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Ephemeris_time

The term ephemeris time is in itself apt to refer to time in connection with any astronomical ephemeris. It has been used more specifically to refer:- (1) to a (former standard) astronomical time scale, officially ephemeris time, sometimes designated ET. This was adopted in 1952 by IAU, 'ESAE 1961': 'Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac' ('prepared jointly by the Nautical Almanac Offices of the United Kingdom and the United States of America', HMSO, London, 1961), esp. p.9 and superseded in the 1970s. 'ESAA (1992)': (ed) P K Seidelmann, 'Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac', University Science Books, CA, 1992 ; ISBN 0-935702-68-7, esp. at pp.41-42. This time scale was proposed in 1948, to overcome the drawbacks of irregularly fluctuating mean solar time. The intent was to define a uniform time (as far as was then feasible) based on Newtonian theory (see Definition of ephemeris time (1952)). also (2) (sometimes in past, but with risk of confusion with (1)) to a modern relativistic coordinate time scale, implemented by the JPL ephemeris time argument Teph, in a series of numerically integrated Development Ephemerides. Among them is the DE405 ephemeris in widespread current use. The time scale represented by Teph is closely related to, but distinct (by an offset and constant rate) from, the TCB time scale currently adopted as a standard by the IAU (see JPL ephemeris time argument Teph). E M Standish, 'Time scales in the JPL and CfA ephemerides', Astron & Astrophys 336 (1998), 381-384. Most of the following sections relate to the ephemeris time of the 1952 standard. An impression has sometimes arisen that ephemeris time was in use from 1900: this probably arose because ET, though proposed and adopted in the period 1948-1952, was defined in detail using formulae that made retrospective use of the epoch date of 1900 January 0 and of Newcomb's Tables of the Sun. See ESAE (1961), e.g. pp.69 and 87, and Clemence (1948), at p.172 The ephemeris time of the 1952 standard leaves a continuing legacy, through its ephemeris second which became closely duplicated in the length of the current standard SI second (see Redefinition of the second). History of ephemeris time (1952 standard) Ephemeris time (ET), adopted as standard in 1952, was originally designed "for the convenience of astronomers and other scientists", especially for use in ephemerides of the Sun (as observed from the Earth), the Moon, and the planets. It was proposed in 1948 by G M Clemence 'Clemence (1948)': G M Clemence, 'On the System of Astronomical Constants', Astron J (1948) vol.53 (6), issue #1170, pp 169-179 . The aim was to replace Universal Time (UT), and other mean solar time scales based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis, in astronomical and scientific uses which would otherwise suffer from the unpredictable irregularities of the mean solar time scale. In the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries it was first suspected, and eventually established, that the rotation of the Earth (i.e. the length of the day) was both irregular on short time scales, and was slowing down on longer time scales. The evidence was compiled by W de Sitter (1927) W de Sitter (1927), 'On the secular accelerations and the fluctuations of the longitudes of the moon, the sun, Mercury and Venus', Bull. Astron. Inst. Netherlands, v4 (1927) pp.21-38. who wrote "If we accept this hypothesis, then the 'astronomical time', given by the earth's rotation, and used in all practical astronomical computations, differs from the 'uniform' or 'Newtonian' time, which is defined as the independent variable of the equations of celestial mechanics". De Sitter offered a correction to be applied to the mean solar time given by the Earth's rotation to get uniform time. Other astronomers of the period also made suggestions for obtaining uniform time, including A Danjon (1929), who suggested in effect that observed positions of the Moon, Sun and planets, when compared with their well-established gravitational ephemerides, could better and more uniformly define and determine time. 'Clemence (1971)': G M Clemence (1971), J Hist Astron v2 (1971) pp. 73-79. G M Clemence (1948) made a detailed proposal of this type based on the results of H Spencer Jones (1939). H Spencer Jones, "The Rotation of the Earth, and the Secular Accelerations of the Sun, Moon and Planets", in 'Monthly Notes of the Royal Astronomical Society', vol.99 (1939), pp 541-558. Clemence (1948) made it clear that his proposal was intended "for the convenience of astronomers and other scientists only" and that it was "logical to continue the use of mean solar time for civil purposes". Clemence (1948), at p.171. De Sitter and Clemence both referred to the proposal as 'Newtonian' or 'uniform' time. D Brouwer suggested the name 'ephemeris time'. ESAA (1992), p.79. Following this, an astronomical conference held in Paris in 1950 recommended "that in all cases where the mean solar second is unsatisfactory as a unit of time by reason of its variability, the unit adopted should be the sidereal year at 1900.0, that the time reckoned in this unit be designated ephemeris time", and gave Clemence's formula (see Definition of ephemeris time (1952)) for translating mean solar time to ephemeris time. The International Astronomical Union approved this recommendation at its 1952 general assembly. 'ESAE 1961': 'Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac' ('prepared jointly by the Nautical Almanac Offices of the United Kingdom and the United States of America', HMSO, London, 1961) at the IAU meeting in Rome 1952: see ESAE (1961) at sect.1C, p.9; ESAA (1992) at p.79; also Clemence (1971). Its practical introduction took some time (see #Use of ephemeris time in official almanacs and ephemerides); it remained a standard until superseded in the 1970s by further time scales (see #Revision). During the currency of ephemeris time as a standard, the details were revised a little. The unit was redefined in terms of the tropical year at 1900.0 instead of the sidereal year ESAA (1992), at p.79 ; and the standard second was defined first as 1/31556925.975 of the tropical year at 1900.0 ESAA 1992, p.79, citing decision of Intl. Committee on Weights and Measures (CIPM), Sept.1954 , and then as the slightly modified fraction 1/31556925.9747 instead, ESAA 1992, at p.80, citing CIPM recommendation Oct 1956, adopted 1960 by general Conference on Weights and Measures (GCPM) finally being redefined in 1967/8 in terms of the cesium atomic clock standard (see below). Although ET is no longer directly in use, it leaves a continuing legacy. Its successor time scales, such as TDT, as well as the atomic time scale IAT (TAI), were designed with a relationship that "provides continuity with ephemeris time". See ESAA (1992), p.42 ET was used for the calibration of atomic clocks in the 1950s, Close equality between the ET second with the later SI second (as defined with reference to the cesium atomic clock) has been verified. In this way, decisions made by the original designers of ephemeris time influenced the length of today's standard SI second, and in turn, this has a continuing influence on the number of leap seconds which have been needed for insertion into current broadcast time scales, to keep them in approximately in step with mean solar time. Definition of ephemeris time (1952) Ephemeris time was defined in principle by the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun, 'ESAA (1992)': (ed) P K Seidelmann, 'Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac', University Science Books, CA, 1992 ; ISBN 0-935702-68-7. See ESAA (1992) esp. at pp.79-80. but was usually measured in practice by the orbital motion of the Moon around the Earth. See Clemence (1948) at pp.171-3; also W Markowitz, 'Variations in the Rotation of the Earth, Results Obtained with the Dual-Rate Moon Camera and Photograhic Zenith Tubes', Astron J v64 (1959) 106-113; also W Markowitz, R G Hall, L Essen, J V L Parry (1958), 'Frequency of cesium in terms of ephemeris time', Phys Rev Letters v1 (1958), 105-107. Its detailed definition depended on Simon Newcomb's Tables of the Sun (1895), interpreted in a new way to accommodate certain observed discrepancies: In the introduction to Newcomb's Tables of the Sun (1895) the basis of the tables (p.9) includes a formula for the Sun's mean longitude, at a time indicated by interval T (in Julian centuries of 36525 mean solar days The unit of _mean solar_ day is left implicit on p.9 but made explicit on p.20 of Newcomb's Tables (1895). ) reckoned from Greenwich Mean Noon on 0 January 1900: Ls = 279° 41' 48".04 + 129,602,768".13T +1".089T2 .....(1) Spencer Jones' work of 1939 showed that the positions of the Sun actually observed, when compared with those obtained from Newcomb's formula, show the need for the following correction to the formula to represent the observations: ΔLs = + 1".00 + 2".97T + 1".23T2 + 0.0748B (where "the times of observation are in Universal time, not corrected to Newtonian time", and 0.0748B represents an irregular fluctuation calculated from lunar observations Clemence 1948 at p.172, following Spencer Jones (1939) ). Thus a conventionally-corrected form of Newcomb's formula, to incorporate the corrections on the basis of mean solar time, would be the sum of the two preceding expressions: Ls = 279° 41' 49".04 + 129,602,771".10T +2".32T2 +0.0748B ..... (2) Clemence's 1948 proposal did not adopt a correction of this kind in terms of mean solar time: instead, the same numbers were used as in Newcomb's original uncorrected formula (1), but now in a reverse sense, to define the time and time scale implicitly, based on the real position of the Sun: Ls = 279° 41' 48".04 + 129,602,768".13E +1".089E2 ..... (3) where the time variable, here represented as E, now represents time in ephemeris centuries of 36525 ephemeris days of 86400 ephemeris seconds. The 1961 official reference put it this way: "The origin and rate of ephemeris time are defined to make the Sun's mean longitude agree with Newcomb's expression" ESAE (1961) at p.70. From the comparison of formulae (2) and (3), both of which express the same real solar motion in the same real time but on different time scales, Clemence arrived at an explicit expression, estimating the difference in seconds of time between ephemeris time and mean solar time, in the sense (ET-UT): Clemence (1948), at p.172. Clemence's formula, now superseded by more modern estimations, was included in the original conference decision on ephemeris time. In view of the fluctuation term, practical determination of the difference between ephemeris time and UT depended on observation. Inspection of the formulae above shows that the (ideally constant) unit of ephemeris time such as the ephemeris second has been for the whole of the twentieth century very slightly shorter than the corresponding (but not precisely constant) unit of mean solar time (which besides its irregular fluctuations tends gradually to increase), consistently also with the modern results of Morrison and Stephenson (1984) and (1995) (see article ΔT). Use of ephemeris time in official almanacs and ephemerides Ephemeris time based on the standard adopted in 1952 was introduced into the Astronomical Ephemeris (UK) and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, replacing UT in the main ephemerides in the issues for 1960 and after. ESAA 1992, at p.612. (But the ephemerides in the Nautical Almanac, by then a separate publication for the use of navigators, continued to be expressed in terms of UT.) The ephemerides continued on this basis through 1983 (with some changes due to adoption of improved values of astronomical constants), after which, for 1984 onwards, they adopted the JPL ephemerides. Previous to the 1960 change, the 'Improved Lunar Ephemeris' had alrady been made available in terms of ephemeris time for the years 1952-1959 'Improved Lunar Ephemeris', US Government Printing Office, 1954. (computed by W J Eckert from Brown's theory with modifications recommended by Clemence (1948)). Revision of time scales In 1976 the IAU resolved that the theoretical basis for its current (1952) standard of Ephemeris Time was non-relativistic, and that therefore, beginning in 1984, Ephemeris Time would be replaced by two relativistic timescales intended to constitute dynamical timescales: Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT) and Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) adopted by the IAU in 1976 at Grenoble, see ESAA (1992) at p.41 . Difficulties were recognized, which led to these being in turn superseded in the 1990s by time scales Terrestrial Time (TT), Geocentric Coordinate Time GCT(TCG) and Barycentric Coordinate Time BCT(TCB) see ESAA (1992) at p.42 . JPL ephemeris time argument Teph High-precision ephemerides of sun, moon and planets were developed and calculated at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory over a long period and the latest available were adopted for the ephemerides in the Astronomical Almanac starting in 1984. Although not an IAU standard, the JPL ephemeris time argument Teph had been in longstanding use at that institution since the 1960s. The time scale represented by Teph has been characterized as a relativistic coordinate time that differs from Terrestrial Time only by small periodic terms with an amplitude not exceeding 2 milliseconds of time: it is linearly related to, but distinct (by an offset and constant rate which is of the order of 0.5 sec/yr) from the TCB time scale adopted in 1991 as a standard by the IAU. Thus for clocks on or near the geoid, Teph (within 2 milliseconds), but not so closely TCB, can be used as approximations to Terrestrial Time, and via the standard ephemerides Teph is in widespread use. Redefinition of the second Successive definitions of the unit of ephemeris time are mentioned above (History). The value adopted for the 1956/1960 standard second: the fraction 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900 January 0 at 12 hours ephemeris time. was obtained from the linear time-coefficient in Newcomb's expression for the solar mean longitude (above), taken and applied with the same meaning for the time as in formula (3) above. The relation with Newcomb's coefficient can be seen from: 1/31,556,925.9747 = 129602768.13 / (360 x 60 x 60 x 36525 x 86400). Caesium atomic clocks became operational in 1955, and quickly confirmed the evidence that the rotation of the earth fluctuated randomly. This confirmed the unsuitability of the mean solar second of Universal Time as a measure of time interval for the most precise purposes. After three years of comparisons with lunar observations, Markowitz et al. (1958) determined that the ephemeris second corresponded to 9,192,631,770 +/- 20 cycles of the chosen cesium resonance. W Markowitz, R G Hall, L Essen, J V L Parry (1958), 'Frequency of cesium in terms of ephemeris time', Phys Rev Letters v1 (1958), 105-107. Following this, in 1967/68, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) replaced the definition of the SI second by the following: "The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom." Although this is an independent definition that does not refer to the older basis of ephemeris time, it uses the same quantity as the value of the ephemeris second measured by the cesium clock in 1958. This SI second referred to atomic time was later verified by Markowitz (1988) to be in agreement, within 1 part in 1010, with the second of ephemeris time as determined from lunar observations. Wm Markowitz (1988) 'Comparisons of ET(Solar), ET(Lunar), UT and TDT', in (eds.) A K Babcock & G A Wilkins, 'The Earth's Rotation and Reference Frames for Geodesy and Geophysics', IAU Symposia #128 (1988), at pp 413-418. For practical purposes the length of the ephemeris second can be taken as equal to the length of the second of Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) or Terrestrial Time (TT) or its predecessor TDT. The difference between ET and UT is called ΔT; it changes irregularly, but the long-term trend is parabolic, decreasing from ancient times until the nineteenth century, and increasing since then at a rate corresponding to an increase in the solar day length of 1.7 ms per century (see leap seconds). International Atomic Time (TAI) was set equal to UT2 at 1 January 1958 0:00:00 . At that time, ΔT was already about 32.18 seconds. The difference between Terrestrial Time (TT) (the successor to ephemeris time) and atomic time was later defined as follows: 1977 January 1.0003725 TT = 1977 January 1.0000000 TAI, i.e. ET - TAI = 32.184 seconds This difference may be assumed constant—the rates of TT and TAI are designed to be identical. References

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Bronze_Star_Medal

The Bronze Star Medal is a United States Armed Forces individual military decoration which may be awarded for bravery, acts of merit, or meritorious service. When awarded for bravery, it is the fourth-highest combat award of the U.S. Armed Forces and the ninth highest military award (including both combat and non-combat awards) in the order of precedence of U.S. military decorations. General Information The Bronze Star Medal was established by Executive Order 9419, 4 February 1944 (superseded by Executive Order 11046, 24 August 1962, as amended by Executive Order 13286, 28 February 2003). The Bronze Star Medal is awarded to any person who meets specific qualifications: While serving in any capacity in or with the Army of the United States after 6 December 1941, distinguished himself or herself by heroic or meritorious achievement or service, not involving participation in aerial flight, in connection with military operations against an armed enemy; or while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party. The Bronze Star Medal is only awarded to service members in combat who are receiving imminent danger pay. For acts of heroism, performed under circumstances described above, which are of lesser degree than required for the award of the Silver Star. For meritorious achievement or meritorious service. The merit or acts of valor must be less than that required for the Legion of Merit but must nevertheless have been meritorious and accomplished with distinction. The award may be made to each member of the Armed Forces of the United States who, after 6 December 1941, was cited in orders or awarded a certificate for exemplary conduct in ground combat against an armed enemy after 7 December 1941. For this purpose, an award of the Combat Infantryman Badge or Combat Medical Badge is considered as a citation in orders. Documents executed since 4 August 1944 in connection with recommendations for the award of decorations of higher degree than the Bronze Star Medal cannot be used as the basis for an award under this paragraph. History The award that eventually became the Bronze Star Medal was conceived by Colonel Russell P. "Red" Reeder in 1943, who believed it would aid morale if there was a medal which could be awarded by captains of companies or batteries to deserving people serving under them. Reeder felt the medal should be a ground equivalent of the Air Medal, and proposed that the new award be called the “Ground Medal”. Reeder, Colonel Red. Born at Reveille. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce (1966), page 218. The idea eventually rose through the military bureaucracy and gained supporters. General George C. Marshall, in a memorandum to President Franklin D. Roosevelt dated 3 February 1944, wrote The Air Medal had been adopted 2 years earlier to raise airmen's morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944, retroactive to 7 December 1941. This authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. 3, dated 10 February 1944. The Executive Order was amended by President John F. Kennedy, per Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962, to expand the authorization to include those serving with friendly forces. This allowed for awards where U.S. servicemembers might be involved in an armed conflict where the United States was not a belligerent. At the time of the Executive Order, for example, the U.S. was not a belligerent in Vietnam, so U.S. advisors serving with the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces would not have been eligible for the award. Since the award criteria state that the Bronze Star Medal may be awarded to "any person...while serving in any capacity in or with" the U.S. Armed Forces, awards to members of foreign armed services serving with the United States are permitted. Thus, a number of Allied soldiers received the Bronze Star Medal in World War II, as well as U.N. soldiers in the Korean War, Vietnamese and allied forces in the Vietnam War, and coalition forces in recent military operations such as the Gulf War, Operation Enduring Freedom and the Iraq War. CIB & CMB Conversion As a result of a study conducted in 1947, the policy was implemented that authorized the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal to soldiers who had received the Combat Infantryman Badge or the Combat Medical Badge during World War II. The basis for doing this was that the badges were awarded only to soldiers who had borne the hardships which resulted in General Marshall's support of the Bronze Star Medal. Both badges required a recommendation by the commander and a citation in orders. Appearance The Bronze Star Medal was designed by Rudolf Freund (1878–1960) of Bailey, Banks and Biddle. (Freund also designed the Silver Star. http://www.omsa.org/photopost/showphoto.php?photo=1765 ) The Bronze Star is a bronze star 1½ inches (38 mm) in circumscribing diameter. In the center thereof is a 3/16 inch (4.8 mm) diameter superimposed bronze star, the center line of all rays of both stars coinciding. The reverse has the inscription “HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT” and a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star is suspended from the ribbon by a rectangular shaped metal loop with the corners rounded. The ribbon is 1 3/8 inches (35 mm) wide and consists of the following stripes: 1/32 inch (1 mm) white 67101; 9/16 inch (14 mm) scarlet 67111; 1/32 inch (1 mm) white; center stripe 1/8 inch (3 mm) ultramarine blue 67118; 1/32 inch (1 mm) white; 9/16 inch (14 mm) scarlet; and 1/32 inch (1 mm) white. Devices Additional awards of the Bronze Star Medal are denoted in the Army and Air Force by oak leaf clusters. The Navy, Marines, and Coast Guard issue award stars to denote subsequent decorations. The Valor device (or “V device”) is authorized by all services and identifies the award as resulting from an act of combat heroism (as in the case of the army and air force) or signifying that the medal was earned in combat (as in the case of the navy), thus distinguishing it from meritorious achievement awards. However, an accumulation of minor acts of combat heroism does not justify an award of the Valor device. Combat service deserving a bronze star, but not achieved in a particular valorous act, would warrant a meritorious bronze star. The Valor device does not denote an additional award. Only one may be worn on any ribbon. The Bronze Star with the Valor Device is the United States Military's fourth highest award for valor. Notes External links Air Force Personnel Center information on the Bronze Star US Army Institute of Heraldry: Bronze Star Medal

Bronze_Star_Medal |@lemmatized bronze:21 star:26 medal:20 united:7 state:8 arm:3 force:12 individual:1 military:8 decoration:4 may:4 award:29 bravery:2 act:6 merit:3 meritorious:8 service:7 fourth:2 high:4 combat:13 u:8 ninth:1 include:2 non:1 order:11 precedence:1 general:3 information:2 establish:1 executive:7 february:5 supersede:1 august:3 amend:2 person:2 meet:1 specific:1 qualification:1 serve:6 capacity:2 army:4 december:4 distinguish:2 heroic:2 achievement:4 involve:3 participation:1 aerial:1 flight:1 connection:2 operation:4 armed:7 enemy:2 engage:1 conflict:2 oppose:1 belligerent:3 party:1 awarded:1 member:3 receive:3 imminent:1 danger:1 pay:1 heroism:3 perform:1 circumstance:1 describe:1 less:2 degree:2 require:3 silver:2 valor:6 must:2 legion:1 nevertheless:1 accomplish:1 distinction:1 make:1 cite:1 certificate:1 exemplary:1 conduct:2 ground:3 purpose:1 infantryman:2 badge:6 medical:2 consider:1 citation:2 document:1 execute:1 since:2 recommendation:2 cannot:1 use:1 basis:2 paragraph:1 history:1 eventually:2 become:1 conceive:1 colonel:2 russell:1 p:1 red:2 reeder:3 believe:1 would:3 aid:1 morale:2 could:1 captain:1 company:1 battery:1 deserve:2 people:1 felt:1 equivalent:1 air:5 propose:1 new:2 call:1 bear:2 reveille:1 york:1 duell:1 sloan:1 pearce:1 page:1 idea:1 rise:1 bureaucracy:1 gained:1 supporter:1 george:1 c:1 marshall:2 memorandum:1 president:3 franklin:1 roosevelt:2 date:4 write:1 adopt:1 year:1 earlier:1 raise:1 airman:1 authorize:3 retroactive:2 authorization:2 announce:1 war:7 department:1 bulletin:1 john:1 f:1 kennedy:1 per:1 expand:1 friendly:1 allow:1 servicemembers:1 might:1 time:1 example:1 vietnam:3 advisor:1 republic:1 eligible:1 criterion:1 foreign:1 permit:1 thus:2 number:1 allied:2 soldier:4 world:2 ii:2 well:1 n:1 korean:1 vietnamese:1 coalition:1 recent:1 gulf:1 endure:1 freedom:1 iraq:1 cib:1 cmb:1 conversion:1 result:3 study:1 policy:1 implement:1 hardship:1 support:1 commander:1 appearance:1 design:2 rudolf:1 freund:2 bailey:1 bank:1 biddle:1 also:1 http:1 www:1 omsa:1 org:1 photopost:1 showphoto:1 php:1 photo:1 inch:10 mm:10 circumscribe:1 diameter:2 center:4 thereof:1 superimpose:1 line:1 ray:1 coincide:1 reverse:1 inscription:1 space:1 name:1 recipient:1 engrave:1 suspend:1 ribbon:3 rectangular:1 shape:1 metal:1 loop:1 corner:1 round:1 wide:1 consist:1 following:1 stripe:2 white:4 scarlet:2 ultramarine:1 blue:1 device:6 additional:2 denote:3 oak:1 leaf:1 cluster:1 navy:2 marine:1 coast:1 guard:1 issue:1 subsequent:1 v:1 identify:1 case:2 signify:1 earn:1 however:1 accumulation:1 minor:1 justify:1 achieve:1 particular:1 valorous:1 warrant:1 one:1 wear:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 personnel:1 institute:1 heraldry:1 |@bigram meritorious_achievement:4 imminent_danger:1 legion_merit:1 infantryman_badge:2 york_duell:1 duell_sloan:1 sloan_pearce:1 franklin_roosevelt:1 endure_freedom:1 http_www:1 inch_mm:10 oak_leaf:1 external_link:1

Alpha_decay

Alpha decayAlpha decay is a type of radioactive decay in which an atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle (two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium nucleus) and transforms (or 'decays') into an atom with a mass number 4 less and atomic number 2 less. For example: →  +  Suchocki, John. Conceptual Chemistry, 2007. Page 119. although this is typically written as: →  + (The second form is preferred because the first form appears electrically unbalanced. Fundamentally, the recoiling nucleus is very quickly stripped of the two extra electrons which give it an unbalanced charge. The alpha particle (helium cation) also quickly picks up two electrons from the environment.) An alpha particle is the same as a helium-4 nucleus, and both mass number and atomic number are the same. Alpha decay is by far the most common form of cluster decay where the parent atom ejects a defined daughter collection of nucleons, leaving another defined product behind (in nuclear fission, a number of different pairs of daughters of approximately equal size, are formed). Alpha decay is the most likely cluster decay because of the combined extremely high binding energy and relatively small mass of the helium-4 product nucleus (the alpha particle). Alpha decay, like other cluster decays, is fundamentally a quantum tunneling process. Unlike beta decay, alpha decay is governed by the interplay between the strong nuclear force and the electromagnetic force. Alpha decay is a mode of radioactive decay seen only in heavier nuclides, with the lightest known alpha emitter being tellurium (element 52). Alpha particles have a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (that is, ≈ 0.13% of their total energy, i.e. 110 TJ/kg) and a speed of 15,000 km/s. This corresponds to a speed of around 0.05 c. There is surprisingly small variation around this energy, due to the heavy dependence of the half-life of this process process on the energy produced (see equations below). Because of their relatively large mass, +2 charge and relatively low velocity, alpha particles they are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their energy, so their forward motion is effectively stopped within a few centimeters of air. Alpha source beneath a radiation detector Most of the helium produced on Earth (approximately 99% of it) comes from the alpha decay of underground deposits of minerals containing uranium or thorium. The helium is brought to the surface as a by-product of natural gas production. History By 1928, George Gamow had solved the theory of the alpha decay via tunneling. The alpha particle is trapped in a potential well by the nucleus. Classically, it is forbidden to escape, but according to the then newly discovered principles of quantum mechanics, it has a tiny (but non-zero) probability of "tunneling" through the barrier and appearing on the other side to escape the nucleus. Gamow solved a model potential for the nucleus and derived from first principles a relationship between the half-life of the decay, and the energy of the emission, which had been previously discovered empirically, and was known as the Geiger-Nuttall law. (For Gamow's derivation of this law, see .) Uses Americium-241, an alpha-emitter, is used in smoke detectors. The alpha particles ionize air between a small gap. A small current is passed through that ionized air. Smoke particles from fire that enter the air gap reduce the current flow, sounding the alarm. Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space probes and artificial heart pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay. Plutonium-238, for example, requires only 2.5 mm of lead shielding to protect against unwanted radiation. Static Eliminators typically use Polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize air, allowing the 'static cling' to more rapidly dissipate. Toxicity Being relatively heavy and positively charged, alpha particles tend to have a very short mean free path, and quickly lose kinetic energy within a short distance of their source. This results in several MeV being deposited in a relatively small volume of material. This increases the chance of cellular damage in cases of internal contamination. In general, external alpha radiation is not harmful since alpha particles are effectively shielded by a few centimeters of air, a piece of paper, or the thin layer of dead skin cells. Even touching an alpha source is usually not harmful, though many alpha sources also are accompanied by beta-emitting radio daughters, and alpha emission is also accompanied by gamma photon emission. If substances emitting alpha particles are ingested, inhaled, injected or introduced through the skin, then it could result in a measurable dose. The Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE) is a measure of the fact that alpha radiation is more effective at causing certain biological effects, notably either cancer or cell-death, compared to photon or beta radiation, for equivalent radiation exposure. This is generally attributable to the high Linear Energy Transfer (LET), which is about one ionization of a chemical bond for every Angstrom of travel by the alpha particle. The RBE has been set at the value of 20 for alpha radiation by various government regulations. The RBE is set at 10 for neutron irradiation, and at 1 for beta and ionizing photon radiation. However, another component of alpha radiation is the recoil of the parent nucleus, due to the conservation of momentum requiring the parent nucleus to recoil, much like the 'kick' of a rifle butt when a bullet goes in the opposite direction. This gives a significant amount of energy to the recoil nucleus, which also causes ionizaton damage. The total energy of the recoil nucleus is readily calculable, and is roughly the weight of the alpha (4 amu) divided by the weight of the parent (typically about 200 amu) times the total energy of the alpha. By some estimates, this might account for most of the internal radiation damage, as the recoil nuclei are typically heavy metals which preferentially collect on the chromosomes. In some studies Winters-TH, Franza-JR, Radioactivity in Cigarette Smoke, New England Journal of Medicine, 1982; 306(6): 364-365 , this has resulted in a RBE approaching 1,000 instead of the value used in governmental regulations. The largest natural contributor to public radiation dose is radon, a naturally occurring, radioactive gas found in soil and rock ANS : Public Information : Resources : Radiation Dose Chart . If the gas is inhaled, some of the radon particles may attach to the inner lining of the lung. These particles continue to decay, emitting alpha particles which can damage cells in the lung tissue. EPA Radiation Information: Radon. October 6 2006, , Accessed December 6 2006 . The death of Marie Curie at age 66 from leukemia was probably caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, but it is not clear if this was due to alpha radiation or X-rays. Curie worked extensively with radium, which decays into radon Health Physics Society, "Did Marie Curie die of a radiation overexposure?" , along with other radioactive materials that emit beta and gamma rays. However, Curie also worked with unshielded X-ray tubes during WW I, and analysis of her skeleton during a reburial showed a relatively low level of radioisotope burden. Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko's 2006 death from radiation poisoning is thought to have been carried out by polonium-210, an alpha emitter. See also Alpha particle Beta decay References Alpha emitters by increasing energy (Appendix 1)

Alpha_decay |@lemmatized alpha:40 decayalpha:1 decay:22 type:1 radioactive:5 atomic:3 nucleus:13 emit:4 particle:18 two:4 proton:1 neutron:2 bound:1 together:1 identical:1 helium:6 transforms:1 atom:3 mass:4 number:5 less:2 example:2 suchocki:1 john:1 conceptual:1 chemistry:1 page:1 although:1 typically:4 write:1 second:1 form:5 prefer:1 first:2 appear:2 electrically:1 unbalanced:2 fundamentally:2 recoiling:1 quickly:3 strip:1 extra:1 electron:2 give:2 charge:3 cation:1 also:6 pick:1 environment:1 far:1 common:1 cluster:3 parent:4 eject:1 defined:1 daughter:3 collection:1 nucleon:1 leave:1 another:2 define:1 product:3 behind:1 nuclear:2 fission:1 different:1 pair:1 approximately:2 equal:1 size:1 likely:2 combine:1 extremely:1 high:3 bind:1 energy:13 relatively:6 small:5 like:2 quantum:2 tunnel:3 process:3 unlike:1 beta:6 govern:1 interplay:1 strong:1 force:2 electromagnetic:1 mode:1 see:4 heavy:4 nuclides:1 light:1 know:2 emitter:5 tellurium:1 element:1 typical:1 kinetic:2 mev:2 total:3 e:1 tj:1 kg:1 speed:2 km:1 correspond:1 around:2 c:1 surprisingly:1 variation:1 due:3 dependence:1 half:2 life:2 produce:2 equation:1 large:2 low:2 velocity:1 interact:1 lose:2 forward:1 motion:1 effectively:2 stop:1 within:2 centimeter:2 air:6 source:5 beneath:1 radiation:17 detector:2 earth:1 come:1 underground:1 deposit:2 mineral:1 contain:1 uranium:1 thorium:1 bring:1 surface:1 natural:2 gas:3 production:1 history:1 george:1 gamow:3 solve:2 theory:1 via:1 trap:1 potential:2 well:1 classically:1 forbidden:1 escape:2 accord:1 newly:1 discover:2 principle:2 mechanic:1 tiny:1 non:1 zero:1 probability:1 barrier:1 side:1 model:1 derive:1 relationship:1 emission:3 previously:1 empirically:1 geiger:1 nuttall:1 law:2 derivation:1 us:1 americium:1 use:4 smoke:3 ionize:4 gap:2 current:2 pass:1 ionized:1 fire:1 enter:1 reduce:1 flow:1 sound:1 alarm:1 provide:1 safe:1 power:1 radioisotope:2 thermoelectric:1 generator:1 space:1 probe:1 artificial:1 heart:1 pacemaker:1 much:2 easily:1 shield:3 plutonium:1 require:2 mm:1 lead:1 protect:1 unwanted:1 static:2 eliminator:1 polonium:2 allow:1 cling:1 rapidly:1 dissipate:1 toxicity:1 positively:1 tend:1 short:2 mean:1 free:1 path:1 distance:1 result:3 several:1 volume:1 material:2 increase:2 chance:1 cellular:1 damage:4 case:1 internal:2 contamination:1 general:1 external:1 harmful:2 since:1 piece:1 paper:1 thin:1 layer:1 dead:1 skin:2 cell:3 even:1 touch:1 usually:1 though:1 many:1 accompany:2 emitting:1 radio:1 gamma:2 photon:3 substance:1 ingest:1 inhale:2 inject:1 introduce:1 could:1 measurable:1 dose:3 relative:1 biological:2 effectiveness:1 rbe:4 measure:1 fact:1 effective:1 cause:3 certain:1 effect:1 notably:1 either:1 cancer:1 death:3 compare:1 equivalent:1 exposure:2 generally:1 attributable:1 linear:1 transfer:1 let:1 one:1 ionization:1 chemical:1 bond:1 every:1 angstrom:1 travel:1 set:2 value:2 various:1 government:1 regulation:2 irradiation:1 however:2 component:1 recoil:5 conservation:1 momentum:1 kick:1 rifle:1 butt:1 bullet:1 go:1 opposite:1 direction:1 significant:1 amount:1 ionizaton:1 readily:1 calculable:1 roughly:1 weight:2 amu:2 divide:1 time:1 estimate:1 might:1 account:1 metal:1 preferentially:1 collect:1 chromosome:1 study:1 winter:1 th:1 franza:1 jr:1 radioactivity:1 cigarette:1 new:1 england:1 journal:1 medicine:1 approach:1 instead:1 governmental:1 contributor:1 public:2 radon:4 naturally:1 occur:1 find:1 soil:1 rock:1 information:2 resource:1 chart:1 may:1 attach:1 inner:1 lining:1 lung:2 continue:1 tissue:1 epa:1 october:1 access:1 december:1 marie:2 curie:4 age:1 leukemia:1 probably:1 prolonged:1 dos:1 clear:1 x:2 ray:3 work:2 extensively:1 radium:1 health:1 physic:1 society:1 die:1 overexposure:1 along:1 unshielded:1 tube:1 ww:1 analysis:1 skeleton:1 reburial:1 show:1 level:1 burden:1 russian:1 dissident:1 alexander:1 litvinenko:1 poisoning:1 think:1 carry:1 reference:1 appendix:1 |@bigram radioactive_decay:3 atomic_nucleus:1 alpha_decay:9 nuclear_fission:1 beta_decay:2 alpha_emitter:5 kinetic_energy:2 uranium_thorium:1 george_gamow:1 quantum_mechanic:1 smoke_detector:1 radioisotope_thermoelectric:1 thermoelectric_generator:1 positively_charge:1 thin_layer:1 gamma_photon:1 neutron_irradiation:1 cigarette_smoke:1 inner_lining:1 marie_curie:2 prolonged_exposure:1 ionize_radiation:1 beta_gamma:1 gamma_ray:1

