine Arts (1916) Fairbanks Fragments (1916-1918) also screenwriter Accusing Evidence (1916) An Innocent Magdalene (1916) Headin' South (1918) Robin Hood (1922) The Iron Mask (1929) Tide of Empire (1929) Heidi (1937) Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938) The Three Musketeers (1939) The Gorilla (1939) Young People (1940) Look Who's Laughing (1941) also producer Friendly Enemies (1942) Around the World (1943) also producer Up in Mabel's Room (1944) Abroad With Two Yanks (1944) Getting Gertie's Garter (1945) also screenwriter Brewster's Millions (1945) Driftwood (1947) Calendar Girl (1947) Northwest Outpost (1947) also associate producer Sands of Iwo Jima (1949) I Dream of Jeanie (1952) Montana Belle (1952) Silver Lode (1954) Passion (1954) Cattle Queen of Montana (1954) Tennessee's Partner (1955) Pearl of the South Pacific (1955) Escape to Burma (1955) Slightly Scarlet (1956) The Restless Breed (1957) The River's Edge (1957) Enchanted Island (1958) See also: Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood Further reading Foster, Charles, Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood (2000) ISBN 1-55002-348-9 External links | Allan_Dwan |@lemmatized allan:2 dwan:5 april:1 december:1 pioneering:1 canadian:4 born:1 american:1 motion:4 picture:4 director:3 producer:4 screenwriter:3 early:3 life:2 bear:1 joseph:1 aloysius:1 toronto:1 ontario:1 canada:1 family:1 move:1 united:1 state:1 year:4 old:1 university:1 notre:1 dame:1 train:1 engineer:1 begin:3 work:3 lighting:1 company:2 chicago:1 however:1 strong:1 interest:1 fledgling:1 industry:1 essanay:1 studio:1 offer:1 opportunity:1 become:1 scriptwriter:1 take:1 job:1 time:2 east:2 coast:2 movie:4 maker:1 spend:1 winter:1 california:2 climate:1 allow:1 continue:1 production:1 require:1 warm:1 weather:1 soon:1 number:1 round:1 part:1 hollywood:6 still:1 new:1 york:1 founding:1 president:1 chapter:1 association:1 career:2 make:1 series:1 western:1 comedy:1 direct:4 fellow:1 mary:2 pickford:1 several:1 successful:2 well:1 husband:1 douglas:1 fairbanks:3 notably:1 acclaimed:1 robin:2 hood:2 follow:1 introduction:1 talkie:1 child:1 star:2 shirley:1 temple:1 heidi:2 rebecca:2 sunnybrook:2 farm:2 following:1 long:1 span:1 many:1 highly:1 acclaim:1 box:1 office:1 smash:1 sand:2 iwo:2 jima:2 last:1 die:1 los:1 angeles:1 age:1 ninety:1 six:1 inter:1 san:1 fernando:1 mission:2 cemetery:1 hill:1 walk:1 fame:1 boulevard:1 select:1 film:1 gold:1 lust:1 restless:2 spirit:1 back:1 bloodhound:1 north:1 lie:1 honor:1 mount:1 remember:1 magdelen:1 discord:1 harmony:1 embezzler:1 lamb:1 woman:1 wolf:1 end:1 feud:1 tragedy:1 whisper:1 creek:1 unlawful:1 trade:1 forbidden:1 room:2 hope:1 blind:1 alley:1 richelieu:1 wildflower:1 small:1 town:1 girl:2 david:1 harum:1 manhattan:1 madness:1 fine:1 art:1 fragment:1 also:6 accuse:1 evidence:1 innocent:1 magdalene:1 headin:1 south:2 iron:1 mask:1 tide:1 empire:1 three:1 musketeer:1 gorilla:1 young:1 people:1 look:1 laughing:1 friendly:1 enemy:1 around:1 world:1 mabel:1 abroad:1 two:1 yank:1 get:1 gertie:1 garter:1 brewster:1 million:1 driftwood:1 calendar:1 northwest:1 outpost:1 associate:1 dream:1 jeanie:1 montana:2 belle:1 silver:1 lode:1 passion:1 cattle:1 queen:1 tennessee:1 partner:1 pearl:1 pacific:1 escape:1 burma:1 slightly:1 scarlet:1 breed:1 river:1 edge:1 enchant:1 island:1 see:1 pioneer:1 far:1 reading:1 foster:1 charles:1 stardust:1 shadow:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram motion_picture:4 toronto_ontario:1 notre_dame:1 mary_pickford:1 douglas_fairbanks:1 robin_hood:2 sand_iwo:2 iwo_jima:2 los_angeles:1 walk_fame:1 hollywood_boulevard:1 external_link:1 |
5,963 | Calendar_date | A date in a calendar is a reference to a particular day represented within a calendar system. The calendar date allows the specific day to be identified. The number of days between two dates may be calculated. For example, "24 " is ten days after "14 " in the Gregorian calendar. The date of a particular event depends on the time zone in which it is observed. For example the attack on Pearl Harbor took place on December 7, 1941, in Hawaii, but on December 8 according to Japanese time. A particular day may be represented by a different date in another calendar as in the Gregorian calendar and the Julian calendar, which have been used simultaneously in different places. In most calendar systems, the date consists of three parts: the day of month, month, and the year. There may also be additional parts, such as the day of week. Years are usually counted from a particular starting point, usually called the epoch, with era referring to the particular period of time (Note the different use of the terms in geology). The most widely used epoch is a conventional birthdate of Jesus (which was established by Dionysius Exiguus in the sixth century). A date without the year part may also be referred to as a date or calendar date (such as " " rather than " "). As such, it defines the day of an annual event, such as a birthday or Christmas on 25 December. Date format Related to the classification of a day as a specific calendar date is the format used to express that date. The differing formats of dates are an example of endianness. Even for a specific calendar system, different formats are used. For example, the following formats all express the same date in the Gregorian calendar. Little endian forms, starting with the day This sequence is common to the vast majority of the world's countries (see below for breakdown of countries by format). This date format originates from the custom of writing the date as 'the 16th day of November in the year of our Lord 2003' in religious and legal documents which at one time were the majority of documents created. The format has shortened as more and more people learned to read and write but the order of the elements has remained constant. 16/11/2008, 16.11.2008 (using dot as separator with this sequence has been defined by DIN 5008) 16-11-2008 or 16-11-08 [The] 16th [of] November 2008 (The 'of' and 'the' are included in speech, however not in writing.) 16th November 2008 16 November 2008 16 Nov 2008 16/xi/08, 16.xi.08 or 16-xi.08, using the roman numeral for the month. This is usually confined to handwriting only and is not put into any form of print. It is associated with a number of schools and universities. 16th November 2008 AC After Christ with AC denoting years after the start the birth of Jesus Christh Big endian forms, starting with the year In this format the most significant data item is written before lesser data items i.e. year before month before day. This form is standard in Asian countries, Hungary and Sweden. It is consistent with the big endianness of the western decimal numbering system, which progresses from the highest to the lowest order magnitude. That is, using this format alphabet orderings and chronological orderings are identical. 2003 November 16 2003Nov16 2003-11-16: the ISO 8601 international standard orders the components of a date like this, and additionally uses leading zeros, e.g. 0813-03-01, to be easily read and sorted by computers. It is used with UTC in the Internet date/time format (see the external link below). This format is also favoured in certain Asian countries, mainly East Asian countries, as well as in some European countries. The big endian convention is also frequently used in Canada, but all three conventions are used there. Canadian Payments Association - Specifications for Imageable Cheques and Other Payment Items It is also extended through the universal big-endian format clock time: 2003 Nov. 16, 18h 14m 12s, or 2003/11/16/18:14:12 or 2003-11-16T18:14:12. Middle endian forms, starting with the month This sequence is used only in the United States and a few other countries (listed below). November 16th, 2003 November 16, 2003 Nov. 16, 2003 11/16/2003, 11-16-2003, 11.16.2003 or 11.16.03 Usage issues The many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits. For example, '9/11' can refer to both 'The fall of the Berlin Wall' on 9 November 1989 and to the September 11, 2001, attacks. In the United States, dates are rarely written in purely numerical forms in formal writing. In the United Kingdom, while it is regarded as acceptable, but rare, to write monthname day, year (as well as day monthname year), this order is never used when written numerically, although, due to American media influence, the American shorthand "9/11" is widely understood as referring to the 11th of September terrorist attacks. BBC News - America's Day of Terror" (Example of British website using "9/11" shorthand) When numbers are used to represent months, a significant amount of confusion can arise from the ambiguity of a date order; especially when the numbers representing the day, month or year are low, it can be impossible to tell which order is being used. This can be clarified by using four digits to represent years, and naming the month; for example, "Feb" instead of "02". Many Internet sites use year-month-day, and those using other conventions often write out the month (9-MAY-2001, MAY 09 2001, etc.) so there is no ambiguity. The ISO 8601 date order, with four-digit years, is specifically chosen to be unambiguous. The ISO 8601 standard also has the advantage of being language independent and is therefore useful when there may be no language context and a universal application is desired (expiration dating on export products, for example). In addition, the ISO considers its ISO 8601 standard to make sense from a logical perspective. Mixed units, for example feet and inches, or pounds and ounces, are normally written with the largest unit first, in decreasing order. Numbers are also written in that order, so the digits of 2006 indicate, in order, the millennium, the century within the millennium, the decade within the century, and the year within the decade. The only date order that is consistent with these well-established conventions is year-month-day. A plain text list of dates with this format can be easily sorted by word processors, spreadsheets and other software tools with built-in sorting functions. An early U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard recommended 2-digit years. This is now widely recognized as a bad idea, because of the year 2000 problem. Some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4 digit year. http://www.nyecounty.net/iso8601.html International Standard Date and Time Notation When transitioning from one date notation to another, people often write both Old Style and New Style dates. dd/mm/yyyy or dd.mm.yyyy (day, month, year) Using the dd/mm/yyyy format, the 30th December 2006 would be written as 30/12/2006. The dd/mm/yyyy format is used in: Albania Municipality of Tirana (Bashkia e Tiranës) (some use of ISO 8601) Algeria Argentina Armenia (dd.mm.yyyy) National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia Australia Prime Minister of Australia: News Centre Austria (using dots (which denote ordinal numbering) as in “d.m.(yy)yy” or sometimes "d. month (yy)yy") Federal Chancellery of Austria (Bundeskanzleramt) Azerbaijan (dd.mm.yyyy) , also NLS information page - Azeri (Cyrillic, Azerbaijan) Bahrain Bangladesh (century digits may be omitted, e.g. dd-mm-yy) Barbados Belarus (dd.mm.yyyy) President of the Republic of Belarus (Прэзідэнта Рэспублікі Беларусь) Belgium Belgian Federal Government - Portal Bolivia Brazil (dd/mm/yyyy) Government of Brazil - Últimas Notícias (Latest Notices) Bulgaria (dd.mm.yyyy) Parliament of Bulgaria Canada (All 3 main types are used in Canada - in French and in English) Chile Colombia Costa Rica Croatia (d. m. yyyy. or d. month yyyy.; yyyy-mm-dd also used widely) Government of the Republic of Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic (d. m. yyyy or d. month yyyy) Radio Praha (Radio Prague) Denmark (The format dd-mm-yy(yy) is the traditional Danish date format. The international format yyyy-mm-dd or yyyymmdd is also accepted. There are no preferences, although the traditional format is the most widely used. The formats dd.'monthname' yyyy and in handwriting d/m/yy are also acceptable. The Danish language advisory committee ) Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador Egypt [Arab Republic of Egypt: Cabinet/Office of the Prime Minister] El Salvador Estonia (d.m.yyyy or d. month yyyy) Government of the Republic of Estonia Finland (d.m.yyyy or d. month yyyy) France (dd-mm-yyyy or dd/mm/yyyy) Government of France - Prime Minister Georgia (dd.mm.yyyy) Germany (using dots (which denote ordinal numbering) as in “d.m.(yy)yy” or sometimes "d. month (yy)yy") Greece Hellenic Parliament (Greece) Greenland (dd.mm.yyyy) Oqaasileriffik/Greenlandic Language Secretariat Grenada Guatemala Guyana Hong Kong (in English) Honduras Iceland (dd.mm.yyyy) Government of Iceland (Stjórnarráðið)) India (dd.mm.yyyy in Bengali; dd-mm-yyyy in Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Tamil; d-m-yyyy in Telugu, no leading zeroes used) President of India Indonesia Iraq (dd/mm/yyyy) Ireland (dd-m-yyyy) Department of the Taoiseach Israel (dd/mm/yyyy) Israel Government Portal Italy Jamaica Jordan Kazakhstan (dd.mm.yyyy) Kenya (d/m/yyyy and m/d/yyyy) Kuwait Kyrgyzstan (dd.mm.yyyy) Latvia (dd.mm.yyyy ; yyyy.mm.dd is also used Lebanon Libya Luxembourg(dd/mm/yyyy in French, d.m.yyyy in German ) Macau (in Portuguese & English) Macedonia (dd.mm.yyyy) Malaysia Mexico Montenegro (d.m.yyyy) Morocco Netherlands (using hyphens as in “dd-mm-(yy) yy”, very often "d month (yy)yy") New Zealand Nicaragua Norway (d.m.y; the fraction form d/m-y is common, but incorrect) Oman Pakistan (dd/mm/(yy)yy) Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines (in Filipino) Poland (dd.mm.yyyy , often with dots as separators; more official is d <month in genitive> yyyy, or, less frequently, d <month in Roman numerals> yyyy) Kancelaria Prezesa Rady Ministrów (Republic of Poland - The Chancellery of the Prime Minister) Portugal Qatar Romania (dd.mm.yyyy) Guvernul României (Government of Romania) Russia (dd.mm.yyyy) Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Saudi Arabia (dd/mm/yyyy in Islamic and Gregorian calendar systems, except for major companies, which conventionally use the American mm/dd/yyyy format) Serbia (d.m.yyyy) Влада Републике Србије (Serbian Government) Singapore (English) Slovakia (d.m.yyyy, some use of dd-mm-yyyy) Úrad vlády Slovenskej republiky (Government Office of the Slovak Republic) Slovenia (d.m.yyyy or d. mmmm yyyy) Spain Catalan language locale for Spain also indicates dd/mm/yyyy for Common Date format. Sri Lanka Sweden (as d/m yyyy, although the yyyy-mm-dd form is more common and the national standard.) Switzerland (dd.mm.yyyy) Switzerland Federal Administration - Press releases and speeches dd.mm.yyyy format seen in all languages. Syria Tajikistan (dd.mm.yyyy) Thailand (with Buddhist Era years instead of Common Era) Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Cumhurbaşkanlığı (Presidency of the Republic of Turkey) Turkmenistan (dd.mm.(yy)yy) Government of Turkmenistan Ukraine (dd.mm.yyyy Government of the Ukraine ; some cases of dd/mm/yyyy ) United Arab Emirates United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office (UK) - Newsroom Uruguay Government of Uruguay: Documentos de Interés (documents of interest) Uzbekistan (dd.mm.yyyy Cyrillic, dd/mm yyyy Latin) Government of Uzbekistan Venezuela Government of Venezuela: Noticias (News) Vietnam Yemen mm/dd/yy or mm/dd/yyyy (month, day, year) Using the mm/dd/yy format, October 18, 2008 would be written as 10/18/08. The mm/dd/yy format is used in: Belize Canada (Although most official documents use the yyyy-mm-dd format, the mm/dd/yy format is also understood due to influences from the United States.) Federated States of Micronesia Kenya Palau Philippines (when written in English) Puerto Rico United States (civilian vernacular: mm/dd/yy or mm/dd/yyyy ; other formats, including dd Month yyyy and yyyy-mm-dd, are common or prescribed—particularly in military, academic, scientific, computing, industrial, or governmental contexts. See Date and time notation by country#United States.) yyyy-mm-dd (year, month, day) Using the yyyy-mm-dd format, the 30th of December 2006 would be written as 2006-12-30. Used internationally in some contexts as the ISO 8601 standard Albania (more references indicate use of dd/mm/yyyy, see above) Canada (yyyy-mm-dd, government all-numeric standard) (All 3 main types are used in Canada- in French and in English) China, People's Republic of (yyyy-mm-dd or yyyy年m月d日 with no leading zeroes) China, Republic of; same as China, P.R. except year might be represented using ROC era system: 民國95年12月30日. Denmark (The format dd-mm-yy(yy) is the traditional Danish date format. The international format yyyy-mm-dd or yyyymmdd is also accepted. There are no preferences, although the traditional format is the most widely used. The formats dd.'monthname' yyyy and in handwriting d/m/yy are also acceptable. ) Europe http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/biosafety/salmonella/data_dictionary_pigs_en.pdf Hong Kong (yyyy年m月d日 with no leading zeroes; and dd/mm/yyyy for English ) Hungary (yyyy.mm.dd and traditionally the number of the month is sometimes written in Roman numerals A magyar helyesírás szabályai, 2005 (ISBN 963-218-980-9) ) Iran (yyyy/mm/dd in Persian Calendar system ("yy/m/d" is a common alternative), yyyy-mm-dd in Gregorian Calendar system) Japan, often in the form yyyy年mm月dd日; sometimes Japanese era year is used, e.g. 平成18年12月30日. Korea (yyyy년 mm월 dd일; yyyy/mm/dd also used) Latvia (But often dd.mm.yyyy. is used) Lithuania (yyyy-mm-dd) Macau (same as Hong Kong) Mongolia (yyyy.mm.dd) Nepal (also see Nepal Sambat which is also in use) Norway Singapore (Chinese representation: yyyy年m月d日, no leading zeroes) Slovenia South Africa (yyyy/mm/dd; "d/m/yy" is a common alternative) Spain (Basque: yyyy.mm.dd) Sweden (national standard format) Advantages for ordering in sequence One of the advantages of using the ISO 8601 standard date format is that when dates in this format are ordered by any left to right collation, they sort to date order. There are no ambiguities or smartness required on whether numbers come before or after letters, capitalization complications, recognizing month names etc. For example: 1998-02-28 (28 February 1998) 1999-03-01 (01 March 1999) 2000-01-30 (30 January 2000) The YYYY MM DD layout is the only format that can provide this. More granularity can be added through the addition of time, however pure sortability is only then achieved if all times are UTC. 8601 is used widely where concise, human readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as UNIX time and only convert to 8601 for display. localized date pattern France jj/mm/aaaa (jour/mois/année) Germany tt.mm.jjjj (Tag/Monat/Jahr) Netherlands dd-mm-jjjj (dag/maand/jaar) Russia дд/мм/гггг (день/месяц/год) Spain dd/mm/aaaa (día/mes/año) United States mm/dd/yyyy (month/day/year) Day and year only The U.S. military sometimes uses a system, which they call "Julian date format" Hynes, John, A summary of time formats and standards. Accessed 2007-Mar 16. that indicates the year and the actual day out of the 365 days of the year (and thus a designation of the month would not be needed). For example, "10 December 1999" can be written in some contexts as "1999345" or "99345", for the 345th day of 1999. Kuhn, Markus, A summary of the international standard date and time notation, University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, last modified 2004-December 19. Accessed 2006-August 1. This system is most often used in US military logistics, since it makes the process of calculating estimated shipping and arrival dates easier. For example: say a tank engine takes an estimated 35 days to ship by sea from the US to Korea. If the engine is sent on 99104, it should arrive on 99139. Note that outside of the US military, this format is usually referred to as "ordinal date", rather than "Julian date." Such ordinal date formats are also used by many computer programs (especially those for mainframe systems). Using a three-digit Julian day number saves one byte of computer storage over a two-digit month plus two-digit day, e.g. "January 17" is 017 in Julian versus 0117 in month-day format. OS/390 or its successor, z/OS, display dates in yy.ddd format for most operations. It is important to not confuse any of these formats with UNIX time, which stores time as a number in seconds since 1970/1/1. Another "ordinal" date system ("ordinal" in the sense of advancing in value by one as the date advances by one day) is in common use in astronomical calculations and referencing and uses the same name as this "logistics" system. The continuity of representation of period regardless of the time of year being considered is obviously highly useful to both groups of specialists. The astronomers describe their system too as being a "Julian date", and it is described in more detail in the article Julian date. Unlike the system described above, the astronomical system does not consider years, it only counts days. Thus it is unperturbed by complications such as leap years. Week number used Companies in Europe often use year, week number and day for planning purposes. So, for example, an event in a project can happen on w43 (week 43) or w43-1 (Monday, week 43) or, if the year needs to be indicated, on w0543 or w543 (year 2005 week 43). The ISO does present a standard for identifying weeks, but as it does not match up with Gregorian calendar (the beginning and ending days of a given year do not match up), this standard is somewhat more problematic than the other standards for dates. Expressing dates in spoken English In British English, full dates are usually written and spoken as 7th December 1941 (or 7 December 1941) and pronounced "the seventh of December, nineteen forty-one" (note mandatory usage of "the" and "of"), with the occasional usage of December 7, 1941 ("December the seventh, nineteen forty-one"). In common with continental European usage, however, numerical dates are invariably ordered dd/mm/yyyy. In the United States, the usual written form is December 7, pronounced "December the seventh" or colloquially "December seventh". In Australia, Ordinal numerals are not always used when pronouncing dates. For instance, 12/12/09 is sometimes pronounced 12 December 09 and other times 12th December 09. See also Date and time notation by country Internationalization and localization References External links IETF: RFC 3339 W3C Date and Time Formats Internet date/time format Date and Time Around the World - Get current time in cities and villages around the globe Date calculator, add or subtract days to or from a given date English Dates - explanations, exercises and date generator (written and spoken dates) | Calendar_date |@lemmatized date:62 calendar:16 reference:3 particular:5 day:35 represent:6 within:4 system:16 allow:1 specific:3 identify:2 number:11 two:4 may:8 calculate:2 example:13 ten:1 gregorian:6 event:3 depend:1 time:22 zone:1 observe:1 attack:3 pearl:1 harbor:1 take:2 place:2 december:17 hawaii:1 accord:1 japanese:2 different:4 another:3 julian:7 use:59 simultaneously:1 consist:1 three:3 part:3 month:30 year:36 also:21 additional:1 week:7 usually:5 count:2 starting:1 point:1 call:2 epoch:2 era:5 refer:5 period:2 note:3 term:1 geology:1 widely:7 conventional:1 birthdate:1 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5,964 | Ahmed_I | Ahmad I redirects here. For others named Ahmed I and Ahmad I see Ahmad I (disambiguation). Ahmed I Bakhti (Ottoman Turkish: احمد اول Aḥmed-i evvel, Turkish:I.Ahmet) (April 18, 1590 November 22, 1617) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1603 until his death in 1617. His mother was Valide Sultan Handan Sultan, originally named Helena (Eleni), a Greek. He was born at Manisa Palace. Ahmed I succeeded his father Mehmed III (1595–1603) in 1603 at age 13. He broke with the traditional fratricide and sent his brother Mustafa to live at the old palace at Bayezit along with their grandmother Safiye Sultan. He was known for his skills in fencing, poetry, horseback riding, and fluency in numerous languages. In the earlier part of his reign Ahmed I showed decision and vigor, which were belied by his subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession both in Hungary and in Persia terminated unfavourably for the empire, and its prestige received its first check in the Treaty of Zsitvatorok, signed in 1606, whereby the annual tribute paid by Austria was abolished. Georgia and Azerbaijan were ceded to Persia. Ahmed was a poet who wrote a number of political and lyrical works under the name Bahti. He was devoutly religious, spending much of his wealth to support the works of scholars and pious men. He also attempted to enforce conformance to Islamic laws and traditions, restoring the old regulations that prohibited alcohol and he attempted to enforce attendance at the Friday Mosque prayers and paying alms to the poor in the proper way. Ahmed I died of typhus in 1617. Today Ahmed I is remembered mainly for the construction of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque (also known as the Blue Mosque), one of the masterpieces of Islamic architecture. The area in Istanbul around the Mosque is today called Sultanahmet. He died at Topkapi Palace in Istanbul and is buried in a mausoleum right outside the walls of the famous mosque. He was married twice, to Valide Sultan Mahfiruze Hatice Sultan, originally named Maria, a Greek, mother of Osman II, and to Valide Sultan Kadinefendi Kösem Sultan or Mahpeyker, originally named Anastasia, a Greek, mother of Murad IV and Ibrahim I. He also had two sons named Bayezid and Suleiman. External links | Ahmed_I |@lemmatized ahmad:3 redirects:1 others:1 name:6 ahmed:8 see:1 disambiguation:1 bakhti:1 ottoman:2 turkish:2 احمد:1 اول:1 aḥmed:1 evvel:1 ahmet:1 april:1 november:1 sultan:9 empire:2 death:1 mother:3 valide:3 handan:1 originally:3 helena:1 eleni:1 greek:3 bear:1 manisa:1 palace:3 succeed:1 father:1 mehmed:1 iii:1 age:1 break:1 traditional:1 fratricide:1 send:1 brother:1 mustafa:1 live:1 old:2 bayezit:1 along:1 grandmother:1 safiye:1 know:2 skill:1 fencing:1 poetry:1 horseback:1 riding:1 fluency:1 numerous:1 language:1 early:1 part:1 reign:1 show:1 decision:1 vigor:1 belie:1 subsequent:1 conduct:1 war:1 attend:1 accession:1 hungary:1 persia:2 terminate:1 unfavourably:1 prestige:1 receive:1 first:1 check:1 treaty:1 zsitvatorok:1 sign:1 whereby:1 annual:1 tribute:1 pay:2 austria:1 abolish:1 georgia:1 azerbaijan:1 cede:1 poet:1 write:1 number:1 political:1 lyrical:1 work:2 bahti:1 devoutly:1 religious:1 spend:1 much:1 wealth:1 support:1 scholar:1 pious:1 men:1 also:3 attempt:2 enforce:2 conformance:1 islamic:2 law:1 tradition:1 restore:1 regulation:1 prohibit:1 alcohol:1 attendance:1 friday:1 mosque:5 prayer:1 alms:1 poor:1 proper:1 way:1 die:2 typhus:1 today:2 remember:1 mainly:1 construction:1 blue:1 one:1 masterpiece:1 architecture:1 area:1 istanbul:2 around:1 call:1 sultanahmet:1 topkapi:1 bury:1 mausoleum:1 right:1 outside:1 wall:1 famous:1 marry:1 twice:1 mahfiruze:1 hatice:1 maria:1 osman:1 ii:1 kadinefendi:1 kösem:1 mahpeyker:1 anastasia:1 murad:1 iv:1 ibrahim:1 two:1 son:1 bayezid:1 suleiman:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:1 mother_valide:1 valide_sultan:3 horseback_riding:1 sultan_ahmed:1 topkapi_palace:1 palace_istanbul:1 murad_iv:1 external_link:1 |
5,965 | Mac_OS | Mac OS X v10.5- the latest release of Mac OS X. Mac OS 9- the last release of the classic Mac OS. Mac OS logo Mac OS is the trademarked name for a series of graphical user interface-based operating systems developed by Apple Inc. (formerly Apple Computer, Inc.) for their Macintosh line of computer systems. The Macintosh user experience is credited with popularizing the graphical user interface. The original form of what Apple would later name the "Mac OS" was the integral and unnamed system software first introduced in 1984 with the original Macintosh, usually referred to simply as the System software. Apple deliberately downplayed the existence of the operating system in the early years of the Macintosh to help make the machine appear more user-friendly and to distance it from other operating systems such as MS-DOS, which was more arcane and technically challenging. Much of this early system software was held in ROM, with updates typically provided free of charge by Apple dealers on floppy disk. As increasing disk storage capacity and performance gradually eliminated the need for fixing much of an advanced GUI operating system in ROM, Apple explored cloning while positioning major operating system upgrades as separate revenue-generating products, first with System 7 and System 7.5, then with Mac OS 7.6 in 1997. Versions The early Macintosh operating system initially consisted of two pieces of software, called "System" and "Finder", each with its own version number. Macintosh: System Software Version History System 7.5 was the first to include the Mac OS logo (a variation on the original Happy Mac startup icon), and Mac OS 7.6 was the first to be named "Mac OS" (to ensure that users would still identify it with Apple, even when used in "clones" from other companies). Until the advent of the later PowerPC G3-based systems, significant parts of the system were stored in physical ROM on the motherboard. The initial purpose of this was to avoid using up the limited storage of floppy disks on system support, given that the early Macs had no hard disk. (Only one model of Mac was ever actually bootable using the ROM alone, the 1991 Mac Classic model.) This architecture also allowed for a completely graphical OS interface at the lowest level without the need for a text-only console or command-line mode. A fatal software error, or even a low-level hardware error discovered during system startup (such as finding no functioning disk drives), was communicated to the user graphically using some combination of icons, alert box windows, buttons, a mouse pointer, and the distinctive Chicago bitmap font. Mac OS depended on this core system software in ROM on the motherboard, a fact that later helped to ensure that only Apple computers or licensed clones (with the copyright-protected ROMs from Apple) could run Mac OS. The Mac OS can be divided into two families: - The Mac OS Classic family, which was based on Apple's own code - The Mac OS X operating system, derived from UNIX. "Classic" Mac OS (1984–2001) Original 1984 Macintosh desktop The "classic" Mac OS is characterized by its total lack of a command line; it is a completely graphical operating system. Noted for its ease of use and its cooperative multitasking, it was criticized for its very limited memory management, lack of protected memory, and susceptibility to conflicts among operating system "extensions" that provide additional functionality (such as networking) or support for a particular device. Some extensions may not work properly together, or work only when loaded in a particular order. Troubleshooting Mac OS extensions can be a time-consuming process of trial and error. The Macintosh originally used the Macintosh File System (MFS), a flat file system with only one level of folders. This was quickly replaced in 1985 by the Hierarchical File System (HFS), which had a true directory tree. Both file systems are otherwise compatible. Extensions Manager under Mac OS 9 Most file systems used with DOS, Unix, or other operating systems treat a file as simply a sequence of bytes, requiring an application to know which bytes represented what type of information. By contrast, MFS and HFS gave files two different "forks". The data fork contained the same sort of information as other file systems, such as the text of a document or the bitmaps of an image file. The resource fork contained other structured data such as menu definitions, graphics, sounds, or code segments. A file might consist only of resources with an empty data fork, or only a data fork with no resource fork. A text file could contain its text in the data fork and styling information in the resource fork, so that an application, which didn’t recognize the styling information, could still read the raw text. On the other hand, these forks provided a challenge to interoperability with other operating systems; copying a file from a Mac to a non-Mac system would strip it of its resource fork, necessitating such encoding schemes as BinHex and MacBinary. PowerPC versions of Mac OS X up to and including Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger (support for Classic was dropped by Apple with Leopard's release and it is no longer included) include a compatibility layer for running older Mac applications, the Classic Environment. This runs a full copy of the older Mac OS, version 9.1 or later, in a Mac OS X process. PowerPC-based Macs shipped with Mac OS 9.2 as well as Mac OS X. Mac OS 9.2 had to be installed by the user — it was not installed by default on hardware revisions released after the release of Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger. Most well-written "classic" applications function properly under this environment, but compatibility is only assured if the software was written to be unaware of the actual hardware, and to interact solely with the operating system. The Classic Environment is not available on Intel-based Macintoshes or "Hackintosh" systems due to the incompatibility of Mac OS 9 with the x86 hardware. Users of the classic Mac OS generally upgraded to Mac OS X, but many criticized it as being more difficult and less user-friendly than the original Mac OS, for the lack of certain features that had not been re-implemented in the new OS, or for being slower on the same hardware (especially older hardware), or other, sometimes serious incompatibilities with the older OS. Because drivers (for printers, scanners, tablets, etc.) written for the older Mac OS are not compatible with Mac OS X, and due to the lack of Mac OS X support for older Apple machines, a significant number of Macintosh users have still continued using the older classic Mac OS. But by 2005, it has been reported that almost all users of systems capable of running Mac OS X are doing so, with only a small fraction still running the classic Mac OS. In June 2005, Steve Jobs announced at the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote that Apple computers would be transitioning from PowerPC to Intel processors. At the same conference, Jobs announced Developer Transition Kits that included beta versions of Apple software including Mac OS X that developers could use to test their applications as they ported them to run on Intel-powered Macs. In January 2006, Apple released the first Macintosh computers with Intel processors, an iMac and the MacBook Pro, and in February 2006, Apple released a Mac mini with an Intel Core Solo and Duo processor. On May 16, 2006, Apple released the MacBook, before completing the Intel transition on August 7 with the Mac Pro. To ease the transition for early buyers of the new machines, Intel-based Macs include an emulation technology called Rosetta, which allows them to run (at reduced speed) pre-existing Mac OS X native application software that was compiled only for PowerPC-based Macintoshes. Star Trek One interesting historical aspect of the classic Mac OS was a relatively unknown secret prototype Apple started work on in 1992, code-named "Star Trek" (as in "to boldly go where no Mac has gone before"). The goal of this project was to create a version of Mac OS that would run on Intel-compatible x86 personal computers. The project was instigated by Novell, Inc., who were looking to integrate their DR-DOS with the Mac OS UI as a retort to Microsoft's Windows 3.0. The Apple/Novell team (fourteen engineers from the former, four from the latter) was able to get the Macintosh Finder and some basic applications, like QuickTime, running smoothly on a PC. Some of the code from this effort was reused when porting the Mac OS later to PowerPC. Hormby (2005) The project was short lived, being canceled only one year later in early 1993. There are two theories for the cancellation: the first is that Apple's board canceled further development upon realizing that going with Star Trek would mean an entirely new business model and one that would likely see a notable drop in Apple's lucrative hardware sales; and the second is that an x86 Mac OS was not commercially viable in the early nineties because Microsoft's contracts for Windows 3.1 forced PC manufacturers to pay a royalty to Microsoft for every computer shipped, regardless of what operating system it contained. Caldera Sues Microsoft A further complication was that Star Trek was designed to be source-level compatible, not binary compatible, with the Mac OS. Mac applications would therefore have to be recompiled or rewritten by their developers to run on the x86 architecture, and there was much skepticism as to exactly how much work this would entail. Fifteen years after Star Trek, support for the x86 architecture was officially included in Mac OS, and then Apple transitioned all desktop computers to the x86 architecture. This was not the direct result of earlier Project Star Trek efforts. The Darwin underpinning used for Mac OS X 10.0 and later included support for the x86 architecture. The remaining non-Darwin portion of Mac OS X (based on OPENSTEP, which ran on Intel processors) was released officially with the introduction of x86 Macintosh computers. 68000 emulation Although the Star Trek software was never released, third-party Macintosh emulators, such as vMac, Basilisk II, and Executor, eventually made it possible to run the classic Mac OS on Intel-based PCs. These emulators were restricted to emulating the 68000 series of processors, and as such most couldn't run versions of the Mac OS that succeeded 8.1, which required PowerPC processors. Most also required a Mac ROM image or a hardware interface supporting a real Mac ROM chip; those requiring an image are of dubious legal standing as the ROM image may infringe on Apple's intellectual property. A notable exception was the Executor commercial software product from Abacus Research & Development, the only product that used 100% reverse engineered code without the use of Apple technology. It ran extremely quickly but never achieved more than a minor subset of functionality. Few programs were completely compatible and many were extremely crash-prone if they ran at all. Executor filled a niche market for porting 68000 classic Mac applications to x86 platforms; development ceased in 2002 and the source code was released by the author in late 2008. Emulators using Mac ROM images offered near complete Mac OS compatibility and later versions offered excellent performance as modern x86 processor performance increased exponentially. Most of the Mac user base had already started moving to the PowerPC platform that offered backward compatibility on 8.xx & 9.xx operating systems along with faster PowerPC software support. This helped ease the transition to PowerPC-only applications while prematurely obsolescing 68000 emulators and the Classic-only applications they supported well before these emulators were refined enough to compete with a real Mac. PowerPC emulation At the time of 68000-emulator development PowerPC support was difficult to justify not only due to the emulation code itself but also the anticipated wide performance overhead of an emulated PowerPC architecture vs. a real PowerPC based Mac. This would later prove correct with the start of the PearPC project even years later despite the availability of 7th & 8th generation x86 processors employing similar architecture paradigms present in the PowerPC. Many application developers were also creating and releasing both 68000 Classic and PowerPC versions concurrently helping to negate the need for PowerPC emulation. PowerPC Mac users who could technically run either obviously chose the faster PowerPC applications. Soon Apple was no longer selling 68000-based Macs and the existing installed base started to quickly evaporate. Despite the eventual excellent 68000-emulation technology available they proved never to be even a minor threat to real Macs due to their late arrival and immaturity even several years after the release of much more compelling PowerPC based Macs. The PearPC emulator is capable of emulating the PowerPC processors required by newer versions of the Mac OS (like Mac OS X). Unfortunately, it is still in the early stages and, like many emulators, tends to run much slower than a native operating system would. During the transition from PowerPC to Intel processors, Apple realized the need to incorporate a PowerPC emulator into Mac OS X in order to protect its customers' investments in software designed to run on the PowerPC. Apple's solution is an emulator called Rosetta. Prior to the announcement of Rosetta, industry observers assumed that any PowerPC emulator running on an x86 processor would suffer a heavy performance penalty (e.g., PearPC's slow performance). Rosetta's relatively minor performance penalty therefore took many by surprise. Another PowerPC emulator is SheepShaver, which has been around since 1998 for BeOS on the PowerPC platform, but in 2002 was open sourced with porting efforts beginning to get it to run on other platforms. Originally it was not designed for use on x86 platforms and required an actual PowerPC processor present in the machine it was running on similar to a hypervisor. Although it provides PowerPC processor support, it can only run up to Mac OS 9.0.4 because it does not emulate a memory management unit. Other examples include ShapeShifter (by the same programmer that conceived SheepShaver), Fusion and iFusion. The latter ran classic Mac OS with a PowerPC "coprocessor" accelerator card. Using this method has been said to equal or better the speed of a Macintosh with the same processor, especially with respect to the m68k series due to real Macs running in MMU trap mode, hampering performance. Macintosh clones Several computer manufacturers over the years have made Macintosh clones capable of running Mac OS, notably Power Computing, UMAX and Motorola. These machines normally ran various versions of classic Mac OS. Steve Jobs ended the clone-licensing program after returning to Apple in 1997. In 2008, a manufacturing company in Miami, FL called Psystar Corporation, announced a $499 clone that comes with a barebones system that can run Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard. Threatened with legal battles, Psystar originally called the system OpenMac and have since changed it to Open Computer. Apple is still in a lawsuit with the company and says it wants Psystar to pay for damages, recall every clone ever sold, and pay Apple's legal bills. http://forum.teamxbox.com/archive/index.php/archive/t-587423.html A/UX In 1988, Apple released its first UNIX-based OS, A/UX, which was a UNIX operating system with the Mac OS look and feel. It was not very competitive for its time, due in part to the crowded Unix market. A/UX had most of its success in sales to the U.S. government, where UNIX was a requirement that Mac OS could not meet. Mac OS X later incorporated code from the UNIX-based NeXTStep after Steve Jobs rejoined Apple in 1996. Mac OS X Cat Names 10.0 "Cheetah" 10.1 "Puma" 10.2 "Jaguar" 10.3 "Panther" 10.4 "Tiger" 10.5 "Leopard" 10.6 "Snow Leopard" (unreleased) 10.0-Cheetah 10.1-Puma 10.2-Jaguar 10.3-Panther 10.4-Tiger 10.5-Leopard 10.6-Snow Leopard (Coming Soon) References Bibliography Hormby, Tom (2005) "Star Trek: Apple's First Mac OS on Intel Project" External links Mac OS X – Official site Mac 101 – Apple's introductory guide the Mac OS. Folklore.org – A site of anecdotes shared by the creators of the first Macintosh. History of Mac OS – Chronicle of version to version changes from the first release to version 10.4 The Vintage Mac Museum: – Old Mac System - From System1 to System7 ''' | Mac_OS |@lemmatized mac:97 x:22 late:5 release:15 os:20 last:1 classic:19 logo:2 trademarked:1 name:4 series:3 graphical:4 user:13 interface:4 base:16 operate:9 system:42 develop:1 apple:34 inc:3 formerly:1 computer:11 macintosh:20 line:3 experience:1 credit:1 popularize:1 original:5 form:1 would:12 later:9 integral:1 unnamed:1 software:14 first:10 introduce:1 usually:1 refer:1 simply:2 deliberately:1 downplay:1 existence:1 operating:7 early:9 year:6 help:4 make:3 machine:5 appear:1 friendly:2 distance:1 ms:1 arcane:1 technically:2 challenge:2 much:6 hold:1 rom:10 update:1 typically:1 provide:4 free:1 charge:1 dealer:1 floppy:2 disk:5 increase:2 storage:2 capacity:1 performance:8 gradually:1 eliminate:1 need:4 fix:1 advanced:1 gui:1 explore:1 clone:8 position:1 major:1 upgrade:2 separate:1 revenue:1 generating:1 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5,966 | Claude_Piron | Claude Piron at 2005 Boulogne Congress Claude Piron (26 February 1931 – 22 January 2008), a linguist and psychologist, was a translator for the United Nations (from Chinese, English, Russian and Spanish into French) from 1956 to 1961. After leaving the UN he worked all over the world for the World Health Organization, as well as being a prolific author of Esperanto works. Piron spoke Esperanto from childhood and used it in many countries, including Japan, the People's Republic of China, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, a few places in Africa and Latin America, and almost all European countries. For some of his books he used the pseudonym Johán Valano. Life Piron was a psychotherapist and taught from 1973 to 1994 in the psychology department at the University of Geneva in Switzerland. His French-language book Le défi des langues — Du gâchis au bon sens (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense, 1994) is a kind of psychoanalysis of international communication. A Portuguese version, O desafio das linguas, was published in 2002 (Campinas, São Paulo, Pontes). In a lecture on the current system of international communication Piron argued that "Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes" and "differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns... The same neuropsychological law...—called by Jean Piaget generalizing assimilation—applies to word formation as well as to grammar." His diverse Esperanto writings include instructional books, books for beginners, novels, short stories, poems, articles and non-fiction books. His most famous works are Gerda malaperis! and La Bona Lingvo (The Good Language). Gerda malaperis! is a novella which uses basic grammar and vocabulary in the first chapter and builds up to expert Esperanto by the end, including word lists so that beginners may easily follow along. In La Bona Lingvo, Piron captures the basic linguistic and social aspects of Esperanto. He argues strongly for imaginative use of the basic Esperanto morpheme inventory and word-formation techniques, and against unnecessary importation of neologisms from European languages. He also presents the idea that, once one has learned enough vocabulary to express himself, it is easier to think clearly in Esperanto than in many other languages. See also Esperanto References Claude Piron, Le défi des langues — Du gâchis au bon sens (The Language Challenge: From Chaos to Common Sense), Paris, L'Harmattan, 1994. External links www.claude-piron.ch The homepage of Claude Piron by Stefano Keller Articles and texts in many languages by Claude Piron About Language Problems by Claude Piron Articles in english by Claude Piron The language challenge -- facing up to reality Claude Piron on Youtube — | Claude_Piron |@lemmatized claude:9 piron:13 boulogne:1 congress:1 february:1 january:1 linguist:1 psychologist:1 translator:1 united:1 nation:1 chinese:1 english:2 russian:1 spanish:1 french:2 leave:1 un:1 work:3 world:2 health:1 organization:1 well:2 prolific:1 author:1 esperanto:9 speak:1 childhood:1 use:4 many:3 country:2 include:3 japan:1 people:1 republic:1 china:1 uzbekistan:1 kazakhstan:1 place:1 africa:1 latin:1 america:1 almost:1 european:2 book:5 pseudonym:1 johán:1 valano:1 life:1 psychotherapist:1 taught:1 psychology:1 department:1 university:1 geneva:1 switzerland:1 language:10 le:2 défi:2 de:2 langues:2 du:2 gâchis:2 au:2 bon:2 sen:2 challenge:3 chaos:2 common:2 sense:2 kind:1 psychoanalysis:1 international:2 communication:2 portuguese:1 version:1 desafio:1 da:1 lingua:1 publish:1 campinas:1 são:1 paulo:1 pontes:1 lecture:1 current:1 system:1 argue:2 relies:1 entirely:1 innate:1 reflex:1 differs:1 always:1 trust:1 natural:1 tendency:1 generalize:2 pattern:1 neuropsychological:1 law:1 call:1 jean:1 piaget:1 assimilation:1 applies:1 word:3 formation:2 grammar:2 diverse:1 writing:1 instructional:1 beginner:2 novel:1 short:1 story:1 poem:1 article:3 non:1 fiction:1 famous:1 gerda:2 malaperis:2 la:2 bona:2 lingvo:2 good:1 novella:1 basic:3 vocabulary:2 first:1 chapter:1 build:1 expert:1 end:1 list:1 may:1 easily:1 follow:1 along:1 capture:1 linguistic:1 social:1 aspect:1 strongly:1 imaginative:1 morpheme:1 inventory:1 technique:1 unnecessary:1 importation:1 neologism:1 also:2 present:1 idea:1 one:1 learn:1 enough:1 express:1 easy:1 think:1 clearly:1 see:1 reference:1 paris:1 l:1 harmattan:1 external:1 link:1 www:1 ch:1 homepage:1 stefano:1 keller:1 text:1 problem:1 face:1 reality:1 youtube:1 |@bigram claude_piron:9 geneva_switzerland:1 le_défi:2 défi_de:2 são_paulo:1 jean_piaget:1 l_harmattan:1 external_link:1 |
5,967 | Burroughs_Corporation | The Burroughs Corporation began in 1886 as the American Arithmometer Company in St. Louis, Missouri selling an adding machine invented by William Seward Burroughs. The company moved to Detroit in 1904 and changed its name to the Burroughs Adding Machine Company, in honor of Burroughs, who died in 1898. Burroughs grew into the biggest adding machine company in America, although by the 1950s it was selling more than the basic adding machines, including typewriters and computers. The Company developed a range of adding machines with different capabilities and created the office accounting machine range that began with the Sensimatic, which had a moving programmable carriage to maintain ledgers. It could store 9, 18 or 27 balances during the ledger posting operations and worked with a mechanical adder named a Crossfooter. The Sensimatic developed into the Sensitronic which could store balances on a magnetic stripe which was part of the ledger card. This balance was read into the accumulator when the card was inserted into the carriage. The Sensitronic was followed by the E1000, the E2000, E4000, E6000 and the E8000 which was computer system supporting magnetic tape, card reader/punches and a line printer. In the late 1960s the D2000, D4000 range was produced - also known as the TC500 (Terminal Computer 500) which had a golf ball printer and a 1K (80 bit) disk memory. These were popular as branch terminals to the B5500/6500/6700 Systems, which sold well in the Banking Sector, where they were often connected to non-Burroughs mainframes. In 1953 the Burroughs Adding Machine Company was renamed the Burroughs Corporation and began moving into computer products, initially for banking institutions. This move began with the purchase in June 1956, of The ElectroData Corporation in Pasadena, California, originally a division of Consolidated Electrodynamics Corporation, but which had been spun off. ElectroData had built the Datatron 205 and was working on the Datatron 220. The first major computer product that came from this marriage was the B205 Tube computer. The Burroughs Corporation developed three highly innovative architectures, based on the design philosophy of "language directed design". Their machine instruction sets favored one or many high level programming languages, such as ALGOL, COBOL or FORTRAN. All three architectures were considered "main-frame" class machines: The Burroughs large systems machines starting with the B5000 in 1961 were stack machines designed to be programmed in an extended Algol 60. Their operating systems, called MCP (Master Control Program - the name later borrowed by the screenwriters for Tron), were programmed in ESPOL (Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language, a minor extension of Algol) almost a decade before Unix, and the command interface developed into a compiled structured language with procedures called WFL (Work Flow Language). The designation for these systems was B5000-79xx, followed by A-Series. Burroughs produced the B2000 or "medium systems" computers aimed primarily at the business world. The machines were designed to execute COBOL efficiently. This included a BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) based arithmetic unit, storing and addressing the main memory using Base 10 numbering instead of binary. The designation for these systems was the B2000-49xx followed by V-Series. Burroughs produced the B1700 or "small systems" computers that were designed to be microprogrammed, with each process potentially getting its own virtual machine designed to be the best match to the programming language chosen for the program being run. The smallest general-purpose computers were the B700 "microprocessors" which were used both as stand-alone systems and as special-purpose data-communications or disk-subsystem controllers. Burroughs also manufactured an extensive range of accounting machines including both stand-alone systems such as the Sensimatic, L500 and B80, and dedicated terminals including the TC500 and specialised cheque processing equipment. In the early 1980s Burroughs began producing personal computers, the B20 and B25 lines. These ran the BTOS operating system, which Burroughs licensed from Convergent Technologies. These machines implemented an early Local Area Network to share a hard disk between workgroup users. Burroughs financed early work on Wafer-scale integration, but abandoned this at about the time of the merger with Sperry . Ivor Catt attempted to continue this in conjunction with Sir Clive Sinclair, its ultimate demise was caused by reduction in conventional chip prices. Burroughs also made military computers, such as the D825, in its Great Valley Laboratory in Paoli, Pennsylvania. The D825 was, according to some scholars, the first true multiprocessor computer. Enslow, Philip H., Jr., "Multiprocessor Organization - A Survey", Computing Surveys, Vol. 9, March 1977, pp.103-129. Burroughs Corporation was always a distant second to IBM commercially if not technologically. At the same time, Burroughs was very much a competitor and just like IBM, Burroughs tried to supply a complete answer for its customers. This included providing Burroughs-designed printers, disk drives, tape drives, etc., computer paper, and even typewriter ribbons. Burroughs was one of the eight major United States computer companies (with IBM, the largest, Honeywell, NCR Corporation, Control Data Corporation, General Electric, RCA and UNIVAC) through most of the 1960s. IBM's share of the market at the time was so much larger than all of the others, that this group was often referred to as "IBM and the Seven Dwarfs." Later, this group became known as the BUNCH - (Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR Corporation, Control Data Corporation, and Honeywell) In September 1986, Burroughs Corporation merged with Sperry Corporation to form Unisys. References in popular culture Burroughs B205 hardware has appeared as props in many Hollywood TV and movie productions from the 1960s onwards. For example a B205 console was often shown in the TV series Batman as the Bat Computer; also as the computer in Lost in Space. B205 tape drives were often seen in shows such as The Time Tunnel and Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea. Notes References Barton, Robert S. "A New Approach to the Functional Design of a Digital Computer" Proc. western joint computer Conf. ACM (1961). Gray, George. "Some Burroughs Transistor Computers", Unisys History Newsletter, Volume 3, Number 1, March 1999. Gray, George. "Burroughs Third-Generation Computers, Unisys History Newsletter, Volume 3, Number 5, October 1999. Hauck, E.A., Dent, Ben A. "Burroughs B6500/B7500 Stack Mechanism", SJCC (1968) pp. 245-251. McKeeman, William M. "Language Directed Computer Design", FJCC (1967) pp. 413-417. Organick, Elliot I. "Computer System Organization The B5700/B6700 series", Academic Press (1973) Wilner, Wayne T. "Design of the B1700", FJCC pp. 489-497 (1972). External links Burroughs Corporation Records Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Collection contains the records of the Burroughs Corporation, and its predecessors the American Arithmometer Company and Burroughs Adding Machine Company. Materials include corporate records, photographs, films and video tapes, scrapbooks, papers of employees and the records of companies acquired by Burroughs. CBI's Burroughs Corporation Records includes over 100,000 photographs depicting the entire visual history of Burroughs from its origin as the American Arithmometer Corporation in 1886 to its merger with the Sperry Corporation to form the Unisys Corporation in 1986. Burroughs Corporation Photo Database at the Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. The searchable photo database permits browsing and retrieval of over 550 historical images. Burroughs B 5000 Conference Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. The Burroughs 5000 computer series is discussed by individuals responsible for its development and marketing from 1957 through the 1960s in a 1985 conference sponsored by AFIPS and Burroughs Corporation. Oral history interview with Isaac Levin Auerbach Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Auerbach discusses his employment from 1949-1957 with the Burroughs Corporation, including a number of projects he managed at Burroughs, including computer equipment for the SAGE project, BEAM I computer, the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile System, a magnetic core encryption communications system, and a missile guidance computer used for the Atlas missile. Oral history interview with Robert V. D. Campbell. Campbell his position at Burroughs (1949-1966) as director of research and in a staff position for program planning. Oral history interview with Carel Sellenraad Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Sellenraad describes his long association with Burroughs Adding Machine Company, and the impact of World Wars I & II on the sales and service of calculators, and adding and bookkeeping machines in Europe. Oral history interview with Ovid M. Smith Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Smith reviews his 46 1/2 year career at Burroughs Adding Machine Company (later Burroughs Corporation). Older Burroughs computer manuals online Burroughs computers such as the D825 at BRL An historical Burroughs Adding Machine Company/Burroughs site Unofficial list of Burroughs manufacturing plants and labs Ian Joyner's Burroughs page | Burroughs_Corporation |@lemmatized burroughs:50 corporation:22 begin:5 american:3 arithmometer:3 company:13 st:1 louis:1 missouri:1 sell:3 add:11 machine:20 invent:1 william:2 seward:1 move:4 detroit:1 change:1 name:3 honor:1 die:1 grow:1 big:1 america:1 although:1 basic:1 include:9 typewriter:2 computer:28 develop:3 range:4 different:1 capability:1 create:1 office:1 accounting:1 sensimatic:3 programmable:1 carriage:2 maintain:1 ledger:3 could:2 store:3 balance:3 post:1 operation:1 work:4 mechanical:1 adder:1 crossfooter:1 developed:1 sensitronic:2 magnetic:3 stripe:1 part:1 card:3 read:1 accumulator:1 insert:1 follow:3 system:15 support:1 tape:4 reader:1 punch:1 line:2 printer:3 late:1 produce:4 also:4 know:2 terminal:3 golf:1 ball:1 bit:1 disk:4 memory:2 popular:2 branch:1 well:1 banking:2 sector:1 often:4 connect:1 non:1 mainframe:1 rename:1 product:2 initially:1 institution:1 purchase:1 june:1 electrodata:2 pasadena:1 california:1 originally:1 division:1 consolidated:1 electrodynamics:1 spin:1 build:1 datatron:2 first:2 major:2 come:1 marriage:1 tube:1 three:2 highly:1 innovative:1 architecture:2 base:3 design:10 philosophy:1 language:7 direct:2 instruction:1 set:1 favor:1 one:2 many:2 high:1 level:1 programming:2 algol:3 cobol:2 fortran:1 consider:1 main:2 frame:1 class:1 large:3 start:1 stack:2 program:6 extended:1 operating:2 call:2 mcp:1 master:1 control:3 later:3 borrow:1 screenwriter:1 tron:1 espol:1 executive:1 oriented:1 minor:1 extension:1 almost:1 decade:1 unix:1 command:1 interface:1 compile:1 structured:1 procedure:1 wfl:1 flow:1 designation:2 series:5 medium:1 aim:1 primarily:1 business:1 world:2 execute:1 efficiently:1 bcd:1 binary:2 cod:1 decimal:1 arithmetic:1 unit:1 address:1 use:3 number:4 instead:1 v:2 small:2 microprogrammed:1 process:1 potentially:1 get:1 virtual:1 best:1 match:1 choose:1 run:2 general:2 purpose:2 microprocessor:1 stand:2 alone:2 special:1 data:3 communication:2 subsystem:1 controller:1 manufacture:2 extensive:1 account:1 dedicated:1 specialise:1 cheque:1 processing:1 equipment:2 early:3 personal:1 btos:1 license:1 convergent:1 technology:1 implement:1 local:1 area:1 network:1 share:2 hard:1 workgroup:1 user:1 finance:1 wafer:1 scale:1 integration:1 abandon:1 time:4 merger:2 sperry:3 ivor:1 catt:1 attempt:1 continue:1 conjunction:1 sir:1 clive:1 sinclair:1 ultimate:1 demise:1 cause:1 reduction:1 conventional:1 chip:1 price:1 make:1 military:1 great:1 valley:1 laboratory:1 paoli:1 pennsylvania:1 accord:1 scholar:1 true:1 multiprocessor:2 enslow:1 philip:1 h:1 jr:1 organization:2 survey:2 compute:1 vol:1 march:2 pp:4 always:1 distant:1 second:1 ibm:5 commercially:1 technologically:1 much:2 competitor:1 like:1 try:1 supply:1 complete:1 answer:1 customer:1 provide:1 drive:3 etc:1 paper:2 even:1 ribbon:1 eight:1 unite:1 state:1 honeywell:2 ncr:2 electric:1 rca:1 univac:2 market:1 others:1 group:2 refer:1 seven:1 dwarf:1 become:1 bunch:1 september:1 merge:1 form:2 unisys:4 reference:2 culture:1 hardware:1 appear:1 prop:1 hollywood:1 tv:2 movie:1 production:1 onwards:1 example:1 console:1 show:2 batman:1 bat:1 lose:1 space:1 see:1 tunnel:1 voyage:1 bottom:1 sea:1 note:1 barton:1 robert:2 new:1 approach:1 functional:1 digital:1 proc:1 western:1 joint:1 conf:1 acm:1 gray:2 george:2 transistor:1 history:7 newsletter:2 volume:2 third:1 generation:1 october:1 hauck:1 e:1 dent:1 ben:1 mechanism:1 sjcc:1 mckeeman:1 fjcc:2 organick:1 elliot:1 academic:1 press:1 wilner:1 wayne:1 external:1 link:1 record:5 charles:6 babbage:6 institute:6 university:6 minnesota:6 minneapolis:5 collection:1 contain:1 predecessor:1 material:1 corporate:1 photograph:2 film:1 video:1 scrapbook:1 employee:1 acquire:1 cbi:1 depict:1 entire:1 visual:1 origin:1 photo:2 database:2 searchable:1 permit:1 browse:1 retrieval:1 historical:2 image:1 b:1 conference:2 discuss:2 individual:1 responsible:1 development:1 marketing:1 sponsor:1 afips:1 oral:4 interview:4 isaac:1 levin:1 auerbach:2 employment:1 project:2 manage:1 sage:1 beam:1 intercontinental:1 ballistic:1 missile:3 core:1 encryption:1 guidance:1 atlas:1 campbell:2 position:2 director:1 research:1 staff:1 planning:1 carel:1 sellenraad:2 describe:1 long:1 association:1 impact:1 war:1 ii:1 sale:1 service:1 calculator:1 bookkeeping:1 europe:1 ovid:1 smith:2 review:1 year:1 career:1 old:1 manual:1 online:1 brl:1 site:1 unofficial:1 list:1 plant:1 labs:1 ian:1 joyner:1 page:1 |@bigram pasadena_california:1 cod_decimal:1 ncr_corporation:2 sperry_corporation:2 external_link:1 charles_babbage:6 minnesota_minneapolis:5 intercontinental_ballistic:1 ballistic_missile:1 |
5,968 | Clark_Kent | Clark Joseph Kent (middle name is also Jerome according to some versions) Note that while Joseph is more commonly used, some sources claim that Clark's middle name is in fact "Jerome" — in honor of creator Jerry Siegel. The name "Jerome" was used in the "Season's Greedings" episode of the television series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman. is a fictional character created by Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel. He serves as the civilian and secret identity of the superhero Superman. Over the decades there has been considerable debate as to which personality the character identifies with most. From his first introduction in 1938 to the mid-1980s, "Clark Kent" was seen mostly as a disguise for Superman, enabling him to mix with ordinary people. This was the view in most comics and other media such as TV (starring George Reeves) and radio. Since 1986, during John Byrne's revamping of the character, the emphasis has been on Superman being the alter-ego of Clark Kent, the side of the character he most identifies with. Overview Through the popularity of his Superman alter ego, the personality, concept, and name of Clark Kent have become ingrained in popular culture as well, becoming synonymous with secret identities and innocuous fronts for ulterior motives and activities. There have been suggestions that the surname Kent is a nod to the character of the Earl of Kent (known in most scripts simply as Kent) in the Shakespeare play King Lear, as both assume simplistic disguises, yet managed to fool those closest to them. The first name Clark is a reference to actor Clark Gable, with Clark's middle name being a reference to either of his creators depending on the version. First written in the earliest Superman comics, Clark Kent's primary purpose was to fulfill the perceived dramatic requirement that a costumed superhero cannot stay on-duty twenty-four hours a day, or throughout the entirety of a comic book series. As such, Clark acted as little more than a front for Superman's activities. Although his name and history were taken from his early life with his adoptive Earth parents, everything about Clark was staged for the benefit of his alternate identity — he acquired a job as a reporter for the Daily Planet for the convenience of receiving late-breaking news before the general public, providing an excuse for being present at crime scenes and having an occupation where his whereabouts do not have to be strictly accounted for as long as he makes his story deadlines. However, in order to draw attention away from the correlation between Kent and Superman, Clark Kent adopted a largely passive and introverted personality, applying conservative mannerisms, a higher-pitched voice, and a slight slouch. This personality is typically described as "mild-mannered," perhaps most famously by the opening narration of Max Fleischer's Superman animated theatrical shorts. These traits extended into Clark's wardrobe, which typically consists of a softly colored business suit, a red necktie, black-rimmed glasses (which in Pre-Crisis stories had lenses of Kryptonian material that wouldn't be damaged when he fired his heat vision through them), combed-back hair and, occasionally, a fedora. Clark wears his Superman costume underneath his street clothes, which lends itself to easy transference between the two personalities. However, the purpose of this convention outside of fiction is largely dramatic, allowing Clark to rip open his shirt and reveal the familiar "S" insignia when called into action. When in action, Superman usually stores his Clark Kent clothing shrunken down inside a secret pouch hidden inside of his cape, though some stories have shown him leaving his clothes in some covert location (usually places like phone booths) for later retrieval. In addition with the Pre-Crisis comic book title, Superman Family, Clark is featured in a series of stories called "The Private Life of Clark Kent," where he solves problems subtly without changing into Superman. In the wake of John Byrne's The Man of Steel reboot of Superman continuity, many traditional aspects of Clark Kent were dropped in favor of giving him a more aggressive and extroverted personality (although not as strong as Lois), including such aspects as making Clark a top football player in high school, along with being a successful author and Pulitzer Prize-winning writer. Furthermore, Clark's motivations for his professional writing were deepened as a matter of personal fulfillment in an intellectual field where his abilities give no unfair competition to his colleagues beyond typing extraordinarily fast. Following One Year Later, Clark introduces some techniques to cover for his whereabouts, such as offering to call the police, feigning illness, etc. These, as well as his slouching posture, are references to his earlier mild-mannered Pre-Crisis versions, but he still maintains a sense of authority and his assertive self. Feeling that Clark is the real person and that Clark is not afraid to be himself in his civilian identity, John Byrne has stated in interviews that he took inspiration for this portrayal from the George Reeves version of Superman. Adopted by Jonathan Kent and his wife Martha Kent of Smallville, Kansas, Clark (and thus Superman) was raised with the values of a typical small, rural American town including attending the local Methodist Church (though it is debated by comic fans if Superman is a Methodist). The religion of Superman (Clark Kent / Kal-El) Most continuities state that the Kents had been unable to have biological children. In the traditional versions of his origin, after the Kents retrieved Clark from his rocket, they brought him to the Smallville Orphanage, and returned a few days later to formally adopt the orphan, giving him as a first name Martha's maiden name, "Clark". In John Byrne's 1986 origin version The Man of Steel, instead of an orphanage, the Kents passed Clark off as their biologically-born son (after a lengthy months-long series of snowstorms trapped them on their farm). In the Silver Age comics continuity, Clark gained superpowers upon landing on Earth, and gradually learned to master them, adopting the superhero identity of Superboy at the age of eight. He subsequently developed Clark's timid demeanor as a means of ensuring that no one would suspect any connection between the two alter-egos. In Metropolis, Superman (as Clark Kent) works as a reporter at the Planet, "a great metropolitan newspaper" which allows him to keep track of ongoing events where he might be of help. Largely working on his own, his identity is easily kept secret. He sees his job as a journalist as an extension of his Superman responsibilities, bringing truth to the forefront and fighting for the little man. t h e n e w B A T M A N - S U P E R M A N a d v e n t u r e s Fellow reporter Lois Lane became the object of Clark's/Superman's romantic affection. Lois' affection for Superman and her rejection of Clark's clumsy advances have been a recurring theme in Superman comics, television, and movies. In the modern age continuity of comics, Clark Kent's favorite movie is To Kill a Mockingbird. According to the DC Comics Official Guide to Superman, Clark enjoys peanut butter and jelly sandwiches, football games, and the smell of Kansas in the springtime. Superman (vol. 2) #67 and #81) In addition, Clark Kent's favorite baseball team is the Metropolis Monarchs and his favorite football team is the Metropolis Sharks. As of One Year Later, Clark is in his mid-thirties, stands at 6'3", and is about 225 pounds. In other media 1940s Radio Series In the early Adventures of Superman radio episodes, the origins of Superman changed in that Kal-El landed on Earth as an adult. He saved a man and his son and they gave him the idea of living as a normal person. They give him the name of Clark Kent and later, Superman gets a job as a newspaper reporter under that name. There, he gave Kent a higher pitch of voice and a more introverted personality. That clearly proved that Kent is the secret identity and Superman is the true person. Later in the episodes, the origins changed to fit the more current origin (such as Kal-El landing on Earth as a baby and that the Kent family raised him). Clayton "Bud" Collyer voiced both Clark Kent and Superman, until Michael Fitzmaurice replaced him in the final episodes. 1950s TV Series In the 1950s George Reeves series, Clark Kent is portrayed as a cerebral character who is the crime reporter for the Daily Planet and who as Kent uses his intelligence and powers of deduction to solve crimes (often before Inspector Henderson does) before catching the villain as Superman. Examples include the episodes Mystery of the Broken Statues, A Ghost for Scotland Yard, The Man in the Lead Mask, and The Golden Vulture. George Reeves' Kent and Superman is also established as a champion of justice for the oppressed in episodes like The Unknown People and The Birthday Letter. Although Kent is described in the show introduction as "mild-mannered", he can be very assertive, often giving orders to people and taking authoritative command of situations, though, as in the Pre-Crisis Superman stories at that time, Clark is still considered the secret identity. He also gets people to trust his judgment very easily. He can also be wisecracking and has a good sense of humor. Reeves was also older than subsequent Superman actors. Shots of the city of Metropolis are actually Los Angeles. Christopher Reeve movies In 1978, the first of four Superman films was made in which Clark Kent and Superman were portrayed by Christopher Reeve. This was followed nearly 2 decades later by a fifth film called Superman Returns with Brandon Routh giving a performance very similar to Reeve's. In contrast to George Reeves' intellectual Clark Kent, Reeve's version is much more of an awkward bumbler, although Reeve is also an especially athletic, dashing and debonair Superman. Clark Kent's hair is always absolutely flat, while Superman's hair has a slight wave and is parted on the opposite side as Kent's. These films leave the impression that Clark Kent is really a secret identity that is used to enable Superman to serve humanity better, rather than just a role to help him assimilate into the human community. A great deal of emphasis is placed on his origins on the planet Krypton with exotic crystalline sets designed by John Barry, effectively giving Superman a third persona as Kal-El. The first film is in three sections, Kal-El's infancy on Krypton (shot in London on the 007 stage), Clark Kent's teen years in Smallville, and Kent/Superman's adult life in Metropolis (shot in New York City). In earlier sections of the film, we see Reeve's Kent interacting with both his earthly parents and the spirit of his Kryptonian father through a special crystal, in a way we never saw George Reeves. The film has a fair amount of quasi-Biblical imagery suggestive of Superman as a sort of Christ-figure sent by Jor-El to show humans the way. This is discussed by the producers in their DVD commentary to the original theatrical cut. (See also Superman (film)#Themes). In Superman II Reeve's Superman has to sacrifice his powers (effectively becoming just Clark Kent) in order to have a love relationship with Lois Lane, a choice he eventually abrogates to protect the world. The relationship between Superman and Kent came to actual physical blows in Superman III. Superman is given a piece of manufactured Kryptonite but instead of weakening or killing him it drives him crazy, depressed, angry, and casually destructive, committing crimes which range from petty acts of vandalism to environmental disasters, like causing an oil spillage in order to bed a lusty woman in league with the villains. Driven alcoholic, Superman, his outfit dirty and neglected, eventually goes to a car wrecking yard where Kent, in a proper business suit and glasses, suddenly emerges from within him. A fight ensues in which the "evil" Superman tries to dispose of the "good" Kent, but the latter fights back, "kills" the evil side to his nature and, reclaiming the Superman mantle, sets off to repair the damage and capture the villains. The indirect "Christianization" of Superman in the Reeve films (admitted by film producer Pierre Spengler) has provoked comment on the Jewish origins of Superman. Rabbi Simcha Weinstein's book "Up, up, and oy vey: How Jewish History, Culture, and Values Shaped the Comic Book Superhero" says that Superman is both a pillar of society and one whose cape conceals a "nebbish", saying "He's a bumbling, nebbish Jewish stereotype. He's Woody Allen." http://www.jewishexponent.com/article/10036 http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/superman%20is%20jewish_1000359 Ironically, it is also in the Reeve films that Clark Kent's persons has the greatest resemblance to Woody Allen, though his conscious model was Cary Grant's character in Bringing up Baby. This same theme is pursued about '40s superheroes generally in "Disguised as Clark Kent: Jews, Comics, and the Creation of the Superhero" by Danny Fingeroth. Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman Clark Kent's character is given heavier emphasis than his superheroic alter-ego in the 1990s series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman and the 2000s series Smallville. Lois and Clark was developed by Deborah Joy Levine and starred Dean Cain as Clark Kent. In this series, Kent is a quintessential wide-eyed farm kid from Kansas with the charm, grace and humor of George Reeves, but without the awkward geekiness of Christopher Reeve. Emphasis is laid on the comic elements of his dual relationship with Lois Lane. The ban on Christopher Reeve's Superman having a relationship with superpowers is entirely absent in the world of Lois and Clark. In the final season, Clark Kent marries Lois Lane (a few years after her almost-marriage to his arch-enemy Lex Luthor, whom she refused at the altar), finding love, happiness, and completeness in this relationship which does not jeopardize his Superman persona. Smallville TV Series Smallville was adapted to television in 2001, by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar. Clark Kent is played by Tom Welling, with others portraying Clark as an infant. In this series, Clark has not yet adopted a Superman identity, but is seen wearing Superman's traditional colors of red and blue, more often as the series progresses. He is going through a process of character formation, making many mistakes in his youth, over time forming better and better judgment, while always self-consciously aware of his status as an alien from another planet who is different from other people. In season 8, he begins a fight against evil, hoping to be a source of inspiration and hope to others. A modest amount of religious imagery is seen occasionally in the series, but to a lesser degree than in the Christopher Reeve series. Smallville'''s Kent is particularly inwardly conflicted as he attempts to live the life of a normal human being, while keeping the secret of his alien heritage from his friends. He has a series long on-again off-again relationship with Lana Lang, the trials of which are based on his lack of honesty about his secret. Episode in which the pair start and end their relationship: season two's "Exodus", season three's "Phoenix", season five's "Arrival" & "Hypnotic", season seven's "Fierce" & "Arctic" Clark's powers appear over time. He is not aware of all of his powers at the start of the show; for instance, his heat vision and super breath do not develop until season two and six, respectively , and his power of flight has yet to fully emerge, appearing only in a few rare cases. In contrast to previous incarnations of the character, this Clark Kent starts out best friends with Lex Luthor, whom he meets after saving the latter's life. (This had been the basis of a Superboy adventure published in 1960. Adventure Comics #271 (Apr 1960) ) The two characters remain entangled for most of the series. Lex Luthor's father, Lionel Luthor, is an unscrupulous industrialist with whom Lex has a troubled relationship. Lex would like to transcend his family background and be a better person than his father, but after multiple setbacks, slowly slips into evil. In turn, Clark Kent has a slightly dark side which he comes to grip with over time. In different ways than Luthor, Clark also does not have fully ideal relationship either with his adoptive father, Jonathan, nor with Jor-El with whose spirit he communicates. The younger Luthor slightly envies Clark's 'clean-cut' and wholesome parents (who disapprove of Clark's friendship with Luthor), while Clark is impressed with Luthor's wealth. Even in his better days, Luthor is highly ambitious for power and wealth, at one time noting that he shares his name with Alexander the Great. Clark Kent, on the other hand, has no idea what he is going to do with his life while bewildered by his powers, and his uncertainty as to why he was sent to Earth. In Season 8 of Smallville, Clark Kent begins a career as an anonymous superhero crimefighter, but issues are raised by his closest friend Chloe Sullivan (a cousin of Lois Lane invented for this series) as to whether his methods of catching criminals are ethical.Smallville's Kent has also appeared in various literature (including both comics and over a dozen young adult novels) based on the television series, none of which directly continue from or into the television episodes. Animated Series In the 1940's Superman shorts, Clark is shown to have a wisecraking sense of humor and he and Lois are good friends. At the near end of each short, Clark gives out a smile and a wink (that was carried over the 1966 Superman animated series). In the "Superman: The Animated Series" of the late 1990s, Kent is based on John Byrne's version of him, becoming more assertive and intelligent. He is also considered to be the real person, with Superman the "alter ego", though Kent often appears less in most episodes. Secret identity security A classic Silver Age "gag" cover based on the Clark Kent/Superman duality. Various reasons over the decades have been offered for why people haven't suspected Superman and Clark Kent of being one and the same. The most common offered is simply that, despite their physical resemblance, Superman and Clark are perceived as too different in mannerisms and personality to be the same individual. In the 1970s, one suggestion was that the lenses of Clark Kent's glasses (made of Kryptonian materials) constantly amplified a low-level super-hypnosis power, thereby creating the illusion of others viewing Clark Kent as a weak and frailer being. Superman (vol. 1) #330 (December 1978) However, this reason was abandoned almost as quickly as it was introduced, since it had various flaws (such as stories where Batman would disguise himself as Clark Kent, among others). Another reason given in the 1987 story "The Secret Revealed" was the public simply does not know that Superman has a secret identity, considering he does not wear a mask, which implies to most that he has nothing to hide. As an added precaution, Superman would vibrate his face (like Jay Garrick, the Golden-Age Flash), slightly so that photographs would only show his features as a blur, thus preventing the danger of photographs of both identities being reliably compared. Superman (vol. 2) #2 (February 1987) However, more recent stories showing Superman being photographed have tended to ignore this factor. The 2004 series Superman: Birthright also explained that Superman's eyes are an unnaturally vivid shade of blue. Clark's glasses diffuse the color and make his eyes appear more human in that identity. Traditionally, Lois Lane (and sometimes others) would often suspect Superman of truly being Clark Kent, though more recent comics often feature the general public assuming that Superman doesn't have a secret identity. In "The Secret Revealed", a super-computer constructed by Lex Luthor calculated Superman's true identity, but Lex dismissed the idea because he could not believe that someone so powerful would want another, weaker identity. In modern comic continuity as of 2006, Lois Lane, feeling anyone like Clark could not be Superman, never suspected the dual identity beyond one isolated incident, before Clark finally revealed it to her. In "Visitor", Lois finds Superman at the Kent farm with Lana Lang and asks him point blank if he is Clark Kent. Before he can answer, the Kents tell her that they raised Superman alongside Clark like a brother. Action Comics #597 (February 1988) Some fans have noted that in order for the disguise to be credible, Clark has to be at least as skilled an actor as Christopher Reeve. The films have Clark Kent being massively clumsy, paranoid and of course mild mannered. The actor's portrayal of Clark in the Superman film series was praised for making the disguise's effectiveness credible to audiences. In his book Still Me, Reeve says he based Clark Kent on Cary Grant's nerdy character in Bringing up Baby. In the commentary track for Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut, Tom Mankiewicz spoke about describing the dual role to Reeve as that he was always playing Superman but when he was Clark, he was playing Superman who was playing Clark Kent. According to the 2004 limited series Superman: Birthright (which retells Superman's origin), young Clark Kent studies the Meisner technique so that he can seamlessly move between his Clark and Superman personas. As Clark, he drops his head, lowers his shoulders, bends his back forward a little bit and talks in a lighter tone, while as Superman, he stands straight and talks in a deeper tone. In the 2006 feature film, Brandon Routh's performance echoed Reeve's. Actor George Reeves in the 1950s live-action television series Adventures of Superman brought a naturalistic approach to the dual role, perhaps reasoning that if Clark were too much of a milquetoast, he would not do well in the tough world of investigative journalism, particularly with an aggressive editor like Perry White. Reeves played Clark as moderately assertive, often taking charge in dangerous or risky situations and unafraid to take reasonable risks. This fact was one the main inspirations for the 1980s reboot of the Clark Kent half of the Superman character as described by writer and artist John Byrne in the article Super-Discussions published by Attic Books in Comics Values Monthly Special #2 (1992). Actor Dean Cain's approach in the 1990s series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman was to have Clark as a normal, shy, everyday guy demonstrating occasional touches of clumsiness (e.g., pretending to burn his mouth on coffee), but still a highly skilled journalist, much like the current Post-Crisis/Post Infinite-Crisis portrayal. His Superman, by contrast, was very much the model of the classic hero who stood up straight and spoke in a more formal and authoritative voice. In the episode "Tempus Fugitive", the time-traveler Tempus mocks Lois (Teri Hatcher), saying that future historians laugh at her for being "fooled by a pair of glasses", going so far as to insinuate that people in the future consider Lois to be "galactically stupid" for not recognizing Clark to be Superman. On the other hand, H.G. Wells tells Lois that in truth the people of the future simply considered Lois to be blinded by love and that it's made her story a compelling one throughout the intervening years. Identity change as a plot device and stylistic choice When crises arise, Clark quickly changes into Superman. Originally during his appearances in Action Comics and later in his own magazine, the Man of Steel would strip to his costume and stand revealed as Superman, often with the transformation having already been completed. But within a short time, Joe Shuster and his ghost artists began depicting Clark Kent ripping open his shirt to reveal the "S" insignia on his chest — an image which became so iconic that other superheroes, during the Golden Age and later periods, would copy the same type of change during transformations (only Spider-Man, through his appearances in comics and Sam Raimi's films, has come remotely close to matching Superman in being connected with the famed shirt-rip shot). In the Fleischer animated series of theatrical cartoons released by Paramount, the mild-mannered reporter often ducked into a telephone booth or stock room to make the transformation. Since the shorts were produced during the rise of film noir in cinema, the change was usually represented as a stylized sequence: Clark Kent's silhouette is clearly seen behind a closed door's pebble glass window (or a shadow thrown across a wall) as he strips to his Superman costume. Then, the superhero emerges having transformed from his meek disguise to his true self. In the comic books and in the George Reeves television series, he favors the Daily Planet's store room (the heroic change between identities within the store room is almost always seen in the comics, but never viewed in the Reeves series). The CBS Saturday morning series The New Adventures of Superman produced by Filmation Studios — as well as The Adventures of Superboy from the same animation house — featured the iconic "shirt rip" to reveal the "S" or Clark Kent removing his unbuttoned white dress shirt in a secluded spot, usually thanks to stock animation which was re-used over dozens of episodes, to reveal his costume underneath while uttering his famed "This is a job for Superman!" line. In Lois & Clark, Clark's usual method of changing was to either "suddenly" remember something urgent that required his immediate attention or leave the room/area under the pretense of contacting a source, summoning the police, heading to a breaking story's location, etc. Clark also developed a method of rapidly spinning into his costume at super speed which became a trademark change, especially during the third and fourth seasons of the series, and extremely popular with the show's fans. As a dramatic plot device, Clark often has to quickly improvise in order to find a way to change unnoticed. For example, in Superman (1978), Clark, unable to use a newer, open-kiosk pay phone (and getting a nice laugh from the theater audience), runs down the street and rips his shirt to reveal his costume underneath. He quickly enters a revolving door, spinning through it at incredible speed while changing clothes. Thus made invisible, he appears to have entered the building as Clark Kent and exited seconds later as Superman. Later in the film, when the need to change is more urgent (as he believes the city is about to be poisoned by Lex Luthor), he simply jumps out a window of the Daily Planet offices, changing at super-speed as he falls (the film merely shows the falling Kent blurring into a falling Superman), and flies off. Debate over true identity A relatively recent debate is which of the two identities (Superman or Clark Kent) is the real person and which is the facade, mainly by the ending scene in Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill Vol. 2 when Bill (David Carradine), citing Jules Feiffer's The Great Comic Book Heroes, tells Beatrix Kiddo (Uma Thurman) that Superman is the real identity of Superman, while Clark Kent is a facade based on mankind's less impressive traits. Pre-Crisis interpretations of Superman very much assumed that Clark Kent was the "mask" and Kal-El the person (in the classic story Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?, when Superman's dual life is revealed, he completely abandons his Clark Kent persona). With John Byrne's more assertive revamp of Clark Kent as well as Superman's greater grounding in Earth culture and humanity (as opposed to the everpresent Kryptonian heritage of the Pre-Crisis version), Superman is considered the "mask" and Clark the person. This is made explicit by Clark himself in Superman (vol. 2) #53, when following his revelation to Lois of his role as Superman (Action Comics #662), he states: "I'm Clark, the man you love. Superman is the creation – you named me, Lois." In pre-Crisis continuity, Kal-El was already a toddler before leaving Krypton, and retained memories of that childhood that later resurfaced; in Post-Crisis continuity, he was sent to Earth pre-natally in a "birthing matrix" (more recently retconned as an infant) and raised entirely by the Kents. As a result of their rearing, Kal-El has grown to think of himself as Clark Kent, and in fact was completely unaware of his alien heritage until he was well into adulthood. Although the morals instilled in him by the Kents have motivated Kal-El to use his abilities to help others, he developed the Superman persona to protect his Clark Kent identity. Thus he is Kal-El, who thinks of himself as Clark Kent, wearing a Superman "mask". Many fans and Superman scholars believe there to actually be three interpretations. There is firstly who Clark is when he is around trusted friends and family, particularly while on the farm with Martha, or in moments alone with Lois. He is a regular guy, brave, and moral. He then wears two other masks: that of the heroic Superman, and that of the bumbling and goofy Clark Kent who works at the Daily Planet. It should be noted that "bumbling" Clark is an act, but some fans dislike the portrayal of Clark as bumbling and goofy, as they feel it marginalizes his importance to the character. This idea has appeared in comics and various adaptations. In a pre-Crisis story by Alan Moore in DC Comics Presents #85, a sick Kal-El has hallucinations of both the Superman costume and Clark's suit, both offering advice from different viewpoints, and insists that neither of them are real. Rather the reverse relationship exists between Bruce Wayne and Batman, in whose case Bruce Wayne is the fiction and Batman is the reality. A more academic approach developed by Jules Feiffer in his series of articles published in The Great Comic Book Heroes is that Superman is the real identity of Superman. Feiffer states that while most comic book characters were born as their alter egos (Spider-Man was "Peter Parker" first, Batman was born "Bruce Wayne"), Kal-El uses the very blanket he was wrapped in for his trip to Earth as his "costume", which means that Clark Kent is truly the manufactured identity used in order to blend in with humanity, and most importantly, a device to pursue Lois Lane's affections. A good example of this view is an adventure published in the 1960s: Kent finds himself at a loose end when staff at the Daily Planet go on strike and seriously considers it a chance to try out a new identity in case he has "to abandon [his] Clark Kent role permanently". His options include becoming a full-time policeman or even a mere tramp "whom no one would ever suspect of being the Man of Steel." illustration included in the Penguin Book of Comics by George Perry and Alan Aldridge, published in 1967. Other concepts have become the current accepted canon in most modern versions of the Superman myth (for example, in the DC animated universe Superman cartoon episode "The Late Mr. Kent", wherein Clark Kent is presumed dead, Superman expresses frustration at the idea of not being Clark and having to be someone else instead, because, in his words: "I am Clark Kent. I need to be Clark. I'd go crazy if I'd have to be Superman all the time." In a previous episode, actually the third part of the "Last Son of Krypton" arc, Jonathan "Pa" Kent assures his adoptive son that he will "always be Clark Kent" and that "Superman just helps out every now and then.") Both Richard Donner, director of the first Reeve movie and Bryan Singer, director of the Brandon Routh followup, have stated that Clark Kent is intended to be the disguise. However, while the Donner films tend to imply that Superman is the actual persona, Singer stated at the 2006 Comic-Con that he favored the three-persona concept, stating that there was Clark Kent on the farm, the bumbling Metropolis Clark and Superman, the Last Son of Krypton. Brandon Routh himself even stated, in an HBO First Look interview that he was playing three characters; Clark Kent,the reporter/farm boy, Superman, the protagonist and savior of Metropolis and Kal-El, the Last Son of Krypton. In Lois & Clark, Lois discovers his identity and angrily states that "you are Superman", but Clark says, "No, Lois. Superman is what I can do. Clark is who I am." Clark Kent has also been depicted without the Superman alter ego. In the Elseworlds stories starting with Superman: Last Son of Earth'', he is the son of Jonathan Kent, who saves his son from the destruction of the Earth. Clark ends up on Krypton, where he is adopted by Jor-El and becomes the planet's Green Lantern. Notes References External links Clark Kent at the Smallville Wiki Supermanica: Clark Kent | Clark_Kent |@lemmatized clark:143 joseph:2 kent:103 middle:3 name:13 also:14 jerome:3 accord:3 version:10 note:5 commonly:1 use:9 source:3 claim:1 fact:3 honor:1 creator:2 jerry:2 siegel:2 season:10 greedings:1 episode:12 television:7 series:33 lois:29 new:8 adventure:11 superman:134 fictional:1 character:16 create:2 joe:2 shuster:2 serve:2 civilian:2 secret:14 identity:28 superhero:7 decade:3 considerable:1 debate:4 personality:8 identifies:2 first:9 introduction:2 mid:2 see:8 mostly:1 disguise:8 enable:2 mix:1 ordinary:1 people:8 view:4 comic:30 medium:2 tv:3 star:2 george:10 reef:10 radio:3 since:3 john:8 byrne:7 revamping:1 emphasis:4 alter:7 ego:7 side:4 overview:1 popularity:1 concept:3 become:10 ingrain:1 popular:2 culture:3 well:10 synonymous:1 innocuous:1 front:2 ulterior:1 motif:1 activity:2 suggestion:2 surname:1 nod:1 earl:1 know:2 script:1 simply:5 shakespeare:1 play:7 king:1 lear:1 assume:2 simplistic:1 yet:3 manage:1 fool:2 close:3 reference:4 actor:6 gable:1 either:3 depend:1 write:1 early:5 primary:1 purpose:2 fulfill:1 perceived:1 dramatic:3 requirement:1 costumed:1 cannot:1 stay:1 duty:1 twenty:1 four:2 hour:1 day:3 throughout:2 entirety:1 book:11 act:3 little:3 although:5 history:2 take:5 life:7 adoptive:3 earth:10 parent:3 everything:1 stag:1 benefit:1 alternate:1 acquire:1 job:4 reporter:7 daily:6 planet:10 convenience:1 receive:1 late:4 break:2 news:1 general:2 public:3 provide:1 excuse:1 present:2 crime:4 scene:2 occupation:1 whereabouts:2 strictly:1 account:1 long:3 make:11 story:13 deadline:1 however:5 order:7 draw:1 attention:2 away:1 correlation:1 adopt:6 largely:3 passive:1 introverted:2 apply:1 conservative:1 mannerism:2 high:3 pitched:1 voice:4 slight:2 slouch:1 typically:2 describe:4 mild:5 mannered:5 perhaps:2 famously:1 opening:1 narration:1 max:1 fleischer:2 animate:4 theatrical:3 short:5 trait:2 extend:1 wardrobe:1 consist:1 softly:1 colored:1 business:2 suit:3 red:2 necktie:1 black:1 rim:1 glass:6 pre:9 crisis:12 lens:2 kryptonian:4 material:2 damage:2 fire:1 heat:2 vision:2 comb:1 back:3 hair:3 occasionally:2 fedora:1 wear:5 costume:8 underneath:3 street:2 clothes:3 lend:1 easy:1 transference:1 two:7 convention:1 outside:1 fiction:2 allow:2 rip:5 open:3 shirt:6 reveal:10 familiar:1 insignia:2 call:4 action:6 usually:4 store:3 clothing:1 shrink:1 inside:2 pouch:1 hidden:1 cape:2 though:6 show:9 leave:4 covert:1 location:2 place:2 like:9 phone:2 booth:2 retrieval:1 addition:2 title:1 family:4 feature:5 private:1 solve:2 problem:1 subtly:1 without:3 change:14 wake:1 man:11 steel:4 reboot:2 continuity:7 many:3 traditional:3 aspect:2 drop:2 favor:3 give:13 aggressive:2 extroverted:1 strong:1 include:6 top:1 football:3 player:1 school:1 along:1 successful:1 author:1 pulitzer:1 prize:1 win:1 writer:2 furthermore:1 motivation:1 professional:1 writing:1 deepen:1 matter:1 personal:1 fulfillment:1 intellectual:2 field:1 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5,969 | Convention_of_Kanagawa | The Kanagawa Treaty Japanese woodblock print of Perry (center) and other high-ranking American seamen. Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda On March 31, 1854, the or was concluded between Commodore Matthew C. Perry of the U.S. Navy and the Empire of Japan. The treaty opened the Japanese ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to United States trade, guaranteed the safety of shipwrecked U.S. sailors and established a permanent consul. The arrival of the fleet would trigger the end of Japan's 200 year policy of seclusion (Sakoku). *Perry, Matthew Calbraith. (1856). Narrative of the expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1856. Perry initially refused to deal with Japanese officials and demanded to speak with the Japanese Head of State. At the time, Shogun Tokugawa Ieyoshi was the de-facto ruler of Japan; for the Emperor to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the Shogun, and the text was reluctantly endorsed subsequently by Emperor Komei. Cullen, Louis M. (2003). A History of Japan, 1582-1941: Internal and External Worlds, p. 173-185. This treaty became a significant causative factor leading to serial internal conflicts within Japan—an upheaval which was only resolved in 1867 with the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the Meiji Restoration. The Kanagawa treaty was followed by the United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce, the "Harris Treaty" of 1858, which allowed the establishment of foreign concessions, extraterritoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods. The Japanese would chaffe under the "unequal treaty system" which characterized Asian and western relations during this period. Bert Edström, Bert. (2000). The Japanese and Europe: Images and Perceptions, p. 101. Similar treaties were subsequently negotiated by the Russians, the French, and the British. Kanagawa Treaty House The Convention was negotiated and was then signed in a purpose-built house in Yokohama, Japan. Notes References Bert Edström, Bert. (2000). The Japanese and Europe: Images and Perceptions. London: Routledge. 10-ISBN 1-873-41086-7; 13-ISBN 978-1-873-41086-8 Cullen, L.M. (2003). A History of Japan, 1582-1941: Internal and External Worlds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 10-ISBN 0-521-82115-X (cloth); 10-ISBN 0-521-529918-2 (paper) Perry, Matthew Calbraith. (1856). Narrative of the expedition of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan, 1856. New York : D. Appleton and Company. [digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, "China Through Western Eyes." ] Taylor, Bayard. (1855). A visit to India, China, and Japan in the year 1853 New York : G.P. Putnam's sons. [digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, "China Through Western Eyes." ] See also United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty Treaty of Shimoda Hayashi Akira External links The Convention of Kanagawa, 1854 (full text) | Convention_of_Kanagawa |@lemmatized kanagawa:4 treaty:13 japanese:8 woodblock:1 print:1 perry:7 center:1 high:1 ranking:1 american:3 seaman:1 bust:1 matthew:4 shimoda:3 march:1 conclude:2 commodore:1 c:1 u:2 navy:1 empire:1 japan:12 open:1 port:1 hakodate:1 united:3 state:4 trade:1 guarantee:1 safety:1 shipwrecked:1 sailor:1 establish:1 permanent:1 consul:1 arrival:1 fleet:1 would:2 trigger:1 end:2 year:2 policy:1 seclusion:1 sakoku:1 calbraith:2 narrative:2 expedition:2 squadron:2 china:5 sea:2 initially:1 refuse:1 deal:1 official:1 demand:1 speak:1 head:1 time:1 shogun:2 tokugawa:2 ieyoshi:1 de:1 facto:1 ruler:1 emperor:2 interact:1 way:1 foreigner:2 question:1 representative:1 text:2 reluctantly:1 endorse:1 subsequently:2 komei:1 cullen:2 louis:1 history:2 internal:3 external:3 world:2 p:3 become:1 significant:1 causative:1 factor:1 lead:1 serial:1 conflict:1 within:1 upheaval:1 resolve:1 shogunate:1 meiji:1 restoration:1 follow:1 amity:2 commerce:2 harris:1 allow:1 establishment:1 foreign:2 concession:1 extraterritoriality:1 minimal:1 import:1 tax:1 good:1 chaffe:1 unequal:1 system:1 characterize:1 asian:1 western:3 relation:1 period:1 bert:4 edström:2 europe:2 image:2 perception:2 similar:1 negotiate:2 russian:1 french:1 british:1 house:2 convention:2 sign:1 purpose:1 build:1 yokohama:1 note:1 reference:1 london:1 routledge:1 isbn:4 l:1 cambridge:2 university:3 press:1 x:1 cloth:1 paper:1 new:2 york:2 appleton:1 company:1 digitize:2 hong:2 kong:2 library:2 digital:2 initiative:2 eye:2 taylor:1 bayard:1 visit:1 india:1 g:1 putnam:1 son:1 see:1 also:1 anglo:1 friendship:1 hayashi:1 akira:1 link:1 full:1 |@bigram woodblock_print:1 de_facto:1 causative_factor:1 tokugawa_shogunate:1 meiji_restoration:1 treaty_amity:2 amity_commerce:2 yokohama_japan:1 hong_kong:2 external_link:1 |
5,970 | Lafcadio_Hearn | Lafcadio Hearn, aka Koizumi Yakumo. Patrick Lafcadio Hearn (27 June 1850 - 26 September 1904), also known as after gaining Japanese citizenship, was an author, best known for his books about Japan. He is especially well-known for his collections of Japanese legends and ghost stories, such as Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things. Biography Early life Hearn was born in Lefkada (the origin of his middle name), one of the Greek Ionian Islands. He was the son of Surgeon-major Charles Bush Hearn (of County Offaly, Ireland) and Rosa Antonia Kassimati, who had been born on Kythera, an island in the Myrtoon Pelagos (currently in the municipality of Athens). His father was stationed in Lefkada during the British occupation of the islands. Lafcadio was initially baptized Patricio Lefcadio Tessima Carlos Hearn in the Greek Orthodox Church. It is not clear that Hearn's parents were ever legally married, and the Irish Protestant relatives on his father's side considered him to have been born out of wedlock. (This may, however, have been because they did not recognize the legitimacy of the Greek Orthodox Church to conduct a marriage ceremony for a Protestant.) Hearn moved to Dublin, Ireland, at the age of two, where he was brought up in the suburb of Rathmines. Artistic and rather bohemian tastes were in his blood. His father's brother Richard was at one time a well-known member of the Barbizon set of artists, though he made no mark as a painter due to his lack of energy. Young Hearn had a rather casual education, but in 1865 was at Ushaw Roman Catholic College, Durham. He was injured in a playground accident in his teens, causing loss of vision in his left eye. Emigration The religious faith in which he was brought up was, however, soon lost, and at 19 he was sent to live in the United States of America, where he settled in Cincinnati, Ohio. For a time, he lived in utter poverty, which may have contributed to his later paranoia and distrust of those around him. He eventually found a friend in the English printer and communalist Henry Watkin. With Watkin's help, Hearn picked up a living in the lower grades of newspaper work. Through the strength of his talent as a writer, Hearn quickly advanced through the newspaper ranks and became a reporter for the Cincinnati Daily Enquirer, working for the paper from 1872 to 1875. With creative freedom in one of Cincinnati's largest circulating newspapers, he developed a reputation as the paper's premier sensational journalist, as well as the author of sensitive, dark, and fascinating accounts of Cincinnati's disadvantaged. He continued to occupy himself with journalism and with out-of-the-way observation and reading, and meanwhile his erratic, romantic, and rather morbid idiosyncrasies developed. While in Cincinnati, he married Alethea ("Mattie") Foley, a black woman, an illegal act at the time. When the scandal was discovered and publicized, he was fired from the Enquirer and went to work for the rival Cincinnati Commercial. In 1874 Hearn and the young Henry Farny, later a renowned painter of the American West, wrote, illustrated, and published a weekly journal of art, literature, and satire they titled Ye Giglampz that ran for nine issues. The Cincinnati Public Library reprinted a facsimile of all nine issues in 1983. New Orleans In the autumn of 1877, Hearn left Cincinnati for New Orleans, Louisiana, where he initially wrote dispatches on his discoveries in the "Gateway to the Tropics" for the Cincinnati Commercial. He lived in New Orleans for nearly a decade, writing first for the Daily City Item and later for the Times Democrat. The vast number of his writings about New Orleans and its environs, many of which have not been collected, include the city's Creole population and distinctive cuisine, the French Opera, and Vodou. His writings for national publications, such as Harper's Weekly and Scribner's Magazine, helped mold the popular image of New Orleans as a colorful place with a distinct culture more akin to Europe and the Caribbean than to the rest of North America. His best-known Louisiana works are Gombo Zhèbes, Little Dictionary of Creole Proverbs in Six Dialects (1885); La Cuisine Créole (1885), a collection of culinary recipes from leading chefs and noted Creole housewives who helped make New Orleans famous for its cuisine; and Chita: A Memory of Last Island, a novella based on the hurricane of 1856 first published in Harper's Monthly in 1888. He also published in Harper's Weekly the first known written article (1883) about Filipinos in the United States, the Manilamen or Tagalags, one of whose villages he had visited at Saint Malo, southeast of Lake Borgne in Saint Bernard Parish, Louisiana. Little known then, even today he is relatively unknown outside the circle of New Orleans cultural devotees. However, more books have been written about him than any former resident of New Orleans other than Louis Armstrong. His footprint in the history of Creole cooking is visible even today. A chronicle of Creole cuisine | Chron.com - Houston Chronicle Hearn's writings for the New Orleans newspapers included impressionistic sketches of New Orleans places and characters and many stern, vigorous editorials denouncing political corruption, street crime, violence, intolerance and the failures of public health and hygiene officials. Despite the fact that Hearn is credited with "inventing" New Orleans as an exotic and mysterious place, his obituaries on the vodou leaders Marie Laveau and "Doctor" John Montenet are matter-of-fact and debunking. Dozens of Hearn's New Orleans writings are collected in Inventing New Orleans: Writings of Lafcadio Hearn, a book edited by S. Fredrick Starr and published in 2001 by the University Press of Mississippi. (Professor Starr's scholarly introduction to Inventing New Orleans notes than many Japanese scholars of Hearn's life and work are now studying his decade in New Orleans.) Harper's sent Hearn to the West Indies as a correspondent in 1887. He spent two years in Martinique and produced two books: Two Years in the French West Indies and Youma, The Story of a West-Indian Slave, both in 1890. Later life in Japan Lafcadio Hearn, shown with Setsu Koizumi. Note the way he is facing - he always preferred to be photographed this way so that his left eye could not be seen. In 1890, Hearn went to Japan with a commission as a newspaper correspondent, which was quickly broken off. It was in Japan, however, that he found his home and his greatest inspiration. Through the goodwill of Basil Hall Chamberlain, Hearn gained a teaching position in the summer of 1890 at the Shimane Prefectural Common Middle School and Normal School in Matsue, a town in western Japan on the coast of the Sea of Japan. Most Japanese identify Hearn with Matsue, as it was here that his image of Japan was molded. Today, the Lafcadio Hearn Memorial Museum and his old residence are still two of Matsue's most popular tourist attractions. During his 15-month stay in Matsue, Hearn married Setsu Koizumi, the daughter of a local samurai family, and became a naturalized Japanese, taking the name Koizumi Yakumo. In late 1891, Hearn took another teaching position in Kumamoto, Kyushu, at the Fifth Higher Middle School, where he spent the next three years and completed his book Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (1894). In October 1894 he secured a journalism position with the English-language Kobe Chronicle, and in 1896, with some assistance from Chamberlain, he began teaching English literature at Tokyo (Imperial) University, a post he held until 1903. In 1904, he was a professor at Waseda University. On September 26, 1904, he died of heart failure at the age of 54. In the late 19th century Japan was still largely unknown and exotic to the Western world. With the introduction of Japanese aesthetics, however, particularly at the Paris World's Fair of 1900, the West had an insatiable appetite for exotic Japan, and Hearn became known to the world through the depth, originality, sincerity, and charm of his writings. In later years, some critics would accuse Hearn of exoticizing Japan, but as the man who offered the West some of its first glimpses into pre-industrial and Meiji Era Japan, his work still offers valuable insight today. Legacy The Japanese director Masaki Kobayashi adapted four Hearn tales into his 1965 film, Kwaidan. Some of his stories have been adapted by Ping Chong into his trademark puppet theatre, including the 1999 Kwaidan and the 2002 OBON: Tales of Moonlight and Rain. Hearn's life and works were celebrated in The Dream of a Summer Day, a play that toured Ireland in April and May 2005, which was staged by the Storytellers Theatre Company and directed by Liam Halligan. It is a detailed dramatization of Hearn's life, with four of his ghost stories woven in. Yone Noguchi is quoted as saying about Hearn, "His Greek temperament and French culture became frost-bitten as a flower in the North." Yone Noguchi There is also a cultural center named for Hearn at the University of Durham. Hearn was a major translator of the short stories of Guy de Maupassant. Lafcadio Hearn Bibliography In Ian Fleming's You only Live Twice, James Bond retorts to his nemesis Blofeld's comment of "Have you ever heard the Japanese expression kirisute gomen?" with "Spare me the Lafcadio Hearn, Blofeld." Books written by Hearn on Japanese subjects 'Hōichi the Earless': an open air play at the Suma Temple, Kobe City Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan (1894) Out of the East: Reveries and Studies in New Japan (1895) Kokoro: Hints and Echoes of Japanese Inner Life (1896) Gleanings in Buddha-Fields: Studies of Hand and Soul in the Far East (1897) Exotics and Retrospectives (1898) Japanese Fairy Tales (1898) and sequels In Ghostly Japan (1899) Shadowings (1900) Japanese Lyrics (1900) - on haiku A Japanese Miscellany (1901) Kottō: Being Japanese Curios, with Sundry Cobwebs (1902) Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things (1903) (which was later made into the movie Kwaidan by Masaki Kobayashi) Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation (1904; published just after his death) The Romance of the Milky Way and other studies and stories (1905; published posthumously) References Further reading Benfey, Christopher, ed. (2009). Lafcadio Hearn: American Writings (Library of America). ("Some Chinese Ghosts" • "Chita" • "Two Years in the French West Indies" • "Youma" • "Selected Journalism and Letters") Bisland, Elizabeth. (1906). The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn, Vol. I. New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. __________________. (1906). The Life and Letters of Lafcadio Hearn, Vol. II. New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. Bronner, Milton, editor, Letters from the Raven: Being the Correspondence of Lafcadio Hearn with Henry Watkin (1907) Cott, Jonathan. Wandering Ghost: The Odyssey of Lafcadio Hearn (1991) Gould, G. M. Concerning Lafcadio Hearn (1908) Hearn, Lafcadio, Inventing New Orleans: Writings of Lafcadio Hearn,S. Frederick Starr, editor (University Press of Mississippi, 2001) Hearn, Lafcadio. Lafcadio Hearn's America, Simon J. Bronner, editor (2002) Kennard, Nina H., Lafcadio Hearn; containing some letters from Lafcadio Hearn to his half-sister, Mrs. Atkinson (New York, D. Appleton and company, 1912) Lurie, David. "Orientomology: The Insect Literature of Lafcadio Hearn (1850-1904)", in JAPANimals: History and Culture in Japan's Animal Life, ed. Gregory M. Pflugfelder and Brett L. Walker, University of Michigan Press, 2005. Noguchi, Yone. Lafcadio Hearn in Japan (1910) Pulvers, Roger. Lafcadio Hearn: interpreter of two disparate worlds, Japan Times, January 19 2000 Starrs, Roy "Lafcadio Hearn as Japanese Nationalist", in "Nichibunken Japan Review: Journal of the International Research Center for Japanese Studies", Number 18, 2006, pp.181–213. External links Lafcadio Hearn and Haiku Hearn's influence in literature essay by Roy Starrs on "Lafcadio Hearn as a Japanese Nationalist" See also List of horror fiction authors | Lafcadio_Hearn |@lemmatized lafcadio:26 hearn:55 aka:1 koizumi:4 yakumo:2 patrick:1 june:1 september:2 also:4 know:7 gain:2 japanese:17 citizenship:1 author:3 best:2 book:6 japan:20 especially:1 well:3 collection:2 legend:1 ghost:4 story:8 kwaidan:5 study:7 strange:2 thing:2 biography:1 early:1 life:9 bear:3 lefkada:2 origin:1 middle:3 name:3 one:4 greek:4 ionian:1 island:4 son:1 surgeon:1 major:2 charles:1 bush:1 county:1 offaly:1 ireland:3 rosa:1 antonia:1 kassimati:1 kythera:1 myrtoon:1 pelagos:1 currently:1 municipality:1 athens:1 father:3 station:1 british:1 occupation:1 initially:2 baptize:1 patricio:1 lefcadio:1 tessima:1 carlos:1 orthodox:2 church:2 clear:1 parent:1 ever:2 legally:1 marry:3 irish:1 protestant:2 relative:1 side:1 consider:1 wedlock:1 may:3 however:5 recognize:1 legitimacy:1 conduct:1 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prefer:1 photograph:1 could:1 see:2 commission:1 break:1 home:1 great:1 inspiration:1 goodwill:1 basil:1 hall:1 chamberlain:2 teaching:2 position:3 summer:2 shimane:1 prefectural:1 common:1 school:3 normal:1 matsue:4 town:1 western:2 coast:1 sea:1 identify:1 memorial:1 museum:1 old:1 residence:1 still:3 tourist:1 attraction:1 month:1 stay:1 daughter:1 local:1 samurai:1 family:1 naturalized:1 take:2 another:1 kumamoto:1 kyushu:1 fifth:1 high:1 next:1 three:1 complete:1 glimpse:3 unfamiliar:2 october:1 secure:1 language:1 kobe:2 assistance:1 begin:1 teach:1 tokyo:1 imperial:1 post:1 hold:1 waseda:1 die:1 heart:1 century:1 largely:1 world:4 aesthetic:1 particularly:1 paris:1 fair:1 insatiable:1 appetite:1 depth:1 originality:1 sincerity:1 charm:1 critic:1 would:1 accuse:1 exoticizing:1 man:1 offer:2 pre:1 industrial:1 meiji:1 era:1 valuable:1 insight:1 legacy:1 director:1 masaki:2 kobayashi:2 adapt:2 four:2 tale:3 film:1 ping:1 chong:1 trademark:1 puppet:1 theatre:2 obon:1 moonlight:1 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g:1 concern:1 frederick:1 simon:1 j:1 kennard:1 nina:1 h:1 contain:1 half:1 sister:1 mr:1 atkinson:1 appleton:1 lurie:1 david:1 orientomology:1 insect:1 japanimals:1 animal:1 gregory:1 pflugfelder:1 brett:1 l:1 walker:1 michigan:1 pulvers:1 roger:1 interpreter:1 disparate:1 january:1 roy:2 nationalist:2 nichibunken:1 review:1 international:1 research:1 pp:1 external:1 link:1 influence:1 essay:1 list:1 horror:1 fiction:1 |@bigram lafcadio_hearn:23 kwaidan_story:3 cincinnati_ohio:1 orleans_louisiana:1 harper_weekly:2 saint_malo:1 creole_cuisine:1 west_indies:1 west_indie:2 tourist_attraction:1 waseda_university:1 ian_fleming:1 fairy_tale:1 milky_way:1 publish_posthumously:1 houghton_mifflin:2 external_link:1 |
5,971 | List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_biathlon | This is the complete list of Olympic medalists in biathlon from 1960 to 2006. The list of military patrol medal winners from 1924 is also included, as that event is now considered to be the inaugural biathlon event. Men Individual (20 km) 1960 Squaw Valley1964 Innsbruck1968 Grenoble1972 Sapporo1976 Innsbruck1980 Lake Placid1984 Sarajevo1988 Calgary1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin Sprint (10 km) 1980 Lake Placid1984 Sarajevo1988 Calgary1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin Pursuit (12.5 km) 2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin Mass start (15 km) 2006 Turin Relay (4×7.5 km) 1968 GrenobleAlexander TikhonovNikolay PuzanovVictor MamatovVladimir GundartsevOla WærhaugOlav JordetMagnar SolbergJon IstadLars-Göran ArwidsonTore ErikssonOlle PetrussonHolmfrid Olsson1972 SapporoAlexander TikhonovRinnat SafinIvan BiakovViktor MamatovEsko SairaJuhani SuutarinenHeikki IkolaMauri RöppänenHansjörg KnautheJoachim MeischnerDieter SpeerHorst Koschka1976 InnsbruckAlexander YelizarovIvan BiakovNikolay KruglovAlexander TikhonovHenrik FlöjtEsko SairaJuhani SuutarinenHeikki IkolaKarl-Heinz MenzFrank UllrichManfred BeerManfred Geyer1980 Lake PlacidVladimir AlikinAlexander TikhonovVladimir BarnachovAnatoly AlyabyevMathias JungKlaus SiebertFrank UllrichEberhard RöschFranz BernreiterHans EstnerPeter AngererGerhard Winkler1984 SarajevoDmitri VassilievYuri KashkarovAlgimantas ŠalnaSergey BulyginOdd LirhusEirik KvalfossRolf StorsveenKjell SøbakErnst ReiterWalter PichlerPeter AngererFritz Fischer1988 CalgaryDmitri VassilievSergey TchepikovAlexander PopovValery MedvedtsevErnst ReiterStefan HöckPeter AngererFritz FischerWerner KiemGottlieb TaschlerJohann PasslerAndreas Zingerle1992 AlbertvilleRicco GroßJens SteinigenMark KirchnerFritz FischerValeriy MedvedtsevAlexander PopovValeriy KirienkoSergey TchepikovUlf JohanssonLeif AnderssonTord WikstenMikael Löfgren1994 LillehammerRicco GroßFrank LuckMark KirchnerSven FischerValeriy KirienkoVladimir DratchevSergey TarasovSergey TchepikovThierry DusserrePatrice Bailly-SalinsLionel LaurentHervé Flandin1998 NaganoRicco GroßPeter SendelSven FischerFrank LuckEgil GjellandHalvard HanevoldDag BjørndalenOle Einar BjørndalenPavel MuslimovVladimir DratchevSergey TarasovViktor Maigourov2002 Salt Lake CityHalvard HanevoldFrode AndresenEgil GjellandOle Einar BjørndalenRicco GroßPeter SendelSven FischerFrank LuckGilles MarguetVincent DefrasneJulien RobertRaphaël Poirée2006 TurinRicco GroßMichael RöschSven FischerMichael GreisIvan TcherezovSergei TchepikovPavel RostovtsevNikolay Kruglov, Jr.Julien RobertVincent DefrasneFerréol CannardRaphaël Poirée Women Individual (15 km) 1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin Sprint (7.5 km) 1992 Albertville1994 Lillehammer1998 Nagano2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin Pursuit (10 km) 2002 Salt Lake City2006 Turin Mass start (12.5 km) 2006 Turin Relay (4×6 km) The women's relay event has been competed over three different distances: 3×7.5 km — 1992 4×7.5 km — 1994-2002 4×6 km — 2006 1992 AlbertvilleCorinne NiogretVéronique ClaudelAnne BriandUschi DislAntje MiserskyPetra SchaafYelena BelovaAnfisa ReztsovaYelena Melnikova1994 LillehammerNadejda TalanovaNatalia SnitinaLuiza NoskovaAnfisa ReztsovaUschi DislAntje MiserskySimone Greiner-Petter-MemmPetra SchaafCorinne NiogretVéronique ClaudelDelphyne HeymannAnne Briand1998 NaganoUschi DislMartina ZellnerKatrin ApelPetra BehleOlga MelnikGalina KouklevaAlbina AkhatovaOlga RomaskoAnn-Elen SkjelbreidAnnette SikvelandGunn Margit AndreassenLiv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée2002 Salt Lake CityKatrin ApelUschi DislAndrea HenkelKati WilhelmAnn-Elen SkjelbreidLinda TjørhomGunn Margit AndreassenLiv Grete Skjelbreid PoiréeOlga PylevaGalina KouklevaSvetlana IshmouratovaAlbina Akhatova2006 TurinAnna Bogaliy-TitovetsSvetlana IshmouratovaOlga ZaitsevaAlbina AkhatovaMartina GlagowAndrea HenkelKatrin ApelKati WilhelmDelphyne PerettoFlorence Baverel-RobertSylvie BecaertSandrine Bailly See also Biathlon World Championships Biathlon World Cup Military patrol at the 1924 Winter Olympics References International Olympic Committee results database | List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_biathlon |@lemmatized complete:1 list:2 olympic:2 medalist:1 biathlon:4 military:2 patrol:2 medal:1 winner:1 also:2 include:1 event:3 consider:1 inaugural:1 men:1 individual:2 km:13 squaw:1 lake:11 salt:8 turin:8 sprint:2 pursuit:2 mass:2 start:2 relay:3 grenoblealexander:1 tikhonovnikolay:1 puzanovvictor:1 mamatovvladimir:1 gundartsevola:1 wærhaugolav:1 jordetmagnar:1 solbergjon:1 istadlars:1 göran:1 arwidsontore:1 erikssonolle:1 petrussonholmfrid:1 sapporoalexander:1 tikhonovrinnat:1 safinivan:1 biakovviktor:1 mamatovesko:1 sairajuhani:2 suutarinenheikki:2 ikolamauri:1 röppänenhansjörg:1 knauthejoachim:1 meischnerdieter:1 speerhorst:1 innsbruckalexander:1 yelizarovivan:1 biakovnikolay:1 kruglovalexander:1 tikhonovhenrik:1 flöjtesko:1 ikolakarl:1 heinz:1 menzfrank:1 ullrichmanfred:1 beermanfred:1 placidvladimir:1 alikinalexander:1 tikhonovvladimir:1 barnachovanatoly:1 alyabyevmathias:1 jungklaus:1 siebertfrank:1 ullricheberhard:1 röschfranz:1 bernreiterhans:1 estnerpeter:1 angerergerhard:1 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luckgilles:1 marguetvincent:1 defrasnejulien:1 robertraphaël:1 turinricco:1 großmichael:1 röschsven:1 fischermichael:1 greisivan:1 tcherezovsergei:1 tchepikovpavel:1 rostovtsevnikolay:1 kruglov:1 jr:1 julien:1 robertvincent:1 defrasneferréol:1 cannardraphaël:1 poirée:1 woman:2 compete:1 three:1 different:1 distance:1 albertvillecorinne:1 niogretvéronique:2 claudelanne:1 brianduschi:1 dislantje:2 miserskypetra:1 schaafyelena:1 belovaanfisa:1 reztsovayelena:1 lillehammernadejda:1 talanovanatalia:1 snitinaluiza:1 noskovaanfisa:1 reztsovauschi:1 miserskysimone:1 greiner:1 petter:1 memmpetra:1 schaafcorinne:1 claudeldelphyne:1 heymannanne:1 naganouschi:1 dislmartina:1 zellnerkatrin:1 apelpetra:1 behleolga:1 melnikgalina:1 kouklevaalbina:1 akhatovaolga:1 romaskoann:1 elen:2 skjelbreidannette:1 sikvelandgunn:1 margit:2 andreassenliv:2 grete:2 skjelbreid:2 citykatrin:1 apeluschi:1 dislandrea:1 henkelkati:1 wilhelmann:1 skjelbreidlinda:1 tjørhomgunn:1 poiréeolga:1 pylevagalina:1 kouklevasvetlana:1 ishmouratovaalbina:1 turinanna:1 bogaliy:1 titovetssvetlana:1 ishmouratovaolga:1 zaitsevaalbina:1 akhatovamartina:1 glagowandrea:1 henkelkatrin:1 apelkati:1 wilhelmdelphyne:1 perettoflorence:1 baverel:1 robertsylvie:1 becaertsandrine:1 see:1 world:2 championship:1 cup:1 winter:1 olympics:1 reference:1 international:1 committee:1 result:1 database:1 |@bigram olympic_medalist:1 kruglov_jr:1 greiner_petter:1 winter_olympics:1 |
5,972 | Danube | The Danube ( in English) is the longest river in the European Union and Europe's second longest river after the Volga. The river originates in the Black Forest in Germany as the much smaller Brigach and Breg rivers which join at the eponymously named German town Donaueschingen, after which it is known as the Danube and flows eastwards for a distance of some 2850 km (1771 miles), passing through four Central and Eastern European capitals, before emptying into the Black Sea via the Danube Delta in Romania and Ukraine. Known to history as one of the long-standing frontiers of the Roman Empire, the river flows through — or forms a part of the borders of — ten countries: Germany (7.5%), Austria (10.3%), Slovakia (5.8%), Hungary (11.7%), Croatia (4.5%), Serbia (10.3%), Romania (28.9%), Bulgaria (5.2%), Moldova (1.7%), and Ukraine (3.8%). Name The English language has, since the Norman conquest of England, used the French word Danube. In other languages, particularly those spoken in the locations which the river flows through: Bosnian and Croatian: Dunav (Dunav) Czech, Polish and Slovak: Dunaj , from earlier Danuvius Russian and Ukrainian: Дунай (Dunay) Ancient Greek: Ίστρος (Istros) Modern Greek: Δούναβης (Dounavis) Local or Tin'e - טינע Old Norse Duná Arabic and Farsi: دانوب (Dānūb) One theory ultimately derives all these variations to the Celtic word *dānu, meaning "to flow", and its exact equivalent is found in the Dutch name of the river Donwy. Mallory, J.P. and D.Q. Adams. The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. London: Fitzroy and Dearborn, 1997: 486. Other theories derive the name from an Iranic root that has contributed the names of all other major rivers emptying into the Black Sea, such as the Don, Donets, Dnieper and Dniestr. Ancient Greek Istros was a borrowing from Thracian meaning "strong, swift", akin to Sanskrit is.iras "swift", Ancient Greek (hierós) "strong, sacred". Katičic', Radislav. Ancient Languages of the Balkans, Part One. Paris: Mouton, 1976: 144. Geography Drainage basin In addition to the Danubian countries, the drainage basin includes parts of nine more countries: Italy (0.15%), Poland (0.09%), Switzerland (0.32%), the Czech Republic (2.5%), Slovenia (2.2%), Bosnia and Herzegovina (4.8%), the Republic of Macedonia, and Albania (0.03%). The highest point of the drainage basin is the summit of Piz Bernina at the Italy–Switzerland border, . Tributaries The Danube's watershed extends into many other countries. Many Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and other shallow-draught boats. From its source to its outlet into the Black Sea, its main tributaries are (in order): Iller (entering at Ulm) Lech Naab (entering at Regensburg) Regen (entering at Regensburg) Isar Inn (entering at Passau) Enns Morava (entering near Devín Castle) Leitha Váh (entering at Komárno) Hron Ipel Sió Dráva Vuka15. Tisza 16. Sava (entering at Belgrade) 17. Timiş 18. Great Morava 19. Caraş 20. Jiu 21. Iskar 22. Olt 23. Vedea 24. Argeş 25. Ialomiţa 26. Siret 27. Prut Cities Origin of the river Danube. The place where two small rivers (Breg and Brigach) unite to form the Danube in Donaueschingen, Germany. The German name of the place is "Donauzusammenfluss". The Danube Bend is a curve of the Danube in Hungary, near the city of Visegrád. The Transdanubian Medium Mountains lie on the left bank, while the Northern Medium Mountains on the right. Danube in Linz. The Danube flows through the following countries and cities (from source to mouth ordered): Germany Tuttlingen in the State of Baden-Württemberg - the first city it flows through Sigmaringen in Baden-Württemberg Munderkingen in Baden-Württemberg Ulm in Baden-Württemberg Ingolstadt in Bavaria Regensburg in Bavaria Straubing in Bavaria Deggendorf in Bavaria Passau in Bavaria Austria Linz, capital of Upper Austria Krems on the Danube, in Lower Austria Vienna - capital of Austria, where the Danube floodplain is called the Lobau, though the Innere Stadt is situated away from the main flow of the Danube (it is bounded by the Donaukanal - 'Danube canal'). Slovakia Bratislava - capital of Slovakia Komárno Štúrovo Hungary Győr Komárom Esztergom Visegrád Vác Szentendre Budapest - capital of Hungary Százhalombatta Ráckeve Dunaújváros Paks Kalocsa Baja Mohács Croatia Vukovar Ilok Serbia Apatin - province of Vojvodina Bačka Palanka - province of Vojvodina Novi Sad - capital of the province of Vojvodina Belgrade - the capital of Serbia Smederevo Donji Milanovac Kladovo Romania Moldova Nouă Orşova Drobeta-Turnu Severin Calafat Bechet Dăbuleni Corabia Turnu Măgurele Zimnicea Giurgiu Olteniţa Călăraşi Feteşti Cernavodă Hârşova Brăila Galaţi Isaccea Tulcea Sulina - the last city through which it flows Bulgaria Vidin Lom Kozloduy Oryahovo Nikopol Belene Svishtov Rousse Tutrakan Silistra Ukraine Reni Izmail Kiliya Vylkove The Danube flows through four capital cities (shown in bold), more than any other river in the world. Sectioning Upper Section: From spring to Devín Gate. Danube remains a characteristic mountain river until Passau, with average bottom gradient 0.0012%, from Passau to Devín Gate the gradient lessens to 0.0006%. Middle Section: From Devín Gate to Iron Gate. The riverbed widens and the average bottom gradient becomes only 0.00006%. Lower Section: From Iron Gate to Sulina, with average gradient as little as 0.00003%. Modern navigation The Danube in BudapestThe Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea to Brăila in Romania and by river ships to Kelheim, Bavaria; smaller craft can navigate further upstream to Ulm, in Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable. Since the completion of the German Rhine–Main–Danube Canal in 1992, the river has been part of a trans-European waterway from Rotterdam on the North Sea to Sulina on the Black Sea (3500 km). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten Pan-European transport corridors, routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years. The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in 1987. In 1999, transport on the river was made difficult by the NATO bombing of three bridges in Serbia. The clearance of the debris was finished in 2002. The temporary pontoon bridge that hampered navigation was finally removed in 2005. At the Iron Gate, the Danube flows through a gorge that forms part of the boundary between Serbia and Romania; it contains the hydroelectric Iron Gate I dam, followed at about 60 km downstream (outside the gorge) by the Iron Gate ll dam. On 13 April 2006, a record peak discharge at Iron Gate Dam reached 15,400 m³/s. There are three artificial waterways built on the Danube: the Danube–Tisa–Danube Canal (DTD) in the Banat and Bačka regions (Vojvodina, northern province of Serbia); the 64 km Danube–Black Sea Canal, between Cernavodă and Constanţa (Romania) finished in 1984, shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400 km; the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal (about 171 km), finished in 1992, linking the North Sea to the Black Sea. The Danube delta The Danube Delta has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1991. Its wetlands (on the Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance) support vast flocks of migratory birds, including the endangered Pygmy Cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). Rival canalization and drainage scheme threaten the delta: see Bastroe Channel. Geology Đerdap gorge, Serbia, overlooking RomaniaAlthough the headwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than the Rhine, with which its catchment area competes in today's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine is the only river rising in the Alps mountains which flows north towards the North Sea, an invisible line beginning at Piz Lunghin divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as the European Watershed. However, before the last ice age in the Pleistocene, the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called Urdonau (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of the Swabian Alb. After the Upper Rhine valley had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is but a meek reflection of the ancient one. Since the Swabian Alb is largely shaped of porous limestone, and since the Rhine's level is much lower than the Danube's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely oozes away noisily into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alp, which are referred to as the Donauversickerung (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12 km south at the Aachtopf, Germany's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8500 litres per second, north of Lake Constance — thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide thus in fact only applies for those waters that pass beyond this point, and only during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sink holes in the Donauversickerung. Since this enormous amount of underground water erodes much of its surrounding limestone, it is estimated that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event called stream capturing. Human history Danube in Ulm, where it separates Ulm in Baden-Württemberg and Neu-Ulm in Bavaria River Danube in Vienna A look upstream from the Donauinsel in Vienna, Austria during an unusually cold winter (February 2006). A frozen Danube is a phenomenon experienced once or twice in a lifetime. (Details) Bratislava doesn't usually experience major floods, but the Danube sometimes overflows its right bank. The Danube basin was the site of some of the earliest human cultures. The Danubian Neolithic cultures include the Linear Pottery cultures of the mid-Danube basin. The third millennium BC Vučedol culture (from the Vučedol site near Vukovar, Croatia) is famous for its ceramics. Many sites of the sixth-to-third millennium BC Vinča culture are sited along the Danube. The river was part of the Roman empire's Limes Germanicus. Of importance for the Danube is also the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River (ICPDR). The ICPDR is an international organisation consisting of 13 member states (Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine) and the European Union. ICPDR, established in 1998, deals not only with the Danube itself, but with the whole Danube River Basin, which also includes its tributaries and the groundwater resources. The goal of the ICPDR is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention, promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement and rational use of waters for the benefit of the Danube River Basin countries and their people. The Romans often used the river Danube as a border for their vast empire. Ancient cultural perspectives of the lower Danube Part of the Danubius or Istros river was also known as (together with the Black Sea) the Okeanos in ancient times, being called the Okeanos Potamos (Okeanos River). The lower Danube was also called the Keras Okeanoio (Gulf or Horn of Okeanos) in the Argonautica by Apollonius Rhodos (Argon. IV. 282). Okeanos was not originally a Greek word (Thalassa being Greek for sea), Okeanos being a Pelasgian word which was similar to eye (ochio) and water (aqua) with the Pelasgian ending an-os, which could have meant large still water (not a sea). The lower Danube has a slow deep wide course, so it can be seen why it was considered as part of the Okeanos. Both Homer (Odyss. XII. 1) and Hesiod (Theogonia, v.242. 959) in their theogonic legends exclusively refer to the lower Danube as the Okeanos Potamos, possibly due to it being remembered as the remnant of when the Pannonian and lower Danubian basins were under water. At the end of the Okeanos Potamos, is the holy island of Alba (Leuke, Pytho Nisi, Isle of Snakes), sacred to the Pelasgian (and later, Greek) Apollo, greeting the sun rising in the east. Hecateus Abderitas refers to Apollo's island from the region of the Hyperboreans, in the Okeanos. It was on Leuke, in one version of his legend that the hero Achilles was buried (to this day, one of the mouths of the Danube is called Chilia). Old Romanian folk songs sing of a white monastery on a white island with nine priests. Dacia Preistorica, Nicolae Densusianu (1913). Danube Bike Trail The Danube Bike Trail (also called Danube Cycle Path or the Donauradweg) is a bicycle trail along the river. The Danube Bike Trail (Donauradweg) is divided into four sections: Donaueschingen-Passau (559 km) Passau-Vienna (340 km) Vienna-Budapest (306 km) Budapest-Black Sea (1670 km) Cultural significance The Danube is mentioned in the title of a famous waltz by Austrian composer Johann Strauss, An der schönen, blauen Donau (On the Beautiful Blue Danube). This piece was composed as Strauss was traveling down the Danube River. This piece is well known across the world and is also used widely as a lullaby. Another famous waltz about the Danube is The Waves of the Danube () by the Romanian composer Ion Ivanovici (1845–1902), and the work took the audience by storm when performed at the 1889 Paris Exposition. Joe Zawinul wrote a symphony about the Danube called Stories of the Danube. It was performed for the first time at the 1993 Bruckner festival, at Linz. The Danube figures prominently in the Bulgarian National Anthem, as a symbolic representation of the country's natural beauty. The German tradition of landscape painting, the Danube school, was developed in the Danube valley in the 16th century. The most famous book describing the Danube might be Claudio Magris's masterpiece Danube (ISBN 1-86046-823-3). The historical fiction Earth's Children series by Jean M. Auel refers to the Danube as the Great Mother River. The river is the subject of the film The Ister (official site here). Parts of the German road movie Im Juli take place along the Danube. Noted horror writer Algernon Blackwood's most famous short story, "The Willows" concerned a trip down the Danube. In the PC Space Simulator Freelancer the battle cruiser Donau is destroyed during the first cutscene. In the Star Trek universe, a class of spacecraft was named after the Danube. Economics Drinking water Along its path, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about ten million people. In Baden-Württemberg, Germany, almost thirty percent (as of 2004) of the water for the area between Stuttgart, Bad Mergentheim, Aalen and Alb-Donau (district) comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities like Ulm and Passau also use some water from the Danube. In Austria and Hungary, most water comes from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of Romania where the water is cleaner still use a lot of drinking water from the Danube. Navigation and transport As "Corridor VII" of the European Union, the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal, the river connects the Black Sea with the industrial centers of Western Europe and with the Port of Rotterdam. The waterway is designed for large scale inland vessels (110×11.45 m) but it can carry much larger vessels on most of its course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 locks). Further proposals to build a number of new locks in order to improve navigation have not progressed, due in part to environmental concerns. Downstream from the Freudenau river plant's locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to the Gabčíkovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two double Iron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions (similar to the locks in the Russian Volga river, some 300 by over 30 m). Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860 kilometers. The Danube connects with the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal at Kelheim, and with the Wiener Donaukanal in Vienna. Apart from a couple of secondary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are the Drava, Sava and Tisza. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as the Dunav-Tisa-Dunav canals, links sections downstream. Fishing The importance of fishing on the Danube, which used to be critical in the Middle Ages, has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and the Danube Delta still has an important industry. Tourism Wachau Valley near Durnstein. Important tourist and natural spots along the Danube include the Wachau valley, the Nationalpark Donau-Auen in Austria, Gemenc in Hungary, the Naturpark Obere Donau in Germany, Kopački rit in Croatia, Iron Gate and Danube Delta in Romania, the Srebarna Nature Reserve in Bulgaria. Important National Parks Naturpark Obere Donau (Germany) Nature protection area Donauleiten (Germany) Nationalpark Donau Auen (Austria) Duna-Ipoly Nemzeti Park (Hungary) Gemenc (Hungary) Naturalpark Kopački Rit (Croatia) Đerdap National park (Serbia) Iron Gate Natural Park (Romania) Natural Park Măcinului Mountains (Romania) Natural Park Little Pond of Brăila (Romania) Biosphere Reserve Danube Delta (Romania) Srebarna Nature Reserve (Bulgaria) Persina Natural Park (Bulgaria) See also 2006 European floods List of crossings of the Danube Steamboats on the Danube The Ister Notes External links Interaktive Danube Guide Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library Claudio Magris' book, a 'biography' of the river and all the literary places it travels through, is Danube: A Sentimental Journey From the Source to the Black Sea (1986). Patrick Leigh Fermor's travel book: Between the Woods and the Water: On Foot to Constantinople from The Middle Danube to the Iron Gates (1986) tells of his journey in 1934. Andrew Archibald Paton's 2-volume book: Researches on the Danube and the Adriatic: Contributions to the Modern History of Hungary and Transylvania, Dalmatia and Croatia, Servia and Bulgaria (1861). 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5,973 | Kesgrave | Kesgrave is a suburb of Ipswich, Suffolk, England. History Early history The town was recorded as Gressgrava in the Domesday Book, by the late 15th century its name had become Kesgrave. Kesgrave remained a small agricultural settlement with just a church, inn and a few farmsteads for over 700 years. In 1921 the population was only 103 housed in 20 dwellings. Since then great changes have taken place. Recent history By 1988 Kesgrave covered an area of more than . Kesgrave parish council officially adopted the title of a town in January 2000 . Schools Primary The five primary schools in the immediate vicinity of Kesgrave are Heath Primary School, Gorseland Primary School, Cedarwood Primary School, Birchwood Primary School, Beacon Hill Primary School. Only two are located completely within the Kesgrave boundaries, however. Secondary Kesgrave has a large 11-18 comprehensive co-educational school. It now has nearly 2000 Pupils. A study for Sustrans noted that 61% of the pupils cycled to the school . This is largely due to the installation of a large cycle lane through the housing estate and along the main road. The school actively encourages walking or cycling and provides bicycle storage facilities . The school now has over 1800 pupils (from years 7 through 11 and the two sixth form years). The school has undergone a massive extension in recent years. This has included the construction of a new Creative Media Department, a new Communications block, a PE block and a sixth form block. The school currently achieves average exam results. 2006 serial murderers A serial killer or spree killer responsible for the murders of five women in Ipswich gained notoriety in late 2006, as the Ipswich Murderer. One of the five victims was born in Kesgrave and attended Kesgrave High School.{{Fact|date=March 2008]]. See also Kesgrave Hall References External links Kesgrave Community Portal | Kesgrave |@lemmatized kesgrave:12 suburb:1 ipswich:3 suffolk:1 england:1 history:3 early:1 town:2 record:1 gressgrava:1 domesday:1 book:1 late:2 century:1 name:1 become:1 remain:1 small:1 agricultural:1 settlement:1 church:1 inn:1 farmstead:1 year:4 population:1 house:1 dwelling:1 since:1 great:1 change:1 take:1 place:1 recent:2 cover:1 area:1 parish:1 council:1 officially:1 adopt:1 title:1 january:1 school:14 primary:7 five:3 immediate:1 vicinity:1 heath:1 gorseland:1 cedarwood:1 birchwood:1 beacon:1 hill:1 two:2 locate:1 completely:1 within:1 boundary:1 however:1 secondary:1 large:2 comprehensive:1 co:1 educational:1 nearly:1 pupil:3 study:1 sustrans:1 note:1 cycle:2 largely:1 due:1 installation:1 lane:1 housing:1 estate:1 along:1 main:1 road:1 actively:1 encourage:1 walk:1 cycling:1 provide:1 bicycle:1 storage:1 facility:1 sixth:2 form:2 undergone:1 massive:1 extension:1 include:1 construction:1 new:2 creative:1 medium:1 department:1 communication:1 block:3 pe:1 currently:1 achieve:1 average:1 exam:1 result:1 serial:2 murderer:2 killer:2 spree:1 responsible:1 murder:1 woman:1 gain:1 notoriety:1 one:1 victim:1 bear:1 attend:1 high:1 fact:1 date:1 march:1 see:1 also:1 hall:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 community:1 portal:1 |@bigram domesday_book:1 immediate_vicinity:1 beacon_hill:1 serial_killer:1 gain_notoriety:1 external_link:1 |