Delicate_Arch

Delicate Arch is a tall Arches National Park, Geologic Resource Evaluation Report p9 National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior freestanding natural arch located in Arches National Park near Moab, Utah. It is the most widely-recognized landmark in Arches National Park and is depicted on both Utah license plates and a postage stamp commemorating Utah's centennial anniversary of statehood in 1996. The Olympic torch relay for the 2002 Winter Olympics passed through the arch. http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/olympics/2002/news/2002/02/04/torch_utah_ap/ for the Olympic torch at the Delicate Arch History Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as "the Chaps" and "the Schoolmarm's Bloomers" by local cowboys. It was given its current name by Frank Beckwith, leader of the Arches National Monument Scientific Expedition, who explored the area in the winter of 1933–1934. (The story that the names of Delicate Arch and Landscape Arch were inadvertently exchanged due to a signage mixup by the National Park Service is false. John F. Hoffman, Arches National Park. ) The arch played no part in the original designation of the area as a U.S. National Monument in 1929, and was not included within the original boundaries; it was added when the monument was enlarged in 1938. In the 1950s, the National Park Service investigated the possibility of applying a clear plastic coating to the arch to protect it from further erosion and eventual destruction. The idea was ultimately abandoned as impractical and contrary to NPS principles. ibid. Geology Delicate Arch is formed of Entrada Sandstone. The original sandstone fin was gradually worn away by weathering and erosion, eventually leaving the arch. Other arches in the park were formed the same way but due to placement and less dramatic shape are not as famous. Hiking to the Arch The view of Delicate Arch at the end of the hiking trail. Delicate Arch is located at the end of a moderately strenuous, hiking trail from the parking area at Wolfe Ranch. Taking thirty to forty-five minutes each way, the round trip is slightly more than long and the Arch is completely hidden from view on this trail. The first third of the hike is through rugged, brushy terrain and gains slightly in elevation. The middle third of the hike is along the face of an exposed slickrock outcrop and is strenuous due to the gain in elevation, but offers better views of the geology in the salt valley. Cairns (piles of rocks) have been placed by visitors and park staff to roughly suggest the otherwise unmarked trail to the top, yet visitors tend to wander all over the huge expanse of completely exposed sandstone. The latter third of the trail is the most rugged, as hikers have now nearly reached the "top" of the plateau. The Arch is still invisible, and the trail runs around outcrops, through washes and between stands of twisted brush and trees. The trail may be easier to follow, but meanders as parts become muddy and difficult to walk through. During the 2004 fall season, the trail clearly followed the left (northern) side of the plateau, and brought visitors along a narrow shelf nearly above a dry wash. The arch comes into view suddenly around a corner in the trail and frames the La Sal Mountains to the southeast. The immediate area around the Arch offers views of the southern expanse of the park, and has unguarded cliffs plunging one hundred feet or more. http://www.canyon-trails.com/delicate.htm for the hike to the arch http://climb-utah.com/Moab/delicate.htm more of the hike Wildlife During the summer months, White-throated Swifts (Aeronautes saxatalis) nest in the top of the arch. Controversy Nature photographer Michael Fatali started a fire under the arch in September 2000 to demonstrate nighttime photography techniques to a group of amateur photographers. The fire discolored portions of the sandstone near the arch. Fatali was given probation and forced to pay $10,900 restitution to the National Park Service for the cost of cleanup efforts. In May 2006, climber Dean Potter made the first recorded free solo (no ropes, or protection) ascent of this formation. Under the rules active at the time, climbing Delicate Arch was not explicitly forbidden; however, it was understood that the named arch formations should not be climbed. Since that climb, the Park Service has closed the loophole by disallowing climbs on any named arch within the park year-round. Also, slacklining and the placement of new fixed anchors on new climbs is also prohibited. Controversy erupted when photographs taken after Potter's climb appeared to show damage caused by a climbing technique called top roping. Potter has stated on several occasions that he never top roped the Arch and no photos exist of Potter using a top rope setup on the Arch. It is possible that a previous climber had top roped the Arch leaving the rope scars. Gallery References External links Arches National Park Trails Page Arches National Park homepage

Delicate_Arch |@lemmatized delicate:9 arch:36 tall:1 national:12 park:16 geologic:1 resource:1 evaluation:1 report:1 service:5 u:2 department:1 interior:1 freestanding:1 natural:1 locate:2 near:2 moab:2 utah:4 widely:1 recognize:1 landmark:1 depict:1 license:1 plate:1 postage:1 stamp:1 commemorate:1 centennial:1 anniversary:1 statehood:1 olympic:2 torch:2 relay:1 winter:2 olympics:2 pass:1 http:3 sportsillustrated:1 cnn:1 com:3 news:1 history:1 distinctive:1 shape:2 know:1 chap:1 schoolmarm:1 bloomer:1 local:1 cowboy:1 give:2 current:1 name:4 frank:1 beckwith:1 leader:1 monument:3 scientific:1 expedition:1 explore:1 area:4 story:1 landscape:1 inadvertently:1 exchange:1 due:3 signage:1 mixup:1 false:1 john:1 f:1 hoffman:1 play:1 part:2 original:3 designation:1 include:1 within:2 boundary:1 add:1 enlarge:1 investigate:1 possibility:1 apply:1 clear:1 plastic:1 coating:1 protect:1 erosion:2 eventual:1 destruction:1 idea:1 ultimately:1 abandon:1 impractical:1 contrary:1 nps:1 principle:1 ibid:1 geology:2 form:2 entrada:1 sandstone:4 fin:1 gradually:1 wear:1 away:1 weather:1 eventually:1 leave:2 way:2 placement:2 less:1 dramatic:1 famous:1 hike:6 view:5 end:2 hiking:1 trail:11 moderately:1 strenuous:2 wolfe:1 ranch:1 take:2 thirty:1 forty:1 five:1 minute:1 round:2 trip:1 slightly:2 long:1 completely:2 hidden:1 first:2 third:3 rugged:2 brushy:1 terrain:1 gain:2 elevation:2 middle:1 along:2 face:1 exposed:1 slickrock:1 outcrop:2 offer:2 well:1 salt:1 valley:1 cairn:1 pile:1 rock:1 place:1 visitor:3 staff:1 roughly:1 suggest:1 otherwise:1 unmarked:1 top:7 yet:1 tend:1 wander:1 huge:1 expanse:2 expose:1 latter:1 hiker:1 nearly:2 reach:1 plateau:2 still:1 invisible:1 run:1 around:3 wash:2 stand:1 twisted:1 brush:1 tree:1 may:2 easy:1 follow:2 meander:1 become:1 muddy:1 difficult:1 walk:1 fall:1 season:1 clearly:1 left:1 northern:1 side:1 bring:1 narrow:1 shelf:1 dry:1 come:1 suddenly:1 corner:1 frame:1 la:1 sal:1 mountains:1 southeast:1 immediate:1 southern:1 unguarded:1 cliff:1 plunge:1 one:1 hundred:1 foot:1 www:1 canyon:1 htm:2 climb:7 wildlife:1 summer:1 month:1 white:1 throated:1 swift:1 aeronautes:1 saxatalis:1 nest:1 controversy:2 nature:1 photographer:2 michael:1 fatali:2 start:1 fire:2 september:1 demonstrate:1 nighttime:1 photography:1 technique:2 group:1 amateur:1 discolor:1 portion:1 probation:1 force:1 pay:1 restitution:1 cost:1 cleanup:1 effort:1 climber:2 dean:1 potter:4 make:1 record:1 free:1 solo:1 rope:5 protection:1 ascent:1 formation:2 rule:1 active:1 time:1 explicitly:1 forbid:1 however:1 understood:1 since:1 close:1 loophole:1 disallow:1 year:1 also:2 slacklining:1 new:2 fix:1 anchor:1 prohibit:1 erupt:1 photograph:1 appear:1 show:1 damage:1 cause:1 climbing:1 call:1 roping:1 state:1 several:1 occasion:1 never:1 photo:1 exist:1 use:1 setup:1 possible:1 previous:1 scar:1 gallery:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 page:1 homepage:1 |@bigram delicate_arch:7 postage_stamp:1 olympic_torch:2 torch_relay:1 winter_olympics:1 sportsillustrated_cnn:1 cnn_com:1 plastic_coating:1 hiking_trail:1 hike_trail:1 http_www:1 external_link:1

Glycine

Glycine (abbreviated as Gly or G) is the organic compound with the formula NH2CH2COOH. It is the smallest of the 20 amino acids commonly found in proteins, coded by codons GGU, GGC, GGA and GGG. Glycine is unique among the proteinogenic amino acids in that it is not chiral. Most proteins incorporate only small quantities of glycine. A notable exception is collagen, which contains about 35% glycine. Nelson, D. L. & Cox, M. M. (2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 4th Edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, p. 127. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6. Solid glycine is a colourless, sweet-tasting crystalline material. Production Glycine is manufactured industrially by treating chloroacetic acid with ammonia: ClCH2COOH + NH3 → H2NCH2COOH + HCl It is also produced via the Strecker amino acid synthesis. Biosynthesis Glycine is not essential to the human diet, since it is biosynthesized in the body from the amino acid serine, which is in turn derived from 3-phosphoglycerate. In most organisms, the enzyme Serine hydroxymethyltransferase catalyses this transformation via the cofactor pyridoxal phosphate: Nelson, D. L. & Cox, M. M. (2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 4th Edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, p. 844. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6. serine + tetrahydrofolate → glycine + N5,N10-Methylene tetrahydrofolate + H2O In the liver of vertebrates, glycine synthesis is catalyzed by glycine synthase (also called glycine cleavage enzyme). This conversion is readily reversible: CO2 + NH4+ + N5,N10-Methylene tetrahydrofolate + NADH + H+ → Glycine + tetrahydrofolate + NAD+ Degradation Glycine is degraded via three pathways. The predominant pathway in animals involves the catalysis of glycine cleavage enzyme, the same enzyme also involved in the biosynthesis of glycine. The degradation pathway is the reverse of this synthetic pathway: Nelson, D. L. & Cox, M. M. (2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 4th Edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, pp. 675-677. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6. Glycine + tetrahydrofolate + NAD+ → CO2 + NH4+ + N5,N10-Methylene tetrahydrofolate + NADH + H+ In the second pathway, glycine is degraded in two steps. The first step is the reverse of glycine biosynthesis from serine with serine hydroxymethyl transferase. Serine is then converted to pyruvate by serine dehydratase. In the third pathway of glycine degradation, glycine is converted to glyoxylate by D-amino acid oxidase. Glycoxylate is then oxidized by hepatic lactate dehydrogenase to oxalate in an NAD+-dependent reaction. Physiological function The principal function of glycine is as a precursor to proteins. It is also a building block to numerous natural products. As a biosynthetic intermediate In higher eukaryotes, D-Aminolevulinic acid, the key precursor to porphyrins, is biosynthesized from glycine and succinyl-CoA. Glycine provides the central C2N subunit of all purines. Nelson, D. L. & Cox, M. M. (2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry, 4th Edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, p. 854. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6. As a neurotransmitter Glycine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, especially in the spinal cord, brainstem, and retina. When glycine receptors are activated, chloride enters the neuron via ionotropic receptors, causing an Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). Strychnine is a strong antagonist at ionotropic glycine receptors, whereas bicuculline is a weak one. Glycine is a required co-agonist along with glutamate for NMDA receptors. In contrast to the inhibitory role of glycine in the spinal cord, this behaviour is facilitated at the (NMDA) glutaminergic receptors which are excitatory. The LD50 of glycine is 7930 mg/kg in rats (oral), and it usually causes death by hyperexcitability. Commercial uses In the US, glycine is typically sold in two grades: United States Pharmacopeia (“USP”), and technical grade. Most glycine is manufactured as USP grade material for diverse uses. USP grade sales account for approximately 80 to 85 percent of the U.S. market for glycine. Pharmaceutical grade glycine is produced for use in some pharmaceutical applications, such as intravenous injections, where the customer’s purity requirements often exceed the minimum required under the USP grade designation. Pharmaceutical grade glycine is often produced to proprietary specifications and is typically sold at a premium over USP grade glycine. Technical grade glycine, which may or may not meet USP grade standards, is sold for use in industrial applications; e.g., as an agent in metal complexing and finishing. Technical grade glycine is typically sold at a discount to USP grade glycine. http://hotdocs.usitc.gov/docs/pubs/701_731/pub3921.pdf Animal and human foodstuffs Other markets for USP grade glycine include its use an additive in pet food and animal feed. For humans, glycine is sold as a sweetener/taste enhancer. Food supplements and protein drinks contain glycine. Certain drug formulations include glycine to improve gastric absorption of the drug. Cosmetics and miscellaneous applications Glycine serves as a buffering agent in antacids, analgesics, antiperspirants, cosmetics, and toiletries. Many miscellaneous products use glycine or its derivatives, such as the production of rubber sponge products, fertilizers, metal complexants. "Notice of Preliminary Determination of Sales at Less Than Fair Value: Glycine From India" Federal Register 72 (7 November 2007): 62827. Chemical feedstock Glycine is an intermediate in the synthesis of a variety of chemical products. It is used in the manufacture of the herbicide Glyphosate. Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine) is a non-selective systemic herbicide used to kill weeds, especially perennials and broadcast or used in the cut-stump treatment as a forestry herbicide. Initially, Glyphosate was sold only by Monsanto under the Monsanto tradename Roundup, but is no longer under patent. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyphosate Antidumping tariffs Glycine imported from China to the United States has been subject to antidumping duties since March, 1995. Glycine from the People’s Republic of China, Inv. No. 731-TA-718 (Final), USITC Pub. 2863 (Mar. 1995) (“Original Determination”) at 1. In 2007, a United States manufacturer of Glycine, GEO Specialty Chemicals, Inc. http://www.geosc.com/ GEO Specialty Chemicals, Inc. filed petitions requesting that antidumping duties also be imposed on Glycine imported from Japan, the Republic of Korea, and India. On September 7, 2007 the Department of Commerce announced its affirmative preliminary determinations in the antidumping duty investigations on imports of glycine from Japan and the Republic of Korea (Korea). On October 29, 2007 the Department of Commerce announced its affirmative preliminary determination in the antidumping duty investigation on imports of glycine from India. Presence in the interstellar medium The detection of glycine in the interstellar medium has been debated. In 2008, the glycine like molecule amino acetonitrile was discovered in the Large Molecule Heimat, a giant gas cloud near the galactic center in the constellation Sagittarius by the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy References External links Glycine at PDRHealth.com Computational Chemistry Wiki Glycine cleavage system Glycine Therapy - A New Direction for Schizophrenia Treatment? ChemSub Online (Glycine). Further specialized reading On attempts to detect glycine in interstellar medium

Glycine |@lemmatized glycine:60 abbreviate:1 gly:1 g:2 organic:1 compound:1 formula:1 small:2 amino:6 acid:7 commonly:1 find:1 protein:4 cod:1 codon:1 ggu:1 ggc:1 gga:1 ggg:1 unique:1 among:1 proteinogenic:1 chiral:1 incorporate:1 quantity:1 notable:1 exception:1 collagen:1 contain:2 nelson:4 l:4 cox:4 lehninger:4 principle:4 biochemistry:4 edition:4 new:5 york:4 w:4 h:6 freeman:4 company:4 p:3 isbn:4 solid:1 colourless:1 sweet:1 taste:2 crystalline:1 material:2 production:2 manufacture:3 industrially:1 treat:1 chloroacetic:1 ammonia:1 hcl:1 also:5 produce:3 via:4 strecker:1 synthesis:3 biosynthesis:3 essential:1 human:3 diet:1 since:2 biosynthesized:2 body:1 serine:7 turn:1 derive:1 phosphoglycerate:1 organism:1 enzyme:4 hydroxymethyltransferase:1 catalyse:1 transformation:1 cofactor:1 pyridoxal:1 phosphate:1 tetrahydrofolate:6 methylene:3 liver:1 vertebrate:1 catalyze:1 synthase:1 call:1 cleavage:3 conversion:1 readily:1 reversible:1 nadh:2 nad:3 degradation:3 degrade:2 three:1 pathway:6 predominant:1 animal:3 involve:2 catalysis:1 reverse:2 synthetic:1 pp:1 second:1 two:2 step:2 first:1 hydroxymethyl:1 transferase:1 convert:2 pyruvate:1 dehydratase:1 third:1 glyoxylate:1 oxidase:1 glycoxylate:1 oxidize:1 hepatic:1 lactate:1 dehydrogenase:1 oxalate:1 dependent:1 reaction:1 physiological:1 function:2 principal:1 precursor:2 building:1 block:1 numerous:1 natural:1 product:4 biosynthetic:1 intermediate:2 high:1 eukaryote:1 aminolevulinic:1 key:1 porphyrin:1 succinyl:1 coa:1 provide:1 central:2 subunit:1 purine:1 neurotransmitter:2 inhibitory:3 nervous:1 system:2 especially:2 spinal:2 cord:2 brainstem:1 retina:1 receptor:5 activate:1 chloride:1 enter:1 neuron:1 ionotropic:2 cause:2 postsynaptic:1 potential:1 ipsp:1 strychnine:1 strong:1 antagonist:1 whereas:1 bicuculline:1 weak:1 one:1 required:1 co:1 agonist:1 along:1 glutamate:1 nmda:2 contrast:1 role:1 behaviour:1 facilitate:1 glutaminergic:1 excitatory:1 mg:1 kg:1 rat:1 oral:1 usually:1 death:1 hyperexcitability:1 commercial:1 us:2 u:2 typically:3 sell:6 grade:13 united:3 state:3 pharmacopeia:1 usp:8 technical:3 diverse:1 sale:2 account:1 approximately:1 percent:1 market:2 pharmaceutical:3 use:7 application:3 intravenous:1 injection:1 customer:1 purity:1 requirement:1 often:2 exceed:1 minimum:1 require:1 designation:1 proprietary:1 specification:1 premium:1 may:2 meet:1 standard:1 industrial:1 e:1 agent:2 metal:2 complexing:1 finishing:1 discount:1 http:3 hotdocs:1 usitc:2 gov:1 doc:1 pubs:1 pdf:1 foodstuff:1 include:2 additive:1 pet:1 food:2 feed:1 sweetener:1 enhancer:1 supplement:1 drink:1 certain:1 drug:2 formulation:1 improve:1 gastric:1 absorption:1 cosmetic:2 miscellaneous:2 serf:1 buffering:1 antacid:1 analgesic:1 antiperspirant:1 toiletry:1 many:1 derivative:1 rubber:1 sponge:1 fertilizer:1 complexants:1 notice:1 preliminary:3 determination:4 less:1 fair:1 value:1 india:3 federal:1 register:1 november:1 chemical:4 feedstock:1 variety:1 herbicide:3 glyphosate:4 n:1 phosphonomethyl:1 non:1 selective:1 systemic:1 kill:1 weed:1 perennial:1 broadcast:1 cut:1 stump:1 treatment:2 forestry:1 initially:1 monsanto:2 tradename:1 roundup:1 longer:1 patent:1 en:1 wikipedia:1 org:1 wiki:2 antidumping:5 tariff:1 import:4 china:2 subject:1 duty:4 march:1 people:1 republic:3 inv:1 ta:1 final:1 pub:1 mar:1 original:1 manufacturer:1 geo:2 specialty:2 inc:2 www:1 geosc:1 com:2 file:1 petition:1 request:1 impose:1 japan:2 korea:3 september:1 department:2 commerce:2 announce:2 affirmative:2 investigation:2 october:1 presence:1 interstellar:3 medium:3 detection:1 debate:1 like:1 molecule:2 acetonitrile:1 discover:1 large:1 heimat:1 giant:1 gas:1 cloud:1 near:1 galactic:1 center:1 constellation:1 sagittarius:1 max:1 planck:1 institute:1 radio:1 astronomy:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 pdrhealth:1 computational:1 chemistry:1 therapy:1 direction:1 schizophrenia:1 chemsub:1 online:1 far:1 specialized:1 reading:1 attempt:1 detect:1 |@bigram organic_compound:1 amino_acid:5 cox_lehninger:4 lehninger_principle:4 sweet_taste:1 succinyl_coa:1 inhibitory_neurotransmitter:1 spinal_cord:2 nmda_receptor:1 mg_kg:1 grade_glycine:8 usp_grade:7 intravenous_injection:1 en_wikipedia:1 org_wiki:1 http_www:1 max_planck:1 external_link:1 computational_chemistry:1

Electronic_musical_instrument

An electronic musical instrument is a musical instrument that produces its sounds using electronics. In contrast, the term electric instrument is used to mean instruments whose sound is produced mechanically, and only amplified or altered electronically - for example an electric guitar. An electronic instrument may include a user interface for controlling its sound, often by adjusting the pitch, frequency, or duration of each note. However, it is increasingly common for the user interface and sound-generating functions to be separated into a music controller (input device) and a music synthesizer, respectively, with the two devices communicating through a musical performance description language such as MIDI or OSC. All electric and electronic musical instruments can be viewed as a subset of audio signal processing applications. Simple electronic musical instruments are sometimes called sound effects; the border between sound effects and actual musical instruments is often hazy. French composer and engineer Edgard Varèse created a variety of compositions using electronic horns, whistles, and tape. Most notably, he wrote Poème Électronique for the Phillips pavilion at the Brussels World Fair in 1958. Electronic musical instruments are now widely used in most styles of music. The development of new electronic musical instruments, controllers, and synthesizers continues to be a highly active and interdisciplinary field of research. Specialized conferences, notably the International Conference on New interfaces for musical expression, have organized to report cutting edge work, as well as to provide a showcase for artists who perform or create music with new electronic music instruments, controllers, and synthesizers. Early electronic musical instruments Emergence of recording and electronic technologies The ability to record sounds is not absolutely necessary for production of electronic music, but is certainly very useful. In the 18th-century, a number of acoustic instruments were adapted by composers in order to exploit the novelty of electricity. Thus, in the broadest sense, the first electrified musical instrument was the Denis d'or, dating from 1753, followed shortly by the Clavecin électrique by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste de Laborde in 1761. The former instrument consisted of a keyboard instrument of over 700 strings, electrified temporarily in order to enhance the instrument's sonic qualities. The later was a keyboard instrument the plectra of which were activated by electric circuitry. In 1878, Thomas A. Edison patented the phonograph, which used cylinders similar to Scott's device. Although cylinders continued in use for some time, Emile Berliner developed the disc phonograph in 1887. Russcol 1972, 67. A significant invention, which was later to have a profound effect on electronic music, was Lee DeForest's triode audion. This was the first thermionic valve, or vacuum tube, invented in 1906, which led to the generation and amplification of electrical signals, radio broadcastng, and electronic computation, amongst other things. Telharmonium Telharmonium console by Thaddeus Cahill 1897 The Telharmonium was the first music synthesizer. In 1897 Thaddeus Cahill patented an instrument called the Telharmonium (or Teleharmonium, also known as the Dynamaphone). Using tonewheels to generate musical sounds as electrical signals by additive synthesis, it was capable of producing any combination of notes and overtones, at any dynamic level. This technology was later used to design the Hammond organ. Between 1901 and 1910 Cahill had three progressively larger and more complex versions made, the first weighing seven tons, the last in excess of 200 tons. Portability was managed only by rail and with the use of thirty boxcars. By 1912, public interest had waned, and Cahill's enterprise was bankrupt. Weidenaar 1995. Theremin Another development, which aroused the interest of many composers, occurred in 1919-1920. In Leningrad, Leon Theremin (actually Lev Termen) built and demonstrated his Etherophone, which was later renamed the Theremin. This led to the first compositions for electronic instruments, as opposed to noisemakers and re-purposed machines. Composers who ultimately utilized the Theremin included Varèse—in his piece Ecuatorial (1934)—while conductor Leopold Stokowski experimented with its use in arrangements from the classical repertory. In 1929, Joseph Schillinger composed First Airphonic Suite for Theremin and Orchestra, premièred with the Cleveland Orchestra with Leon Theremin as soloist. The next year Henry Cowell commissioned Theremin to create the first electronic rhythm machine, called the Rhythmicon. Cowell wrote some compositions for it, and he and Schillinger premiered it in 1932. Ondes Martenot Ondes Martenot created by Maurice Martenot, 1928 The 1920s have been called the apex of the Mechanical Age and the dawning of the Electrical Age. In 1922, in Paris, Darius Milhaud began experiments with "vocal transformation by phonograph speed change." Russcol 1972, 68. These continued until 1927. This decade brought a wealth of early electronic instruments—along with the Theremin—, there is the presentation of the Ondes Martenot, which was designed to reproduce the microtonal sounds found in Hindu music, and the Trautonium. Maurice Martenot invented the Ondes Martenot in 1928, and soon demonstrated it in Paris. Composers using the instrument ultimately include Boulez, Honneger, Jolivet, Koechlin, Messiaen, Milhaud, Tremblay, and Varèse. In 1937, Messiaen wrote Fête des belles eaux for 6 ondes Martenot, and wrote solo parts for it in Trois petites Liturgies de la Présence Divine (1943–44) and the Turangalîla-Symphonie (1946–48/90). Trautonium Mixtur-Trautonium, 1928 (revised 1952) The Trautonium was invented in 1928. It was based on the subharmonic scale, and the resulting sounds were often used to emulate bell or gong sounds, as in the 1950s Bayreuth productions of Parsifal. In 1942, Richard Strauss used it for the bell- and gong-part in the Dresden première of his Japanese Festival Music. This new class of instruments, microtonal by nature, was only adopted slowly by composers at first, but by the early 1930s there was a burst of new works incorporating these and other electronic instruments. Hammond In 1929 Laurens Hammond established his company for the manufacture of electronic instruments. He went on to produce the Hammond organ, which was based on the principals of the Telharmonium, along with other developments including early reverberation units. Russcol 1972, 70. Synthesizers The most commonly used electronic instruments are synthesizers, so-called because they artificially generate sound using techniques such as additive, subtractive, FM and physical modelling synthesis to create sounds. Dr. Robert Moog introduced the first practical commercial modern music synthesizer with his Moog synthesizer. This instrument used a series of tone generators with keys that would adjust the tone generators' pitch. Moog resolved to design and sell Theremins to gain enough money to engineer this synthesizer. The first digital synthesizers were academic experiments in sound synthesis using digital computers. FM synthesis was developed for this purpose, as a way of generating complex sounds digitally with the smallest number of computational operations per sound sample. First electronic sound synthesizer In 1935, another significant development was made in Germany. Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft (AEG) demonstrated the first commercially produced magnetic tape recorder, called the "Magnetophon". Audio tape, which had the advantage of being fairly light as well as having good audio fidelity, ultimately replaced the bulkier wire recorders. According to Dictionary.com Unabridged, the term "electronic music" (which, as defined in 2006 includes the tape recorder as an essential element: "electronically produced sounds recorded on tape and arranged by the composer to form a musical composition") first came into use during the 1930s "Electronic music": Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. (accessed: August 19, 2007) Clavivox in 1956 an important technological development was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog. RCA Synthesizer The RCA Mark II The RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer was the first programmable electronic music synthesizer and the flagship piece of equipment at the Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center. Designed by Herbert Belar and Harry Olson at RCA, it was installed at Columbia University in 1957. Consisting of a room-sized array of interconnected sound synthesis components, much of the design of the machine was contributed by Vladimir Ussachevsky and Peter Mauzey. Mini-Moog Robert Moog In 1970, Charles Wuorinen composed Time's Encomium, the first Pulitzer Prize winner for an entirely electronic composition. Also in the 1970s, the Mini-Moog was created. This was a small, integrated synthesizer that made analog synthesis easily available and affordable and became the most widely used synthesizer in both popular and electronic art music. Synclavier Jon Appleton (with Jones and Alonso) invented the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer, later to become the New England Digital Copt's Synclavier. Barry Vercoe wrote Music 11, a next-generation music synthesis program (later evolving into csound, which is still widely used). In 1983, Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the DX-7. It used frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis), first experimented with by John Chowning at Stanford during the late sixties. Chowning, 1973. Sound sequencer These short few months were some of the most exciting in music history and technology, and the profundity of it was recognized at the time. It seems doubtful that electroacoustic music ever received such a wide audience again, unless one includes televised concerts by latter day rock and jazz fusion groups. Others were certainly active exploring new technology also. In that same year, 1951, former jazz composer Raymond Scott invented the first sequencer, which consisted of hundreds of switches controlling stepping relays, timing solenoids, tone circuits and 16 individual oscillators. Computer music An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. Iannis Xenakis began what is called "musique stochastique," or "stochastic music," which is a method of composing that employs mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used graph paper and a ruler to aid in calculating the velocity trajectories of glissandi for his orchestral composition Metastasis (1953–54), but later turned to the use of computers to compose pieces like ST/4 for string quartet and ST/48 for orchestra (both 1962). The impact of computers continued in 1956. Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson composed Iliac Suite for string quartet, the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using algorithmic composition. Schwartz 1975, 347. Hardware hacking It was within this period (1966-67) that Reed Ghazala discovered and began to teach "circuit bending"—the application of the creative short circuit, a process of chance short-circuiting, creating experimental electronic instruments, exploring sonic elements mainly of timbre and with less regard to pitch or rhythm, and influenced by John Cage’s aleatoric music concept. MIDI technology In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface by which new instruments could communicate control instructions with other instruments and the prevalent microcomputer. This standard was dubbed MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface). A paper was authored by Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits and proposed to the Audio Engineering Society in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized. The advent of MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer to activate every device in the studio remotely and in synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer. MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via sampling and sampled-ROM-based instruments. Miller Puckette developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called Max (after Max Mathews) and later ported it to Macintosh (with Dave Zicarelli extending it for Opcode Max at Opcode ) for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background. Modern electronic musical instruments The increasing power and decreasing cost of sound-generating electronics (and especially of the personal computer), combined with the standardization of the MIDI and OSC musical performance description languages, has facilitated the separation of musical instruments into music controllers and music synthesizers. By far the most common musical controller is the musical keyboard. Other controllers include the radiodrum, Akai's EWI, the guitar-like SynthAxe, the BodySynth, the Buchla Thunder, the Continuum Fingerboard, the Roland Octapad, various isomorphic keyboards including the Thummer, and kits like I-CubeX. The reactable The reactable is a round translucent table, used in a darkened room, and appears as a backlit display. By placing blocks called tangibles on the table, and interfacing with the visual display via the tangibles or fingertips, a virtual modular synthesizer is operated, creating music or sound effects. See also Electronic music Drum machine References External links 120 Years of Electronic Music History of Electronic Music Tons of Tones !! : Site with technical data on Electronic Modelling of Musical Tones