5,974 | Imperial_Conference | King George V (front, centre) with his prime ministers. Standing (left to right): Walter Stanley Monroe (Newfoundland), Gordon Coates (New Zealand), Stanley Bruce (Australia), J. B. M. Hertzog (Union of South Africa), W.T. Cosgrave (Irish Free State). Seated: Stanley Baldwin (United Kingdom), King George V, William Lyon Mackenzie King (Canada). Imperial Conferences (Colonial Conferences before 1911) were gatherings of British Empire government leaders in London in 1887, 1897, 1902, 1907, 1911, 1921, 1923, 1926, 1930 and 1937. In 1894, a Colonial Conference was held at Ottawa, Canada dealing mostly with matters of communications. The 1907 conference changed the name of future meetings to Imperial Conferences and agreed that the meetings should henceforth be regular rather than taking place while overseas statesmen were visiting London for royal occasions (jubilees, coronations). The conferences were a key forum for Dominion governments to assert the desire for removing the remaining vestiges of their colonial status. The conference of 1926, agreed the Balfour Declaration, which acknowledged that the Dominions would henceforth rank as equals to the United Kingdom, as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations. The conference of 1930 decided to abolish the legislative supremacy of the British Parliament as it was expressed through the Colonial Laws Validity Act and other Imperial Acts, and recommended a declaratory enactment of the United Kingdom Parliament, passed with the consent of the Dominions, although some Dominions did not ratify the Statute until some years afterwards. The Statute of Westminster 1931 was enacted by the Imperial Parliament in pursuance of that recommendation. The 1932 British Empire Economic Conference held in Ottawa discussed the Great Depression. After World War II, with the transformation of the British Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations, Imperial Conferences were replaced by biennial Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conferences, renamed Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings in 1971 See also Imperial War Cabinet First Colonial Conference Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting Gozen Kaigi | Imperial_Conference |@lemmatized king:3 george:2 v:2 front:1 centre:1 prime:2 minister:2 standing:1 leave:1 right:1 walter:1 stanley:3 monroe:1 newfoundland:1 gordon:1 coates:1 new:1 zealand:1 bruce:1 australia:1 j:1 b:1 hertzog:1 union:1 south:1 africa:1 w:1 cosgrave:1 irish:1 free:1 state:1 seat:1 baldwin:1 united:3 kingdom:3 william:1 lyon:1 mackenzie:1 canada:2 imperial:6 conference:12 colonial:5 gathering:1 british:5 empire:3 government:4 leader:1 london:2 hold:2 ottawa:2 deal:1 mostly:1 matter:1 communication:1 change:1 name:1 future:1 meeting:4 agree:2 henceforth:2 regular:1 rather:1 take:1 place:1 overseas:1 statesman:1 visit:1 royal:1 occasion:1 jubilee:1 coronation:1 key:1 forum:1 dominion:4 assert:1 desire:1 remove:1 remain:1 vestige:1 status:1 balfour:1 declaration:1 acknowledge:1 would:1 rank:1 equal:1 member:1 commonwealth:5 nation:2 decide:1 abolish:1 legislative:1 supremacy:1 parliament:3 express:1 law:1 validity:1 act:2 recommend:1 declaratory:1 enactment:1 pass:1 consent:1 although:1 ratify:1 statute:2 year:1 afterwards:1 westminster:1 enact:1 pursuance:1 recommendation:1 economic:1 discuss:1 great:1 depression:1 world:1 war:2 ii:1 transformation:1 replace:1 biennial:1 rename:1 head:2 see:1 also:1 cabinet:1 first:1 gozen:1 kaigi:1 |@bigram prime_minister:2 w_cosgrave:1 stanley_baldwin:1 lyon_mackenzie:1 balfour_declaration:1 statute_westminster:1 |
5,975 | Biome | Biomes are climatically and geographically defined areas of ecologically similar climatic conditions such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, The World's Biomes, Retrieved August 19, 2008, from University of California Museum of Paleontology and are often referred to as ecosystems. Biomes are defined by factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate. Unlike ecozones, biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or historical similarities. Biomes are often identified with particular patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation (quasi-equilibrium state of the local ecosystem). An ecosystem has many biotopes and a biome is a major habitat type. A major habitat type, however, is a compromise, as it has an intrinsic inhomogeneity. The biodiversity characteristic of each biome, especially the diversity of fauna and subdominant plant forms, is a function of abiotic factors and the biomass productivity of the dominant vegetation. In terrestrial biomes, species diversity tends to correlate positively with net primary productivity, moisture availability, and temperature. Ecoregions are grouped into both biomes and ecozones. A fundamental classification of biomes is into: Terrestrial (land) biomes Freshwater biomes Marine biomes Biomes are often known in English by local names. For example, a Temperate grassland or shrubland biome is known commonly as steppe in central Asia, prairie in North America, and pampas in South America. Tropical grasslands are known as savanna in Australia, whereas in Southern Africa it is known as veldt (from Afrikaans). Sometimes an entire biome may be targeted for protection, especially under an individual nation's Biodiversity Action Plan. Climate is a major factor determining the distribution of terrestrial biomes. Among the important climatic factors are: latitude: Arctic, boreal, temperate, subtropical, tropical. humidity: humid, semi-humid, semi-arid, and arid. seasonal variation: Rainfall may be distributed evenly throughout the year or be marked by seasonal variations. dry summer, wet winter: Most regions of the earth receive most of their rainfall during the summer months; Mediterranean climate regions receive their rainfall during the winter months. elevation: Increasing elevation causes a distribution of habitat types similar to that of increasing latitude. The most widely used systems of classifying biomes correspond to latitude (or temperature zoning) and humidity. Biodiversity generally increases away from the poles towards the equator and increases with humidity. Biome Classification Schemes Biome classification schemes seek to define biomes using climatic measurements. Particularly in the 1970s and 1980s there was a significant push to understand the relationships between these measurements and properties of ecosystem energetics because such discoveries would enable the prediction of rates of energy capture and transfer among components within ecosystems. Such a study was conducted by Sims et al. (1978) on North American grasslands. The study found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration in mm/yr and above ground net primary production in g/m^2/yr. More general results from the study were that precipitation and water use lead to aboveground primary production, solar radiation and temperature lead to belowground primary porduction (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season growth habit Pomeroy, Lawrence R. and James J. Alberts, editors. Concepts of Ecosystem Ecology. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988. . These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge’s bioclassification scheme, which were then later simplified in Whittaker’s. The number of classification schemes and the variety of determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as a strong indicator that biomes do not all fit perfectly into the classification schemes created. Holdridge Scheme The Holdridge classification scheme was developed by L. R. Holdridge, a botanist. It maps climates based on four categories: Average total precipitation (cm) on a lograrithmic scale Potential evapotranspiration ratio: the potential evapotranspiration divided by the precipitation; the ratio increases from humid to arid regions. Potential evapotranspiration Mean annual biotemperature (°C): calculated from monthly mean temperatures after converting any mean temperature to 0°C, based on the assumption that temperatures at or below freezing all have the same effect on plants, and delineating between -10°C and -30°C would yield unrealistic results. In this scheme, climates are classified based on the biological effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the largest determinants of the type of vegetation found in an area. Holdridge uses the 4 axis to define 30 so called "humidity provinces," which are clearly visible in the Holdridge diagram. While the scheme largely ignores soil and sun exposure, Holdridge did acknowledge that these, too, were important factors in biome determination. Whittaker's Biome-type Classification Scheme Whittaker appreciated biome-types as a representation of the great diversity of the living world, and saw the need to establish a simple way to classify these biome-types. Whittaker based his classification scheme on two abiotic factors: Precipitation and Temperature. His scheme can be seen as a simplification of Holdridge's, one more readily accessible, but perhaps missing the greater specificity that Holdrige's provides. Whittaker based his representation of global biomes on both previous theoretical assertions as well as an ever increasing empirical sampling of global ecosystems. Whittaker was in a unique position to make such a holistic assertion as he had previously compiled a review of biome classification. Whittaker, Robert H., Botanical Review, Classification of Natural Communities, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Jan-Mar 1962), pp. 1-239. The Whittaker Classification Scheme can be viewed at the following address: here Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's Scheme physiognomy: The apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of ecological communities or species. biome: a grouping terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that are similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment and characteristics of their animal communities formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different continents; defined by physiognomy formation-type: grouping of convergent formations Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention of biome-type or formation-type is simply a broader method to categorize similar communities. Whittaker, Robert H. Communities and Ecosystems New York: MacMillan Publishing Comany, Inc., 1975. The world biome-types, as displayed on a world map, can be viewed at the following link: here Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types Whittaker, seeing the need for a simpler way to express the relationship of community structure to the environment, used what he called “gradient analysis” of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a world-wide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm. Whittaker, Robert H. Communities and Ecosystems New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, Inc., 1975. Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with intensities that vary by location from high to low tide climatic moisture gradient temperature gradient by altitude temperature gradient by latitude Along these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allow him to qualitatively establish biome-types. The gradient runs from favorable to extreme with corresponding changes in productivity. Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with the favorability of the environment (decreasing community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less favorable). Trends in diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities decrease from favorable to extreme environments. Each growth-form (i.e. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the ecoclines. The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world. Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4), to get an overall temperature gradient and combined this with gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker Classification Scheme. The scheme graphs average annual precipitation (x-axis) versus average annual temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types. Walter System The Heinrich Walter classification scheme was developed by Heinrich Walter, a German ecologist. It differs from both the Whittaker and Holdridge schemes because it takes into account the seasonality of temperature and precipitation. The system, also based on precipitation and temperature, finds 9 major biomes, with the important climate traits and vegetation types summarized in the accompanying table. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the region. I: Equatorial Always moist and lacking temperature seasonality Evergreen tropical rain forest II: Tropical Summer rainy season and cooler “winter” dry season Seasonal forest, scrub, or savanna III: Subtropical Highly seasonal, arid climate Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface IV: Mediterranean Winter rainy season and summer drought Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands V: Warm temperate Occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive VI: Nemoral Moderate climate with winter freezing Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest VII: Continental Arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters Grasslands and temperate deserts VIII: Boreal Cold temperate with cool summers and long winters Evergreen, frost-hardy needle-leaved forest (taiga) IX: Polar Very short, cool summers and long, very cold winters Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils Bailey System Robert G. Bailey almost developed a biogeographical classification system for the United States in a map published in 1976. Bailey subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of South America in 1981 and the world in 1989. The Bailey system is based on climate and is divided into seven domains (Polar, Humid Temperate, Dry, Human, and Humid Tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain). http://www.fs.fed.us/land/ecosysmgmt/index.html Bailey System, US Forest Service 100 Polar Domain 120 Tundra Division M120 Tundra Division - Mountain Provinces 130 Subarctic Division M130 Subarctic Division - Mountain Provinces 200 Humid Temperate Domain 210 Warm Continental Division M210 Warm Continental Division - Mountain Provinces 220 Hot Continental Division M220 Hot Continental Division - Mountain Provinces 230 Subtropical Division M230 Subtropical Division - Mountain Provinces 240 Marine Division M240 Marine Division - Mountain Provinces 250 Prairie Division 260 Mediterranean Division M260 Mediterranean Division - Mountain Provinces 300 Dry Domain 310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division - Mountain Provinces WWF system A team of biologists convened by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) developed an ecological land classification system that identified fourteen biomes, Olson, David M. et al. (2001); Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World: A New Map of Life on Earth, BioScience, Vol. 51, No. 11., pp. 933-938. called major habitat types, and further divided the world's land area into 867 terrestrial ecoregions. Each terrestrial Ecoregion has a specific EcoID, fomat XXnnNN (XX is the Ecozone, nn is the Biome number, NN is the individual number). This classification is used to define the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF as priorities for conservation. The WWF major habitat types are: 01 Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid) 02 Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) 03 Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid) 04 Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid) 05 Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semi-humid) 06 Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid) 07 Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semi-arid) 08 Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semi-arid) 09 Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated) 10 Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate) 11 Tundra (Arctic) 12 Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or Sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semi-humid to semi-arid with winter rainfall) 13 Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid) 14 Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated) Freshwater biomes According to the World Wildlife Fund, the following are classified as freshwater biomes: "Freshwater Ecoregions of the World: Major Habitat Types" . Accessed May 12, 2008. Large lakes Large river deltas Polar freshwaters Montane freshwaters Temperate coastal rivers Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands Temperate upland rivers Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands Tropical and subtropical upland rivers Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins Oceanic islands Realms or Ecozones (terrestrial and freshwater, WWF) NA Nearctic PA Palearctic AT Afrotropic IM Indomalaya AA Australasia NT Neotropic OC Oceania AN Antarctic Marine biomes Marine biomes (major habitat types), Global 200 (WWF) Biomes of the coastal & continental shelf areas (Neritic zone - List of ecoregions (WWF)): Polar Temperate shelves and sea Temperate upwelling Tropical upwelling Tropical coral WWF: Marine Ecoregions of the World Realms or Ecozones (marine, WWF) North Temperate Atlantic Eastern Tropical Atlantic Western Tropical Atlantic South Temperate Atlantic North Temperate Indo-Pacific Central Indo-Pacific Eastern Indo-Pacific Western Indo-Pacific South Temperate Indo-Pacific Southern Ocean Antarctic Arctic Mediterranean Other marine habitat types Hydrothermal vents Cold seeps Benthic zone Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies) Abyssal Hadal (ocean trench) Major Habitats, Non Global 200 (WWF) Littoral/Intertidal zone Kelp forest Pack ice Summary - Ecological taxonomy (WWF) Biosphere (List of ecoregions) Ecozones or Realms (8) Terrestrial Biomes (Major Habitat Types, 14) Ecoregions (867) Ecosystems (Biotopes) Freshwater Biomes (Major Habitat Types, 12) Ecoregions (426) Ecosystems (Biotopes) Marine Ecozones or Realms (13) Continental Shelf Biomes (Major Habitat Types, 5) (Marine Provinces) (62) Ecoregions (232) Ecosystems (Biotopes) Open & Deep Sea Biomes (Major Habitat Types) Endolithic Biome Example Biosphere Ecozone: Palearctic ecozone Terrestrial Biome: Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub Ecoregion: Illyrian deciduous forests (PA1210) Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100- 1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, Nemoral zone (temperate zone) Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk. (Plant list) Plant: Silver fir (Abies alba) Anthropogenic biomes Humans have fundamentally altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result, vegetation forms predicted by conventional biome systems are rarely observed across most of Earth's land surface. Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a new way forward in ecology and conservation by recognizing the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and moving us toward an understanding how best to live in and manage our biosphere and the anthropogenic biosphere we live in. Major Anthropogenic Biomes Dense Settlements Villages Croplands Rangelands Forested Other biomes The Endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered and does not fit well into most classification schemes. Map of Biomes Terrestrial biomes classified by vegetation {| style="border:1px solid #CCCCCC; background-color:transparent;" align="center" width="100%" |width="20%"| |width="20%"| |width="20%"| |width="20%"| |width="20%"| |} Freshwater Biomes Major continental divides, showing drainage into the major oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the ocean. Drainage basins of the principal oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the ocean. See also Altitudinal zonation Biomics Biosphere reserve Earth Science Ecoregion Ecology Ecosystem Ecotope Ecozone Climate classification Climate zones by altitude Effect of Climate Change on Plant Biodiversity Gene pool Genetic pollution Genetic erosion Habitat Kuchler plant association Natural environment Nature World Network of Biosphere Reserves References External links Biomes of the world (Missouri Botanic Garden) Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map | Biome |@lemmatized biome:63 climatically:1 geographically:1 define:8 area:7 ecologically:1 similar:5 climatic:4 condition:2 community:12 plant:13 animal:3 soil:3 organism:1 world:17 retrieve:1 august:1 university:1 california:1 museum:1 paleontology:1 often:4 refer:1 ecosystem:15 factor:7 structure:5 tree:2 shrub:2 grass:2 leaf:1 type:26 broadleaf:4 needleleaf:1 spacing:1 forest:19 woodland:4 savanna:6 climate:15 unlike:1 ecozones:6 genetic:3 taxonomic:1 historical:1 similarity:1 identify:3 particular:1 pattern:4 ecological:5 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5,976 | Erlang_(unit) | The erlang (symbol E How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement ) as a dimensionless unit is used in telephony as a statistical measure of offered load. It is named after the Danish telephone engineer A. K. Erlang, the originator of traffic engineering and queueing theory. Traffic of one erlang refers to a single resource being in continuous use, or two channels being at fifty percent use each, and so on, pro rata. For example, if an office had two telephone operators who are both busy all the time, that would represent two erlangs (2 E) of traffic, or a radio channel that is occupied for thirty minutes during an hour is said to carry 0.5 E of traffic. Alternatively, an erlang may be regarded as a "use multiplier" per unit time, so 100% use is 1 E, 200% use is 2 E, and so on. For example, if total cell phone use in a given area per hour is 180 minutes, this represents 180/60 = 3 E. In general, if the mean arrival rate of new calls is λ per unit time and the mean call holding time is h, then the traffic in erlangs E is: This may be used to determine if a system is over-provisioned or under-provisioned (has too many or too few resources allocated). For example, the traffic measured over many busy hours might be used for a T1 or E1 circuit group to determine how many voice lines are likely to be used during the busiest hours. If no more than 12 out of 24 channels are likely to be used at any given time, the other 12 might be made available as data channels. Traffic measured in erlangs is used to calculate grade of service (GoS) or quality of service (QoS). There are a range of different Erlang formulae to calculate these, including Erlang B, Erlang C and the related Engset formula. These are discussed below, and may each be derived by means of a special case of continuous-time Markov processes known as a birth-death process. Erlang B formula Erlang-B (sometimes also written without the hyphen Erlang B), also known as the Erlang loss formula, is a formula for the blocking probability derived from the Erlang distribution to describe the probability of call loss on a group of circuits (in a circuit switched network, or equivalent). It is, for example, used in planning telephone networks. The formula was derived by Agner Krarup Erlang and is not limited to telephone networks, since it describes a probability in a queuing system (albeit a special case with a number of servers but no buffer spaces for incoming calls to wait for a free server). The formula applies under the condition that an unsuccessful call, because the line is busy, is not queued or retried, but instead really lost forever. It is assumed that call attempts arrive following a poisson process. Further it is assumed that call arrivals are independent, and message length (holding times) are exponentially distributed (Markovian system) although the formula turns out to apply under general holding time distributions. Erlangs are a dimensionless quantity calculated as the average arrival rate, λ, multiplied by the average call length, h. (see Little's Law) The Erlang B formula assumes an infinite population of sources (such as telephone subscribers), which jointly offer traffic to N servers (such as links in a trunk group). The rate of arrival of new calls (birth rate) is equal to λ and is constant, not depending on the number of active sources, because the total number of sources is assumed to be infinite. The rate of call departure (death rate) is equal to the number of calls in progress divided by h, the mean call holding time. The formula calculates blocking probability in a loss system, where if a request is not served immediately when it tries to use a resource, it is aborted. Requests are therefore not queued. Blocking occurs when there is a new request from a source, but all the servers are already busy. The formula assumes that blocked traffic is immediately cleared. The formula provides the GoS (grade of service) which is the probability Pb that a new call arriving at the circuit group is rejected because all servers (circuits) are busy: B(E, m) when E Erlang of traffic are offered to m trunks (communication channels). where: is the probability of blocking m is the number of resources such as servers or circuits in a group E = λh is the total amount of traffic offered in erlangs This may be expressed recursively as follows, in a form that is used to simplify the calculation of tables of the Erlang B formula: . Typically, instead of B(E, m) the inverse 1/B(E, m) is calculated in numerical computation in order to ensure numerical stability: Function ErlangB (E as Double, m As Integer) As Double Dim InvB As Double Dim j As Integer InvB = 1.0 For j = 1 To m InvB = 1.0 + j / E * InvB Next j ErlangB = 1.0 / InvB End Function The Erlang B formula applies to loss systems, such as telephone systems on both fixed and mobile networks, which do not provide traffic buffering, and are not intended to do so. It assumes that the call arrivals may be modeled by a Poisson process, but is valid for any statistical distribution of call holding times. Erlang B is a trunk sizing tool for voice switch to voice switch traffic. Extended Erlang B Extended Erlang B is an iterative calculation, rather than a formula, that adds an extra parameter, the Recall Factor, which defines the recall attemps 'Designing optimal voice networks for businesses, government, and telephone companies' by J. Jewett, J. Shrago, B. Yomtov, TelCo Research, Chicago, 1980. . The steps in the process are as follows Inayatullah, M., Ullah, F.K., Khan., A.N., 'An Automated Grade Of Service Measuring System', IEEE—ICET 2006, 2nd International Conference on Emerging Technologies, Peshawar, Pakistan 13-14 November 2006, pp.230-237 : 1. Calculate as above for Erlang B. 2. Calculate the probable number of blocked calls 3. Calculate the number of recalls, assuming a Recall Factor, : 4. Calculate the new offered traffic where is the traffic at the current step. 5. Return to step 1 and iterate until a stable value of is obtained. Erlang C formula The Erlang C formula expresses the waiting probability in a queuing system. Just as the Erlang B formula, Erlang C assumes an infinite population of sources, which jointly offer traffic of A erlangs to N servers. However, if all the servers are busy when a request arrives from a source, the request is queued. An unlimited number of requests may be held in the queue in this way simultaneously. This formula calculates the probability of queuing offered traffic, assuming that blocked calls stay in the system until they can be handled. This formula is used to determine the number of agents or customer service representatives needed to staff a call centre, for a specified desired probability of queuing. where: A is the total traffic offered in units of erlangs N is the number of servers PW is the probability that a customer has to wait for service It is assumed that the call arrivals can be modeled by a Poisson process and that call holding times are described by a negative exponential distribution. A common use for Erlang C is modeling and dimensioning call center agents in a call center environment. Engset formula The Engset calculation is a related formula, named after its developer, T. O. Engset, used to determine the probability of congestion occurring within a telephony circuit group. It deals with a finite population of S sources rather than the infinite population of sources that Erlang assumes. The formula requires that the user knows the expected peak traffic, the number of sources (callers) and the number of circuits in the network. Example application A business installing a PABX needs to know the minimum number of voice circuits it needs to have to and from the telephone network. An approximate approach is to use the Erlang-B formula. However, if the business has a small number of extensions, then it should instead use the more exact Engset calculation, which reflects the fact that extensions already in use will not make additional simultaneous calls. (For a large user population, the Engset and the Erlang-B calculations give the same result.) Technical details Engset's equation is similar to the Erlang-B formula; however it contains one major difference: Erlang's equation assumes an infinite source of calls, yielding a Poisson arrival process, while Engset specifies a finite number of callers . Thus Engset's equation should be used when the source population is small (say less than 200 users, extensions or customers). where A = offered traffic intensity in erlangs, from all sources S = number of sources of traffic N = number of circuits in group P(b) = probability of blocking or congestion In practice, like Erlang's equations, Engset's formula requires recursion to solve for the blocking or congestion probability. There are several recursions that could be used. One way to determine this probability, one first determines an initial estimate. This initial estimate is substituted into the equation and the equation then is solved. The answer to this initial calculation is then substituted back into the equation, resulting in a new answer which is again substituted. This iterative process continues until the equation converges to a stable result. . Engset's equation follows: See also System spectral efficiency (discussing cellular network capacity in Erlang/MHz/cell) A. K. Erlang Call centre Erlang programming language Erlang distribution Poisson distribution Traffic Mix References Tools Online Erlang C Calculator from Vrije University, Netherlands Online Erlang B Calculator with source code in C and JavaScript A Robust Erlang B Calculator from McMaster University, Canada Erlang C using spreadsheets from Mitan Ltd. External links Traffic Modeling and Resource Allocation in Call Centers by Diagnostic Strategies (definitions and formulae) Implementation of Erlang-B in Excel | Erlang_(unit) |@lemmatized erlang:49 symbol:1 e:14 many:4 dictionary:1 unit:5 measurement:1 dimensionless:2 use:24 telephony:2 statistical:2 measure:4 offer:9 load:1 name:2 danish:1 telephone:8 engineer:1 k:3 originator:1 traffic:23 engineering:1 queue:7 theory:1 one:4 refers:1 single:1 resource:5 continuous:2 two:3 channel:5 fifty:1 percent:1 pro:1 rata:1 example:5 office:1 operator:1 busy:7 time:11 would:1 represent:2 radio:1 occupy:1 thirty:1 minute:2 hour:4 say:2 carry:1 alternatively:1 may:6 regard:1 multiplier:1 per:3 total:4 cell:2 phone:1 give:3 area:1 general:2 mean:4 arrival:7 rate:6 new:6 call:26 λ:3 holding:1 h:3 determine:6 system:10 provision:2 allocate:1 might:2 circuit:10 group:7 voice:5 line:2 likely:2 make:2 available:1 data:1 calculate:10 grade:3 service:6 gos:1 quality:1 qos:1 range:1 different:1 formula:27 include:1 b:23 c:8 related:2 engset:11 discuss:2 derive:3 special:2 case:2 markov:1 process:8 know:4 birth:2 death:2 sometimes:1 also:3 write:1 without:1 hyphen:1 loss:4 blocking:2 probability:14 distribution:6 describe:3 switch:3 network:8 equivalent:1 plan:1 agner:1 krarup:1 limited:1 since:1 queuing:2 albeit:1 number:17 server:9 buffer:1 space:1 incoming:1 wait:3 free:1 applies:2 condition:1 unsuccessful:1 retry:1 instead:3 really:1 lose:1 forever:1 assume:11 attempt:1 arrive:2 follow:4 poisson:5 far:1 independent:1 message:1 length:2 hold:6 exponentially:1 distribute:1 markovian:1 although:1 turn:1 apply:1 quantity:1 average:2 multiply:1 see:2 little:1 law:1 infinite:5 population:6 source:14 subscriber:1 jointly:2 n:5 link:2 trunk:3 equal:2 constant:1 depend:1 active:1 departure:1 progress:1 divide:1 block:6 request:6 serve:1 immediately:2 try:1 abort:1 therefore:1 occurs:1 already:2 clear:1 provide:2 go:1 pb:1 arriving:1 reject:1 communication:1 λh:1 amount:1 express:2 recursively:1 form:1 simplify:1 calculation:6 table:1 typically:1 inverse:1 numerical:2 computation:1 order:1 ensure:1 stability:1 function:2 erlangb:2 double:3 integer:2 dim:2 invb:5 j:6 next:1 end:1 fix:1 mobile:1 buffering:1 intend:1 model:3 valid:1 size:1 tool:2 extend:2 iterative:2 rather:2 add:1 extra:1 parameter:1 recall:4 factor:2 define:1 attemps:1 design:1 optimal:1 business:3 government:1 company:1 jewett:1 shrago:1 yomtov:1 telco:1 research:1 chicago:1 step:3 inayatullah:1 ullah:1 f:1 khan:1 automated:1 ieee:1 icet:1 international:1 conference:1 emerge:1 technology:1 peshawar:1 pakistan:1 november:1 pp:1 probable:1 blocked:1 current:1 return:1 iterate:1 stable:2 value:1 obtain:1 however:3 unlimited:1 way:2 simultaneously:1 stay:1 handle:1 agent:2 customer:3 representative:1 need:3 staff:1 centre:2 specify:1 desired:1 pw:1 negative:1 exponential:1 common:1 dimension:1 center:3 environment:1 developer:1 congestion:3 occur:1 within:1 deal:1 finite:2 assumes:1 require:2 user:3 expected:1 peak:1 caller:2 application:1 instal:1 pabx:1 minimum:1 approximate:1 approach:1 small:2 extension:3 exact:1 reflect:1 fact:1 additional:1 simultaneous:1 large:1 result:3 technical:1 detail:1 equation:9 similar:1 contain:1 major:1 difference:1 yield:1 specifies:1 thus:1 less:1 intensity:1 p:1 practice:1 like:1 recursion:2 solve:2 several:1 could:1 first:1 initial:3 estimate:2 substitute:3 answer:2 back:1 continue:1 converge:1 spectral:1 efficiency:1 cellular:1 capacity:1 mhz:1 program:1 language:1 mix:1 reference:1 online:2 calculator:3 vrije:1 university:2 netherlands:1 code:1 javascript:1 robust:1 mcmaster:1 canada:1 spreadsheet:1 mitan:1 ltd:1 external:1 modeling:1 allocation:1 diagnostic:1 strategy:1 definition:1 implementation:1 excel:1 |@bigram service_qos:1 dimensionless_quantity:1 peshawar_pakistan:1 spectral_efficiency:1 poisson_distribution:1 external_link:1 |
5,977 | City | Tokyo, the most populous metropolis on earth. A city is a relatively large and permanent settlement, particularly a large urban settlement.<ref name="Goodall">Goodall, B. (1987) The Penguin Dictionary of Human Geography. London: Penguin.</ref> Kuper, A. and Kuper, J., eds (1996) The Social Science Encyclopedia. 2nd edition. London: Routledge. Although there are no agreed definitions distinguishing a city from a town, many cities have a particular administrative, legal, or historical status - for example, historically in Europe an urban settlement with a cathedral, in the United Kingdom and parts of the Commonwealth a settlement with a royal charter. Cities generally have advanced systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, and transportation and more. This proximity greatly facilitates interaction between people and businesses, benefiting both parties in the process. A big city, or metropolis, may have suburbs and regions. Such cities are usually associated with metropolitan areas and urban sprawl, creating large numbers of business commuters. Once a city sprawls far enough to reach another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. The birth of cities There is insufficient evidence to assert what conditions in world history spawned the first cities. Theorists, however, have offered arguments for what the right conditions might have been and have identified some basic mechanisms that might have been the important driving forces. Cities or agriculture first? North-south view of central Caracas from Cerro El Ávila in Venezuela The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution. The Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development . The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to choose to settle near others who lived off of agricultural production. The increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land, created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up this position as he provides a seemingly straightforward argument, which makes agricultural activity appear necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade . Bairoch points out that, due to sparse population densities that would have persisted in pre-Neolithic, hunter-gatherer societies, the amount of land that would be required to produce enough food for subsistence and trade for a large population would make it impossible to control the flow of trade. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example: "Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, [where] the density must have been less than 0.1 person per square kilometer" . Using this population density as a base for calculation, and allotting 10% of food towards surplus for trade and assuming that there is no farming taking place among the city dwellers, he calculates that "in order to maintain a city with a population of 1,000, and without taking the cost of transportation into account, an area of 100,000 square kilometers would have been required. When the cost of transportation is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometers..." . Bairoch noted that 200,000 square kilometers is roughly the size of Great Britain. In her book The Economy of Cities, Jane Jacobs makes the controversial claim that city-formation preceded the birth of agriculture. Jacobs does not lend her theory to any strict definition of a city, but her account suggestively contrasts what could only be thought of as primitive city-like activity to the activity occurring in neighboring hunter-gatherer settlements. To argue this view, Jacobs suggests a fictitious scenario where a valued natural resource leads to primitive economic activity—in her example, the resource is obsidian. The stock of obsidian is controlled and traded with neighboring hunting groups. Hunters that do not control the stock travel great distances to barter what they have, valuing obsidian because it "makes the sharpest tools to be had" . This activity brings more people to the center as jobs are created and goods are being traded. Among the goods traded are seeds of all different sorts, stored in unprecedented combinations. In various ways, some accidental, the seeds are sown, and the variation in yields are observed more readily than they would be in the wild. The seeds that yield the most grain are noticed and trading them begins to occur within the city. Owing to this local dealing, the city dwellers find that their grain yields are the best and for the first time there is deliberate and conscious selection. The choices made now are purposeful, and they are made among various strains of already cultivated crosses, and their crosses, mutants and hybrids . Why do cities form? Theorists have suggested many possible reasons for why people would have originally decided to come together to form dense populations. In his book City Economics, Brendan O'Flaherty asserts "Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages" . O'Flaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts normally associated with firms, but their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well. Increasing returns to scale occurs when "doubling all inputs more than doubles the output [and] an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost" . To offer an example of these concepts, O'Flaherty makes use of "one of the oldest reasons why cities were built: military protection" . In this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection (e.g.: a wall) and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. O'Flaherty then asks that we suppose that the area to be protected is square and each hectare inside it has the same value of protection. The advantage is expressed as: (1) , where O is the output (area protected) and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side. The inputs depend on the length of the perimeter: (2) , where I stands for the quantity of inputs. This equation shows that the perimeter is proportional to the length of a side. So there are increasing returns to scale: (3) . This equation (algebraically, combining (1) and (2)) shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output. Also, economies of scale: (4) . This equation (combining (1) and (2)) shows that the same output requires less input. "Cities, then, economize on protection, and so protection against marauding barbarian armies is one reason why people have come together to live in cities..." . Similarly, "Are Cities Dying?", a paper by Edward L. Glaeser, delves into similar reasons for city formation: reduced transport costs for goods, people, and ideas. An interesting piece from Glaeser's article is his argument about the benefits of proximity. He claims that if you double a city size, workers have a ten percent increase in earnings. Glaeser furthers his argument by logically stating that bigger cities don't pay more for equal productivity in a smaller city, so it is reasonable then to assume that workers actually become more productive if you move them to a city twice the size than they initially worked in. However, the workers don't really benefit from the ten percent wage increase because it is recycled back into the higher cost of living in a bigger city. Geography |Map of Haarlem, the Netherlands, of around 1550. The city is completely surrounded by a city wall and defensive canal. The square shape was inspired by Jerusalem. Modern city planning has seen many different schemes for how a city should look. The most commonly seen pattern is the grid, favoured by the Romans, almost a rule in parts of the Americas, and used for thousands of years in China. Derry was the first ever planned city in Ireland, begun in 1613, with the walls being completed five years later. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence. The grid pattern chosen was widely copied in the colonies of British North America. However, the grid has been around for far longer than the British Empire. The Ancient Greeks often gave their colonies around the Mediterranean a grid plan. One of the best examples is the city of Priene. This city even had its different districts, much like modern city planning today. Fifteen centuries earlier the Indus Valley Civilization was using grids in such cities as Mohenjo-Daro. Grid plans were popular among planners in the 19th century; such plans were typical in the American West, in places such as Salt Lake City and San Francisco. Also in Medieval times we see a preference for linear planning. Good examples are the cities established in the south of France by various rulers and city expansions in old Dutch and Flemish cities. Other forms may include a radial structure in which main roads converge on a central point, often the effect of successive growth over long time with concentric traces of town walls and citadels - recently supplemented by ring-roads that take traffic around the edge of a town. Many Dutch cities are structured this way: a central square surrounded by concentric canals. Every city expansion would imply a new circle (canals + town walls). In cities like Amsterdam and Haarlem, and elsewhere, such as in Moscow, this pattern is still clearly visible. History Towns and cities have a long history, although opinions vary on whether any particular ancient settlement can be considered to be a city. A city formed as central places of trade for the benefit of the members living in close proximity to others facilitates interaction of all kinds. These interactions generate both positive and negative externalities between other’s actions. Benefits include reduced transport costs, exchange of ideas, sharing of natural resources, large local markets, and later in their development, amenities such as running water and sewage disposal. Possible costs would include higher rate of crime, higher mortality rates, higher cost of living, worse pollution, traffic and high commuting times. Cities will grow when the benefits of proximity between people and firms are higher than the cost. The first true towns are sometimes considered to be large settlements where the inhabitants were no longer simply farmers of the surrounding area, but began to take on specialized occupations, and where trade, food storage and power was centralized. In 1950 Gordon Childe attempted to define a historic city with 10 general metrics. These are: Size and density of the population should be above normal. Differentiation of the population. Not all residents grow their own food leading to specialists. Payment of taxes to a deity or king. Monumental public buildings. Those not producing their own food are supported by the king. Systems of recording and practical science. A system of writing. Development of symbolic art. Trade and import of raw materials. Specialist craftsmen from outside the kin-group. This categorisation is descriptive, and not all ancients cities fit into this well, but it is used as a general touchstone when considering ancient cities. One characteristic that can be used to distinguish a small city from a large town is organized government. A town accomplishes common goals through informal agreements between neighbors or the leadership of a chief. A city has professional administrators, regulations, and some form of taxation (food and other necessities or means to trade for them) to feed the government workers. The governments may be based on heredity, religion, military power, work projects (such as canal building), food distribution, land ownership, agriculture, commerce, manufacturing, finance, or a combination of those. Societies that live in cities are often called civilizations. A city can also be defined as an absence of physical space between people and firms. Ancient times Early cities developed in a number of regions of the ancient world. Mesopotamia can claim the earliest cities, particularly Eridu, Uruk, and . Although it has sometimes been claimed that ancient Egypt lacked urbanism, in fact several types of urban settlements were found in ancient times. The Indus Valley Civilization and China are two other areas of the Old World with major indigenous urban traditions. Among the early Old World cities, Mohenjo-daro of the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day Pakistan, existing from about 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE, was one of the largest, with an estimated population of 40,000 or more. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998) Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press, Karachi and New York. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, the large Indus capitals, were among the first cities to use grid plans, drainage, flush toilets, urban sanitation systems, and sewage systems. At a somewhat later time, a distinctive urban tradition developed in the Khmer region of Cambodia, where Angkor grew into one of the largest cities (in area) the world has ever seen. In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in Mesoamerica and the Andes. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, including the Classic Maya, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec drew on these earlier urban traditions. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari, Chimu and Inca cultures. This roster of early urban traditions is notable for its diversity. Excavations at early urban sites show that some cities were sparsely-populated political capitals, others were trade centers, and still other cities had a primarily religious focus. Some cities had large dense populations whereas others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Theories that attempt to explain ancient urbanism by a single factor such as economic benefit fail to capture the range of variation documented by archaeologists (Smith 2002). The growth of the population of ancient civilizations, the formation of ancient empires concentrating political power, and the growth in commerce and manufacturing led to ever greater capital cities and centres of commerce and industry, with Alexandria, Antioch and Seleucia of the Hellenistic civilization, Pataliputra (now Patna) in India, Chang'an (now Xi'an) in China, Carthage, ancient Rome, its eastern successor Constantinople (later Istanbul), and successive Chinese, Indian and Muslim capitals approaching or exceeding the half-million population level. Keith Hopkins estimates that ancient Rome had a population of about a million people by the end of the first century BCE, after growing continually during the 3rd, 2nd, and 1st centuries BCE. On The Political Economy of the Roman Empire, Keith Hopkins Alexandria's population was also close to Rome's population at around the same time, the historian Rostovtzeff estimates a total population close to a million based on a census dated from 32 CE that counted 180,000 adult male citizens in Alexandria. Rostovtzeff 1941: 1138-39) Similar administrative, commercial, industrial and ceremonial centres emerged in other areas, most notably medieval Baghdad, which according to George Modelski, later became the first city to exceed a population of one million by the 8th century instead of Rome. The growth of ancient and medieval empires led to ever greater capital cities and seats of provincial administration, with Pataliputra (in India), Changan (in China), ancient Rome, its eastern successor Constantinople (later Istanbul), and successive Chinese, Islamic, and Indian capitals approaching or exceeding the half-million population level. It is estimated that ancient Rome had a population of around 450,000 people by the end of the last century BCE, which is considered the only European city to reach that number until the Industrial Revolution, although Constantinople came close. Alexandria's population was also close to Rome's population at around the same time. Similar large administrative, commercial, industrial and ceremonial centres emerged in other areas, most notably Baghdad, which became the first city to exceed a population of one million, followed by Beijing also exceeding one million. While David Kessler and Peter Temin consider ancient Rome to be the largest city before 19th century London, The organization of the grain trade in the early Roman Empire, David Kessler and Peter Temin George Modelski considers medieval Baghdad, with an estimated population of 1.2 million at its peak, to be the largest city before 19th century London. George Modelski, World Cities: –3000 to 2000, Washington DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. ISBN 2-00309-499-4. See also Evolutionary World Politics Homepage. Others estimate that Baghdad's population may have been as large as 2 million in the 9th century. Agriculture was practiced in sub-Saharan Africa since the third millennium BCE. Because of this, cities were able to develop as centers of non-agricultural activity. Exactly when this first happened is still a topic of archeological and historical investigation. Western scholarship has tended to focus on cities in Europe and Mesopotamia, but emerging archeological evidence indicates that urbanization occurred south of the Sahara in well before the influence of Arab urban culture. The oldest sites documented thus far are from around 500 CE including Awdaghust, Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade rout between Egypt and Gao. History of African Cities South of the Sahara By Catherine Coquery -Vidrovitch. 2005. ISBN 1558763031 Middle Ages During the European Middle Ages, a town was as much a political entity as a collection of houses. City residence brought freedom from customary rural obligations to lord and community: "Stadtluft macht frei" ("City air makes you free") was a saying in Germany. In Continental Europe cities with a legislature of their own were not unheard of, the laws for towns as a rule other than for the countryside, the lord of a town often being another than for surrounding land. In the Holy Roman Empire some cities had no other lord than the emperor. In Italy, Medieval communes had quite a statelike power. In exceptional cases like Venice, Genoa or Lübeck, cities themselves became powerful states, sometimes taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of Sakai, which enjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan. Early Modern While the city-states, or poleis, of the Mediterranean and Baltic Sea languished from the 16th century, Europe's larger capitals benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an Atlantic trade. By the late 18th century, London had become the largest city in the world with a population of over a million, while Paris rivaled the well-developed regionally-traditional capital cities of Baghdad, Beijing, Istanbul and Kyoto. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas the old Roman city concept was extensively used. Cities were founded in the middle of the newly conquered territories, and were bound to several laws about administration, finances and urbanism. Most towns remained far smaller places, so that in 1500 only some two dozen places in the world contained more than 100,000 inhabitants: as late as 1700 there were fewer than forty, a figure which would rise thereafter to 300 in 1900. A small city of the early modern period might contain as few as 10,000 inhabitants, a town far fewer still.citation needed Industrial Age The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanization and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In the United States from 1860 to 1910, the invention of railroads reduced transportation costs, and large manufacturing centers began to emerge, thus allowing migration from rural to city areas. However, cities during those periods of time were deadly places to live in, due to health problems resulting from contaminated water and air, and communicable diseases. In the Great Depression of the 1930s cities were hard hit by unemployment, especially those with a base in heavy industry. In the U.S. urbanization rate increased forty to eighty percent during 1900-1990. Today the world's population is slightly over half urban, with millions still streaming annually into the growing cities of Asia, Africa and Latin America. There has also been a shift to suburbs, perhaps to avoid crime and traffic, which are two costs of living in an urban area. External effects Modern cities are known for creating their own microclimates. This is due to the large clustering of heat absorbent surfaces that heat up in sunlight and that channel rainwater into underground ducts. Waste and sewage are two major problems for cities, as is air pollution coming from various forms of combustion, including fireplaces, wood or coal-burning stoves, other heating systems, and internal combustion engines. The impact of cities on places elsewhere, be it hinterlands or places far away, is considered in the notion of city footprinting (ecological footprint). Other negative external effects include health consequences such as communicable diseases, crime, and high traffic and commuting times. Cities cause more interaction with more people than rural areas, thus a higher probability to contracting contagious diseases. However, many inventions such as inoculations, vaccines, and water filtration systems have also lowered health concerns. Crime is also a concern in the cities. Studies have shown that crime rates in cities are higher and the chance of punishment after getting caught is lower. In cases such as burglary, the higher concentration of people in cities create more items of higher value worth the risk of crime. The high concentration of people also makes using auto mobiles inconvenient and pedestrian traffic is more prominent in metropolitan areas than a rural or suburban one. Cities also generate positive external effects. The close physical proximity facilitates knowledge spillovers, helping people and firms exchange information and generate new ideas. Knowldege Spillovers A thicker labor market allows for better skill matching between firms and individuals. Another positive external effect of cities comes from the diverse social opportunities created when people of different backgrounds are brought together. Larger cities typically offer a wider variety of social interests and activities, letting people of all backgrounds find something they can be involved in. Cities may however also have a positive influence on the environment. UN Habitat stated in its reports that city living can be the best solution for dealing with the rising population numbers (and thus still be a good approach on dealing with overpopulation). This is because cities concentrate human activity into one place, making the environmental damage on other places smaller. Letting the cities have a positive influence however, can only be achieved if urban planning is improved and if the city services are properly maintained. The difference between towns and cities The difference between towns and cities is differently understood in different parts of the world. Indeed, many languages other than English often use a single word for both concepts (German Stadt, Swedish stad, Danish/Norwegian by, etc.). Iberian languages typically use a three-way designation (Catalan: “poble”, “vila”, “ciutat”; Galician: “aldea”, “vila”, “cidade”; Portuguese: “aldeia”, “vila”, “cidade”; Spanish: “pueblo”, “villa”, “ciudad” — respectively “village”, “town”, “city”), but other romance languages don’t (French: “village”, “ville”; Italian: “villaggio”, “città” — respectively “village”, “city”). Even within the English-speaking world there is no one standard definition of a city: the term may be used either for a town possessing city status; for an urban locality exceeding an arbitrary population size; for a town dominating other towns with particular regional economic or administrative significance. Although city can refer to an agglomeration including suburban and satellite areas, the term is not usually applied to a conurbation (cluster) of distinct urban places, nor for a wider metropolitan area including more than one city, each acting as a focus for parts of the area. And the word "town" (also "downtown") may mean the center of the city. Australia and New Zealand In Australia, city in its broadest terms refers simply to any town that is large enough. Narrower usage can refer to a local government area, or colloquially to the central business district (CBD) of a large urban area. For instance the City of South Perth is a local government area within the wider urban area known as Perth, commonly called Australia's fourth largest city. Residents of Perth might speak of travelling to the CBD as "going to the city". Australia's largest cities are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. In New Zealand, according to Statistics New Zealand (the government statistics agency), "A city [...] must have a minimum population of 50,000, be predominantly urban in character, be a distinct entity and a major centre of activity within the region.". For example Gisborne, purported to be the first city to see the sun, has a population of only 44,500 (2006) and is therefore administered by a district council, not a city council. At the other extreme, Auckland, although it is usually referred to as a single city, is actually four cities: Auckland City, Waitakere City, North Shore City, and Manukau City. Belarus In the Belarusian language two words mean "city" or "town" - "горад" (horad) and "места" (miesta), where "horad" translated as "fortifying miesta", or "stronghold". The term "miesta" translated as "town without fortifying" Гісторыя Беларусі. Энцыклапедыя. Том 5 and meaning modern town. In the contemporary Belarusian language term "horad" is used more often, in spite of lexical inexactitude of this term. The smallest population of a city of Belaruse officially not named "horad" or "miesta" it is used a name "urban-type settlement" ("паселішча гарадскога тыпу", "paselyscha haradskoha typu") and also (informal or with historical sense) "мястэчка" ("miastechka"). Belgium Brazil Brazil is divided into states () and these into municipalities (municípios); there is no county or equivalent level. Brazilian law defines a "city" (cidade) as the urban seat of a municipality and establishes no difference between cities and towns; all it takes for an urban area to be legally called a "city" is to be the seat of a municipality, and some of them are semi-rural settlements with a very small population. Municipalities always have the same name as their corresponding cities, and the terms município and cidade are often used interchangeably, even by the government itself, although this is not technically correct. However, except for the Federal District (the area of the national capital city, Brasília), which has special status and no municipalities, all land in Brazil is in the territory of some municipality. Thus, even in the country's remotest wilderness areas, one is still technically under the jurisdiction of a "city," or at least of its government. Brazil's largest cities are São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, both located on the heavily urbanized South East coast. Bulgaria Canada In Canada the granting of city status is handled by the individual provinces and territories, so that the definitions and criteria vary widely across the country. In British Columbia and Saskatchewan towns can become cities after they reach a population of 5,000 people, but in Alberta the requirement is 10,000. Ontario sometimes confers city status on primarily rural areas, while Nova Scotia have abolished the title of city altogether. In Quebec cité used to be different from ville (both translate to "city", the former being slightly poetic or archaic), but this difference was abolished in the late 1990s. China There is a formal definition of city in China provided by the Chinese government. For an urban area that can be defined as a city, there should be at least 100,000 non-agricultural population. City with less than 200,000 non-agricultural population refers to a Small city, 200,000-500,000 non-agricultural population is a Medium city, 500,000-1,000,000 non-agricultural population is a Large city and >1,000,000 non-agricultural population is an Extra-large city. Also, there is an administrative definition based on the city boundary too and a city has its legal city limits. In 1998, there were 668 cities in China - China has the largest urban population in the world although most of its population still lives in rural settlements. Shanghai and Beijing are the country's largest cities but many others such as Guangzhou, Shenzhen and Chongqing have experienced rapid population growth as migrants seek new work in a rapidly developing manufacturing and service industry. Chile Chile's Department of National Statistics defines a city (ciudad in Spanish) as an urban entity with more than 5,000 inhabitants. [http://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/territorio/division_politico_administrativa/pdf/dpa2001.pdf Political Divisions Chile National Institute of Statistics A town (pueblo), is an urban entity with 2,001 to 5,000 persons, however, if the area has some economic activity, the designation may include populations as small as 1,001. The department also defines Major Cities as provincial or regional capitals with populations of 100,001 to 500,000; Great Urban Areas which comprise several entities without any appreciable limit between them and populations which total between 500,001 and 1,000,000. A Metropolis is the largest urban area in the country where there are more than one million inhabitants. The "urban entity" is defined as a concentration of habitations with more than 2,000 persons living in them, or more than 1,000 persons if more than half of those persons are in some way gainfully employed. Tourist and recreation areas with more than 250 living units may be considered as urban areas. [http://www.ine.cl/canales/chile_estadistico/territorio/division_politico_administrativa/pdf/dpa2001.pdf Political Divisions Chile National Institute of Statistics Venezuela Venezuela's Department of National Statistics defines a city (ciudad in Spanish) as an urban entity with more than 5,000 inhabitants. A town (pueblo), is an urban entity with 2,001 to 5,000 persons. Germany The German word for both "town" and "city" is Stadt, while a city with more than 100,000 inhabitants is called a Großstadt (big city). On the other hand, most towns are communities belonging to a Landkreis (county or rural district), but there are some cities, usually with at least 50,000 inhabitants, that are counties by themselves (kreisfreie Städte). Germany's largest cities are Berlin, Hamburg and Munich although the largest urban area is in the Rhine-Ruhr region around such cities as Dortmund and Essen. Italy In Italy a city is called città, an uncount noun derived from the Latin civitas. The status of "city" is granted by the President of the Republic with Presidential Decree Law. The largest and most important cities in the country, such as Rome, Milan, Naples and Turin, are called aree metropolitane (metropolitan areas) because they include several minor cities and towns in their areas. There is no population limit for a city. In the coat of arms, a golden crown tower stands for a city. Norway In Norway a city is called by and is derived from the Norse word býr meaning "a place with many buildings". Both cities and towns are referred to as by. The status of "city" is granted by the local authorities if a request for city status has been made and the area has a population of at least 5000. Since 1997, cities no longer have special administrative functions. If the area has not been granted the status of a city it is called tettsted or bygd. The terms differ in that a tettsted has more concentrated population than a bygd. A bygd is in many ways similar to a village, but the Norwegian term for village, landsby, is not used for places in Norway. Pakistan There has traditionally been no formal distinction between "City" or "Town" in Pakistan, although informal distinctions and status has been as common as in any other country. Several cities in what is now Pakistan were traditionally recognized as cities; in some cases for centuries; Lahore, Multan and Peshawar are examples. After independence and the rapid increase in population that followed caused Karachi to become the nations largest city, whie the rapid industrialisation in the north of the country resulted in new towns increasing greatly in population; such as Sialkot and Faisalabad, whilst Rawalpindi, traditionally a garrison town became a large city due to the decision to build a new capital nearby. In 2001, a new Act formalised the distinction, by granting the 10 largest cities and metropolitan areas the statis of city district, which for the first time gave areas the status of cities. Poland In Poland the word miasto serves for both town and city. Miasto is the term applied purely on the basis of the administrative decision of the central government, and specifically means either: a county (gmina or powiat) with a city charter; a city within a county, created by granting a city charter to a smaller town within a county. These formal distinctions may differentiate larger towns from smaller ones (such as status as a separate powiat, or the conferring of the title prezydent on the mayor rather than burmistrz), but none of these is universally recognized as equivalent to the English city/town distinction. Portugal Like other Iberian languages, in Portuguese there is a traditional distinction between cities — cidades — and towns — vilas. The difference is defined by law Law n.