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Korean_War

The Korean War refers to a period of military conflict between North Korea (officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea) and South Korea (officially the Republic of Korea) with major hostilities beginning on June 25, 1950, pausing with an armistice signed on July 27, 1953. North Korea has since unilaterally withdrawn from that armistice, having announced its intent to do so on May 27, 2009. http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5goGcm6AL4tHyTt3gp1PUV6rNu9fA The conflict arose from the attempts of the two Korean powers to re-unify Korea under their respective governments. The period immediately before the war was marked by escalating border conflicts at the 38th Parallel and attempts to negotiate elections for the entirety of Korea. These negotiations ended when the North Korean Army invaded the South on June 25, 1950. Under the aegis of the United Nations, nations allied with the United States intervened on behalf of South Korea. After rapid advances in a South Korean counterattack, North-allied Chinese forces intervened on behalf of North Korea, shifting the balance of the war and ultimately leading to an armistice that approximately restored the original boundaries between North and South Korea. While some have referred to the conflict as a civil war, many other factors were at play. Each side was supported by external powers and the conflict expanded, becoming a proxy war in the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The term has also been used to describe both the events preceding and following the main hostilities. Name of the conflict In South Korea, the war is often called 6·25 or 6·25 War (), from the date of the start of the conflict or, more formally, Hanguk jeonjaeng (Hangul: 한국전쟁; Hanja: 韓國戰爭, literally "Korean War"). In North Korea, while commonly known as the Korean War, it is formally called the Joguk haebang jeonjaeng or Fatherland Liberation War (Hangul: 조국해방전쟁; Hanja: 祖國解放戰爭). In the United States, the conflict was officially termed a police action — the Korean Conflict — rather than a war, largely in order to avoid the necessity of a declaration of war by the U.S. Congress. The war is sometimes called The Forgotten War or The Unknown War because it is a major conflict of the 20th century that gets far less attention than World War II, which preceded it, and the Vietnam War, which succeeded it. The war was a unique combination of the techniques utilized in both World War I and World War II, beginning with swift, fast-paced infantry advances following well-choreographed bombing raids from the air by the American military and its UN allies. However, following both sides' failures at holding the land captured, battles quickly evolved into World War I-type trench warfare in January 1951, lasting until the essential border stalemate at the end. In China, the conflict was known as the War to Resist America and Aid Korea (抗美援朝), but is today commonly called the "Korean War" (朝鮮 戰爭 Chaoxian zhanzheng, 韓國戰爭 Hanguo zhanzheng, or simply 韓戰 Hanzhan). Japanese rule Korea had been a unified country since the 6th century. In 1895, Japan defeated China in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1894–5, and their Japanese forces remained in Korea, occupying strategically important parts of the country. To Japan, a late arriving player in the game of great powers, Korea seemed a natural fit in their sphere of influence. Ten years later, the Japanese defeated the Russian navy in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–5), contributing to Japan's emergence as an imperial power. Following the end of the Russo-Japanese War, the Japanese declared Korea was their protectorate and expanded their control over local institutions despite Korean opposition. In August 1910, a treaty of Annexation was signed. While Korean nationalists from both North and South Korea have their own versions of life under Japanese rule, it was clear that Japanese policies were harsh. Educated Koreans and nationalists were all endangered and most fled. The harshness intensified as Japan became increasingly militant in the 1930s; Korean and its literature were banned from schools and conscription began in 1938. During the Second World War, 2.6 million Koreans were conscripted for forced labour (in addition to the kidnapped "Comfort Women"). Japan, especially as the American submarine campaign intensified, stripped out all livestock, rice stocks, and metal–causing much hardship. R. Whelan "Drawing the Line: the Korean War 1950–53; London, 1990. At the close of World War II, forces of both the Soviet Union and the United States occupied the peninsula in accordance with an agreement put forth by the United States government to divide the Korean peninsula. This decision, which was made without consultation of the Korean people, was made by then Colonel Dean Rusk and Army officer Charles Bonesteel. The Soviet forces entered the peninsula on August 10, 1945 and remained north of the 38th parallel waiting for the US forces to arrive. A few weeks later, the American forces entered through Incheon led by U.S. Army Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge and formally accepted the surrender of Japanese forces south of the 38th parallel on September 9, 1945 at Government House in Seoul. At the end of the Second World War Korea was under-developed industrially and in terms of infrastructure, and famine was widespread as a result of Japanese confiscation of food-stocks. Further worsening Korea's situation, few qualified Korean administrative personnel remained. Division of Korea Though the eventual division of Korea was considered at the Potsdam Conference, the wishes of the Korean people to be free of foreign interference were not considered. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had stated a determination for Korean independence and freedom at the Cairo Conference. During the earlier Yalta Conference in February 1945, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin called for “buffer zones” in both Asia and Europe. Stalin believed that Russia should have preeminence in China, and the US requested that the USSR join in the war against Japan “three months after the surrender of Germany.” On August 6, 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on the Japanese Empire and, on August 8, it began the liberation on the northern part of the Korean peninsula. As agreed with the United States, the USSR halted its troops at the 38th parallel on August 26. However, on September 3, Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge, commander of XXIV Corps and designated U.S. Commander in Korea, received a radio message from Lt. Gen. Yoshio Kozuki, commander of the Japanese 17th Area Army in Korea, reporting that Soviet forces had advanced south of the 38th parallel only in the Kaesong area. Hodge decided to trust the Japanese reports of events in Korea. U.S. troops arrived in the southern part of the peninsula in early September 1945. On August 10, 1945, with the Japanese surrender imminent, the American government was unsure whether the Soviets would adhere to the proposal arranged by the U.S. government. A month earlier, Colonels Dean Rusk and Charles Bonesteel, after deciding in their 1/2 hour session that at least two major ports should be included in the U.S. zone, had drawn the dividing line at the 38th parallel using a National Geographic map for reference. Rusk, later U.S. Secretary of State, commented that the American military was “faced with the scarcity of U.S. forces immediately available and time and space factors which would make it difficult to reach very far north before Soviet troops could enter the area.” The USSR agreed to the 38th parallel being the demarcation between occupation zones in the Korean peninsula, partly to better their position in the negotiations with the Allies over eastern Europe. It was agreed that the USSR would receive surrendering Japanese troops on the northern part of Korea; the U.S., on the southern side. The Soviet forces entered and liberated the northern part of the peninsula weeks prior to the entry of American forces. In accordance with the arrangements made with the American government, the Soviet forces halted their advance at the 38th parallel. The American forces arrived in Korea in early September. One of Hodge’s first directives was to restore many Japanese colonial administrators and collaborators to their previous positions of power within Korea. This policy was understandably very unpopular among Koreans who had suffered horribly under Japanese colonial rule for 35 years, and would prove to have enormous consequences for the American occupation. A second policy set forth by Hodge was to refuse to recognize the existing political organizations that had been established by the Korean people. Hodge sought to establish firm U.S. control over events throughout the southern half of the peninsula. These policies would help give rise to the later insurrections and guerrilla warfare that preceded the outbreak of the civil war. In December 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to administer the country under the U.S.-Soviet Joint Commission, as termed by the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers. It was agreed by the US and the USSR, but not the Koreans, that Korea would govern itself independently after five years of international oversight. However, both the U.S. and the USSR approved Korean-led governments in their respective halves, each of which were favorable to the occupying power’s political ideology. Some elements of the population responded with violent insurrections and protests in the South. The USAMGIK tried to contain civil violence by banning strikes on December 8 and outlawing the revolutionary government and the people's committees on December 12. Events spiraled quickly out of US control, however, when Koreans staged a massive strike on September 23, 1946 by 8,000 railway workers in Busan which quickly spread to other cities in the South. The Daegu uprising occurred on October 1, in which police attempts to control rioters caused the death of three student demonstrators and injuries to many others, sparking a mass counter-attack killing 38 policemen. It should be noted that at this time, the vast majority of members of the South Korean police force officers had been members of the Japanese police force during the colonial period. When the US forces sided with these former collaborators, it discredited the US in the eyes of many Koreans. Over in Yeongcheon, a police station came under attack by a 10,000-strong crowd on October 3, killing over 40 policemen and the county chief. Other attacks killed about 20 landlords and pro-Japanese officials. In South Korea, an anti-trusteeship right wing group known as the Representative Democratic Council emerged, this group came to oppose these U.S. sponsored agreements. Because Koreans had suffered under Japanese colonization for 35 years, most Koreans opposed another period of foreign control. This opposition caused the U.S. to abandon the Soviet-supported Moscow Accords. The Americans did not want a communist government in South Korea, so they called for elections in all of Korea, but the Soviets opposed this idea. The government that emerged was led by anti-communist U.S.-educated strongman Syngman Rhee, a Korean who had been imprisoned by the Japanese as a young man and later fled to the United States. The Soviets, in turn, approved and furthered the rise of a Communist government in the North. Bolstered by his history as an anti-Japanese fighter, his political skills, and his connections with the Soviet Union, Kim Il-sung rose to become leader of this new government and crushed any opposition to his rule by the summer of 1947. In the south, those who supported Communism were driven into hiding in the hills, where they prepared for a guerrilla war against the American-supported government. South Korean President Syngman Rhee and North Korean General Secretary Kim Il-Sung were each intent on reuniting the peninsula under his own system. Partly because of numbers of Soviet tanks and heavy arms, the North Koreans were able to escalate ongoing border clashes and go on the offensive, while South Korea, with only limited American backing, had far fewer options. The American government believed at the time that the Communist bloc was a unified monolith, and that North Korea acted within this monolith as a pawn of the Soviet Union. Course Invasion of South Korea In a little known event prior to the start of the Korean War, a CIA officer named Douglas MacKiernan stationed in China gathered intelligence that predicted the war. MacKiernan had volunteered to stay in China when all other diplomats had left the country. He gathered valuable intelligence on the intent of the North Koreans and their ally the Chinese. He and his local CIA trained security were forced to flee and they spent months trying to get over the Himalayas on horse back. MacKiernan was killed within miles of the Tibetian town of Lhasa. His men did make it with this valuable information and they turned it over to the US officials there. The North Koreans crossed the 38th parallel 13 days later. MacKiernan posthumously received the CIA's award for valor, the coveted Intelligence Star, for his actions. Gup, Ted (2000). The Book of Honor: Cover Lives and Classified Deaths at the CIA. Under the guise of a counter-attack, the North Korean Army struck in the pre-dawn hours of Sunday, June 25, 1950, crossing the 38th parallel behind a firestorm of artillery. The North claimed Republic of Korea Army (ROK) troops under the “bandit traitor Syngman Rhee" had crossed the border first, and that Rhee would be arrested and executed. While certainly true that both Southern and Northern militaries had for the past year exchanged gunfire and crossed over the 38th parallel, the attack on June 25 was considered by some nations to be an extension of the North's plan to unify the country and not a direct result of a particular attack from the South. The United Nations Security Council was convened in a few hours and passed the UNSC Resolution 82 condemning the North Korean aggression unanimously. The resolution was adopted mainly because the Soviet Union, a veto-wielding power, had been boycotting proceedings since January, in protest that the Republic of China (Taiwan) and not the People's Republic of China held a permanent seat on the council. President Truman had made a statement on June 27, 1950 ordering the United States air and sea forces to give the South Korean regime support. While the United Nations Security Council was convened and had been debating the issue from the invasion forward it only issued Resolution 83 on June 27 which definitively recommended member-states militarily assist the Republic of Korea. The Soviet Union's foreign minister accused the United States of starting armed intervention on behalf of the Republic of Korea before the Security Council was summoned to meet on June 27, and confronting the UN with a fait accompli. Statement by the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, July 4, 1950 Critics charged that the information on this resolution was based on U.S. sources referring to reports of the South Korean army. The DPRK was not invited to sit as a temporary member in the UN which some say violated Article 32 of the UN Charter. It was argued that the situation in Korea did not fall within the scope of the UN Charter since the initial clashes between North and South Korean forces would have to be classified as a civil war. Since the USSR representative decided to boycott the United Nations with the announced purpose of preventing action by the Security Council, the legality of UN action was challenged; legal scholars argued that unanimity among the five permanent members was required to take action on important matters. Leo Gross, "Voting in the Security Council: Abstention from Voting and Absence from Meetings", The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 60, No. 2 (Feb., 1951), pp. 209–57. F. B. Schick, "Videant Consules", The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Sep., 1950), pp. 311–25. At the outbreak of war, the North Korean Army was equipped with 274 Type 58 tanks, about 150 YAK fighters, 110 attack bombers, 200 artillery pieces, 78 YAK trainers and 35 reconnaissance planes. Around 231,000 North Korean soldiers invaded South Korea. These forces were assigned to the invasion while 114 more fighters, 78 bombers, 105 Type 58 tanks, and 30,000 were stationed in North Korea. Their navy had several small warships, and launched attacks on the South Korean Navy. North Korea's logistics system was able to quickly move supplies south as the army advanced. Thousands of Korean civilians running south were forced to hand-carry supplies, many of whom later died in North Korean air attacks. According to Roy E. Appleman in "South to the Naktong - North to the Yalu", the South Korean Army had 98,000 soldiers of whom only 65,000 were combat troops. Unlike their northern opponents the South Korean military had no tanks at all, and the South Korean air force consisted of a mere 12 liaison-type aircraft and 10 advance trainers (AT6). There were no large foreign combat units in the country when the war began, but there were large American forces stationed in nearby Japan. The North's well-planned attack with about 231,000 troops achieved surprise and quick successes. North Korea attacked a number of key places including Kaesŏng, Chuncheon, Uijeongbu and Ongjin. Within days, South Korean forces, often of dubious loyalty to the Southern regime, were in full retreat or defecting en masse to the North. As the ground attack continued, the North Korean Air Force conducted bombing of Kimpo Airport near Seoul. North Korean forces occupied Seoul on the afternoon of June 28. An air battle took place over the city in which 37 South Korean fighters were shot down while only 9 North Korean fighters were downed. Two days later, the largest battle between only North and South Korean forces happened. The North Koreans destroyed 89 tanks, 76 artillery pieces, 19 bombers, and 21 fighters. South Korean casualties were 7,000, while 16,000 were captured. Many of these South Koreans later fought for North Korea. Many South Koreans deserted after the battle. However, North Korea's hope for a quick surrender by the Rhee government and the reunification of the peninsula evaporated when the United States and other foreign powers intervened with UN approval. U.S. intervention Gen. Douglas MacArthur (center), Commander in Chief of U.N. Forces observes the shelling of Incheon from the USS Mt. McKinley, September 15, 1950. American soldiers in Korea Korean girl trudges by a stalled M-26 Tank A grief stricken American infantryman whose buddy has been killed in action is comforted by another soldier. Near Song Sil-li, Korea, a tank of 6th Tank Bn. fires on enemy positions in support of the 19th RCT. January 10, 1952. Despite the post-World War II demobilization of U.S. and allied forces, which caused serious supply problems for American troops in the region, the United States still had substantial forces in Japan to oppose the North Korean military. These American forces were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Apart from British Commonwealth units, no other nation could supply sizable manpower. On Saturday June 24, President Harry S. Truman received an emergency phone call from Secretary of State Dean Acheson informing him that the forces of the Communist government of North Korea had crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded the American-backed South Korea. Hess, Gary R. Presidential Decisions for War : Korea, Vietnam and the Persian Gulf. New York: Johns Hopkins UP, 2001. Truman and Acheson began extensive discussions of the unfolding events and assembled a meeting of top state and defense department officials. The officials shared a conviction that the United States was obligated to respond to blatant acts of aggression. Graebner, Norman A. The Age of Global Power: The United States Since 1939. Vol. V3641. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1979. The group drew parallels with Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s and believed that the mistakes of appeasement could not be repeated. President Truman recognized the situation as critically relevant to the global containment of communism: American intentions were announced as President Truman issued, in his first public statement concerning the fighting, that the United States Government would counter "unprovoked aggression" and "vigorously support the effort of the security council to terminate this serious breach of peace". Hess, Gary R. Presidential Decisions for War : Korea, Vietnam and the Persian Gulf. New York: Johns Hopkins UP, 2001. In Congress, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Omar Bradley, spoke out against "appeasement" and declared that Korea was as good a place as any "for drawing the line" against Communist expansion. Truman and Acheson then prepared Congress to appropriate funds for additional military expenses essential to the goals of NSC-68 and in August 1950, $12 billion for military expenses in Asia was authorized. Hess, Gary R. Presidential Decisions for War : Korea, Vietnam and the Persian Gulf. New York: Johns Hopkins UP, 2001 Upon the recommendation of Acheson, U.S. President Truman then ordered MacArthur to transfer ammunition, arms and equipment to the ROK Army while using air cover to protect the evacuation of U.S. citizens. Truman did not agree with his advisors, who called for unilateral U.S. airstrikes against the North Korean forces, but did order the Seventh Fleet to protect Chiang Kai-Shek's Taiwan. The Nationalist government (confined to the island of Taiwan) asked to participate in the war. Their request was denied by the Americans who felt that it would only encourage intervention by the People's Republic of China (PRC). Korea: The Limited War|Rees|David |1964|MacMillan|London|p. 27 The first significant foreign military intervention was the American Task Force Smith, part of the U.S. Army's 24th Infantry Division based in Japan. On July 5, it fought for the first time at Osan and was immediately defeated with 1,416 casualties and 785 taken prisoner. The victorious North Korean forces advanced southwards, and the 24th Division was forced to retreat to Taejeon, which also fell to the Northern forces. There were 3,602 casualties and 2,962 soldiers taken prisoner, along with Major General William F. Dean, commander of the division. 18 American fighters were shot down in this battle compared to five North Korean fighters. 29 U.S. bombers were shot down by North Korean fighters and anti-aircraft fire in these actions. By August, the South Korean forces and the U.S. Eighth Army under General Walton Walker had been driven back into a small area in the southeast corner of the Korean peninsula around the city of Pusan. As the North Koreans advanced, they rounded up and killed civil servants. On August 20, MacArthur sent a message warning Kim Il Sung that he would be held responsible for further atrocities committed against UN troops. By September, only the area around Pusan—about 10 percent of the Korean peninsula—was still in coalition hands. With the aid of massive American supplies, naval and air support, as well as ground reinforcements, the UN forces managed to stabilize a line along the Nakdong River. This desperate holding action became known in the United States as the Pusan Perimeter. Escalation of the Korean war U.S. forces target rail cars south of Wonsan, North Korea, an east coast port city. In the face of fierce North Korean attacks, the allied defense became a desperate battle called the Battle of Pusan Perimeter by Americans. However, the North Koreans failed to capture Pusan. American air power arrived in force, flying 40 sorties per day in ground support actions Strategic bombers (mostly B-29s based in Japan) closed most rail and road traffic by day, and destroyed 32 critical bridges necessary for the conduct of warfare. Trains used by military and civilians alike waited out the daylight hours in tunnels. Throughout all parts of Korea, the American bombers knocked out the main supply dumps and eliminated oil refineries and seaports that handled imports. The bombing was designed to starve North Korean forces of ammunition and other martial supplies. Naval air power also attacked transportation choke points. The North Korean forces were already strung out over the peninsula, and the destruction caused by American bombers prevented needed supplies from reaching North Korean forces in the south. Meanwhile, supply bases in Japan were pouring weapons and soldiers into Pusan. American tank battalions were rushed in from San Francisco; by late August, America had over 500 medium tanks in the Pusan perimeter. By early September, UN-ROK forces were decidedly more powerful and outnumbered the North Koreans by 180,000 to 100,000. At that point, they began a counterattack. South Korean and allied forces move north In the face of these overwhelming reinforcements, the North Korean forces found themselves undermanned and with weak logistical support. They also lacked the substantial naval and air support of the Americans. In order to alleviate pressure on the Pusan Perimeter, General MacArthur, as UN commander-in-chief for Korea, argued for an amphibious landing far behind the North Korean lines at Incheon. The violent tides and strong enemy presence made this an extremely risky operation. MacArthur had started planning a few days after the war began, but he had been strongly opposed by the Pentagon. When he finally received permission, MacArthur activated the X Corps under General Edward Almond (comprising 70,000 troops of the 1st Marine Division and the Army's 7th Infantry Division and augmented by 8,600 Korean troops) and ordered them to land at Incheon in Operation Chromite. By the time of the attack on September 15, thanks to reconnaissance by guerrillas, misinformation and extensive shelling prior to the invasion, the North Korean military had few soldiers stationed in Incheon, so the U.S. forces met only light resistance when they landed, though extensive shelling and bombing destroyed much of the city. The landing was a decisive victory, as X Corps rolled over the few defenders and threatened to trap the main North Korean army. MacArthur quickly recaptured Seoul. The North Koreans, almost cut off, rapidly retreated northwards; about 25,000 to 30,000 made it back. Invasion of North Korea The United Nations troops drove the North Koreans back past the 38th parallel. Urban combat in Seoul, 1950, as U.S. Marines fight North Koreans holding the city The UN forces crossed into North Korea in early October 1950. The U.S. X Corps made amphibious landings at Wonsan and Iwon, which had already been captured by South Korean forces advancing by land. The Eighth U.S. Army, along with the South Koreans, drove up the western side of Korea and captured Pyongyang on October 19. By the end of October, the North Korean Army was rapidly disintegrating, and the UN took 135,000 prisoners. The UN offensive greatly concerned the Chinese, who worried that the UN forces would not stop at the Yalu River, the border between North Korea and China, and might extend their rollback policy into China. Many in the West, including General MacArthur, thought that spreading the war to China would be necessary and that since North Korean troops were being supplied by bases in China, those supply depots should be bombed. However, Truman and the other leaders disagreed, and MacArthur was ordered to be very cautious when approaching the Chinese border. Chinese intervention On June 27, 1950, before China entered the conflict, President Truman ordered the 7th Fleet to enter the Taiwan Straits, in order to protect Taiwan from Chinese Communist forces. http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/20th/korea.html The PRC warned American leaders through neutral diplomats that it would intervene to protect its national security. Truman regarded the warnings as “a bald attempt to blackmail the U.N.” and did not take it seriously. Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953, p. 390, Published 2002 Stanford University Press, ISBN 0804747741. The PRC Government argued that in making Japan its main war base in the Far East, launching an invasion against Korea and the Chinese province of Taiwan, and carrying out active intervention in other countries in Asia, the United States was building up a military encirclement of China. Yearbook of the United Nations, 1950. The PRC Government reported that prior to China's entry in the Korean conflict, the United States violated Chinese airspace, bombing peaceful towns and villages. Communist China's Changing Attitudes Toward the United Nations, International Organization, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Autumn, 1966), pp. 677–704. On October 15, 1950, Truman went to Wake Island for a short, highly publicized meeting with MacArthur. MacArthur, saying he was speculating, saw little risk. MacArthur explained that the Chinese had lost their window of opportunity to help North Korea's invasion. He estimated the Chinese had 300,000 soldiers in Manchuria, with between 100,000-125,000 men along the Yalu; half could be brought across the Yalu. But the Chinese had no air force; hence, “if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang, there would be the greatest slaughter.” U.S. soldiers fire a 105 mm howitzer in an indirect fire mission on the Korean battle line, near Uirson in August 1950. Men of the 1st Marine Division capture Chinese soldiers during fighting on the central Korean front. Hoengsong, March 2, 1951. On October 8, 1950, the day after American troops crossed the 38th parallel, Chairman Mao Zedong issued the order to assemble the Chinese People's Volunteer Army. Seventy percent of the members of the PVA were Chinese regulars from the Chinese People's Liberation Army. Mao ordered the army to move to the Yalu River, ready to cross. Mao sought Soviet aid and saw intervention as defensive of the broader revolutionary situation in Asia: “If we allow the United States to occupy all of Korea, Korean revolutionary power will suffer a fundamental defeat, and the American invaders will run more rampant, and have negative effects for the entire Far East.” he told Stalin. Premier Zhou Enlai was sent to Moscow to add force to Mao's cabled arguments. Mao delayed while waiting for substantial Soviet help, postponing the planned attack from October 13 to October 19. However, Soviet assistance was limited to providing air support no nearer than sixty miles (100 km) from the battlefront. The Soviet MiG-15s in PRC colors did pose a serious challenge to UN pilots. In one area, nicknamed “MiG Alley” by UN forces, they held local air superiority against the American-made Lockheed F-80 Shooting Stars until the newer North American F-86 Sabres were deployed. The Chinese were angry at the limited extent of Soviet involvement, having assumed that they had been promised full scale air support. The Chinese made contact with American troops on November 1, 1950. Thousands of Chinese had attacked from the north, northwest, and west against scattered U.S. and South Korean (Republic of Korea or ROK) units moving deep into North Korea. The Chinese seemed to come out of nowhere as they swarmed around the flanks and over the defensive positions of the surprised United Nations (UN) troops. The Chinese march and bivouac discipline also minimized any possible detection. In a well-documented instance, a Chinese army of three divisions marched on foot from An-tung in Manchuria, on the north side of the Yalu River, 286 miles (460 km) to its assembly area in North Korea, in the combat zone, in a period ranging from 16 to 19 days. One division of this army, marching at night over circuitous mountain roads, averaged 18 miles (29 km) per day for 18 days. The day's march began after dark at 19:00 and ended at 03:00 the next morning. Defense measures against aircraft were to be completed before 05:30. Every man, animal, and piece of equipment were to be concealed and camouflaged. During daylight, bivouac scouting parties moved ahead to select the next day's bivouac area. When Chinese units were compelled for any reason to march by day, they were under standing orders for every man to stop in his tracks and remain motionless if aircraft appeared overhead. Officers were empowered to shoot any man who violated this order. Map of the Battle of Chosin Reservoir In late November, the Chinese struck in the west, along the Chongchon River, and completely overran several South Korean divisions and successfully landed a heavy blow to the flank of the remaining UN forces. The ensuing defeat of the U.S. Eighth Army resulted in the longest retreat of any American military unit in history. Mostly because of the successful but very costly rear-guard action by the Turkish Brigade at Kunuri during November 26 to 30th, which slowed the Chinese onslaught by 3–4 days, the U.S. 8th Army escaped complete annihilation by the Chinese. In the east, at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir, a 3,000 man Regimental Combat Team from the U.S. 7th Infantry Division and a 12,000 to 15,000 man division of the U.S. Marine Corps was also unprepared for the Chinese tactics and was soon surrounded, though they eventually managed to escape the encirclement, albeit with over 15,000 casualties from the two units and the other of X Corps units which were providing covering and supporting fire. While the Chinese soldiers initially lacked heavy fire support and light infantry weapons, their tactics quickly adapted to this disadvantage, as explained by Bevin Alexander in his book How Wars Are Won: Roy Appleman further clarified the initial Chinese tactics as: The U.S. forces in northeast Korea, who had rushed forward with great speed only a few months earlier, were forced to race southwards with even greater speed and form a defensive perimeter around the port city of Hungnam, where a major evacuation was carried out in late December 1950. Facing complete defeat and surrender, 193 shiploads of American men and material were evacuated from Hungnam Harbor, and about 105,000 soldiers, 98,000 civilians, 17,500 vehicles, and 350,000 tons of supplies were shipped to Pusan in orderly fashion. As they left, the American forces blew up large portions of the city to deny its use to the communists, depriving many Korean civilians of shelter during the winter. Aftermath of Chosin Battle-Operation Glory Following the conflict, the United Nations troop casualties were buried at a temporary gravesite near Hŭngnam. Operation Glory occurred from July to November 1954, during which the dead of each side were exchanged; remains of 4,167 U.S. soldiers and marines were exchanged for 13,528 North Korean and Chinese dead. In addition, 546 civilians who died in United Nations prisoner of war camps were turned over to the South Korean government. After "Operation Glory" 416 Korean War "unknowns" were buried in the Punchbowl Cemetery. According to a DPMO white paper 1,394 names were also transmitted during "Operation Glory" from the Chinese and North Koreans (of which 858 names proved to be correct); of the 4,167 returned remains were found to be 4,219 individuals of whom 2,944 were found to be Americans of whom all but 416 were identified by name. Of 239 Korean War casualties unaccounted for: 186 not associated with Punchbowl unknowns (176 were identified and of the remaining 10 cases 4 were non-Americans of Asiatic descent; one was British; 3 were identified and 2 cases unconfirmed). In 1990-1994 North Korea excavated and returned more than 200 sets of remains-very few have been identified because of co-mingling of remains. JPAC Wars And Conflicts From 1996 to 2006 220 remains were recovered from near the Chinese border. Remains from Korea identified as Ind. soldier - Army News, opinions, editorials, news from Iraq, photos, reports - Army Times Fighting across the 38th Parallel (early 1951) B-26 Invaders bomb supply warehouses in Wonsan, North Korea, 1951. In January 1951, the Chinese and North Korean forces struck again in their 3rd Phase Offensive (also known as the Chinese Winter Offensive). The Chinese repeated their previous tactics of mostly night attacks, with a stealthy approach from positions some distance from the front, followed by a rush with overwhelming numbers, and using trumpets or gongs both for communication and to disorient their foes. Against this the UN forces had no remedy, and their resistance crumbled; they retreated rapidly to the south (referred to by UN forces as the “bug-out”). Seoul was abandoned and was captured by communist forces on January 4, 1951. To add to the Eighth Army's difficulties, General Walker was killed in an accident. He was replaced by a World War II airborne veteran, Lieutenant-General Matthew Ridgway, who took immediate steps to raise the morale and fighting spirit of the battered Eighth Army, which had fallen to low levels during its retreat. Nevertheless, the situation was so grim that MacArthur mentioned the use of atomic weapons against China, much to the alarm of America's allies. UN forces continued to retreat until they had reached a line south of Suwon in the west and Wonju in the center, and north of Samchok in the east, where the front stabilized. The People's Volunteer Army had outrun its supply line and was forced to recoil. The Chinese could not go beyond Seoul because they were at the end of their logistics supply line — all food and ammunition had to be carried at night on foot or bicycle from the Yalu River. In late January, finding the lines in front of his forces deserted, Ridgway ordered reconnaissance in force, which developed into a full-scale offensive, Operation Roundup. The operation was planned to proceed gradually, to make full use of the UN's superiority in firepower on the ground and in the air; by the time Roundup was completed in early February, UN forces had reached the Han River and re-captured Wonju. The Chinese struck back in mid-February with their Fourth Phase Offensive, from Hoengsong in the center against IX Corps positions around Chipyong-ni. A short but desperate siege there fought by units of the U.S. 2nd Infantry Division, including the French Battalion, broke up the offensive; in this action, the UN learned how to deal with Chinese offensive tactics and be able to stand their ground. Roundup was followed in the last two weeks of February 1951, with Operation Killer, by a revitalized Eighth Army, restored by Ridgway to fighting trim. This was a full-scale offensive across the front, again staged to maximize firepower and with the aim of destroying as much of the Chinese and North Korean armies as possible. By the end of Killer, I Corps had re-occupied all territory south of the Han, while IX Corps had captured Hoengsong. On March 7, 1951, the Eighth Army pushed forward again, in Operation Ripper, and on March 14 they expelled the North Korean and Chinese troops from Seoul, the fourth time in a year the city had changed hands. Seoul was in utter ruins; its prewar population of 1.5 million had dropped to 200,000, with severe food shortages. MacArthur was removed from command by President Truman on April 11, 1951 for insubordination, setting off a firestorm of protest back in the U.S. The new supreme commander was Ridgway, who had managed to regroup UN forces for the series of effective counter-offensives. Command of Eighth Army passed to General James Van Fleet. A Chinese soldier killed by U.S. Marines of 1st Marine Division during an attack on Hill 105 in 1951 A further series of attacks slowly drove back the communist forces, such as Operations Courageous and Tomahawk, a combined ground- and air-assault to trap communist forces between Kaesong and Seoul. UN forces continued to advance until they reached Line Kansas, some miles north of the 38th parallel. The Chinese were far from beaten, however; In April 1951 they launched their Fifth Phase Offensive (also called the Chinese Spring Offensive). This was a major effort, involving three field armies (up to 700,000 men). The main blow fell on I Corps, but fierce resistance in battles at the Imjin River and Kapyong, blunted its impetus, and the Chinese were halted at a defensive line north of Seoul (referred to as the No-Name Line). A further Communist offensive in the east against ROK and X Corps on May 15 also made initial gains, but by May 20 the attack had ground to a halt. Eighth Army counterattacked and by the end of May had regained Line Kansas. The decision by UN forces to halt at Line Kansas, just north of the 38th Parallel, and not to persist in offensive action into North Korea, ushered in the period of stalemate which typified the remainder of the conflict. Stalemate (July 1951–July 1953) The rest of the war involved little territory change, large-scale bombing of the north, and lengthy peace negotiations, which began on July 10, 1951 at Kaesong. Even during the peace negotiations, combat continued. For the South Korean and allied forces, the goal was to recapture all of South Korea before an agreement was reached in order to avoid loss of any territory. The Chinese and North Koreans attempted similar operations, and later in the war they undertook operations designed to test the resolve of the UN to continue the conflict. Principal military engagements in this period included the Battle of Bloody Ridge and Battle of Heartbreak Ridge in 1951, the Battle of Old Baldy, the Battle of White Horse, the Battle of Triangle Hill and the Battle of Hill Eerie in 1952, the sieges of Outpost Harry, the Battle of the Hook and the battle for Pork Chop Hill in 1953. Territory changed hands in the early part of the war until the front stabilized. The peace negotiations went on for two years, first at Kaesong, and later at Panmunjon. A major issue of the negotiations was repatriation of POWs. The Communists agreed to voluntary repatriation but only if the majority would return to China or North Korea, something that did not occur. Since many refused to be repatriated to the communist North Korea and China, the war continued until the Communists eventually dropped this issue. In October 1951, U.S. forces performed Operation Hudson Harbor intending to establish the capability to use nuclear weapons. Several B-29s conducted individual simulated bomb runs from Okinawa to North Korea, delivering “dummy” nuclear bombs or heavy conventional bombs; the operation was coordinated from Yokota Air Base in Japan. The battle exercise was intended to test “actual functioning of all activities which would be involved in an atomic strike, including weapons assembly and testing, leading, ground control of bomb aiming,” and so on. The results indicated that nuclear bombs would be less effective than anticipated, because “timely identification of large masses of enemy troops was extremely rare.” On November 29, 1952, U.S. President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfilled a campaign promise by going to Korea to find out what could be done to end the conflict. With the UN's acceptance of India's proposal for a Korean armistice, a cease-fire was established on July 27, 1953, by which time the front line was back around the proximity of the 38th parallel, and so a demilitarized zone (DMZ) was established around it, presently defended by North Korean troops on one side and by South Korean, American and UN troops on the other. The DMZ runs north of the parallel towards the east, and to the south as it travels west. The site of the peace talks, Kaesong, the old capital of Korea, was part of the South before hostilities broke out but is now part of the North. North Korea and the United States signed the Armistice Agreement, with Syngman Rhee refusing to sign. Casualties Memorials to those who died can be found in many countries such as this one in Pretoria for South African casualties. The total numbers of casualties suffered by all parties involved may never be known. Each country's self-reported casualties were largely based upon troop movements, unit rosters, battle casualty reports, and medical records. The Western numbers of Chinese and/or North Korean casualties are based primarily on battle reports of estimated casualties, interrogation of POWs and captured documents. Most scholars provide a wide range of estimates on the number of death and wounded. A good compilation of these sources is in the democide web site (see Table 10.1). . US sources state that the number of American Korean area deaths were 36,940 . These sources state that Chinese deaths ranged from 100,000 to 1,500,000; most estimates are in the 400,000 range. The North Korean battle dead estimates were 214,000 to 520,000; the most common estimates were in the 500,000 range. South Korean civilian estimated deaths were in the 245,000 to 415,000 dead. Total civilian deaths were in the 1,500,000 to 3,000,000 range with most estimates in the 2,000,000 range. The Chinese estimation of UN casualties states that the joint declaration of the Chinese People's Volunteers and the Korean People's Army said their forces "eliminated 1.09 million enemy forces, including 390,000 from the United States, 660,000 from South Korean, and 29,000 from other countries." The vague "eliminated" number gave no details to that of dead, wounded and captured. Regarding their own casualties, the same source said that "the Chinese People's Volunteers suffered 148,000 deaths altogether (among which 114,000 died in combat, incidents, and winterkill, 21,000 died after being hospitalized and 13,000 died from diseases); 380,000 were wounded and 29,000 missing, including 21,400 POWs (of whom 14,000 were sent to Taiwan, 7,110 were repatriated)." This same source concluded with these numbers for North Korean casualties, "the Korean People's Army had 290,000 casualties and 90,000 POWs; there was a large number of civilian deaths in the northern part of Korea, but no accurate figures were available." The casulties of the various UN forces are listed in the infobox, along with their estimates of Chinese and North Korean forces. Characteristics Armored warfare A Sherman tank fires its 76 mm gun at enemy bunkers on “Napalm Ridge,” in support of the 8th ROK Division May 11, 1952. In the initial invasion stage of the war, North Korean armor was able to establish dominance using their Soviet-supplied Type 58 medium tanks. The WW2-vintage North Korean tanks were facing a South Korean force with no tanks of their own and few modern anti-tank weapons. Comparing the earlier M9 bazooka to the later, larger M20 model The South Korean army had anti-tank rockets but these were World War II vintage 2.36 inch (60 mm) M9 bazookas. The bazooka rocket could easily penetrate the 45 mm side armor of the Type 58 at any range, but the bazooka was nonetheless found to be ineffective. As U.S. forces arrived in Korea, they were accompanied only by light M24 Chaffee tanks which had been left in Japan for post-WWII occupation duties (heavier tanks would have torn up Japanese roads). These light tanks were ineffective against the larger North Korean Type 58. U.S. 105 mm howitzers were used on at least one occasion to fire HEAT ammunition over open sights. As the U.S. buildup continued, shipments of heavier American tanks such as the M4 Sherman, the M26 Pershing, the M46 Patton, and the British Centurion as well as American and Allied ground attack aircraft were able to reverse the Communists' tank advantage. However, in contrast to World War II's heavy emphasis on armor, few open tank battles actually occurred over the course of the Korean War. The country's heavily forested and mountainous terrain, as well as the poor road network, meant that tanks were able to operate only in small groups. Air warfare MiG-15 shot down by an F-86 over MiG Alley Over the course of the war, at least 16 B-29 bombers were shot down by communist aircraft. The Korean War was one of the last major wars where propeller-powered fighters such as the P-51 Mustang, F4U Corsair and aircraft carrier-based Hawker Sea Fury and Supermarine Seafire were used. Turbojet fighter aircraft such as F-80s and F9F Panthers came to dominate the skies, overwhelming North Korea’s propeller-driven Yakovlev Yak-9s and Lavochkin La-9s. From 1950, North Koreans began flying the Soviet-made MiG-15 jet fighters, some of which were piloted by experienced Soviet Air Force pilots, a casus belli deliberately overlooked by the UN allied forces who were reluctant to engage in open war with the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China. At first, UN jet fighters, which also included Royal Australian Air Force Gloster Meteors, had some success, but the superior quality of the MiGs soon held sway over the first-generation jets used by the UN early in the war. In December 1950, the U.S. Air Force began using the F-86 Sabre. The MiG could fly higher, 50,000 vs. , offering a distinct advantage at the start of combat. In level flight, their maximum speeds were comparable — about . The MiG could climb better, while the Sabre could turn and dive better. For weapons, the MiG carried two 23 mm and one 37 mm cannon, compared to the Sabre’s six .50 (12.7 mm) caliber machine guns. The American .50 caliber machine guns, while not packing the same punch, carried many more rounds and were aimed with a superior radar-ranging gunsight. The U.S. pilots also had the advantage of G-suits, which were used for the first time in this war. However, maintenance was an issue with the Sabre, and a large proportion of the UN air strength was grounded because of repairs during the war. Even after the Air Force introduced the advanced F-86, its pilots often struggled against the jets piloted by Soviet pilots. The UN gradually gained air superiority over most of Korea that lasted until the end of the war — a decisive factor in helping the UN first advance into the north, and then resist the Chinese invasion of South Korea. The Chinese and North Koreans also had jet power, but their training and experience were limited. With the introduction of the F-86F in late 1952, the Soviet and American aircraft had virtually identical performance characteristics. After the war, the USAF claimed 792 MiG-15s and 108 additional aircraft shot down by Sabres for the loss of 78 Sabres, a ratio in excess of 10:1. Some post-war research has been able to confirm only 379 victories, although the USAF continues to maintain its official credits and the debate is possibly irreconcilable. The Soviets claimed about 1,100 air-to-air victories and 335 combat MiG losses at that time. China's official losses were 231 planes shot down in air-to-air combat (mostly MiG-15) and 168 other losses. The number of losses of the North Korean Air Force was not revealed. It is estimated that it lost about 200 aircraft in the first stage of the war, and another 70 aircraft after Chinese intervention. Soviet claims of 650 victories over the Sabres, and China's claims of another 211 F-86s, are considered to be exaggerated by the USAF. According to a recent U.S. publication, the number of F-86s ever present in the Korean peninsula during the war totaled only 674 and the total F-86 losses from all causes were about 230. Direct comparison of Sabre and MiG losses should be tempered by the fact that the primary targets for MiGs were heavy B-29 Superfortress bombers and ground-attack aircraft, while the primary targets for Sabres were MiG-15s. By early 1951, the battle lines hardened and did not change much for the rest of the conflict. Throughout the summer and early fall of 1951, the outnumbered Sabres (as few as 44 at one point) of the 4th FIW continued to seek battle in MiG Alley near the Yalu against an enemy fielding as many as 500 planes, although only a fraction of these were operational and active. Following Colonel Harrison Thyng's famous message to the Pentagon, the 51st FIW reinforced the beleaguered 4th in December 1951. For the next year and a half, the combat continued in generally the same fashion. Helicopters like this H-19 were used in the Korean war. The Korean war was the first time the helicopter was used extensively in a conflict. While helicopters such as the YR-4 were used in World War II, their use was rare, and Jeeps like the Willys MB were the main method of removing an injured soldier. In the Korean war helicopters like the H-19 partially took over in the non combat Medevac area. The helicopter proved to be a valuable military asset for the United States in Korea. Improvements made to helicopters since World War II were tested in combat. The need for close air support helicopters was seen, and by the time of the Vietnam conflict gunships like the AH-1 Cobra had been produced. Helicopters like those used in the Korean war for Medevac missions and troop movement were also seen to work well in combat, and designs were also improved upon. This "combat test" for helicopters was important to the development of the military helicopter. Bombing Campaigns The bombing of cities and villages in North Korea and partially in South Korea was comparable to that having occurred in Germany and Japan during World War 2. Remarkable is the fact that napalm was used widely for the first time. On August 12 1950 the US Air Force dropped 625 tons of bombs on North Korea. Two weeks later, the daily load amounted to about 800 tons. 18 of North Korea's cities were more than 50% destroyed. General William Dean, who had been in North Korean captivity, reported that most of the North Korean cities and villages he had seen were in ruins or were simply snow-covered wastelands. http://monde-diplomatique.de/pm/2004/12/10/a0034.text Naval warfare A 16-inch salvo from the USS Missouri at Chong Jin, Korea, in effort to cut Northern Korean communications. October 21, 1950. As North Korea had no significant naval presence, naval battles were infrequent. The only significant "battle" took place on July 2, 1950, between the U.S. cruiser Juneau, the British cruiser Jamaica, and the British frigate Black Swan, against four North Korean torpedo boats and two North Korean mortar gunboats. The torpedo boats attempted to attack but they were quickly destroyed by the Anglo-American fleet. Numerous other communist ships were sunk during the war. Supply and ammunition ships were sunk by U.N. forces, denying use of the sea to the North Koreans. Juneau sunk several ammunition ships that had been present in her previous battle. The last instance of ship-to-ship battle in the war occurred at Inchon a few days before the battle, when the ROK ship PC 703 sank an enemy mine-laying craft and three other vessels in waters off the Yellow Sea port. For the remainder of the war, the role of the navies was to provide shore bombardment. Proposed use of nuclear weapons Historian Bruce Cumings believes that Truman's allusions to the possibility of nuclear weapons use at a press conference on November 30, 1950 "was a threat based on contingency planning to use the bomb, rather than the faux pas so many assumed it to be." Cumings argues that Truman sought MacArthur's removal primarily because he felt that MacArthur would not be reliable enough in a situation in which Washington had decided to use atomic weapons. Cumings notes that the same day as the press conference, orders were sent between top Air Forces generals for the Strategic Air Command to "augment its capacities and that this should include “atomic capabilities." According to Cumings, the U.S. reached its closest point of using nuclear weapons during the war in April 1951. At the end of March, after the Chinese had moved large amounts of new forces near the Korean border, U.S. bomb loading pits at Kadena air base in Okinawa were made operational, and bombs were assembled there "lacking only the essential nuclear cores." On April 5, the Joint Chiefs of Staff released orders for immediate retaliatory attacks using atomic weapons against Manchurian bases in the event that large numbers of new Chinese troops entered into the fights or bombing attacks originated from those bases. On the same day, Truman gave his approval for transfer of nine Mark IV nuclear capsules "to the air force's Ninth Bomb Group, the designated carrier of the weapons" and "the president signed an order to use them against Chinese and Korean targets." Remarking that the signed order was never sent, Cumings offers two reasons why this was the case. Firstly, Truman had used the crisis to convince the Joint Chiefs of the necessity of MacArthur's removal (announced April 10) and secondly, since the war was not thereafter escalated by the Chinese and Soviets, no necessity of using them presented itself. This viewpoint is contradicted however by the facts, as on November 30, 1950, President Truman at a press conference, remarked–no doubt extemporaneously–that the use of the atomic bomb was under active consideration, unintentionally implying to some observers that its use would be left to the discretion of General MacArthur. Even though subsequently he attempted to subdue the storm of protest and consternation which followed by pointing out that only he could authorize use of the atomic bomb and that he had not given such authorization, he could not avoid the real issue that any decision to use the bomb would be a United States, not a United Nations, decision. This led to a meeting December 4 with British Prime Minister Clement Attlee (who also represented the leaders of the other Commonwealth nations) and with French Premier René Pleven and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, to discuss their concerns over the possible use of the atomic bomb. Indian Ambassador Pannikkar recalls, "that Truman announced that he was thinking of using the atom bomb in Korea. But the Chinese seemed totally unmoved by this threat... The propaganda against American aggression was stepped up. The 'Aid Korea to resist America' campaign was made the slogan for increased production, greater national integration, and more rigid control over anti-national activities. One could not help feeling that Truman's threat came in very useful to the leaders of the revolution to enable them to keep up the tempo of their activities." Six days later, on December 6, 1950, after the Chinese intervention had forced the UN forces into a retreat from northern North Korea, General J. Lawton Collins (Army Chief of Staff), General MacArthur, Admiral C. Turner Joy and General George E. Stratemeyer, with key staff officers Hickey, Willoughby and Wright, met in Tokyo for a full discussion of what moves to take against the Chinese. They projected three hypothetical scenarios covering the next few weeks or months. In the first, they theorized that if the Chinese continued their all-out attack but with the UN Command forbidden to mount air attacks against China, no blockade of China set up, no reinforcements sent to Korea by Chiang Kai-shek, and that there would be no substantial increase in MacArthur's U.S. forces until April 1951 when four National Guard divisions might be sent, then the atomic bomb might be used in North Korea. Under the second scenario, the conferees assumed a situation in which the Chinese attack would continue but with an effective naval blockade of China put in effect, air reconnaissance and bombing of the Chinese mainland allowed, Chinese Nationalist forces exploited to the maximum, and the atomic bomb to be used if tactically appropriate. Given these conditions, General MacArthur said he should be directed to hold positions in Korea as far north as possible. Under the third scenario, in which the Chinese would agree not to cross south of the 38th parallel, MacArthur felt the United Nations should accept an armistice. The conditions of the armistice should preclude movement of North Korean and Chinese forces below the parallel. North Korean guerrillas should withdraw into their own territory with the Eighth Army remaining in positions covering the Seoul-Inch'on area, while X Corps pulled back to Pusan. A United Nations commission should supervise the implementation of armistice terms. So, while the U.S. had contemplated using the atomic bomb in Korea, Truman did not publicly threaten to use the bomb immediately after the Chinese intervention, but instead remarked about the consideration of using the bomb around 45 days later and only after UN forces were in retreat and had suffered some serious losses. MacArthur and other military leaders did not work on scenarios for using the bomb until after Truman's inadvertent remark during a press conference 6 days earlier. The decision not to use the atomic bomb also was not due to "a disinclination by the USSR and PRC to escalate" but rather due to pressure from UN allies, notably Britain, the British Commonwealth, and France, who were concerned that if the United States became involved in a war with Communist China, American commitments to NATO would, through sheer necessity, go by the board. China then might have little difficulty in persuading the Soviets to move into western Europe, and without U.S. resistance to this aggression, they could take all of Europe at little cost. War crimes Crimes against civilians Declassified U.S. document says:“It is reported that large groups of civilians, either composed of or controlled by North Korean soldiers, are infiltrating U.S. positions. The army has requested we strafe all civilian refugee parties approaching our positions. To date, we have complied with the army request in this respect.”The document goes on to recommend establishing a policy revising the practice. Prisoners massacred by retreating North Koreans in Daejeon, South Korea, October 1950 When parts of South Korea were under North Korean control, political killings, reportedly into the tens of thousands, took place in the cities and villages. The communists systematically killed former South Korean government officials and others deemed hostile to the communists, and such killing was intensified as North Koreans retreated from the South. South Korean military, police and paramilitary forces, often with U.S. military knowledge and without trial, executed in turn tens of thousands of leftist inmates and alleged communist sympathizers in the incidents such as the massacre of the political prisoners from the Daejeon Prison and the bloody crackdown on the Cheju Uprising. Gregory Henderson, a U.S. diplomat in Korea at the time, put the total figure at 100,000, and the bodies of those killed were often dumped into mass graves. Recently, the South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission has received reports of more than 7,800 cases of civilian killings in 150 locations across the country where mass killings of civilians took place before and during the war. Korean forces on both sides routinely rounded up and forcibly conscripted both males and females in their area of operations; thousands of them never returned home. According to the estimate by R. J. Rummel, a professor at the University of Hawaii, some 400,000 South Korean citizens were conscripted into the North Korean Army. Before the September 1950 liberation of Seoul by the U.S. forces, an estimated 83,000 citizens of the city were taken away by retreating North Korean forces and disappeared, according to the South Korean government; their fate remains unknown. North Korea insists the South Koreans defected voluntarily and were not held against their will. For a time, American troops were under orders to consider any Korean civilians on the battlefield approaching their position as hostile, and were instructed to "neutralize" them because of fears of infiltration. This led to the indiscriminate killings of hundreds of South Korean civilians by the U.S. military at places such as No Gun Ri, where many defenseless refugees — most of whom were women, children and old men — were shot at by the U.S. Army and may have been strafed by the U.S. Air Force. Recently, the U.S. admitted having a policy of strafing civilians in other places and times. Bodo League massacre South Korea massacred civilians who were suspected as members of the Bodo League. The casualties were from 10,000 to 100,000 (see Wiki Link on Bodo League massacre), other estimates say the casualties were 200,000 to 1,200,000. 최소 60만명, 최대 120만명! The Hankyoreh Plus At least 100,000 people were hastily shot and dumped into makeshift trenches, abandoned mines or the sea after communist North Korea invaded the south in June 1950. Declassified records show U.S. officers were present at one of these sites and that at least one U.S. officer sanctioned another mass political execution if prisoners otherwise would be freed by the North Koreans. Uncounted hundreds were subsequently killed, witnesses reported. Some mass killings were carried out before the war; many came in the first weeks after the June 25, 1950, invasion, and others occurred later in 1950 when U.S. and South Korean forces recaptured Seoul and the southerners rounded up and shot alleged northern collaborators. The South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission South Korean Truth and Reconciliation Commission says petitions relating to executions of leftists outnumber by 6-to-1 those dealing with right-wingers' deaths. It should be noted that this figure reflects the absence of North Korean participation in the Commission. Survivor Kim Jong-chol, 71, reported his experience in Namyangju as follows; The AP has reported that declassified U.S. military documents show U.S. Army officers took photos of the assembly line-style executions outside the central city of Daejeon, where the commission believes between 3,000 and 7,000 people were shot and dumped into mass graves in early July 1950. Other once-secret files show that a U.S. Army lieutenant colonel reported giving approval to the killing of 3,500 political prisoners by a South Korean army unit he was advising in Busan, if the North Koreans approached that southern port city, formerly spelled Pusan. The files show the U.S. command was aware in other ways as well of the organized bloodbaths. Although at the time U.S. diplomats reported confidentially they had urged restraint on the South Koreans, there was no sign the U.S. military, with formal command over the southerners, tried to halt the mass executions. Crimes against POWs An executed US prisoner The North Koreans were alleged by a U.S. Government report to have mistreated prisoners of war. Some made allegations of frequent communist-imposed beatings, starvation, forced labor, summary executions, and death marches on UN prisoners. North Korean forces allegedly committed several massacres of captured U.S. troops at places such as Hill 312 and Hill 303 on the Pusan Perimeter, and in and around Daejeon; this occurred during early "mopping-up" actions. A U.S. Congressional report alleges "two-thirds of all American prisoners of war in Korea died as a result of war crimes." North Korean forces claimed to have captured more than 70,000 South Korean soldiers, repatriating 8,000. (In contrast, South Korea repatriated 76,000 North Korean POWs.) In addition to some 12,000 deaths in captivity, some 50,000 South Korean POWs might have been press-ganged into the North Korean military. According to the South Korean Ministry of Defense, by 2003 there were at least 300 POWs still alive being held captive in North Korea. More than 30 South Korean prisoners managed to escape the North between 1994 and 2003, including a soldier captured in the war who escaped in 2003. Pyongyang denied holding any POWs. The state controlled Korean Central News Agency claims that the United States and its allies killed at least 33,600 POWs of the Korean People's Army, and that tens of thousands more were wounded or crippled. On May 27, 1952 it was alleged that at least 800 POWs were killed by flame throwers at the 77th camp on Koje Island for rejecting "voluntary repatriation" and insisting on their repatriation to the North Korea. According to the North Korean Central News Agency, some 1,400 prisoners of war had been secretly sent to the United States to be subjected to experiments with atomic weapons. It has also been alleged that on July 19, 1951, a total of 100 prisoners of war had been shot by machine-gun fire in the prisoner-of-war camp No. 62, in order to give the machine-gunners training in shooting at moving targets. Korean Central News Agency, DPRK Foreign Ministry memorandum on GI mass killings, Pyongyang, March 22, 2003 United Nations Yearbook, 1950, 1951, 1952. Legacy The Korean War was the first armed confrontation of the Cold War and set the standard for many later conflicts. It created the idea of a proxy war, where the two superpowers would fight in another country, forcing the people in that nation to suffer the bulk of the destruction and death involved in a war between such large nations. The superpowers avoided descending into an all-out war with one another, as well as the mutual use of nuclear weapons. It also expanded the Cold War, which to that point had mostly been concerned with Europe. The Korean War Memorial at The Washington State Capitol in Olympia, Washington. Republic of Korea (ROK) and United States (U.S.) soldiers monitor the Korean Demilitarized Zone from atop Observation Post (OP) Ouellette. View looking north from south. April, 2008 The Korean War damaged both Koreas heavily. Although South Korea stagnated economically in the decade following the war, it was later able to modernize and industrialize. In contrast, the North Korean economy recovered quickly after the war and until around 1975 surpassed that of South Korea. However, North Korea's economy eventually slowed. Today, the North Korean economy is virtually nonexistent while the South Korean economy is expanding. The CIA World Factbook estimates North Korea's GDP (PPP) to be $40 billion, which is a mere 3.34% of South Korea's $1.196 trillion GDP (PPP). The North's per capita income is $1,800, which is 7.35% of South Korea's $24,500 per capita income. A heavily guarded demilitarized zone (DMZ) on the 38th parallel continues to divide the peninsula today. Anti-Communist and anti-North Korea sentiment still remain in South Korea today, and most South Koreans are against the North Korean government. However, a "Sunshine Policy" was used by the then controlling party, the Uri Party. The Uri Party and former South Korean President Roh, often disagreed with the United States in talks about North Korea. The Grand National Party (GNP), the Uri Party's main opposing party, maintains an anti-North Korea policy today. The war affected other nations as well. Turkey's participation in the war helped it become a NATO member. M. Galip Baysan,"Turkish Brigade in Korean War- Kunuri Battles, Turkish Weekly, 09 January 2007 According to a September 7, 2007 NPR report, U.S. President George W. Bush stated that it is his administration's position that a formal peace treaty with North Korea would be possible only when the North abandoned its nuclear weapons programs. According to Bush, "We look forward to the day when we can end the Korean War. That will end — will happen when Kim verifiably gets rid of his weapons programs and his weapons." Some have characterized this as a reversal of Bush's stated policy of regime change with respect to North Korea. At the second Inter-Korean Summit in October 2007, South Korean President Roh Moo-hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il signed a joint declaration calling for international talks towards a peace treaty formally ending the war. As the health of the Northern leader Kim Jong-Il has waned, North Korea has acted with increasing hostility. In January 2009, threats have been issued towards the south, and all communication has been stalled. By February 1, 2009, North Korea once again threatens to open a war between the countries. On 27 May, 2009, North Korea announced it was withdrawing from the truce. Depictions Art Artist Pablo Picasso's painting Massacre in Korea (1951) depicted violence against civilians during the Korean War. By some accounts, killing of civilians by U.S. forces in Shinchun, Hwanghae Province was the motive of the painting. Ha Jin's War Trash contains a vivid description of the beginning of the war from the point of view of a Chinese soldier and of the fear of retribution Chinese POWs felt from other Chinese prisoners if they were suspected of being unsympathetic to communism or to the war. Photography Film Unlike World War II, there are relatively few Western feature films depicting the Korean War. The Steel Helmet (1951) is a war film directed by Samuel Fuller and produced by Lippert Studios during the Korean War. It was the first studio film about the war, and the first of several war films by producer-director-writer Fuller. Battle Hymn (1957) stars Rock Hudson as Colonel Dean Hess, who became a preacher after bombing a German orphanage during World War II. He later volunteered as a USAF fighter pilot instructor in Korea. The Bridges at Toko-Ri (1955) stars William Holden as a Naval Aviator assigned to destroy the bridges at Toko Ri, while battling doubts; it is based on an eponymous James Michener novel. The Forgotten (Korean War Movie) (2004) features a decimated tank unit, lost behind enemy lines, battling the vicissitudes of the war, as well as their own demons. The Hunters (1958), adapted from the novel The Hunters by James Salter, stars Robert Mitchum and Robert Wagner as two very different United States Air Force fighter pilots in the midst of the Korean War. The Hook (1963), starring Kirk Douglas, portrays the dilemma of three American soldiers on board a ship who are ordered to kill a Korean Prisoner of War. Inchon (1982) portrays the Battle of Inchon, a turning point in the war. Controversially, the film was partially financed by Sun Myung Moon's Unification Movement. It became a notorious financial and critical failure, losing an estimated $40 million of its $46 million budget, and remains the last mainstream Hollywood film to use the war as its backdrop. The film was directed by Terence Young, and starred an elderly Laurence Olivier as General Douglas MacArthur. According to press materials from the film, psychics hired by Moon's church contacted MacArthur in heaven and secured his posthumous approval of the casting. The Manchurian Candidate, a 1959 thriller novel, was cinematically adapted to The Manchurian Candidate (1962), directed by John Frankenheimer, and featuring Frank Sinatra and Angela Lansbury. It is about brainwashed POWs of the U.S. Army, and an officer's investigation to learn what happened to him and his platoon in the war. MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, by Richard Hooker (pseudonym for H. Richard Hornberger), was later adapted into a successful film and a television series; the TV series had a total of 251 episodes, lasted 11 years, and won awards, and its concluding episode was a most-watched program. Yet the sensibilities they presented were more of the 1970s than of the 1950s; the Korean War setting was an oblique and uncontroversial treatment of the then-current American war in Vietnam. Pork Chop Hill (1959) is a Lewis Milestone-directed film with Gregory Peck as an infantry lieutenant fighting the bitterly fierce first Battle of Pork Chop Hill, between the U.S. Army's 7th Infantry Division, and Chicom (Chinese Communist) forces at war's end in April 1953. The movie is lampooned by the Firesign Theatre album Don't Crush That Dwarf, Hand Me the Pliers in the story of Lieutenant Tirebiter. There were several South Korean films, including: Tae Guk Gi: The Brotherhood of War (2004), directed by Kang Je-gyu, became extremely popular in South Korea and at the 50th Asia Pacific Film Festival, Taegukgi won the "Best Film", while Kang Je-gyu was awarded the "Best Director". Taegukgi saw a limited release in the United States. Welcome to Dongmakgol (2005) shows the effect of the warring sides on a remote village. The titular village soon becomes home to surviving North Korean and South Korean soldiers, who in time lose their suspicion and hatred for each other and work together to help save the village after the Americans mistakenly identify it as an enemy camp. North Korea has made many films about the war, mostly by the government supporting forceful, armed reunification of the North and South of Korea. These have been highly propagandized to portray potential war crimes by American or South Korean soldiers while glorifying members of the North Korean military as well as North Korean ideals. Delisle, Guy Pyongyang: A Journey Into North Korea, pp. 63, 146, 173. Drawn & Quarterly Books. Shangganling Battle (Shanggan Ling, Chinese: 上甘岭) is a depiction of the Korean War from the Chinese point of view, made in 1956. The movie is about a group of Chinese soldiers blocked in Triangle Hill area for several days and survive until they are relieved. See also Joint Advisory Commission, Korea List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity Military history of Australia during the Korean War UNCMAC - the UN Command Military Armistice Commission operating from 1953 to the present UNCOK - the 1950 United Nations Commission on Korea UNCURK - the 1951 UN Commission for the Unification and Rehabilitation of Korea Pyongyang Sally Vietnam War M*A*S*H Notes References Brune, Lester and Robin Higham, eds., The Korean War: Handbook of the Literature and Research (Greenwood Press, 1994) Edwards, Paul M. Korean War Almanac (2006) Foot, Rosemary, "Making Known the Unknown War: Policy Analysis of the Korean Conflict in the Last Decade," Diplomatic History 15 (Summer 1991): 411–31, in JSTOR Goulden, Joseph C., Korea: The Untold Story of the War, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982. Hickey, Michael, The Korean War: The West Confronts Communism, 1950-1953 (London: John Murray, 1999) ISBN 0719555590 9780719555596 Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean Conflict (Greenwood Press, 1999). Knightley, P. The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero, Propagandist and Myth-maker (Quartet, 1982) Korea Institute of Military History, The Korean War (1998) (English edition 2001), 3 vol, 2600 pp; highly detailed history from South Korean perspective, U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-7802-0 Leitich, Keith. Shapers of the Great Debate on the Korean War: A Biographical Dictionary (2006) covers Americans only James I. Matray, ed., Historical Dictionary of the Korean War (Greenwood Press, 1991) Millett, Allan R, “A Reader's Guide To The Korean War” Journal of Military History (1997) Vol. 61 No. 3; p. 583+ full text in JSTOR; free online revised version Millett, Allan R. "The Korean War: A 50 Year Critical Historiography," Journal of Strategic Studies 24 (March 2001), pp. 188–224. full text in Ingenta and Ebsco; discusses major works by British, American, Korean, Chinese, and Russian authors Summers, Harry G. Korean War Almanac (1990) Sandler, Stanley ed., The Korean War: An Encyclopedia (Garland, 1995) Further reading Victims of a massacre with their hands bound in burial area near Waegwan, Korea. Combat studies, soldiers Appleman, Roy E. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (1961), Official U.S. Army history covers the Eighth Army and X Corps from June to November 1950 Appleman, Roy E.. East of Chosin: Entrapment and Breakout in Korea (1987); Escaping the Trap: The U.S. Army in Northeast Korea, 1950 (1987); Disaster in Korea: The Chinese Confront MacArthur (1989); Ridgway Duels for Korea (1990). Blair, Clay. The Forgotten War: America in Korea, 1950-1953 (1987), revisionist study that attacks senior American officials Field Jr., James A. History of United States Naval Operations: Korea, University Press of the Pacific, 2001, ISBN 0-89875-675-8. official U.S. Navy history Farrar-Hockley, General Sir Anthony. The British Part in the Korean War, HMSO, 1995, hardcover 528 pages, ISBN 0-11-630962-8 Futrell, Robert F. The United States Air Force in Korea, 1950–1953, rev. ed. (Office of the Chief of Air Force History, 1983), official U.S. Air Force history Halberstam, David. The Coldest Winter: America and the Korean War, Hyperion, 2007, ISBN 1401300529. Hallion, Richard P. The Naval Air War in Korea (1986). Hamburger, Kenneth E. Leadership in the Crucible: The Korean War Battles of Twin Tunnels and Chipyong-Ni. Texas A. & M. U. Press, 2003. 257 pp. Hastings, Max. The Korean War (1987). British perspective James, D. Clayton The Years of MacArthur: Triumph and Disaster, 1945-1964 (1985) James, D. Clayton with Anne Sharp Wells, Refighting the Last War: Command and Crises in Korea, 1950-1953 (1993) Johnston, William. A War of Patrols: Canadian Army Operations in Korea. U. of British Columbia Press, 2003. 426 pp. Kindsvatter, Peter S. American Soldiers: Ground Combat in the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam. U. Press of Kansas, 2003. 472 pp. Millett, Allan R. Their War for Korea: American, Asian, and European Combatants and Civilians, 1945–1953. Brassey's, 2003. 310 pp. Montross, Lynn et al., History of U.S. Marine Operations in Korea, 1950–1953, 5 vols. (Washington: Historical Branch, G-3, Headquarters, Marine Corps, 1954–72), Mossman, Billy. Ebb and Flow (1990), Official U.S. Army history covers November 1950 to July 1951. Russ, Martin. Breakout: The Chosin Reservoir Campaign, Korea 1950, , Penguin, 2000, 464 pages, ISBN 0-14-029259-4 Toland, John. In Mortal Combat: Korea, 1950-1953 (1991) Varhola, Michael J. Fire and Ice: The Korean War, 1950-1953 (2000) Watson, Brent Byron. Far Eastern Tour: The Canadian Infantry in Korea, 1950–1953. 2002. 256 pp. Origins, politics, diplomacy Chen Jian, China's Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation (Columbia University Press, 1994), Goncharov, Sergei N., John W. Lewis; and Xue Litai, Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao, and the Korean War, Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8047-2521-7, diplomatic Kaufman, Burton I. The Korean War: Challenges in Crisis, Credibility, and Command. Temple University Press, 1986), focus is on Washington Matray, James. "Truman's Plan for Victory: National Self Determination and the Thirty-Eighth Parallel Decision in Korea," Journal of American History 66 (September, 1979), 314–33. Online at JSTOR Millett, Allan R. The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning vol 1 (2005)ISBN 0-7006-1393-5, origins Schnabel, James F. United States Army in the Korean War: Policy and Direction: The First Year (Washington: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1972). Official U.S. Army history; full text online Spanier, John W. The Truman-MacArthur Controversy and the Korean War (1959). Stueck, William. Rethinking the Korean War: A New Diplomatic and Strategic History. Princeton U. Press, 2002. 285 pp. Stueck, Jr., William J. The Korean War: An International History (Princeton University Press, 1995), diplomatic Zhang Shu-gang, Mao's Military Romanticism: China and the Korean War, 1950–1953 (University Press of Kansas, 1995) Primary sources Bassett, Richard M. And the Wind Blew Cold: The Story of an American POW in North Korea. Kent State U. Press, 2002. 117 pp. Bin Yu and Xiaobing Li, eds Mao's Generals Remember Korea, University Press of Kansas, 2001, hardcover 328 pages, ISBN 0-7006-1095-2 S.L.A. Marshall, The River and the Gauntlet (1953) on combat Matthew B. Ridgway, The Korean War (1967). External links U.S. Army Korea Media Center official Korean War online video archive Korea Defense Veterans of America Korean War Ex-POW Association Korean War Veterans Associtaion The Center for the Study of the Korean War Korean War Documentary Korean Children's War Memorial Calvin College on the Impact of the War on the Korean People Facts and texts on the War BBC: American Military Conduct in the Korean War Atrocities against Americans in the Korean War Atrocities by Americans in the Korean War Quicktime sequence of 27 maps adapted from the West Point Atlas of American Wars showing the dynamics of the front. Animation for operations in 1950 Animation for operations in 1951 POW films, brainwashing and the Korean War CBC Digital Archives - Forgotten Heroes: Canada and the Korean War Chinese 50th Anniversary Korean War Memorial North Korea International Documentation Project Collection of videos on Korean War Documents on the Korean Conflict at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library U.S. Army Korea Media Center official Korean War online image archive Grand Valley State University Veteran's History Project digital collection