° 11/82 (Lei das designações e determinação de categoria das povoações), of June, 2nd , and a city must have: at least 8,000 electors (more or less 10,000 inhabitants) at least half of the following services: hospital pharmacy fire department theatre / cultural house museum library hotel services basic and secondary schools public transport gardens / urban parks In special cases, some towns may be granted the status of city if they possess historical, cultural or architectonic importance. The Portuguese urban settlements heraldry reflects the difference between cities, towns and villages Flags of the World , with the coat of arms of a city bearing a crown with 5 towers, the coat of arms of a town bearing a crown with 4 towers, while the coat of arms of a village bears a crown with 3 towers. This difference between cities, towns and villages is still in use in other Portuguese speaking countries, but in Brazil is no longer in use. There is also the notion of “Grande Área Metropolitana” and “Comunidade Urbana”. A Grande Área Metropolitana is a wide urban area with at least 350,000 inhabitants and is composed by at least 9 municipalities. A Comunidade Urbana must have more than 150,000 inhabitants. There are two main metropolitan areas — Lisbon (the capital), in the centre of the country and Porto in the North. Lisbon Metropolitan Area has a population that exceeds 3 million, being one of the most important western European cities. A city deeply connected with the sea, history, tourism and other services. Greater Metropolitan Area of Porto has over 2 million inhabitants developing a considerable part of the Portuguese economy nowadays. South Korea South Korea has a system of dividing into metropolitan cities, provinces, a special city (Seoul) and one specially self-governing province (Jeju-do). In South Korea, cities should have a population of more than 150,000, and if a city has more than 500,000, it would be divided into 2 districts and then sub-communities follow as a name of dong with similar system of normal cities. Additionally, if a city's population is over 1,000,000, then it would be promoted to metropolitan city. Korea.net - Administrative Units Ukraine There is no difference in the Ukrainian language between the notions of "town" and "city". Both these words are translated into Ukrainian as "місто" ("misto"). In articles of Wikipedia only the term "city" is used for every Ukrainian locality named "місто". The smallest population of a city of Ukraine can be about 10,000. For towns which officially are not named "місто" it is used a name "urban-type settlement" ("селище міського типу", "selyshche mis'koho typu") and also (informal) "містечко" ("mistechko"), the latter Ukrainian word is related to the word "місто" and can be translated as "small town". United Kingdom In the United Kingdom (UK), a city is a town which has been known as a city since time immemorial, or which has received city status by letters patent — which is normally granted on the basis of size, importance or royal connection (the traditional test was whether the town had a cathedral) to gain city status. For example the small town of Ripon was granted city status in 1836 to coincide with the creation of the Diocese of Ripon, but also in recognition of its long-standing role as a supplier of spurs to royalty. In the United Kingdom, when people talk about cities, they generally include the suburbs in that. Some cathedral cities, such as St David's in Wales and Wells in England, are quite small, and may not be known as cities in common parlance. Preston became England's newest city in the year 2002 to mark the Queen's jubilee, as did Newport in Wales, Stirling in Scotland, and Lisburn and Newry in Northern Ireland. However, major towns such as Reading, Northampton, Swindon and Milton Keynes all harbour populations between 170,000 and 215,000 inhabitants but are not officially cited as cities. A Review of Scotland's Cities led to the Fair City of Perth, Scotland, losing city status. By both legal and traditional definition, a town may be of any size, but must contain a market place. A village must contain a church. A small village without a church is called a hamlet. Dictionary of British Social History; L W Cowrie: Wordsworth reference: ISBN 1-85326-378-8 The UK's five largest cities are generally considered to be London, Birmingham, Leeds, Manchester and Glasgow due mainly to their high conurbation population http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/fom2005/03_FOPM_UrbanAreas.pdf http://www.urbanaudit.org/CityProfiles.aspx . In terms of city proper, the largest include Bristol, Edinburgh, Liverpool and Sheffield. United States An aerial view of the city of Chicago. In the United States (USA), the definition of cities (and town, villages, townships, etc.) is a matter of state laws and the definitions vary widely by state. A city may, in some places, be run by an elected mayor and city council, while a town is governed by people, select board (or board of trustees), or open town meeting. There are some very large towns (such as Hempstead, New York, with a population of 755,785 in 2004) and some very small cities (such as Lake Angelus, Michigan, with a population of 326 in 2000), and the line between town and city, if it exists at all, varies from state to state. Cities in the United States do have many oddities, like Maza, North Dakota, the smallest city in the country, has only 5 inhabitants, but is still incorporated (note that all incorporated locations in North Dakota are called "cities" regardless of size). It does not have an active government, and the mayoral hand changes frequently (due to the lack of city laws). California has both towns and cities but the terms "town" and "city" are considered synonymous. The nation's largest cities are New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston. In some U.S. states, any incorporated town is also called a city. If a distinction is being made between towns and cities, exactly what that distinction is often depends on the context. The context will differ depending on whether the issue is the legal authority it possesses, the availability of shopping and entertainment, and the scope of the group of places under consideration. Intensifiers such as "small town" and "big city" are also common, though the flip side of each is rarely used. Some states make a distinction between villages and other forms of municipalities. In some cases, villages combine with larger other communities to form larger towns; a well-known example of an urban village is New York City's famed Greenwich Village, which started as a quiet country settlement but was absorbed by the growing city. The word has often been co-opted by enterprising developers to make their projects sound welcoming and friendly. In Illinois, cities must have a minimum population of 2,500 but in Nebraska, cities must have a minimum of only 800 residents. In Idaho, Oregon, Kansas, Kentucky, North Dakota, Minnesota, and Iowa, all incorporated municipalities are cities. In Ohio, a municipality automatically becomes a city if it has 5,000 residents counted in a federal census but it reverts to a village if its population drops below 5,000. Ohio Revised Code 703.01 In Nebraska, 5,000 residents is the minimum for a city of the first class while 800 is the minimum for a city of the second class. In all the New England states, city status is conferred by the form of government, not population. Town government has a board of selectmen or Town Council for the executive branch, and a town meeting for the legislative branch, but unlike the US Government, the executive acts only as an administrative body and cannot override the will of town meeting. New England cities, on the other hand, have a mayor for the executive, and a legislature referred to as either the city council or the board of aldermen. In Virginia, all incorporated municipalities designated as cities are independent of the adjacent or surrounding county while a town is an incorporated municipality which remains a part of an adjacent or surrounding county. The largest incorporated municipalities by population are all cities, although some smaller cities have a smaller population than some towns. For example, the smallest city of Norton has a population of 3,904 and the largest town of Blacksburg has a population of 39,573. The other U.S. independent cities are Baltimore, Maryland; St. Louis, Missouri; and Carson City, Nevada. In Pennsylvania any municipality with more than 10 persons can incorporate as a borough. Any township or borough with a population of at least 10,000 can ask the state legislature to charter as a city. In Pennsylvania, a village is simply an unincorporated community within a township. Global cities Modern global cities, like New York City, often include large central business districts that serve as hubs for economic activity. A global city, also known as a world city, is a prominent centre of trade, banking, finance, innovation, and markets. The term "global city", as opposed to megacity, was coined by Saskia Sassen in a seminal 1991 work. Whereas "megacity" refers to any city of enormous size, a global city is one of enormous power or influence. Global cities, according to Sassen, have more in common with each other than with other cities in their host nations. Examples of such cities include London, New York City, Paris and Tokyo. The notion of global cities is rooted in the concentration of power and capabilities within all cities. The city is seen as a container where skills and resources are concentrated: the better able a city is to concentrate its skills and resources, the more successful and powerful the city. This makes the city itself more powerful in the sense that it can influence what is happening around the world. Following this view of cities, it is possible to rank the world's cities hierarchically. John Friedmann and Goetz Wolff, "World City Formation: An Agenda for Research and Action," International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 6, no. 3 (1982): 319 Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power. The term global city is heavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not account for places that are otherwise significant. For example, cities like Rome, Delhi, Mumbai, Istanbul, Mecca, Mashhad, Karbala, Karachi, Lahore, Jerusalem and Lisbon are powerful in religious and historical terms but would not be considered "global cities." Additionally, it has been questioned whether the city itself can be regarded as an actor. In 1995, Kanter argued that successful cities can be identified by three elements: good thinkers (concepts), good makers (competence) or good traders (connections). The interplay of these three elements, Kanter argued, means that good cities are not planned but managed. Inner city Seoul Hamburg In the United States, United Kingdom and Ireland, the term "inner city" is sometimes used with the connotation of being an area, perhaps a ghetto, where people are less wealthy and where there is more crime. These connotations are less common in other Western countries, as deprived areas are located in varying parts of other Western cities. In fact, with the gentrification of some formerly run-down central city areas the reverse connotation can apply. In Australia, for example, the term "outer suburban" applied to a person implies a lack of sophistication. In Paris, the inner city is the richest part of the metropolitan area, where housing is the most expensive, and where elites and high-income individuals dwell. In the developing world, economic modernization brings poor newcomers from the countryside to build haphazardly at the edge of current settlement (see favelas, shacks and shanty towns). The United States, in particular, has a culture of anti-urbanism that dates back to colonial times. The American City Beautiful architecture movement of the late 1800s was a reaction to perceived urban decay and sought to provide stately civic buildings and boulevards to inspire civic pride in the motley residents of the urban core. Modern anti-urban attitudes are to be found in America in the form of a planning profession that continues to develop land on a low-density suburban basis, where access to amenities, work and shopping is provided almost exclusively by car rather than on foot. However, there is a growing movement in North America called "New Urbanism" that calls for a return to traditional city planning methods where mixed-use zoning allows people to walk from one type of land-use to another. The idea is that housing, shopping, office space, and leisure facilities are all provided within walking distance of each other, thus reducing the demand for road-space and also improving the efficiency and effectiveness of mass transit. New 21st Century Cities There is a debate about whether technology and instantaneous communications are making cities obsolete, or reinforcing the importance of big cities as centres of the knowledge economy. Castells, M. (ed) (2004). The network society: a cross-cultural perspective. London: Edward Elgar. (ebook) Flew, T. (2008). New media: an introduction, 3rd edn, South Melbourne: Oxford University Press Harford, T. (2008) The Logic of Life. London: Little, Brown. Some companies are building brand new masterplanned cities from scratch on greenfield sites. Because these cities are masterplanned, they will be well designed and well built with the latest techniques and technologies. These cities will not have narrow roads and large traffic jams. These new cities will have the best efficiency, minimum construction and operational cost and avoid traffic congestion. New Songdo City, South Korea King Abdullah Economic City, Saudi Arabia Masdar City, UAE Gujarat International Finance Tec-City, India Dubai World Central, UAE Dubai Waterfront, UAE See also Developed environments Exurban Rural Ekistics Large Cities Climate Leadership Group Lost city Names of European cities in different languages Principles of Intelligent Urbanism Settlement types: Types of settlements in Russia Village Shrinking Cities Urban culture Urban sociology World's Most Livable Cities Lists Historical urban community sizes List of largest cities throughout history List of cities by country List of cities by latitude List of cities by longitude List of cities by population List of metropolitan areas by population List of oldest continuously inhabited cities List of urban areas by population List of American State Capitals by population Social problems in the city Environmental racism & Pollution Ghetto Homelessness Shanty towns Urban decay References Chandler, T. Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1987. Geddes, Patrick, City Development (1904) Modelski, G. World Cities: –3000 to 2000. Washington, DC: FAROS 2000, 2003. Monti, Daniel J., Jr., The American City: A Social and Cultural History. Oxford, England and Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1999. 391 pp. ISBN 978-1-55786-918-0. Mumford, Lewis, The City in History (1961) Reader, John (2005) Cities. Vintage, New York. Robson, W.A., and Regan, D.E., ed., Great Cities of the World, (3d ed., 2 vol., 1972) Rybczynski, W., City Life: Urban Expectations in a New World, (1995) Smith, Michael E. (2002) The Earliest Cities. In Urban Life: Readings in Urban Anthropology, edited by George Gmelch and Walter Zenner, pp. 3–19. 4th ed. Waveland Press, Prospect Heights, IL. Thernstrom, S., and Sennett, R., ed., Nineteenth-Century Cities (1969) Toynbee, Arnold J. (ed), Cities of Destiny'', New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Pan historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts with "Athens", ends with "The Coming World City-Ecumenopolis". Weber, Max, The City, 1921. (tr. 1958) External links A Dynamic Map of the World Cities' Growth African shack dwellers' organisation bifurcaciones.cl, urban cultural studies journal Dictionary of the History of ideas: "The City" Evangelizing World Class Cities, contains definitions of a city Global Culture Essays on cities in the age of globalization Inner City Press (Weekly publication on cities, United States) Largest Cities Through History Most populous city of each country Open Access archive of theoretical and historical articles on 'the city' The National League of Cities (United States) World Cities Photos Pictures from cities world City Commentary Magazine (Monthly publication on city life and urban issues in America with special features on international cities, United States) be-x-old:Горад | City |@lemmatized tokyo:2 populous:2 metropolis:3 earth:1 city:354 relatively:1 large:51 permanent:1 settlement:18 particularly:2 urban:57 ref:2 name:9 goodall:2 b:1 penguin:2 dictionary:3 human:3 geography:2 london:9 kuper:2 j:3 ed:7 social:6 science:2 encyclopedia:1 edition:1 routledge:1 although:11 agreed:1 definition:10 distinguish:2 town:72 many:11 particular:4 administrative:9 legal:4 historical:9 status:18 example:15 historically:1 europe:6 cathedral:3 united:13 kingdom:5 part:8 commonwealth:1 royal:2 charter:4 generally:3 advance:1 system:10 sanitation:2 utility:1 land:8 usage:2 housing:3 transportation:4 proximity:5 greatly:2 facilitate:1 interaction:4 people:20 business:4 benefit:8 party:1 process:1 big:6 may:15 suburb:2 region:8 usually:4 associate:3 metropolitan:12 area:50 sprawl:2 create:7 number:5 commuter:1 far:6 enough:4 reach:3 another:4 deem:1 conurbation:3 megalopolis:1 birth:2 insufficient:1 evidence:2 assert:1 condition:3 world:29 history:11 spawn:1 first:16 theorist:2 however:11 offer:4 argument:4 right:1 might:4 identify:2 basic:3 mechanism:1 important:3 driving:1 force:1 agriculture:5 north:9 south:11 view:5 central:11 caracas:1 cerro:1 el:1 ávila:1 venezuela:3 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5,978 | Family_Educational_Rights_and_Privacy_Act | The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA or the Buckley Amendment) is a United States federal law codified at , with implementing regulations in title 34, part 99 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The regulations provide that educational agencies and institutions that receive funding under a program administered by the U. S. Department of Education must provide students with access to their education records, an opportunity to seek to have the records amended, and some control over the disclosure of information from the records. With several exceptions, schools must have a student's consent prior to the disclosure of education records. Examples of situations affected by FERPA include school employees divulging information to someone other than a child's guardians about a child's grades or behavior, and school work posted on a bulletin board with a grade. This privacy policy also governs how state agencies transmit testing data to federal agencies. For example see Education Data Network. The law allows students who apply to an educational institution such as graduate school permission to view recommendations submitted by others as part of the application. However, on standard application forms, students are given the option to waive this right. FERPA specifically excludes employees of an educational institution if they are not students. The act is also referred to as the Buckley Amendment, named for one of its proponents, Senator James L. Buckley of New York. External links http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_04/34cfr99_04.html http://www.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html | Family_Educational_Rights_and_Privacy_Act |@lemmatized family:1 educational:4 right:2 privacy:2 act:2 ferpa:4 buckley:3 amendment:2 united:1 state:2 federal:3 law:2 codify:1 implementing:1 regulation:3 title:1 part:2 code:1 provide:2 agency:3 institution:3 receive:1 fund:1 program:1 administer:1 u:1 department:1 education:4 must:2 student:5 access:2 record:4 opportunity:1 seek:1 amend:1 control:1 disclosure:2 information:2 several:1 exception:1 school:4 consent:1 prior:1 example:2 situation:1 affect:1 include:1 employee:2 divulge:1 someone:1 child:2 guardian:1 grade:2 behavior:1 work:1 post:1 bulletin:1 board:1 policy:2 also:2 govern:1 transmit:1 test:1 data:2 see:1 network:1 allow:1 apply:1 graduate:1 permission:1 view:1 recommendation:1 submit:1 others:1 application:2 however:1 standard:1 form:1 give:1 option:1 waive:1 specifically:1 excludes:1 refer:1 name:1 one:1 proponent:1 senator:1 james:1 l:1 new:1 york:1 external:1 link:1 http:2 www:2 gpo:1 gov:2 nara:1 cfr:1 html:2 ed:1 gen:1 guid:1 fpco:1 index:1 |@bigram bulletin_board:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 |
5,979 | Legion_of_Merit | The Legion of Merit is a military decoration of the United States armed forces that is awarded for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements. The decoration is issued both to United States military personnel and to military and political figures of foreign governments. The Legion of Merit is one of only six United States decorations to be issued as a neck order (the others being the Medal of Honor, Public Safety Officer Medal of Valor, 9/11 Heroes Medal of Valor, Chaplain's Medal for Heroism and Presidential Medal of Freedom) and the only United States decoration which may be issued in award degrees (much like an Order of chivalry or certain Orders of Merit). "Types of the Medal of Honor: 1862 To Present." Congressional Medal of Honor Society. Retrieved: 23 July 2006. The Legion of Merit is sixth in the order of precedence of U.S. military decorations, and is worn after the Defense Superior Service Medal and before the Distinguished Flying Cross. Criteria The degrees of Chief Commander, Commander, Officer, and Legionnaire are awarded only to members of armed forces of foreign nations under the criteria outlined in US Army Regulation 672-7 and is based on the relative rank or position of the recipient as follows: Chief Commander - Chief of State or Head of Government. However this degree has been awarded by President Roosevelt to some Allied World War II theatre commanders usually of joint amphibious landings or invasions. The President appeared to have this power under Executive Order 9260 of 29 October 1942 paragraph 3b Executive Order 9260 of 29th October 1942 http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/print.php?pid=58838 . Commander - Equivalent of a U.S. military Chief of Staff or higher position but not to Chief of State. Officer - General or Flag Officer below the equivalent of a U.S. military Chief of Staff; Colonel or equivalent rank for service in assignments equivalent to those normally held by a General or Flag Officer in U.S. military service; or Military Attaches. Legionnaire - All recipients not included above. When the Legion of Merit is awarded to members of the Armed Forces of the United States it is awarded without reference to degree. The criteria are "for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services and achievements". The performance must have been such as to merit recognition of key individuals for service rendered in a clearly exceptional manner. Performance of duties normal to the grade, branch, specialty or assignment, and experience of an individual is not an adequate basis for this award. For service not related to actual war the term “key individual” applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war and requires evidence of significant achievement. In peacetime, service should be in the nature of a special requirement or of an extremely difficult duty performed in an unprecedented and clearly exceptional manner. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of important positions. The degrees and the design of the decoration were clearly influenced by the French Légion d'honneur. History Although recommendations for creation of a Meritorious Service Medal were initiated as early as September 1937, no formal action was taken toward approval. In a letter to the Quartermaster General (QMG) dated 1941-12-24, the Adjutant General formally requested action be initiated to create a Meritorious Service Medal and provide designs in the event the decoration was established. Proposed designs prepared by Bailey, Banks, and Biddle and the Office of the Quartermaster General were provided to Assistant Chief of Staff (G1) (Colonel Heard) by the QMG on 1942-01-05. The Assistant Chief of Staff (G1) (BG Hilldring), in a response to the QMG on 1942-04-03, indicated the Secretary of War approved the design recommended by the QMG. The design of the Legion of Merit (change of name) would be ready for issue immediately after legislation authorizing it was enacted into law. An Act of Congress (Public Law 671 - 77th Congress, Chapter 508, 2d Session) on 1942-07-20, established the Legion of Merit and provided that the medal "shall have suitable appurtenances and devices and not more than four degrees, and which the President, under such rules and regulations as he shall prescribe, may award to (a) personnel of the Armed Forces of the United States and of the Government of the Commonwealth Philippines and (b) personnel of the armed forces of friendly foreign nations who, since the proclamation of an emergency by the President on 1939-09-08, shall have distinguished themselves by exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services." The medal was announced in War Department Bulletin No. 40, dated 1942-08-05. Executive Order 9260, dated 1942-10-29, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, established the rules for the Legion of Merit and required the President's approval for the award. However, in 1943, at the request of General George C. Marshall, approval authority for U.S. personnel was delegated to the War Department. Executive Order 10600, dated 1955-03-15, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, revised approval authority. Current provisions are contained in Title 10, United States Code 1121. The reverse of the medal has the motto taken from the Great Seal of the United States "ANNUIT COEPTIS" (He [God] Has Favored Our Undertakings) and the date "MDCCLXXXII" (1782) which is the date of America's first decoration, the Badge of Military Merit, now known as the Purple Heart. The ribbon design also follows the pattern of the Purple Heart ribbon. Notable recipients Awardees included: Chief Commander: British General Sir Kenneth A.N. Anderson, KCB, MC (18 June 1943) Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek (July 1943) British Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, KG, GCB, DSO, PC, (6 August 1943), WW2 commander Marshal of the Royal Air Force Arthur William Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder of Glenguin, GCB (27 August 1943) British Admiral Sir Victor Crutchley VC, (September 1944) commander of Royal Australian Navy in WW II Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir Arthur Travers Harris, 1st Baronet GCB OBE AFC RAF (17 October 1944), WW2 commander King George VI of the United Kingdom (1945) British Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Browne Cunningham GCB DSO WW2 Royal Navy British Admiral Sir John Henry Dacres Cunningham KCB, MVO Royal Navy (For gallant and distinguished service during the invasion operations in Northern Italy and the South of France during WW2) British Admiral Sir Bertram Home Ramsay KCB, KBE, MVO, Royal Navy (For gallant and distinguished service whilst in command of the invasion operations on Normandy in WW2) Pakistani Chief of Army Staff Ashfaq Parvez Kayani (2009) British Acting Air Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham KCB, DSO, MC, DFC, AFC, Royal Air Force, in WW2 British Admiral of the Fleet Sir Philip Vian G.C.B., K.B.E., C.M.G. (17 July 1945) Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov (1945), commander WW2 King Michael I of Romania (1945) Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia (1945) King Olav V of Norway (1945) Yugoslav Royal Army General Draža Mihailović (29 March 1948) British Field Marshal William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim KG, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DSO, MC (1948) Australian Prime Minister Sir Robert Menzies, KT, AK, CH, QC (1950) Thai Royal Army Field Marshal Luang Plaek Pibulsonggram (2 May 1955) King Bhumibol Adulyadej Rama IX of Thailand (28 June 1960) Indian Army Field Marshal Kodandera Madappa Cariappa Turkish ex-Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces Hilmi Özkök (2002) Israeli General, IDF Chief Commander Gabi Ashkenazi (24 July 2008) Commander: Lieutenant General Bernard Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg VC, arguably New Zealand's most famous soldier and WW2 military commander, also served as Governor-General of New Zealand. Brazil's Brigadier General Amaro Soares Bittencourt was the first to receive the medal in a degree. Colombian's General I.M Elias Nino Herrera, Colombian Marine Corps, For exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding service as Commandant of the Colombian Marine Corps. General Nino's cooperation and understanding have been a significant contribution to the mutual friendship between Colombia and the United States. Ecuador's General de Ejercito (General of the Army) Paco Moncayo, because of his exceptionally superior performance as Chief of the Armed Forces Joint Command and his contribution to Ecuadorian history, politics and democracy The Philippine's General Fidel Valdez Ramos, former President of the Philippines and a 1950 West Point United States Military Academy graduate The Philippine's General Alfredo M. Santos, Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines 1962 - 1965 Australia's Chiefs of the Defence Force - General Sir Phillip Bennett, Generals John Baker, and General Peter Cosgrove General Alfred John Gardyne Drummond de Chastelain, OC, CMM, CH, CD was appointed Commander of the Legion of Merit in 1995, and in 1999, he was made a Companion of Honour by HM The Queen. He is the former Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada) for the Canadian Forces and he is the Chairman of the Independent International Commission on Decommissioning since November 1995 for the Northern Ireland peace process. Canada's Rear Admiral Leonard W. Murray, Commander-in-Chief Canadian North West Atlantic during World War II and architect of the Battle of the Atlantic. Stefan Rowecki "Grot," Polish General and the Commander of the Home Army. He was decorated posthumously on August 9, 1984 by Ronald Reagan. Lt. Gen. Władysław Anders, Polish General and the Commander of the 2nd Polish Corps. German Generals Hans-Otto Budde, Adolf Heusinger, Klaus Naumann and Wolfgang Schneiderhan French Generals Edgard de Larminat, Alain de Boissieu and Vincent Desportes Bangladesh Army's Brigadier General Sharif Uddin Ahmed was the first Bangladeshi General to receive this award for his outstanding service as the Defence Attache from 1985 to 1989 in Bangladesh Embassy, United States. General Sir Peter de la Billière KCB, KBE, DSO, MC & bar, commander of the British forces during Gulf War I General Michael John Dawson Walker, Baron Walker of Aldringham GCB, CMG, CBE, ADC, DL, former Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS) in the United Kingdom and Commander of the Implementation Force in Bosnia. Air Chief Marshal Sir Keith Rodney Park of New Zealand, Royal Air Force WW2 commander during the Battle of Britain and later Allied Air Commander South East Asia. Wing Commander Guy Gibson, Royal Air Force, WW2 leader of the Dams raid (Operation Chastise) in 1943. Turkish ex-Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces Mehmet Yaşar Büyükanıt (12 December 2005) Major General William Henry Evered Poole, CB, CBE, DSO, Commander of the 6th South African Armoured Division which was part of the 5th US Army during the Italian Campaign in World War II. Admiral Sir Gerald Charles Dickens KCVO, CB, CMG, of the Royal Navy (1945), commander WW2. Governor General of Canada Georges Vanier (1946) Officer: First recipients were Colonel Johanes K. Meijer of the Royal Netherlands Army, Major Herbert J. Thompson of the British Army, and Major Stephan M. Dobrowalski of the Polish Army. In 1945 two members of the Mexican Expeditionary Air Force were honored for valor, determination and sacrifice lending air support to American soldiers on the ground saving countless American lives in the Pacific theater of operations. These two outstanding soldiers were Colonel Antonio Cardenas Rodriguez and Captain Radames Gaxiola Andrade. In 1996 LGen Roméo Dallaire of the Canadian Army was made an Officer of the Legion for his role as Commander of the United Nations peacekeeping force in Rwanda during the civil war and subsequent genocide. Francis Grevemberg, with combat star for outstanding performance at Anzio, Italy, during World War II. Air Chief Marshal Sir Glenn Torpy Head of the Royal Air Force, for his part in operation Telic/ Operation Iraqi Freedom. Brigadier General Tariq Khan became the first Pakistani Officer to receive the award for meritorious services as a liaison officer during Operations Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. He received the award on 9 December 2007. Legionnaire: First award to Lieutenant Ann A. Bernatitus, heroic Navy Nurse who served at Bataan and Corregidor. Home of the Heroes. Lieutenant (j.g.) Ann A. Bernatitus, "Angel of Mercy". \ At the beginning of the North African campaign, General Lyman L. Lemnitzer accompanied General Mark Wayne Clark by submarine to North Africa. Upon arrival, about 60 officers were awarded the Legion of Merit and were among the first awarded the medal. By some misunderstanding as to the rules governing the awards, these 60 American officers were awarded the degree of Officer. According to Lemnitzer, President Roosevelt was quite annoyed but did not rescind the awards. These were the only U.S. officers awarded the Legion of Merit with a degree. Without Degree: Carlton W. Kent, the Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps from 2007, two awards. Colonel John Boyd, USAF, important military strategist, creator of the OODA Loop. David H. Hackworth - Highly decorated Vietnam veteran who was awarded several Silver Stars and 2 Distinguished Service Crosses American Walter T. Carpenter Jr., OSS member and noble participant of Operation Halyard. Hyman G. Rickover, the "Father of the Nuclear Navy" Michael Mullen, six awards, Chief of Naval Operations, later Chairman of the Joint Chiefs John P. Abizaid, six awards, former commander of U.S. Central Command Edward L. Beach, Jr., commanding officer of USS Triton (SSRN-586) for the first submerged circumnavigation of the world. Edwin Hubble, American astronomer, for his WWII work at the Aberdeen Proving Ground. Paul X. Rinn, commanding officer of the USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58), who led his crew to save their mine-damaged warship in the Persian Gulf in 1988. William C. Rogers III, former commanding officer of the USS Vincennes (CG-49), which shot down an Iranian jetliner in 1988. David Niven, Lt-Col, British Commando in WWII. Audie Murphy, most highly decorated US soldier of WWII. Also received Medal of Honor, Distinguished Service Cross, 2 Silver Stars, 2 Bronze Stars w/V Device, 3 Purple Hearts and many others (33 total awards, U.S. and Foreign). George Stevens, Lieutenant Colonel, U.S. Army; the two-time Oscar-winning film director headed the U.S. Army Signal Corps unit that filmed the Normandy landings and the liberation of the Dachau death camp. Kirk Lippold, CDR, Commanding officer of the USS Cole (DDG-67) which was attacked by suicide bombers in the port of Aden, Yemen on October 12, 2000. 2 awards (2nd while aboard USS Cole). James G. Stavridis, U.S. Admiral, Southern Command, 5 awards. John Kline, United States Congressman (2003-present), 4 awards. Senator John McCain, Naval aviator and Vietnam Prisoner of War William "Billy" Waugh, for Special Forces service during the Vietnam conflict. Col. Benjamin O. Davis Jr. Tuskegee Airman of 99th Squadron was awarded in 1944 Colonel Todd David Hess, First AF member to receive Army Legion of Medical Merit; DCCS LRMC, 435th Medical Squadron, Germany. First physician to ever perform a cataract extraction via phacoemulsification in the history of the RAF Lakenheath hospital. Lt. Cmdr. Henry Plage, Captain of the USS Tabberer, the ship that rescued 55 U.S. Naval personnel during and after the cyclone of December 1944, despite dangerous seas and damage the Tabberer. Colonel Will H. Horn, 4 awards, for support of the Cambodian government in 1970 and other exceptional service. Admiral Patrick M. Walsh, (with 3 award stars), Vice Chief of Naval Operations US Navy Jerauld Wright, U.S. Navy, 2 awards. Vice Admiral John C. Harvey, Jr., United States Navy Colonel James Etchechury, U.S. Army, 2 awards. Llewellyn Chilson, U.S. Army Master Sergeant, World War II. Also received 3 Distinguished Service Crosses, 2 Silver Stars, 2 Bronze Stars, 3 Purple Hearts, the Army Commendation Medal, the Combat Infantryman Badge, and the French Croix de Guerre with Palm. Danny L. Chambers, Ohio Army National Guard,Command Sergeant Major, Also received,Joint Service Commendation Medal, Joint Service Achievement Medal, 2 Meritorious Service Medal,Army Commendation Medal, Army Achievement Medal,Viet Nam Service Medal,Viet Nam Service Ribbon Jack L. Taliaferro, Colonel, Texas Army National Guard, also received 4 Meritorious Service Medals, 3 Army Commendation Medals, 2 Army Achievement Medals Rear Admiral Nicholas Goodhart, Royal Navy, for the invention of the mirror-sight deck landing system. Awarded in 1958 CAPT Gary L. Willis, recipient of 13 Legion of Merits, the most awarded to a single officer. Appearance Chief CommanderCommanderOfficerLegionnaireRibbon The Chief Commander Degree of the Legion of Merit Medal is, on a wreath of green laurel joined at the bottom by a gold bow-knot (rosette), a domed five-pointed white star bordered crimson, points reversed with v-shaped extremities tipped with a gold ball. In the center, a blue disk encircled by gold clouds, with 13 white stars arranged in the pattern that appears on the United States Coat of Arms. Between each point, within the wreath are crossed arrows pointing outwards. The overall width is 2 15/16 inches (75 mm). The words "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" are engraved in the center of the reverse. A miniature of the decoration in gold on a horizontal gold bar is worn on the service ribbon. The Commander Degree of the Legion of Merit Medal is, on a wreath of green laurel joined at the bottom by a gold bow-knot (rosette), a five-pointed white star bordered crimson, points reversed with v-shaped extremities tipped with a gold ball. In the center, a blue disk encircled by gold clouds, with 13 white stars arranged in the pattern that appears on the United States Coat of Arms. Between each star point, within the wreath, are crossed arrows pointing outwards. The overall width is 2¼ inches (57 mm). A gold laurel wreath in the v-shaped angle at the top connects an oval suspension ring to the neck ribbon that is 1 15/16 inches (49 mm) in width. The reverse of the five-pointed star is enameled in white, and the border is crimson. In the center, a disk for engraving the name of the recipient surrounded by the words "ANNUIT COEPTIS MDCCLXXXII." An outer scroll contains the words "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA." The service ribbon is the same as the ribbon for the degree of Commander, except the ribbon attachment is Silver. The neck ribbon for the degree of Commander is 1 15/16 inches (49 mm) wide and consists of the following stripes: 1/16 inch (2 mm) white 67101; center 1 13/16 inches (46 mm) crimson and 1/16 inch (2 mm) white. The Officer Degree of the Legion of Merit Medal is similar to the degree of Commander except the overall width is 1 7/80 miles (48 mm) and the pendant has a suspension ring instead of the wreath for attaching the ribbon. A gold replica of the medal, ¾ inch (19 mm) wide, is centered on the suspension ribbon. The Legionnaire Degree of the Legion of Merit Medal and the Legion of Merit Medal issued to U.S. personnel is the same as the degree of Officer, except the suspension ribbon does not have the medal replica. The ribbon for all of the decorations is 1 3/8 inches (35 mm) wide and consists of the following stripes: 1/16 inch (2 mm) white; center 1¼ inches (32 mm) crimson; and 1/16 inch (2 mm) white. The reverse of all of the medals has the motto taken from the Great Seal of the United States "ANNUIT COEPTIS" (He (God) Has Favored Our Undertakings) and the date "MDCCLXXXII" (1782), which is the date of America's first decoration, the Badge of Military Merit, now known as the Purple Heart. The ribbon design also follows the pattern of the Purple Heart ribbon. 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5,980 | Air_(classical_element) | In traditional cultures, air is often seen as a universal power or pure substance. Its fundamental importance to life can be seen in words such as aspire, conspire, inspire, perspire, and spirit, all derived from the Latin spirare ("to breathe"). Greek and Roman Tradition Air is one of the four classical elements in ancient Greek philosophy and science. According to Plato, it is associated with the octahedron; air is considered to be both hot and wet. The ancient Greeks used two words for air: aer meant the dim lower atmosphere, and aether meant the bright upper atmosphere above the clouds. W. K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 1, pp. 466, 470-71. Plato, for instance writes that "So it is with air: there is the brightest variety which we call aether, the muddiest which we call mist and darkness, and other kinds for which we have no name...." Plato, Timaeus, ch. 27, p. 83. Among the early Greek Pre-Socratic philosophers, Anaximenes (mid-6th century BCE) named air as the arche (first principle of the world). As it grows warm and rarefied, air becomes fire; as it cools and condenses it becomes water, then earth and rock. Guthrie, History of Greek Philosophy, vol. 1, pp. 115-16, 120-32; Jonathan Barnes, Early Greek Philosophy, pp. 77-80. A similar belief was attributed by some ancient sources to Diogenes Apolloniates (late 5th century BCE), who also linked air with intelligence and soul (psyche), but other sources claim that his arche was a substance between air and fire. Guthrie, vol. 2, pp. 362-81; Barnes, pp. 289-94. Aristophanes parodied such teachings in his play The Clouds by putting a prayer to air in the mouth of Socrates. Air was one of many archai proposed by the Pre-socratics, most of whom tried to reduce all things to a single substance. However, Empedocles of Acragas (c. 495-c. 435 BCE) selected four archai for his four roots: air, fire, water, and earth. Ancient and modern opinions differ as to whether he identified air by the divine name Hera, Aidoneus, or even Zeus. Empedocles’ roots became the four classical elements of Greek philosophy. Guthrie, vol. 2, pp. 138-46. Guthrie suggests that Hera is the safest identification for air. Plato (427-347 BCE) took over the four elements of Empedocles. In the Timaeus, his major cosmological dialogue, the Platonic solid associated with air is the octahedron which is formed from eight equilateral triangles. This places air between fire (four triangular sides) and water (twenty triangular sides), which Plato regarded as appropriate because it is intermediate in its mobility, sharpness, and ability to penetrate. He also said of air that its minuscule components are so smooth that one can barely feel them. Plato, Timaeus, chap. 22-23; Gregory Vlastos, Plato’s Universe, pp. 66-82. Plato’s student Aristotle (384-322 BCE) developed a different explanation for the elements based on pairs of qualities. The four elements were arranged concentrically around the center of the universe to form the sublunary sphere. According to Aristotle, air is both hot and wet, and occupies a place between fire and water among the elemental spheres. Aristotle definitively separated air from aether. For him, aether was an unchanging, almost divine substance that was found only in the heavens, where it formed celestial spheres. G. E. R. Lloyd, Aristotle, chapters 7-8. In ancient Greek medicine, each of the four humours became associated with an element. Blood was the humor identified with air, since both were hot and wet. Other things associated with air and blood in ancient and medieval medicine included the season of spring, since it increased the qualities of heat and moisture; the sanguine temperament (of a person dominated by the blood humour); hermaphrodite (combining the masculine quality of heat with the feminine quality of moisture); and the northern point of the compass. Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex?, p. 162. Symbol for air The alchemical symbol for air is an upward-pointing triangle, bisected by a horizontal line. Indian Tradition In Hinduism, Vayu (Sanskrit वायु ), also known as Vāta वात, Pavana पवन (meaning the Purifier) The Book of Hindu Imagery: Gods, Manifestations and Their Meaning By Eva Rudy Jansen p. 68 , or Prāna, is a primary deity, who is the father of Bhima and the spiritual father of Lord Hanuman. As the words for air (Vāyu) or wind (Pavana) it is one of the Panchamahābhuta the "five great elements" in Hinduism. The Sanskrit word 'Vāta' literally means "blown", 'Vāyu' "blower", and 'Prāna' "breathing" (viz. the breath of life, cf. the *an- in 'animate'). In Indian tradition the element Air is also linked to Shani or Saturn and the north-west direction. Chinese Tradition Air is not one of the traditional five Chinese classical elements. Nevertheless, the ancient Chinese concept of Qi or chi is believed to be close to that of air. Qi (; spelled qì in Mandarin Pinyin romanization and ch'i4 in Wade-Giles) or ki (in Japanese romanization), is a fundamental concept of traditional Chinese culture. Qi is believed to be part of every living thing that exists, as a kind of "life force" or "spiritual energy". It is frequently translated as "energy flow", or literally as "air" or "breath". (For example, "tiānqì", literally "sky breath", is the ordinary Chinese word for "weather"). In Mandarin Chinese it is pronounced something like "chee" in English, but the tongue position is different. (See Media:Difficult Sounds.GIF.) The concept of qi is often reified, however no scientific evidence supports its existence. The element air also appears as a concept in the Buddhist religion, which has an ancient history in China. Some modern occultists equate the Chinese classical element of wood with air. Donald Michael Kraig, Modern Magick, p. 115. In Modern Magic Ceremonial Magic The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, founded in 1888, incorporates air and the other Greek classical elements into its teachings. Theoricus (2=9) is the elemental grade attributed to air; this grade is also attributed to the Moon and the Qabalistic sphere Yesod. Israel Regardie, The Golden Dawn, pp. 154-65. The elemental weapon of air is the dagger, which must be painted yellow with magical names and sigils written upon it in violet. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p.322; Kraig, Modern Magick, pp. 149-53. Each of the elements has several associated spiritual beings. The archangel of air is Raphael, the angel is Chassan, the ruler is Aral, the king is Paralda, and the air elementals (following Paracelsus) are called sylphs. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p. 80. Air is considered to be active; it is represented by the Man and the symbol for Aquarius, and it is referred to the upper left point of the pentagram in the Supreme Invoking Ritual of the Pentagram. Regardie, Golden Dawn, pp. 280-286; Kraig, Modern Magick, pp. 206-209. Many of these associations have since spread throughout the occult community. In the Golden Dawn and many other magical systems, each element is associated with one of the cardinal points and is placed under the care of guardian Watchtowers. The Watchtowers derive from the Enochian system of magic founded by Dee. In the Golden Dawn, they are represented by the Enochian elemental tablets. Doreen Valiente, The Rebirth of Witchcraft, p. 64. Air is associated with the east, which is guarded by the First Watchtower. Regardie, Golden Dawn, p. 631. Wicca Air is one of the five elements that appear in many neopagan traditions. Wicca in particular was influenced by the Golden Dawn system of magic, and Aleister Crowley's mysticism, which was in turn inspired by the Golden Dawn. Hutton, Triumph of the Moon, pp. 216-23; Valiente, Witchcraft for Tomorrow, p. 17. Common Wiccan attributions include: The cardinal direction of east. Yellow, or pastel colors. (Some associate air with green or even a light blue.) The wand or the athame. Woodwind instruments. The suit of Wands or Swords in the Minor Arcana of tarot. Swords are traditionally associated with Air, and still are in most Tarot decks, however, increasingly decks are being published with Wands associated with Air and Swords with Fire. This is still a matter of debate within the esoteric and Wiccan community. See Philip and Stephanie Carr-Gomm DruidCraft Tarot Handbook, or http://www.aeclectic.net/tarot/learn/meanings/suits.shtml Mind, intellect, consciousness, study, communication. The alchemic notion of Azoth. Sunrise, childhood, spring, beginnings. Incense. Birds, insects, flying creatures. Masculine energy. Many gods and goddesses, including Aradia, Athena, Hermes, Mercury, Nuit, Shu, Thoth, Uranus and Zeus. Astrological Personalities People born under the astrological signs of Libra, Gemini and Aquarius are thought to have dominant air personalities. Air personalities tend to be kind, intellectual, communicative, social, and helpful. Other Traditions Enlil was the god of air in ancient Sumer. Shu was the ancient Egyptian god of air and the husband of Tefnut, goddess of moisture. He became an emblem of strength by virtue of his role in separating Nut (sky) from Geb (earth). He played a primary role in the Coffin Texts, which were spells intended to help the deceased reach the realm of the afterlife safely. On the way to the sky, the spirit had to travel through the air, as one spell indicates: "I have gone up in Shu, I have climbed on the sunbeams." Bob Brier, Ancient Egyptian Magic, p.128. In East Asia, "air" is seen as the equivalent of "spirit" or "chi". Air is represented in the Aztec religion by a snake; to the Scythians, a yoke; to the Hindus and Greeks, a sword; and in Christian iconography, as mankind. See also Earth's atmosphere Deities of the sky Notes References and Further Reading Barnes, Jonathan. Early Greek Philosophy. London: Penguin, 1987. Brier, Bob. Ancient Egyptian Magic. New York: Quill, 1980. Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. 6 volumes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962-81. Cunningham, Scott. Earth, Air, Fire and Water: More Techniques of Natural Magic. Hutton, Ronald. Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, 2001. Kraig, Donald Michael. Modern Magick: Eleven Lessons in the High Magickal Arts. St. Paul: Llewellyn, 1994. Lloyd, G. E. R. Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968. Plato. Timaeus and Critias. Translated by Desmond Lee. Revised edition. London: Penguin, 1977. Regardie, Israel. The Golden Dawn. 6th edition. St. Paul: Llewellyn, 1990. Schiebinger, Londa. The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989. Starhawk. The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess. 3rd edition. 1999. Valiente, Doreen. Witchcraft for Tomorrow. Custer, Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1978. Valiente, Doreen. The Rebirth of Witchcraft. Custer, Wash.: Phoenix Publishing, 1989. Vlastos, Gregory. Plato’s Universe. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975. External links The elements Elemental correspondences from Wicca: For the rest of us. The Four Elements In the Western Tradition Essay on Golden Dawn elemental tradition by V.N. Frater I.C.L. The Elements:Air Neo-pagan version of "The Ancient Greek Esoteric Doctrine of the Elements" by John Opsopaus. Different versions of the classical elements Overview the 5 elements | Air_(classical_element) |@lemmatized traditional:3 culture:2 air:50 often:2 see:6 universal:1 power:1 pure:1 substance:4 fundamental:2 importance:1 life:3 word:5 aspire:1 conspire:1 inspire:2 perspire:1 spirit:3 derive:2 latin:1 spirare:1 breathe:1 greek:14 roman:1 tradition:8 one:8 four:9 classical:6 element:21 ancient:14 philosophy:7 science:2 accord:2 plato:10 associate:10 octahedron:2 consider:2 hot:3 wet:3 use:1 two:1 aer:1 mean:4 dim:1 lower:1 atmosphere:3 aether:4 bright:2 upper:2 cloud:2 w:2 k:2 c:5 guthrie:6 history:5 vol:4 pp:12 instance:1 writes:1 variety:1 call:3 muddy:1 mist:1 darkness:1 kind:3 name:4 timaeus:4 ch:2 p:10 among:2 early:3 pre:2 socratic:1 philosopher:1 anaximenes:1 mid:1 century:2 bce:5 arche:2 first:2 principle:1 world:1 grow:1 warm:1 rarefied:1 becomes:1 fire:7 cool:1 condense:1 become:4 water:5 earth:5 rock:1 jonathan:2 barnes:3 similar:1 belief:1 attribute:3 source:2 diogenes:1 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5,981 | Epistle_to_the_Laodiceans | An Epistle to the Laodiceans, purportedly written by Paul of Tarsus to the Laodicean Church, is, according to some, mentioned in the canonical Epistle to the Colossians. Several texts bearing this title have been known to have existed, but none are widely believed to have been written by Paul. Origins Paul, the earliest known Christian author, wrote several letters (or epistles) in Greek to various churches. Many survived and are included in the New Testament, but others are known to have been lost. The Epistle to the Colossians states "After this letter has been read to you, see that it is also read in the church of the Laodiceans and that you in turn read the letter from Laodicea." Colossians 4:16, NIV translation The last words can be interpreted as "letter written to the Laodiceans", but also "letter written from Laodicea." The NASB translates this verse in the latter manner, and translations in other languages such as the Dutch Statenvertaling translate it likewise: "When this letter is read among you, have it also read in the church of the Laodiceans; and you, for your part read my letter {that is coming} from Laodicea." http://www.blueletterbible.org/Bible.cfm?b=Col&c=4&v=16&t=NASB#16, NASB translation Those who read here "letter written to the Laodiceans" presume that, at the time that the Epistle to the Colossians was written, Paul also had written an epistle to the Laodicean Church. Possible candidates Some scholars have suggested that this refers to the canonical Epistle to the Ephesians, contending that it was a circular letter to be read to many churches in the Laodicean area. See, for example: Theodore Beza, Novum Testamentum, cum versione Latina veteri, et nova Theodori Bezæ; James Ussher, Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti; and modern scholars John Lightfoot, Fenton John Anthony Hort, and others. Others dispute this view. See, for instance: N. A. Dahl, Theologische Zeitschrift 7 (1951); and W. G. Kummel, et al., Introduction to the New Testament. The Marcionist epistle to the Laodiceans The early Christian Marcion believed that Paul was the only apostle who truly understood Jesus's message, and constructed a canon consisting of only one single Gospel (based on the Gospel of Luke) and some of the Pauline epistles. (These were also edited, in Marcion's canon, to remove passages that he did not agree with.) According to the Muratorian fragment, Marcion's canon contained a forgery entitled Epistle to the Laodiceans which was written to conform to his own point of view. The Muratorian fragment It is not known what this letter might have contained. Some scholars suggest it may have been the Vulgate epistle described below See, e.g. Adolf von Harnack , while others believe it must have been more explicitly Marcionist in its outlook. Bart Ehrman, Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew, chapter 5. Oxford University Press, USA, July 27, 2005. ISBN 978-0195182491 The Vulgate epistle to the Laodiceans A letter entitled Epistle to the Laodiceans, consisting of 20 short lines, is found in some editions of the Vulgate, known only in Latin. It is almost unanimously believed to be pseudepigraphical, being a pastiche of phrases taken from the genuine Pauline epistles. M.R. James, Epistle to the Laodiceans, translation and commentary It contains almost no doctrine, teachings, or narrative not found elsewhere, and its exclusion from the Biblical canon has little effect. The text was almost unanimously considered pseudepigraphal when Biblical canon was decided upon, and does not appear in any Greek copies of the Bible at all, nor is it known in Syriac or other versions. Paul's Epistle to the Laodiceans from The Reluctant Messenger Jerome wrote in the 4th century, "it is rejected by everyone." Jerome, Lives of Illustrious Men, Chapter 5. However, it evidently gained a certain degree of respect. It appeared in over 100 surviving early Latin copies of the Bible. According to Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatum versionem, there are Latin Vulgate manuscripts containing this epistle dating between the 6th and 12th century, including Latin manuscripts F (Codex Fuldensis), M, Q, B, D (Ardmachanus), C, and Lambda. The epistle also appeared in John Wycliffe's Bible and in all the early German translations before Martin Luther's, and was thus evidently considered scriptural by much of the western church for quite some time. The apocryphal epistle is generally considered a transparent attempt to supply this supposed lost sacred document. Some scholars suggest that it was created to offset the popularity of the Marcionite epistle. Jakob Lorber's Epistle to the Laodiceans In 1884, Austrian mystic Jakob Lorber (1800–1864) published an "Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Laodiceans" Jakob Lorber: Letter of St. Paul to the Assembly of the Laodiceans , which he claimed to have learned from an "inner voice" as with all his other writings. This epistle has no connection to the other texts mentioned above. 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5,982 | Lorenz_curve | In economics, the Lorenz curve is a graphical representation of the cumulative distribution function of a probability distribution; it is a graph showing the proportion of the distribution assumed by the bottom y% of the values. It is a curve that illustrates income distribution. It is often used to represent income distribution, where it shows for the bottom x% of households, what percentage y% of the total income they have. The percentage of households is plotted on the x-axis, the percentage of income on the y-axis. It can also be used to show distribution of assets. In such use, many economists consider it to be a measure of social inequality. It was developed by Max O. Lorenz in 1905 for representing income distribution. The concept is useful in studies of biodiversity, where cumulative proportion of species is plotted against cumulative proportion of individuals . A typical Lorenz curve Explanation Every point on the Lorenz curve represents a statement like "the bottom 20% of all households have 10% of the total income." (see Pareto principle). A perfectly equal income distribution would be one in which every person has the same income. In this case, the bottom "N"% of society would always have "N"% of the income. This can be depicted by the straight line "y" = "x"; called the "line of perfect equality." By contrast, a perfectly unequal distribution would be one in which one person has all the income and everyone else has none. In that case, the curve would be at "y" = 0 for all "x" < 100%, and "y" = 100% when "x" = 100%. This curve is called the "line of perfect inequality." The Gini coefficient is the area between the line of perfect equality and the observed Lorenz curve, as a percentage of the area between the line of perfect equality and the line of perfect inequality. (This equals two times the area between the line of perfect equality and the observed Lorenz curve.) The higher the coefficient, the more unequal the distribution is. Calculation The Lorenz curve can often be represented by a function L(F), where F is represented by the horizontal axis, and L is represented by the vertical axis. For a population of size n, with a sequence of values yi, i = 1 to n, that are indexed in non-decreasing order ( yi ≤ yi+1), the Lorenz curve is the continuous piecewise linear function connecting the points ( Fi , Li ), i = 0 to n, where F0 = 0, L0 = 0, and for i = 1 to n: For a discrete probability function f(y), let yi, i = 1 to n, be the points with non-zero probabilities indexed in increasing order ( yi < yi+1). The Lorenz curve is the continuous piecewise linear function connecting the points ( Fi , Li ), i = 0 to n, where F0 = 0, L0 = 0, and for i = 1 to n: For a probability density function f(x) with the cumulative distribution function F(x), the Lorenz curve L(F(x)) is given by: For a cumulative distribution function F(x) with inverse x(F), the Lorenz curve L(F) is given by: The inverse x(F) may not exist because the cumulative distribution function has jump discontinuities or intervals of constant values. However, the previous formula can still apply by generalizing the definition of x(F): x(F1) = inf {y : F(y) ≥ F1} For an example of a Lorenz curve, see Pareto distribution. Properties A Lorenz curve always starts at (0,0) and ends at (1,1). The Lorenz curve is not defined if the mean of the probability distribution is zero or infinite. The Lorenz curve for a probability distribution is a continuous function. However, Lorenz curves representing discontinuous functions can be constructed as the limit of Lorenz curves of probability distributions, the line of perfect inequality being an example. If the variable being measured cannot take negative values, the Lorenz curve: cannot rise above the line of perfect equality, cannot sink below the line of perfect inequality, is increasing, and is a convex function. If the variable being measured can take negative values but has a positive mean, then the Lorenz curve will sink below the line of perfect inequality and is a convex function. If the variable being measured can take negative values and has a negative mean, then the Lorenz curve will be above the line of perfect equality, except at the end points, and is a concave function. The Lorenz curve is invariant under positive scaling. If X is a random variable, for any positive number c the random variable c X has the same Lorenz curve as X. The Lorenz curve is flipped twice, once about F = 0.5 and once about L = 0.5, by negation. If X is a random variable with Lorenz curve LX(F), then −X has the Lorenz curve: L − X = 1 − L X (1 − F) The Lorenz curve is changed by translations so that the equality gap F − L(F) changes in proportion to the ratio of the original and translated means. If X is a random variable with a Lorenz curve L X (F) and mean μ X , then for any constant c ≠ −μ X , X + c has a Lorenz curve defined by: For a cumulative distribution function F(x) with mean μ and (generalized) inverse x(F), then for any F with 0 < F < 1 : If the Lorenz curve is differentiable: If the Lorenz curve is twice differentiable, then the probability density function f(x) exists at that point and: If L(F) is continuously differentiable, then the tangent of L(F) is parallel to the line of perfect equality at the point F(μ). This is also the point at which the equality gap F − L(F), the vertical distance between the Lorenz curve and the line of perfect equality, is greatest. The size of the gap is equal to half of the relative mean deviation: See also Distribution (economics) Distribution of wealth Welfare economics Income inequality metrics Gini coefficient Robin Hood index ROC analysis Social welfare (political science) Economic inequality Zipf's law Pareto distribution mean deviation References Citations [also Will Dawson's contributions] External links Measuring income inequality: a new database, with link to dataset Free Online Software (Calculator) computes the Gini Coefficient, plots the Lorenz curve, and computes many other measures of concentration for any dataset Free Calculator: Online and downloadable scripts (Python and Lua) for Atkinson, Gini, and Hoover inequalities Users of the R data analysis software can install the "ineq" package which allows for computation of a variety of inequality indices including Gini, Atkinson, Theil. A MATLAB Inequality Package, including code for computing Gini, Atkinson, Theil indexes and for plotting the Lorenz Curve. Many examples are available. | Lorenz_curve |@lemmatized economics:3 lorenz:33 curve:35 graphical:1 representation:1 cumulative:7 distribution:21 function:16 probability:8 graph:1 show:3 proportion:4 assume:1 bottom:4 value:6 illustrate:1 income:12 often:2 use:3 represent:7 x:28 household:3 percentage:4 total:2 plot:4 axis:4 also:4 asset:1 many:3 economist:1 consider:1 measure:6 social:2 inequality:12 develop:1 max:1 concept:1 useful:1 study:1 biodiversity:1 specie:1 individual:1 typical:1 explanation:1 every:2 point:8 statement:1 like:1 see:3 pareto:3 principle:1 perfectly:2 equal:3 would:4 one:3 person:2 case:2 n:9 society:1 always:2 depict:1 straight:1 line:14 call:2 perfect:13 equality:10 contrast:1 unequal:2 everyone:1 else:1 none:1 gini:6 coefficient:4 area:3 observed:2 two:1 time:1 high:1 calculation:1 l:12 f:28 horizontal:1 vertical:2 population:1 size:2 sequence:1 yi:6 index:5 non:2 decrease:1 order:2 continuous:3 piecewise:2 linear:2 connect:2 fi:2 li:2 discrete:1 let:1 zero:2 increase:2 density:2 give:2 inverse:3 may:1 exist:2 jump:1 discontinuity:1 interval:1 constant:2 however:2 previous:1 formula:1 still:1 apply:1 generalize:2 definition:1 inf:1 example:3 property:1 start:1 end:2 define:2 mean:8 infinite:1 discontinuous:1 construct:1 limit:1 variable:7 cannot:3 take:3 negative:4 rise:1 sink:2 convex:2 positive:3 except:1 concave:1 invariant:1 scaling:1 random:4 number:1 c:4 flip:1 twice:2 negation:1 lx:1 change:2 translation:1 gap:3 ratio:1 original:1 translated:1 μ:4 differentiable:3 continuously:1 tangent:1 parallel:1 distance:1 great:1 half:1 relative:1 deviation:2 wealth:1 welfare:2 metric:1 robin:1 hood:1 roc:1 analysis:2 political:1 science:1 economic:1 zipf:1 law:1 reference:1 citation:1 dawson:1 contribution:1 external:1 link:2 new:1 database:1 dataset:2 free:2 online:2 software:2 calculator:2 compute:2 computes:1 concentration:1 downloadable:1 script:1 python:1 lua:1 atkinson:3 hoover:1 user:1 r:1 data:1 install:1 ineq:1 package:2 allow:1 computation:1 variety:1 include:2 theil:2 matlab:1 code:1 available:1 |@bigram lorenz_curve:32 cumulative_distribution:5 probability_distribution:4 everyone_else:1 inequality_gini:1 gini_coefficient:3 yi_yi:2 piecewise_linear:2 random_variable:4 continuously_differentiable:1 robin_hood:1 external_link:1 theil_index:1 |