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Casino

The Las Vegas Strip is renowned for its high concentration of casino resort hotels A casino is, in the modern sense of the word, a facility that houses and accommodates certain types of gambling activities. Casinos are most commonly built near or combined with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships and other tourist attractions. Some casinos are known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sporting events. History of the term casino Casino da Póvoa, a Portuguese casino that opened in early 1930s The term "Casino" originally meant a small villa, summerhouse or pavilion built for pleasure, usually on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo. There are examples of such casinos at Villa Giulia and Villa Farnese. In modern day Italian, this term designates a bordello (also called "casa chiusa", literally "closed house"), while the gambling house is spelled casinò with an accent. One of the first known casinos was established in Venice around 1638. During the 19th century, the term "casino" came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities, including gambling, and sports took place. An example of this type of building is the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island. Not all casinos were used for gaming. The Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for the use made of its hall for mass public meetings during the 1848 Revolution which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937 it was a well-known Danish theatre. The Hanko Casino located in Hanko, Finland - one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks - was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a banquet hall for the Russian nobility which frequented this spa resort in the late 1800s, and is presently used as a restaurant. The so-called "Casino" http://avalonball.com/casino.asp , a famous landmark overlooking Avalon Harbor on Catalina Island, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built. History of casinos The Atrium at the Crown Casino, Melbourne The precise origin of gambling is unknown. The Chinese recorded the first official account of the practice in 2300 B.C., but it is generally believed that activity of gambling, in some way or another, has been seen in almost every society in history. From the Ancient Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on the games of chance. History of Casinos & Casino Jobs - Job Monkey.com In American history, early casinos were originally known as saloons. The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities; New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with. During the early 20th century in America, gambling became outlawed and banned by state legislation and social reformers of the time. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, and Las Vegas, presently known as "Sin City", spawned America's first official casinos. Soon after, in the state of New Jersey, Atlantic City joined the Casino industry in 1978 to become America's second largest gambling city. Another regional center for gaming in the U.S. is in Tunica Resorts, Mississippi and in the Gulf Coast region around Biloxi. Gambling in casinos Baccarat casino, Edmonton, Alberta In most jurisdictions worldwide, gambling is limited to persons over the age of license (18 or 21 years of age in most of the United States and 16 to 21 in most other countries where casinos are permitted). Customers gamble by playing slot machines or other games of chance (e.g., craps, roulette, baccarat) and some skill (e.g., blackjack, poker) (for more see casino games). Games usually have mathematically-determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an advantage over the players. This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective). This advantage is called the house edge. In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake. Casinos often give out free items, known as comps to people who are gambling. Often, in most casinos, the more money a player uses the more benefits or comps the player get. Comps are determined on a formula set by the casino based on the player's average bet x the number of hours of play x the percentage that the casino will win on the player. Whether the player wins or loses does not matter; it is solely based on the formula. Comps can range in anything from free drinks during play to penthouse suites, free airfare, limo service, and free food. Payout is the percentage won by players. Playing with house money refers to the situation where a winning player is placing bets with money that has been won from the casino. Security A sign at the Thousand Islands Casino Casinos focus greatly on security, considering that it is a 30 billion dollar industry. Large amounts of currency move through a casino, tempting people to cheat the system. Security today consists of cameras located throughout the property operated by highly trained individuals who attempt to locate cheating and stealing by both players and employees. Modern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force, which patrols the casino floor and responds to calls for assistance and reports of criminal and/or suspicious activities, and a specialized surveillance department, that operates the casino's closed circuit television (known in the industry as eye in the sky) system in an effort to detect any misconduct by both guests and employees alike. Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets. When it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full time on all table games. Crime There is a whole area of research centered on the relationship between crime rates and casinos. Casinos usually draw large amounts of tourists who carry large amounts of cash. Casinos usually serve free alcohol as well, which can serve to make the patrons less alert. Therefore, many believe casinos are crime "hotspots". However, some research argues that when the casino is built with the consent of the surrounding community, it probably does not heighten the presence of crime. There is much empirical evidence that suggests some kind of relationship between crime rates and casinos. However, when observing the literature on crime and casinos, one should be aware of the research methods used. Some research has used crime rates that exclude the visiting population at risk, which would overstate the crime rate in areas with casinos. Walker, Douglas M. "Do Casinos Really Cause Crime?" (Jan 2008). Econ Journal Watch Gallery United States casinos See also Slot machines are commonplace in casinos List of casinos Casino game Casino token Locals casino Online casino American Gaming Association Global Gaming Expo Gaming Control Boards Gaming law Native American gaming European Gaming & Amusement Federation Notes External links

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Kilogram

A computer-generated image of the International Prototype Kilogram (“IPK”). The IPK is the kilogram. It sits next to an inch-based ruler for scale. The IPK is made of a platinum-iridium alloy and is stored in a vault at the BIPM in Sèvres, France. Like the other prototypes, the edges of the IPK have a four-angle chamfer to minimize wear (although only three can be seen in this image—even at high magnification). For other kilogram-related images, see External links, below. The kilogram or kilogramme The spelling kilogram is used by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) and the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), but sometimes the spelling kilogramme is also used in British English. (symbol: kg) is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units (SI, from the French ). The kilogram is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK), Known also by its French-language name Le GrandK. which is almost exactly equal to the mass of one liter of water. It is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name. It is also the only SI unit that is still defined in relation to an artifact rather than to a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. In everyday usage, the mass of an object, which is measured in kilograms, is often referred to as its weight. However, the term weight in strict scientific contexts refers to the gravitational force of an object. Throughout most of the world, force is measured with the SI unit newton and the non-SI unit kilogram-force. Similarly, the avoirdupois (or international) pound, used in both the Imperial system and U.S. customary units, is a unit of mass and its related unit of force is the pound-force. The avoirdupois pound is defined as exactly , making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Many units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram so its stability is important. After the International Prototype Kilogram had been found to vary in mass over time, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (known also by its French-language initials CIPM) recommended in 2005 that the kilogram be redefined in terms of a fundamental constant of nature. 94th Meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2005) Recommendation 1: Preparative steps towards new definitions of the kilogram, the ampere, the kelvin and the mole in terms of fundamental constants No final decision is expected before 2011. 23rd General Conference on Weights and Measures (2007). Resolution 12: On the possible redefinition of certain base units of the International System of Units (SI). The nature of mass The chains on the swing hold all the child’s weight. If one were to stand behind her at the bottom of the arc and try to stop her, one would be acting against her inertia, which arises purely from mass, not weight. The kilogram is a unit of mass, the measurement of which corresponds to the general, everyday notion of how “heavy” something is. However, mass is actually an inertial property; that is, the tendency of an object to remain at constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force. According to Sir Isaac Newton’s -year-old laws of motion and an important formula that sprang from his work, an object with a mass, m, of one kilogram will accelerate, a, at one meter per second per second (about one-tenth the acceleration due to earth’s gravity) In professional metrology (the science of measurement), the acceleration of earth’s gravity is taken as standard gravity (symbol: gn), which is defined as precisely metersper square second (m/s2). The expression means that for every second that elapses, velocity changes an additional 1 meter per second. In more familiar terms: an acceleration of 1m/s2 can also be expressed as a rate of change in velocity of precisely 3.6 km/h per second (≈2.2 mph per second). when acted upon by a force, F, of one newton. While the weight of matter is entirely dependent upon the strength of gravity, the mass of matter is constant (assuming matter is not traveling at a relativistic speed with respect to an observer). According to Einstein’s theory of special relativity, the relativistic mass (apparent mass with respect to an observer) of an object or particle with rest mass m0 increases with its speed as M=γm0 (where γ is the Lorentz factor). This effect is vanishingly small at everyday speeds, which are by orders of magnitude less than the speed of light, but becomes noticeable at very high speeds. For example, traveling at just 10% the speed of light with respect to an observer—exceedingly fast compared to everyday speeds (about 108millionkm/h or 67millionmph)—increases an object’s relativistic mass just over 0.5%.<p>As regards the kilogram, relativity’s effect upon the constancy of matter’s mass is simply an interesting scientific phenomenon that has zero effect on the definition of the kilogram and its practical realizations. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor; they are “weightless.” However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, an astronaut must exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10kilogram object at the same rate as a 1kilogram object. On earth, a common swing set can demonstrate the relationship of force, mass, and acceleration without being appreciably influenced by weight (downward force). If one were to stand behind a large adult sitting stationary in a swing and give him a strong push, the adult would accelerate relatively slowly and swing only a limited distance forwards before beginning to swing backwards. Exerting that same effort while pushing on a small child would produce much greater acceleration. History Early definitions See also Grave (mass) for more on the history of the kilogram. On 7 April 1795, the gram was decreed in France to be equal to “the absolute weight of a volume of water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the meter, at the temperature of melting ice.” Since trade and commerce typically involve items significantly more massive than one gram, and since a mass standard made of water would be inconvenient and unstable, the regulation of commerce necessitated the manufacture of a practical realization of the water-based definition of mass. Accordingly, a provisional mass standard was made as a single-piece, metallic artifact one thousand times more massive than the gram—the kilogram. At the same time, work was commissioned to precisely determine the mass of a cubic decimeter (one liter) of water. The same decree also defined the liter as follows: “Liter: the measure of volume, both for liquid and solids, for which the displacement would be that of a cube [with sides measuring] one-tenth of a meter.” Original text: “Litre, la mesure de capacité, tant pour les liquides que pour les matières sèches, dont la contenance sera celle du cube de la dixièrne partie du mètre.” Although the decreed definition of the kilogram specified water at 0°C—its highly stable temperature point—the French chemist, Louis Lefèvre-Gineau and the Italian naturalist, Giovanni Fabbroni after several years of research chose to redefine the standard in 1799 to water’s most stable density point: the temperature at which water reaches maximum density, which was measured at the time as 4°C. Modern measurements show the temperature at which water reaches maximum density is 3.984°C. However, the scientists at the close of the 18th century concluded that the temperature was 4°C. They concluded that one cubic decimeter of water at its maximum density was equal to 99.9265% of the target mass of the provisional kilogram standard made four years earlier. The provisional kilogram standard had been fabricated in accordance with a single, inaccurate measurement of the density of water made earlier by Antoine Lavoisier and René Just Haüy, which showed that one cubic decimeter of distilled water at 0°C had a mass of 18,841 grains in France’s soon-to-be-obsoleted poids de marc system. The newer, highly accurate measurements by LefèvreGineau and Fabbroni concluded that the mass of a cubic decimeter of water at the new temperature of 4°C—a condition at which water is denser—was actually less massive, at 18,827.15 grains, than the earlier inaccurate value assumed for 0°C water.<p>France’s metric system had been championed by Charles Maurice de TalleyrandPérigord. On 30March 1791, four days after Talleyrand forwarded a specific proposal on how to proceed with the project, the French government ordered a committee known as the Academy to commence work on accurately determining the magnitude of the base units of the new metric system. The Academy divided the task among five commissions. The commission charged with determining the mass of a cubic decimeter of water originally comprised Lavoisier and Haüy but their work was finished by Louis LefèvreGineau and Giovanni Fabbroni.<p>Neither Lavoisier nor Haüy can be blamed for participating in an initial—and inaccurate—measurement and for leaving the final work to Lefèvre‑Gineau and Fabbroni to finish in 1799. As a member of the Ferme générale, Lavoisier was also one of France’s 28 tax collectors. He was consequently convicted of treason during the waning days of the Reign of Terror period of the French Revolution and beheaded on 8May 1794. Lavoisier’s partner, Haüy, was also thrown into prison and was himself at risk of going to the guillotine but his life was spared after a renown French naturalist interceded. That same year, 1799, an all-platinum kilogram prototype was fabricated with the objective that it would equal, as close as was scientifically feasible for the day, the mass of one cubic decimeter of water at 4°C. The prototype was presented to the Archives of the Republic in June and on 10December 1799, the prototype was formally ratified as the Kilogramme des Archives (Kilogram of the Archives) and the kilogram was defined as being equal to its mass. This standard stood for the next ninety years. International Prototype Kilogram Since 1889, the SI system defines the magnitude of the kilogram to be equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram, often referred to in the professional metrology world as the “IPK”. The IPK is made of a platinum alloy known as “Pt10Ir”, which is 90% platinum and 10% iridium (by mass) and is machined into a right-circular cylinder (height = diameter) of 39.17mm to minimize its surface area. New Techniques in the Manufacture of Platinum-Iridium Mass Standards, T. J. Quinn, Platinum Metals Rev., 1986, 30, (2), pp. The addition of 10% iridium improved upon the all-platinum Kilogram of the Archives by greatly increasing hardness while still retaining platinum’s many virtues: extreme resistance to oxidation, extremely high density, satisfactory electrical and thermal conductivities, and low magnetic susceptibility. The IPK and its six sister copies are stored at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (known by its French-language initials BIPM) in an environmentally monitored safe in the lower vault located in the basement of the BIPM’s House of Breteuil in Sèvres on the outskirts of Paris (see External images, below for photographs). Three independently controlled keys are required to open the vault. Official copies of the IPK were made available to other nations to serve as their national standards. These are compared to the IPK roughly every 50 years. The IPK is one of three cylinders made in 1879. In 1883, it was found to be indistinguishable from the mass of the Kilogram of the Archives made eighty-four years prior, and was formally ratified as the kilogram by the 1st CGPM in 1889. Modern measurements of the density of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water—purified water that has a carefully controlled isotopic composition—show that a cubic decimeter of water at its point of maximum density, 3.984°C, has a mass that is 25.05 parts per million less than the kilogram. Water Structure and Science, Water Properties, Density maximum (and molar volume) at temperature of maximum density, a (by London South Bank University). Link to Web site. This small difference, and the fact that the mass of the IPK was indistinguishable from the mass of the Kilogram of the Archives, speak volumes of the scientists’ skills over years ago when making their measurements of water’s properties and in manufacturing the Kilogram of the Archives. Stability of the International Prototype Kilogram Mass drift over time of national prototypes , plus two of the IPK’s sister copies: K32 and K8(41). Prototype No. 8(41) was accidentally stamped with the number 41, but its accessories carry the proper number 8. Since there is no prototype marked 8, this prototype is referred to as 8(41). All mass changes are relative to the IPK. The initial 1889 starting-value offsets relative to the IPK have been nulled. The Third Periodic Verification of National Prototypes of the Kilogram {{nowrap|(1988–1992),}} G.Girard, Metrologia 31 (1994) The above are all relative measurements; no historical mass-measurement data is available to determine which of the prototypes has been most stable relative to an invariant of nature. There is the distinct possibility that all the prototypes gained mass over 100 years and that K21, K35, K40, and the IPK simply gained less than the others.By definition, the error in the measured value of the IPK’s mass is exactly zero; the IPK is the kilogram. However, any changes in the IPK’s mass over time can be deduced by comparing its mass to that of its official copies stored throughout the world, a process called “periodic verification.” For instance, the U.S. owns four 10%iridium (Pt10Ir) kilogram standards, two of which, K4 and K20, are from the original batch of 40 replicas delivered in 1884. The other two Pt10Ir standards owned by the U.S. are K85, which is used for watt balance experiments (see Watt balance, above), and K650, which was an early attempt with a new series of prototypes that were diamond-turned directly to a finish mass. K650 has a density of , which is normal for Pt10Ir alloy. However, as its finished mass was roughly 2000µg less than one kilogram, it is unsuitable for use as a national prototype and is instead known as a mass “standard”—not a “prototype.”. However, it serves well for special duties, such as a stability reference when K4 and K20 are transported to the BIPM and back. There are three other diamond-turned, Pt10Ir replicas that are not formally considered to be “prototypes”: K651, K690, and K691. The K20 prototype was designated as the primary national standard of mass for the U.S. Both of these, as well as those from other nations, are periodically returned to the BIPM for verification. Extraordinary care is exercised when transporting prototypes. In 1984, the K4 and K20 prototypes were hand-carried in the passenger section of a commercial airliner. Note that none of the replicas has a mass precisely equal to that of the IPK; their masses are calibrated and documented as offset values. For instance, K20, the U.S.’s primary standard, originally had an official mass of in 1889; that is to say, K20 was 39µg less than the IPK. A verification performed in 1948 showed a mass of The latest verification performed in 1999 shows a mass precisely identical to its original 1889 value. Quite unlike transient variations such as this, the U.S.’s check standard, K4, has persistently declined in mass relative to the IPK—and for an identifiable reason. Check standards are used much more often than primary standards and are prone to scratches and other wear. K4 was originally delivered with an official mass of in 1889, but as of 1989 was officially calibrated at and ten years later was Over a period of 110 years, K4 lost 41µg relative to the IPK. The Kilogram and Measurements of Mass and Force, Z.J.Jabbour et al., J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 106, 2001, (3.5MB PDF, here) Beyond the simple wear that check standards can experience, the mass of even the carefully stored national prototypes can drift relative to the IPK for a variety of reasons, some known and some unknown. Since the IPK and its replicas are stored in air (albeit under two or more nested bell jars), they gain mass through adsorption of atmospheric contamination onto their surfaces. Accordingly, they are cleaned in a process the BIPM developed between 1939 and 1946 known as “the BIPM cleaning method” that comprises lightly rubbing with a chamois soaked in equal parts ether and ethanol, steam cleaning with bi-distilled water, and allowing the prototypes to settle for days before verification. Before the BIPM’s published report in 1994 detailing the relative change in mass of the prototypes, different standard bodies used different techniques to clean their prototypes. The NIST’s practice before then was to soak and rinse its two prototypes first in benzene, then in ethanol, and to then clean them with a jet of bi-distilled water steam. Cleaning the prototypes removes between 5 and 60µg of contamination depending largely on the time elapsed since the last cleaning. Further, a second cleaning can remove up to 10µg more. After cleaning—even when they are stored under their bell jars—the IPK and its replicas immediately begin gaining mass again. The BIPM even developed a model of this gain and concluded that it averaged 1.11µg per month for the first 3 months after cleaning and then decreased to an average of about 1µg per year thereafter. Since check standards like K4 are not cleaned for routine calibrations of other mass standards—a precaution to minimize the potential for wear and handling damage—the BIPM’s model has been used as an “after cleaning” correction factor. K48, above, came from the second batch of kilogram replicas to be produced. It was delivered to Denmark in 1949 with an official mass of Like all other replicas, it is stored under two nested bell jars virtually all the time. Still, its mass and that of the IPK diverged markedly in only 40 years; the mass of K48 was certified as during the periodic verification.Because the first forty official copies are made of the same alloy as the IPK and are stored under similar conditions, periodic verifications using a large number of replicas—especially the national primary standards, which are rarely used—can convincingly demonstrate the stability of the IPK. What has become clear after the third periodic verification performed between 1988 and 1992 is that masses of the entire worldwide ensemble of prototypes have been slowly but inexorably diverging from each other. It is also clear that the mass of the IPK lost perhaps 50µg over the last century, and possibly significantly more, in comparison to its official copies. Redefinition of the kilogram: a decision whose time has come, IanM.Mills et al., Metrologia 42 (2005), The reason for this drift has eluded physicists who have dedicated their careers to the SI unit of mass. No plausible mechanism has been proposed to explain either a steady decrease in the mass of the IPK, or an increase in that of its replicas dispersed throughout the world. Note that if the between the IPK and its replicas was entirely due to wear, the IPK would have to have lost 150 million billion more platinum and iridium atoms over the last century than its replicas. That there would be this much wear, much less a difference of this magnitude, is thought unlikely; 50µg is roughly the mass of a fingerprint. Specialists at the BIPM in 1946 carefully conducted cleaning experiments and concluded that even vigorous rubbing with a chamois—if done carefully—did not alter the prototypes’ mass. More recent cleaning experiments at the BIPM, which were conducted on one particular prototype (K63), and which benefited from the then-new NBS2 balance, demonstrated 2µg stability.<p>Many theories have been advanced to explain the divergence in the masses of the prototypes. One theory posits that the relative change in mass between the IPK and its replicas is not one of loss at all and is instead a simple matter that the IPK has gained less than the replicas. This theory begins with the observation that the IPK is uniquely stored under three nested bell jars whereas its six sister copies stored alongside it in the vault as well as the other replicas dispersed throughout the world are stored under only two. This theory is also founded on two other facts: that platinum has a strong affinity for mercury, and that atmospheric mercury is significantly more abundant in the atmosphere today than at the time the IPK and its replicas were manufactured. The burning of coal is a major contributor to atmospheric mercury and both Denmark and Germany have high coal shares in electrical generation. Conversely, electrical generation in France, where the IPK is stored, is mostly nuclear. This theory is supported by the fact that the mass divergence rate—relative to the IPK—of Denmark’s prototype, K48, since it took possession in 1949 is an especially high 78 µg per century while that of Germany’s prototype has been even greater at ever since it took possession of K55 in 1954. However, still other data for other replicas isn’t supportive of this theory. This mercury absorption theory is just one of many advanced by the specialists to account for the relative change in mass. To date, each theory has either proven implausible, or there are insufficient data or technical means to either prove or disprove it. The SI unit of mass, Richard Davis, Metrologia 40 (2003), Recalibration of the U.S. National Prototype Kilogram, R.S.Davis, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 90, No. 4, 1985 (5.5MB PDF, here). Conjecture why the IPK drifts, R.Steiner, NIST, 11 Sept. 2007. This relative nature of the changes amongst the world’s kilogram prototypes is often misreported in the popular press, and even some notable scientific magazines, which often state that the IPK simply “lost 50µg” and omit the very important caveat of “in comparison to its official copies.” Even well respected organizations incorrectly represent the relative nature of the mass divergence as being one of mass loss, as exemplified by this site at Science Daily, and this site at PhysOrg.com, and this site at Sandia National Laboratories. The root of the problem is often the reporters’ failure to correctly interpret or paraphrase nuanced scientific concepts, as exemplified by this 12September 2007 story by the Associated Press published on PhysOrg.com. In that AP story, Richard Davis—who used to be the NIST’s kilogram specialist and now works for the BIPM in France—was correctly quoted by the AP when he stated that the mass change is a relative issue. Then the AP summarized the nature of issue with this lead-in to the story: “A kilogram just isn't what it used to be. The 118-year-old cylinder that is the international prototype for the metric mass, kept tightly under lock and key outside Paris, is mysteriously losing weight - if ever so slightly.” Like many of the above-linked sites, the AP also misreported the age of the IPK, using the date of its adoption as the mass prototype, not the date of the cylinder’s manufacture. This is a mistake even Scientific American fell victim to in a print edition. Moreover, there are no technical means available to determine whether or not the entire worldwide ensemble of prototypes suffers from even greater long-term trends upwards or downwards because their mass “relative to an invariant of nature is unknown at a level below 1000µg over a period of 100 or even 50 years.” Given the lack of data identifying which of the world’s kilogram prototypes has been most stable in absolute terms, it is equally as valid to state that the first batch of replicas has, as a group, gained an average of about 25µg over one hundred years in comparison to the IPK. The mean change in mass of the first batch of replicas relative to the IPK over one hundred years is +23.5µg with a standard deviation of 30µg. Per The Third Periodic Verification of National Prototypes of the Kilogram {{nowrap|(1988–1992),}} G.Girard, Metrologia 31 (1994) Pg.323, Table3. Data is for prototypes K1, K5, K6, K7, K8(41), K12, K16, K18, K20, K21, K24, K32, K34, K35, K36, K37, K38, and K40; and excludes K2, K23, and K39, which are treated as outliers. This is a larger data set than is shown in the chart at the top of this section, which corresponds to Figure7 of G.Girard’s paper. What is known specifically about the IPK is that it exhibits a short-term instability of about 30µg over a period of about a month in its after-cleaned mass. Report to the CGPM, 14th meeting of the Consultative Committee for Units (CCU), April 2001, 2. (ii); General Conference on Weights and Measures, 22nd Meeting, October 2003, which stated “The kilogram is in need of a new definition because the mass of the prototype is known to vary by several parts in 108 over periods of time of the order of a month…” (3.2MB ZIP file, here). The precise reason for this short-term instability is not understood but is thought to entail surface effects: microscopic differences between the prototypes’ polished surfaces, possibly aggravated by hydrogen absorption due to catalysis of the volatile organic compounds that slowly deposit onto the prototypes as well as the hydrocarbon-based solvents used to clean them. BBC, Getting the measure of a kilogram. Scientists are seeing far greater variability in the prototypes than previously believed. The increasing divergence in the masses of the world’s prototypes and the short-term instability in the IPK has prompted research into improved methods to obtain a smooth surface finish using diamond-turning on newly manufactured replicas and has intensified the search for a new definition of the kilogram. See Proposed future definitions, below. General section citations: Recalibration of the U.S. National Prototype Kilogram, R.S.Davis, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 90, No. 4, 1985 (5.5MB PDF, here); and The Kilogram and Measurements of Mass and Force, Z.J.Jabbour et al., J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. 106, 2001, (3.5MB PDF, here) Importance of the kilogram The magnitude of many of the units comprising the SI system of measurement, including most of those used in the measurement of electricity and light, are highly dependent upon the precise mass of a -year-old, golf ball-size cylinder of metal stored in a vault in France. The stability of the IPK is crucial because the kilogram underpins much of the SI system of measurement as it is currently defined and structured. For instance, the newton is defined as the force necessary to accelerate one kilogram at one meter per second squared. If the mass of the IPK were to change slightly, so too must the newton by a proportional degree. In turn, the pascal, the SI unit of pressure, is defined in terms of the newton. This chain of dependency follows to many other SI units of measure. For instance, the joule, the SI unit of energy, is defined as that expended when a force of one newton acts through one meter. Next to be affected is the SI unit of power, the watt, which is one joule per second. The ampere too is defined relative to the newton, and ultimately, the kilogram. With the magnitude of the primary units of electricity thus determined by the kilogram, so too follow many others; namely, the coulomb, volt, tesla, and weber. Even units used in the measure of light would be affected; the candela—following the change in the would in turn affect the lumen andlux. Because the magnitude of many of the units comprising the SI system of measurement is ultimately defined by the mass of a -year-old, golf ball-sized piece of metal, the quality of the IPK must be diligently protected to preserve the integrity of the SI system. Yet, in spite of the best stewardship, the average mass of the worldwide ensemble of prototypes and the mass of the IPK have likely diverged another µg since the third periodic verification years ago. Assuming the past trend continues, whereby the mean change in mass of the first batch of replicas relative to the IPK over one hundred years was +23.5σ30µg. Further, the world’s national metrology laboratories must wait for the fourth periodic verification to confirm whether the historical trendspersisted. Fortunately, definitions of the SI units are quite different from their practical realizations. For instance, the meter is defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum during a time interval of of a second. However, the meter’s practical realization typically takes the form of a helium-neon laser, and the meter’s length is delineated—not defined—as wavelengths of light from this laser. Now suppose that the official measurement of the second was found to have drifted by a few parts per billion (it is actually exquisitely stable). There would be no automatic effect on the meter because the second—and thus the meter’s length—is abstracted via the laser comprising the meter’s practical realization. Scientists performing meter calibrations would simply continue to measure out the same number of laser wavelengths until an agreement was reached to do otherwise. The same is true with regard to the real-world dependency on the kilogram: if the mass of the IPK was found to have changed slightly, there would be no automatic effect upon the other units of measure because their practical realizations provide an insulating layer of abstraction. Any discrepancy would eventually have to be reconciled though because the virtue of the SI system is its precise mathematical and logical harmony amongst its units. If the IPK’s value were definitively proven to have changed, one solution would be to simply redefine the kilogram as being equal to the mass of the IPK plus an offset value, similarly to what is currently done with its replicas; e.g., “the kilogram is equal to the mass of the (equivalent to 42µg). The long-term solution to this problem, however, is to liberate the SI system’s dependency on the IPK by developing a practical realization of the kilogram that can be reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification. The units of measure in such a practical realization would have their magnitudes precisely defined and expressed in terms of fundamental physical constants. While major portions of the SI system would still be based on the kilogram, the kilogram would in turn be based on invariant, universal constants of nature. While this is a worthwhile objective and much work towards that end is ongoing, no alternative has yet achieved the uncertainty of a couple parts in 108 (~20µg) required to improve upon the IPK. However, , the U.S.’s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) had an implementation of the watt balance that was approaching this goal, with a demonstrated uncertainty of 36µg. Uncertainty Improvements of the NIST Electronic Kilogram, RL Steiner et al., Instrumentation and Measurement, IEEE Transactions on, 56 Issue 2, April 2007, See Wattbalance, below. Proposed future definitions In the following section, wherever numeric equalities are shown in ‘concise form’—such as —the two digits between the parentheses denotes the uncertainty at 1σ standard deviation (68% confidence level) in the two least significant digits of the significand. The kilogram is the only SI unit that is still defined in relation to an artifact. Note that the meter was also once defined as an artifact (a single platinum-iridium bar with two marks on it). However, it was eventually redefined in terms of invariant, fundamental constants of nature that are delineated via practical realizations (apparatus) that can be reproduced in different laboratories by following a written specification. Today, physicists are investigating various approaches to do the same with the kilogram. Some of the approaches are fundamentally very different from each other. Some are based on equipment and procedures that enable the reproducible production of new, kilogram-mass prototypes on demand (albeit with extraordinary effort) using measurement techniques and material properties that are ultimately based on, or traceable to, fundamental constants. Others are devices that measure either the acceleration or weight of hand-tuned, kilogram test masses and which express their magnitudes in electrical terms via special components that permit traceability to fundamental constants. Measuring the weight of test masses requires the precise measurement of the strength of gravity in laboratories. All approaches would precisely fix one or more constants of nature at a defined value. These different approaches are as follows: Atom-counting approaches Carbon-12 Though not offering a practical realization, this definition would precisely define the magnitude of the kilogram in terms of a certain number of carbon12 atoms. Carbon12 (12C) is an isotope of carbon. The mole is currently defined as “the quantity of entities (elementary particles like atoms or molecules) equal to the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon12.” Thus, the current definition of the mole requires that (83⅓) moles of 12C has a mass of precisely one kilogram. The number of atoms in a mole, a quantity known as the Avogadro constant, is experimentally determined, and the current best estimate of its value is entities per mole (CODATA, 2006). This new definition of the kilogram proposes to fix the Avogadro constant at precisely with the kilogram being defined as “the mass equal to that of atoms of 12C.” The accuracy of the measured value of the Avogadro constant is currently limited by the uncertainty in the value of the Planck constant—a measure relating the energy of photons to their frequency. That relative standard uncertainty has been 50parts per billion since 2006. By fixing the Avogadro constant, the practical effect of this proposal would be that the uncertainty in the mass of a 12C atom—and the magnitude of the kilogram—could be no better than the current 50ppb uncertainty in the Planck constant. Under this proposal, the magnitude of the kilogram would be subject to future refinement as improved measurements of the value of the Planck constant become available; electronic realizations of the kilogram would be recalibrated as required. Conversely, an electronic definition of the kilogram (see Electronic approaches, below), which would precisely fix the Planck constant, would continue to allow 83⅓ moles of 12C to have a mass of precisely one kilogram but the number of atoms comprising a mole (the Avogadro constant) would continue to be subject to future refinement. A variation on a 12C-based definition proposes to define the Avogadro constant as being precisely 84,446,8863 (≈) atoms. An imaginary realization of a 12-gram mass prototype would be a cube of 12C atoms measuring precisely 84,446,886 atoms across on a side. With this proposal, the kilogram would be defined as “the mass equal to 84,446,8863× 83⅓ atoms of 12C.” The value 84,446,886 was chosen because it has a special property; its cube (the proposed new value for the Avogadro constant) is evenly divisible by twelve. Thus with this definition of the kilogram, there would be an integer number of atoms in one gram of 12C: 50,184,508,190,229,061,679,538 atoms. Georgia Tech, “ A Better Definition for the Kilogram?” 21 September 2007 (press release). The uncertainty in the Avogadro constant narrowed since this proposal was first submitted to American Scientist for publication. The 2006 CODATA value for the Avogadro constant has a relative standard uncertainty of 50 parts per billion and the only cube root values within this uncertainty must fall within the range of 84,446,889.8 ±1.4; that is, there are only three integer cube roots (…89, …90, and …91) in this range and the value 84,446,886 falls outside of it. Unfortunately, none of the three integer values within the range possess the property of their cubes being divisible by twelve; one gram of 12C could not comprise an integer number of atoms. If the value 84,446,886 was adopted to define the kilogram, many other constants of nature and electrical units would have to be revised an average of about 0.13 part per million. The straightforward adjustment to this approach advanced by the group would instead define the kilogram as “the mass equal to 84,446,8903× 83⅓ atoms of carbon12.” This proposed value for the Avogadro constant (≈) falls neatly within the 2006 CODATA value of ) and the proposed definition of the kilogram produces an integer number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon12 (602,214,183,858,071,454,769,000 atoms), but not for 1 gram or 1 kilogram. Avogadro project One of the master opticians at the Australian Centre for Precision Optics (ACPO) is holding a 1kg, single-crystal silicon sphere for the Avogadro project. These spheres are among the roundest man-made objects in the world. If the best of these spheres were scaled to the size of earth, its high point—a continent-size area—would gently rise to a maximum elevation of only 2.4m above “sea level.” The sphere shown in the photograph has an out-of-roundness value (peak to valley on the radius) of 50nm. According to ACPO, they improved on that with an out-of-roundness of 35nm. On the 93.6mm diameter sphere, an out-of-roundness of 35nm (undulations of ±17.5nm) is a fractional roundness Scaled to the size of earth, this is equivalent to a maximum deviation from sea level of only 2.4m. The roundness of that ACPO sphere is exceeded only by two of the four fused-quartz gyroscope rotors flown on Gravity ProbeB, which were manufactured in the late 1990s and given their final figure at the W.W. Hansen Experimental Physics Lab at Stanford University. Particularly, “Gyro 4” is recorded in the Guinness database of world records (their database, not in their book) as the world’s roundest man-made object. According to a published report (221kB PDF, here) and the GPB public affairs coordinator at Stanford University, of the four gyroscopes onboard the probe, Gyro4 has a maximum surface undulation from a perfect sphere of 3.4±0.4nm on the 38.1mm diameter sphere, which is a Scaled to the size of earth, this is equivalent to an undulation the size of North America rising slowly up out of the sea (in molecular-layer terraces 11.9cm high), reaching a maximum elevation of 1.14±0.13m in Nebraska, and then gradually sloping back down to sea level on the other side of the continent. Another Avogadro constant-based approach, known as the Avogadro project, would define and delineate the kilogram as a softball-size (93.6mm diameter) sphere of silicon atoms. Silicon was chosen because a commercial infrastructure with mature processes for creating defect-free, ultra-pure monocrystalline silicon already exists to service the semiconductor industry. To make a practical realization of the kilogram, a silicon boule (a rod-like, single-crystal ingot) would be produced. Its isotopic composition would be measured with a mass spectrometer to determine its average relative atomic mass. The boule would be cut, ground, and polished into spheres. The size of a select sphere would be measured using optical interferometry to an uncertainty of about 0.3nm on the radius—roughly a single atomic layer. The precise lattice spacing between the atoms in its crystal structure (≈192pm) would be measured using a scanning X-ray interferometer. This permits its atomic spacing to be determined with an uncertainty of only three parts per billion. With the size of the sphere, its average atomic mass, and its atomic spacing known, the required sphere diameter can be calculated with sufficient precision and uncertainty to enable it to be finish-polished to a target mass of one kilogram. Experiments are being performed on the Avogadro Project’s silicon spheres to determine whether their masses are most stable when stored in a vacuum, a partial vacuum, or ambient pressure. However, no technical means currently exist to prove a long-term stability any better than that of the IPK’s because the most sensitive and accurate measurements of mass are made with dual-pan balances like the BIPM’s FB2 flexure-strip balance (see External links, below). Balances can only compare the mass of a silicon sphere to that of a reference mass. Given the latest understanding of the lack of long-term mass stability with the IPK and its replicas, there is no known, perfectly stable mass artifact to compare against. Single-pan scales capable of measuring weight relative to an invariant of nature with a long-term uncertainty of only parts per billion do not yet exist. Another issue to be overcome is that silicon oxidizes and forms a thin layer (equivalent to silicon atoms) of silicon dioxide (quartz) and silicon monoxide. This layer slightly increases the mass of the sphere, an effect which must be accounted for when polishing the sphere to its finish dimension. Oxidation is not an issue with platinum and iridium, both of which are noble metals that are roughly as cathodic as oxygen and therefore don’t oxidize unless coaxed to do so in the laboratory. The presence of the thin oxide layer on a silicon-sphere mass prototype places additional restrictions on the procedures that might be suitable to clean it to avoid changing the layer’s thickness or oxide stoichiometry. All silicon-based approaches would fix the Avogadro constant but vary in the details of the definition of the kilogram. One approach would use silicon with all three of its natural isotopes present. About 7.78% of silicon comprises the two heavier isotopes: 29Si and 30Si. As described in Carbon12 above, this method would define the magnitude of the kilogram in terms of a certain number of 12C atoms by fixing the Avogadro constant; the silicon sphere would be the practical realization. This approach could accurately delineate the magnitude of the kilogram because the masses of the three silicon nuclides relative to 12C are known with great precision (relative uncertainties of 1ppb or better). An alternative method for creating a silicon sphere-based kilogram proposes to use isotopic separation techniques to enrich the silicon until it is nearly pure 28Si, which has a relative atomic mass of . With this approach, the Avogadro constant would not only be fixed, but so too would the atomic mass of 28Si. As such, the definition of the kilogram would be decoupled from 12C and the kilogram would instead be defined as · atoms of 28Si (≈ fixed moles of 28Si atoms). Physicists could elect to define the kilogram in terms of 28Si even when kilogram prototypes are made of natural silicon (all three isotopes present). Even with a kilogram definition based on 28Si, a silicon-sphere prototype made of nearly pure 28Si would necessarily deviate slightly from the defined number of moles of silicon to compensate for various chemical and isotopic impurities as well as the effect of surface oxides. NPL: Avogadro Project; Australian National Measurement Institute: Redefining the kilogram through the Avogadro constant; and Australian Centre for Precision Optics: The Avogadro Project Ion accumulation Another Avogadro-based approach, ion accumulation, would define and delineate the kilogram by precisely creating new metal prototypes on demand. It would do so by accumulating gold or bismuth ions (atoms stripped of an electron) and counting them by measuring the electrical current required to neutralize the ions. Gold (197Au) and bismuth (209Bi) were chosen because they can be safely handled and have the two highest atomic masses among the mononuclidic elements that can be treated as if it is virtually non-radioactive (bismuth) or is perfectly stable (gold). See also Table of nuclides. In 2003, the same year the first gold-deposition experiments were conducted, physicists found that the only naturally occurring isotope of bismuth, 209Bi, is actually very slightly radioactive, with the longest known radioactive half-life of any naturally occurring element that decays via alpha radiation—a half-life of . As this is 1.4 billion times the age of the universe, 209Bi is considered a stable isotope for most practical applications (those unrelated to such disciplines as nucleocosmochronology and geochronology). In other terms, of the bismuth that existed on earth 4.567 billion years ago still exists today. Only two mononuclidic elements are heavier than bismuth and only one approaches its stability: thorium. Long considered a possible replacement for uranium in nuclear reactors, thorium can cause cancer when inhaled because it is over 1.2billion times more radioactive than bismuth. It also has such a strong tendency to oxidize that its powders are pyrophoric. These characteristics make thorium unsuitable in ion-deposition experiments. See also Isotopes of bismuth, Isotopes of gold and Isotopes of thorium. With a gold-based definition of the kilogram for instance, the relative atomic mass of gold would be fixed as precisely , from the current value of . As with a definition based upon carbon12, the Avogadro constant would also be fixed. The kilogram would then be defined as “the mass equal to that of precisely · atoms of gold” (precisely 3,057,443,620,887,933,963,384,315 atoms of gold or about fixed moles). Ion-accumulation techniques, while a relatively new field of study, have advanced rapidly. In 2003, experiments with gold at a current of only 10µA demonstrated a relative uncertainty of 1.5%. The German national metrology institute, known as the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB): Working group 1.24, Ion Accumulation Yet, follow-on experiments using bismuth ions and a current of 30mA were expected to accumulate a mass of 30g in six days and to have a relative uncertainty of better than 1 part in 106. General Conference on Weights and Measures, 22nd Meeting, October 2003 (3.2MB ZIP file). Among the many technical challenges of the ion-deposition apparatus is in obtaining a sufficiently high ion current (mass deposition rate) while simultaneously decelerating the ions so they can all deposit onto the target electrode embedded in a balance pan. Experiments with gold showed the ions had to be decelerated to very low energies to avoid sputtering effects—an effect wherein ions that have already been counted either ricochet off or are dislodged from a target electrode. The deposited mass fraction in the 2003 experiments approached very closely to 100% only at ion energies of less than around 1eV (<1km/s for gold). If the kilogram is one day defined as a precise quantity of gold or bismuth atoms deposited with an electric current, not only would the Avogadro constant and the atomic mass of gold or bismuth be precisely fixed, but so too would the value of the elementary charge (e), likely to (from the present 2006 CODATA value of ). Doing so would effectively define the ampere as a flow of (6,241,509,647,120,417,390) electrons per second past a fixed point in an electric circuit. The SI unit of mass would thus be fully defined by having precisely fixed the values of the Avogadro constant and elementary charge, and by exploiting the fact that the atomic masses of bismuth and gold atoms are invariant, universal constants of nature. One challenge in maturing an ion-accumulation-based kilogram into a practical realization is the development of a deposition chamber/balance system that enables the convenient calibration of a reasonable quantity of transfer standards relative to any single internal ion-deposited prototype. The mass prototypes produced by ion deposition techniques are nothing like the freestanding platinum-iridium prototypes currently in use; they are deposited onto—and become part of—an electrode imbedded into one pan of a special balance that is part of the device. Further, the ion-deposited material doesn’t have a hard, highly polished surface that can be vigorously cleaned like those of current prototypes. Gold, while dense and a noble metal (resistant to oxidation and the formation of other compounds), is extremely soft so an internal gold prototype would have to be kept well isolated and scrupulously clean to avoid contamination and the potential of wear from having to remove the contamination. Bismuth, which is an inexpensive metal used in low-temperature solders, slowly oxidizes when exposed to room-temperature air and forms other chemical compounds and so would not produce a stable reference mass unless it was continually maintained in a vacuum or inert atmosphere. Electronic approaches Watt balance The NIST’s watt balance is a project of the U.S. Government to develop an “electronic kilogram.” The vacuum chamber dome, which lowers over the entire apparatus, is visible at top.The watt balance is essentially a single-pan weighing scale that measures the electric power necessary to oppose the weight of a kilogram test mass as it is accelerated by gravity. It is a variation of an ampere balance in that it employs an extra calibration step that nulls the effect of geometry. The electric potential in the watt balance is delineated by a Josephson voltage standard, which allows voltage to be linked to an invariant constant of nature with extremely high precision and stability. Its circuit resistance is calibrated against a quantum Hall resistance standard. The watt balance requires exquisitely precise measurement of gravity in a laboratory (see “FG‑5 absolute gravimeter” in External images, below). For instance, the NIST compensates for earth’s gravity gradient of 3.09µGal per centimeter when the elevation of the center of the gravimeter differs from that of the nearby test mass in the watt balance; a change in the weight of a one-kilogram test mass of about 3.16µg/cm. As of April 2007, the NIST’s implementation of the watt balance was demonstrating a combined relative standard uncertainty (CRSU) at 68% probability of 36µg and a short-term resolution of µg. The UK’s National Physical Laboratory’s watt balance was demonstrating a CRSU of 70.3µg as of 2007. "An initial measurement of Planck's constant using the NPL Mark II watt balance", I.A. Robinson et al., Metrologia 44 (2007), NPL: NPL Watt Balance Ultimately, the watt balance would define the kilogram in terms of the Planck constant, which is a measure that relates the energy of photons to their frequency. The Planck constant would be fixed, where (from the 2006 CODATA value of ) and the kilogram would be defined as “the mass of a body at rest whose equivalent energy equals the energy of photons whose frequencies sum to .” Gravity is measured with exceptional precision with the help of a laser interferometer. The laser’s pattern of interference fringes—the dark and light bands above—blooms at an ever faster rate as a free-falling corner reflector drops inside an absolute gravimeter. The pattern’s frequency sweep is timed by an atomic clock. The virtue of electronic realizations like the watt balance is that the definition and dissemination of the kilogram would no longer be dependent upon the stability of kilogram prototypes, which must be very carefully handled and stored. It would free physicists from the need to rely on assumptions about the stability of those prototypes, including those that would be manufactured under atom-counting schemes. Instead, hand-tuned, close-approximation mass standards would simply be weighed and documented as being equal to one kilogram plus an offset value. With scales, the kilogram would not only be defined in electrical terms, it would also be delineated in electrical terms. Mass artifacts calibrated in a watt balance would effectively become transfer standards. Further, one additional term in all scale-based realizations—acceleration due to gravity—is currently measured using dropping-mass absolute gravimeters that contain an iodine-stabilized helium-neon laser interferometer. The fringe-signal, frequency-sweep output from the interferometer is measured with a rubidium atomic clock. Thus, the ‘gravity’ term in the delineation of an all-electronic kilogram would also be measured relative to invariants of nature. Scales like the watt balance also permit more flexibility in choosing materials with especially desirable properties for mass standards. For instance, Pt10Ir could continue to be used so that the specific gravity of newly produced mass standards would be the same as existing national primary and check standards (≈21.55g/ml). This would reduce the relative uncertainty when making mass comparisons in air. Alternately, entirely different materials and constructions could be explored with the objective of producing mass standards with greater stability. For instance, osmium-iridium alloys could be investigated if platinum’s propensity to absorb hydrogen (due to catalysis of VOCs and hydrocarbon-based cleaning solvents) and atmospheric mercury proved to be sources of instability. Also, vapor-deposited, protective ceramic coatings like nitrides could be investigated for their suitability to isolate these new alloys. The challenge with watt balances is not only in reducing their uncertainty, but also in making them truly practical realizations of the kilogram. Nearly every aspect of watt balances and their support equipment requires such extraordinarily precise and accurate, state-of-the-art technology that—unlike a device like an atomic clock—few countries would currently choose to fund their operation. For instance, the NIST’s watt balance used four resistance standards, each of which was rotated through the watt balance every two to six weeks after being calibrated in a different part of NIST headquarters facility in Gaithersburg, Maryland. It was found that simply moving the resistance standards down the hall to the watt balance after calibration altered their values 10ppb (equivalent to 10µg) or more. Present-day technology is insufficient to permit stable operation of watt balances between even biannual calibrations. If the kilogram is defined in terms of the Planck constant, it is likely there will only be a few—at most—watt balances initially operating in the world. Ampere-based force A magnet floating above a superconductor bathed in liquid nitrogen demonstrates perfect diamagnetic levitation via the Meissner effect. Experiments with an ampere-based definition of the kilogram flipped this arrangement upside-down: an electric field accelerated a superconducting test mass supported by fixed magnets. This approach would define the kilogram as “the mass which would be accelerated at precisely when subjected to the per-meter force between two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, placed one meter apart in vacuum, through which flow a constant current of (≈6,241,509,647,120,417,390) elementary charges per second.” Effectively, this would define the kilogram as a derivative of the ampere rather than present relationship, which defines the ampere as a derivative of the kilogram. This redefinition of the kilogram would result from defining the elementary charge (e) as precisely coulomb rather than the current 2006 CODATA value of . This would effectively define the coulomb as being the sum of 6,241,509,647,120,417,390 elementary charges. It would necessarily follow that the ampere would be an electrical current of this precise quantity of elementary charges per second passing a given point in an electric circuit. The virtue of a practical realization based upon this definition is that unlike the watt balance and other scale-based methods, all of which require the careful characterization of gravity in the laboratory, this method delineates the magnitude of the kilogram directly in the very terms that define the nature of mass: acceleration due to an applied force. Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to develop a practical realization based upon accelerating masses. Experiments over a period of years in Japan with a superconducting, 30g mass supported by diamagnetic levitation never achieved an uncertainty better than ten parts per million. Magnetic hysteresis was one of the limiting issues. Other groups are continuing this line of research using different techniques to levitate the mass. R. Steiner, A Watt Balance On Its Side, NIST, 24 September 2007. SI multiples Because SI prefixes may not be concatenated (serially linked) within the name or symbol for a unit of measure, SI prefixes are used with the gram, not the kilogram, which already has a prefix as part of its name.<ref>BIPM: SI Brochure: Section 3.2, The kilogram</ref> For instance, one-millionth of a kilogram is 1mg (one milligram), not 1µkg (one microkilogram). When the Greek lowercase “µ” (mu) in the symbol of microgram is typographically unavailable, it is occasionally—although not properly—replaced by Latin lowercase “u”. The microgram is often abbreviated “mcg”, particularly in pharmaceutical and nutritional supplement labeling, to avoid confusion since the “µ” prefix is not well recognized outside of technical disciplines. The practice of using the abbreviation “mcg” rather than the SI symbol “µg” was formally mandated for medical practitioners in 2004 by the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) in their “Do Not Use” List: Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Symbols because hand-written expressions of “µg” can be confused with “mg”, resulting in a thousand-fold overdosing. The mandate was also adopted by the Institute for Safe Medication Practices. Note however, that the abbreviation “mcg”, is also the symbol for an obsolete CGS unit of measure known as the “millicentigram”, which is equal to 10µg. The unit name “megagram” is rarely used, and even then, typically only in technical fields in contexts where especially rigorous consistency with the units of measure is desired. For most purposes, the unit “tonne” is instead used. The tonne and its symbol, t, were adopted by the CIPM in 1879. It is a non-SI unit accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI. In English speaking countries it is usually called “metric ton”. BIPM: SI Brochure: Section 4.1, Non-SI units accepted for use with the SI, and units based on fundamental {{nowrap|constants: Table 6}} Note also that the unit name “megatonne” or “megaton” (Mt) is often used in general-interest literature on greenhouse gas emissions whereas the equivalent value in scientific papers on the subject is often the “teragram” (Tg). Glossary Abstracted: Isolated and its effect changed in form, often simplified or made more accessible in the process. Artifact: A simple human-made object used directly as a comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity. Check standard: A standard body’s backup replica of the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK). A secondary kilogram mass standard used as a stand-in for the primary standard during routine calibrations. Definition: A formal, specific, and exact specification. Delineation: The physical means used to mark a boundary or express the magnitude of an entity. Disseminate: To widely distribute the magnitude of a unit of measure, typically via replicas and transfer standards. IPK: Abbreviation of “International Prototype Kilogram” (CG image), the  mass artifact in France internationally recognized as having the defining mass of precisely one kilogram. Magnitude: The extent or numeric value of a property National prototype: A replica of the IPK possessed by a nation. Practical realization: A readily reproducible apparatus to conveniently delineate the magnitude of a unit of measure. Primary national standard: A replica of the IPK possessed by a nation The least used replica of the IPK when a nation possesses more than one. Prototype: A human-made object that serves as the defining comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity. A human-made object that serves as the comparative standard in the measurement of a physical quantity. The IPK and any of its replicas Replica: An official copy of the IPK. Sister copy: One of six official copies of the IPK that are stored in the same safe as the IPK and are used as check standards by the BIPM. Transfer standard: An artifact or apparatus that reproduces the magnitude of a unit of measure in a different, usually more practical, form. See also 1795 in science 1799 in science Inertia International System of Units (SI) International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) Gram Grave (orig. name of the kilogram, history of) Gravimetry Kilogram-force Litre Metric system Mass Mass versus weight National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Newton SI base units Standard gravity Tonne (metric ton) Watt balance Weight Notes References External links National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST): NIST Improves Accuracy of ‘Watt Balance’ Method for Defining the Kilogram The U.K.’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL): An overview of the problems with an artifact-based kilogram NPL: Avogadro Project NPL: NPL watt balance Metrology in France: Watt balance Australian National Measurement Institute: Redefining the kilogram through the Avogadro constant International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM): Home page NZZ Folio: What a kilogram really weighs NPL: What are the differences between mass, weight, force and load? BBC: Getting the measure of a kilogram'' be-x-old:Кіляграм

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KLM

KLM Royal Dutch Airlines (Dutch: Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maatschappij, literally Royal Aviation Company; usual English translation: Royal Dutch Airlines) is the national airline of the Netherlands and is part of Air France-KLM. KLM's headquarters is in Amstelveen, the Netherlands, near its hub Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. KLM operates domestic and worldwide scheduled passenger and cargo services to more than 90 destinations. Its main base is Amsterdam Schiphol Airport. KLM is the oldest airline in the world still operating under its original name. It has 30,118 employees (as of March 2007). The merging of KLM with Air France in May 2004 created Air France-KLM. Air France-KLM is incorporated under French law with headquarters at Roissy-Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris, France. Both Air France and KLM continue to fly under their distinct brand names. Air France-KLM is part of the SkyTeam alliance with Delta Air Lines, Aeroméxico, Korean Air, Czech Airlines, Alitalia, Northwest Airlines, Aeroflot, China Southern Airlines and Continental Airlines. History A 1919 advertisement The "Worldwide Reliability" logo with Northwest Airlines, 1993-2002 KLM was founded on 7 October 1919, making it the oldest carrier in the world still operating under its original name, though the company stopped operating during the Second World War - apart from the operations in the Dutch Antilles in the Caribbean. The first KLM flight was on 17 May 1920, from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. It was flown by an Aircraft Transport and Travel Airco DH.16, callsign G-EALU, piloted by Jerry Shaw. In 1920 KLM carried 440 passengers and 22 tons of freight. In 1921 KLM started scheduled services. By 1926 it was offering flights to Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Brussels, Paris, London, Bremen, Copenhagen, and Malmo; using primarily Fokker F2 & Fokker F.III. (Dutch) Albert Heijn, ed (1969) KL-50 - logboek van vijftig jaar vliegen. Meijer, Amsterdam. KLM was also the first airline to fly to Manchester Airport, using a DC-2 via Doncaster. Intercontinental service to the Netherlands East Indies (today's Republic of Indonesia) started in 1929. This was for several years the world's longest scheduled route. The service used Fokker F.VIIb, although the first non-scheduled KLM flight had been in 1924 by Fokker F7 registration H-NACC piloted by Van der Hoop. In 1930 KLM carried 15,143 passengers. The first transatlantic KLM route was between Amsterdam and Curaçao in December 1934 using the Fokker F-XVIII "Snip." In the 1940s the KLM was the only civilian airline operating the Douglas DC-5. On 21 May 1946, KLM was the first continental European airline to launch scheduled service to New York. In 1950 KLM carried 356,069 passengers. On 25 July 1957, the airline introduced its first flight simulator for the Douglas DC-7C - the last KLM aircraft with piston engines - which opened the first trans-polar route from Amsterdam via Anchorage to Tokyo on November 1, 1958. Each crew flying the transpolar route over the Arctic was equipped with a winter survival kit, including a 7.62 mm selective-fire AR-10 carbine for use against polar bears in the event the plane was forced down onto the polar ice. Pikula, Sam (Major), The ArmaLite AR-10, Regnum Publications (1998), p. 73 KLM Boeing 737-800 In March 1960, KLM introduced the first Douglas DC-8 jet into its fleet. In 1966, KLM introduced the Douglas DC-9 on European and Middle East routes. The new terminal buildings at Schiphol Airport opened in April 1967 and in 1968, the Douglas DC-8-63 entered service. With 244 seats it was the largest airliner of the time. KLM was the first airline to put the higher gross-weight Boeing 747-200B into service in February 1971 with Pratt & Whitney JT9D engines, beginning the era of widebody jets. In 1980, KLM carried 9,715,069 passengers. In 1983, it reached agreement with Boeing to convert some of its Boeing 747-200s to stretched upper deck configuration. The work started in 1984 at the Boeing factory in Everett, Washington and finished in 1986. The converted aircraft were called Boeing 747-200SUD, which the airline operated in addition to Boeing 747-300s. In June 1989, KLM introduced the Boeing 747-400. Later that year, in July, KLM acquired 20 per cent of Northwest Airlines, starting an alliance between the two airlines. In 1990, KLM carried 16,000,000 passengers. In March 1994, KLM and Northwest Airlines introduced World Business Class on intercontinental routes, and in July 1995, KLM introduced its Boeing 767-300ER. In March and June 2002, KLM announced it would renew its intercontinental fleets by replacing the Boeing 767s, Boeing 747-300s, and eventually the McDonnell Douglas MD-11 with Boeing 777-200ERs and Airbus A330-200s. Some 747s will be first to retire. The MD-11s will remain in service until 2014/2015. The first Boeing 777 was received on October 25, 2003, entering commercial service on the Amsterdam-Toronto route, while the first Airbus A330-200 was introduced on August 25, 2005 and entered commercial service on the Amsterdam-Washington Dulles route. In March 2007 KLM started using the Amadeus reservation system, along with partner Kenya Airways. Corporate organization KLM Cityhopper Fokker 100 KLM is listed on the stock exchanges of Amsterdam, New York and Paris. Subsidiaries: KLM Cityhopper (formerly: NLM Cityhopper) KLM Cargo KLM Flight Academy Transavia Airlines, wholly owned low cost subsidiary of KLM 26% share in Kenya Airways KLM Engineering & Maintenance Martinair, wholly owned since 31-12-2008 Former subsidiaries: KLM Helicopters KLM uk was a KLM subsidiary until merged with KLM Cityhopper. Buzz, the low-cost airline of KLM UK KLM exel, a commuter airline. KLM Asia - See KLM Asia Merger Air France-KLM On 30 September 2003, Air France and KLM announced that they would in future be known as Air France-KLM. This entity was offered on the Amsterdam Stock Exchange on 5 May 2004. The takeover by Air France marked the end of the oldest independent airline in the world. The Royal adjective will remain. Its independent identity is guaranteed to 2008, but its operations may be merged with those of the French company. In the meantime, it does not appear that KLM's longstanding joint venture with Northwest Airlines will be affected. Both KLM and Northwest joined the SkyTeam alliance in September 2004. Presidents - CEOs Albert Plesman (1919—1953) Fons Aler (1953—1961) Ernst van der Beugel (1961—1963) Horatius Albarda (1963—1965) Gerrit van der Wal (1965— 1973) Sergio Orlandini (1973—1987) Jan de Soet (1987—1991) Pieter Bouw (1991—1997) L. M. van Wijk (1997—2007) Peter Hartman (2007—present) KLM Delft Blue houses Left|Selection of KLM Delft Blue HousesSince 1952, KLM has presented its long-haul first-class passengers with small Delftware, blue-and-white porcelain reproductions of old Dutch canal houses. In 1993, amidst the change-over from three to two cabins on its long-haul service, these canal houses (in Dutch, "huisjes") were made available to its "WorldBusiness Class" passengers. Initially, these houses, ranging in size from 5 to 11 cm. (about 2 to 4 inches) were filled with Rynbende jenever (a Dutch liquor and precursor to gin made from juniper berries); once Rynbende (Simon Rynbende & Sons) was acquired by Henkes, the houses were filled with Henkes jenever, and when that company was acquired by Bols, they became filled with Bols jenever. http://www.xs4all.nl/~wiltheo/rynbende.htm The impetus for these houses was a rule aimed at curtailing a previously-widespread practice of offering significant incentives to passengers by limiting the value of gifts given by airlines to 75 US cents; however, no limit was placed on the provisions of duty-free liquor, so KLM was able to provide this more-valuable gift, camouflaged as liquor. Prior to giving out these Delft-blue liquor-filled houses, KLM gave Delft-blue tiles as gifts, but these tiles broke the 75 cent limits. A KLM crew in Suriname, who flew Guinness record-holder Maurizio Giuliano just after he broke the record to become the youngest person to visit all sovereign nations of the world Maurizio Giuliano, The Stamp Collector, Journalist (British magazine), April 2004 There are 88 different houses as of 2008, with an additional house added every year on the 7th of October; this being the anniversary of KLM's founding (KLM, the world's oldest commercial airline, being 88 years old in 2008), each numbered and representing the number of years KLM has been in operation. Each year, a new house receives the next sequential number. All houses are reproductions of historic houses in the Netherlands or its overseas dependencies, although the specific location of every archetype of some of the first ten huisjes was not recorded. In addition to the 88 standard houses, sealed and filled with jenever (with numerous variations on the wording on the bottom or back of the houses in different manufacturing batches and with different jenever manufacturer names), there are variants that are not filled with gin, which are distributed to passengers on certain long-haul flights to Islamic countries who forbid import or export of liquor. In 2006 when, in response to terrorist activities, liquids were banned or restricted on various flights, KLM's trans-Atlantic flights to the United States briefly also offered the same liquor-free huisjes. Until the early 1980s, the houses distributed on those routes were packaged as "ashtrays" with an open chimney and a semi-circular hole cut into the rear of the house, ostensibly for a cigarette. Additional, larger, special Delftware have periodically been offered to VIPs and honeymoon couples; for most of the 1980s and 1990s, this was a model of the Royal Palace; since 2003, this was the "Waag." These are particularly prized by collectors and at auctions they are often valued at about $1000. Destinations and routes KLM is the only carrier on 61 of the routes it operates, representing 45% of its ASKs from the airport. On around 14% of flights (10 routes) it faces competition from two other airlines. Seven of these routes are within Europe (Copenhagen, London Heathrow, Milan Malpensa, Oslo, Prague, Stockholm Arlanda and Vienna) the other three being Curaçao, Toronto and Tripoli. The only route on which KLM faces three competitors is Barcelona where clickair, Transavia.com and Vueling all provide competition. Fleet The KLM fleet consists of the following aircraft: http://vervoer.ivw.nl/en/lucht/luchttechbed/Luchtvaartuigregister/index.jsp The KLM cityhopper fleet is stated on the KLM Cityhopper page. + KLM Passenger Fleet Fleet | KLM Corporate <font color=white>Aircraft<font color=white>In Service<font color=white>Orders<font color=white>Passengers (WBC or ES* / Economy)<font color=white>RoutesAirbus A330-200102251 (30/221)Africa, Middle East, North America Boeing 737-300100127 (39/88)EuropeBoeing 737-400120147 (39/108)EuropeBoeing 737-70049129 (45/84)Europe Boeing 737-800210171 (57/114)Europe, Middle EastBoeing 737-90050189 (51/138)Europe, Middle EastBoeing 747-40050428 (42/386)Africa, Asia, Caribbean (occasionally), North America, South AmericaBoeing 747-400M170280 (42/238)Africa, Asia, North America, South America Boeing 777-200ER150327 (35/292)Africa, Asia, Middle East, North America, South AmericaBoeing 777-300ER35 Boeing 777 orders and deliveries as of April,2009 425 (35/390)São Paulo,lima, Manila, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Dar es Salaam, KilimanjaroMcDonnell-Douglas MD-11100294 (24/270)Africa, Asia, Caribbean, North America, South AmericaTotal11116 + KLM Cargo Fleet<font color=white>Aircraft<font color=white>In Service<font color=white>Orders<font color=white>Capacity<font color=white>RoutesBoeing 747-400ERF40Only cargoTotal40 * Europe Select (ES) is offered on European short-medium haul flights using narrow-body aircraft. A movable bulkhead is used to vary the number of seats in Europe Select on Boeing 737 aircraft, depending on demand. World Business Class (WBC) is offered on International medium-long haul flight using wide-body aircraft. ** A movable curtain is used to vary the number of seats assigned as Europe Select and Economy. All seats, regardless of class, are exactly the same with the exception of a different colour headrest (red for economy and blue for frontward ES seats). Cabin Boeing 777-200ER World Business Class Boeing 777-200ER Economy Class Boeing 777-300ER Economy Class KLM offers Business Class and Economy class on its aircraft. On shorthaul aircraft, Flexible Business Class is called Europe Select, while on longhaul aircraft Business Class is called World Business Class. World Business Class World Business Class offers a 60 inch pitch on all longhaul aircraft. All aircraft offer a 170 degree angled lie-flat seat with a 10.4" TV monitor with AVOD (Audio Video on Demand), email/text messaging, a privacy canopy, a massage function, and laptop power ports. KLM's newest addition to the fleet, the Boeing 777-300ER features the same Business Class seat as merger partner Air France. All WBC seats offer personal reading lamps, leg/foot rests, and personal telephones (At the back of the controller) Pre-departure facilities include a fully flexible reservation, check-in desks, lounge access, priority boarding, and 150% Flying Blue miles. Onboard, passengers are given a three course meal with menus, pre-departure beverages, and snacks, which are available throughout the flight. Europe Select Europe Select, KLM's premium product on shorter sectors, is offered on flights operated by Boeing 737 equipment. It offers a 33 inch pitch, a meal service on board (hot or cold meals depend on the length of the flight), priority boarding, extra baggage allowance, double Flying Blue miles, and fully flexible booking. Boeing 737-800 landing Economy Class Economy Class offers a 31" pitch on all long haul aircraft except the Airbus A330-200, which offers a 32" pitch. Every wide-bodied aircraft offers personal TVs with AVOD and personal telephones (on the back of the controller), and an email/text messaging function. On short haul European flights on KLM and KLM Cityhopper, aircraft have no in flight entertainment, and contain a seat pitch of around 30 or 31". Passengers flying Economy Class long-haul routes outside of Europe receive a hot meal service (often more than one depending on the flight duration), with real metal cutlery. Passengers flying within Europe in KLM Economy Class receive a snack to suit the time of day. Freshly prepared sandwiches made the day of flight served on most morning flights. Drinks (including alcohol) are free on KLM for all passengers, with the exception of champagne. http://www.klm.com/travel/gb_en/travel_information/on_board/travel_classes/index.htm#3 KLM will also start the installation of IFE in the Economy section of all B747s, this is due to start in mid 2009. KLM's 777-300ER economy seats are ten-abreast seats, unlike its 777-200ERs and most 777 aircraft operating around the world where it is nine-abreast. It is one of the few carriers to operate 777s with ten-abreast seating, along with Air France, Emirates Airline, China Southern Airlines and the Japanese domestic services by the two Japanese airlines (All Nippon Airways and Japan Airlines). Codeshare agreements As of April 2009, KLM has codeshare agreements with the following airlines: KLM Codeshare Agreements KLM - SkyTeam Alliance Logo Aer Lingus Aeroflot Aeroméxico Aircalin (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only, AF has codeshare) Airlinair Air Europa Air France Alaska Airlines Alitalia Avianca (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only) Bangkok Airways (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme, redeem Only) Bulgaria Air CCM Airlines (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only, AF has codeshare) China Southern Airlines CityJet Comair Continental Airlines Copa Airlines Cyprus Airways Czech Airlines Delta Air Lines Estonian Air Gulf Air Japan Airlines (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only, AF has codeshare) Jet Airways (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only) Kenya Airways Kingfisher Airlines (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only) Korean Air Malaysia Airlines Malév Hungarian Airlines Meridiana Middle East Airlines (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only) Northwest Airlines Qantas (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme, redeem Only) TAAG Angola Airlines (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only) TAM Airlines Twin Jet (Flying Blue frequent flyer programme only) Ukraine International Airlines WestJet KLM Asia KLM Asia (荷蘭亞洲航空公司 Hanyu Pinyin: Hélán Yàzhōu Hángkōng Gōngsī) was a wholly KLM owned subsidiary, registered in Taiwan, Republic of China. The airline was established in 1995 in order to operate flights to Taipei, without compromising the traffic rights held by KLM for destinations in the People's Republic of China. KLM Asia is no longer in operation but its aircraft still fly in the KLM Asia livery. The livery of KLM Asia does not feature Dutch national symbols, such as the Flag of the Netherlands or a stylised Crown of the Netherlands' Monarchy. Instead, it features a special KLM Asia logo. KLM Asia fleet KLM Asia 747-400 Combi KLM Asia Boeing 747-400 Combi registration PH-BFC "City of Calgary" KLM Asia has 6 Boeing 747-400 Combi aircraft (included in the KLM fleet as 747-400M). PH-BFC - City of Calgary PH-BFD - City of Dubai PH-BFF - City of Freetown PH-BFH - City of Hong Kong PH-BFM - Mexico City PH-BFP - City of Paramaribo Incidents and accidents For sourcing and full list of accidents from 1943 see:Aviation safety database This list does not include KLM cityhopper, which had a single accident involving fatalities in 1994. The most notable accident in which a KLM flight has been involved was the 1977 Tenerife disaster. After this accident KLM flights have not lead to fatalities. Accidents involving fatalities On December 20, 1934, KLM Douglas DC-2, PH-AJU "Uiver" crashed at Rutbah Wells, Iraq, killing all occupants. It participated in the Mac Robertson Air Race in October 1934 and won the handicap division. It had returned to the Netherlands in November and the crew were heroes. It was on its first flight after return from the race and was enroute to the Netherlands Indies carrying the Christmas mail. On July 14, 1935, KLM Fokker F.XXII PH-AJQ "Kwikstaart" crashed and burned just outside Schiphol, killing four crew and two passengers - 14 other occupants survived. On July 20, 1935, KLM Douglas DC-2, PH-AKG "Gaai" crashed in an Alpine pass in the San Bernardino Pass near Pian San Giacomo, killing all three crew and all ten passengers. On December 28, 1941, KNILM Douglas DC-3, PK-ALN (formerly KLM PH-ALN) "Nandoe" was destroyed on the ground by Japanese fighters at Medan, North Sumatra, Dutch East Indies, killing all crew members and passengers. On November 14, 1946 - A KLM Douglas C-47 crashed at Schiphol Airport, caused by a failed landing in bad weather. All 21 passengers and the 5 crew were killed. One passenger was the Dutch writer Herman de Man. On January 26, 1947, KLM Douglas Dakota PH-TCR crashed after takeoff from Copenhagen, killing all 22 onboard, including Prince Gustaf Adolf of Sweden. On October 20, 1948, KLM Lockheed Constellation PH-TEN "Nijmegen" crashed near Prestwick, Scotland, killing all 40 aboard. (see KLM Constellation air disaster 1948) On 23 June 1949, KLM Lockheed Constellation PH-TER "Roermond", piloted by Hans Plesman (the son of CEO Albert Plesman crashed into the sea off Bari, killing 33 occupants. De Tijd (Netherlands) 24 June 1949, cited in Heijn (1969) On 12 July 1949, KLM Lockheed Constellation PH-TDF "Franeker" crashed into a 674ft Ghatkopar hill near Bombay, India, killing all 45 aboard. Thirteen of the dead were American news correspondents. On March 22, 1952, a KLM Douglas DC-7 PH-TBJ crashed in Frankfurt, killing 42 of 47 occupants . On August 23, 1954; a KLM Douglas DC-6B, PH-DFO "Willem Bontekoe", crashed between Shannon and Schiphol in the North Sea, 40 km from IJmuiden - all 21 passengers and crew died. On September 5, 1954, Flight 633, a Lockheed Super Constellation, PH-LKY ditched in the River Shannon after takeoff from Shannon Airport, Ireland. 28 out of 56 people on board (46 passengers and 10 crew) were killed. In 1957 a KLM Super Constellation PH-LKT crashed in the sea near Biak, after takeoff from Mokmer airport at Biak on its way to Manilla. The pilot made a low farewell flypass over the island, but the aircraft lost altitude, crashed into the sea and exploded. Nine crew and 49 passengers died. Twenty two passengers were rescued, of whom two died later. On August 14, 1958, KLM Flight 607-E, a Lockheed Super Constellation, PH-LKM en route from Amsterdam to New York, via Shannon Airport, crashed into the ocean 180 km off the coast of Co. Galway, Ireland. 91 passengers and 8 crew members perished. On March 27, 1977, Flight 4805, a Boeing 747-206B, PH-BUF & Pan Am Flight 1736, a Boeing 747-121, N736PA, collided at Tenerife North Airport, Canary Islands, killing 583 people. The incident has the highest number of fatalities (excluding ground fatalities) of any single accident in aviation history. Notable incidents without fatalities On July 17, 1935, KLM DC-2 PH-AKM "Maraboe" crashed near Bushehr, Iran. All occupants were rescued. De Telegraaf 17 Jul 1935, cited in Heijn (1969) On March 23, 1952, a KLM Lockheed Constellation, PH-TFF "Venlo", suffered a propeller failure and subsequent engine fire during landing in Bangkok. All 44 passengers and crew escaped shortly before the fire completely consumed the plane. A Thai ground crewman ran into the burning aircraft and returned with an infant who had been left behind. KLM PH-TFF Bangkok Crash On December 15, 1989, KLM Flight 867, a Boeing 747-400, PH-BFC flew through a volcanic plume causing nearly US$80 million worth of damage to the then brand-new aircraft. The plane landed in Anchorage, Alaska, with no reported injuries or fatalities. Aviation Safety Network NTSB On November 28, 2004, KLM Flight 1673, a Boeing 737-400, PH-BTC had a birdstrike upon rotation from Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The plane continued onwards to Barcelona International Airport, where the nose gear collapsed. No injuries or casualties; the aircraft was written off. References External links KLM official website Holland Herald inflight magazine Air France KLM Finance