5,983 | Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn | The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (or, more commonly, the Golden Dawn) was a magical order during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which practiced theurgy and spiritual development. It has been one of the largest single influences on 20th-century Western occultism. Concepts of magic and ritual at the center of contemporary traditions, such as Wicca Colquhoun, Ithell (1975) The Sword of Wisdom. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Phillips, Julia (1991) History of Wicca in England: 1939 - present day. Lecture at the Wiccan Conference in Canberra, 1991. and Thelema, were inspired by the Golden Dawn. The three founders, William Robert Woodman, William Wynn Westcott, and Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers were Freemasons and members of Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A.). Regardie, 1993, page 10 Westcott appears to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn. The Golden Dawn system was based on hierarchy and initiation like the Masonic Lodges, however women were admitted on an equal basis with men. The "Golden Dawn" was the first of three Orders, although all three are often collectively referred to as the "Golden Dawn". The First Order taught esoteric philosophy based on the Hermetic Qabalah and personal development through study and awareness of the four Classical Elements as well as the basics of astrology, tarot, and geomancy. The Second or "Inner" Order, the Rosae Rubeae et Aureae Crucis (the Ruby Rose and Cross of Gold), taught magic proper, including scrying, astral travel, and alchemy. The Third Order was that of the "Secret Chiefs", who were said to be highly-skilled but no longer incarnate; they supposedly directed the activities of the lower two orders by spirit communication with the Chiefs of the Second Order. History of the Golden Dawn Cipher Manuscripts The foundational documents of the original Order of the Golden Dawn are known as the Cipher Manuscripts; they were written in English using Trithemius cipher. The Manuscripts give the specific outlines of the Grade Rituals of the Order and prescribe a curriculum of graduated teachings that encompass the Hermetic Qabalah, astrology, occult tarot, geomancy, and alchemy. According to the records of the Order, the manuscripts were passed from Kenneth Mackenzie, a Masonic scholar, to Rev. A.F.A. Woodford, whom British occult writer Francis King describes as the fourth founder King, 1989, page 42-43 (although Woodford died shortly after the Order was founded). King, 1989, page 47 The documents did not excite Woodford and in February 1886 he passed them on to Freemason William Wynn Westcott, who managed to decode them in 1887. Westcott was pleased with his discovery and called on fellow Freemason Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers for a second opinion. Westcott asked for Mathers' help to turn the manuscripts into a coherent system for lodge work. Mathers in turn asked fellow Freemason William Robert Woodman to assist the two and he accepted. Mathers and Westcott have been credited for developing the ritual outlines in the Cipher Manuscripts into a workable format. Golden Dawn researcher R.A. Gilbert has found evidence which suggests that Westcott was instrumental in developing the Order's rituals from the Cipher Manuscripts. See Gilbert's article, From Cipher to Enigma: The Role of William Wynn Westcott in the Creation of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, from Carroll Runyon's book Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cypher Manuscripts. Mathers, however, is generally credited with the design of the curriculum and rituals of the Second Order, which he called the Rosae Rubae et Aureae Crucis ("Ruby Rose and Golden Cross" or the RR et AC). Regardie, 1993, page 92 Influences Influences on Golden Dawn concepts and work include: Christian mysticism, Qabalah, Hermeticism, the religion of Ancient Egypt, Theurgy, Freemasonry, Alchemy, Theosophy, Eliphas Levi, Papus, Enochian magic, and Renaissance grimoires. Founding of first temple In October 1887, Westcott wrote to Anna Sprengel, whose name and address he received through the decoding of the Cipher Manuscripts. Westcott claimed to receive a wise reply which conferred honorary grades of Adeptus Exemptus on Westcott, Mathers, and Woodman and chartered a Golden Dawn temple consisting of the five grades outlined in the manuscripts. King, 1989, page 43 Regardie, 1993, page 11. In 1888, the Isis-Urania Temple was founded in London, where the rituals decoded from the cipher manuscripts were developed and practiced. King, 1997, page 35 In addition, there was an insistence on women being allowed to participate in the Order in "perfect equality" with men, in contrast to the S.R.I.A. and Masonry. This first lodge did not teach any magical practices per se (except for basic "banishing" rituals and meditation), but was rather a philosophical and metaphysical teaching order. It was called "the Outer Order" or "First Order" and for four years the Golden Dawn existed only in this order. The "Inner Order", which became active in 1892, was the circle of adepts who had completed the entire course of study for the Outer Order. This group eventually became known as the Second Order. In a short time, the Osiris temple in Weston-super-Mare, the Horus temple in Bradford, and the Amen-Ra temple in Edinburgh were founded. A few years after this, Mathers founded the Ahathoor temple in Paris. Secret Chiefs In 1891, Westcott's correspondence with Anna Sprengel suddenly ceased, and he received word from Germany either that she was dead or that her companions did not approve of the founding of the Order and no further contact was to be made. If the founders were to contact the Secret Chiefs, therefore, it had to be done on their own. King, 1989, page 43 In 1892, Mathers claimed a link to the Secret Chiefs had been formed and supplied rituals for the Second Order, called the Red Rose and Cross of Gold. These rituals were based on the tradition of the tomb of Christian Rosenkreuz, and a Vault of Adepts became the controlling force behind the Outer Order. King, 1989, page 44 Later in 1916, Westcott claimed that Mathers also constructed these rituals from materials he received from Frater Lux ex Tenebris, a purported Continental Adept. King, 1989, page 46 Some followers of the Golden Dawn tradition believe that the Secret Chiefs are not necessarily living humans or supernatural beings, but are rather symbolic of actual and legendary sources of spiritual esotericism, a great leader, or teacher of a spiritual path or practice that found its way into the teachings of the Order. Penczak, Christopher. Spirit Allies, p. 27. Red Wheel/Weiser Books. ISBN 1-57863-214-5 Golden Age By the mid 1890s, the Golden Dawn was well established in Great Britain, with membership rising to over a hundred and including every class of Victorian society. In its heyday, many celebrities belonged to the Golden Dawn, such as actress Florence Farr and Irish revolutionary Maud Gonne, Irish writer William Butler Yeats, Welsh author Arthur Machen, English author Evelyn Underhill, and English writer Aleister Crowley. Around 1897, Westcott broke all ties to the Golden Dawn, leaving Mathers in control. It is speculated that this was due to some occult papers having been found in a hansom cab, in which Westcott's connection to the Golden Dawn came to the attention of his superiors. He may have been told to either resign from the Order or to give up his occupation as coroner. King, 1989, page 48 While there is no proof that Mathers planted the papers, it appears that the relationship between Mathers and Westcott all but ended after this point. After Westcott's departure, Mathers appointed Florence Farr to be Chief Adept in Anglia. (Although Westcott publicly resigned, he must have continued in some capacity since there are Lodge documents bearing his signature dated years after his "resignation".) Mathers was the only active founding member after Westcott's "departure". However, due to personality clashes with other members and absences from the center of Lodge activity in Great Britain, challenges to Mathers' authority as leader developed among the members of the Second Order. Revolt Towards the end of 1899, the Adepts of the Isis-Urania and Amen-Ra temples had become dissatisfied with Mathers' leadership as well as his growing friendship with Crowley. They were also anxious to make contact with the Secret Chiefs themselves, instead of relying on Mathers. King, 1989, page 66 Among the personal disagreements within the Isis-Urania temple, disputes were arising from Florence Farr's The Sphere, a secret society within the Isis-Urania, and the rest of the Adept Minors. Crowley was refused initiation into the Adeptus Minor grade by the London officials. Mathers overrode their decision and quickly initiated him at the Ahathoor temple in Paris on January 16, 1900. King, 1989, page 67 Upon his return to the London temple, Crowley requested the grade papers to which he was now entitled from Miss Cracknell, the acting secretary. To the London Adepts, this was the last straw. Farr, already of the opinion that the London temple should be closed, wrote to Mathers expressing her wish to resign as his representative, though she was willing to carry on until a successor was found. Mathers replied on February 16, believing Westcott was behind this turn of events. Once the other Adepts in London were notified, they elected a committee of seven on March 3 and requested a full investigation of the matter. Mathers sent an immediate reply, declining to provide proof, refusing to acknowledge the London temple, and dismissing Farr as his representative on March 23. King, 1989, page 68-69 In response, a general meeting was called on March 29 in London to remove Mathers as chief and expel him from the Order. King, 1989, page 69 Splinters In 1901, W. B. Yeats privately published a pamphlet titled Is the Order of R. R. & A. C. to Remain a Magical Order? Melton, J. Gordon, editor, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, v. 2 p. 1327, Gale Group, 2001 ISBN 0-8103-9489-8 After the Isis-Urania temple claimed its independence, there were even more disputes, leading to Yeats resigning. King, 1989, page 78 A committee of three was to temporarily govern, which included P.W. Bullock, M.W. Blackden and J. W. Brodie-Innes. After a short time, Bullock resigned, and Dr. Robert Felkin took his place. King, 1989, page 94 In 1903, A.E. Waite and Blackden joined forces to retain the name Isis-Urania, while Felkin and other London members formed the Stella Matutina, Yeats remaining in it until 1921, and Brodie-Innes continued his Amen-Ra temple in Edinburgh. King, 1989, pages 95-96 Reconstruction Once Mathers realised that reconciliation was impossible, he made efforts to reestablish himself in London. The Bradford and Weston-super-Mare temples remained loyal to him, but their numbers were few. King, 1989, page 109 He then appointed Edward Berridge as his representative. King, 1989, page 110 According to Francis King, historical evidence shows that there were "twenty three members of a flourishing Second Order under Berridge-Mathers in 1913." J.W. Brodie-Innes continued leading the Amen-Ra temple, deciding that the revolt was unjustified. By 1908, Mathers and Brodie-Innes were in complete accord. Regardie, 1993, page 33 According to sources that differ regarding the actual date, sometime between 1901 and 1913 Mathers renamed the branch of the Golden Dawn remaining loyal to his leadership to Alpha et Omega. King, 1971, p. 110-111 King, 1989, page 111 "The Golden Dawn ceased to exist by that name after October, 1901, replaced by Mathers' Alpha et Omega and the London group’s Order of the Morgan Rothe. No longer associated with the SRIA after 1902, Mathers continued to oversee a few temples until his death, when his wife, Moina, assumed supervision." Samuel Liddel MacGregor Mathers biography, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon, February 26, 2001 Golden Dawn Time Line, Chic Cicero and Sandra Tabatha Cicero, Llewellyn Encyclopedia Brodie-Innes assumed command of the English and Scottish temples, while Mathers concentrated on building up his Ahathoor temple and extending his American connections. According to occultist Israel Regardie, the Golden Dawn had spread to the United States of America before 1900 and a Thoth-Hermes temple had been founded in Chicago. By the beginning of the First World War in 1914, Mathers had established two to three American temples. Most temples of the Alpha et Omega and Stella Matutina closed or went into abeyance by the end of the 1930s, with the exceptions of two Stella Matutina temples: Hermes Temple in Bristol, which operated sporadically until 1970, and the Whare Ra in Havelock North, New Zealand, which operated regularly until its closure in 1978. Golden Dawn Companion, R A Gilbert, Aquarian Press (1986), ISBN 0850304369 Llewellyn Encyclopedia Golden Dawn Time Line Structure and Grades Rosy Cross of the Golden Dawn Much of the hierarchical structure for the Golden dawn came from the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, which was itself derived from the Order of the Golden and Rosy Cross. The masonic career of A.E. Waite by Bro. R. A. Gilbert First Order Introduction—Neophyte 0=0 Zelator 1=10 Theoricus 2=9 Practicus 3=8 Philosophus 4=7 Second Order Intermediate—Portal Grade Adeptus Minor 5=6 Adeptus Major 6=5 Adeptus Exemptus 7=4 Third Order Magister Templi 8=3 Magus 9=2 Ipsissimus 10=1 The paired numbers attached to the Grades relate to positions on the Tree of Life. The Neophyte Grade of "0=0" indicates no position on the Tree. In the other pairs, the first numeral is the number of steps up from the bottom (Malkuth), and the second numeral is the number of steps down from the top (Kether). The First Order Grades were related to the four elements of Earth, Air, Water, and Fire, respectively. The Aspirant to a Grade received instruction on the metaphysical meaning of each of these Elements and had to pass a written examination and demonstrate certain skills to receive admission to that Grade. The Portal Grade was the initiation ritual for admittance to the Second Order. The Circle of existing Adepts from the Second Order had to consent to allow an Aspirant to join the Second Order. The Second Order was not, properly, part of the "Golden Dawn", but a separate Order in its own right, known as the R.R. et A.C. The Second Order directed the teachings of the First Order and was the governing force behind the First Order. After passing the Portal, the Aspirant was instructed in the techniques of practical magic. When another examination was passed, and the other Adepts consented, the Aspirant attained the Grade of Adeptus Minor (5=6). There were also four sub-Grades of instruction for the Adeptus Minor, again relating to the four Outer Order grades. A member of the Second Order had the power and authority to initiate aspirants to the First Order, though usually not without the permission of the Chiefs of his or her Lodge. Golden Dawn book The Golden Dawn as system and book has been the most intensively used source for modern western occult and magical writing. As a book it is both a text and an encyclopedia. Weschcke, Carl L., Publisher, Publishers Preface (1982) The Golden Dawn Known members Sara Allgood (1879–1950), Irish stage actress and later film actress in America Allan Bennett (1872–1923), best known for introducing Buddhism to the West Arnold Bennett (1867–1931), British novelist Regardie, 1982, page 16 Edward W. Berridge (ca. 1843–1923), British homeopathic physician Edward W. Berridge, in Ithell Colquhoun, The Sword of Wisdom: MacGregor Mathers & the Golden Dawn (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1975) pp. 148–49. Reprinted on Kheper web site. Edward Berridge, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology (Gale Group), reprinted on Answers.com. Algernon Blackwood (1869–1951), English writer and radio broadcaster of supernatural stories Regardie, 1982, foreword - page ix Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), occult writer and mountaineer Florence Farr (1860–1917), London stage actress and musician Robert Felkin (1853–1925), medical missionary, explorer and anthropologist in Central Africa, author Frederick Leigh Gardner (1857–1930), British stock broker and occultist; published three-volume bibliography Catalogue Raisonné of Works on the Occult Sciences (1912) Frederick Leigh Gardner, Biographies: Fringe freemasons, Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon (Freemasons) web site. Retrieved November 2008. Frederick Leigh Gardner, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology (Gale Group), reprinted on Answers.com Maud Gonne (1866–1953), Irish revolutionary, author, feminist Annie Horniman (1860–1937), British repertory theatre producer and pioneer; member of the wealthy Horniman family of tea-traders Arthur Machen (1863–1947), leading London journalist of the 1890s, Welsh by birth and upbringing Gustav Meyrink (1868–1932), Austrian author, storyteller, dramatist, translator, banker, and Buddhist E. Nesbit (1858–1924), real name Edith Bland; English author and political activist Charles Rosher (1885–1974), British cinematographer Pamela Colman Smith (1878–1951), British-American artist and co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck William Sharp (1855–1905), poet and author; alias Fiona MacLeod Bram Stoker (1847–1912), Irish writer best-known today for his 1897 horror novel Dracula Evelyn Underhill (1875–1941), British Christian mystic, author of Mysticism: A Study in Nature and Development of Spiritual Consciousness Charles Williams (1886–1945), British poet, novelist, theologian, and literary critic Arthur Edward Waite (1857–1942), British-American author, Freemason and co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck William Butler Yeats (1865–1939), prominent Irish poet, dramatist, and writer Contemporary Golden Dawn Orders While no temples in the original chartered lineage of the Golden Dawn survived past the 1970s, several organizations have since revived its teachings and rituals. Among these, the following are particularly significant: The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Inc. The Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn Ordo Stella Matutina Rosicrucian Order of the Golden Dawn See also Argentinum Astrum (A∴A∴) Tattva vision Sacred Fraternity of the Cross Notes References Fra. A.o.C. (2002). A Short Treatise on the History, Culture and Practices of The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. Retrieved August 3, 2007. Armstrong, Allan & R. A. Gilbert, eds. (1997). Golden Dawn: The Proceedings of the Golden Dawn Conference, London - 1997. Hermetic Research Trust. Cicero, Chic and Tabatha Cicero (1991). The New Golden Dawn Ritual Tarot. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0-87542-139-3 Colquhoun, Ithell (1975). Sword of Wisdom: Macgregor Mathers and the Golden Dawn. Neville Spearman. ISBN 0-85435-092-6. Greer, Mary K. (1994). Women of the Golden Dawn. Park Street. ISBN 0-89281-516-7. Greer, Mary K. & Darcy Kuntz (1999) The Chronology of the Golden Dawn. Holmes Publishing Group. ISBN 1-55818-354-X Gilbert, Robert A. (1983). The Golden Dawn: Twilight of the Magicians. The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-278-1 Gilbert, Robert A. (1986). The Golden Dawn Companion. Weiser Books. ISBN 0-85030-436-9 Gilbert, Robert A. Golden Dawn Scrapbook - The Rise and Fall of a Magical Order. Weiser Books (1998) ISBN 1-57863-037-1 Howe, Ellic (1978). The Magicians of the Golden Dawn: A Documentary History of a Magical Order 1887-1923. Samuel Weiser. ISBN 0-87728-369-9. King, Francis (1971). The Rites of Modern Occult Magic. New York: Macmillan Company. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 76-158-933 King, Francis (1989). Modern Ritual Magic: The Rise of Western Occultism. ISBN 1-85327-032-6 King, Francis, ed. (1997). Ritual Magic of the Golden Dawn: Works by S. L. MacGregor Mathers and Others. Destiny Books. ISBN 0-89281-617-1 Regardie, Israel, et al., eds. (1989). The Golden Dawn: A Complete Course in Practical Ceremonial Magic. Llewellyn. ISBN 0-87542-663-8 Regardie, Israel (1993). What You Should Know About the Golden Dawn (6th ed.). ISBN 1-56184-064-5 Runyon, Carroll (1997). Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cipher Manuscripts. C.H.S. ISBN 0-9654881-2-8 Suster, Gerald (1990). Crowley's Apprentice: The Life and Ideas of Israel Regardie. Weiser Books. ISBN 0-87728-700-7 Wasserman, James (2005). The Mystery Traditions: Secret Symbols and Sacred Art. Rochester, VT: Destiny Books. ISBN 1-59477-088-3 External links Golden Dawn FAQ The Golden Dawn Library Project Golden Dawn entries in Llewellyn Encyclopedia Traditions at Witchvox: The Golden Dawn Golden Dawn Tradition, by co-founder Dr. W. Wynn Westcott Photocopies and the translation of the original Cipher Manuscripts Lots of GD material on display in Yeats exhibition including Ritual Notebooks. 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5,984 | Kansas_City_Royals | The Kansas City Royals are a Major League Baseball team based in Kansas City, Missouri. The Royals are a member of the Central Division of Major League Baseball's American League. From to the present, the Royals have played in Kauffman Stadium. The Royals have participated in two World Series, winning in 1985. The "Royals" name originates from the American Royal, a livestock show, horse show, and rodeo held annually in Kansas City since 1899. "Kansas City Royals (1969-Present)", sportsecyclopedia.com Entering Major League Baseball as an expansion franchise in 1969, the club was founded by Ewing Kauffman, a Kansas City businessman. The franchise was established following the actions of Stuart Symington, then-United States Senator from Missouri, who demanded a new franchise for the city after the Athletics—Kansas City's previous major league team—moved to Oakland, California. Franchise history 1969–1979: Taking off The Royals began play in 1969 in Kansas City, Missouri. In their inaugural game, on April 8, 1969, the Royals defeated the Minnesota Twins 4–3 in 12 innings. The team was quickly built through a number of trades engineered by its first General Manager, Cedric Tallis, including a trade for Lou Piniella, who won the Rookie of the Year during the Royals' inaugural season. The Royals also invested in a strong farm system and soon developed such future stars as pitchers Paul Splittorff and Steve Busby, infielders George Brett and Frank White, and outfielder Al Cowens. In 1971, the Royals had their first winning season, with manager Bob Lemon leading them to a second-place finish. In 1973, under manager Jack McKeon, the Royals adopted their iconic "powder blue" road uniforms and moved from Municipal Stadium to the brand-new Royals Stadium (now known as Kauffman Stadium). Manager Whitey Herzog replaced McKeon in 1975, and the Royals quickly became the dominant franchise in the American League's Western Division, winning three straight division championships from 1976 to 1978. However, the Royals lost to the New York Yankees in three straight American League Championship Series encounters. 1980–1984: From pennant to pine tar incident After the Royals finished in second place in 1979, Herzog was fired and replaced by Jim Frey. Under Frey, the Royals rebounded in 1980 and advanced to the ALCS, where they again faced the Yankees. The Royals vanquished the Yankees in a three-game sweep punctuated by a George Brett home run off of Yankees' star relief pitcher Goose Gossage. After reaching their first World Series, the Royals fell to the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. The Royals returned to the post-season in 1981, losing to the Oakland Athletics in a unique divisional series resulting from the split-season caused by the 1981 Major League Baseball strike. In July 1983, while the Royals were headed for a second-place finish behind the Chicago White Sox another chapter in the team's rivalry with the Yankees occurred. In what has come to be known as "the Pine Tar Incident," umpires discovered illegal placement of pine tar (more than 18 inches up the handle) on third baseman George Brett's bat after he had hit a 2-Run home run off Gossage that put the Royals up 5-4 in the top of the 9th.The baseball bat used by Kansas City Royals third baseman George Brett in the Pine Tar Incident on July 24, 1983.After Yankee Manager Billy Martin came out of the dugout to talk to home plate umpire Tim McClelland, McClelland and the other umpires mulled over the bat(measuring it over home plate, touching it, etc.). McClelland then pointed to Brett in the dugout and then gave the out sign, thereby disallowing the home run. George Brett then stormed out of the dugout, angry and hysterical. McClelland ejected Brett. The homer was later reinstated by the commissioner and the Royals went on to win after the game was resumed several weeks later. "The Pine Tar Incident" has now become part of baseball lore. Under the leadership of manager Dick Howser, the Royals won their fifth division championship in 1984, relying on Brett's bat and the young pitching staff of Bret Saberhagen, Mark Gubicza, Charlie Leibrandt, Bud Black and Danny Jackson. The Royals were then swept by the Detroit Tigers in the American League Championship Series. The Tigers went on to win the World Series. 1985: Missouri's finest and the "I-70 Series" The Commissioner's Trophy from the 1985 World Series at Kauffman Stadium. In the 1985 regular season the Royals topped the Western Division for the sixth time in ten years, led by Bret Saberhagen's Cy Young Award-winning performance. Throughout the ensuing playoffs, the Royals repeatedly put themselves into difficult positions, but managed to escape each time. With the Royals down 3-games-to-one in the American League Championship Series against the Toronto Blue Jays, the Royals eventually rallied to win the series 4-3. In the 1985 World Series against the cross-state St. Louis Cardinals – the "I-70 Series" because the two teams are both located in the state of Missouri and connected by Interstate 70 – the Royals again fell behind 3-1. The key game in the Royals' comeback was Game 6. Facing elimination, the Royals trailed 1-0 in the bottom of the ninth inning, before rallying to score two runs and win. The rally was helped by a controversial safe call at first base by umpire Don Denkinger, which allowed Royals outfielder Jorge Orta to reach base safely as the first baserunner of the inning. Following Orta's single, the Cardinals dropped an easy popout and suffered a passed ball, before the Royals went on to win with a bloop base hit by seldom used pinch hitter Dane Iorg. Following the tension of Game 6, the Cardinals came undone in Game 7, and the Royals won 11-0 to clinch the franchise's first World Series title. 1986–1994: Staying in the picture In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Royals developed young stars such as Bo Jackson, Tom Gordon, and Kevin Seitzer, made some successful free-agent acquisitions, and generally posted winning records, but always fell short of the post-season. For example, in 1989, the Royals won 92 games and posted the third-best record in baseball, but did not qualify for the playoffs. Many of the team's highlights from this era instead centered around the end of Brett's career, such as his third and final batting title in 1990 – which made him the first player to win batting titles in three different decades – and his 3,000th hit. Though the team dropped out of contention from 1990 to 1992, the Royals still could generally be counted on to post winning records through the strike-shortened 1994 season. Celebrity Entertainer, Jonathan Aldridge was a ballboy for the Royals during the 1992 and 1993 seasons. 1995–2001: The decline At the start of the 1990s, the Royals had been hit with a double-whammy when General Manager John Schuerholz departed in 1990 and team owner Ewing Kauffman died in 1993. Kauffman's death left the franchise without permanent ownership until Wal-Mart executive David Glass purchased the team for $96 million in 2000. Partly because of the resulting lack of leadership, after the 1994 season the Royals decided to reduce payroll by trading pitcher David Cone and outfielder Brian McRae, then continued their salary dump in the 1995 season. In fact, the team payroll (which was always among the league's highest.) was sliced from $40.5 million in 1994 to $18.5 million in 1996. http://www.kansascity.com/mld/kansascity/sports/15496052.htm As attendance slid and the average MLB salary continued to rise, rather than pay higher salaries or lose their players to free agency, the Royals traded their remaining stars such as Kevin Appier, Johnny Damon and Jermaine Dye. Making matters worse, most of the younger players that the Royals received in exchange for these All-Stars proved of little value, setting the stage for an extended downward spiral. Indeed, the Royals set a franchise low with a .398 winning percentage (64-97 record) in 1999, and lost 97 games again in 2001. In the middle of this era, in 1997, the Royals declined the opportunity to switch to the National League as part of a realignment plan to introduce the Arizona Diamondbacks and Tampa Bay Devil Rays as expansion teams. 2002–2006: Rock bottom In 2002, the Royals set a new team record for futility, losing 100 games for the first time in franchise history. They fired manager Tony Muser and he was replaced by Tony Peña. The 2003 season saw a temporary end to the losing, when manager Tony Peña, in his first full season with the club, guided the Royals to their first winning record (83-79) since the 1994 season. He was named the American League Manager of the Year for his efforts and then shortstop Angel Berroa was named AL Rookie of the Year. The team spent a majority of the season in first, but ended up in third place behind the Chicago White Sox and Minnesota Twins, who won the AL Central. Picked by many to win their division in 2004 after faring well in the free agent market, the Royals got off to a disappointing start and by late June were back in a rebuilding mode, releasing veteran reliever Curtis Leskanic before financial incentives kicked in and trading veteran reliever Jason Grimsley and superstar center fielder Carlos Beltrán for prospects, all within a week of each other. The team subsequently fell apart completely, establishing a new low by losing 104 games. The Royals did, however, see promising seasons from two rookies, center fielder David DeJesus and starting pitcher Zack Greinke. Among the many mistakes of 2004, was acquiring Juan Gonzalez, Benito Santiago, and keeping pitchers Darrell May and Brian Anderson, both of whom underachieved after a great 2003 season. They all were let go during the season or after the season's end. In 2005, the Royals continued a youth movement, with one of the smallest payrolls in the Major Leagues. The Royals ended the 2005 season with a 56-106 record (.346), a full 43 games out of first place. It was the third time in four seasons that the team reestablished the mark for worst record in the history of the franchise. During that season, the Royals also suffered a franchise record 19-game losing streak highlighted by a three-game stretch of blowout losses at home from August 6 through August 9; in that stretch the Royals lost 16-1 to the Oakland Athletics, were shut out 11-0 by Oakland, and then in the third game, against the Cleveland Indians, built a 7-2 lead in the ninth inning before allowing 11 runs to lose 13-7. During the season manager Tony Peña quit and was replaced by interim manager Bob Schaefer until the Indians' bench coach Buddy Bell was chosen as the next manager. Looking for a quick turnaround, general manager Allard Baird signed several veteran players prior to the 2006 season, including Doug Mientkiewicz, Mark Grudzielanek, Joe Mays and Scott Elarton. Nevertheless, the Royals struggled through another 100-loss season in 2006, becoming just the eleventh team in major league history to lose 100 games in three straight seasons. http://www.kansascity.com/mld/kansascity/sports/baseball/mlb/kansas_city_royals/15634743.htm During the season Baird was fired as GM and replaced by Dayton Moore. 2007–present: "New. Blue. Tradition." Gil Meche pitching in 2008. During the 2006 offseason, Kansas City appeared to be opening up its wallet, and entered the 2007 season looking to rebound from four out of five seasons ending with at least 100 losses. They outbid the Cubs and Blue Jays for free agent righty Gil Meche, signing him to five-year, $55 million contract. Reliever Octavio Dotel also inked a one-year, $5 million contract. but was traded before seasons end. The Royals have signed various new players, adding bulk to their bullpen and hitting, and the team has added several new promising prospects, including the likes of Alex Gordon and Billy Butler. Under general manager Dayton Moore the Royals were arguably the most aggressive team in the offseason. Among one of Dayton Moore's first acts as General Manager was instating a new motto for the team: "True. Blue. Tradition." The Royals plan on a slogan that will bank on new general manager Dayton Moore’s ability to restore the Royals’ once-rich history. Flanagan, Jeffrey. Royals reach to past with newest slogan Kansas City Star, 28 February 2007. In 2008, the Royals also ditched their black and sleeveless jerseys, instead reviving their "old" jerseys from years past. Royals unveil new uniforms in 2006 MLB.com, 27 January 2006. For 2008, to coincide with the introduction of powder blue alternate home jerseys, the new slogan changed from "True. Blue. Tradition" to "New. Blue. Tradition". In the 2007 MLB Draft, the Royals selected shortstop Mike Moustakas at #2 overall, signing him minutes before the deadline. In June, the Royals had their first winning month since July 2003, and in July had their second consecutive winning month of the season. On August 1, manager Buddy Bell announced his intentions to resign following the 2007 season. Bell stepping down as Royals skipper On September 12, the Royals defeated the Minnesota Twins 6-3 to win their 63rd game, guaranteeing that they would not lose 100 games in 2007. The victory ended the team's string of three consecutive seasons of 100 losses or more from 2004-2006. While undergoing stadium renovations, including the addition of a High definition scoreboard, the Royals introduced the "New. Blue. Tradition." slogan. Kansas City's 2008 season began with the team searching for its new manager after the departure of Buddy Bell. Early candidates to succeed Bell included Royals bench coach Billy Doran, Dutton, Bob. Finding a manager tops Royals' offseason checklist Kansas City Star, 1 October 2007. former Royals stars George Brett (Brett denied his intentions) and Frank White, and Triple-A Omaha manager Mike Jirschele. Former Major League managers such as Joe Girardi, Jim Fregosi, Ken Macha, and Jimy Williams. Atlanta Braves coaches Terry Pendleton and Brian Snitker were also in consideration. Dutton, Bob. Kansas City Star, 1 Aug 2007 . On October 19, the Royals hired Trey Hillman, former manager of the Nippon Ham Fighters and minor league manager of the New York Yankees, to be the 15th manager in franchise history. Kaeger, Dick. Royals introduce Hillman as new manager MLB.com, 22 October 2007. 2008 also began with the releases of fan favorite Mike Sweeney, who had numerous injuries over the past five seasons and had declined in production, and also Angel Berroa who had declined in skills. The acquisition of Jose Guillen, just like Gil Meche in 2007, was meant to be a boost to the young ball club. During the season many players from the minors came up and made their presence felt including Ryan Shealy, Mitch Maier and Mike Aviles. As part of the Royals' "New. Blue. Tradition." motto, the Royals introduced a new rendition of their classic powder blue uniforms for the 2008 season. The team will wear the uniforms as alternates in weekend home games. The Royals previously wore powder blue uniforms from 1973 to 1991 in away games, and in 2008, the Royals wore powder blue for the first time ever at Kauffman Stadium. Kaegel, Dick. Royals to bring back powder blues Royals.com, 6 December 2007. The uniforms were introduced on December 6, 2007 at a special event for season ticket holders and were modeled by current players such as Alex Gordon and former players such as Frank White. The Royals finished the 2008 season with a 75–87 record, the franchise's best since 2003. Closing pitcher Joakim Soria, the Royals' lone representative in the 2008 MLB All-Star Game, finished the year with 42 saves. Rivalries and fan base Historically, one of the Royals' major rivalries was with the New York Yankees. The rivalry stems largely from the period between 1976 and 1980, when both teams were in top form and met four times in five years for the American League Championship Series. An older factor in Kansas City-New York relations is the "special relationship" between the Yankees and the Kansas City A's during the 1950s, in which Kansas City's best players (such as Roger Maris and Ralph Terry) were repeatedly sent to New York with little compensation. The Royals' recent lack of success, however, as well as the Yankees' more popular and historic rivalry with the Boston Red Sox has caused this rivalry to lose its prominence. Also of note are division rivalries with the Cleveland Indians, Chicago White Sox, Detroit Tigers, and Minnesota Twins. In the early 2000s, Detroit and Kansas City had a number of bench clearing brawls. Also notable among these are the Minnesota Twins' fans, who travel well and make a more balanced and divided crowd when the Twins visit Kansas City. Forgotten in recent years is the old division rivalry between the Royals and the Oakland Athletics. In the early 1970s, Oakland won three World Series titles from 1972-1974, and after the A's left Kansas City under less than honorable terms, a strong rivalry existed between the two teams during this period. This was soon forgotten by the late 1970s when the Royals came to prominence and the terrific rivalry with New York began. Also strong in the late 70s was the rivalry against the California Angels, particularly in the fights for the American League West pennant in 1979. The Royals' most prominent rivalry is with the intrastate St. Louis Cardinals, stemming back to the Royals' victory over the Cardinals in the 1985 World Series. The series is still a source of contention among fans, notably the controversial call in the bottom of the ninth of game 6 in which Jorge Orta was called safe on a play that replays later showed him out. A Royals rally let them tie and later win the game and then later the series. Interleague play in 1997 allowed the I-70 Series to be revived in non-exhibition games. The first few seasons of the series were rather even, with the Cardinals holding a slight advantage with a 14–13 record through the 2003 season. Through the 2008 season, the Cardinals hold the series advantage 28–23. Players of note Baseball Hall of Fame Missouri Sports Hall of Fame Retired numbers <b>GeorgeBrett3B: 1973-93Retired 1994<b>DickHowserM: 1981-86Retired 1987<b>FrankWhite2B: 1973-90Retired 1995<b>JackieRobinsonRetired by allof MLBRetired 1997 The Royals have retired the numbers of former players George Brett (#5) and Frank White (#20). Former manager Dick Howser's number (#10) was retired following his death in 1987. Former Brooklyn Dodgers player Jackie Robinson's number (#42) is retired throughout Major League Baseball. Royals Hall of Fame Listed by year of induction: 1986 40 Steve Busby, SP 26 Amos Otis, CF 1987 10 Dick Howser, Manager 1 Cookie Rojas, 2B 34 Paul Splittorff, SP 1989 22 Dennis Leonard, SP 11 Hal McRae, DH 1992 Joe Burke, GM and President 32 Larry Gura, SP 2 Freddie Patek, SS 1993 Ewing Kauffman, owner and tributary of name of Kauffman Stadium 1994 5 George Brett, 3B 1995 20 Frank White, 2B 1996 Muriel Kauffman, executive and wife of Ewing 7 John Mayberry, 1B 1998 29 Dan Quisenberry, RP 2000 24 Whitey Herzog, Manager 6 Willie Wilson, CF 2003 21 Jeff Montgomery, RP 2004 Denny Matthews, radio announcer 2005 18 Bret Saberhagen, SP 2006 23 Mark Gubicza, SP 2008 Art Stewart, scout Current roster Managers Minor league affiliations AAA: Omaha Royals, Pacific Coast League AA: Northwest Arkansas Naturals, Texas League Advanced A: Wilmington Blue Rocks, Carolina League A: Burlington Bees, Midwest League Rookie: AZL Royals, Arizona League Rookie: Burlington Royals, Appalachian League Rookie: Idaho Falls Chukars, Pioneer League Rookie: DSL Royals, Dominican Summer League Season records Radio and television , the Royals will carry games on KCSP 610AM and KMBZ 980AM depending on scheduling. http://www.kansascity.com/sports/columnists/jeffrey_flanagan/story/213497.html Most games are expected to be on KCSP, however. The stations replace WHB, which chose not to renew, and KCXM, now a Christian radio station (as KLRX). The radio announcers will be Denny Matthews and Bob Davis, with Steve Stewart and possibly Ryan Lefebvre doing fill-in work. www.kansascity.com | 01/08/2008 | Royals broadcasters ready for new season Meanwhile, the Royals have shut down Royals Sports Television Network, and the full television schedule of 140 games will air on FSN Kansas City, a newly-created branch of FSN Midwest, leaving no over-the-air broadcast outlet for the Royals this season. The announcers there will be Lefebvre, Paul Splittorff, and Frank White. Frank White fills in for Splittorff on a few games. www.kansascity.com | 01/09/2008 | Royals’ newest broadcaster ready to get started On February 22, 2007, Matthews was selected as the 2007 recipient of the Ford C. Frick Award, presented annually for major contributions to baseball broadcasting. Royals announcer Matthews wins Frick Award - MLB - CBSSports.com Live Scores, Stats, Schedules In 2009 99 games will be broadcast on FSKC HD being the highest total of Kansas City Royals games produced in HD to date Kansas City Royals HD Schedule Mascot Sluggerrr is the mascot of the Royals. Sluggerrr is a lion and made his first appearance on April 5, 1996. On game day, Sluggerrr can be found pitching in the "Little K" and firing hot dogs from an air cannon into the stands between innings.YouTube.com Video See also Kansas City Royals all-time roster Kansas City Royals award winners and league leaders Kansas City Royals records - statistical records and milestone achievements I-70 Series - Royals-Cardinals rivalry Notes External links Royals on Radio Around the Horn in KC - Official MLBlog of the Kansas City Royals front office. 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5,985 | Creed | A creed is a statement of belief—usually religious belief—or faith often recited as part of a religious service. The word derives from the for I believe and credimus for we believe. It is sometimes called symbol (), signifying a "token" by which persons of like beliefs might recognize each other. The most definitive creed in Christianity is the Nicene Creed, formulated in AD 325 at the First Council of Nicaea. Affirmation of this creed, which describes the Trinity, is generally taken as a fundamental test of orthodoxy. Johnson, Phillip R. "The Nicene Creed." Online: <http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/nicene.htm> Accessed 17 May 2009 The Apostle's Creed is also broadly accepted. Some denominations, including Unitarians, Quakers, Baptists, Messianics, and Restorationists, have rejected the authority of those creeds. Whether Judaism is creedal has been a point of some controversy. Though some say Judaism is noncreedal in nature, others say it recognizes a single creed, the Shema. "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One." (Deut. ). Muslims declare the shahada, or testimony: "I bear witness that there is no god except Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.” "Proclaiming the Shahada is the First Step Into Islam." Islamic Learning Materials. Online: <http://www.islamiclearningmaterials.com/shahada.html> Accessed: 17 May 2009 The terms "creed" and "faith" are sometimes used to mean religion. Where "creed" appears alongside "religion" or "faith" it can also refer to a person's political or social beliefs, for example The American's Creed. Pope Paul VI published on June 30 1968 a profession of faith or creed, called the Credo of the People of God. Solemni hac liturgia (Credo of the People of God) Apostles' Creed The Apostles' Creed is widely used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical Churches of Western tradition, including the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church, Lutheranism, the Anglican Communion, and Western Orthodoxy. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists. Nicene Creed The Nicene Creed reflects the concerns of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which had as their chief purpose to establish what the early Christians believed. Kiefer, James E. "The Nicene Creed." Online: <http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/nicene.htm> Accessed 17 May 2009 A creed as a denial of heresies In an atmosphere of increasingly complicated theological controversy, orthodox belief might become more complicated in outline. In the decade before 594, Gregory, bishop of Tours set out to write a "History of the Franks". In Gaul, a part of Europe recently beset with both royal Arians and pagans (until the conversion of Clovis), Gregory prefaced his history with a declaration of his faith, "so that my reader may have no doubt that I am Catholic for they are (Book I.i). The confession is in many phrases, each of which refutes a specific Christian heresy. Thus Gregory's creed presents, in negative, a virtual litany of heresies: I believe, then, in God the Father omnipotent. I believe in Jesus Christ his only Son, our Lord God, born of the Father, not created. [I believe] that he has always been with the Father, not only since time began but before all time. For the Father could not have been so named unless he had a son; and there could be no son without a father. But as for those who say: "There was a time when he was not", [note: A leading belief of Arian Christology.] I reject them with curses, and call men to witness that they are separated from the church. I believe that the word of the Father by which all things were made was Christ. I believe that this word was made flesh and by its suffering the world was redeemed, and I believe that humanity, not deity, was subject to the suffering. I believe that he rose again on the third day, that he freed sinful man, that he ascended to heaven, that he sits on the right hand of the Father, that he will come to judge the living and the dead. I believe that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son, that it is not inferior and is not of later origin, but is God, equal and always coeternal with the Father and the Son, consubstantial in its nature, equal in omnipotence, equally eternal in its essence, and that it has never existed apart from the Father and the Son and is not inferior to the Father and the Son. I believe that this holy Trinity exists with separation of persons, and one person is that of the Father, another that the Son, another that of the Holy Spirit. And in this Trinity confess that there is one Deity, one power, one essence. I believe that the blessed Mary was a virgin after the birth as she was a virgin before. I believe that the soul is immortal but that nevertheless it has no part in deity. And I faithfully believe all things that were established at Nicæa by the three hundred and eighteen bishops. But as to the end of the world I hold beliefs which I learned from our forefathers, that Antichrist will come first. An Antichrist will first propose circumcision, asserting that he is Christ; next he will place his statue in the temple at Jerusalem to be worshipped, just as we read that the Lord said: "You shall see the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place." But the Lord himself declared that that day is hidden from all men, saying; "But of that day and that hour knoweth no one not even the angels in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father alone." Moreover we shall here make answer to the heretics [note: the Arians] who attack us, asserting that the Son is inferior to the Father since he is ignorant of this day. Let them learn then that Son here is the name applied to the Christian people, of whom God says: "I shall be to them a father and they shall be to me for sons." For if he had spoken these words of the only begotten Son he would never have given the angels first place. For he uses these words: "Not even the angels in heaven nor the Son", showing that he spoke these words not of the only-begotten but of the people of adoption. But our end is Christ himself, who will graciously bestow eternal life on us if we turn to him." Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory of Tours (539-594): History of the Franks: Books I-X "IN CHRIST'S NAME HERE BEGINS THE FIRST BOOK OF THE HISTORIES." http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book3] Christians without creeds Some Christian denominations, and particularly those descending from the Radical Reformation, do not profess a creed. The Quakers, formally known as the Religious Society of Friends, find no need for creedal formulations of faith. The Church of the Brethren also espouses no creed, referring to the New Testament, as their "rule of faith and practice." Many evangelical Protestants similarly reject creeds as definitive statements faith, even while agreeing with some creeds' substance. The Baptists, for example, have been non-credal “in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another”. Avis, Paul (2002) The Christian Church: An Introduction to the Major Traditions, SPCK, London, ISBN 0-281-05246-8 paperback, pp. 111; Whilst many Baptists are not opposed to the ancient creeds, they regard them as “not so final that they cannot be revised and re-expressed. At best, creeds have a have a penultimacy about them and, of themselves, could never be the basis of Christian fellowship”. Avis, Paul (2002) The Christian Church: An Introduction to the Major Traditions, SPCK, London, ISBN 0-281-05246-8 paperback, pp. 112; Moreover, Baptist ‘confessions of faith’ have often had a clause such as this from the First London (Particular) Baptist Confession (Revised edition, 1646): Also we confess that we now know but in part and that are ignorant of many things which we desire to and seek to know: and if any shall do us that friendly part to show us from the Word of God that we see not, we shall have cause to be thankful to God and to them.Similar reservations about the use of creeds can be found in the Restoration Movement and its descendants, the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Churches of Christ, and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ. Some religious leaders in traditional creedal Churches have also come to question the utility of creeds. Bishop John Shelby Spong, who in the year 2000 retired as the Episcopal Bishop of Newark, has written that dogmas and creeds were merely "a stage in our development" and "part of our religious childhood." In his book Sins of the Scripture Spong suggested that "Jesus seemed to understand that no one can finally fit the holy God into his or her creeds or doctrines. That is idolatry." Unitarianism without creeds Unitarians, who practice probably the most liberal of all religions, do not share a creed but hope to help each other grow spiritually. Maxwell, Bill. "Leading the Unitarian Universalist Association, a faith without a creed." St. Petersburg Times. Apr 11, 2008 Different Unitarians may draw on elements of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism and other world religions. They have long rejected creedal tests, recalling how the early creeds were formulated in the fourth century following the union of Church and State under Constantine, and were employed thereafter to persecute Unitarians for deviating from the Trinitarian orthodoxy that the creeds established. Michael Servetus, a Spaniard martyred during the Reformation for his criticism of the doctrine of the trinity and his opposition to infant baptism, has often been considered an early unitarian.He was burnt at the stake in 1553 for deviating from the Trinitarian doctrines expressed in the Nicene and Athanasian creeds. In England, the Trinitarian creeds produced anti-Unitarian penal statutes that remained on the books until 1813. "Michael Servetus." Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography. Unitarian Universalist Historical Society (UUHS) 1999-2009. Online: http://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/michaelservetus.html. Accessed: 21 May 2009 Jewish creed Whether Judaism is creedal in character has generated some controversy. Rabbi Milton Steinberg wrote that "By its nature Judaism is averse to formal creeds which of necessity limit and restrain thought" and asserted in his book Basic Judaism (1947) that "Judaism has never arrived at a creed." The 1976 Centenary Platform of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, an organization of Reform Jewish rabbis agrees that "Judaism emphasizes action rather than creed as the primary expression of a religious life." Others, however, characterize the Shema Yisrael from as a creedal statement in strict monotheism embodied in a single prayer. "Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One" (; transliterated Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad.) It is recited twice daily by some observant Jews. Islamic creed The Islamic creed is the Shahadah, the proclamation that "I testify that there is no god (ilah) but God (Allah), and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God." Other creeds Other notable creeds include the: Athanasian Creed Chalcedonian Creed Social Creed (Methodist) Masai Creed Bodhisattva vows (Buddhism) See also American's Creed Articles of Faith Book of Concord Pledge of Allegiance Thirty-Nine Articles Westminster Confession of Faith Further reading Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss. Published by Yale University Press in 2003. References External links The Creeds of Christendom - A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith. 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5,986 | Linear_equation | A linear equation is an algebraic equation in which each term is either a constant or the product of a constant and (the first power of) a single variable. Linear equations can have one or more variables. Linear equations occur with great regularity in applied mathematics. While they arise quite naturally when modeling many phenomena, they are particularly useful since many non-linear equations may be reduced to linear equations by assuming that quantities of interest vary to only a small extent from some "background" state. Linear equations in two variables A common form of a linear equation in the two variables and is where m and b designate constants (the variable y is multiplied by the constant 1, which as usual is not explicitly written). The origin of the name "linear" comes from the fact that the set of solutions of such an equation forms a straight line in the plane. In this particular equation, the constant determines the slope or gradient of that line; and the constant term determines the point at which the line crosses the y-axis. Since terms of a linear equations cannot contain products of distinct or equal variables, nor any power (other than 1) or other function of a variable, equations involving terms such as xy, x², y1/3, and sin(x) are nonlinear. Graph sample of linear equations. Forms for 2D linear equations Complicated linear equations, such as the ones above, can be rewritten using the laws of elementary algebra into several different forms. These equations are often referred to as the "equations of the straight line". In what follows x, y and t are variables; other letters represent constants (fixed numbers). General form where A and B are not both equal to zero. The equation is usually written so that A ≥ 0, by convention. The graph of the equation is a straight line, and every straight line can be represented by an equation in the above form. If A is nonzero, then the x-intercept, that is the x-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the x-axis (y is zero), is −C/A. If B is nonzero, then the y-intercept, that is the y-coordinate of the point where the graph crosses the y-axis (x is zero), is −C/B, and the slope of the line is −A/B. Standard form where A, B, and C are integers whose greatest common factor is 1, A and B are not both equal to zero and, A is non-negative (and if A = 0 then B has to be positive). The standard form can be converted to the general form, but not always to all the other forms if A or B is zero. It is worth nothing that, while the term occurs frequently in school-level US textbooks, it makes little mathematical sense since most lines cannot be described by such equations. For instance, the line cannot be described by a linear equation with integer coefficients since is irrational. Slope–intercept form Y-axis formula where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept, which is the y-coordinate of the point where the line crosses the y axis. This can be seen by letting , which immediately gives . Point–slope form where m is the slope of the line and (x1,y1) is any point on the line. The point-slope and slope-intercept forms are easily interchangeable. The point-slope form expresses the fact that the difference in the y coordinate between two points on a line (that is, ) is proportional to the difference in the x coordinate (that is, ). The proportionality constant is m (the slope of the line). Intercept form where c and b must be nonzero. The graph of the equation has x-intercept c and y-intercept b. The intercept form can be converted to the standard form by setting A = 1/c, B = 1/b and C = 1. Two-point form where x2 ≠ x1. The graph passes through the points (x1,y1) and (x2,y2), and has slope m = (y2−y1) / (x2−x1). Parametric form and Two simultaneous equations in terms of a variable parameter t, with slope m = V / T, x-intercept (VU−WT) / V and y-intercept (WT−VU) / T. This can also be related to the two-point form, where T = p−h, U = h, V = q−k, and W = k: and In this case t varies from 0 at point (h,k) to 1 at point (p,q), with values of t between 0 and 1 providing interpolation and other values of t providing extrapolation. Polar Form where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept. When θ = 0 the graph will be undefined. Thus, the equation can be rewritten to eliminate discontinuities: Normal form where φ is the angle of inclination of the normal and p is the length of the normal. The normal is defined to be the shortest segment between the line in question and the origin. Normal form can be derived from general form by dividing all of the coefficients by This form is also called the Hesse standard form, after the German mathematician Ludwig Otto Hesse. Special cases This is a special case of the standard form where A = 0 and B = 1, or of the slope-intercept form where the slope M = 0. The graph is a horizontal line with y-intercept equal to b. There is no x-intercept, unless b = 0, in which case the graph of the line is the x-axis, and so every real number is an x-intercept. This is a special case of the standard form where A = 1 and B = 0. The graph is a vertical line with x-intercept equal to c. The slope is undefined. There is no y-intercept, unless c = 0, in which case the graph of the line is the y-axis, and so every real number is a y-intercept. and In this case all variables and constants have canceled out, leaving a trivially true statement. The original equation, therefore, would be called an identity and one would not normally consider its graph (it would be the entire xy-plane). An example is 2x + 4y = 2(x + 2y). The two expressions on either side of the equal sign are always equal, no matter what values are used for x and y. In situations where algebraic manipulation leads to a statement such as 1 = 0, then the original equation is called inconsistent, meaning it is untrue for any values of x and y (i.e. its graph would be the empty set) An example would be 3x + 2 = 3x − 5. Connection with linear functions and operators In all of the named forms above (assuming the graph is not a vertical line), the variable y is a function of x, and the graph of this function is the graph of the equation. In the particular case that the line crosses through the graph, if the linear equation is written in the form y = f(x) then f has the properties: and where a is any scalar. A function which satisfies these properties is called a linear function, or more generally a linear map. This property makes linear equations particularly easy to solve and reason about. Linear equations in more than two variables A linear equation can involve more than two variables. The general linear equation in n variables is: In this form, a1, a2, …, an are the coefficients, x1, x2, …, xn are the variables, and b is the constant. When dealing with three or fewer variables, it is common to replace x1 with just x, x2 with y, and x3 with z, as appropriate. Such an equation will represent an (n–1)-dimensional hyperplane in n''-dimensional Euclidean space (for example, a plane in 3-space). See also Line (geometry) Quadratic equation Cubic equation Quartic equation Quintic equation Linear inequality References External links Algebraic Equations at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations. be-x-old:Лінейнае раўнаньне | Linear_equation |@lemmatized linear:22 equation:40 algebraic:3 term:6 either:2 constant:10 product:2 first:1 power:2 single:1 variable:16 one:3 occur:2 great:2 regularity:1 applied:1 mathematics:1 arise:1 quite:1 naturally:1 model:1 many:2 phenomenon:1 particularly:2 useful:1 since:4 non:2 may:1 reduce:1 assume:2 quantity:1 interest:1 vary:1 small:1 extent:1 background:1 state:1 two:9 common:3 form:32 b:20 designate:1 multiply:1 usual:1 explicitly:1 write:3 origin:2 name:2 come:1 fact:2 set:3 solution:1 straight:4 line:24 plane:3 particular:2 determine:2 slope:16 gradient:1 point:14 cross:5 axis:7 cannot:3 contain:1 distinct:1 equal:7 function:6 involve:2 xy:2 sin:1 x:20 nonlinear:1 graph:17 sample:1 complicate:1 rewrite:2 use:2 law:1 elementary:1 algebra:1 several:1 different:1 often:1 refer:1 follow:1 letter:1 represent:3 fixed:1 number:3 general:4 zero:5 usually:1 convention:1 every:3 nonzero:3 intercept:19 coordinate:5 c:9 standard:6 integer:2 whose:1 factor:1 negative:1 positive:1 convert:2 always:2 worth:1 nothing:1 frequently:1 school:1 level:1 u:2 textbooks:1 make:2 little:1 mathematical:2 sense:1 describe:2 instance:1 coefficient:3 irrational:1 formula:1 see:2 let:1 immediately:1 give:1 easily:1 interchangeable:1 express:1 difference:2 proportional:1 proportionality:1 must:1 pass:1 parametric:1 simultaneous:1 parameter:1 v:3 vu:2 wt:2 also:3 relate:1 p:3 h:3 q:2 k:3 w:1 case:8 varies:1 value:4 provide:2 interpolation:1 extrapolation:1 polar:1 θ:1 undefined:2 thus:1 eliminate:1 discontinuity:1 normal:5 φ:1 angle:1 inclination:1 length:1 define:1 short:1 segment:1 question:1 derive:1 divide:1 call:4 hesse:2 german:1 mathematician:1 ludwig:1 otto:1 special:3 horizontal:1 unless:2 real:2 vertical:2 cancel:1 leave:1 trivially:1 true:1 statement:2 original:2 therefore:1 would:5 identity:1 normally:1 consider:1 entire:1 example:3 expression:1 side:1 sign:1 matter:1 situation:1 manipulation:1 lead:1 inconsistent:1 mean:1 untrue:1 e:1 empty:1 connection:1 operator:1 f:2 property:3 scalar:1 satisfy:1 generally:1 map:1 easy:1 solve:1 reason:1 n:3 xn:1 deal:1 three:1 replace:1 z:1 appropriate:1 dimensional:2 hyperplane:1 euclidean:1 space:2 geometry:1 quadratic:1 cubic:1 quartic:1 quintic:1 inequality:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 eqworld:1 world:1 old:1 лінейнае:1 раўнаньне:1 |@bigram applied_mathematics:1 proportionality_constant:1 trivially_true:1 xy_plane:1 dimensional_euclidean:1 quadratic_equation:1 quartic_equation:1 quintic_equation:1 external_link:1 |
5,987 | Alpha-Ketoglutaric_acid | α-Ketoglutaric acid is one of two ketone derivatives of glutaric acid. (The term "ketoglutaric acid," when not further qualified, almost always refers to the alpha variant. β-Ketoglutaric acid varies only by the position of the ketone functional group, and is much less common.) Its anion, α-ketoglutarate (also called oxo-glutarate) is an important biological compound. It is the keto acid produced by de-amination of glutamate, and is an intermediate in the Krebs cycle. Functions Krebs cycle α-Ketoglutaric acid is a key intermediate in the Krebs cycle, coming after isocitrate and before succinyl CoA. Anaplerotic reactions can replenish the cycle at this juncture by synthesizing α-ketoglutarate from transamination of glutamate, or through action of glutamate dehydrogenase on glutamate. Formation of amino acids Glutamine is synthesized from glutamate by glutamine synthase, which utilizes an ATP to form glutamyl phosphate; this intermediate is attacked by ammonia as a nucleophile giving glutamine and inorganic phosphate. Nitrogen transporter Another function is to combine with nitrogen released in the cell, therefore preventing nitrogen overload. α-Ketoglutarate is one of the most important nitrogen transporter in metabolic pathways. The amino groups of amino acids are attached to it by transamination and carried to the liver where the urea cycle takes place. α-Ketoglutarate is transaminated, along with glutamine, to form the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. Glutamate can then be decarboxylated (requiring vitamin B6) into the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. It is reported that high ammonia and/or high nitrogen levels may occur with high protein intake, excessive aluminum exposure, Reye's syndrome, cirrhosis, and urea cycle disorder. Relationship to molecular oxygen Acting as a co-substrate, it also plays important function in oxidation reactions involving molecular oxygen. Molecular oxygen (O2) directly oxidizes many compounds to produce useful products in an organism, such as antibiotics, etc., in reactions catalyzed by oxygenases. In many oxygenases, α-ketoglutarate helps the reaction by being oxidized together with the main substrate. In fact, one of the α-ketoglutarate-dependent oxygenases is an O2 sensor, informing the organism the oxygen level in its environment. Dietary supplement α-Ketoglutaric acid is sold as a dietary supplement and to body builders as AKG or a-KG. Some believe it increases stamina. Production α-Ketoglutarate can be produced by: Oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate by isocitrate dehydrogenase; Oxidative deamination of glutamate by glutamate dehydrogenase. Alpha-ketoglutarate can be used to produce: Creatine-alpha ketoglutarate References | Alpha-Ketoglutaric_acid |@lemmatized α:10 ketoglutaric:5 acid:9 one:3 two:1 ketone:2 derivative:1 glutaric:1 term:1 far:1 qualify:1 almost:1 always:1 refers:1 alpha:3 variant:1 β:1 varies:1 position:1 functional:1 group:2 much:1 less:1 common:1 anion:1 ketoglutarate:9 also:2 call:1 oxo:1 glutarate:1 important:3 biological:1 compound:2 keto:1 produce:4 de:1 amination:1 glutamate:9 intermediate:3 krebs:3 cycle:6 function:3 key:1 come:1 isocitrate:3 succinyl:1 coa:1 anaplerotic:1 reaction:4 replenish:1 juncture:1 synthesize:2 transamination:2 action:1 dehydrogenase:3 formation:1 amino:3 glutamine:4 synthase:1 utilize:1 atp:1 form:2 glutamyl:1 phosphate:2 attack:1 ammonia:2 nucleophile:1 give:1 inorganic:1 nitrogen:5 transporter:2 another:1 combine:1 release:1 cell:1 therefore:1 prevent:1 overload:1 metabolic:1 pathway:1 attach:1 carry:1 liver:1 urea:2 take:1 place:1 transaminate:1 along:1 excitatory:1 neurotransmitter:2 decarboxylate:1 require:1 vitamin:1 inhibitory:1 gaba:1 report:1 high:3 level:2 may:1 occur:1 protein:1 intake:1 excessive:1 aluminum:1 exposure:1 reye:1 syndrome:1 cirrhosis:1 disorder:1 relationship:1 molecular:3 oxygen:4 act:1 co:1 substrate:2 play:1 oxidation:1 involve:1 directly:1 oxidize:2 many:2 useful:1 product:1 organism:2 antibiotic:1 etc:1 catalyze:1 oxygenase:2 help:1 together:1 main:1 fact:1 dependent:1 oxygenases:1 sensor:1 inform:1 environment:1 dietary:2 supplement:2 sell:1 body:1 builder:1 akg:1 kg:1 believe:1 increase:1 stamen:1 production:1 oxidative:2 decarboxylation:1 deamination:1 use:1 creatine:1 reference:1 |@bigram ketoglutaric_acid:5 α_ketoglutarate:7 keto_acid:1 krebs_cycle:3 succinyl_coa:1 glutamate_dehydrogenase:2 amino_acid:2 inorganic_phosphate:1 metabolic_pathway:1 urea_cycle:2 excitatory_neurotransmitter:1 inhibitory_neurotransmitter:1 reye_syndrome:1 reaction_catalyze:1 dietary_supplement:2 alpha_ketoglutarate:2 |
5,988 | Fred_Singer | Siegfried Frederick Singer (born 27 September 1924 in Vienna) is an American atmospheric physicist. Singer is Professor Emeritus of environmental science at the University of Virginia, specializing in planetary science, global warming, ozone depletion, and other global environmental issues. In the 1960s Singer was a leading figure in the early development of earth observation satellites, becoming a Special Advisor on space developments to President Eisenhower and establishing the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center as well as becoming its first Director (1962-64). He has subsequently held a variety of academic and government positions, including Professor of environmental science at the University of Virginia (1971 - 1994). In the 1980s and 1990s Singer became associated in the public eye with a number of controversial issues, notably on global warming, on which he opposes the scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change. In 2007, the nonprofit advocacy group Union of Concerned Scientists called Singer a "climate contrarian." Scientist Calls Global Warming Theories 'Bunk,' Cites Errors of Logic He worked with the Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy in the 1980s, before starting the Science & Environmental Policy Project (SEPP) in 1990 as an offshoot. He is the President of SEPP. Career U.S. Department of Commerce Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Federal Service. Singer received the award for the development and management of the U.S. weather satellite program, after being the first Director of the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center (1962-64) Singer received a B.E.E in Electrical engineering from Ohio State University in 1943; an A.M. in physics from Princeton in 1944; and a Ph.D in physics from Princeton in 1948. He received an honorary Doctorate of Science from Ohio State University in 1970. "As a reviewer of IPCC reports, he shares the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore." Fred S. Singer, New York Sun, 23 May 2008, "Foggy Science In London" In the 1940s and 50s Singer designed the first instruments used in satellites to measure cosmic radiation and ozone. He invented the backscatter photometer ozone-monitoring instrument for early versions of US weather satellites. By the early 1960s he was a leading figure in the early development of earth observation satellites, becoming a Special Advisor on space developments to President Eisenhower and establishing and becoming the first Director of the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center (1962-64). He was recognised by President Eisenhower for his contribution to the early design of satellites, receiving a Special Commendation. Upon stepping down as the first Director of the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center he also received a U.S. Department of Commerce Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Federal Service. In his career Singer has held a variety of government and academic positions. He was Director of the Center for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Maryland, College Park (1953-62) and the first Director of the National Weather Bureau's Satellite Service Center (1962-64). He was the founding Dean of the School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences, University of Miami (1964-67), and later Professor of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia (1971-94). Singer has also held a variety of government positions. He was Special Advisor to President Eisenhower on space developments (1960). In the late 1960s and early 70s he was Deputy Assistant Secretary for Water Quality and Research, U.S. Department of the Interior (1967-70), and Deputy Assistant Administrator for Policy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1970-71). Later he was Chief Scientist, United States Department of Transportation (1987-89). Singer has also been a consultant to the House Select Committee on Space, NASA, GAO, NSF, AEC, NRC, DOD (Strategic Defense Initiative), US DOE Nuclear Waste Panel, the US Treasury, and the state governments of Virginia, Alaska, and Pennsylvania. S. FRED SINGER, Ph.D., Professional Background The EPA and the science of environmental tobacco smoke / Industry cooperation Singer has been a consultant to various major corporations, including GE, Ford, GM, Exxon, Shell, Sun Oil, Lockheed Martin and IBM. S. FRED SINGER, Ph.D., Professional Background The EPA and the science of environmental tobacco smoke / In the 1990s Singer worked together with a number of industries whose interests matched his views on controversial issues, notably on global warming and on the effects of tobacco smoke and ozone on human health. A 2007 Newsweek cover story on climate change denial reported that: "In April 1998 a dozen people from the denial machine — including the Marshall Institute, Fred Singer's group and Exxon — met at the American Petroleum Institute's Washington headquarters. They proposed a $5 million campaign, according to a leaked eight-page memo, to convince the public that the science of global warming is riddled with controversy and uncertainty." The plan was reportedly aimed at "raising questions about and undercutting the 'prevailing scientific wisdom'" on climate change. According to Newsweek, the plan was leaked to the press and therefore was never implemented. The Truth About Denial, by Sharon Begley. Published in Newsweek on August 13, 2007; accessed November 8, 2007. ABC News has reported that Singer insists he is not on the payroll of the energy industry, but admits he once received an unsolicited $10,000 from Exxon. In 1994 Singer was the Principal Reviewer of a report authored by Kent Jeffreys titled Science, economics, and environmental policy: a critical examination which was published by the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution (AdTI), a conservative think tank of which he was a Senior Fellow. The report attacked the United States Environmental Protection Agency for their 1993 study about the cancer risks of passive smoking and called it "junk science". Singer also appeared on a tobacco industry list of people who could write op-ed pieces defending the industry’s views, according to a peer-reviewed commentary by Derek Yach and Stella Aguinaga Bialous. Writing for The Guardian, George Monbiot stated that in 1993 APCO, a public relations firm, sent a memo to Philip Morris vice-president Ellen Merlo stating: "As you know, we have been working with Singer and Dr. Dwight Lee, who have authored articles on junk science and indoor air quality (IAQ) respectively ..." Monbiot wrote that he did not have direct evidence that Singer had been paid by Philip Morris. Views In the 1980s and 1990s Singer became associated in the public eye with a number of controversial issues, notably on global warming. In 2007, the nonprofit advocacy group Union of Concerned Scientists called Singer a "climate contrarian." He worked with the Washington Institute for Values in Public Policy in the 1980s, before starting the Science & Environmental Policy Project (SEPP) in 1990 as an offshoot. He is the President of SEPP. Singer is skeptical of scientific findings on human-induced global warming Global Warming Unfinished Business ("Climate science is not 'settled;'") , the connection between CFCs and ozone depletion, "Both theory and measurements suggests that hydrogen-containing molecules, not chlorine, are the main destruction agent for ozone in the lower stratosphere" and the link between second hand smoke and lung cancer. Science & Environmental Policy Project - About the Project Singer has also worked with organizations with similar views, such as the Independent Institute, S. Fred Singer: The Independent Institute the American Council on Science and Health, Frontiers of Freedom, the Marshall Institute, and the National Center for Policy Analysis, Warming Caused by Natural Cycle | Not Humans | News | E-Team . Global warming Singer said that "Climate change is a natural phenomenon. Climate keeps changing all the time. The fact that climate changes is not in itself a threat, because, obviously, in the past human beings have adapted to all kinds of climate changes." He also noted that the urban heat island effect influences surface temperatures, and later in 2003, he asserted that the warming from surface thermometer data was contradicted by satellite and radiosonde data etc. Singer has emphasized natural factors over anthropogenic causes to explain global warming and he wrote: The Earth currently is experiencing a warming trend, but there is scientific evidence that human activities have little to do with it. Instead, the warming seems to be part of a 1,500-year cycle (plus or minus 500 years) of moderate temperature swings. However, an article from the Journal Science describes how the Sun's role in climate variation is ambiguous. A more detailed discussion of the lack of evidence of a link between the sun and the earth's climate can be found at RealClimate Singer has critiqued other scientists' research in Eos, December 16, 1997. Unknowns About Climate Variability Render Treaty Targets Premature, EOS, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Volume 78, page 584, December 16, 1997 Singer co-authored two 2004 articles in Geophysics Research Letters. See SEPP, "Further reading" In 2007, studies Singer co-authored found tropospheric temperature trends of 'Climate of the 20th Century' models differed from satellite observations by twice the model mean uncertainty. Models of layers near 5 km were 100% to 300% higher than observation, and above 8 km models and observations had opposite signs. He is the co-author of the New York Times Bestseller Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years with Dennis T. Avery of the Hudson Institute. NIPCC In 2008, Singer's group, the Science and Environmental Policy Project, completed the organization of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC) as the culmination of a process that began in 2003. "The foundation for NIPCC," stated Singer, "was laid ... when a small group of scientists from the United States and Europe met in Milan during one of the frequent UN climate conferences." The Heartland Institute says that "It was not until a workshop with many more scientists, from both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, was held in Vienna in 2007 that the NIPCC organizational effort formally began, however". According to the abstract of the 2008 Summary for Policymakers of the Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change, the result of The 2008 International Conference on Climate Change held in New York City, the NIPCC is "an international coalition of scientists convened to provide an independent examination of the evidence available on the causes and consequences of climate change in the published, peer-reviewed literature – examined without bias and selectivity. It includes many research papers ignored by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), plus additional scientific results that became available after the IPCC deadline of May 2006." The NIPCC document titled "Nature, Not Human Activity Rules the Climate," P:\JBast\Books\Singer NIPCC\(02-18-08) Singer NIPCC.wpd published by The Heartland Institute Report notice: Opinions expressed are solely those of the authors. Nothing in this report should be construed as reflecting the views of the Science and Environmental Policy Project or The Heartland Institute, or as an attempt to influence pending legislation. was released in February-March 2008. Singer served as General Editor and is the copyright owner. It is unclear if the report is the "report itself" or the summary of an as-yet unreleased report since the report's second page subtitles it "Summary for Policymakers of the Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change." Climate scientists from NASA, Stanford University and Princeton who were contacted by ABC News dismissed Singer's most recent report on global warming as "fabricated nonsense.". Michael Mann and Gavin Schmidt called it a "dishonest 'assessment' of the science of climate change". Not the IPCC (“NIPCC”) Report The Great Global Warming Swindle In March 2007, Singer appeared in the controversial documentary film The Great Global Warming Swindle which asserted that the mainstream view on global warming was "a lie" and "the biggest scam of modern times". On the program, Singer imputed to the Chief Scientific Advisor of the United Kingdom, Sir David King the view that "by the end of the century the only habitable place on the earth will be the Antarctic. And humanity may survive thanks to some breeding couples who moved to the Antarctic". Singer then commented "It would be hilarious if it weren't so sad." The program was the subject of over 200 complaints to the British television regulator Ofcom including one from Sir David King. Sir David complained that he had made no reference to "breeding couples" and that the program had exaggerated his statements by changing his words from "most habitable" to "only habitable". As part of their defense, Channel 4 provided examples of media reports from the time of King's remarks which had imputed to him statements such as "Antarctica is likely to be the world’s only habitable continent by the end of this century ... the rest of the globe could not sustain human life" while noting that those statements had gone unchallenged for nearly 3 years prior to the program being broadcast. Other evidence showed that Singer had apparently conflated King's remarks with similar remarks made by Sir James Lovelock, specifically "Before this century is over, billions of us will die, and the few breeding pairs of people that survive will be in the Arctic where the climate remains tolerable." Ofcom upheld King's claim of unfair treatment in the program since he had not been provided an opportunity to respond as required by broadcast rules. 1991 Revelle paper controversy In 1991 Singer co-authored a paper with renowned oceanographer Roger Revelle and risk analysis expert Chauncey Starr. S. F. Singer, C. Starr, and R. Revelle, “What To Do About Greenhouse Warming: Look Before You Leap,” Cosmos 1 (1991): 28–33. The paper shared part of its title and substantial material with a paper Singer had sole-authored the year before. Singer, S.F. (1990, Environmental Science & Technology Vol. 24, No. 8, "What to do about greenhouse warming" Revelle died a few months after the paper was published. Several years later Justin Lancaster, a former associate of Revelle's, asked for Revelle's name to be dropped from a proposed republication of the 1991 paper, alleging that Revelle's contribution was so small as to not justify co-authorship. Some other scientists, such as Walter Munk, shared some of Lancaster's concerns, with Munk writing in 1992 that "S. Fred Singer wrote the paper and, as a courtesy, added Roger as a co-author based upon his willingness to review the manuscript and advise on aspects relating to sea-level rise." Walter H. Munk and Edward A. Frieman, Oceanography 5(2), "Let Roger Revelle Speak For Himself" Lancaster's efforts to have Revelle's name dropped resulted in a libel suit in April 1993, which Lancaster conceded in 1994. Fred Singer (2003), The Revelle-Gore Story: Attempted Political Suppression of Science, in Gough (2003 ed), Politicizing Science, Hoover Press. UV-A, melanoma, and stratospheric ozone Singer has stated there is a connection between UV-A and melanoma, as well as between the shorter-wavelength UV-B radiation and basal and squamous cell skin cancers. However, he believes that there is "no clear relation" between UV-B and melanoma rates, based on published research in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences regarding UV-B radiation and melanoma Singer has variously suggested there is no connection between CFCs and stratospheric ozone loss, "Both theory and measurements suggests that hydrogen-containing molecules, not chlorine, are the main destruction agent for ozone in the lower stratosphere" and that no significant ozone loss is occurring. "Anthology of 1995's Environmental Myths" Satellites and space exploration In 1960, Singer was one of several scientists who speculated that the Martian moon Phobos was artificial in origin. The claim was based on the erroneous conclusion that Phobos was hollow. Later observations demonstrated conclusively that Phobos was not hollow, rendering the artificial origin speculation moot. Shklovsky, I. S.; The Universe, Life, and Mind, Academy of Sciences USSR, Moscow, 1962 "More on the Moons of Mars". Singer, S. F., Astronautics, February 1960. American Astronautical Society. Page 16. "My conclusion there is, and here I back Shklovsky, that if the satellite is indeed spiraling inward as deduced from astronomical observation, then there is little alternative to the hypothesis that it is hollow and therefore martian made. The big "if" lies in the astronomical observations; they may well be in error. Since they are based on several independent sets of measurements taken decades apart by different observers with different instruments, systematic errors may have influenced them." In 1981, he proposed a manned mission to the Martian moons. Singer cited the following benefits of a manned mission to Mars' moons over a further delayed direct landing on Mars: . Minimal Δv’s needed to reach Phobos’s surface. Ability to monitor Mars from a stable platform in low Mars orbit (LMO). Ability to teleoperate robots on Mars without significant time delay. Opportunity to advance the scientific investigation of small bodies. Potential of finding H2O on Phobos which might be used as a resource. Singer also has been a proponent of manned exploration to Mars. A Manned Mission to the Mysterious Moons of Mars, by S. Fred Singer In 1994, Singer contributed to a paper on the results from the Interplanetary Dust Experiment using data from the Long Duration Exposure Facility satellite. Long duration exposure facility (LDEF) interplanetary dust experiment (IDE) impact detector results Kuwait oil fires debate During Operation Desert Storm in 1991, Singer debated Carl Sagan on the impact of the Kuwaiti petroleum fires on the ABC News program Nightline. Sagan said we know from the nuclear winter investigation that the smoke would loft into the upper atmosphere and that he believed the net effects would be very similar to the explosion of the Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816 being known as the year without a summer, in massive agricultural failures, in very serious human suffering and, in some cases, starvation. He predicted the same for south Asia, and perhaps for a significant fraction of the northern hemisphere as well as a result. Singer, on the other hand, said that calculations showed that the smoke would go to an altitude of about 3,000 feet and then be rained out after about three to five days and thus the lifetime of the smoke would be limited. According to a later study, Smoke from the Kuwait Oil Fires dominated the synoptic weather pattern throughout the Persian Gulf and surrounding region during 1991. The lower atmospheric wind flow parameters advected smoke along the eastern half of the Arabian Peninsula, and cities like Dhahran, Riyadh and Bahrain experienced days with smoke filled skies and carbon fallout. [...] Differential smoke advection at all three sites led to significant temperature variations. Smoke from the Kuwait oil fires lowered mean maximum and mean temperatures at Dhahran and Riyadh during 1991. Cooler Persian Gulf temperatures caused by the oil spill into the gulf and oil fire smoke lowered mean maximum, mean and mean minimum at Bahrain during 1991. However Although lower temperatures were recorded in 1991, Kuwait oil fires had no lasting meteorological impacts at any of the locations examined, and there has been no change to the seasonal synoptic weather patterns throughout the Persian Gulf Region. Publications Nature, Not Human Activity, Rules the Climate a document claiming to be a "Summary for Policymakers of the Report of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change", although there is no evidence that the report of which it claims to be a summary exists. Edited by S. Fred Singer, copyright SEPP, published for the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change by "The Heartland Institute", March 2008. (with Dennis T Avery) Unstoppable Global Warming Every 1500 Years. Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. 260 pp ISBN 0742551172 S. Fred Singer, The Changing Global Environment. Springer, 1975. 431 pp ISBN 978-9027703859 S. Fred Singer, ed. Global Effects of Environmental Pollution. Springer, 1970. 232 pp ISBN 978-9027701510 Amazon.com listing PDF preview of book See also List of scientists opposing global warming consensus Notes and references Further reading The Science & Environmental Policy Project George Monbiot, The Guardian, May 10, 2005, "Junk science:David Bellamy's inaccurate and selective figures on glacier shrinkage are a boon to climate change deniers" (Bellamy's figures came ultimately from Singer but are contradicted by the World Glacier Monitoring Service.) An interview with Dr. Singer, February 2001 Environmental Strategies with Uncertain Science, Regulation 13(1), Winter 1990 The Revelle-Gore Story: Attempted Political Suppression of Science The Denial Machine is a video from the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation featuring Fred Singer The cows missed the movie by Debra J. 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5,989 | Hawala | Hawala (also known as hundi) is an informal value transfer system based on the performance and honor of a huge network of money brokers, which are primarily located in the Near East, North and Northeast Africa, and South Asia. Origins Hawala has its origins in classical Islamic law, and is mentioned in texts of Islamic jurisprudence as early as the 8th century. Hawala itself later influenced the development of the agency in common law and in civil laws such as the aval in French law and the avallo in Italian law. The words aval and avallo were themselves derived from Hawala. The transfer of debt, which was "not permissible under Roman law but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in commercial transactions", was due to the large extent of the "trade conducted by the Italian cities with the Muslim world in the Middle Ages." The agency was also "an institution unknown to Roman law" as no "individual could conclude a binding contract on behalf of another as his agent." In Roman law, the "contractor himself was considered the party to the contract and it took a second contract between the person who acted on behalf of a principal and the latter in order to transfer the rights and the obligations deriving from the contract to him." On the other hand, Islamic law and the later common law "had no difficulty in accepting agency as one of its institutions in the field of contracts and of obligations in general." Hawala is believed to have arisen in the financing of long-distance trade around the emerging capital trade centers in the early medieval period. In South Asia, it appears to have developed into a fully-fledged money market instrument, which was only gradually replaced by the instruments of the formal banking system in the first half of the 20th century. Today hawala is probably used mostly for migrant workers' remittances to their countries of origin. How Hawala works In the most basic variant of the hawala system, money is transferred via a network of hawala brokers, or hawaladars. A customer approaches a hawala broker in one city and gives a sum of money to be transferred to a recipient in another, usually foreign, city. The hawala broker calls another hawala broker in the recipient's city, gives disposition instructions of the funds (usually minus a small commission), and promises to settle the debt at a later date. The unique feature of the system is that no promissory instruments are exchanged between the hawala brokers; the transaction takes place entirely on the honor system. As the system does not depend on the legal enforceability of claims, it can operate even in the absence of a legal and juridical environment. No records are produced of individual transactions; only a running tally of the amount owed by one broker to another is kept. Settlements of debts between hawala brokers can take a variety of forms, and need not take the form of direct cash transactions. In addition to commissions, hawala brokers often earn their profits through bypassing official exchange rates. Generally the funds enter the system in the source country's currency and leave the system in the recipient country's currency. As settlements often take place without any foreign exchange transactions, they can be made at other than official exchange rates. Hawala is attractive to customers because it provides a fast and convenient transfer of funds, usually with a far lower commission than that charged by banks. Its advantages are most pronounced when the receiving country applies distortive exchange rate regulations (as has been the case for many typical receiving countries such as Pakistan or Egypt) or when the banking system in the receiving country is less complex (e.g. due to differences in legal environment in places such as Afghanistan, Yemen, Somalia). Furthermore, the transfers are informal and not effectively regulated by governments, which is a major advantage to customers with tax, currency control, immigration, or other legal concerns. For the same reasons, governments do not favor the system, and accusations have been made in recent years that terrorist funding often changes hands through hawala networks. Hundis (The Bill of Exchange) On a similar note, Hundis referred to legal financial instruments evolved on the Indian sub-continent. These were used in trade and credit transactions; they were used as remittance instruments for the purpose of transfer of funds from one place to another. In the era of bygone kings and the British Raj these Hundis served as Travellers Cheques. They were also used as credit instruments for borrowing and as bills of exchange for trade transactions. Technically, a Hundi is an unconditional order in writing made by a person directing another to pay a certain sum of money to a person named in the order. Being a part of an informal system, hundis now have no legal status and were not covered under the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881. They were mostly used as cheques by indigenous bankers. Angadia The word angadia means courier (in Hindi) but it is also used for people who act as Hawaladars within the country (India). These people mostly act as a parallel banking system for businessmen. They charge a commission of around 0.2-0.5% per transaction from transferring money from one city to another. Hawala after September 11, 2001 After the September 11 terrorist attacks, the American government suspected that some hawala brokers may have helped terrorist organizations to transfer money to fund their activities. The 9/11 Commission Report has since confirmed that the bulk of the funds used to finance the assault were not sent through the hawala system, but rather by inter-bank wire transfer to a SunTrust Bank in Florida, where two of the conspirators had opened a personal account. However as a result of intense pressure from the US authorities, widespread efforts are currently being made to introduce systematic anti-money laundering initiatives on a global scale, the better to curb the activities of the financiers of terrorism and those engaged in laundering the profits of drug smuggling. Whether these initiatives will have the desired effect of curbing such activities has yet to be seen; although a number of hawala networks have been closed down and a number of hawaladars have been successfully prosecuted for money laundering, there is little sign that these actions have brought the authorities any closer to identifying and arresting a significant number of terrorists or drug smugglers. In November, 2001, the Bush administration froze the assets of Al Barakat, a Somali remittance hawala company used primarily by the large Somali Diaspora. Many of its agents in several countries were initially arrested, though later freed after no concrete evidence against them was found. In August 2006 the last Al Barakat representatives were taken off the U.S. terror list, though some assets remain frozen. Hawala has been made illegal in some US states and other countries as it is seen to be a form of money laundering and can be used to move wealth anonymously. See also Hawala scandal, 1990s political scandal in India Islamic Banking Riba Notes Further reading Hawala. An Informal Payment System and Its Use to Finance Terrorism by Sebastian R. Müller (December 2006), ISBN 3-8655-0656-9 External links and U.S. Treasury Dept. Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN) Ballard, Roger. A collection of academic papers exploring the operation of contemporary hawala networks, and the role they play in the transmission of migrant workers' remittances from Europe to South Asia CBC's "Money-transfer systems, hawala style" Wilson, John F. et al., Informal Funds Transfer Systems: An Analysis of the Hawala System, International Monetary Fund, October, 2003 Hawala fraud on BBC News, April 2007 "The Nexus of Drug Trafficking and Hawala in Afhanistan" Dr. Edwina A. Thompson, for The World Bank and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) Hawala @ everything2.com Bowers, Charles. An academic paper concerning the international legal/political consequences of hawala and money laundering. | Hawala |@lemmatized hawala:32 also:5 know:1 hundi:2 informal:5 value:1 transfer:13 system:17 base:1 performance:1 honor:2 huge:1 network:6 money:12 broker:10 primarily:2 locate:1 near:1 east:1 north:1 northeast:1 africa:1 south:3 asia:3 origin:3 classical:1 islamic:4 law:10 mention:1 text:1 jurisprudence:1 early:2 century:2 later:2 influence:1 development:1 agency:3 common:2 civil:1 aval:2 french:1 avallo:2 italian:2 word:2 derive:2 debt:3 permissible:1 roman:3 become:1 widely:1 practice:1 medieval:2 europe:2 especially:1 commercial:1 transaction:8 due:2 large:2 extent:1 trade:5 conduct:1 city:5 muslim:1 world:2 middle:1 age:1 institution:2 unknown:1 individual:2 could:1 conclude:1 binding:1 contract:5 behalf:2 another:7 agent:2 contractor:1 consider:1 party:1 take:6 second:1 person:3 act:4 principal:1 latter:1 order:3 right:1 obligation:2 hand:2 late:2 difficulty:1 accept:1 one:5 field:1 general:1 believe:1 arise:1 financing:1 long:1 distance:1 around:2 emerge:1 capital:1 center:1 period:1 appear:1 develop:1 fully:1 fledge:1 market:1 instrument:7 gradually:1 replace:1 formal:1 banking:4 first:1 half:1 today:1 probably:1 use:10 mostly:3 migrant:2 worker:2 remittance:4 country:9 work:1 basic:1 variant:1 via:1 hawaladars:3 customer:3 approach:1 give:2 sum:2 recipient:3 usually:3 foreign:2 call:1 disposition:1 instruction:1 fund:8 minus:1 small:1 commission:5 promise:1 settle:1 date:1 unique:1 feature:1 promissory:1 exchange:7 place:4 entirely:1 depend:1 legal:7 enforceability:1 claim:1 operate:1 even:1 absence:1 juridical:1 environment:2 record:1 produce:1 run:1 tally:1 amount:1 owe:1 keep:1 settlement:2 variety:1 form:3 need:1 direct:2 cash:1 addition:1 often:3 earn:1 profit:2 bypass:1 official:2 rate:3 generally:1 enter:1 source:1 currency:3 leave:1 without:1 make:5 attractive:1 provide:1 fast:1 convenient:1 far:1 low:1 charge:2 bank:4 advantage:2 pronounced:1 receive:2 applies:1 distortive:1 regulation:1 case:1 many:2 typical:1 pakistan:1 egypt:1 receiving:1 less:1 complex:1 e:1 g:1 difference:1 afghanistan:1 yemen:1 somalia:1 furthermore:1 effectively:1 regulate:1 government:3 major:1 tax:1 control:1 immigration:1 concern:2 reason:1 favor:1 accusation:1 recent:1 year:1 terrorist:4 funding:1 change:1 hundis:4 bill:2 similar:1 note:2 refer:1 financial:2 evolve:1 indian:1 sub:1 continent:1 credit:2 purpose:1 era:1 bygone:1 king:1 british:1 raj:1 serve:1 traveller:1 cheque:2 borrow:1 technically:1 unconditional:1 write:1 pay:1 certain:1 name:1 part:1 status:1 cover:1 negotiable:1 indigenous:1 banker:1 angadia:2 mean:1 courier:1 hindi:1 people:2 within:1 india:2 parallel:1 businessmen:1 per:1 september:2 attack:1 american:1 suspect:1 may:1 help:1 organization:1 activity:3 report:1 since:1 confirm:1 bulk:1 finance:2 assault:1 send:1 rather:1 inter:1 wire:1 suntrust:1 florida:1 two:1 conspirator:1 open:1 personal:1 account:1 however:1 result:1 intense:1 pressure:1 u:4 authority:2 widespread:1 effort:1 currently:1 introduce:1 systematic:1 anti:1 launder:2 initiative:2 global:1 scale:1 good:1 curb:2 financier:1 terrorism:2 engage:1 drug:4 smuggling:1 whether:1 desired:1 effect:1 yet:1 see:3 although:1 number:3 close:2 successfully:1 prosecute:1 laundering:3 little:1 sign:1 action:1 bring:1 identify:1 arrest:2 significant:1 smuggler:1 november:1 bush:1 administration:1 freeze:1 asset:2 al:3 barakat:2 somali:2 company:1 diaspora:1 several:1 initially:1 though:2 free:1 concrete:1 evidence:1 find:1 august:1 last:1 representative:1 terror:1 list:1 remain:1 frozen:1 illegal:1 state:1 move:1 wealth:1 anonymously:1 scandal:2 political:2 riba:1 reading:1 payment:1 sebastian:1 r:1 müller:1 december:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 treasury:1 dept:1 crime:2 enforcement:1 fincen:1 ballard:1 roger:1 collection:1 academic:2 paper:2 explore:1 operation:1 contemporary:1 role:1 play:1 transmission:1 cbc:1 style:1 wilson:1 john:1 f:1 et:1 analysis:1 international:2 monetary:1 october:1 fraud:1 bbc:1 news:1 april:1 nexus:1 trafficking:1 afhanistan:1 dr:1 edwina:1 thompson:1 united:1 nation:1 office:1 unodc:1 com:1 bower:1 charles:1 consequence:1 |@bigram islamic_jurisprudence:1 fully_fledge:1 worker_remittance:2 hawala_broker:8 traveller_cheque:1 drug_smuggling:1 money_laundering:3 external_link:1 et_al:1 monetary_fund:1 bbc_news:1 drug_trafficking:1 |
5,990 | Margaret_River,_Western_Australia | Margaret River is a town in the South West of Western Australia, located in the valley of the eponymous Margaret River, south of Perth, the state capital. Its Local Government Area is the Shire of Augusta-Margaret River. The surrounding area is the Margaret River Wine Region and has become known for its wine production and tourism, attracting an estimated 500,000 visitors annually. In earlier days the area was better known for hardwood timber and agricultural production. Geography and climate Margaret River is located inland from the Indian Ocean at a point about halfway between Cape Naturaliste and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia's South West region. The climate is humid Mediterranean, with an average annual rainfall of around . Most rain fall between May and August, when around two days in three record measurable rainfall and around one in ten over . On occasions, as in August 1955, the town has had measurable rain on every day of a month in this period. During the summer, the weather is very warm, though there are usually seabreezes, and frequently sunny. History The town is named after the river, which is presumed to be named after Margaret Wyche, cousin of John Garrett Bussell (founder of Busselton) in 1831. The name is first shown on a map of the region published in 1839. European migrants lived in the area as early as 1850, with timber logging commencing in around 1870. By 1910, the town had a hotel also operating as a post office. After World War I, an attempt by the Government of Western Australia to attract migrants to Western Australia (known as Group Settlement) and establish farms in the region attracted settlers to the town. In 1922, over 100 settlers moved into the district. Wine Region Location of Margaret River The Margaret River Wine Region extends about 120 kilometres north-south from Cape Leeuwin to Cape Naturaliste and about 30 kilometres inland. High-quality table wine grapes have been grown by a variety of commercial vineyards since the first significant plantings at Vasse Felix were established in 1967. Vasse Felix was named after a French seaman by the name of Thomas Vasse. Vasse had drowned when his longboat overturned off Wonnerup Beach near Busselton while exploring the coastline in the Geographe under Nicholas Baudin in June 1801. Other pioneering wine producers include 'Moss Wood', 'Cullen', 'Woodlands' and 'Cape Mentelle', all established in the early 1970s. The shift in emphasis to the wine industry in the late 1980s-early 1990s sharply reversed the slow decline in the region's economy, and since 1996, the region has been one of the fastest growing economic areas in Australia. Wines from the region are exported throughout the world and some varietals have achieved considerable fame: the 'Leeuwin Estate' Art Series Chardonnay for example is one of the finest of this varietal in the world. Although the region is one of Australia's largest wine regions, it produces just three percent of total Australian grape production, while producing more than 20 percent of the nation's premium wines. In recent years a number of small, independent producers have appeared bearing contemporary labels and brands. Some of these include 'wine by brad', 'Flying Fish' and 'Preveli Wines'. Caves Mammoth Cave Several hundred caves are located near Margaret River, all of them within Leeuwin-Naturaliste National Park. Six of these are open to the public. M. Bright, 1001 Natural Wonders You Must See Before You Die, Quintet Publishing, London 2005 The most famous of these is the multi-chambered Mammoth Cave, which lies 21 kilometres south of the town and contains fossils dating back over 35,000 years. The cave was first discovered by European settlers in 1850 and has been open to the public since 1904. The cave can be explored by a self-guided audio tour, and is one of the few caves in Australia offering partial disabled access. The other five caves open to the public in the area are Jewel Cave, Lake Cave, Ngilgi Cave, Calgardup Cave and Giants Cave. Many other caves can be accessed with a permit by experienced cavers. In the Media Arte-TV produced an episode of Nouveaux paradis about Margaret River. The 2008 documentary shows interviews with (amongst others) tourist officials, surfers, and dolphin watchers. Les Nouveaux paradis, L'Australie, de la mer à la vigne on IMDB. Margaret River is visited in the 1966 documentary film The Endless Summer. On April 25th 2009 on Sky television show Soccer AM, Hugh Jackman called Margaret River the best place he's ever been to citing the surf, the beaches, the food, the wine, the people and the air as his reasons for thinking so. See also Australian wine References External links Western Australia government tourist information (including map) | Margaret_River,_Western_Australia |@lemmatized margaret:12 river:12 town:6 south:5 west:2 western:5 australia:8 locate:3 valley:1 eponymous:1 perth:1 state:1 capital:1 local:1 government:3 area:6 shire:1 augusta:1 surround:1 wine:14 region:11 become:1 know:3 production:3 tourism:1 attract:3 estimate:1 visitor:1 annually:1 early:4 day:3 good:1 hardwood:1 timber:2 agricultural:1 geography:1 climate:2 inland:2 indian:1 ocean:1 point:1 halfway:1 cape:5 naturaliste:3 leeuwin:4 humid:1 mediterranean:1 average:1 annual:1 rainfall:2 around:4 rain:2 fall:1 may:1 august:2 two:1 three:2 record:1 measurable:2 one:5 ten:1 occasion:1 every:1 month:1 period:1 summer:2 weather:1 warm:1 though:1 usually:1 seabreezes:1 frequently:1 sunny:1 history:1 name:5 presume:1 wyche:1 cousin:1 john:1 garrett:1 bussell:1 founder:1 busselton:2 first:3 show:3 map:2 publish:1 european:2 migrant:2 live:1 log:1 commence:1 hotel:1 also:2 operate:1 post:1 office:1 world:3 war:1 attempt:1 group:1 settlement:1 establish:3 farm:1 settler:3 move:1 district:1 location:1 extend:1 kilometre:3 north:1 high:1 quality:1 table:1 grape:2 grow:2 variety:1 commercial:1 vineyard:1 since:3 significant:1 planting:1 vasse:4 felix:2 french:1 seaman:1 thomas:1 drown:1 longboat:1 overturn:1 wonnerup:1 beach:2 near:2 explore:2 coastline:1 geographe:1 nicholas:1 baudin:1 june:1 pioneer:1 producer:2 include:3 moss:1 wood:1 cullen:1 woodland:1 mentelle:1 shift:1 emphasis:1 industry:1 late:1 sharply:1 reverse:1 slow:1 decline:1 economy:1 fast:1 economic:1 export:1 throughout:1 varietal:2 achieve:1 considerable:1 fame:1 estate:1 art:1 series:1 chardonnay:1 example:1 fine:1 although:1 large:1 produce:3 percent:2 total:1 australian:2 nation:1 premium:1 recent:1 year:2 number:1 small:1 independent:1 appear:1 bearing:1 contemporary:1 label:1 brand:1 brad:1 fly:1 fish:1 preveli:1 cave:14 mammoth:2 several:1 hundred:1 within:1 national:1 park:1 six:1 open:3 public:3 bright:1 natural:1 wonder:1 must:1 see:2 die:1 quintet:1 publishing:1 london:1 famous:1 multi:1 chamber:1 lie:1 contain:1 fossil:1 date:1 back:1 discover:1 self:1 guided:1 audio:1 tour:1 offering:1 partial:1 disabled:1 access:2 five:1 jewel:1 lake:1 ngilgi:1 calgardup:1 giant:1 many:1 permit:1 experienced:1 cavers:1 medium:1 arte:1 tv:1 episode:1 nouveaux:2 paradis:2 documentary:2 interview:1 amongst:1 others:1 tourist:2 official:1 surfer:1 dolphin:1 watcher:1 le:1 l:1 australie:1 de:1 la:2 mer:1 à:1 vigne:1 imdb:1 visit:1 film:1 endless:1 april:1 sky:1 television:1 soccer:1 hugh:1 jackman:1 call:1 best:1 place:1 ever:1 cite:1 surf:1 food:1 people:1 air:1 reason:1 think:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 information:1 |@bigram annual_rainfall:1 wine_grape:1 mammoth_cave:2 la_mer:1 hugh_jackman:1 external_link:1 |
5,991 | Transport_in_Mongolia | Cable ferry across the Selenge river, in Khövsgöl aimag The transportation system in Mongolia consists of a network of railways, roads, waterways, and airports. Railways Traders in Zamyn-Üüd station, Dornogovi aimag The Trans-Mongolian Railway connects the Trans-Siberian Railway from Ulan Ude in Russia to Erenhot and Beijing in China through the capital Ulan Bator. A spur line connects Darkhan to the copper mines of Erdenet; another spur line connects Ulaanbaatar with the coal mines of Baganuur. A separate railway line exists in the east of the country between Choibalsan and the Trans-Siberian at Borzya; however, that line is closed to passengers beyond the Mongolian town of Chuluunkhoroot. Lonely Planet Mongolia: Choibalsan transport For domestic transport, daily trains run from Ulaanbaatar to Darkhan, Sukhbaatar, and Erdenet, as well as Zamyn-Üüd, Choir and Sainshand. Mongolia uses a broad gauge 1.524-m track system. The total length of the system 1,810 km. Lonely Planet Mongolia: Rail Transport Roadways Only about 2600 km of Mongolia's road network are paved, this includes the roads from Ulaanbaatar to the Russian and Chinese borders, much of the road from Ulaanbaatar to Kharkhorin and Arvaikheer and a partly parallel road from Lün to Dashinchilen, as well as the road from Darkhan to Bulgan via Erdenet. Another 3900 km are graveled or otherwise improved. The vast majority of Mongolia's official road network, some 40,000 km, are simple cross-country tracks. "Status paper on Road Sector of Mongolia" Mongolia's Statistical Yearbook 2007 Construction is underway on an east-west road (the so-called Millenium road) that incorporates the already existing road from Ulaanbaatar to Arvaikheer, and on the extension of the Darkhan-Bulgan road beyond Bulgan. Авто замын салбарт 2007 онд хэрэгжиж байгаа зам, гүүрийн барилга байгууламж, тэсэл арга хэмжээ (Powerpoint document, in Mongolian, needs additional fonts to display properly) Private bus and minibus companies offer service from Ulaanbaatar to most aimag centers. Lonely Planet Mongolia: Bus transport Waterways Mongolia has a total of 580 km of waterways, but only Lake Khövsgöl has ever been heavily used. The Selenge (270 km) and Orkhon (175 km) rivers are navigable but carry little traffic, although a customs boat patrols the Selenge to the Russian border. Lake Khovsgol has charter boats for tourists. Lonely Planet Mongolia: Boat transport The lakes and rivers freeze over in the winter and are usually open between May and September. Air transportation MIAT Antonov An-26, used for domestic transportation, at Chinggis Khaan International Airport As of 2006, Mongolia has a total of 44 airports. Of these, 12 have paved runways. 10 of these paved runways range in length between 2,438 and 3,047 m . The other paved runway is between 1,524 and 2,437 m. Chinggis Khaan International Airport outside of Ulaanbaatar is the only airport in Mongolia that offers international flights. Direct flights are available from Berlin, Moscow, Beijing, Hohhot, Seoul, Ekaterinburg, and Tokyo. Of the 32 remaining airports with unpaved runways, 2 of them have runways over 3,047 m, 3 have runways between 2,438 and 3,047 m, 24 have runways between 1,524 and 2,437 m, two have runways between 914 and 1,523 m, and one has runways under 914 m. Mongolia also has 1 heliport. Domestic carriers, as of 2007, include MIAT, Aero Mongolia, and Eznis Airways. They offer service between Ulaanbaatar and some of the aimag centers. [http://www.eznisairways.com/_www/pages.php?id=83&banner=FLIGHT_AND_FARES&titleid=1 Eznis airways flight schedule Summer 2009 Lonely Planet Mongolia: Air transport References CIA World Factbook Eznis Airways:Schedule & Charter airline of Mongolia | Transport_in_Mongolia |@lemmatized cable:1 ferry:1 across:1 selenge:3 river:3 khövsgöl:2 aimag:4 transportation:3 system:3 mongolia:17 consists:1 network:3 railway:5 road:12 waterway:3 airport:6 trader:1 zamyn:2 üüd:2 station:1 dornogovi:1 trans:3 mongolian:3 connect:1 siberian:2 ulan:2 ude:1 russia:1 erenhot:1 beijing:2 china:1 capital:1 bator:1 spur:2 line:4 connects:2 darkhan:4 copper:1 mine:2 erdenet:3 another:2 ulaanbaatar:8 coal:1 baganuur:1 separate:1 exist:2 east:2 country:2 choibalsan:2 borzya:1 however:1 close:1 passenger:1 beyond:2 town:1 chuluunkhoroot:1 lonely:5 planet:5 transport:6 domestic:3 daily:1 train:1 run:1 sukhbaatar:1 well:2 choir:1 sainshand:1 use:3 broad:1 gauge:1 track:2 total:3 length:2 km:7 rail:1 roadways:1 pave:3 include:2 russian:2 chinese:1 border:2 much:1 kharkhorin:1 arvaikheer:2 partly:1 parallel:1 lün:1 dashinchilen:1 bulgan:3 via:1 gravel:1 otherwise:1 improve:1 vast:1 majority:1 official:1 simple:1 cross:1 status:1 paper:1 sector:1 statistical:1 yearbook:1 construction:1 underway:1 west:1 call:1 millenium:1 incorporate:1 already:1 extension:1 авто:1 замын:1 салбарт:1 онд:1 хэрэгжиж:1 байгаа:1 зам:1 гүүрийн:1 барилга:1 байгууламж:1 тэсэл:1 арга:1 хэмжээ:1 powerpoint:1 document:1 need:1 additional:1 font:1 display:1 properly:1 private:1 bus:2 minibus:1 company:1 offer:3 service:2 center:2 lake:3 ever:1 heavily:1 orkhon:1 navigable:1 carry:1 little:1 traffic:1 although:1 custom:1 boat:3 patrol:1 khovsgol:1 charter:2 tourist:1 freeze:1 winter:1 usually:1 open:1 may:1 september:1 air:2 miat:2 antonov:1 chinggis:2 khaan:2 international:3 runway:7 range:1 paved:1 outside:1 flight:3 direct:1 available:1 berlin:1 moscow:1 hohhot:1 seoul:1 ekaterinburg:1 tokyo:1 remain:1 unpaved:1 runways:2 two:1 one:1 also:1 heliport:1 carrier:1 aero:1 eznis:3 airway:3 http:1 www:1 eznisairways:1 com:1 page:1 php:1 id:1 banner:1 titleid:1 schedule:2 summer:1 reference:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 airline:1 |@bigram trans_siberian:2 siberian_railway:1 ulan_bator:1 lonely_planet:5 vast_majority:1 statistical_yearbook:1 bus_minibus:1 pave_runway:2 paved_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 http_www:1 php_id:1 |
5,992 | Council_of_Chalcedon | The Council of Chalcedon is believed to have been the fourth ecumenical council of the Christian churches of the time. It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon (a city of Bithynia in Asia Minor), today the district of Kadıköy on the Asian side of the Bosphorus, incorporated into the city of Istanbul. In 325, the first ecumenical council (First Council of Nicaea) verified through Scripture that Christ was God, "consubstantial" with the Father, against Arius's contention that he was a created being. This was reaffirmed at the First Council of Constantinople and the Council of Ephesus. In 449 the Second Council of Ephesus, the so-called Robber Council which is not considered one of the ecumenical councils, didn't just rehabilitate Eutyches, who had been deposed by Flavian, the patriarch of Constantinople, for teaching that the Word had been made flesh and not just assumed flesh from the Virgin. Dioscorus the patriarch of Alexandria who had convened Ephesus II, moved to depose Flavian for teaching that Christ had two natures, which violated a canon of Ephesus I. Flavian was mortally wounded in the fight that broke out. At the next session Dioscorus pressed his advantage by having Cyril's Twelve Anathemas posthumously declared orthodox. Frend, W. H. C., The Rise of the Monophysite Movement, James Clarke & Co, 1972, pps. 41-43 Their intent was to make it impossible to confess anything other than one nature in Christ. Pope Leo I had written a letter, Leo's Tome, in support of Flavian that Dioscorus never read into the proceedings. Leo's letter confessed that Christ was to be considered in two natures, not of two natures. Although it could be reconciled with Cyril's Formula of Reunion, which followed Ephesus I, it could not stand against the Twelve Anathemas. The Council of Chalcedon was convened by Flavian's successor, Anatolius at Leo's urging to set aside the Anathemas and make his Tome orthodox. ibid. pps. 45-47 It set aside the findings of 449, and repudiated the idea that Jesus' mortal nature amounted to nothing. The Chalcedonian Creed describes the "full humanity and full divinity" of Jesus, the second person of the Holy Trinity. The council issued 27 disciplinary canons governing church administration and authority. In the famous 28th canon passed by the council, the bishops sought to raise the See of Constantinople (New Rome) in stature, claiming that Constantinople enjoyed honor and authority similar to that of the See of (older) Rome. Pope Leo's legate opposed the canon and in 453, Pope Leo eventually confirmed all the canons, except for 28th. The Council of Chalcedon is the fourth of the first seven Ecumenical Councils in Christianity, and is therefore recognized as infallible in its dogmatic definitions by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches (then one church). The Trinity as defined by these councils is also taken as orthodox among most Protestants. However, the Council resulted in a major schism, with those who refused to accept its teaching, now known as Oriental Orthodoxy, being accused of monophysitism. The Oriental Orthodox churches reject the "monophysite" label and instead describe themselves as miaphysite. Historical background Relics of Nestorianism After the Council of Ephesus had condemned Nestorianism, there remained a conflict between patriarchs John of Antioch and Cyril of Alexandria. Cyril claimed that John remained Nestorian in outlook, while John claimed that Cyril held to the Apollinarian heresy. The two settled their differences under the mediation of the bishop of Beroea, Acacius, on April 12, 433. In the following year, Theodoret of Cyrrhus assented to this formula as well, apparently putting a rest to Nestorianism forever within the Roman Empire. However, the works of two deceased Antiochean theologians, Diodorus of Tarsus and Theodore of Mopsuestia were at this time translated into Syriac. By the intervention of Archbishop Proclus of Constantinople, the two theologians were condemned throughout the East, but this situation would later provide the material for the Second Council of Constantinople some hundred years later. Eutychian controversy About two years after Cyril of Alexandria's death in 444, an aged monk from Constantinople named Eutyches began teaching a subtle variation on the traditional Christology in an attempt (as he described in a letter to Pope Leo I in 448) to stop a new outbreak of Nestorianism. He claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril's teaching, which was declared orthodox in the Union of 432. Cyril had taught that "There is only one physis, since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word." Cyril had apparently understood the Greek word physis to mean approximately what the Latin word persona (person) means, while most Greek theologians would have interpreted that word to mean natura (nature). Thus, many understood Eutyches to be advocating Docetism, a sort of reversal of Arianism -- where Arius had denied the consubstantial divinity of Jesus, Eutyches seemed to be denying his human nature. (Cyril's orthodoxy was not called into question, since the Union of 433 had explicitly spoken of two physeis in this context.) Pope Leo I, from Rome, wrote that Eutyches' error seemed to be more from a lack of skill on the matters than from malice. Further, his side of the controversy tended not to enter into arguments with their opponents, which prevented the misunderstanding from being uncovered. Nonetheless, due to the high regard in which Eutyches was held (second only to the Patriarch of Constantinople in the East), his teaching spread rapidly throughout the east. In November 447, during a local synod in Constantinople, Eutyches was denounced as a heretic by the bishop of Dorylaeum, Eusebius, with the demand that he be removed from his office. The then archbishop, Flavian of Constantinople, did not wish to consider the matter as a result of the great prestige that Eutyches enjoyed, but finally relented, and so Eutyches was condemned as a heretic by the synod. However, the emperor Theodosius II and the Patriarch of Alexandria, Dioscorus, did not accept the decision of the synod because Eutyches had repented and confessed his orthodoxy. Dioscorus held his own synod reinstating Eutyches, and the emperor called a council to be held in Ephesus in 449, inviting Pope Leo I, who agreed to be represented by four legates (though one died en route). "Latrocinium" of Ephesus By this time, the pope had received communications from Flavian, and had himself determined that Eutyches was in the wrong and that the deposition in 447 was just. He wrote to the council, telling them that they must accept his judgment on the matter, but he left the punishment of Eutyches open for discussion. It appears Pope Leo I was unaware of the confession made to Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria. The Second Council of Ephesus convened on August 8, 449, with some 130 bishops in attendance. Dioscorus presided by command of the emperor. The emperor denied the vote to any bishop who had voted in Eutyches' deposition two years earlier. As a result, there was a near-unanimous support for Eutyches, and Flavian was himself deposed and exiled. He died shortly thereafter. The papal legates left with a letter for the pope from Flavian, and in a second session, without papal representation, several more bishops were deposed, including Ibas of Edessa, Irenaeus of Tyre (a close personal friend of Nestorius), Domnus of Antioch, and Theodoret. The decisions of this council threatened schism between the East and the West, since they went plainly against the papal declaration, although it was never read. The pope dubbed this council a "synod of robbers" — Latrocinium — and refused to accept its pronouncements. Convocation and session The situation continued to deteriorate, with the pope demanding the convocation of a new council and the emperor refusing to budge, all the while appointing bishops in agreement with Dioscorus. All this changed dramatically with the death of Theodosius II and the elevation of Marcian to the imperial throne, for Marcian was a defender of the doctrine of Flavian and Leo. Marcian announced his intention to hold a new council, but not in Italy, as the pope had requested, but rather in the East. The council was called to meet at Nicaea, but was then moved at the last moment to Chalcedon, where the council opened on October 8, 451. Marcian had the exiled bishops returned to their dioceses and had the body of Flavian brought to the capital to be buried honorably. The emperor asked the pope to preside over the council, but Pope Leo sent his legates instead--Bishops Pachasinus of Lilybaeum and Julian of Cos and two priests Boniface and Basil--to preside over the council in his name, condemn the work of the Latrocinium, and profess the correct doctrine about the Incarnation as described in his previous letter to Flavian (the Tome). Attendance at this council was very high, with about 370 bishops (or presbyters representing bishops) attending (see Price and Gaddis, The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, Liverpool 2005, vol. 3, 193-6). Paschasinus refused to give Dioscorus (who had carried out an excommunication of the pope in the period leading up to the council) a seat at the council, and as a result, he was moved to the nave of the church. Paschasinus further ordered the reinstatement of Theodoret and that he be given a seat, but this move caused such an uproar among the council fathers, that Theodoret also sat in the nave, though he was given a vote in the proceedings, which began with a trial of Dioscorus. Marcian wished to bring proceedings to a speedy end, and asked the council to make a pronouncement on the doctrine of the Incarnation before continuing the trial. The council fathers, however, felt that no new creed was necessary, and that the doctrine had been laid out clearly in Leo's letter to Flavian, by then called the Tome . The second day of the council ended with shouts from the bishops, "It is Peter who says this through Leo. This is what we all of us believe. This is the faith of the Apostles. Leo and Cyril teach the same thing." The council continued with Dioscorus' trial, but he refused to appear before the assembly. As a result, he was condemned, but by an underwhelming amount (more than half the bishops present for the previous sessions did not attend his condemnation), and all of his decrees were declared null. Marcian responded by exiling Dioscorus. All of the bishops were then asked to sign their assent to the Tome, but a group of thirteen Egyptians refused, saying that they would assent to "the traditional faith." As a result, the emperor's commissioners decided that a creed would indeed be necessary and presented a text to the fathers. No consensus was reached, and indeed the text has not survived to the present. Paschasinus threatened to return to Rome to reassemble the council in Italy. Marcian agreed, saying that if a clause were not added to the creed supporting Leo's doctrine, the bishops would have to relocate. The bishops relented and added a clause, saying that, according to the decision of Leo, in Christ there are two natures united, inconvertible [natures], inseparable [natures]. Confession of Chalcedon The Confession of Chalcedon provides a clear statement on the human and divine nature of Christ: Interestingly enough, this goes against the teaching of Cyril from the previous council stating that it is incorrect to speak of Christ as existing in two natures after the union. The reasoning adopted by the Eastern Orthodox Church is that further clarification of Cyril's position was required. Canons The work of the council was completed by a series of 27 disciplinary canons: states all canons of previous councils shall remain in force, specific councils were clarified by Quinisext Council canon 2, states that those who buy their office are anathema, prohibits bishops from engaging in business, bishops were given authority over the monks in their dioceses, with the right to permit or forbid the foundation of new monasteries, travelling bishops are subject to canon law, the clergy were forbidden to change dioceses or to serve in the military the poorhouses are under the jurisdiction of the bishop, limits the ability to accuse a bishop of wrong doing, prevents clergy belonging to multiple churches, regards letters of travel for the poor, no province shall be divided for the purposes of creating another church, no clergy shall be received by others without a letter of recommendation, regards wives and children of cantors and lectors, a deaconess must be at least 40, monks and nuns are forbidden to marry on pain of excommunication, rural parishes cannot change bishops, conspiring forbidden, twice a year the bishops shall conduct a synod, lists exemptions for those who have been driven to another city, says an accuser of a bishop shall be suspect before the bishop, makes it illegal to seize the goods of a dead bishop, allows the expulsion of outsiders who cause trouble in Constantinople, monasteries are permanent, a new bishop shall be ordained within 3 months of election, churches shall have a steward from among the congregation to monitor church business, forbidden to carry off women under pretense of marriage (eloping). Canon 28 grants equal privileges () to Constantinople as of Rome because Constantinople is the New Rome as renewed by canon 36 of the Quinisext Council. The papal legates were not present for the vote on this canon, and protested it afterwards, and was not ratified by Pope Leo in Rome. According to some ancient Greek collections, canons 29 and 30 are attributed to the council: canon 29, which states that an unworthy bishop cannot be demoted but can be removed, is an extract from the minutes of the 19th session; canon 30, which grants the Egyptians time to consider their rejection of Leo's Tome, is an extract from the minutes of the fourth session. The Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, Vol. 1, ed. Norman P. Tanner, S.J. (1990), 75-76. In all likelihood an official record of the proceedings was made either during the council itself or shortly afterwards. The assembled bishops informed the pope that a copy of all the "Acta" would be transmitted to him; in March, 453, Pope Leo commissioned Julian of Cos, then at Constantinople, to make a collection of all the Acts and translate them into Latin. Most of the documents, chiefly the minutes of the sessions, were written in Greek; others, e.g. the imperial letters, were issued in both languages; others, again, e.g. the papal letters, were written in Latin. Eventually nearly all of them were translated into both languages. The Status of Constantinople The Council of Chalcedon also elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the Bishop of Rome". Since the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 AD, the first place of honor given to an episcopate was to Rome. The Council of Chalcedon modified this somewhat by placing Constantinople second in honor, above Antioch and Alexandria. The middle of Canon XXVIII reads: And the One Hundred and Fifty most religious Bishops, actuated by the same consideration, gave equal privileges (ἴσα πρεσβεῖα) to the most holy throne of New Rome, justly judging that the city which is honoured with the Sovereignty and the Senate and enjoys equal privileges with the old imperial Rome, should in ecclesiastical matters also be magnified as she is, and rank next after her. Canon IX, Council of Chalcedon Seven Ecumenical Councils, Christian Classics Ethereal Library When the capital of the old Roman Empire was still in Rome, there was no pentarchy – that is, the five patriarchal sees whose bishops were the first among equals within their ecclesiastical provinces. Nonetheless, over time, bishops repeatedly asserted the authority of the bishop of Constantinople, although always second in honor to the bishop of Rome. For example, the third canon of the Second Ecumenical Council at Constantinople (381 AD) states that "the bishop of Constantinople... shall have the prerogative of honor after the bishop of Rome; because Constantinople is New Rome." It is possible that for the Eastern bishops Constantinople's preeminence was a fait accompli and that the 28th canon was a culmination of ongoing ecclesiological development. Or perhaps, as one commentator has noted, the claims of the Church in Rome regarding her preeminence "excited jealousy of her rival of the East." See Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: The Seven Ecumenical Councils, vol. 14, by Henry R. Percival, 1994, 383-84. In making their case, the council fathers argued that tradition had accorded "honor" to the see of older Rome because it was formerly the imperial city. Accordingly, “moved by the same purposes” the fathers “apportioned equal prerogatives to the most holy see of new Rome” because “the city which is honored by the imperial power and senate and enjoying privileges equaling older imperial Rome should also be elevated to her level in ecclesiastical affairs and take second place after her.” Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, ed. Norman P. Tanner, SJ, 99-100. The framework for allocating ecclesiastical authority advocated by the council fathers mirrored the allocation of imperial authority in the later period of the Roman Empire. The Eastern position could be characterized as being pragmatic (or perhaps political) in nature, as opposed to a doctrinal view. In practice, all Christians East and West addressed the papacy as the See of Peter or the Apostolic See rather than the See of the Imperial Capital because it was commonly understood that Rome's precedence comes from Peter rather than its association with Imperial authority. After the passage of the Canon 28, Rome filed a protest against the reduction of honor given to Antioch and Alexandria. However, growing concerns that withholding Rome's approval would be interpreted as a rejection of the entire council, in 453 he confirmed the council’s canons with a protest against the 28th. Consequences of the council The near-immediate result of the council was a major schism. The bishops that were uneasy with the language of Pope Leo's Tome repudiated the council, saying that the acceptance of two physes was tantamount to Nestorianism. Dioscorus, the Patriarch of Alexandria, advocated miaphysitism and had dominated the Council of Ephesus. "Latrocinium." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 Churches that rejected Chalcedon in favor of Ephesus broke off from the rest of the Church in a schism. These churches compose Oriental Orthodoxy, with the Church of Alexandria as their spiritual leader. Recent years have brought about a degree of rapprochement between Chalcedonian Christians and the Oriental Orthodox. Agreement on doctrine has been declared between Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches, for instance, although communion between these families of churches has not been restored. Bibliography Edward Walford, translator, The Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius: A History of the Church from AD 431 to AD 594, 1846. Reprinted 2008. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-88-6. Bindley, T. Herbert and F. W. Green, The Oecumenical Documents of the Faith. 2nd ed. London: Methuen, 1950. Grillmeier, Aloys, Christ in Christian Tradition, 2nd edition (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975). Hefele, Charles Joseph. A History of the Councils of the Church from the Original Documents. 5 vols. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1883. (Our topic is located in vol. 3) Meyendorff, John, Christ in Eastern Christian Thought (Washington D.C.: Corpus Books, 1969). Sellers,R.V., Two Ancient Christologies (London: SPCK, 1940) Sellers, R.V., The Council of Chalcedon: A Historical and Doctrinal Survey, (London, SPCK, 1961). Notes External links Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Chalcedon Catholic Encyclopedia: Robber Council of Ephesus Coptic interpretations of the Fourth Ecumenical Council Council of Ephesus Orthodox Unity The U.S. Oriental Orthodox-Roman Catholic Consultation See also Ecumenical Council of Nicea Council of Ephesus | Council_of_Chalcedon |@lemmatized council:71 chalcedon:14 believe:2 fourth:4 ecumenical:11 christian:7 church:21 time:5 hold:6 october:2 november:2 city:6 bithynia:1 asia:1 minor:1 today:1 district:1 kadıköy:1 asian:1 side:2 bosphorus:1 incorporate:1 istanbul:1 first:6 nicaea:2 verify:1 scripture:1 christ:9 god:2 consubstantial:2 father:8 arius:2 contention:1 created:1 reaffirm:1 constantinople:22 ephesus:14 second:12 call:5 robber:3 consider:4 one:7 rehabilitate:1 eutyches:15 depose:3 flavian:13 patriarch:5 teach:6 word:5 make:9 flesh:2 assume:1 virgin:1 dioscorus:13 alexandria:9 convene:3 ii:3 move:5 two:14 nature:13 violate:1 canon:22 mortally:1 wound:1 fight:1 break:2 next:2 session:7 press:3 advantage:1 cyril:13 twelve:2 anathema:4 posthumously:1 declare:4 orthodox:12 frend:1 w:2 h:1 c:2 rise:1 monophysite:2 movement:1 james:1 clarke:1 co:3 pps:2 intent:1 impossible:1 confess:3 anything:1 pope:20 leo:21 write:5 letter:10 tome:7 support:3 never:2 read:3 proceeding:4 although:4 could:3 reconcile:1 formula:2 reunion:1 follow:1 stand:1 successor:1 anatolius:1 urge:1 set:2 aside:2 ibid:1 finding:1 repudiate:2 idea:1 jesus:3 mortal:1 amount:2 nothing:1 chalcedonian:2 creed:4 describe:4 full:2 humanity:1 divinity:2 person:2 holy:3 trinity:2 issue:2 disciplinary:2 govern:1 administration:1 authority:7 famous:1 pass:1 bishop:36 seek:1 raise:1 see:12 new:12 rome:22 stature:1 claim:5 enjoy:4 honor:8 similar:1 old:5 legate:5 oppose:2 eventually:2 confirm:2 except:1 seven:3 christianity:1 therefore:1 recognize:1 infallible:1 dogmatic:1 definition:1 roman:6 catholic:5 eastern:6 define:1 also:6 take:2 among:4 protestant:1 however:5 result:7 major:2 schism:4 refuse:6 accept:4 teaching:3 know:1 oriental:6 orthodoxy:4 accuse:2 monophysitism:1 reject:2 label:1 instead:2 miaphysite:1 historical:2 background:1 relic:1 nestorianism:5 condemn:5 remain:3 conflict:1 patriarchs:1 john:5 antioch:4 nestorian:1 outlook:1 apollinarian:1 heresy:1 settle:1 difference:1 mediation:1 beroea:1 acacius:1 april:1 following:1 year:6 theodoret:4 cyrrhus:1 assent:3 well:1 apparently:2 put:1 rest:2 forever:1 within:3 empire:3 work:3 deceased:1 antiochean:1 theologian:3 diodorus:1 tarsus:1 theodore:1 mopsuestia:1 translate:3 syriac:1 intervention:1 archbishop:2 proclus:1 throughout:2 east:7 situation:2 would:7 later:2 provide:2 material:1 hundred:2 eutychian:1 controversy:2 death:2 age:1 monk:3 name:2 begin:2 subtle:1 variation:1 traditional:2 christology:2 attempt:1 stop:1 outbreak:1 faithful:1 follower:1 union:3 physis:2 since:4 incarnation:3 understand:1 greek:4 mean:3 approximately:1 latin:3 persona:1 interpret:2 natura:1 thus:1 many:1 understood:2 advocate:3 docetism:1 sort:1 reversal:1 arianism:1 deny:3 seem:2 human:2 question:1 explicitly:1 speak:2 physeis:1 context:1 error:1 lack:1 skill:1 matter:4 malice:1 far:2 tend:1 enter:1 argument:1 opponent:1 prevent:1 misunderstanding:1 uncover:1 nonetheless:2 due:1 high:2 regard:4 spread:1 rapidly:1 local:1 synod:6 denounce:1 heretic:2 dorylaeum:1 eusebius:1 demand:2 remove:2 office:2 wish:2 great:1 prestige:1 finally:1 relent:2 emperor:7 theodosius:2 decision:3 repent:1 reinstate:1 invite:1 agree:2 represent:2 four:1 though:2 die:2 en:1 route:1 latrocinium:4 receive:2 communication:1 determine:1 wrong:2 deposition:2 tell:1 must:2 judgment:1 leave:2 punishment:1 open:2 discussion:1 appear:2 unaware:1 confession:3 august:1 attendance:2 preside:3 command:1 vote:4 earlier:1 near:2 unanimous:1 deposed:1 exile:3 shortly:2 thereafter:1 papal:5 without:2 representation:1 several:1 include:1 ibas:1 edessa:1 irenaeus:1 tyre:1 close:1 personal:1 friend:1 nestorius:1 domnus:1 threaten:2 west:2 go:2 plainly:1 declaration:1 dub:1 pronouncement:2 convocation:2 continue:3 deteriorate:1 budge:1 appoint:1 agreement:2 change:3 dramatically:1 elevation:1 marcian:7 imperial:9 throne:2 defender:1 doctrine:6 announce:1 intention:1 italy:2 request:1 rather:3 meet:1 last:1 moment:1 return:2 diocese:3 body:1 brought:1 capital:3 bury:1 honorably:1 ask:3 send:1 bishops:3 pachasinus:1 lilybaeum:1 julian:2 priest:1 boniface:1 basil:1 profess:1 correct:1 previous:4 presbyter:1 attending:1 price:1 gaddi:1 act:2 liverpool:1 vol:4 paschasinus:3 give:7 carry:2 excommunication:2 period:2 lead:1 seat:2 nave:2 order:1 reinstatement:1 cause:2 uproar:1 sit:1 trial:3 bring:2 speedy:1 end:2 felt:1 necessary:2 lay:1 clearly:1 day:1 shout:1 peter:3 say:6 u:2 faith:3 apostle:1 thing:1 assembly:1 underwhelming:1 half:1 present:4 attend:1 condemnation:1 decree:3 null:1 respond:1 sign:1 group:1 thirteen:1 egyptian:1 commissioner:1 decide:1 indeed:2 text:2 consensus:1 reach:1 survive:1 reassemble:1 clause:2 add:2 relocate:1 accord:3 united:1 inconvertible:1 inseparable:1 clear:1 statement:1 divine:1 interestingly:1 enough:1 state:5 incorrect:1 exist:1 reasoning:1 adopt:1 clarification:1 position:3 require:1 complete:1 series:1 shall:8 force:1 specific:1 clarify:1 quinisext:2 buy:1 prohibit:1 engage:1 business:2 right:1 permit:1 forbid:1 foundation:1 monastery:2 travel:2 subject:1 law:1 clergy:3 forbidden:4 serve:1 military:1 poorhouse:1 jurisdiction:1 limit:1 ability:1 prevents:1 belong:1 multiple:1 poor:1 province:2 divide:1 purpose:2 create:1 another:2 others:3 recommendation:1 wife:1 child:1 cantor:1 lector:1 deaconess:1 least:1 nun:1 marry:1 pain:1 rural:1 parish:1 cannot:2 conspire:1 twice:1 conduct:1 list:1 exemption:1 drive:1 accuser:1 suspect:1 illegal:1 seize:1 good:1 dead:1 allow:1 expulsion:1 outsider:1 trouble:1 permanent:1 ordain:1 month:1 election:1 steward:1 congregation:1 monitor:1 woman:1 pretense:1 marriage:1 elope:1 grant:2 equal:6 privilege:4 renew:1 protest:3 afterwards:2 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5,993 | K-Meleon | K-Meleon is a web browser for the Microsoft Windows platform. Based on the same Gecko layout engine as Mozilla Firefox, K-Meleon uses native Windows API to create the user interface (instead of using Mozilla's cross-platform XUL layer), and as a result, is tightly integrated into the look and feel of the Windows desktop; http://www.oss-watch.ac.uk/resources/webbrowser.xml#body.1_div.5 "Open source and the web browser" by Elena Blanco, OSS Watch this approach is similar to that of Galeon and Epiphany (for the GNOME desktop), and Camino (for Mac OS X). This also makes K-Meleon less resource-intensive and more responsive to user input. Development and specifications K-Meleon is released under the GNU General Public License and runs on the Win32 platform. The current release version of K-Meleon is 1.5.3, which was released on May 08, 2009. This release is based on the Gecko 1.8.1.21 rendering engine. K-Meleon's very first version was originally written by Christophe Thibault and released to the public on August 21, 2000. http://www.zdnet.com.au/news/soa/K-Meleon-Are-the-browser-wars-back-/0,139023165,120105526,00.htm The change from the K-Meleon 0.9.x series to 1.0.x was a major modification. The most notable change was the main K-Meleon code being updated to accommodate the Gecko 1.8.0.x rendering engine, as used in the latest releases of SeaMonkey and Mozilla Firefox. The change of layout not only brought the browser up-to-date on the level of security, but on web page layout as well. Several other major improvements included support for favicons and multi-user environments. Some themes and macros from version 0.9 are still compatible with 1.0, although the macro system has been updated. An even more fundamental update of the macro system was made concurrent with the development of K-Meleon 1.1, http://kmeleon.sourceforge.net/forum/read.php?1,68634 Re: Kmeleon 1.1a2 Gecko 1.8.1 which is based on the Gecko 1.8.1 rendering engine that is used in Mozilla Firefox 2.0 and SeaMonkey 1.1. The last release of the earlier K-Meleon 0.9 series (which was based on the earlier Mozilla 1.7.x rendering engine used in the former Mozilla Application Suite) was K-Meleon 0.9.13 (released April 24, 2006). SourceForge.net: Files That release was based on the Mozilla 1.7.13 build (the final Mozilla Suite release). Although K-Meleon 0.9.13 is based on Gecko 1.7.13, which is now obsolete, a simulation of it (called "K-Meleon0.9.13-ud3-1.8.0.7") http://kmeleon.sourceforge.net/forum/read.php?f=1&i=42739&t=42739 new version: K-Meleon0.9.13-ud3-1.8.0.7 has been made that is based on a current "k-meleon.exe" and a recent 1.8.0.x Gecko rendering engine to allow people who prefer the older K-Meleon 0.9 interface to update their browsing to current security standards. K-Meleon saw another big development step with the release of 1.5.x., with this version the layers plug-in became obsolete and was replaced with built-in tabs. This was the first time real tabs were implemented in an official build. Various other features and improvements were added along the line of the 1.5.x. series. Customizations K-Meleon has a highly flexible interface design. All the menus and toolbar buttons can be customized using its configuration files. This feature can be very useful in an environment where the general public has access to the browser such as a library or Internet cafe. Library Journal article on K-Meleon Despite its usefulness, it may be intimidating to an end-user, as there is no GUI to customize the individual toolbars. A user must edit the toolbar configuration file to make any changes in the button layouts, although one can move around the toolbars by simply dragging their handles. K-Meleon's official configuration reference page The use of Windows native interface means that K-Meleon does not support Mozilla-based themes. Compatibility with Mozilla extensions is also limited, with only a few extensions that can be integrated. However, K-Meleon has its own plugins What do each of the default K-Meleon plugins do? Official K-Meleon FAQ (called "kplugins") and browser themes, K-Meleon Themes Wiki page (the default being Phoenity) which can extend the functionality and customize the appearance of the browser. There is also a macro plugin which allows users to extend the browser functionality without having to know the C programming language. K-Meleon Macros library Release history Color Meaning Red Old release; not supported Yellow Old release; still supported Green Current stable release Purple Current test release Blue Future release Major version Release version Gecko version Release date Significant changes 0.1 0.1 M17 August 21 2000 First release; mainly a rebranded WinEmbed, using the BCG Library; customizable menu and toolbar, IE Favorites support. BetaNews | K-Meleon Browser Showcases Gecko 0.2 0.2 M18 November 26 2000 Project hosted at SourceForge; right-click context menus; improvements and bugfixes. 