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Nutcracker

A nutcracker with a functional design A nutcracker is a mechanical device for cracking nuts. Usually they work on the principle of moments as described in Archimedes' analysis of the lever. The earliest use of the term nutcracker in English dates to 1481. Functional Manufacturers produce modern nutcrackers — designed solely to crack nuts — usually somewhat resembling pliers, but with the pivot point at the end beyond the nut, rather than in the middle. These are also used for cracking the shells of crab and lobster in order to make the meat inside available for eating. Parrots use their beaks as natural nutcrackers, in much the same way smaller birds crack seeds. In this case, the pivot point stands opposite the nut, at the jaw. Decorative A variety of figure nutcrackers Nutcrackers in the form of wooden carvings of a soldier, knight, king, or other profession have existed since at least the 15th century. These nutcrackers portray a person with a large mouth which the operator opens by lifting a lever in the back of the figurine. Originally one could insert a nut in the big-toothed mouth, press down and thereby crack the nut. Modern nutcrackers in this style serve mostly for decoration, mainly at Christmas time. The ballet The Nutcracker derives its name from this festive holiday decoration. The shaving of nutcrackers—as well as of religious figures and of cribs—developed as a cottage industry in forested rural areas of Germany. The most famous nutcracker carvings come from Sonneberg in Thuringia (also a center of dollmaking) and from the Ore Mountains. Wood-carving usually provided the only income for the people living there. Today the travel industry supplements their income by bringing visitors to the remote areas. Steinbach Nutcrackers have become popular in the United States as well, and a recreated "Bavarian village" of Leavenworth, Washington even features a Nutcracker Museum. Many other materials also serve to make decorated nutcrackers, such as porcelain, silver, and brass; the museum displays samples. Carvings by famous names like Junghanel, Klaus Mertens, Karl, Olaf Kolbe, Petersen, Christian Ulbricht and especially the Steinbach nutcrackers have become collectors' items. The United States Postal Service (USPS) in October 2008 issued four stamps with Nutcrackers for the first time. These featured custom-made Nutcrackers made by Richmond, Virginia artist Glenn Crider nutcrackerus.com External links Smithsonian Museum Nutcracker's Leavenworth Nutcracker Museum Steinbach Nutcrackers History of Christian Ulbricht Nutcrackers

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Comedy_film

Comedy film is a genre of film in which the main emphasis is on humor. Also, films in this style typically have a happy ending (the black comedy being an exception). One of the oldest genres in film, some of the very first silent movies were comedies. Comedy, unlike other film genres, puts much more focus on individual stars, with many former stand-up comic transitioning to the film industry due to their popularity. While many comedic films are lighthearted stories with no intent other than to amuse, others contain political or social commentary (such as Wag the Dog and Man of the Year). Types A comedy of manners film satirises the manners and affectations of a social class, often represented by stock characters. The plot of the comedy is often concerned with an illicit love affair or some other scandal. However, the plot is generally less important than its witty dialogue. This form of comedy has a long ancestry, dating back at least as far as Much Ado about Nothing by William Shakespeare. In a "fish out of water"-style comedy, the main character (or characters) finds himself in an unusual environment, which drives most of the humor. Situations can be swapping gender roles, as in Tootsie (1982); an age changing role, as in Big (1988); a freedom-loving individual fitting into a structured environment, as in Police Academy (1984); a rural backwoodsman in the big city, as in Crocodile Dundee, and so forth. A parody or spoof film is a comedy that satirizes other film genres or classic films. Such films employ sarcasm, stereotyping, mockery of scenes from other films, and the obviousness of meaning in a character's actions. Examples of this form include Blazing Saddles (1974), Airplane! (1980), and Young Frankenstein (1974). The anarchic comedy film uses nonsensical, stream-of-consciousness humor which often tampons a form of authority. Films of this nature stem from a theatrical history of anarchic comedy on the stage. Well-known films of this sub-genre include Duck Soup (1933), [[National Lampo The black comedy film deals with normally taboo subjects, including, death, murder, suicide and war, in a satirical manner. Examples include Arsenic and Old Lace (1944), Monsieur Verdoux (1947), Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949), The Ladykillers (1955), Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964), The Loved One (1965), MASH (1970), Monty Python's The Meaning of Life (1983), The War of the Roses (1989), Heathers (1989), Keeping Mum (2005), and Burn After Reading (2008). Gross-out films are a relatively recent development, and rely heavily on vulgar, sexual or "toilet" humour. Examples include Porky's (1982), Dumb and Dumber (1994), There's Something About Mary (1998), and American Pie (1999). The romantic comedy sub-genre typically involves the development of a relationship between a man and a woman. The stereotyped plot line follows the "boy-gets-girl", "boy-loses-girl", "boy gets girl back again" sequence. Naturally there are innumerable variants to this plot, and much of the generally light-hearted comedy lies in the social interactions and sexual tensions between the pair. Examples of this style of film include It's a Wonderful World (1939), The Shop Around the Corner (1940), Sabrina (1954), When Harry Met Sally... (1989), Pretty Woman (1990), and Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994). It was not uncommon for the early romantic comedy film to also be a screwball comedy film. This form of comedy film was particularly popular during the 1930s and 1940s. There is no consensus definition of this film style, and it is often loosely applied to slapstick or romantic comedy films. Typically it can include a romantic element, an interplay between people of different economic strata, quick and witty repartee, some form of role reversal, and a happy ending. Some examples of the screwball comedy are: It Happened One Night (1934), Bringing Up Baby (1938), Philadelphia Story (1940), His Girl Friday (1940), and more recently What's Up, Doc? (1972). Hybrid genres Action comedy films blend comic antics and action where the film stars combine wit and one-liners with a thrilling plot and daring stunts. The genre became a specific draw in North America in the eighties when comedians such as Eddie Murphy started taking more action oriented roles such as in 48 Hours and Beverly Hills Cop. These type of films are often buddy films, with mismatched partners such as in Midnight Run, Rush Hour and Hot Fuzz. Slapstick martial arts films became a mainstay of Hong Kong action cinema through the work Jackie Chan among others. It may also focus on superheroes such as The Incredibles & Hancock. Comedy horror is a type of horror film in which the usual dark themes are treated with a humorous approach. These films are either use goofy horror clichés such as in The Old Dark House, Young Frankenstein, Little Shop of Horrors, Haunted Mansion and Scary Movie where campy styles are favoured. Some are much more subtle and don't parody horror, such as Shaun of the Dead. Another style of comedy horror can also rely on over the top violence and gore such as in Dead Alive (1992), Evil Dead (1981), and Club Dread. Fantasy comedy films are types of films that uses magic, supernatural and or mythological figures for comic purposes. Most fantasy comedy includes an element of parody, or satire, turning many of the fantasy conventions on their head such as the hero becoming a cowardly fool, the princess being a klutz. Examples of these films include Being John Malkovich, Princess Bride, Night at the Museum, Groundhog Day, Click and Shrek. Sci-fi comedy films, like most hybrid genre of comedy use the elements of science fiction films to over the top extremes and exaggerated science fiction stereotypical characters. Popular examples of these types of films include Back to the Future, Ghostbusters, Evolution, Innerspace, Galaxy Quest, Mars Attacks!, and Men in Black. Military comedy films, involve comic situations in a military setting. Examples of military comedy are The Secret War of Harry Frigg, What Did You Do in the War, Daddy?, Stripes, Up the Academy, MASH, Private Benjamin, The Wackiest Ship in the Army, Tropic Thunder, The Private War of Major Benson, and the boisterous Flagg and Quirt movies. History 1895–1930 Comedic films began to appear in significant numbers during the era of silent films, roughly 1895 to 1930. The visual humor of these silent films relied on slapstick and burlesque. A very early comedy short was Watering the Gardener (1895) by the Lumière brothers. In American film, the most prominent comic actors of the silent era were Charlie Chaplin (although born in England, his success was principally in the U.S.), Buster Keaton and Harold Lloyd. In his native France and throughout the world, Max Linder was a major comic feature and might qualify as the first true film star. A popular trend during the 1920s and afterward was comedy in the form of animated cartoons. Several popular characters of the period received the cartoon treatment. Among these were Felix the Cat, Krazy Kat, and Betty Boop. 1930–1950s Toward the end of the 1920s, the introduction of sound into movies made possible dramatic new film styles and the use of verbal humor. During the 1930s the silent film comedy was replaced by dialogue from film comedians such as the W. C. Fields and the Marx Brothers. The comedian Charlie Chaplin was one of the last silent film hold-outs, and his films during the 1930s were devoid of dialogue, although they did employ sound effects. Screwball comedies, such as produced by Frank Capra, exhibited a pleasing, idealised climate that portrayed reassuring social values and a certain optimism about everyday life. Movies still included slapstick humor and other physical comedy, but these were now frequently supplemental to the verbal interaction. Another common comedic production from the 1930s was the short subject. Hal Roach Studio specialized in this form. While Columbia was prolific, producing 190 Three Stooges releases, alone. These non-feature productions only went into decline in the 1950s when they were migrated to the television. In the United Kingdom, film adaptations of stage farces were popular in the early 1930s, while the music hall tradition strongly influenced film comedy into the 1940s with Will Hay and George Formby among the top comedy stars of the time. In England in the late 1940s, Ealing Studios achieved popular success as well as critical acclaim with a series of films known collectively as the "Ealing comedies", from 1946 to 1956. They usually included a degree of social comment, and featured ensemble casts which often included Alec Guinness or Stanley Holloway. Among the most famous examples were Kind Hearts and Coronets (1949), The Lavender Hill Mob (1951) and The Ladykillers (1955). With the entry of the United States into World War II, Hollywood became focused on themes related to the conflict. Comedies portrayed military themes such as service, civil defense, boot-camp and shore-leave. The war-time restrictions on travel made this a boom time for Hollywood, and nearly a quarter of the money spent on attending movies. The post-war period was an age of reflection on the war, and the emergence of a competing medium, the television. In 1948 TV began to acquire commercial momentum and by the following year there were nearly a hundred television transmitters in American cities. By the 1950s the television industry had become a serious competition for the movie industry. Despite the technological limitations of the TV medium at the time, more and more people chose to stay home to watch the television. The Hollywood studios at first viewed the TV as a threat, and later as a commercial market. Several comedic forms that had previously been a staple of movie theaters transitioned to the TV. Both the short subject and the cartoon now appeared on the TV rather than in the theater, and the "B" movie also found its outlet on the television. As TV became filled with family-oriented comedies, the 1950s saw a trend toward more adult social situations. Only the Walt Disney studios continued to steadily release family comedies. The release of comedy films also went into a decline during this decade. In 1947 almost one in five films had been comedic in nature, but by 1954 this was down to ten percent. The 1950s saw the decline of past comedy stars and a certain paucity of new talent in Hollywood. Among the few popular new stars during this period were Judy Holliday and the comedy team phenom of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis. Lewis followed the legacy of such comedians as Keaton and Harold Lloyd, but his work was not well-received by critics in the United States (in contrast to France where he proved highly popular.) The British film industry produced a number of highly successful film series, however, including the Doctor series, the St. Trinian's films and the increasingly bawdy Carry on films. John and Roy Boulting also wrote and directed a series of successful satires, including Private's Progress (1956) and I'm All Right, Jack (1959). As in the United States, in the next decade much of this talent would move into television. A number of French comedians were also able to find an English speaking audience in the '50s, including Fernandel and Jacques Tati. 1960s–1980s The next decade saw an increasing number of broad, star-packed comedies including It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (1963), Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1965) and The Great Race (1965). By the middle of the decade, some of the 1950s generation of American comedians, such as Jerry Lewis, went into decline, while Peter Sellers found success with international audiences in his first American film The Pink Panther. The bumbling Inspector Clouseau was a character Sellers would continue to return to over the next decade. Toward the end of the 1950s, darker humor and more serious themes had begun to emerge, including satire and social commentary. Dr. Strangelove (1964) was a satirical comedy about Cold War paranoia, while The Apartment (1960), Alfie (1966) and The Graduate (1967) featured sexual themes in a way that would have been impossible only a few years previously. In 1970 the black comedies Catch 22 and M*A*S*H reflected the anti-war sentiment then prevalent, as well as treating the sensitive topic of suicide. M*A*S*H would be toned down and brought to television in the following decade as a long-running series. Among the leading lights in comedy films of the next decade were Woody Allen and Mel Brooks. Both wrote, directed and appeared in their movies. Brooks' style was generally slapstick and zany in nature, often parodying film styles and genres, including Universal horror films (Young Frankenstein), westerns (Blazing Saddles) and Hitchcock films (High Anxiety). Following his success on Broadway and on film with The Odd Couple playwright and screenwriter Neil Simon would also be prominent in the 1970s, with films like The Sunshine Boys and California Suite. Other notable film comedians who appeared later in the decade were Richard Pryor, Steve Martin and Burt Reynolds. Most British comedy films of the early 70s were spin-offs of television series, including Dad's Army and On the Buses. The greatest successes, however, came with the films of the Monty Python team, including And Now For Something Completely Different (1971), Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) and Monty Python's Life of Brian in 1979. In 1980 the gag-based comedy Airplane!, a spoof of the previous decade's disaster film series was released and paved the way for more of the same including Top Secret! (1984) and the Naked Gun films. Popular comedy stars in the '80s included Dudley Moore, Tom Hanks, Eddie Murphy and Dan Aykroyd. Many had come to prominence on the American TV series Saturday Night Live, including Bill Murray, Steve Martin and Chevy Chase. Eddie Murphy made a success of comedy-action films including 48 Hrs. (1982) and the Beverly Hills Cop series (1984–1993). Also popular were the films of John Hughes such as Ferris Bueller's Day Off. He would later become best-known for the Home Alone series of the early 1990s. The latter film helped a revival in comedies aimed at a family audience, along with Honey, I Shrunk the Kids and its sequels. 1990s–2000s One of the major developments of the 1990s was the re-emergence of the romantic comedy film, encouraged by the success of When Harry Met Sally... in 1989. Other examples included Sleepless in Seattle (1993), Clueless (1995) and You've Got Mail (1998) from the United States, and Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994), Sliding Doors (1998) and Notting Hill (1999) from the United Kingdom. Spoofs remained popular as well, especially with the Scary Movie series and Not Another Teen Movie. Probably more representative of British humour were the working class comedies Brassed Off (1996) and The Full Monty (1997). Other British comedies examined the role of the Asian community in British life, including Bhaji on the Beach (1993), East is East (1999), Bend It Like Beckham (2002) and Anita and Me (2003). Also there were "stoner" comedies, which usually involve two guys on an adventure with random things happening to them along the way. Big movies of this sub-genre would be Dude, Where's My Car, Harold & Kumar Go to White Castle, and Pineapple Express. These movies usually have drug-related jokes and crude content. Another development was the increasing use of "gross-out humor" usually aimed at a younger audience, in films like There's Something About Mary, American Pie and its sequels, and Freddy Got Fingered. In mid 2000s the trend of "gross-out" movies is continuing, with adult-oriented comedies picking up the box office. But serious black comedies (also known as dramatic comedies or dramedies) were performing also well, such as The Weather Man, Broken Flowers and Shopgirl. In late 2006, Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan blended vulgar humor with cultural satire. More recently, there have been more sex comedies like (mostly Judd Apatow-made) Superbad and The 40-Year-Old Virgin, which have been described as romantic comedies geared towards a male population. While most of Apatow's films have been critically acclaimed and financially successful, similar films from other camps have met with mixed results. See also AFI's 100 Years, 100 Laughs (1924–1998, list made in 2000) Humour List of British comedy films List of United States comedy films Silent comedy film Slapstick film References Thomas W. Bohn and Richard L. Stromgren, Light and Shadows: A History of Motion Pictures'', 1975, Mayfield Publishing. External links Comedy films overview Comedy films @ D1rect Movies

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Old_Turkic_alphabet

Orkhon tablet Inscription in Kyzyl using Orkhon script A copy of Göktürk (Orkhon) Epigraph in Ankara, Turkey Orkhon script The Old Turkic script (also Göktürk script, Orkhon script, Orkhon-Yenisey script; , ) is the alphabet used by the Göktürk and other early Turkic groups from at least the 8th century to record the Old Turkic language. It was later used by the Uyghur Empire. Additionally, a Yenisei variant is known from 9th-century Kyrgyz inscriptions, and it has likely cousins in the Talas Valley of Turkestan and the Old Hungarian script of the 10th century. The alphabet was usually written from right to left. The script is named after the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia, where early 8th century inscriptions were discovered in an 1889 expedition by Nikolay Yadrintsev. These Orkhon inscriptions were published by Vasily Radlov and deciphered by the Danish philologist Vilhelm Thomsen in 1893. These inscriptions are the earliest known texts in any Altaic language. Because of similarities to the angular shapes of the runic alphabet, the letters of the Orkhon script have been referred to as "Turkic runes" or described as "runiform". Examples of the Orhon-Yenisei alphabet are depicted on the reverse of the Azerbaijani 5 manat banknote issued since 2006. National Bank of Azerbaijan. National currency: 5 manat. – Retrieved on 25 March 2009. Origins Mainstream opinion derives the Orkhon script from variants of the Aramaic alphabet, in particular via the Pahlavi and Sogdian alphabets, as suggested by V.Thomsen, or possibly via Karosthi (cf., Issyk inscription). Alternative possibilities include derivation from tamgas, suggested by W. Thomsen in 1893, from the Chinese script. Turkish inscriptions dated earlier than the Orkhon inscriptions used about 150 symbols, which may suggest tamgas at first imitating the Chinese script and then gradually refined into an alphabet. The Danish hypothesis connects the script to the reports of Chinese account Shiji, vol. 110. , from a 2nd century BC Chinese Yan renegade and dignitary named Zhonghang Yue () who "taught the Shanyu (rulers of the Xiongnu) to write official letters to the Chinese court on a wooden tablet () 31 cm long, and to use a seal and large-sized folder". The same sources tell that when the Xiongnu noted down something or transmitted a message, they made cuts on a piece of wood (ko-mu), and they also mention a "Hu script". At Noin-Ula and other Hun burial sites in Mongolia and region north of Lake Baikal, the artifacts displayed over twenty carved characters. Most of these characters are either identical or very similar to the letters of the Turkic Orkhon script. N. Ishjatms, "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia", in the "History of civilizations of Central Asia", Volume 2, Fig 6, p. 166, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, p.165 Corpus The inscription corpus consists of two monuments which were erected in the Orkhon Valley between 732 and 735 in honour of the two Kokturk prince Kul Tigin and his brother the emperor Bilge Kağan, as well as inscriptions on slabs scattered in the wider area. The Orkhon monuments are the oldest known examples of Turkic writings; they are inscribed on obelisks and have been dated to 720 (for the obelisk relating to Tonyukuk), to 732 (for that relating to Kültigin), and to 735 (for that relating to Bilge Kağan). They are carved in a script used also for inscriptions found in Mongolia, Siberia, and Eastern Turkistan and called by Thomsen "Turkish runes". Encyclopædia Britannica They relate in epic language the legendary origins of the Turks, the golden age of their history, their subjugation by the Chinese, and their liberation by Bilge. The polished style of the writings suggests considerable earlier development of the Turkish language. Table of characters + Old-Turkic Alphabet (Classic age) Using Symbols Transliteration and transcriptionvowelsA , I , , O , , U , , consonantsharmonizedwith:(¹) — back,(²) — frontvowels B¹ B² D¹ D² G¹ G² L¹ L² N¹ N² R¹ R² S¹ S² T¹ T² Y¹ Y² only (¹) — Qonly (²) — K Q K with allvowels -Ç -M -P -Ş -Z -NG clusters + vowel IÇ, ÇI, Ç , , IQ, QI, Q , , OQ, UQ,QO, QU, Q, ,, , ÖK, ÜK,KÖ, KÜ, K, ,, , + consonant -NÇ -NY -LT , -NT , word-divide symbol none (-) — word endings only A reading example: — inscription (RTL) T²NGR²I — transliteration /teŋri/ — transcription teñri / tanrı — record with modern Turkic alphabet the skygod or the eternal blue sky indicating the highest god — ancient meaning The God — modern meaning Variants Variants of the script were found from Mongolia and Uyghurstan/Eastern Turkestan in the east to Balkans in the west. The preserved inscriptions were dated to between 7th and 13th centuries AD. These alphabets are divided into four groups by Kyzlasov (1994) Kyzlasov I.L.; “Writings Of Eurasian Steppes”, Eastern Literature", Moscow, 1994, 327 pp. 321-323 Asiatic group (includes Orkhon proper) Eurasiatic group Southern Europe group The Asiatic group is further divided into three related alphabets: Orkhon alphabet, Göktürk, 8-10th centuries AD Yenisei alphabet, Talas alphabet, a derivative of the Yenisei alphabet, Kangly or Karluks 8-10th centuries AD. Talas inscriptions include Terek-Say rock inscriptions found in the 1897, Koysary text, Bakaiyr gorge inscriptions, Kalbak-Tash 6 and 12 inscriptions, Talas alphabet has 29 identified letters. Kyzlasov I.L.; “Writings Of Eurasian Steppes”, Eastern Literature", Moscow, 1994, pp. 98-100 The Eurasiatic group is further divided into five related alphabets: Achiktash, Sogdiana 7-10th centuries AD South-Yenisei, Göktürk 8-10th centuries AD Don alphabet, Khazar Khaganate, 8-10th centuries AD and Kuban alphabet, Bulghars, 8th-13th centuries AD, closely related, inscriptions in both alphabets found in the Pontic steppe and on the banks of the Kama river Tisza, Badjanaks 8-10th centuries AD A number of alphabets are not completed, due to the limitations of the extant inscriptions. Great help in the studies of the Turkic scripts was received from Turkic-Chinese bi-lingual inscriptions, contemporaneous Turkic inscriptions in Greek alphabet, literal translation into Slavic language, and paper fragments with Türkic cursive writing from religion, Manichaeism, Buddhist and legal subjects of the 8-10th centuries AD found in Uyghurstan/Eastern Turkestan. See also Göktürks Old Hungarian script Uyghur alphabet Khosho Tsaidam Monuments Notes References Diringer, David. The Alphabet: a Key to the History of Mankind, New York: Philosophical Library, 1948, pp. 313–315 Février, James G. Histoire de l’écriture, Paris: Payot, 1948, pp. 311–317 Ishjatms, N. "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia", in the "History of civilizations of Central Asia", Volume 2, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, ISBN 92-3-102846-4 . Kara, György. Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages. In Daniels and *Bright, eds., The World's Writing Systems, 1996. Kyzlasov, I.L. "Runic Scripts of Eurasian Steppes", Moscow, Eastern Literature, 1994, ISBN 5-02-017741-5 Mukhamadiev, Azgar. (1995). Turanian Writing (Туранская Письменность). In Zakiev, M. Z.(Ed.), Problemy lingvoėtnoistorii tatarskogo naroda (Проблемы лингвоэтноистории татарского народа). Kazan: Akademija Nauk Tatarstana. Tekin, Talat. A Grammar of Orkhon Turkic. Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series, vol. 69 (Bloomington/The Hague: Mouton, 1968) Thomsen, Vilhelm. Inscriptions de l’Orkhon déchiffrées, Suomalais-ugrilainen seura, Helsinki Toimituksia, no. 5 Helsingfors: La société de literature Finnoise Vasil'iev, D.D. Korpus tiurkskikh runicheskikh pamyatnikov Bassina Eniseya [Corpus of the Turkic Runic Monuments of the Yenisei Basin], Leningrad: USSR Academy of Science, 1983 External links Orkhon Alphabet page from Omniglot Gokturkish Keyboard by Isa SARI glyph table (kyrgyz.ru) list of inscriptions (tonyukuk.net) Bilgitay Orhun Writer (An online converter for Latin alphabet based texts to Orhun Abece.) Michael Everson's Proposal for encoding the Old Turkic script in Unicode

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Motorola_68040

A Motorola 68040 MicroprocessorThe Motorola 68040 is a microprocessor from Motorola, released in 1990. It is the successor to the 68030 and is followed by the 68060 (the 68050 project having been abandoned.) In keeping with general Motorola naming, the 68040 is often referred to as simply the 040 (pronounced oh-forty). The stripped-down version of the 68040 that lacks the FPU is the 68LC040. In Macintosh computers, the 68040 was found mainly in the high-end Quadras. The fastest 68040 processor was clocked at 40 MHz and it was only used in the Quadra 840AV. The more expensive models in the (short-lived) mid-high Centris also used the 68040, while the cheaper Centris and Performas used the 68LC040. The 68040 was also used in other personal computers such as the Amiga 4000 and Amiga 4000T, as well as a number of Workstations and later versions of the NeXT computers. The 68040 is the first 680x0 family member with an on-chip FPU (floating point unit). It thus includes all of the functionality that previously required external chips, namely the FPU and MMU (which was added in the 030). It also has split instruction and data caches of 4 kilobytes each. It is fully pipelined, with six stages. Unfortunately the '040 ran into the transistor budget limit early in design. While the MMU did not take many transistors (indeed, having it on the same die as the CPU actually saved on transistors) the FPU certainly did. Motorola's 68882 external FPU was known as a very high performance unit and Motorola did not wish to risk integrators using the "LC" version with a 68882 rather than the more profitable full "RC" unit. (For information on Motorola's multiprocessing model with the 680x0 series, see Motorola 68020.) The FPU in the 68040 was thus made incapable of IEEE transcendental functions, which had been supported by both the 68881 and 68882 and were used by the popular fractal generating software of the time and little else. The Motorola floating point support package (FPSP) emulated these instructions in software under interrupt. As this was an exception handler, over-use of the transcendental functions caused severe performance penalties. Heat was always a problem throughout the 68040's life. While it delivered over double the per-clock performance of the 68030 the chip's complexity and power requirements came from a large die and large caches. This affected the scaling of the processor and it never made it past 40 MHz. A 50 MHz variant was planned, but scrapped. Proto-overclockers reported success using the then-hardcore heatsinks with fans. Versions of the '040 were created for specific market segments, including the 68LC040 which removed the FPU, and the 68EC040 which removed both the FPU and MMU. Motorola had intended the EC variant for embedded use but embedded processors during the 68040's time needed nowhere near the power of the '040, so EC variants of the '020 and '030 continued to be common in designs. Motorola produced several speed grades. The 16 MHz and 20 MHz parts were never qualified (XC designation) and used as prototyping samples. 25 and 33 MHz grades featured across the whole line, but the 40 MHz grade was only for the 'full' 68040. A planned 50 MHz grade was cancelled after it exceeded the thermal design envelope. For more information on the instructions and architecture, see Motorola 68000. Variants 68EC040 The 68EC040 is a version of the Motorola 68040 microprocessor intended for embedded controllers. It differs from the 68040 in that it has neither FPU nor MMU. This makes it less expensive and it draws less power. 68LC040 The 68LC040 is a low cost version of the Motorola 68040 microprocessor with no FPU. This makes it less expensive and it draws less power. Although the CPU now fits into a feature chart more like the 68020, it continues to include the 040's caches and pipeline and is thus significantly faster than the 020. Some mask revisions of the 68LC040 contained a bug which prevents various software FPU emulators from operating correctly. According to Motorola's errata, any chip with a mask set 2E71M or later is OK. These revisions are typically found in 68LC040-based Apple Macintosh computers. Chips with mask set 2E23G (as used in the LC 475) have been confirmed to be buggy. The bug triggers if an FPU instruction which would trigger an exception resides at the end of a page, and the next page is swapped out. In that case, the CPU will page fault with the PC pointing at that FPU instruction, and then fail to trigger the FPU exception, leading to a variety of errors. Bibliography Notes and references External links MC68040 Product Summary Page MC68040V Third-Generation 32-Bit Low-Power Microprocessor (PDF) M68040 Microprocessors User's Manual (PDF)