0.2.1 M18 November 27 2000 Bugfixes. 0.3 0.3 0.8 February 13 2001 Major rewrite using MfcEmbed instead of WinEmbed and the BCG Library; plugin support for menus and toolbars; preferences dialog; customizable menus and accelerator keys; basic authentication; page source view; option to save files to disk. 0.4 0.4 0.9 May 11 2001 KPlugin interface, support for Netscape bookmarks and fullscreen display, macro extension and history plugin; (bitmapped) menus, accelerator keys and toolbars customizable through configuration files; cache support; support for external source code viewer; configurable cookie and image settings; possibility to disable Style Sheets, Java and JavaScript; web search. 0.5 0.5 0.9.4 September 27 2001 Support for SSL, Wallet and external protocol handlers; customizable UserAgent string; improved Java support and profile handling; pop-up blocker; symbiotic loader; various improvements and bugfixes. 0.6 0.6 0.9.5 October 30 2001 Toolbar plugin; improved proxy support; file upload; numerous improvements and bugfixes. 0.7 0.7 1.2b October 31 2002 New plugins: Layered windows ("tabbed browsing"), support for Opera bookmarks (hotlist), external program control; automatic detection of popular third party plugins; text zoom, print preview, page setup and type ahead find; skin support; various improvements and bugfixes. 0.7.1 (0.7 SP1) February 12 2003 Numerous plugin improvements. 0.8 0.8 1.5 November 10 2003 Various usability improvements. 0.8.1 December 13 2003 Mouse Gestures plugin; improvements and bugfixes. 0.8.2 December 23 2003 Improvements and bugfixes. 0.9 0.9 1.7.5 January 18 2005 Privacy plugin, Flashblock extension and Aggreg8 RSS feed reader; new default skin (Phoenity); numerous usability improvements. 0.9.12 1.7.12 January 10 2006 Community-driven Gecko update; various new features (partly unique to this version). 0.9.13 1.7.13 April 25 2006 Community-driven Gecko update; various new features (partly unique to this version). 1.0 1.0 1.8.0.5 July 15 2006 Full localization support, first official localization (German); find bar and improved URL bar; configurable download options, XUL-based advanced preferences panel; overall improvements for macros and menus; new default RSS/Atom feed reader (NewsFox). 1.0.1 (1.01) 1.8.0.6 August 14 2006 Gecko update. 1.0.2 (1.02) 1.8.0.7 September 22 2006 Gecko update, some improvements and bugfixes. 1.1 1.1 1.8.1.4 May 22 2007 Multilanguage support, several official localizations; modular macros; session saver plugin; improved cookie permissions and password support; easier customization of search engines and mouse gestures; upgradable configuration of accelerator keys, menus and macros. 1.1.1 (1.11) 1.8.1.5 July 22 2007 Gecko update and bugfixes. 1.1.2 1.8.1.6 August 8 2007 Gecko update and bugfixes. 1.1.3 1.8.1.10 November 26 2007 Gecko update; update checker plugin. 1.1.4 1.8.1.12 February 11 2008 Gecko update and bugfixes. 1.1.5 1.8.1.14 April 8 2008 Gecko update and bugfix. 1.1.6 1.8.1.17pre July 18 2008 Gecko update. 1.5 1.5.0 1.8.1.17pre August 8 2008 True tabs instead of layered windows; improved multilanguage support; native preferences panel replaced by XUL-based former advanced preferences panel; new configuration options; feature improvements; Unicode build for Windows NT, non-Unicode build for Windows 9X. 1.5.1 1.8.1.17 October 16 2008 Gecko update, improvements and bugfixes. 1.5.2 1.8.1.19 December 25 2008 Gecko update, improvements and bugfixes. 1.5.3 1.8.1.21 May 08 2009 Gecko update and bugfixes. 1.6 1.6 1.9.x Summer ?? 2009 Gecko update to Gecko trunk 1.9. References: K-Meleon file releases K-Meleon Wiki: Download K-Meleon SourceForge project file releases , release notes K-Meleon Wiki: Release Notes and Wiki documentation K-Meleon Wiki: History Of K-Meleon . Derivatives K-MeleonCCF K-MeleonCCF was developed by Hao Jiang, adding further features to K-meleon. The biggest change was the use of a true tab structure, Tabbed K-Meleon by Dorian Boissonnade as opposed to a layer system used by K-Meleon at the time. Other changes include an Lua-based macro system to replace the original macros (giving greater responsiveness), and further UI tweaks, such as a mouse-gestures plugin. Many of the changes implemented were included in later versions of K-Meleon, and with the release of K-Meleon 1.5, this will include "real tab support and much powerful macro plugin". Development of CCF has ceased with users being advised to move to K-Meleon 1.5 upon its release. K-Meleon CCFME 0.08 K-MeleonCCF ME K-MeleonCCF ME was developed as a more streamlined version of K-MeleonCCF, using less resources and delivering greater responsiveness. This is achieved by the exclusion of Mozilla's inefficient XUL (XML User Interface Language) in menus, and the use of more Lua-based macros. It is the least resource intensive browser for Windows using an up-to-date rendering engine making it ideal for older computers or those with minimal amounts of RAM. It may also be the fastest at rendering, loading pages faster than Opera. "Speed Test Revisited with the latest K-MeleonCCF ME" Additionally, new features and improvements are included in each version. On January 25, 2008, Hao declared his decision to discontinue the unofficial K-MeleonCCF project, however, since then he (along with increased input from Dorian) has completed version 0.08 of CCF ME, and development continues on version 0.09 of CCF ME, based on the Gecko 1.9 rendering engine. A beta version of 0.09 was tested to be twice as fast as Opera 9.5 at rendering javascript. http://kmeleon.blogspot.com/2008/04/k-meleonccf-me-009-beta0-twice-as-fast.html " K-MeleonCCF ME 0.09 Beta0 - Twice as fast as Opera 9..5" Portable versions Some users have created modifications to enhance the portability of K-Meleon so they can run the browser on other Windows computers without having to install the software. Douglas McFadzean has collected and expanded on those efforts resulting in a group of portable K-Meleon projects that are designed to "enhance" the K-Meleon browser's modularity and portability. These projects include Pocket K-Meleon, KMprof, KMV (K-Meleon on the MoVe), KMVX (K-Meleon on the MoVe eXtendedKM@, KM@X, and KMigrate. These projects focus on the ability to run K-Meleon from a USB flash drive or portable hard drive, leaving no trace of browsing on the host computer. Douglas's work on portable K-Meleon for Windows has reduced as he has moved to using mainly Arch Linux and MEPIS Linux systems. There have also been some early attempts at making a version of K-Meleon which can run from a read-only device, such as a CD-ROM. K-Meleon1.0.1-mod-forCD by Fred, based on Mozilla 1.8.0.6 Gecko, dated 20060730 K-Ninja K-Ninja is a minimalistic modification of K-Meleon that appeared during the development phase of K-Meleon 0.9. It is designed with less on-screen space reserved for menus and buttons, dedicating more to each website. An attempt was also made to expand and reorganize the right-click context menus to make them quicker and easier to use. Development history K-Ninja was originally developed by Mark Reaves at Mot Studios. When Mark left Mot Studios and founded LDIOS (the Linux Desktop Initiation Operating System), the Official K-Ninja Forum also moved to the LDIOS site, which has not functioned since Nov. 29, 2005. Mark has not been available to maintain the project. On June 29, 2005, "TransitMan" updated the K-Ninja rendering engine to Gecko 1.7.9 beta, and since March 12, 2006, "Al." (a former K-Meleon dev) updated it further and began to maintain it on a new homepage as K-Ninja Samurai v1.x, with the v1.7.13 Gecko engine. On October 27, 2007 he released K-Ninja v2.1.4.5, using the rendering engine of Seamonkey v1.1.5 (currently rv: 1.8.1.8). K-Ninja changelog, K-Ninja website Current K-Ninja development has been scaled down by Al. because of personal commitments and also as he began using Ubuntu. Further updates only occurred when new GREs were released, which ensured browser security. The last couple of K-Ninja releases were done privately as a service to existing K-Ninja users reluctant to switch to another browser. The last release was K-Ninja v2.2.1 (codenamed Cydonia based on Gecko v1.8.1.12). An experimental version using the older Gecko v1.8.0.14pre rendering engine was also developed during this period, it being called "Orbital". On March 12, 2008, K-Ninja development was wrapped up by Al. K-Ninja Archives Google Group, K-Ninja website KMLite Al. later established a private Google Group called The True Underground, and after a few Private releases of K-Ninja, Al. focused in on bringing forth a new derivative of K-Meleon called KMLite. KMLite (K-Meleon Lite) is primarily aimed at honouring its origins & helps to move the K-Ninja concept forward with the current K-Meleon v1.5.x codebase & macros subset. The result is a browser with a light interface, fast rendering & such features as "true tabs", "plugin macros" and "advanced preferences panel" which itself is based on XUL. Deciding to establish a more "focused" Group, Al also setup the KMLite Dev Google Group. The idea is also to put behind what was a "reactionary" Group in the first place. Currently KMLite is at v1.1.2, which features the Gecko v1.8.1.19 rendering engine. Al. releases KMLite privately to the KMLite Dev Group members. On the 21st April 2009 Al. announced via his website that he was discontinuing KMLite & K-Ninja development due to time constraints and diminished interest in Windows. He also lifted restrictions on development & distribution on his previous K-Meleon themes. References See also List of web browsers Comparison of web browsers List of feed aggregators Comparison of feed aggregators External links K-Meleon Home Page K-Meleon Official Forum K-MeleonCCF ME K-meleon Promotion Community Projects developed by Douglas McFadzean K-Meleon customization patch (in Spanish) Extensions for K-Meleon | K-Meleon |@lemmatized k:92 meleon:60 web:6 browser:17 microsoft:1 window:12 platform:3 base:16 gecko:31 layout:3 engine:14 mozilla:12 firefox:3 use:19 native:3 api:1 create:2 user:10 interface:7 instead:3 cross:1 xul:5 layer:4 result:3 tightly:1 integrate:2 look:1 feel:1 desktop:3 http:5 www:2 os:2 watch:2 ac:1 uk:1 resource:4 webbrowser:1 xml:2 body:1 open:1 source:3 elena:1 blanco:1 approach:1 similar:1 galeon:1 epiphany:1 gnome:1 camino:1 mac:1 x:12 also:13 make:8 le:1 intensive:2 responsive:1 input:2 development:11 specification:1 release:32 gnu:1 general:2 public:3 license:1 run:4 current:7 version:19 may:6 render:12 first:5 originally:2 write:1 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5,994 | Mustafa_I | Mustafa I Deli (born 1591/1592 in Manisa Palace died January 20, 1639 at Topkapi Palace, Istanbul) (), son of Mehmed III, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1617 to 1618 and from 1622 to 1623. His mother was Valide Sultan Handan Sultan, originally named Helena (Eleni), a Greek. The brother of Ahmed I (1603–17), who died because of typhus at a young age, Mustafa I was reported to be mentally retarded or at least neurotic and was never more than a tool of court cliques at the Topkapı Palace. During the reign of his brother, he was confined to his room in virtual imprisonment, a system called Kafes, for fourteen years. In 1618, after a short rule, he was deposed in favour of his young nephew Osman II (1618–22) and was sent back to Kafes. The conflict between the Janissaries and Osman II presented him with a second chance. After the assassination of Osman II in 1622 by Janisaries, he was placed back on the throne and held it for another year. He had the participants in the coup against Osman II executed and believed that Osman II was still alive. He was seen searching for him throughout the palace, knocking on doors and crying out to his nephew to relieve him from the burden of sovereignty. His inability to rule led to deposition and confinement by Osman II's brother, Murad IV (1623–40). He died sixteen years later. | Mustafa_I |@lemmatized mustafa:2 deli:1 born:1 manisa:1 palace:4 die:3 january:1 topkapi:1 istanbul:1 son:1 mehmed:1 iii:1 sultan:3 ottoman:1 empire:1 mother:1 valide:1 handan:1 originally:1 name:1 helena:1 eleni:1 greek:1 brother:3 ahmed:1 typhus:1 young:2 age:1 report:1 mentally:1 retarded:1 least:1 neurotic:1 never:1 tool:1 court:1 clique:1 topkapı:1 reign:1 confine:1 room:1 virtual:1 imprisonment:1 system:1 call:1 kafes:2 fourteen:1 year:3 short:1 rule:2 depose:1 favour:1 nephew:2 osman:6 ii:6 send:1 back:2 conflict:1 janissary:1 present:1 second:1 chance:1 assassination:1 janisaries:1 place:1 throne:1 hold:1 another:1 participant:1 coup:1 execute:1 believe:1 still:1 alive:1 see:1 search:1 throughout:1 knock:1 door:1 cry:1 relieve:1 burden:1 sovereignty:1 inability:1 lead:1 deposition:1 confinement:1 murad:1 iv:1 sixteen:1 later:1 |@bigram topkapi_palace:1 palace_istanbul:1 ottoman_empire:1 mother_valide:1 valide_sultan:1 mentally_retarded:1 topkapı_palace:1 relieve_burden:1 murad_iv:1 |
5,995 | Danish_Defence | Danish Army and Navy personel at combined/joint excersise DANEX/DRO '07 The armed forces of the Kingdom of Denmark, known as the Danish Defence () is charged with the defence of the Kingdom of Denmark. The Chief of Defence is the head of the Danish Armed Forces, and is head of the Defence Command which is managed by the Ministry of Defence. Constitutionally, the Commander-in-Chief is the head of state (Queen Margrethe II); in practice, it is the Cabinet. Also, the Cabinet cannot mobilize the armed forces, for purposes that are not strictly defense oriented, without the consent of the Danish parliament, the Folketing. Denmark also has a concept of 'total defence'. Purpose and task The purpose and task of the armed forces of Denmark is defined in Law no. 122 of February 27, 2001 and in force since March 1, 2001. It defines 3 purposes and 6 tasks. Its primary purpose is to prevent conflicts and war, preserve the sovereignty of Denmark, secure the continuing existence and integrity of the independent Kingdom of Denmark and further a peaceful development in the world with respect to human rights. Its primary tasks are; NATO participation in accordance with the strategy of the alliance, detect and repel any sovereignty violation of Danish territory (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), defence cooperation with non-NATO members, especially Central and East European countries, international missions in the area of conflict prevention, crises-control, humanitarian, peacemaking, peacekeeping, participate in Total Defence in cooperation with civilian resources and finally maintain a sizable force to execute these tasks at all times. Defense budget Since 1988, Danish defence budgets and security policy have been set by multi-year agreements supported by a wide parliamentary majority including government and opposition parties. However, public opposition to increases in defence spending — during a period when economic constraints require reduced spending for social welfare — has created differences among the political parties regarding a broadly acceptable level of new defence expenditure. The latest Defence agreement ("Defence agreement 2005-2009") was signed June 10, 2004, and calls for a significant re-construction of the entire military. From now about 60% support structure and 40% combat operational capability, it is to be 40% support structure and 60% combat operational capability. E.g. more combat soldiers and fewer 'paper'-soldiers. The reaction speed is increased, with an entire brigade on standby readiness; the military retains the capability to continually deploy 2,000 soldiers in international service or 5,000 over a short time span. The standard mandatory conscription is modified. Generally this means fewer conscripts, less service time for them and only those who choose to will continue into the reaction force system. Expenditures The Danish military economy is the fifth largest single economy in the Danish Government (the 2006 Finance law), significantly less than that of the Ministry of Social Affairs (~110 billion DKK), Ministry of Employment (~67 billion DKK), Ministry of the Interior and Health (~66 billion DKK) and Ministry of Education (~30 billion DKK) and only slightly larger than that of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (~14 billion DKK). This list lists the complete expenditures for the Danish Ministry of Defence. The Danish defence, counting all branches and all departments, itself has an income equal to about 1–5% of its expenditures, depending on the year. They are not deducted in this listing. Approximately 95% of the budget goes directly to running the Danish military including the Home guard. Depending on year, 50–53% accounts for payment to personnel, roughly 14–21% on acquiring new material, 2–8% for larger ships, building projects or infrastructure and about 24–27% on other items, including purchasing of goods, renting, maintenance, services and taxes. The remaining 5% is special expenditures to NATO, branch shared expenditures, special services and civil structures, here in including running the Danish Maritime Safety Administration, Danish national rescue preparedness and the administration of conscientious objectors (Militærnægteradministrationen). YearPercentage of GNPComplete expenditures(Ministry of Defence)in millions of DKKYearPercentage of GNPComplete expenditures(Ministry of Defence)in millions of DKK 1970 ? ? 1990 ? ? 1971 ? ? 1991 ? ? 1972 ? ? 1992 ? ? 1973 ? ? 1993 ? ? 1974 ? ? 1994 ? ? 1975 ? ? 1995 ? ? 1976 2,2% 5.910 1996 1.7% 17.012,6 1977 2,3% 6.390 1997 1,7% 17.615,1 1978 2,3% 7.082 1998 1,6% 18.221,4 1979 2,2% 7.525 1999 1.4% 17.384,9 1980 2,6% 9.545 2000 1,4% 17.496,5 1981 2,6% 10.612 2001 1,4% 18.310,4 1982 2,5% 11.836 2002 1,4% 18.665,9 1983 2,5% 12.783 2003 1.4% 18.857,9 1984 2,3% 13.163 2004 1,4% 19.841,3 1985 2,2% 13.355 2005 1,3% 19.066,8 1986 2,0% 13.142 2006 1.3% 21.221,9 1987 2,1% 14.443 2007 na 21.692,1 (expected) 1988 2,2% 15.800 2008 na 21.341,3 (expected) 1989 2,1% 15.767 2009 na 18.960,1 (expected) Danish Agency for Governmental Management ("Økonomi-styrelsen") ( Finance law 1996 to 2006]) Danmarks Statistik (1976–1989) Denmark has a small and highly specialized military industry, thus rely mostly on foreign import, the vast majority of the equipment is imported from NATO and the Nordic countries. Branches Royal Danish Army — Hæren (HRN) Royal Danish Navy — Søværnet (SVN) Royal Danish Air Force — Flyvevåbnet (FLV) Danish Home Guard — Hjemmeværnet (HJV)1 Structure Ministry of Defence (: Forsvarsministeriet (FMN)) Defence Command (: Forsvarskommandoen (FKO)) (intl. abb: DADEFCOM) Army Operational Command (: Hærens Operative Kommando (HOK)) (intl. abb: DAAROPCOM) Admiral Danish Fleet (: Søværnets Operative Kommando (SOK)) (intl. abb: ADMDANFLT) Tactical Air Command (: Flyvertaktisk Kommando (FTK)) (intl. abb: DAAIRCOM) Island Command Greenland (: Grønlandskommando (GLK)) (intl. abb: ISCOMGREEN) Island Command Faroes (: Færøernes Kommando (FRK)) (intl. abb: ISCOMFAROE) Danish Defence Acquisition and Logistics Organization (: Forsvarets Materieltjeneste (FMT)) Royal Danish Defence College (: Forsvarsakademiet (FAK)) Danish Armed Forces Health Services (: Forsvarets Sundhedstjeneste (FSU)) Home Guard Command (: Hjemmeværnskommandoen (HJVK)) Defence Intelligence Service (: Forsvarets Efterretningstjeneste (FE)) (intl. abb: DDIS) Judge Advocate Corps (: Forsvarets Auditørkorps (FAUK)) Defence Information & Welfare Service (: Forsvarets Oplysnings- og velfærdstjeneste (FOV)) Defence Estates & Infrastructure Organisation (: Forsvarets Bygnings- og etablissimentstjeneste (FBE)) Defence Internal Auditor (: Forsvarets Interne Revision (FIR)) Emergency Management Agency (: Beredskabsstyrelsen (BRS)) (intl. abb: DEMA) Danish Maritime Safety Administration (: Farvandsvæsnet (FRV)) (intl. abb: DANMSA) Administration of Conscientious Objector (: Militærnægteradministrationen (MNA)) Special forces Jægerkorpset — Ground based infiltration unit. Frømandskorpset — Amphibious attack and infiltration unit. Slædepatruljen Sirius — Arctic dog sled unit patrolling the eastern border of Greenland. Current deployments Current deployment of Danish forces: Approx. 380 soldiers in Kosovo who participate in KFOR. Antal udsendte (number of soldiers in foreign countries) More than 700 troops in Afghanistan, there since the 2001 war that toppled the Taliban. See also Military history of Denmark Military of Greenland NATO Scandinavian defence union References External links The Danish Defence Army Operative Command Army Materiel Command kamouflage.net > Europe > Denmark (Kingdom of Denmark) > index | Danish_Defence |@lemmatized danish:25 army:5 navy:2 personel:1 combined:1 joint:1 excersise:1 danex:1 dro:1 armed:3 force:11 kingdom:4 denmark:10 know:1 defence:27 charge:1 chief:2 head:3 arm:2 command:9 manage:1 ministry:10 constitutionally:1 commander:1 state:1 queen:1 margrethe:1 ii:1 practice:1 cabinet:2 also:3 cannot:1 mobilize:1 purpose:5 strictly:1 defense:2 orient:1 without:1 consent:1 parliament:1 folketing:1 concept:1 total:2 task:5 define:2 law:3 february:1 since:3 march:1 primary:2 prevent:1 conflict:2 war:2 preserve:1 sovereignty:2 secure:1 continue:2 existence:1 integrity:1 independent:1 far:1 peaceful:1 development:1 world:1 respect:1 human:1 right:1 nato:5 participation:1 accordance:1 strategy:1 alliance:1 detect:1 repel:1 violation:1 territory:1 include:5 greenland:4 faroe:1 island:3 cooperation:2 non:1 member:1 especially:1 central:1 east:1 european:1 country:3 international:2 mission:1 area:1 prevention:1 crises:1 control:1 humanitarian:1 peacemaking:1 peacekeeping:1 participate:2 civilian:1 resource:1 finally:1 maintain:1 sizable:1 execute:1 time:3 budget:3 security:1 policy:1 set:1 multi:1 year:3 agreement:3 support:3 wide:1 parliamentary:1 majority:2 government:2 opposition:2 party:2 however:1 public:1 increase:2 spending:2 period:1 economic:1 constraint:1 require:1 reduced:1 social:2 welfare:2 create:1 difference:1 among:1 political:1 regard:1 broadly:1 acceptable:1 level:1 new:2 expenditure:7 late:1 sign:1 june:1 call:1 significant:1 construction:1 entire:2 military:7 structure:4 combat:3 operational:3 capability:3 e:1 g:1 soldier:5 paper:1 reaction:2 speed:1 brigade:1 standby:1 readiness:1 retain:1 continually:1 deploy:1 service:7 short:1 span:1 standard:1 mandatory:1 conscription:1 modify:1 generally:1 mean:1 conscript:1 less:2 choose:1 system:1 expenditures:1 economy:2 fifth:1 large:3 single:1 finance:2 significantly:1 affair:1 billion:5 dkk:6 employment:1 interior:1 health:2 education:1 slightly:1 science:1 technology:1 innovation:1 list:2 complete:1 count:1 branch:3 department:1 income:1 equal:1 depend:2 deduct:1 listing:1 approximately:1 go:1 directly:1 run:2 home:3 guard:3 account:1 payment:1 personnel:1 roughly:1 acquire:1 material:1 ship:1 build:1 project:1 infrastructure:2 item:1 purchasing:1 good:1 renting:1 maintenance:1 tax:1 remain:1 special:3 share:1 civil:1 maritime:2 safety:2 administration:4 national:1 rescue:1 preparedness:1 conscientious:2 objector:2 militærnægteradministrationen:2 yearpercentage:1 gnpcomplete:2 million:2 dkkyearpercentage:1 na:3 expect:3 agency:2 governmental:1 management:2 økonomi:1 styrelsen:1 danmark:1 statistik:1 small:1 highly:1 specialized:1 industry:1 thus:1 rely:1 mostly:1 foreign:2 import:2 vast:1 equipment:1 nordic:1 royal:4 hæren:1 hrn:1 søværnet:1 svn:1 air:2 flyvevåbnet:1 flv:1 hjemmeværnet:1 hjv:1 forsvarsministeriet:1 fmn:1 forsvarskommandoen:1 fko:1 intl:9 abb:9 dadefcom:1 hærens:1 operative:3 kommando:4 hok:1 daaropcom:1 admiral:1 fleet:1 søværnets:1 sok:1 admdanflt:1 tactical:1 flyvertaktisk:1 ftk:1 daaircom:1 grønlandskommando:1 glk:1 iscomgreen:1 faroes:1 færøernes:1 frk:1 iscomfaroe:1 acquisition:1 logistics:1 organization:1 forsvarets:7 materieltjeneste:1 fmt:1 college:1 forsvarsakademiet:1 fak:1 sundhedstjeneste:1 fsu:1 hjemmeværnskommandoen:1 hjvk:1 intelligence:1 efterretningstjeneste:1 fe:1 ddi:1 judge:1 advocate:1 corp:1 auditørkorps:1 fauk:1 information:1 oplysnings:1 og:2 velfærdstjeneste:1 fov:1 estates:1 organisation:1 bygnings:1 etablissimentstjeneste:1 fbe:1 internal:1 auditor:1 interne:1 revision:1 fir:1 emergency:1 beredskabsstyrelsen:1 brs:1 dema:1 farvandsvæsnet:1 frv:1 danmsa:1 mna:1 jægerkorpset:1 ground:1 base:1 infiltration:2 unit:3 frømandskorpset:1 amphibious:1 attack:1 slædepatruljen:1 sirius:1 arctic:1 dog:1 sled:1 patrol:1 eastern:1 border:1 current:2 deployment:2 approx:1 kosovo:1 kfor:1 antal:1 udsendte:1 number:1 troop:1 afghanistan:1 topple:1 taliban:1 see:1 history:1 scandinavian:1 union:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 materiel:1 kamouflage:1 net:1 europe:1 index:1 |@bigram commander_chief:1 greenland_faroe:1 faroe_island:1 billion_dkk:5 conscientious_objector:2 vast_majority:1 intl_abb:9 dog_sled:1 external_link:1 |
5,996 | Known_Space | Known Space is the fictional setting of several science fiction novels and short stories written by author Larry Niven. It has also in part been used as a shared universe in the Man-Kzin Wars spin-off anthologies sub-series. The epithet "Known Space" is an in-universe term that refers to a relatively small part of the galaxy centered around Earth. In the future which the series depicts, ranging from a few centuries to about a millennium from now, this region has been explored by humans and a number of its worlds have been colonized. On other worlds aliens have been encountered, contact has been made with alien species such as the two-headed Pierson's Puppeteers and the aggressive felinoid Kzinti. The fictional universe is also the home of species outside Known Space as such, for instance the hominid inhabitants of a megastructure called Ringworld; the Ringworld orbits a sun outside of the spatial "region" known as Known Space, but it is a well-established artifact within the Known Space "universe". The stories span approximately one thousand years of future history, from the first human explorations of the Solar System to the colonization of dozens of nearby systems. Late in the series, this area is an irregularly shaped "bubble" about 60 light-years across. The stories that comprise the Known Space series were originally conceived as two separate series, the Belter stories, featuring solar-system colonization and slower-than-light travel with fusion-powered Bussard ramjet ships, and the Neutron Star/Ringworld series of stories, set much further into the future, which feature faster-than-light ships using "hyperdrive". The two timelines were implicitly joined by Niven in the story A Relic of the Empire, in which the background elements of the Slaver civilization (introduced in World of Ptavvs, from the Belter series) was used as a plot element of a story in the faster-than-light setting. Roughly 300 years separates the timeline of the last stories of the early setting (which are set roughly between 2000 and 2350), from the earliest stories in the later Neutron Star/Ringworld setting (which are set in 2651 (Neutron Star) and later). In the late 1980s, Niven opened up this gap in the known space timeline as a shared universe, and the stories of the Man-Kzin Wars volumes fill in that history, joining the two settings. Overview Species In the process of exploring space, humankind encounters several intelligent alien species, including the following: Kzinti: Large and very aggressive felinoid aliens with whom humans fight several brutal interstellar wars. Kzinti tactics are somewhat cat-like in nature, "scream and leap" being the primary mode of declaring a challenge. The first Man-Kzin War ended when the humans obtained the faster-than-light drive from the Outsiders, after which the Kzinti ships stood no chance against FTL-drive warships. Throughout the rest of the wars with man, the Kzinti tended to always attack before they were ready, and subsequently lost each and every one of them. As a result of this most of their empire was lost; in the peace treaties that resulted, colonies and slave planets were ceded to man or given independence. In Ringworld it is revealed that this was in part due to clandestine meddling by the Pierson's Puppeteers. They saw in the aggressive Kzinti a major threat, and orchestrated the events that led to the human FTL armada, ensuring the human victory of the first war. Each of these Kzinti defeats eliminated the most aggressive individuals from the Kzinti gene pool and thus made the Kzinti more "manageable" from a Puppeteer point of view. By the time Ringworld takes place, Kzinti are able to deal with other races diplomatically, rather than by attacking and enslaving them. Female Kzinti are not sapient, although among the archaic Kzinti found on the Ringworld some are. The protagonist Louis Wu thinks this indicates the Kzinti in Known Space have bred intelligence out of their females. Niven himself wrote little about the Man-Kzin Wars, although many of his stories refer to them having taken place in the past. The Man-Kzin Wars short-story collections were primarily written by other authors. The Kzinti "crossed-over" in to the Star Trek universe in the animated episode "The Slaver Weapon", which was written by Larry Niven and is adapted from Niven's own short story The Soft Weapon. Pierson's Puppeteers: A technologically advanced race of three-legged, twin-necked herbivores descended from herd animals, and noted for their so-called cowardice. Their commercial empire directly and indirectly controls events throughout Known Space and beyond, and Puppeteer plots are behind many of the larger events in Known Space. The name "Puppeteer" is purportedly derived from the twin "heads" (not enclosing brains) which perform as both mouths and hands, which strongly resemble sock puppets. The Puppeteer voice range is far greater than the human one, but for speaking to humans they adopt the tone of a very seductive female. It is also suggested that the "Puppeteer" name may derive from their social tendency to be very manipulative. Outsiders: fragile aliens shaped like cats o' nine tails that, according to Ringworld, probably evolved on a cold, low gravity world resembling Nereid. They mostly live on big ships, crossing the interstellar space at sublight velocities (according to A Gift From Earth, they find hyperspace vulgar), trading in information and technology. It was the Outsiders that sold humans the FTL drive, on a stop to We Made It. The Outsider ships' paths between the stars are determined by the starseeds, which they for some unknown reason seem to follow. The starseeds are gigantic, non-sentient space-dwelling animals that travel from the galactic core to the rim by their solar sails. At the rim they lay their eggs, then travel the 50,000 light years back to the core. Pak: Interstellar ancestors of humanity whose life-cycle mimics the stages of human aging. A Pak who reaches the age of 30 to 45 years may eat the Tree-of-Life to transform into a "Protector" of his descendants. In the novel Protector, Protectors are described as xenophobic, violent, hyper-intelligent and driven only by the fierce instinct to protect their descendants. This powerful instinct drove them to commit genocide on several planets where they tried to establish colonies, since every other sentient species was considered a potential threat to their offspring. It also led to relentless internecine wars whenever two familial lines wound up with goals in conflict. When the Protectors reappear in The Ringworld Engineers and its sequels, it is strongly indicated that they constructed the Ringworld. Kdatlyno: A slave species of the Kzinti until humans free them. Kdatlyno "see" by way of sonar and create sculptures intended to be "seen" by Kdatlyno, but (when they have been advised on color and texture) which can be seen and felt by other species, such as humans and puppeteers. Pierin: A slave species of the Kzinti. At the time of their conquest, they occupied several planets near p Eridani. No description is given, but the Ringworld RPG suggests they resemble horned birds and that their homeworld has low gravity. Presumably freed by humans, but this is not attested. Chunquen: A slave species of the Kzinti, remarkable to their captors for the sentience of both sexes. ("They fought constantly.") Their homeworld is watery; they resisted the Kzinti invasion with missiles fired from submarine ships. Apparently exterminated before the Kzinti first encountered humans. Thrintun: An ancient species that ruled a big empire, including the region of Known Space, through telepathic mind control about 1.5 billion years ago. A technology created by one of their slave races was the stasis field, which makes its contents impervious to harm and provides indefinite suspended animation, which has figured in several Known Space stories. Thrintun were small (approximately 1.25 meters tall), highly telepathic but not particularly intelligent (with their mind control, they did not need to be), reptilian, with green scaly skin, pointed teeth, and a single eye. Grogs: Sessile sentient creatures, shaped like furry cones. They are eyeless, earless, and have a prehensile tongue. They can also control animals telepathically. The Grogs are thought by some to be the descendants of the Thrintun species, after 1.5 billion years of atrophy. Tnuctipun: An apparently extinct ancient race of small carnivores contemporaneous with and enslaved by the Thrintun. They were known for their technological prowess, especially in genetic engineering. They secretly planned and executed the revolution to overthrow their Thrintun masters using many of their creations. When it appeared that the revolt would succeed, the Thrintun elders built and used a psychic amplifier that forced every sentient being in the galaxy to commit suicide, the signal repeating for centuries. The Thrint that survived the revolt died out when all their slave races were dead. Bandersnatchi: Colossal slug-like creatures, originally created by the Tnuctipun to be grown as a food source by the Thrintun. Believed by the Thrintun to be unintelligent, the Bandersnatchi were engineered by the Tnuctipun to be highly intelligent spies for their war on the Thrintun. At one time found on every Thrint estate throughout the Thrintun empire, the only known survivors in Known Space are on the planet Jinx, though they are later found on the Ringworld and on a forested planet called Beanstalk (in the Man-Kzin Wars story "Hey Diddle Diddle"). The Bandersnatchi were the only intelligent species which were immune to the Thrint mental power. Trinocs: Named for their three eyes; they also have three fingers, and a triangular mouth. Methane breathers and culturally paranoid, at least by human standards. First encountered by Louis Wu in the short story There is a Tide. Martians: Primitive but intelligent humanoids who lived beneath the sands. Martians burst into flames when brought in contact with water. Martians killed many of the early human explorers on Mars, principally because they concealed their existence, and they weren't suspected. In the novel Protector, the Martians were wiped out when Jack Brennan caused an ice asteroid to crash into the surface of Mars, raising the average humidity content of the atmosphere. Some Martians still exist on the "Map of Mars" on the Ringworld. Jotoki: Sentient starfish-shaped beings formed by the joining of the lobes of five non-sentient eel-like life forms into a single brain. Former rulers of an interstellar empire, they used Kzinti as bodyguards, but the Kzinti took over the Jotoki empire and built their own upon it, making the Jotoki slaves and food animals. Morlocks: Semi-sentient humanoid cave dwellers on Wunderland. They, like humans, descended from a failed attempt by Pak Protectors to colonize Sol and nearby star systems. Named by humans for the creatures in H.G. Wells' The Time Machine. Whrloo: Meter-tall insectoids with long eyestalks, their homeworld has low gravity with a thick, high density atmosphere. They never saw the stars until they were enslaved by the Kzinti. Also figuring in some stories are dolphins and other intelligent cetaceans, and various offshoots of Homo sapiens including the associate lineage of the hominids of the Ringworld. Most life in Known Space shares similar biochemistries, since they evolved from the Thrintun practice of seeding barren worlds with food yeast which they used to feed their slaves. Over a billion years, the Thrintun food yeast evolved into the different life forms in Known Space. Locations One aspect of the Known Space universe is that most of the early human colonies are on planets suboptimal for Homo sapiens. During the first phase of human interstellar colonization (i.e., before humanity acquired FTL), simple robotic probes were sent to nearby stars to assess their planets for habitation. The programming of these probes was flawed: they sent back a "good for colonization" message if they found a habitable point, rather than a habitable planet. Sleeper ships containing human colonists were sent to the indicated star systems. Too often, those colonists had to make the best of a bad situation. Earth, the human homeworld, is oppressive to an extent that would be unbelievable to most twentieth-century humans. The entire world is under the rule of the United Nations, which wields its power by means of a global police force. For centuries, due to the perfection of organ transplant technology, all state executions are done in hospitals to provide organ transplants, and to maximize their availability, nearly all crimes carried the death penalty, including such offenses as too many traffic tickets and tax evasion. This period ended when Jack Brennan, who had consumed the Tree-of-Life root and become a human version of the Pak Protector, used his superior intelligence to engineer social change in medical technology and social attitudes that eventually reduced the use of organ banks to reasonable levels. Part of Brennan's manipulation was the development of a science known as "psychistry". Psychistry was used to "correct" all forms of "mental aberration" - the populace is incredibly docile. To combat overpopulation (one estimate is 18 billion people), a license is required to procreate, only available after exhaustive testing has determined that a prospect is free of "abnormalities"; failure to acquire one before procreating is a capital crime. This policy, in addition to the existence of the transfer booth and a one-world language and economy, has led to the populace eventually becoming fairly genetically homogeneous. To prevent the development of new WMDs, all scientific research is regulated by the government and all potentially dangerous technology (which is effectively all technology) is suppressed; there have been very few real breakthroughs in science since the twentieth century. A common title for people born on Earth is "Flatlander"; they are considered naïve and a bit helpless by the rest of the galaxy, having been born and raised in the only environment in Known Space which humans are well-adapted to. The Moon is a separate entity, but is under the control of the same government as Earth. It, however, has its own distinct culture. Humans native to the Moon are called "Lunies", and tend toward tall, lean body types regularly reaching eight feet in height. They are frequently referred to as looking much like Tolkien's Elves due to their physiques and alien allure. Mars, fourth planet in our solar system and the first planetary colony in Known Space. Native "Martians" were exterminated by the Brennan Monster. No one goes there, as resources are easier to mine in the Belt and Jovian moons. The Sol Belt possesses an abundance of valuable ores, which are easily accessible due to the low to negligible gravity of the rocks containing them. Originally a harsh frontier under U.N. control, the Belt declared independence after creating Confinement Asteroid, a habitat with spin gravity that permitted safe gestation of children, and Farmer's Asteroid, the Belt's primary food source. Almost immediately a lively competition began between the fiercely independent "Belters" and the technology police of the U.N. Several years of tension and economic conflicts followed, but soon settled into a relatively peaceful trade relationship as the Belt has so many resources that the UN and the Earth needs. Down is the home world of the Grogs and a former Kzinti colony. It orbits a K-type star, significantly redder and cooler than Sol. Grogs, though friendly, are feared by humanity, due to their telepathic ability to control the minds of animals (and possibly sentient species as well). Because of this fear, humans have placed a Bussard ramjet field generator in close orbit around Down's sun, thus enabling them to destroy the Grog population should they ever take hostile action against any sentient species. Cover of January 1975 Analog for "The Borderland of Sol" showing Jinx (artist: John Schoenherr). Jinx, orbiting Sirius, is a massive moon of a gas giant, stretched by tidal forces into an egg shape, with surface gravity at the habitable areas near the limits of human extended tolerance. The poles lie in vacuum, the equatorial regions are Venus-like (and inhabited only by the Bandersnatchi); the zones between have atmosphere breathable by humans. Jinx's poles become a major in vacuo manufacturing area. Jinxian humans are short and squat, the strongest bipeds in Known Space. But they tend to die early, from heart and circulatory problems. There is a tourist industry which provides substantial useful interplanetary trade credits for the Bandersnatchi in which the Bandersnatchi allow themselves to be hunted by humans under strict protocols. Wunderland is a planet circling Alpha Centauri, and was the earliest extra-solar colony in Known Space's human history. It has a surface gravity of 60% that of Earth's and is hospitable to human life. Wunderland was invaded and its population enslaved by the Kzinti during the first Man-Kzin War. It was freed near the end of the First War by the human Hyperdrive Armada from We Made It. The system has an asteroid belt in the shape of a crescent, which gives it its name—the Serpent Swarm. The capital asteroid, Tiamat, houses one of the largest Kzin populations in Known Space. We Made It, orbiting Procyon, got its name because the first colony ship crash-landed. Gravity is about three-fifths Earth's. The planet's axis is pointed along the plane of the ecliptic (like Uranus), creating ferocious winds of as much as 1,500 mph during half of the planet's year, forcing the people to live underground. Natives are known as "Crashlanders", and tend to be very tall albinos. Their capital, which was the site of their colony ship's landing, is called Crashlanding City. We Made It also has one ocean. Plateau in the Tau Ceti system is Venus-like, with a plateau (called Mount Lookitthat), half the size of California, rising high enough out of the dense atmosphere to be habitable. Inhabitants ("Mountaineers") are divided into two rigid hereditary castes, the "crew" and the "colonists", depending on whether their ancestors piloted the colonizing vessel. The crew were the upper caste, and held power through their monopoly on organ transplantation and control of the police. The original colonists signed the "Covenant of Planetfall", agreeing that this outcome was just recompense for the labors of the crew during the voyage; that they signed at gunpoint as they were awakened from hibernation was kept secret from later generations, and also that those who refused, died. This repressive system was overthrown in A Gift From Earth, and the former inequality and caste system appears to have disappeared by the time The Ethics of Madness takes place. Home was one of Earth's most distant colonies, orbiting the star Epsilon Indi. The planet was so named by the colonists, due to its remarkable similarity to Earth. Its day is nearly 24 hours long, and its surface gravity is 1.08g. Oceans, mean global temperature, seasons, and moon are also similar. According to Protector, the original colonists had planned to call their world "Flatland" as a sort of joke, but once settled on Home they had changed their minds - "a belated attack of patriotism" Larry Niven, Protector (Ballantine Books, 1973), 183 , Elroy Truesdale of Protector muses. The entire population of Home was destroyed as a consequence of Brennan's and Truesdale's war with the Pak - Brennan turned the entire population into human Protectors to create an army to fight the Pak invaders. The planet was apparently re-colonized in later centuries, as it is presented as a vibrant colony in "Procrustes" and other later stories. Canyon was once an uninhabitable Mars-like world known as Warhead. It was used as a military outpost by the Kzinti, until the planet was hit by a weapon called the "Wunderland Treatymaker" during the Third War. The attack tore a long, narrow, kilometers-deep crater into the crust approximately the size of the Baja Peninsula. The air and moisture in the thin atmosphere gathered at the bottom of this artificial canyon, creating a breathable environment, complete with a sea at the bottom. The planet was then renamed for the crater, and settled by humans in a huge city running up the crater wall. Archaic (hyper-aggressive and intractable) Kzinti were entombed in stasis field shells during the attack and are still beneath the lava, and someday, somebody will have to deal with them. Gummidgy is a jungle world popular with hunters. It is home to the Gummidgy Orchid-Thing, a sessile carnivore which hangs from trees and is a popular trophy for the wealthy. It orbits a blue giant star and due to high levels of ultraviolet light, most humans (except Jinxians) require melanin-boosting medication to venture outdoors. Fafnir is a former Kzin colony covered almost entirely in water. It has one continent, called Shasht. It was captured by humans during the Man-Kzin Wars. Margrave is a late addition to the family of Human colonies. In the Ringworld era it is still a frontier world, and is home to enormous birds the inhabitants have dubbed "rocs". Silvereyes is, at the time of Ringworld, the furthest Human world from Earth (60 days at Quantum-I hyperdrive speeds). In Niven's obscure story The Color of Sunfire it has entire continents covered with Slaver sunflowers (bred as defense for Thrint manors, they focus sunlight using silver leaves as parabolic reflectors), giving it an appearance from orbit of having "silver eyes". The Man-Kzin Wars books, conversely, have it entirely covered by a world ocean, with groves of sunflowers growing up from the bottom of the ocean. The Fleet of Worlds is the five planets that are home to the Puppeteers (see above), presently being moved in formation at sub-light speeds out of the galaxy to avoid destruction as the wave of radiation from an explosion of the galactic core sweeps towards the outer reaches of the galaxy. They orbit about each other in a Klemperer rosette. Hearth is the homeworld of the Pierson's Puppeteers with a population of around one trillion and is covered by arcologies, most over one mile tall. Its industries and population generate so much waste heat it no longer requires a star for warmth (the four other "farmworlds" use artificial orbital lights to grow food). Kobold was a tiny artificial world created in the outer Sol System by Jack Brennan, a human Protector, composed of a small sphere in the center ringed by a larger torus. Gravity generators facilitated movement between the two sections and were used in games and art. Brennan destroyed Kobold just prior to leaving for his war with the Pak Protectors. The Ringworld is an artificial world structure with three million times the surface area of Earth, built in the shape of a giant ring orbiting its sun, a million miles across and with a diameter of 186 million miles. It was built by the Pak, who either abandoned it, or more likely died out much like the Earth Pak did, due to a lack of a key yamlike root which produces the conversion to Protector-stage Pak (which required a very specifically targeted soil chemistry to grow). It is inhabited by a number of different evolved hominid species, and includes representative samples of Bandersnatchi, Martians and Kzinti, and possibly other alien races. Sheathclaws is a planet colonized by humans aboard Angel's Pencil and descendants of a rogue Kzinti telepath. It orbits an as-yet-unspecified star 98 light years from Earth, and kept its existence secret for several centuries. Kzin, translates as "Home-of-the-Kzinti" or "Kzinhome" in the Hero's Tongue. It orbits 61 Ursae Majoris and has higher gravity than Earth and more oxygen in the atmosphere. It has two moons, known as the Hunter's Moon and the Traveler's Moon. Technology The series feature a number of "superscience" inventions which figure as plot devices. Stories earlier in the timeline feature technology such as Bussard ramjets, Drouds (wires capable of directly stimulating the pleasure centers of the brain) and explore how organ transplantation technology enables the new crime of organlegging (as well as the general sociological effects of widespread transplant technology), while later stories feature hyperdrive, invulnerable starship hulls, stasis fields, molecular monofilaments, transfer booths (teleporters used only on planetary surfaces), the lifespan-extending drug boosterspice, and the tasp which is an extension of the wirehead development which works without direct contact. The impact of inventions and technology on society is a recurring, if not central theme in Niven's work. For example, addiction to electric brain stimulation resulting in "wireheads", or the secondary and tertiary effects of an invention such as teleportation on social behavior, problems, and mores. The milieu can be viewed as representing the last gasp of Campbell-era science fiction, as the iconoclastic, counterculture influences of "new wave" science fiction of the sixties play no part in most of the stories. However, there are notable exceptions in the Gil the ARM stories; and Jigsaw Man first appeared in Harlan Ellison's landmark "new wave" anthology, Dangerous Visions. Organ Transplantation On Earth in the mid 21st century it became possible to transplant any organ from any person to another, with the exception of brain and central nervous system tissue. Individuals were categorized according to their so-called "rejection spectrum" which allowed doctors to counter any immune system responses to the new organs, allowing transplants to "take" for life. It also enabled the crime of "organlegging" which lasted well into the 24th century. Hyperdrive Faster Than Light (FTL) propulsion, or hyperdrive, was obtained from the Outsiders at the end of the First Man-Kzin War. In addition to winning the war for humanity, it allowed the re-integration of all the human colonies, which were previously separated by distance. Standard hyperdrive covers a distance of one light year every three days (121.75 x c). A more advanced Quantum II Hyperdrive introduced later is able to cover the same distance in one and a quarter minutes (420,768 x c). In the vast majority of Known Space material, Hyperdrive requires that a ship be outside a solar system's gravity well to use. However, in Niven's first novel, World of Ptavvs, the hyperdrive used by the Thrint required that a ship be going faster than 93% of the speed of light. This is the only time that Hyperdrive is described this way. This concept was changed by Niven in the novel Ringworld's Children, in which the Ringworld itself is converted into a gigantic Quantum II hyperdrive and launched into hyperspace while within its sun's gravity well. Stasis Fields A Slaver stasis field creates a bubble of space/time that runs separate from the rest of the universe. Time slows effectively to a stop for an object in stasis, at a ratio of some billions of years outside to a second inside. An object in stasis is invulnerable to anything occurring outside the field, as well as being preserved indefinitely. A stasis field may be recognized by its perfectly reflecting surface, so perfect in fact that it reflects 100% of all radiation and particles, including neutrinos. Invulnerable Hulls The Puppeteer firm, General Products, produces an invulnerable starship hull, known simply as a General Products Hull. The hulls are impervious to any type of matter or energy, with the exception of antimatter, gravitation and visible light. While invulnerable themselves, this is no guarantee that the contents are likewise protected. For example, a high speed impact with the surface of a planet or star may cause no harm to the hull, the occupants however will be crushed if they are not protected by additional measures, such as a stasis field, or a gravity compensating field. In Fleet of Worlds, the characters tour a General Products factory and receive clues that allow them to destroy a General Products hull from the inside using only a high-powered interstellar communications laser. In Juggler of Worlds, the Puppeteers, attempting to surmise how this was done without antimatter, identify another technique which can be used to destroy the otherwise invulnerable hulls, one which does suggest some potential defense options. Boosterspice Boosterspice is a compound that increases the longevity and reverses aging of human beings. With the use of boosterspice, humans can easily live into hundreds of years and, theoretically, it can extend life indefinitely. Developed by the Institute of Knowledge on Jinx, it is said to be made from genetically engineered ragweed (although early stories have it ingested in the form of edible seeds). In Ringworld's Children, it is suggested boosterspice may actually be adapted from Tree-of-Life, without the symbiotic virus that enabled hominids to metamorphose from Pak Breeder stage to Pak Protector stage (mutated Pak breeders were the ancestors of both Homo sapiens and the hominids of the Ringworld in the Known Space universe). On the Ringworld, there is an analogous (and apparently more potent) compound developed from Tree-of-Life, but they are mutually incompatible; in The Ringworld Engineers, Louis Wu learns that the character Halrloprillalar died when in ARM custody after leaving the Ringworld, as a result of having taken boosterspice and previously having used the Ringworld equivalent. Boosterspice only works on Homo sapiens, whereas the Tree-of-Life compound will work on any hominid descended from the Pak. Stepping disks Stepping Disks are a fictional teleportation technology from the Known Space universe created by Larry Niven. They were invented by the Pierson's Puppeteers, and their existence is not generally known to other races until the events of The Ringworld Engineers. The stepping disks are an outgrowth and improvement of the transfer booth technology used by humans and other Known Space races. Unlike the booths, the disks do not require an enclosed chamber, and somehow can differentiate between solid masses and air, for example. They also have a far greater range than transfer booths, extending several AU's. (1 AU is equivalent to Earth's orbit). Several limitations to stepping disks are mentioned in the Ringworld novels. If there is a difference in velocity between two disks, any matter transferred between them must be accelerated by the disk accordingly. If there is not enough energy to do so, the transfer cannot take place. This becomes a problem with disks that are a significant distance apart on the Ringworld surface, as they will have different velocities: same speed, different direction. Transfer Booths Transfer Booths are an inexpensive form of teleportation. They are similar in appearance to an old style telephone booth: one enters, "dials" one's desired destination, and is immediately deposited in a corresponding booth at the destination. They are inexpensive: a trip anywhere on Earth costs only a "tenth-star" (presumably equivalent to a dime). Terms Autodoc - Automated facility capable of various levels of medical intervention. Models range from small "desktop" devices that can perform diagnostic procedures, administer medicine, and perform manicures; to highly sophisticated "coffin" style units that can perform major surgery and even rebuild a person from scratch using the patient's DNA (and sufficient raw material). Belter Crest - The hairstyle worn by most Belters. The sides the head are shaved, leaving a narrow strip of hair down the center 1-2 inches wide. Also known as a "Strip Cut". Blind Spot - A visual and psychological effect of faster than light travel. Hyperspace produces no visual input to the brain at all. A transparent window of a ship traveling in hyperdrive will behave as the blind spot of one's eye (hence the name). The brain will attempt to fill this gap with surrounding detail, which can cause intense disorientation to an observer, and even insanity if the area of exposure is great enough. Bubble World - An artificial world created by melting a large iron-rich asteroid and "inflating" it with water placed in a central borehole. The asteroid is melted from the outside in, and the water flashes into steam as the rock melts around it. The world is spun for gravity and the inner surface is terraformed. Normally found in asteroid belt colonies, where they provide farmland and gravity for women to safely carry their unborn children to term. Corpsicle - A person in cryonic suspension (portmanteau of "corpse" and "popsicle"). Often used disparagingly. Droud - A device for direct electrical stimulation of the brain's pleasure center, plugged directly into a socket that is surgically attached to the skull. The user of a droud, known as a "wirehead", suffers from "current addiction". The operation to attach the droud's socket is performed by a specialized surgeon known as an "ecstasy peddler". Fertility Board - Agency of the U.N. which grants or denies parenthood licenses to individuals based on one's genetic tendencies or talents. Free Park - A park where there are no rules, save that no one may harm another. The sole rule is enforced by floating monitor/stunners known as "copseyes". Fusion Tube - A cylindrical shield designed to confine a plasma undergoing thermonuclear fusion. It prevents the plasma heat from damaging the external components of the reactor (and also prevents the cold components from contacting the plasma, which would cause it to fail). The shield can be modulated to allow desired radiation (such as visible light) to pass through it. This is useful for when the fusion reactor is used as both a power source and a light source, such as in the Belt bubbleworlds: Confinement and Farmer's Asteroid. Grippy - All purpose hand tool used chiefly in space. Gravity Polarizer - A device which provides levitation and propulsion by creating a localized distortion of space-time curvature. Handicapped - When capitalized, refers to species with intelligence but no hands (or other appendages) with which to manipulate their environment. Examples are Earth's cetaceans, the Bandersnatchi of Jinx, and the Grogs on Down. Interworld - Constructed auxiliary language used by the people of Known Space. Primarily used by humans, it is also spoken by Puppeteers and Kzinti. Legal Entity - Any member of a sentient/sapient species, capable of independent thought and entitled to full civil rights. Mercy Bullets - A form of non-lethal ammunition. Thin slivers of anesthetic material are fired from a specialized gun or rifle. They are designed to easily pierce the skin and dissolve quickly in the bloodstream, causing immediate unconsciousness. Used by ARM agents and organleggers alike. Organlegger - A dealer in black market organ transplants (portmanteau of "organ" and "bootlegger"). Ramrobot - Unmanned fusion-driven spacecraft equipped with a Bussard ramjet, which provides a nearly limitless supply of fuel. Used as scouts during the early stages of interstellar colonization by Earth. Singleship - A small spacecraft occupied and flown by only one person. It is a term short for "single"-occupant space "ship". The singleships are commonly used by Belters for mining and transportation. During the Man-Kzin Wars they were also used as warships, since the fusion jet (so the colloquial name a "Torchship") which propels the vessel could be used like a miles-long flamethrower. Slowboat - Human colony ship used prior to the invention of hyperdrive. Due to strong magnetic fields, humans were unable to ride the early ramscoop-powered craft. Slowboats followed behind ramrobots and typically carried sufficient fuel only for a one way voyage. Stasis Box - Refers to containers holding preserved relics of a billion year-old war which killed every sentient race living in the galaxy at the time. Scattered across the galaxy, their contents are beyond value (and often very dangerous to the unwary). Tanj - Expletive. Acronym for "There Ain't No Justice". Tasp - A device that can stimulate the pleasure center of the brain via electric induction at varying levels, even at a distance. Such a jolt of pleasure can be as totally disabling as a similar jolt of pain could be. More so, repeated use of the tasp at a low level can become addictive, allowing even greater control of the subject. Less malignantly, their use had become commonplace in parks on Earth, to give an unexpected shock to random passers-by, before their use was banned by the ARM. The act of randomly zapping people with a tasp was called "making their day". Thruster - Device which converts one form of energy (presumably electrical) into uniform acceleration in one direction. Safer than conventional drives, it produces no dangerous reaction "back blast" as that of fusion or chemical rockets. Variable Sword - An ultra-thin wire of molecular monofilament, made rigid and protected by a stasis field, forming a nearly invisible (and extremely sharp) blade. The wire can be extended to varying lengths (hence the name) and has a glowing red ball to mark the end of the blade. ARM The ARM are the police force of the United Nations. ARM originated as an acronym for "Amalgamation of Regional Militia", though this is not a term in current usage by the time of the Known Space novels. An agent of the ARM, Gil Hamilton, is the protagonist of Niven's sci-fi detective stories, a series-within-a-series gathered in the collection Flatlander (Confusingly, "Flatlander" is also the name of an unrelated Known Space story.) Their basic function is to enforce mandatory birth control on overcrowded Earth, and restrict research which might lead to dangerous weapons. In short, the ARM hunts down women who have illegal pregnancies and suppresses all new technologies. They also hunt organleggers, especially in the era of the "organ bank problem". Among the many technologies they control and outlaw are all trained forms of armed and unarmed combat. Agents of the ARM are often known as "Schizes", due to the artificially induced state of paranoid schizophrenia they are kept in to enhance their usefulness as law enforcement officials in a society that keeps most of its populace docile and naive through the aforementioned science of psychistry (see Madness Has Its Place). Their jurisdiction is limited to the Earth-Moon system; other human colonies have their own militia. Nevertheless, in many Known Space stories, ARM agents operate or exert influence in other human star systems through the "Bureau of Alien Affairs" (see In the Hall of the Mountain King, Procrustes, The Borderland of Sol, and "Neutron Star"). These interventions begin following the Man-Kzin Wars and the introduction of hyperdrive, presumably as part of a general re-integration of human societies. Stories in Known Space Unlike many fictional universes, the component tales of Known Space were largely released as short stories or serials in various science fiction anthology magazines. These stories were generally subsequently released in one or more collection volumes. To add some further confusion, some of the shorter novels published in magazines were later expanded to, or incorporated in, book-length novels. Due to the large number of stories, it is particularly difficult for a completionist fan to read every story in the series. There are also two or three short stories which share common themes and some background elements with Known Space stories, but which are not considered a part of the Known Space universe: Bordered in Black and One Face (see the collection Convergent Series), and possibly The Color of Sunfire. In the Known Space stories, Niven had created a number of technological devices (GP hull, stasis field, Ringworld material) which, combined with the "Teela Brown gene", made it very difficult to construct engaging stories beyond a certain date — the combination of factors made it tricky to produce any kind of creditable threat/problem without complex contrivances. Niven demonstrated this, to his own satisfaction, with Safe at Any Speed. After 1975, he began to write significantly fewer Known Space stories. However, Niven later invited other authors to participate in a series of shared-universe novels, with the Man-Kzin Wars as their setting. Stories by Niven {| class="wikitable sortable" !Title||Published||First appearance||Collection |- |"The Coldest Place"||1964||Worlds of If||Tales of Known Space |- |"The World of Ptavvs" Expanded and republished as a novel in 1968 ||1965||Worlds of Tomorrow||— |- |"Becalmed in Hell"||1965 |The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction|Tales of Known Space |- |"Eye of an Octopus"||1966||Galaxy Magazine||Tales of Known Space |- |"The Warriors"||1966||Worlds of If||Tales of Known Space |- |"Neutron Star"||1966||Worlds of If||Neutron Star |- |"How the Heroes Die"||1966||Galaxy Magazine||Tales of Known Space |- |"At the Core"||1966||Worlds of If||Neutron Star |- |"A Relic of the Empire"||1966||Worlds of If||Neutron Star |- |"At the Bottom of a Hole"||1966||Galaxy Magazine||Tales of Known Space |- |"The Soft Weapon"||1967||Worlds of If||Neutron Star |- |"Flatlander"||1967||Worlds of If||Neutron Star |- |"The Ethics of Madness"||1967||Worlds of If||Neutron Star |- |"Safe at any Speed"||1967||The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction||Tales of Known Space |- |"The Adults" Expanded and republished as Protector in 1973. ||1967||Galaxy Magazine||— |- |"The Handicapped"||1967||Galaxy Magazine||Neutron Star |- |"The Jigsaw Man"||1967||Dangerous Visions||Tales of Known Space |- |"Slowboat Cargo" Expanded and republished as A Gift From Earth in 1968. ||1968||Worlds of If||— |- |"The Deceivers" Subsequently renamed "Intent to Deceive" ||1968||Galaxy Magazine||Tales of Known Space |- |"Grendel"||1968||(collection only)||Neutron Star |- |"There is a Tide"||1968||Galaxy Magazine||Tales of Known Space |- |World of Ptavvs||1968||(novel)||— |- |A Gift From Earth||1968||(novel)||— |- |"Wait It Out"||1968||Futures Unbounded||Tales of Known Space |- |"The Organleggers" Subsequently renamed "Death by Ecstasy" ||1968||Galaxy Magazine||The Shape of Space |- |Ringworld||1970||(novel)||— |- |"Cloak of Anarchy"||1972||Analog Science Fiction||Tales of Known Space |- |Protector||1973||(novel)||— |- |The Defenseless Dead||1973||(collection only)||The Long ARM of Gil Hamilton |- |"The Borderland of Sol"||1975||Analog Science Fiction||Tales of Known Space |- |"ARM"||1975||Epic||The Long ARM of Gil Hamilton|- |The Ringworld Engineers||1980||(novel)||— |- |The Patchwork Girl||1980||(novel)||also Flatlander |- |"Madness Has Its Place"||1990||(collection only)||Man-Kzin Wars III |- |"Procrustes"||1994||(collection only)||Crashlander |- |"Ghost"||1994||(framing story, collection only)||Crashlander |- |"The Woman in Del Rey Crater"||1995||(collection only)||Flatlander |- |The Ringworld Throne||1996||(novel)||— |- |"Choosing Names"||1998||(collection only)||Man-Kzin Wars VIII |- |"Fly-By-Night"||2002||(collection only)||Man-Kzin Wars IX |- |Ringworld's Children||2004||(novel)||— |- |"The Hunting Park"||2005||(collection only)||Man-Kzin Wars XI |- |Fleet of Worlds (co-authored with Edward M. Lerner) ||2007 ||(novel)||— |- |Juggler of Worlds (co-authored with Edward M. Lerner) ||2008||(novel)||— |- |} (Note that most stories appeared in more than one collection, though only one each is listed here.) Man-Kzin Wars Playground Niven has described his fiction as "playground equipment", encouraging fans to speculate and extrapolate on the events described. Debates have been made, for example, on who built the Ringworld (Pak Protectors and the Outsiders being the traditional favorites, but see Ringworld's Children for a possibly definitive answer), and what happened to the Tnuctipun. However, Niven also states that this is not an invitation to violate his copyrights, so fans should try to avoid publishing works that are too obviously based in the Known Space universe without Niven's given permission. Niven was also reported to have said that "Known Space should be seen as a possible future history told by people that may or may not have all their facts right." An outline for a "final" Known Space story titled Down in Flames has been published, which includes a controversial revelation about the Tnuctipun. However, Niven has stated the story suggested by the outline was made obsolete by the publication of Ringworld. Down in Flames was a result of a conversation between Norman Spinrad and Niven in 1968, but at the time of its first publication in 1977 some of the concepts were invalidated by Niven's writings between '68 and '77. (A further edited version of the outline was published in N-Space'' in 1990.) References External links Encyclopedia of Known Space The Incompleat Known Space Concordance Timeline of the Known Space universe Website for the Man-Kzin Wars novel Destiny's Forge Homepage of MKW author Paul Chafe "Known Space Home Page" (semi-official fan site) | Known_Space |@lemmatized know:22 space:64 fictional:4 setting:6 several:10 science:11 fiction:9 novel:22 short:9 story:42 write:5 author:6 larry:4 niven:24 also:22 part:7 use:37 shared:2 universe:15 man:23 kzin:22 war:30 spin:3 anthology:3 sub:2 series:13 epithet:1 term:5 refer:3 relatively:2 small:6 galaxy:15 center:6 around:4 earth:26 future:5 depict:1 range:4 century:9 millennium:1 region:4 explore:3 human:51 number:5 world:37 colonize:5 alien:8 encounter:4 contact:4 make:16 specie:17 two:10 head:3 pierson:5 puppeteer:15 aggressive:5 felinoid:2 kzinti:30 home:10 outside:6 known:47 instance:1 hominid:6 inhabitant:3 megastructure:1 call:11 ringworld:36 orbit:13 sun:4 spatial:1 well:9 establish:2 artifact:1 within:3 span:1 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5,997 | Abraham_Joshua_Heschel | Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel (2nd from right) in the Selma Civil Rights March with Martin Luther King, Jr. (4th from right). Heschel later wrote, "When I marched in Selma, my feet were praying." Abraham Joshua Heschel (January 11, 1907 – December 23, 1972) was a Warsaw-born American rabbi and one of the leading Jewish theologians of the 20th century. Biography Abraham Joshua Heschel was descended from preeminent European rabbis on both sides of the family. . His father, Moshe Mordechai Heschel, died of influenza in 1916. His mother Reizel Perlow, was a descendant of Rebbe Avrohom Yehoshua Heshel of Apt and other dynasties. He was the youngest of six children. His siblings were Sarah, Dvora Miriam, Esther Sima, Gittel, and Jacob. After a traditional yeshiva education and studying for Orthodox rabbinical ordination semicha, he pursued his doctorate at the University of Berlin and a liberal rabbinic ordination at the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums. There he studied under some of the finest Jewish educators of the time: Chanoch Albeck, Ismar Elbogen, Julius Guttmann, and Leo Baeck. Heschel later taught Talmud there. He joined a Yiddish poetry group, Jung Vilna, and in 1933, published a volume of Yiddish poems, Der Shem Hamefoyrosh: Mentsch, dedicated to his father. http://home.versatel.nl/heschel/Susannah.htm Abraham Joshua Heschel In late October 1938, when he was living in a rented room in the home of a Jewish family in Frankfurt, he was arrested by the Gestapo and deported to Poland. He spent ten months lecturing on Jewish philosophy and Torah at Warsaw's Institute for Jewish Studies. Six weeks before the German invasion of Poland, Heschel left Warsaw for London with the help of Julian Morgenstern, president of Hebrew Union College, who had been working to obtain visas for Jewish scholars in Europe. Heschel's sister Esther was killed in a German bombing. His mother was murdered by the Nazis, and two other sisters, Gittel and Devorah, died in Nazi concentration camps. He never returned to Germany, Austria or Poland. He once wrote, "If I should go to Poland or Germany, every stone, every tree would remind me of contempt, hatred, murder, of children killed, of mothers burned alive, of human beings asphyxiated." Heschel arrived in New York City in March 1940. He briefly served on the faculty of Hebrew Union College (HUC), the main seminary of Reform Judaism, in Cincinnati. In 1946, he took a position at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (JTS), the main seminary of Conservative Judaism, where he served as professor of Jewish Ethics and Mysticism until his death in 1972. Heschel married Sylvia Straus on December 10, 1946, in Los Angeles. Their daughter, Susannah Heschel, is a Jewish scholar in her own right. Ideology Heschel explicated many facets of Jewish thought including studies on medieval Jewish philosophy, Kabbalah, and Hasidism. According to some scholars, he was more interested in spirituality than critical text study, which was a specialty of scholars at JTS. He was not given a graduate assistant for many years and was relegated to teach mainly in the education school or Rabbinical school, not the academic graduate program. Heschel was particularly looked down upon by his colleague Mordechai Kaplan, founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, and many students who attended JTS in the 50s sympathized with Kaplan over Heschel. Scult, Mel . Kaplan's Heschel : a view from the Kaplan diary. In: Conservative Judaism, 54,4 (2002) 3-14 Heschel saw the teachings of the Hebrew prophets as a clarion call for social action in the United States and worked for black civil rights and against the Vietnam War "Dateline World Jewry", April 2007, World Jewish Congress Heschel was an activist for civil rights in the United States. He also specifically criticized what he called "pan-halakhism", or a focus upon religiously-compatible behavior. Influence outside of Judaism He is among the few Jewish theologians widely read by Christians. His most influential works include Man is Not Alone, God in Search of Man, The Sabbath, and The Prophets. He is quoted a frequently in the Christian book Keeping Sabbath Wholly by Marva J. Dawn He was chosen by American Jewish organizations to negotiate with leaders of the Roman Catholic church at the Vatican Council II. Heschel persuaded the church to eliminate or modify passages in its liturgy that demeaned the Jews, or expected their conversion to Christianity. His theological works argued that religious experience is a fundamentally human impulse, not just a Jewish one, and that no religious community could claim a monopoly on religious truth. Published work The Prophets This work started out as his Ph.D. thesis in German, which he later expanded and translated into English. Originally published in a two-volume edition, this work studies the books of the Hebrew prophets. It covers their life and the historical context that their missions were set in, summarizes their work, and discusses their psychological state. In it Heschel forwards what would become a central idea in his theology: that the prophetic (and, ultimately, Jewish) view of God is best understood not as anthropomorphic (that God takes human form) but rather as anthropopathic — that God has human feelings. The Sabbath The Sabbath: Its Meaning For Modern Man is a work on the nature and celebration of Shabbat, the Jewish Sabbath. This work is rooted in the thesis that Judaism is a religion of time, not space, and that the Sabbath symbolizes the sanctification of time. Man is Not Alone Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion offers Heschel's views on how man can apprehend God. Judaism views God as being radically different from man, so Heschel explores the ways that Judaism teaches that a person may have an encounter with the ineffable. A recurring theme in this work is the radical amazement that man experiences when experiencing the presence of the Divine. Heschel then goes to explore the problems of doubts and faith; what Judaism means by teaching that God is one; the essence of man and the problem of man's needs; the definition of religion in general and of Judaism in particular; and man's yearning for spirituality. He offers his views as to Judaism being a pattern for life. God in Search of Man God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism is a companion volume to Man is Not Alone. In this book Heschel discusses the nature of religious thought, how thought becomes faith, and how faith creates responses in the believer. He discusses ways that man can seek God's presence, and the radical amazement that man receives in return. He offers a criticism of nature worship; a study of man's metaphysical loneliness, and his view that we can consider God to be in search of man. The first section concludes with a study of Jews as a chosen people. Section two deals with the idea of revelation, and what it means for one to be a prophet. This section gives us his idea of revelation as a process, as opposed to an event. This relates to Israel's commitment to God. Section three discusses his views of how a Jew should understand the nature of Judaism as a religion. He discusses and rejects the idea that mere faith (without law) alone is enough, but then cautions against rabbis he sees as adding too many restrictions to Jewish law. He discusses the need to correlate ritual observance with spirituality and love, the importance of Kavanah (intention) when performing mitzvot. He engages in a discussion of religious behaviorism — when people strive for external compliance with the law, yet disregard the importance of inner devotion. Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets Heschel wrote a series of articles, originally in Hebrew, on the existence of prophecy in Judaism after the destruction of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. These essays were translated into English and published as Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets: Maimonides and Others by the American Judaica publisher Ktav. The publisher of this book states, "The standard Jewish view is that prophecy ended with the ancient prophets, somewhere early in the Second Temple era. Heschel demonstrated that this view is not altogether accurate. Belief in the possibility of continued prophetic inspiration, and in its actual occurrence appear throughout much of the medieval period, and even in modern times. Heschel's work on prophetic inspiration in the Middle Ages originally appeared in two Hebrew long articles. In them he concentrated on the idea that prophetic inspiration was possible even in post-Talmudic times, and, indeed, had taken place at various times and in various schools, from the Geonim to Maimonides and beyond." Torah min HaShamayim Many consider Heschel's Torah min HaShamayim BeAspaklariya shel HaDorot, (Torah from Heaven in the light of the generations) to be his masterwork. The three volumes of this work are a study of classical rabbinic theology and aggadah, as opposed to halakha (Jewish law.) It explores the views of the rabbis in the Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash about the nature of Torah, the revelation of God to mankind, prophecy, and the ways that Jews have used scriptural exegesis to expand and understand these core Jewish texts. In this work Heschel views the second century sages Rabbis Akiva ben Yosef and Ishmael ben Elisha as paradigms for the two dominant world-views in Jewish theology Two Hebrew volumes were published during his lifetime by Soncino Press, and the third Hebrew volume was published posthumously by JTS Press in the 1990s. An English translation of all three volumes, with notes, essays and appendices, was translated and edited by Rabbi Gordon Tucker, entitled Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. In its own right it can be the subject of intense study and analysis, and provides insight into the relationship between God and Man beyond the world of Judaism and for all Monotheism. Quotations "Racism is man's gravest threat to man - the maximum hatred for a minimum reason." "All it takes is one person… and another… and another… and another… to start a movement" "Wonder rather than doubt is the root of all knowledge." "A religious man is a person who holds God and man in one thought at one time, at all times, who suffers harm done to others, whose greatest passion is compassion, whose greatest strength is love and defiance of despair." " God is either of no importance, or of supreme importance." "Just to be is a blessing. Just to live is holy." "Self-respect is the fruit of discipline, the sense of dignity grows with the ability to say no to oneself." "Life without commitment is not worth living." "Above all, the prophets remind us of the moral state of a people: Few are guilty, but all are responsible." Heschel, A.J., The Prophets (New York: Harper Collins, 1962), p. 19. "Remember that there is a meaning beyond absurdity. Be sure that every little deed counts, that every word has power. Never forget that you can still do your share to redeem the world in spite of all absurdities and frustrations and disappointments." "When I was young, I admired clever people. Now that I am old, I admire kind people." "Awareness of symbolic meaning is awareness of a specific idea; kavanah is awareness of an ineffable situation. "A Jew is asked to take a leap of action rather than a leap of thought." "Speech has power. Words do not fade. What starts out as a sound, ends in a deed." "The Almighty has not created the universe that we may have opportunities to satisfy our greed, envy and ambition." Commemoration Four schools have been named for Heschel, in the Upper West Side of New York City, Northridge, California, Agoura Hills, California, and Toronto. References Selected bibliography The Earth Is the Lord's: The Inner World of the Jew in Eastern Europe. 1949. ISBN 1-879045-42-7 Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion. 1951. ISBN 0-374-51328-7 The Sabbath: Its Meaning for Modern Man. 1951. ISBN 1-59030082-3 Man's Quest for God: Studies in Prayer and Symbolism. 1954. ISBN 0684168294 God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism. 1955. ISBN 0-374-51331-7 The Prophets. 1962. ISBN 0-06-093699-1 Who Is Man? 1965. Israel: An Echo of Eternity. 1969. ISBN 1-879045-70-2 A Passion for Truth. 1973. ISBN 1-879045-41-9 Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. 2005. ISBN 0-8264-0802-8 Torah min ha-shamayim be'aspaklariya shel ha-dorot; Theology of Ancient Judaism. [Hebrew]. 2 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1962. Third volume, New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1995. The Ineffable Name of God: Man: Poems. 2004. ISBN 0-8264-1632-2 Kotsk: in gerangl far emesdikeyt. [Yiddish]. 2 v. (694 p.) Tel-Aviv: ha-Menorah, 1973. Added t.p.: Kotzk: the struggle for integrity. A Passion for Truth is an adaptation of this larger work. Der mizrekh-Eyropeyisher Yid (). 45 p. Originally published: New-York: Shoken, 1946. Abraham Joshua Heschel: Prophetic Witness & Spiritual Radical: Abraham Joshua Heschel in America, 1940-1972, biography by Edward K. Kaplan External links Heschel's role in Vatican II and his advocacy of interreligious respect Alan Brill Review of Heavenly Torah Arnold Jacob Wolf Review of Heavenly Torah David Blumenthal review of Heavenly Torah Who was Heschel? 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5,998 | Northrop_Grumman_E-8_Joint_STARS | The E-8 Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS) is a United States Air Force airborne battle management and command and control platform that conducts ground surveillance to develop an understanding of the enemy situation and to support attack operations and targeting that contributes to the delay, disruption and destruction of enemy forces. These functions support the primary mission of Joint STARS - to provide dedicated support of ground and air theater commanders. Development Joint STARS evolved from separate United States Army and Air Force programs to develop, detect, locate and attack enemy armor at ranges beyond the forward area of troops. In 1982, the programs were merged and the US Air Force became the lead agent. The concept and sensor technology for the E-8 was developed and tested on the Tacit Blue experimental aircraft. The prime contract was awarded to Northrop Grumman in September 1985 for two E-8A development systems. These aircraft were deployed in 1991 to participate in Operation Desert Storm under the direction of Albert J. Verderosa, even though they were still in development. The joint program accurately tracked mobile Iraqi forces, including tanks and Scud missiles. Crews flew developmental aircraft on 49 combat sorties accumulating more than 500 combat hours and a 100% mission effectiveness rate. Joint STARS developmental aircraft were also called to support the NATO peacekeeping mission, Operation Joint Endeavor, in December 1995. While flying in friendly air space, the test-bed E-8A and pre-production E-8C aircraft monitored ground movements to confirm compliance with the Dayton Peace Treaty agreements. Crews flew 95 consecutive operational sorties and more than 1,000 flight hours with a 98% mission effectiveness rate. Design The E-8C is a modified Boeing 707-300 series commercial airframe extensively re-manufactured and modified with the radar, communications, operations and control subsystems required to perform its operational mission. The most prominent external feature is the 12 m (40 ft) long, canoe-shaped radome under the forward fuselage that houses the 7.3 m (24 ft) long, side-looking APY-7 phased array antenna. The USAF has selected Pratt & Whitney to re-engine the fleet of 19 Joint STARS aircraft. Pratt & Whitney, in a joint venture with Seven Q Seven (SQS), will produce and deliver the complete JT8D-219 propulsion system. This will allow the Joint STARS more time on station due to the engine's greater fuel efficiency. Joint STARS is programmed to be used until 2025. As of 24 October, 2008 all four Pratt & Whitney JT8D-219 engines have been removed from the B707-330C testbed, N707HE, for installation on the Joint STARS test aircraft for evaluation. Radar and systems The AN/APY-7 radar can operate in wide area surveillance, ground moving target indicator (GMTI), fixed target indicator (FTI) target classification, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) modes. The radar uses the Doppler shift theory in order to pick up moving targets using its GMTI modes. This is distinct from pulsed radars as it looks for the frequency shift of the returned signal, so the radar can be used continuously. It has the ability to 'look' from a long range, which the military refers to as a high stand off capability. The antenna can be tilted to either side of the aircraft where it can develop a 120 degree field of view covering nearly 50,000 km² (19,305 mile²) and is capable of simultaneously tracking 600 targets at more than 250 km (152 miles). Any moving objects of sufficient size and density, such as vehicles, will be seen by the radar. The GMTI modes cannot pick up stationary objects. Thanks to intensive data processing, the APY-7 has the ability to differentiate between armored vehicles (tracked tanks) and trucks. With this capability, targeting personnel can better select the appropriate ordinance to use again it. The system SAR modes can produce images of stationary objects. Objects with many angles (for example, the interior of a pick-up bed) will give a much better radar signature (called specular returns). In addition to being able to detect, locate and track large numbers of ground vehicles, the radar has a limited capability to detect helicopters, rotating antennas and low, slow moving fixed wing aircraft. Joint STARS GMTI Overlaid on Aerial Image The radar and computer subsystems on the E-8C can gather and display broad and detailed battlefield information. Data is collected as events occur. This includes position and tracking information on enemy and friendly ground forces. The information is relayed in near-real time to the US Army's common ground stations via the secure jam-resistant surveillance and control data link (SCDL) and to other ground C4I nodes beyond line-of-sight via ultra high frequency satellite communications. Other major E-8C prime mission equipment are the communications/datalink (COMM/DLX) and operations and control (O&C)subsystems. Eighteen operator workstations display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Operators and technicians perform battle management, surveillance, weapons, intelligence, communications and maintenance functions. Battle management In support of air-to-ground operations, the E-8C can provide real time information needed to increase ground situation awareness with intelligence support, attack support and targeting operations including attack aviation, naval surface fire, field artillery and friendly maneuver forces. It also provides information for air and land commanders to gain and maintain control of the battle-space and execute against enemy forces. Coskuner, Nevin, Multimission Aircraft Design Study - Operational Scenarios Air Force Institute of Technology As a battle management and command and control asset, the E-8C can support the full spectrum of roles and missions from peacekeeping operations to major theater war. As capable as the E-8's systems are, the information returned has very little detail. While it can pick up moving vehicles on the opposite side of the battlefield, it can provide little information about the vehicles. Approximate number of vehicles, location, speed, direction of travel, and the time that the target was detected is about all that can be determined. Identifying who the target is, what equipment they have, whether it is friendly, hostile, or bystanders, is not possible with this system. That is one of the reasons why it is a joint system, so that other sensors from the other services may reference each other to positively verify JSTARS reports. In the Army, JSTARS is analyzed in the Ground Station Module (GSM) and disseminated from there. Operations The E-8C can respond quickly and effectively to support worldwide military contingency operations. It is a jam-resistant system capable of operating while experiencing heavy electronic countermeasures. The E-8C can fly a mission profile for 9 hours without refueling. Its range and on-station time can be substantially increased through in-flight refueling. The 93d Air Control Wing, which activated 29 January 1996, accepted its first aircraft, 11 June 1996, and deployed in support of Operation Joint Endeavor in October. The provisional 93d Air Expeditionary Group monitored treaty compliance while NATO rotated troops through Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first production E-8C and a pre-production E-8C flew 36 operational sorties and more than 470 flight hours with a 100 % effectiveness rate. The wing declared initial operational capability 18 December 1997 after receiving the second production aircraft. Operation Allied Force saw Joint STARS in action again from February to June 1999 accumulating more than 1,000 flight hours and a 94.5 % mission-effectiveness rate in support of the U.S. lead Kosovo War. On October 1, 2002, the 93d Air Control Wing (93 ACW) was "blended" with the 116th Bomb Wing in a ceremony at Robins AFB, Georgia. The 116 BW was an Air National Guard wing equipped with the B-1B Lancer bomber at Robins AFB. As a result of a USAF reorganization of the B-1B force, all B-1Bs were assigned to active duty wings, resulting in the 116 BW lacking a current mission. Extensive efforts by the Governor and congressional delegation of Georgia led to the resulting "blending", with the newly created wing designated as the 116th Air Control Wing (116 ACW). The 93 ACW was deactivated the same day. The 116 ACW constituted the first fully blended wing of active duty and Air National Guard airmen. The 116 ACW has been heavily involved in both Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, earning high marks for operational effectiveness and recently completing 10,000 combat hours. The wing took delivery of the 17th and final E-8C on 23 March 2005. The E-8C Joint STARS routinely supports various taskings of the Combined Force Command Korea during the North Korean winter exercise cycle and for the United Nations enforcing resolutions on Iraq. The twelfth production aircraft, outfitted with an upgraded operations and control subsystem, was delivered to the USAF on 5 November 2001. Variants E-8A - Original platform configuration DoD 4120.15L, Model Designation of Military Aerospace Vehicles TE-8A - Single aircraft with mission equipment removed, used for flight crew training E-8C - Production Joint Stars platform configuration Operators United States Air Force United States Army Air National Guard Specifications (E-8C) See also References External links Northrop Grumman Joint STARS Product Info Boeing Integrated Defense Systems Northrop Grumman ISR overview USAF Fact Sheet Joint STARS Re-engine Program Info Assault Breaker Analysis - Concept Demonstration for JSTARS | Northrop_Grumman_E-8_Joint_STARS |@lemmatized e:20 joint:20 surveillance:5 target:11 attack:5 radar:12 system:10 star:14 united:4 state:4 air:16 force:13 airborne:1 battle:5 management:4 command:3 control:10 platform:3 conduct:1 ground:11 develop:4 understanding:1 enemy:5 situation:2 support:12 operation:15 contribute:1 delay:1 disruption:1 destruction:1 function:2 primary:1 mission:11 provide:4 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5,999 | Joan_of_Arc | Saint Joan of Arc (; Her name was written in a variety of ways, particularly prior to the mid-19th century. See Pernoud and Clin, pp. 220–221. She reportedly signed her name as "Jehanne" (see www.stjoan-center.com/Album/, parts 47 and 49; it is also noted in Pernoud and Clin). ca. 1412 – 30 May 1431) is a national heroine of France and a Catholic saint. A peasant girl born in eastern France, she led the French army to several important victories during the Hundred Years' War, claiming divine guidance, and was indirectly responsible for the coronation of Charles VII. She was captured by the Burgundians, sold to the English, tried by an ecclesiastical court, and burned at the stake when she was nineteen years old. Twenty-four years later, on the initiative of Charles VII, who could not possibly afford being seen as having been brought to power with the aid of a condemned heretic, Pope Callixtus III reviewed the decision of the ecclesiastical court, found her innocent, and declared her a martyr. w:fr:Jeanne d'Arc Andrew Ward (2005) She was beatified in 1909 and later canonized in 1920. Modern biographical summaries often assert a birthdate of 6 January for Joan. In fact, however, she could only estimate her own age. All of the rehabilitation-trial witnesses likewise estimated her age even though several of these people were her godmothers and godfathers. The 6 January claim is based on a single source: a letter from Lord Perceval de Boullainvilliers on 21 July 1429 (see Pernoud's Joan of Arc By Herself and Her Witnesses, p. 98: "Boulainvilliers tells of her birth in Domrémy, and it is he who gives us an exact date, which may be the true one, saying that she was born on the night of Epiphany, 6 January"). Boulainvilliers, however, was not from Domrémy. The event was probably not recorded. The practice of parish registers for non-noble births did not begin until several generations later. She is one of three patron saints of France. Joan asserted that she had visions from God that told her to recover her homeland from English domination late in the Hundred Years' War. The uncrowned King Charles VII sent her to the siege at Orléans as part of a relief mission. She gained prominence when she overcame the dismissive attitude of veteran commanders and lifted the siege in only nine days. Several more swift victories led to Charles VII's coronation at Reims and settled the disputed succession to the throne. Joan of Arc has remained an important figure in Western culture. From Napoleon to the present, French politicians of all leanings have invoked her memory. Major writers and composers who have created works about her include Shakespeare (Henry VI, Part 1), Voltaire (La Pucelle d'Orléans), Schiller (Die Jungfrau von Orléans ), Verdi (Giovanna d'Arco), Tchaikovsky (Орлеанская дева), Mark Twain (Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc), Jean Anouilh (L'Alouette), Bertolt Brecht (Die heilige Johanna der Schlachthöfe) and Shaw (Saint Joan). Depictions of her continue in film, television, video games, song, and dance. Background France at the outset of Joan of Arc's career. The dot that represents Paris is near the center of the Anglo-Burgundian-controlled region. Reims lies to the northeast of this area. The historian Kelly DeVries describes the period preceding her appearance with, "If anything could have discouraged her, the state of France in 1429 should have." The Hundred Years' War had begun in 1337 as a succession dispute to the French throne with intermittent periods of relative peace. Nearly all the fighting had taken place in France, and the English use of chevauchée (similar to scorched earth) tactics had devastated the economy. The French population had not recovered from the Black Death of the previous century and its merchants were cut off from foreign markets. At the outset of her career, the English had almost achieved their goal of a dual monarchy under English control and the French army had won no major victory for a generation. In DeVries's words, "the kingdom of France was not even a shadow of its thirteenth-century prototype." DeVries, pp. 27–28. The French king at the time of Joan's birth, Charles VI, suffered bouts of insanity and was often unable to rule. The king's brother Duke Louis of Orléans and the king's cousin John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, quarreled over the regency of France and the guardianship of the royal children. This dispute escalated to accusations of an extramarital affair with Queen Isabeau of Bavaria and the kidnappings of the royal children. The matter climaxed when the Duke of Burgundy ordered the assassination of the Duke of Orléans in 1407. The factions loyal to these two men became known as the Armagnacs and the Burgundians. The English king, Henry V, took advantage of this turmoil to invade France, winning a dramatic victory at Agincourt in 1415, and capturing northern French towns. DeVries, pp. 15–19. The future French king, Charles VII, assumed the title of Dauphin as heir to the throne at the age of 14, after all four of his older brothers died. Pernoud and Clin, p. 167. His first significant official act was to conclude a peace treaty with Burgundy in 1419. This ended in disaster when Armagnac partisans murdered John the Fearless during a meeting under Charles's guarantee of protection. The new duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, blamed Charles and entered into an alliance with the English. Large sections of France were conquered. DeVries, p. 24. In 1420, Queen Isabeau of Bavaria concluded the Treaty of Troyes, which granted the French royal succession to Henry V and his heirs in preference to her son Charles. This agreement revived rumors about her supposed affair with the late duke of Orléans and raised fresh suspicions that the Dauphin was a royal bastard rather than the son of the king. Pernoud and Clin, pp. 188–189. Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other in 1422, leaving an infant, Henry VI of England, the nominal monarch of both kingdoms. Henry V's brother, John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, acted as regent. DeVries, pp. 24, 26. By the beginning of 1429, nearly all of northern France and some parts of the southwest were under foreign control. The English ruled Paris, while the Burgundians controlled Reims. The latter city was important as the traditional site of French coronations and consecrations, especially since neither claimant to the throne of France had yet been crowned. The English had laid siege to Orléans, which was the only remaining loyal French city north of the Loire. Its strategic location along the river made it the last obstacle to an assault on the remainder of the French heartland. In the words of one modern historian, "On the fate of Orléans hung that of the entire kingdom." Pernoud and Clin, p. 10. No one was optimistic that the city could long withstand the siege. DeVries, p. 28. Life Her birthplace is now a museum. The village church where she attended Mass is on the right behind the trees. Joan was the daughter of Jacques d'Arc and Isabelle Romée Jacques d'Arc (1380–1440) was a farmer in Domremy who held the post of doyen a local tax-collector and organiser of village defenses. He married Isabelle de Vouthon (1387–1468), called Romée, in 1405. Their other children were Jacquemin, Jean, Pierre and Catherine. Charles VII ennobled Jacques and Isabelle's family on 29 December 1429; the Chamber of Accounts registered the family's designation to nobility on 20 January 1430. The grant permitted the family to change their surname to du Lys. in Domrémy, a village which was then in the duchy of Bar (later annexed to the province of Lorraine and renamed Domrémy-la-Pucelle). Condemnation trial, p. 37. (Accessed 23 March 2006) Her parents owned about 50 acres (0.2 square kilometers) of land and her father supplemented his farming work with a minor position as a village official, collecting taxes and heading the local watch. Pernoud and Clin, p. 221. They lived in an isolated patch of northeastern territory that remained loyal to the French crown despite being surrounded by Burgundian lands. Several local raids occurred during her childhood and on one occasion her village was burned. Joan said she was about 19 at her trial, so she was born about 1412; she later testified that she experienced her first vision around 1424 at the age of 12 years when she was out alone in a field and heard voices. She had said she cried when they left as they were so beautiful. She would report that Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret told her to drive out the English and bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation. Condemnation trial, pp. 58–59. (Accessed 23 March 2006) At the age of 16, she asked a kinsman, Durand Lassois, to bring her to nearby Vaucouleurs where she petitioned the garrison commander, Count Robert de Baudricourt, for permission to visit the royal French court at Chinon. Baudricourt's sarcastic response did not deter her. DeVries, pp. 37–40. She returned the following January and gained support from two men of standing: Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy. Nullification trial testimony of Jean de Metz. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Under their auspices, she gained a second interview where she made a remarkable prediction about a military reversal near Orléans. Oliphant, ch. 2. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Rise Ruin of the great hall at Chinon where she met King Charles VII. The castle's only remaining intact tower has also become a museum dedicated to her. Robert de Baudricourt granted her an escort to visit Chinon after news from the front confirmed her prediction. She made the journey through hostile Burgundian territory in male disguise. Richey, p. 4. Upon arriving at the royal court she impressed Charles VII during a private conference. He then ordered background inquiries and a theological examination at Poitiers to verify her morality. During this time Charles's mother-in-law Yolande of Aragon was financing a relief expedition to Orléans. Joan petitioned for permission to travel with the army and wear the equipment of a knight. She depended on donated items for her armor, horse, sword, banner, and entourage. Her armor was said to be white. Historian Stephen W. Richey explains her attraction as the only source of hope for a regime that was near collapse: "King of England, and you, Duke of Bedford, who call yourself regent of the kingdom of France...settle your debt to the king of Heaven; return to the Maiden, who is envoy of the king of Heaven, the keys to all the good towns you took and violated in France." Her Letter to the English, March–April 1429; Quicherat I, p. 240, trans. Wikipedia. She arrived at the siege of Orléans on 29 April 1429, but Jean d'Orléans, the acting head of the Orléans ducal family, initially excluded her from war councils and failed to inform her when the army engaged the enemy. Histories and fictional works often refer to this man by other names. Some call him count of Dunois in reference to a title he received years after Joan's death. During her lifetime he preferred Bastard of Orléans, which his contemporaries understood as an honor because it described him as a first cousin of King Charles VII. That name often confuses modern readers because "bastard" has become a popular insult. "Jean d'Orleans" is less precise but not anachronistic. For a short biography see Pernoud and Clin, pp. 180–181. This did not prevent her from being present at most councils and battles. The extent of her actual military leadership is a subject of historical debate. Traditional historians such as Édouard Perroy conclude that she was a standard bearer whose primary effect was on morale. Perroy, p. 283. This type of analysis usually relies on the condemnation trial testimony, where she stated that she preferred her standard to her sword. Recent scholarship that focuses on the nullification trial testimony asserts that her fellow officers esteemed her as a skilled tactician and a successful strategist. Stephen W. Richey's opinion is one example: "She proceeded to lead the army in an astounding series of victories that reversed the tide of the war." In either case, historians agree that the army enjoyed remarkable success during her brief career. Pernoud and Clin, p. 230. The inner keep at Beaugency is one of the few surviving fortifications from Joan's battles. English defenders retreated to the tower at upper right after the French breached the town wall. Leadership She defied the cautious strategy that had characterized French leadership. During the five months of siege before her arrival, the defenders of Orléans had attempted only one aggressive move and that had ended in disaster. On 4 May the French attacked and captured the outlying fortress of Saint Loup, which she followed on 5 May with a march to a second fortress called Saint Jean le Blanc. Finding it deserted, this became a bloodless victory. The next day she opposed Jean d'Orleans at a war council where she demanded another assault on the enemy. D'Orleans ordered the city gates locked to prevent another battle, but she summoned the townsmen and common soldiers and forced the mayor to unlock a gate. With the aid of only one captain she rode out and captured the fortress of Saint Augustins. That evening she learned she had been excluded from a war council where the leaders had decided to wait for reinforcements before acting again. Disregarding this decision, she insisted on assaulting the main English stronghold called "les Tourelles" on 7 May. DeVries, pp. 74–83 Contemporaries acknowledged her as the heroine of the engagement after she sustained an arrow wound to her neck but returned wounded to lead the final charge. Devout Catholics regard this as proof of her divine mission. At Chinon and Poitiers she had declared that she would give a sign at Orléans. The lifting of the siege gained her the support of prominent clergy such as the Archbishop of Embrun and theologian Jean Gerson, who both wrote supportive treatises immediately following this event. "...the Maiden lets you know that here, in eight days, she has chased the English out of all the places they held on the river Loire by attack or other means: they are dead or prisoners or discouraged in battle. Believe what you have heard about the earl of Suffolk, the lord la Pole and his brother, the lord Talbot, the lord Scales, and Sir Fastolf; many more knights and captains than these are defeated." Her Letter to the citizens of Tournai, 25 June 1429; Quicherat V, pp. 125–126, trans. Wikipedia. The sudden victory at Orléans led to many proposals for offensive action. The English expected an attempt to recapture Paris or an attack on Normandy. In the aftermath of the unexpected victory, she persuaded Charles VII to grant her co-command of the army with Duke John II of Alençon and gained royal permission for her plan to recapture nearby bridges along the Loire as a prelude to an advance on Reims and a coronation. Hers was a bold proposal because Reims was roughly twice as far away as Paris and deep in enemy territory. DeVries, pp. 96–97. Notre-Dame de Reims, traditional site of French coronations. The structure had additional spires prior to a 1481 fire. The army recovered Jargeau on 12 June, Meung-sur-Loire on 15 June, then Beaugency on 17 June. The Duke of Alençon agreed to all of Joan's decisions. Other commanders including Jean d'Orléans had been impressed with her performance at Orléans and became her supporters. Alençon credited her for saving his life at Jargeau, where she warned him of an imminent artillery attack. Nullification trial testimony of Jean, Duke of Alençon. (Accessed 12 February 2006) During the same battle she withstood a blow from a stone cannonball to her helmet as she climbed a scaling ladder. An expected English relief force arrived in the area on 18 June under the command of Sir John Fastolf. The battle at Patay might be compared to Agincourt in reverse. The French vanguard attacked before the English archers could finish defensive preparations. A rout ensued that devastated the main body of the English army and killed or captured most of its commanders. Fastolf escaped with a small band of soldiers and became the scapegoat for the English humiliation. The French suffered minimal losses. DeVries, pp. 114–115. The French army set out for Reims from Gien-sur-Loire on 29 June and accepted the conditional surrender of the Burgundian-held city of Auxerre on 3 July. Every other town in their path returned to French allegiance without resistance. Troyes, the site of the treaty that had tried to disinherit Charles VII, capitulated after a bloodless four-day siege. DeVries, pp. 122–126. The army was in short supply of food by the time it reached Troyes. Edward Lucie-Smith cites this as an example of why she was more lucky than skilled: a wandering friar named Brother Richard had been preaching about the end of the world at Troyes and had convinced local residents to plant beans, a crop with an early harvest. The hungry army arrived as the beans ripened. Lucie-Smith, pp. 156–160. "Prince of Burgundy, I pray of you — I beg and humbly supplicate — that you make no more war with the holy kingdom of France. Withdraw your people swiftly from certain places and fortresses of this holy kingdom, and on behalf of the gentle king of France I say he is ready to make peace with you, by his honor." "Her Letter to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, 17 July 1429; Quicherat V, pp. 126–127, trans. Wikipedia.|} Reims opened its gates on 16 July. The coronation took place the following morning. Although Joan and the duke of Alençon urged a prompt march on Paris, the royal court pursued a negotiated truce with the duke of Burgundy. Duke Philip the Good broke the agreement, using it as a stalling tactic to reinforce the defense of Paris. DeVries, p. 134. The French army marched through towns near Paris during the interim and accepted more peaceful surrenders. The Duke of Bedford headed an English force and confronted the French army in a standoff on 15 August. The French assault at Paris ensued on 8 September. Despite a crossbow bolt wound to the leg, Joan continued directing the troops until the day's fighting ended. The following morning she received a royal order to withdraw. Most historians blame French grand chamberlain Georges de la Trémoille for the political blunders that followed the coronation. These range from mild associations of intrigue to scholarly invective. For an impassioned statement see Gower, ch. 4. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Milder examples are Pernoud and Clin, pp. 78–80; DeVries, p. 135; and Oliphant, ch. 6. (Accessed 12 February 2006) In October Joan successfully took Saint-Pierre-le-Moûtier, receiving a noble status. Capture After minor action at La-Charité-sur-Loire in November and December, Joan went to Compiègne the following April to defend against an English and Burgundian siege. A reckless skirmish on 23 May 1430 led to her being captured. When she ordered a retreat, she assumed the place of honor as the last to leave the field. Burgundians surrounded the rear guard, she was unhorsed by an archer and initially refused to surrender. DeVries, pp. 161–170. {| class="toccolours" style="float: left; margin-left: 0em; margin-right: 1em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5" | style="text-align: left;" | "It is true that the king has made a truce with the duke of Burgundy for fifteen days and that the duke is to turn over the city of Paris at the end of fifteen days. Yet you should not marvel if I do not enter that city so quickly. I am not content with these truces and do not know if I will keep them, but if I hold them it will only be to guard the king's honor: no matter how much they abuse the royal blood, I will keep and maintain the royal army in case they make no peace at the end of those fifteen days."|- | style="text-align: left;" | "Her Letter to the citizens of Reims, 5 August 1429; Quicherat I, p. 246, trans. Wikipedia. It was customary for a captive's family to ransom a prisoner of war. Unfortunately, Joan and her family lacked the financial resources. Many historians condemn King Charles VII for failing to intervene. She attempted several escapes, on one occasion jumping from her 70 foot (21 m) tower in Vermandois to the soft earth of a dry moat, after which she was moved to the Burgundian town of Arras. The English government eventually purchased her from Duke Philip of Burgundy. Bishop Pierre Cauchon of Beauvais, an English partisan, assumed a prominent role in these negotiations and her later trial. "Joan of Arc, Saint." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition. 12 September 2007 <http://www.library.eb.com.ezproxy.ae.talonline.ca/eb/article-27055>. Trial The tower in Rouen, where she was imprisoned during her trial, has become known as the Joan of Arc tower. During one of her escape attempts, she leaped from a different tower, probably of similar construction. The trial for heresy was politically motivated. The Duke of Bedford claimed the throne of France for his nephew Henry VI. She had been responsible for the rival coronation so to condemn her was to undermine her king's legitimacy. Legal proceedings commenced on 9 January 1431 at Rouen, the seat of the English occupation government. Judges' investigations 9 January–26 March, ordinary trial 26 March–24 May, recantation 24 May, relapse trial 28 May–29. The procedure was irregular on a number of points. Joan interrogated in her prison cell by Cardinal Winchester. By Hippolyte Delaroche, 1824, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Rouen, France. To summarize some major problems, the jurisdiction of judge Bishop Cauchon was a legal fiction. The retrial verdict later affirmed that Cauchon had no right to try the case. See also Joan of Arc: Her Story, by Regine Pernoud and Marie-Veronique Clin, p. 108. The vice-inquisitor of France objected to the trial on jurisdictional grounds at its outset. He owed his appointment to his partisan support of the English government that financed the entire trial. Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly, commissioned to collect testimony against Joan, could find no adverse evidence. Nullification trial testimony of Father Nicholas Bailly. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Without such evidence the court lacked grounds to initiate a trial. Opening a trial anyway, the court also violated ecclesiastical law in denying her right to a legal advisor. Upon the opening of the first public examination Joan complained that those present were all partisans against her and asked for "ecclesiastics of the French side" to be invited. Taylor, Craig, Joan of Arc: La Pucelle p. 137. The trial record demonstrates her remarkable intellect. The transcript's most famous exchange is an exercise in subtlety. "Asked if she knew she was in God's grace, she answered: 'If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God so keep me.'" Condemnation trial, p. 52. (Accessed 12 February 2006) The question is a scholarly trap. Church doctrine held that no one could be certain of being in God's grace. If she had answered yes, then she would have convicted herself of heresy. If she had answered no, then she would have confessed her own guilt. Notary Boisguillaume would later testify that at the moment the court heard this reply, "Those who were interrogating her were stupefied." Pernoud and Clin, p. 112. In the twentieth century George Bernard Shaw would find this dialogue so compelling that sections of his play Saint Joan are literal translations of the trial record. Shaw, "Saint Joan." Penguin Classics; Reissue edition (2001). ISBN 0-14-043791-6 Several court functionaries later testified that significant portions of the transcript were altered in her disfavor. Many clerics served under compulsion, including the inquisitor, Jean LeMaitre, and a few even received death threats from the English. Under Inquisitorial guidelines, Joan should have been confined to an ecclesiastical prison under the supervision of female guards (i.e., nuns). Instead, the English kept her in a secular prison guarded by their own soldiers. Bishop Cauchon denied Joan's appeals to the Council of Basel and the pope, which should have stopped his proceeding. Pernoud and Clin, p. 130. The twelve articles of accusation that summarize the court's finding contradict the already doctored court record. Condemnation trial, pp. 314–316. (Accessed 12 February 2006) The illiterate defendant signed an abjuration document she did not understand under threat of immediate execution. The court substituted a different abjuration in the official record. Condemnation trial, pp. 342–343. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Also nullification trial testimony of Brother Pierre Migier, "As to the act of recantation, I know it was performed by her; it was in writing, and was about the length of a Pater Noster." (Accessed 12 February 2006) In modern English this is better known as the Lord's Prayer, Latin and English text available here: (Accessed 12 February 2006) Execution A modern church in Joan's honor stands on the site of her execution in Rouen. Heresy was a capital crime only for a repeat offense. Joan agreed to wear women's clothes when she abjured. A few days later she was sexually assaulted in prison. See Pernoud, p. 220, which quotes appellate testimony by Friar Martin Ladvenu and Friar Isambart de la Pierre. She resumed male attire either as a defense against molestation or, in the testimony of Jean Massieu, because her dress had been stolen and she was left with nothing else to wear. Nullification trial testimony of Jean Massieu. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Eyewitnesses described the scene of the execution by burning on 30 May 1431. Tied to a tall pillar in the Vieux-Marche in Rouen, she asked two of the clergy, Fr Martin Ladvenu and Fr Isambart de la Pierre, to hold a crucifix before her. A peasant also constructed a small cross which she put in the front of her dress. After she expired, the English raked back the coals to expose her charred body so that no one could claim she had escaped alive, then burned the body twice more to reduce it to ashes and prevent any collection of relics. They cast her remains into the Seine. In February, 2006 a team of forensic scientists announced the beginning of a six-month study to assess bone and skin remains from a museum at Chinon and reputed to be those of the heroine. The study cannot provide a positive identification but could rule out some types of hoax through carbon dating and gender determination. (Accessed 1 March 2006) An interim report released 17 December 2006 states that this is unlikely to have belonged to her. (Accessed 17 December 2006) The executioner, Geoffroy Therage, later stated that he "...greatly feared to be damned." Pernoud, p. 233. Retrial A posthumous retrial opened after the war ended. Pope Callixtus III authorized this proceeding, also known as the "nullification trial", at the request of Inquisitor-General Jean Brehal and Joan's mother Isabelle Romée. The aim of the trial was to investigate whether the trial of condemnation and its verdict had been handled justly and according to canon law. Investigations started with an inquest by clergyman Guillaume Bouille. Brehal conducted an investigation in 1452. A formal appeal followed in November, 1455. The appellate process included clergy from throughout Europe and observed standard court procedure. A panel of theologians analyzed testimony from 115 witnesses. Brehal drew up his final summary in June, 1456, which describes Joan as a martyr and implicates the late Pierre Cauchon with heresy for having convicted an innocent woman in pursuit of a secular vendetta. The court declared her innocence on 7 July 1456. Nullification trial sentence rehabilitation. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Clothing Joan at the coronation of Charles VII, by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1854), is typical of attempts to feminize her appearance. Note the long hair and the skirt around the armor. Joan of Arc wore men's clothing between her departure from Vaucouleurs and her abjuration at Rouen. Condemnation trial, pp. 78–79. (Accessed 12 February 2006) This raised theological questions in her own era and raised other questions in the twentieth century. The technical reason for her execution was a biblical clothing law. Deuteronomy 22:5. (Accessed 22 March 2006). The nullification trial reversed the conviction in part because the condemnation proceeding had failed to consider the doctrinal exceptions to that stricture. Doctrinally speaking, she was safe to disguise herself as a page during a journey through enemy territory and she was safe to wear armor during battle. The Chronique de la Pucelle states that it deterred molestation while she was camped in the field. Clergy who testified at her rehabilitation trial affirmed that she continued to wear male clothing in prison to deter molestation and rape. Nullification trial testimony of Guillaume de Manchon. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Preservation of chastity was another justifiable reason for crossdressing: her apparel would have slowed an assailant, and men would be less likely to think of her as a sex object in any case. According to medieval clothing expert Adrien Harmand, she wore two layers of pants (trousers in British-English) attached to the doublet with 20 fastenings. The outer pants were made of a boot-like leather. "Jeanne d'Arc, son costume, son armure." (Accessed 23 March 2006) She referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry when questioned on the matter during her condemnation trial. The Poitiers record no longer survives but circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics approved her practice. In other words, she had a mission to do a man's work so it was fitting that she dress the part. Condemnation trial, p. 78. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Retrial testimony of Brother Seguin de Seguin, Professor of Theology at Poitiers, does not mention clothing directly, but constitutes a wholehearted endorsement of her piety. (Accessed 12 February 2006) She also kept her hair cut short through her military campaigns and while in prison. Her supporters, such as the theologian Jean Gerson, defended her hairstyle, as did Inquisitor Brehal during the Rehabilitation trial. Fraioli, "Joan of Arc: The Early Debate," p. 131. Visions Jeanne d' Arc, by Eugene Thirion (1876). Late 19th century images such as this often had political undertones because of French territorial cessions to Germany in 1871. (Chautou, Church of Notre Dame) Joan of Arc's religious visions have interested many people. The consensus among scholars is that her faith was sincere. She identified Saint Margaret, Saint Catherine, and Saint Michael as the source of her revelations although there is some ambiguity as to which of several identically named saints she intended. Some Catholics regard her visions as divine inspiration. Analysis of her visions is problematic since the main source of information on this topic is the condemnation trial transcript in which she defied customary courtroom procedure about a witness's oath and specifically refused to answer every question about her visions. She complained that a standard witness oath would conflict with an oath she had previously sworn to maintain confidentiality about meetings with her king. It remains unknown to what extent the surviving record may represent the fabrications of corrupt court officials or her own possible fabrications to protect state secrets. Condemnation trial, pp. 36–37, 41–42, 48–49. (Accessed 1 September 2006) Some historians sidestep speculation about the visions by asserting that her belief in her calling is more relevant than questions about the visions' ultimate origin. In a parenthetical note to a military biography, DeVries asserts: <blockquote>"The visions, or their veracity, are not in themselves important for this study. What is important, in fact what is key to Joan's history as a military leader, is that she (author's emphasis) believed that they came from God," p. 35. </blockquote> Documents from her own era and historians prior to the twentieth century generally assume that she was both healthy and sane. A number of more recent scholars attempted to explain her visions in psychiatric or neurological terms. Potential diagnoses have included epilepsy, migraine, tuberculosis, and schizophrenia. Many of these hypotheses were devised by people whose expertise is in history rather than medicine. For a sampling of papers that passed peer review in medical journals, see ""I heard voices...": From semiology, a historical review, and a new hypothesis on the presumed epilepsy of Joan of Arc," d'Orsi G, Tinuper P, Epilepsy Behav. August, 2006; 9(1):152–7. Epub 2006 5 June (idiopathic partial epilepsy with auditory features); "Joan of Arc," Foote-Smith E, Bayne L, Epilepsia. Nov-Dec, 1991; 32(6):810–5 (epilepsy); "Joan of Arc and DSM III," Henker FO, South Med J. December, 1984; 77(12):1488–90 (various psychiatric definitions) ; "The schizophrenia of Joan of Arc," Allen C, Hist Med. Autumn–Winter 1975;6(3–4):4–9 (schizophrenia) . (Accessed 1 September 2006) None of the putative diagnoses have gained consensus support because, although hallucination and religious enthusiasm can be symptomatic of various syndromes, other characteristic symptoms conflict with other known facts of Joan's life. Two experts who analyze a temporal lobe tuberculoma hypothesis in the medical journal Neuropsychobiology express their misgivings this way: "It is difficult to draw final conclusions, but it would seem unlikely that widespread tuberculosis, a serious disease, was present in this 'patient' whose life-style and activities would surely have been impossible had such a serious disease been present." "A historical case of disseminated chronic tuberculosis," Nores JM, Yakovleff Y, Neuropsychobiology. 1995;32(2):79–80 (temporal lobe tuberculoma) (Accessed 1 September 2006) In response to another such theory alleging that she suffered from bovine tuberculosis as a result of drinking unpasteurized milk, historian Régine Pernoud wrote that if drinking unpasteurized milk could produce such potential benefits for the nation, then the French government should stop mandating the pasteurization of milk. Pernoud, p. 275. Ralph Hoffman, professor of psychology at Yale University, points out that visionary and creative states including "hearing voices" are not necessarily signs of mental illness and names her religious inspiration as a possible exception although he offers no speculation as to alternative causes. Hoffman, "Auditory Hallucinations: What's It Like Hearing Voices?" in HealthyPlace.com, 27 September 2003. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Among the specific challenges that potential diagnoses such as schizophrenia face is the slim likelihood that any person with such a disorder could gain favor in the court of King Charles VII. His own father, Charles VI, was popularly known as "Charles the Mad," and much of the political and military decline that France had suffered during his reign could be attributed to the power vacuum that his episodes of insanity had produced. The previous king had believed he was made of glass, a delusion no courtier had mistaken for a religious awakening. Fears that King Charles VII would manifest the same insanity may have factored into the attempt to disinherit him at Troyes. This stigma was so persistent that contemporaries of the next generation would attribute to inherited madness the breakdown that England's King Henry VI was to suffer in 1453: Henry VI was nephew to Charles VII and grandson to Charles VI. Upon her arrival at Chinon the royal counselor Jacques Gélu cautioned, Contrary to modern stereotypes about the Middle Ages, the court of Charles VII was shrewd and skeptical on the subject of mental health. Pernoud and Clin, pp. 3, 169, 183. Richard C. Famiglietti, "Royal Intrigue: Crisis at the Court of Charles VI, 1392–1420". New York: AMS Press, 1987. ISBN 0-404-61439-6. Nullification trial testimony of Dame Marguerite de Touroulde, widow of a king's counselor: "I heard from those that brought her to the king that at first they thought she was mad, and intended to put her away in some ditch, but while on the way they felt moved to do everything according to her good pleasure." (Accessed 12 February 2006) Besides the physical rigor of her military career, which would seem to exclude many medical hypotheses, Joan of Arc displayed none of the cognitive impairment that can accompany some major mental illnesses when symptoms are present. She remained astute to the end of her life and rehabilitation trial testimony frequently marvels at her astuteness: Her subtle replies under interrogation even forced the court to stop holding public sessions. If her visions had some medical or psychiatric origin then she would have been an exceptional case. Legacy Rehabilitation Philippe-Alexandre Le Brun de Charmettes is the first historian who wrote Joan of Arc's complete history Histoire de Jeanne d`Arc by P.A Le Brun de Charmettes-Tome1 Tome2 Tome3 Tome4 in 1817, in an attempt to restore her family fortunes from relapsed heretic name. His interest for Joan came at a time when France was still struggling to define its new identity after the Revolution and the Napoleonic wars. The national ethos was in search of non controversial heroes. A staunch prop to King and country, Joan of Arc was an acceptable symbol to the monarchists. As a patriot and the daughter of commoners, she was seen as one prototype of the low-born volunteers (the soldats de l'an II) who had victoriously fought for revolutionary France in 1802 and as such could be claimed by the Republicans. As a religious martyr, she was also popular in the powerful Catholic community. De Charmette's Orleanide, today largely forgotten, was another attempt to magnify the national ethos as writers like Virgil (the Aeneid), or Camoens (the Lusiad) had done for Rome and Portugal. Hundred Years War The Hundred Years' War continued for 22 years after her death. Charles VII succeeded in retaining legitimacy as king of France in spite of a rival coronation held for Henry VI in December 1431 on the boy's tenth birthday. Before England could rebuild its military leadership and longbow corps, lost during 1429, the country lost its alliance with Burgundy at the Treaty of Arras in 1435. The Duke of Bedford died the same year and Henry VI became the youngest king of England to rule without a regent; his weak leadership was probably the most important factor in ending the conflict. Kelly DeVries argues that Joan of Arc's aggressive use of artillery and frontal assaults influenced French tactics for the rest of the war. DeVries, pp. 179–180. Joan of Arc became a semi-legendary figure for the next four centuries. The main sources of information about her were chronicles. Five original manuscripts of her condemnation trial surfaced in old archives during the 19th century. Soon historians also located the complete records of her rehabilitation trial, which contained sworn testimony from 115 witnesses, and the original French notes for the Latin condemnation trial transcript. Various contemporary letters also emerged, three of which carry the signature "Jehanne" in the unsteady hand of a person learning to write. Pernoud and Clin, pp. 247–264. This unusual wealth of primary source material is one reason DeVries declares, "No person of the Middle Ages, male or female, has been the subject of more study". DeVries in "Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc," edited by Bonnie Wheeler, p. 3. She dictated her letters. Three of the surviving ones are signed. Joan of Arc came from an obscure village and rose to prominence, when she was barely more than a child, and she did so as an uneducated peasant. The French and English kings had justified the ongoing war through competing interpretations of the thousand-year-old Salic law. The conflict had been an inheritance feud between monarchs. She gave meaning to appeals such as that of squire Jean de Metz when he asked, "Must the king be driven from the kingdom; and are we to be English?" In the words of Stephen Richey, "She turned what had been a dry dynastic squabble that left the common people unmoved except for their own suffering into a passionately popular war of national liberation." Richey, (Accessed 12 12 February 2006) Richey also expresses the breadth of her subsequent appeal: "The people who came after her in the five centuries since her death tried to make everything of her: demonic fanatic, spiritual mystic, naive and tragically ill-used tool of the powerful, creator and icon of modern popular nationalism, adored heroine, saint. She insisted, even when threatened with torture and faced with death by fire, that she was guided by voices from God. Voices or no voices, her achievements leave anyone who knows her story shaking his head in amazed wonder." In 1452, during the postwar investigation into her execution, the Church declared that a religious play in her honor at Orléans would qualify as a pilgrimage meriting an indulgence. She became a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century. Monsignor Félix Dupanloup, Bishop of Orléans from 1849 to 1878, led the effort for Joan's beatification, but did not live to see it come about. Joan of Arc's beatification finally came in 1909 - directly following upon the passage of the 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State, at the time considered a major blow to the Catholic Church's position in French society. Her canonization followed on 16 May 1920. Her feast day is 30 May. As Saint Joan of Arc, she has become one of the most popular saints of the Roman Catholic Church. She is the most requested saint profile at Catholic.org. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Joan of Arc was not a feminist. She operated within a religious tradition that believed an exceptional person from any level of society might receive a divine calling. She expelled women from the French army and may have struck one stubborn camp follower with the flat of a sword. Contrary to popular myth, the primary role of camp followers was not prostitution. They performed support functions such as laundry, cooking, and hauling. Female camp followers were often the wives of soldiers. Some prostitution also took place. Byron C. Hacker and Margaret Vining, "The World of Camp and Train: Women's Changing Roles in Early Modern Armies". (Accessed 12 February 2006) The duke of Alençon reported seeing her break a sword against a camp follower at Saint Denis. Her page Louis de Contes described the event as happening near Chauteau-Thierry and insisted that it was only a verbal warning. Nullification trial testimony. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Nonetheless, some of her most significant aid came from women. King Charles VII's mother-in-law, Yolande of Aragon, confirmed Joan's virginity and financed her departure to Orléans. Joan of Luxembourg, aunt to the count of Luxembourg who held custody of her after Compiègne, alleviated her conditions of captivity and may have delayed her sale to the English. Finally, Anne of Burgundy, the duchess of Bedford and wife to the regent of England, declared Joan a virgin during pretrial inquiries. These tests, which her confessor describes as hymen investigations, are not reliable measures of virginity. However, they signified approval from matrons of the highest social rank at key moments of her life. Rehabilitation trial testimony of Jean Pasquerel. (Accessed 12 March 2006) For technical reasons this prevented the court from charging her with witchcraft. Ultimately this provided part of the basis for her vindication and sainthood. From Christine de Pizan to the present, women have looked to her as a positive example of a brave and active female. English translation of Christine de Pizan's poem "La Ditie de Jeanne d'Arc" by L. Shopkow. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Analysis of the poem by Professors Kennedy and Varty of Magdalen College, Oxford. (Accessed 12 February 2006) Flag of Charles de Gaulle's government in exile during World War II. The French Resistance used the cross of Lorraine as a symbolic reference to Joan of Arc. Joan of Arc has been a political symbol in France since the time of Napoleon. Liberals emphasized her humble origins. Early conservatives stressed her support of the monarchy. Later conservatives recalled her nationalism. During World War II, both the Vichy Regime and the French Resistance used her image: Vichy propaganda remembered her campaign against the English with posters that showed British warplanes bombing Rouen and the ominous caption: "They Always Return to the Scene of Their Crimes." The resistance emphasized her fight against foreign occupation and her origins in the province of Lorraine, which had fallen under Nazi control. Three separate vessels of the French Navy have been named after her, including a helicopter carrier currently in active service. At present the controversial French far-right political party Front National holds rallies at her statues, reproduces her likeness in party publications, and uses a tricolor flame partly symbolic of her martyrdom as its emblem. This party's opponents sometimes satirize its appropriation of her image. Front National publicity logos include the tricolor flame and reproductions of statues depicting her. The graphics forums at Étapes magazine include a variety of political posters from the 2002 presidential election. (Accessed 7 February 2006) The French civic holiday in her honor is the second Sunday of May. Traditionalist Catholics, in France and elsewhere, also use her as a symbol of inspiration, often comparing the 1988 excommunication of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre (founder of the Society of St. Pius X and a dissident against the Vatican II reforms), to her excommunication. Alleged relics disproven In 1867, a jar was found in a Paris pharmacy with the inscription "Remains found under the stake of Joan of Arc, virgin of Orleans". They consisted of a charred human rib, carbonized wood, a piece of linen and a cat femur — explained as the practice of throwing black cats onto the pyre of witches. They are now in the Museum of Art and History in Chinon museum. In 2006, Philippe Charlier, a forensic scientist at Raymond Poincaré Hospital (Garches) was authorized to study the relics. Carbon-14 tests and spectrometry were performed, and the results Declan Butler. Joan of Arc's relics exposed as forgery, Nature, 4 April 2007, doi:10.1038/446593a. show that the remains come from an Egyptian mummy from the sixth to the third century BC. The charred appearance comes from the embalming substances, not from combustion. Large amounts of pine pollen were also found, consistent with the presence of resin used in mummification and some unburned linen was found to be similar to that used to wrap mummies. The famous perfumers Guerlain and Jean Patou said that they could smell vanilla in the remains, also consistent with mummification. Apparently the mummy was part of the ingredients of Medieval pharmacopoeia and it was relabelled in a time of French nationalism. See also Joan of Arc bibliography The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World List of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture Jean d'Aulon Gilles de Rais Cultural depictions of Joan of Arc Footnotes External links Catholic Encyclopedia: Bl. Joan of Arc The Jeanne d'Arc Centre biography and research. Jeanne-darc.dk Various materials including a complete English translation of the rehabilitation trial transcript. Joan of Arc in the First World War by B.J. Omanson, covers interest in Joan of Arc during the First World War. Joan of Arc Museum in Rouen, France. 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