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Alameda,_California

Alameda is a city in Alameda County, California, United States. It is located on a small island of the same name next to Oakland in the San Francisco Bay. An additional part of the city is Bay Farm Island, which is adjacent to the Oakland International Airport. The city has a suburban feeling with its Victorian homes and tree-lined neighborhoods. At the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 72,259. Alameda is a charter city, rather than a general law city, meaning that the city can provide for any form of government. Alameda became a charter city and adopted a council-manager government in 1916, which it retains to the present. History The island that Alameda occupies was originally a peninsula connected to Oakland. Much of the peninsula was low-lying and marshy, but on higher ground the peninsula and adjacent parts of what is now downtown Oakland were home to one of the largest coastal oak forests in the world. The area was therefore called "Encinal," Spanish for "oak grove." "Alameda" is Spanish for "grove of poplar trees" or "tree-lined avenue," alameda - Spanish-English Translation and Pronunciation - Yahoo! Education and was chosen in 1853 by popular vote. A Brief History of Alameda - City of Alameda California The inhabitants at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the late 18th Century were a local band of the Ohlone tribe. The peninsula became part of the vast Rancho San Antonio granted to Luis Peralta by the Spanish king who claimed California. The grant was later confirmed by the new Republic of Mexico upon its independence from Spain. Over time, the place became known as Bolsa de Encinal or Encinal de San Antonio. The city was founded on June 6, 1853, and originally three small settlements were located in the town. "Old Alameda" referred to the village at Encinal and High, Hibbardsville was at the North Shore ferry and shipping terminal, and Woodstock was on the west near the ferry piers of the South Pacific Coast Railroad and the Central Pacific. Eventually, the Central Pacific's ferry pier became the Alameda Mole, featuring transit connections between San Francisco ferries and local trollies, Key System buses, and Southern Pacific (formerly Central Pacific) commuter lines. The first post office opened in 1854. The San Francisco and Alameda Railroad opened the Encinal station in 1864. The Encinal area was also known as Fasskings Station in honor of Frederick Louis Fassking. Encinal's own post office opened in 1876, was renamed West End in 1877, and closed in 1891. The West End area was originally called Bowman's Point in honor of Charles G. Bowman, an early settler. The Alameda Terminal was the site of the first train across the Transcontinental Railroad into the San Francisco Bay Area on September 6, 1869. The transcontinental terminus was switched to the Oakland Mole two months later on November 8, 1869. The borders of Alameda were made co-extensive with the island in 1872, incorporating Woodstock into Alameda in 1872. In 1917, an attraction called Neptune Beach was built in the area now known as Crab Cove. Often compared to Coney Island, the park was a major attraction in the 1920s and 1930s. The original owners of the facility, the Strehlow family, partnered with a local confectioner to create tastes unique to Neptune Beach. It is not widely known that both the American snow cone and the popsicle were first sold at Neptune Beach. The Kewpie doll, handpainted and dressed in unique hand-sewn dresses, became the original prize for winning games at the beach - another Neptune Beach invention. The Strehlows owned and operated the beach on their own, even filling in a section of the bay to add an additional Olympic-size swimming pool and an exceptional roller coaster which must have given riders a tremendous view of the bay. The Cottage Baths were available for rent. Neptune Beach's two huge outdoor pools hosted swimming races and exhibitions by famous swimmers like Olympian Johnny Weismuller, who later starred as the original Tarzan, and Jack LaLanne, who started a chain of health clubs. Unfortunately, the park closed down in 1939 because of the Great Depression, the completion of the Bay Bridge, people circumventing paying the admission price and in general, the rise of car culture. Once the Bay Bridge was complete, the rail lines, which ran right past the entrance to Neptune Beach on the way to the Alameda Mole and the Ferry, lost riders in droves. People began using their cars to escape the city and the immediate suburbs like Alameda and traveling further afield in California. Alameda lost its resort status as more distant locations became more attractive to cash-rich San Francisco tourists. Youngsters in town became aware of ways to avoid paying the dime for admission to the park. Strong swimmers or even waders could sneak in on the bay side, just by swimming around the fence. Some of the resort homes and buildings from the Neptune beach era still exist in present-day Alameda. The Croll Building, on the corner of Webster St. and Central Ave., was the site of Croll's Gardens and Hotel, famous as training quarters for the some of the greatest fighters in boxing history from 1883 to 1914. James J. Corbett, Bob Fitzsimmons, Jim Jefferies, Jack Johnson, and many other champions all stayed and trained here. Today this beautiful preserved building is home to Croll's Pizza and the New Zealander Restaurant. Neptune Court, just a block away on the corner of Central Ave. and McKay Ave., provides another glimpse of what resort life was like in Alameda in the 1920s. A short walk near Crab Cove will reveal many more historic gems. The vast majority of the Neptune Beach structures - the hand-carved carousel from the world-famed Dentzel Company, the Ferris wheel, the roller coaster, and other rides - were auctioned off in 1940 for mere pennies on the dollar of their original cost. Today, an Alameda resident Michael Schiess looks to preserve some of the historic artifacts from the Neptune Beach era at the Neptune Beach Amusement Museum or NBAM, specifically dedicated to the resort and all "amusement machines." While the existing and more general Alameda Museum has quite a few artifacts from Neptune Beach in its collection, this new museum will focus more on the games, rides and other machines that brought amusement to Alameda's bay shore. A consequence of the Neptune Beach closing around 1940, was a total dearth of quality, clean swimming facilities in town. A grass roots effort to create swimming pools at two high schools and two city parks would continue into the early 1960s. When the railroad came to town in the 1860s Park Street developed into the major thoroughfare of the city and the location of the main Alameda train station, residents of Old Alameda pulled up stakes and moved across town to the new downtown. The street's location was chosen by two landowners who wished to attract tenants and development to their land. As a result they designated their mutual border as Park Street. The need for expanded shipping facilities led to the dredging of a canal through the marshland between Oakland and Alameda in 1902, turning Alameda into an island. Most of the soil from the canal was used to fill in nearby marshland. The area of Alameda called Bay Farm Island is no longer an island, but is attached by fill to Oakland. In his youth, author Jack London was known to take part in oyster pirating in the highly productive oyster beds near Bay Farm Island, today long gone. The Alameda Works Shipyard was one of the largest and best equipped shipyards in the country. In the 1950s, Alameda's industrial and ship building industries thrived along the estuary, where the world's first-ever, land-based, containerized shipping crane was used. Today, the Port of Oakland across the estuary serves as one of the largest ports on the West Coast, using the shipping technologies originally experimented with in Alameda. As of March 21, 2006, Alameda is a "Coast Guard City," one of seven in the country. After 80 years, Alameda named 'Coast Guard City' | Oakland Tribune | Find Articles at BNET.com In addition to the regular trains running to the Alameda Mole, Alameda was also served by local steam commuter lines of the Southern Pacific (initially, the Central Pacific) which were later transformed into the East Bay Electric Lines. Southern Pacific's electrified trains were not streetcars, but full-sized railroad cars which connected to the mainland by bridges at Webster Street and Fruitvale (only the latter bridge survives today). The trains ran to both the Oakland Mole and the Alameda Mole. In fact, one line which ran between the two moles was dubbed the "Horseshoe Line" for the shape of the route on a map. Soon after the completion of the Bay Bridge, Alameda trains ran directly to San Francisco on the lower deck of the bridge, the ferries having been rendered unnecessary. Alameda was the site of the Southern Pacific's West Alameda Shops where all the electric trains were maintained and repaired. In the 1930s Pan American Airways established a seaplane port along the fill that led to the Alameda Mole. This was the original home base for the famous China Clipper. With the advent of World War II, a vast stretch of the marshy area southwest of the Alameda Mole was filled and the Naval Air Station Alameda established. This major Naval facility included a large airfield as well as docks for several aircraft carriers. It closed in 1997. In the late 1950s the Utah Construction Company began a land fill beyond the Old Sea Wall and created South Shore. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 23.0 square miles (59.5 km²), of which, 10.8 square miles (28.0 km²) of it is land and 12.2 square miles (31.5 km²) (52.98%) is water. Today, the city consists of the main original section, with the former Naval Air Station at the west end of Alameda Island, "Southshore" along the southern side of Alameda Island, and Bay Farm Island, which is part of the mainland proper. The area of the former NAS is now known as "Alameda Point." The Southshore area is separated from the main part of Alameda Island by a lagoon; the north shore of the lagoon is located approximately where the original south shore of the island was. Alameda Point and Southshore are built on bay fill. Not all of Alameda Island is part of the City of Alameda. Although nearly all of the island is in Alameda County, a small portion of a dump site west of the former runways at Alameda Point pokes out far enough into San Francisco Bay that it is over the county line and part of the City and County of San Francisco. Coast Guard Island which is a small island between Alameda Island and Oakland is also part of Alameda and is the home of Integrated Support Command Alameda Demographics At the 2000 census, there were 72,259 people, 30,226 households and 17,863 families residing in the city. The population density was 6,693.4 per square mile (2,583.3/km²). There were 31,644 housing units at an average density of 2,931.2/sq mi (1,131.3/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 56.95% White, 6.21% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 26.15% Asian, 0.60% Pacific Islander, 3.29% from other races, and 6.13% from two or more races. 9.31% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 30,226 households of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them. 43.7% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% were non-families. 32.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.04. Age distribution was 21.5% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males. The median household income was $56,285, and the median family income was $68,625 (these figures had risen to $71,262 and $88,458 respectively as of a 2007 estimate Alameda 2007 Income Estimates ). Males had a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,982. About 6.0% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.4% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over. There is a major Portuguese community, from where Tom Hanks' mother came and where Lyndsy Fonseca was raised for some time. + Historical figures http://www.populstat.info/Americas/usas-cat.htm Year Population 1900 11,200 1940 36,300 1950 64,400 1960 63,900 1970 71,000 1980 63,900 1990 74,000 2000 72,259 Transportation Vehicle access to the island is via three bridges to Oakland, a bridge for vehicular traffic as well as a second, pedestrian/bicycle-only drawbridge (the only one in the USA) Alameda County Government website , to Bay Farm Island, and two one-way tunnels leading into Oakland's Chinatown. Bridges at Fruitvale Avenue, High Street, and Park Street, and the tunnels at Webster Street and Harrison Street (the latter called the Posey Tube) connect Alameda and Oakland. Public transportation includes the AC Transit buses (which include express buses to San Francisco) and two ferry services — the Alameda-Oakland Ferry and the Harbor Bay Ferry. Both ferry services may soon be transferred to the Water Transit Authority. The island is also close to the BART train service, with the closest stations being Lake Merritt, near the exit to the Posey Tube, and Fruitvale, near the Fruitvale Bridge. Even though the island is just minutes off Interstate 880, the speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km/h) on almost every road. Many unaware drivers fail to slow down after exiting the highway. Groups like Pedestrian Friendly Alameda and BikeAlameda advocate stronger enforcement of speeding laws. Alameda has a reputation for vigorous enforcement of the speed limit. SpeedTrap Exchange Attractions Victorian house in AlamedaDue to its proximity to the Bay, wind surfers and kite surfers can often be seen along Crown Memorial State Beach and Shoreline Drive. From the beach there are also views of the San Francisco skyline and the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge. One of the recent attractions is the aircraft carrier USS Hornet, a museum ship now moored at the former Naval Air Station as the USS Hornet Museum. This ship was originally named the USS Kearsarge, but was renamed in honor of the previous Hornet CV-8 (famous for the Doolittle raid), which was lost in October 1942. Alameda is known for its large stock of Victorian houses; 9% of all single-family houses (1500) in Alameda are Victorians, and many more have been divided into two to four-unit dwellings. East Bay Express | Page not found It is said that Alameda has more pre-1906 earthquake era homes than any other city in the Bay Area. Alameda is home to the official offices and training facility of the Oakland Raiders American football team. The training facility features practice fields, a full- featured weight room, locker room, player meeting rooms, an auditorium, a state-of-the-art television studio and spacious offices and is also home to The Raider Image, the merchandise arm of the franchise, to which all the public can visit. At the turn of the 19th century, the city of Alameda took a large chunk of Charles Froling's land away to build a street. Froling had planned to build his dream house on the plot of land he received through inheritance. Rubin, Sylvia. (January 7, 1988) San Francisco Chronicle Neighbor against neighbor; Mediators can resolve disputes. Section: People, Page B3. To spite the city and an unsympathetic neighbor, Froling built a house wide, long and high on the tiny strip of land left to him. The Froling spite house is still standing and occupied. Alameda is also famous for its Fourth of July parade which is one of the largest and longest in the country. It features homemade floats, classic cars, motorized living room furniture, fire breathing dragons, marching bands and lots of enthusiastic people. The parade route is about 3 miles (5 km) long. Economic development The Naval Air Station Alameda was decommissioned and is in process of being turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development. The area of the former NAS is now known as Alameda Point. Portions of this area are now in commercial use, but the transfer process has been slowed down by disputes between the Navy and the city regarding payment for environmental cleanup of the land. In late July 2006, the City of Alameda announced a deal with Navy that would turn the land over to the city for $108M. The preliminary development concept calls for 1700 housing units to be developed at Alameda Point. In September 2006, the developer, Alameda Point Community Partners, withdrew from development of Alameda Point. In May 2007, the City selected the SunCal Companies as the Master Developer of Alameda Point and, in July 2007, the parties were negotiating terms for a development agreement. After two previous failures, voters in the city passed a ballot measure in 2000 authorizing a bond measure for construction of a new library to replace the city's Carnegie library, damaged during the Loma Prieta earthquake. The city also received state funds for the new library and opened the doors to the new facility in November 2006. Wine and Spirits Production Rosenblum Cellars Winery and St. George Spirits are located at Alameda Point. In 1978, Alameda veterinarian Dr. Kent Rosenblum and his wife Kathy founded Rosenblum Cellars. In 2008, the company was purchased by Diageo Estates. In December, 2007, St. George Absinthe Verte, produced by St. George Spirits became the first brand of American-made absinthe to be legally produced in the United States since a ban was enacted in 1912. Theaters The Alameda Theatre in 2006 prior to expansion and restoration City officials continue to seek ways to spur economic development on the island, including the restoration of the historic Art Deco city landmark Alameda Theatre. The theater restoration project included a multiplex to make the project financially feasible and a parking structure to accommodate patrons of the theater and avoid excessive impact on parking in the Park Street area. Following some setbacks during construction the public opening was May 21, 2008, with a gala event. The South Shore Mall Twin Cinema opened in 1969 and served as a prominent theater on the island until its closure in 1998. In 2002, the building was demolished and its former site is now a parking lot in the Alameda Towne Centre shopping mall (formerly South Shore Center). Alameda also had one other operating movie theater. Central Cinema, which opened in December 2004 and closed in June 2008. It was a 42-seat house at 842 Central Avenue (near the western end of Webster Street). The building had previously been both a community center and a mortuary, and the operator of the movie theater was able to use a quirk of the site zoning to legally operate a movie theater. The theatre had only one screen, but featured couches and armchairs for seating. Local newspapers and magazines Alameda's first newspaper, the Encinal, appeared in the early 1850s and the paper's editor was instrumental in the movement to incorporate the city. Following the Encinal, several other papers appeared along geographic lines, and the Daily Argus eventually rose to prominence. A young Alameda native, Joseph R. Knowland, wrote political and historical articles for the Alameda papers. Later, Knowland owned the powerful Oakland Tribune. Around 1900, the Daily Argus began to fade in importance and east and west papers The Times and The Star combined to take the leading role as the Alameda Times-Star in the 1930s. Under the ownership of the Abe Kofman family, the Times-Star thrived until selling to the Alameda Newspaper Group (an out-of-town news corporation) in the 1970s. In response to the lack of a local news source, Alameda realtors John Crittenden and John McNulty decided to combine their two publishing efforts into a new East End voice, Alameda Journal, in 1987. Crittenden had published a real estate homes list to real estate agents, while McNulty was known for the Island Journal, which focused on local news, history, humor and advertising. The new publication found itself the hometown paper of choice. It was sold to the Hills Newspapers chain owned by Chip and Mary Brown. The Browns, Oakland residents, had assembled a chain of five East Bay weeklies and biweeklies: the biweekly Alameda Journal, the biweekly Montclarion (serving the Montclair district of Oakland), The Piedmonter (Piedmont), The Berkeley Voice and The Albany/El Cerrito Journal. In 1997, the Hills Newspaper chain was bought by Knight Ridder, at the time, the second-largest newspaper chain in the U.S. Following the buyout, former Hills Newspapers employees recognized the lack of a local community voice in Alameda, and again formed a new locally-based newspaper, the Alameda Sun, in 2001. In 2006, Knight Ridder announced its impending sale to McClatchy Corp., a Sacramento-based publishing firm. McClatchy Corp. has put the Contra Costa Times, which under the Knight Ridder reorganization included all five of the original Hills Newspapers, up for sale. The current owners of the Alameda Times-Star, MediaNews, Inc., based in Colorado, have announced a strong interest in buying both the Contra Costa Times chain and the San Jose Mercury News, consolidating the daily newspaper market of the East Bay, effectively under one owner. The California State Attorney General began in June 2006 an investigation into the sale of the former Knight Ridder properties to MediaNews in the event of a potential breach of anti-trust laws. The upshot of the sale to MediaNews would be the original victor of Alameda's newspaper wars losing in the end, being bought out by the newspaper company once considered vanquished. The Alameda community is currently served by two locally owned and operated publications. Alameda Sun - Home-delivered free of charge every Thursday with a current circulation of 20,000, the Alameda Sun prides itself on focusing solely on Alameda news, events, people and causes. Alameda Magazine - Alameda Magazine is a four-color glossy magazine that is published seven times a year by the Alameda Publishing Group. The magazine's website is a member of the City & Regional Magazine Association's online network. Alameda Power and Telecom Unlike surrounding communities, Alameda has a municipal power and telecommunications service, Alameda Power and Telecom, (APT) that delivers services directly to consumers. During the California electricity crisis of 2000 and 2001, Alameda Power and Telecom did not raise electricity rates, while residents in most of the state endured significant price increases. Alameda Produces Its Own Energy Island residents sustain low rates SF Chronicle, Jan 13, 2001 (archived) Alameda Power and Telecom produces 84% of its energy from renewable sources, primarily geothermal plants located near Calistoga, California, and hydroelectric sources on the North Fork of the Stanislaus River. The utility also uses wind and solar power. Recently, APT has entered into agreements with four municipal landfills to capture methane released from the landfills (which is otherwise released into the atmosphere as greenhouse gas), and convert it into energy. In November 2008, AP&T sold its cable television and high speed internet services to Comcast. Arts and culture The Alameda Arts Council (AAC) serves as the local Alameda City arts council. Alameda has been home to many movie sets. Some of the movies filmed on the island have included Bicentennial Man, The Net, The Matrix Reloaded, The Matrix: Revolutions, Bee Season, the original 1968 Your, Mine and Ours and the movie musical Rent. Parts of Alameda High School were animated for the Animatrix episode "Kid's Story". A massive hangar at the former Naval Air Station Alameda was used to film special scenes requiring computer-generated imagery for movies such as Bicentennial Man, Flubber, What Dreams May Come, Mission: Impossible II and many scenes from the Matrix trilogy, including the signature bullet time scene. The open space of the decommissioned naval base often hosts MythBusters''' more dangerous experiments. Alameda was briefly the home of Robert Louis Stevenson. Benjamin Reed's novel The Bow Tie Gang Austinist.com Interviews Ben Reed takes place almost entirely in Alameda circa 1961. Alameda Civic Light Opera The Alameda Civic Light Opera, which performs Broadway-style musical productions. was founded in 1996. The Altarena Playhouse The Altarena Playhouse, which performs comedies, dramas and musicals, was founded in 1938 and is the longest continuously operating community theatre in the San Francisco Bay Area. Dance Arts Project The Dance Arts Project was founded by noted instructor and choreographer Michaela Lynch and has offered classes and performance opportunities for Alameda's children for more than a decade. Still under the direction of Ms. Lynch, the Dance Arts Project has become a fixture in the community and the premier locality for performance arts training in Alameda. Shining Stars In The Arts Held in May, Shining Stars In The Arts is an evening event that celebrates community members who have made an outstanding contribution in the arts in the city. It features a fundraising silent art auction, food, and music, and concludes in an award ceremony for the Shining Star honorees. Sister cities Since 2004, Alameda participates in a sister city agreement with Wuxi, China. Another sister city is Lidingö, Sweden. The initiative came from Alameda in 1959 and was part of President Eisenhower's people-to-people-movement, whose purpose was to develop better understanding among people from different countries after World War II. Both Alameda and Lidingö are islands with a bridge connecting them to a big city. Famous residents Alameda native congressman Joseph R. Knowland was editor and publisher of the Oakland Tribune''. US Senator William Fife Knowland was Student Body President at Alameda High. Baseball Hall of Famer Willie Stargell, MLB Baseball player Tommy Harper, MLB Baseball player Curtell Howard Motton, 2003 National League Rookie of the Year Dontrelle Willis, 2007 National League Most Valuable Player Jimmy Rollins, NBA Basketball player J.R. Rider, and NFL football players Melvin Carver and Junior Tautalatasi all attended Encinal High School. NBA Star Jason Kidd attended Saint Joseph Notre Dame High School in Alameda. MLB players Raymond French, "Rowdy Richard" Bartell, Johnny Vergez, Andy Carey, Billy Serena, Chris Speier, and Eric Schullstrum all attended Alameda High School. One of Alameda's most famous natives was General James Doolittle, who won the Medal of Honor for his bombing of Japan during WWII. Robert L. Lippert theatre chain owner and film producer was an Alameda native. Many people from naval families, including celebrities such as Ann Curry, Phyllis Diller, Tom Hanks, and Jim Morrison, have lived in Alameda. Don Perata, the former President Pro Tempore of the California State Senate, lives in Alameda and once taught at Saint Joseph Notre Dame High, Encinal High and Alameda High, among other Alameda County schools. Charles Lee Tilden, for whom Tilden Regional Park is named, was a longtime resident of Alameda. Tilden Way at the southeast end of the city is named for him. Operatic mezzo-soprano Frederica Von Stade still gives performances and supports the arts in local schools. Katharine Graham, the late publisher of the Washington Post, lived in Alameda as a child, according to Personal History, her autobiography. Benjamin Jealous, current President of the NAACP, lives in Alameda. George P. Miller, congressman from 1945 to 1973. Sharon Tate, actress, resident in the mid-1950s. Debbi Fields, founder Mrs. Fields Cookies, attended Alameda High School and was a cheerleader Shirley Temple Black, actress, resident Schools Community College College of Alameda, a part of the Peralta Colleges Private schools Alameda Christian School K-8 Children's Learning Center Alameda Special Education, K-12 Peter Pan School (The Academy), K-5 Rising Star Montessori School K-5 St. Barnabas School K-8 St. Philip Neri School K-8 St. Joseph Elementary School K-8 St. Joseph Notre Dame High School 9-12 The Child Unique Montessori School Preschool-K Public schools Like almost all cities in California, the municipal government and the school administration are two separate entities. The Alameda Unified School District has the same boundaries as the City of Alameda, but has a separately elected board to oversee its operations, and its funding comes directly from the county and state governments without oversight by the city council. The AUSD educates approximately 10,000 students each year, in eight elementary schools, three middle schools, two traditional high schools, three alternative learning schools, one continuation school, and one high school within the College of Alameda. Most high school students attend Encinal High or Alameda High. The district also operates an Adult School and a Child Development Center. Two elementary schools were closed at the end of the 2005-2006 school year. However, a new elementary school, Ruby Bridges, opened for the 2006-2007 school year. See also Islands of San Francisco Bay Bay Farm Island References External links City of Alameda official web page Alameda Recreation and Parks

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Meir_Kahane

Rabbi Meir David Kahane (, also known by the pen-names Michael King and David Sinai, 1 August 1932 – 5 November 1990) was an American-Israeli Orthodox rabbi and a member of the Israeli Knesset. Rabbi Meir Kahane Jewish Virtual Library Kahane was known in the United States and Israel for his strong political, nationalist views, exemplified in his promotion of a Greater Israel based on Jewish law. He founded two controversial movements: the Jewish Defense League (JDL) in the USA and Kach, an Israeli political party. In 1984, Kach gained one seat in the Knesset and Rabbi Meir Kahane became a member. In 1986, Kach was declared a racist party by the left-wing Israeli government and banned from the Knesset, and, in 1994, following the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre - the massacre of Palestinians in Al-Haram Al-Ibraheme mosque by Baruch Goldstein - the movement was outlawed completely. Kahane's Knesset career was ended by section 7a of Basic Law: The Knesset (1958): "Prevention of Participation of Candidates List." Kahane was assassinated in Manhattan in 1990, after concluding a speech calling on American Jews to emigrate to Israel, in a New York City hotel. Jewish militant faces bomb trial BBC News, 15 June 2004 Biography Kahane was born in Brooklyn, New York City, New York in 1932 to an Orthodox Jewish family. His father, Rabbi Yechezkel Sharaga Kahane, was born in Safed, Ottoman Palestine (in present-day Israel), in 1905, and went to study in Polish and Czech yeshiva religious schools. Later, he emigrated to the USA, where he served as rabbi of two congregations. Meir received his rabbinical ordination from the Mir Yeshiva in Brooklyn, and earned a B.A. in political science from Brooklyn College. He was fully conversant with the Talmud and Tanakh (Jewish Bible), and worked as a pulpit rabbi and teacher in the 1960s. During this period, he tutored folk musician Arlo Guthrie for his Bar Mitzvah. Subsequently, he earned a JD from New York Law School and an L.L.M from New York University Law School. As a teenager, he became an ardent admirer of Ze'ev Jabotinsky, who was a frequent guest in his parents' home, and joined the Betar (Brit Trumpeldor) youth wing of Revisionist Zionism. He was active in protests against Ernest Bevin, the British Foreign Secretary who blocked the immigration of Nazi death camp survivors to Palestine and opposed Israel's independence in favor of creating a Hashemite Arab monarchy dependent on British power. Kahane organized mass rallies in New York against the Soviet Union's policy of persecuting Zionist activists and curbing Jewish immigration to Israel. He was active in the "Free Soviet (Russian) Jewry" movement and pushed for the release of Russian refuseniks and their resettlement in Israel. In the 1960s, Kahane was an editor of an American-Jewish weekly, Brooklyn's The Jewish Press, and was a regular correspondent for that paper. In 1956, Kahane married Libby, with whom he had four children. Carrying a Torch On December 31, 2000, one of his sons, Binyamin Ze'ev Kahane, and his daughter-in-law Talya, were shot to death as they returned from Jerusalem to their home in the Israeli settlement of Kfar Tapuach. Palestinian gunmen fired more than 60 machine-gun rounds into their van. Ideology Kahane argued that observance of Torah was the only reason to be Jewish. He saw secular Jews as hypocritical racists: Kahane believed that democracy and Judaism are not the same thing. One absolutely cannot confuse them. The objective of a democratic state is to allow a person to do exactly as he wishes. The objective of Judaism is to serve God and to make people better. These are two totally opposite conceptions of life. God's Law: an Interview with Rabbi Meir Kahane His supporters say Kahane was protecting Torah values and the integrity of the Jewish nation, but his detractors consider Kahane's views bigoted. (See: Jewish view of marriage.) Kahane also believed that a Jewish democracy with non-Jewish citizens was self-contradictory because the non-Jewish citizens might someday become a numerical majority and vote to make the state non-Jewish: I ask a question that sends Israelis crazy, both on the Left and on the Right. The question is as follows: if the Arabs settle among us and make enough children to become a majority, will Israel continue to be a Jewish state? Do we have to accept that the Arab majority will decide? ... Western democracy has to be ruled out. For me that's cut and dried: there's no question of setting up democracy in Israel, because democracy means equal rights for all, irrespective of racial or religious origins. Kahane claimed that historically there are no examples of Arab Muslims living peacefully alongside other non-Arab ethnic groups. Thus Kahane proposed the forcible deportation of nearly all Arabs from all lands controlled by the Israeli government. "A total of some 750,000 Jews fled Arab lands since 1948. Surely it is time for Jews, worried over the huge growth of Arabs in Israel, to consider finishing the exchange of populations that began 35 (50) years ago." When he served as a Member of the Knesset he proposed a $40,000 compensation plan for the Arabs he was to evict. But he made it clear that Arabs who refused compensation would be expelled by force: I’d offer financial compensation for those who want to leave the country voluntarily. I would only use force for those who don’t want to leave. I’d go all the way, and they know that... I’m going to hold the bridges on the Jordan river; we’ll hold them for two weeks. We’ll evacuate the Arabs and let Jordan go to the United Nations. To deter Arab terrorism and to frighten the Arab population into leaving, he advocated Jewish pressure: I want to scare them and I want to make them realize that, contrary to what they have believed for fifteen years, time is not on their side... And I approve of anybody who commits such acts of violence. Really, I don’t think that we can sit back and watch Arabs throwing rocks at buses whenever they feel like it. They must understand that a bomb thrown at a Jewish bus is going to mean a bomb thrown at an Arab bus. Kahane proposed a Jewish state within its Biblical borders: Let me tell you what the minimal borders are, and which the rabbis agree upon, according to the description given in the Bible. The southern boundary goes up to El Arish, which takes in all of northern Sinai, including Yamit. To the east, the frontier runs along the western part of the East Bank of the Jordan river, hence part of what is now Jordan. Eretz Yisrael also includes part of the Lebanon and certain parts of Syria, and part of Iraq, all the way to the Tigris river. To the objection that this would mean perpetual war, he replied, "There will be a perpetual war. With or without Kahane." Supporters In the early 1970s, Bob Dylan was accused of being a supporter of Rabbi Meir Kahane’s Jewish Defense League. Talkin' Hava Nagilah Blues by Seth Rogovoy In a Time Magazine interview, Dylan said about Kahane, "He's a really sincere guy. He's really put it all together." Bob Dylan interview According to Kahane, Dylan did attend several meetings of the Jewish Defense League in order to find out "what we're all about" The Wandering Kind by Douglas Wolk and started to have talks with the rabbi. Joe Kaufman, a prominent campaigner against American Islamic organizations he claims are linked to Hamas, in the past has listed kahane.org as a recommended link on his website. Kaufman later removed the link. In an article written in January 2001 on a forum of the Jewish Defense League, Kaufman praised the Kahane movement and its founder Meir Kahane. In that article Kaufman said of Kahane: "It was perfectly understandable, if he were to have hated Arabs. Just like, during the Holocaust, it was perfectly understandable for a Jew to hate Germans…If the Kahanes' memory serves us any purpose, it's to show that trust (and peace) is ultimately between only ourselves." The Religious Zionist group known as the Jewish Task Force claims to follow Kahane's teachings on its website. http://www.jtf.org/israel/israel.ben.pesach.speech.interrupted.part.three.htm Israel In the U.S., the Jewish Defense League (JDL) engaged in militant activity and harassment of its political and intellectual opponents. Consequently, police pressure began to build upon Kahane, and, in 1971, he emigrated to Israel. In Israel he established the Kach party. In 1980, Kahane stood unsuccessfully for election to the Knesset. Later, in 1980, Kahane served 6 months in prison following a detention order. According to Ehud Sprinzak, "the prevailing rumour was that a very provocative act of sabotage on the Temple Mount was planned by Kahane and a close associate of his, Baruch Green (also known as Baruch Ben Yosef) ." Kach and Meir Kahane: The Emergence of Jewish Quasi-Fascism by Ehud Sprinzak, published by The American Jewish Committee. In 1984, Kahane was elected as an MK - Member of the Knesset (Israel's Parliament). The Central Elections Committee had banned him from being a candidate on the grounds that Kach was a racist party, but the Israeli High Court determined that the Committee was not authorized to ban Kahane's candidacy. The High Court suggested that the Knesset should pass a law that would authorize the exclusion of racist parties from future elections (the Anti-Racist Law of 1988). Kahane refused to take the standard oath of office for the Knesset and insisted on adding a Biblical verse from Psalms, to indicate that when the national laws and Torah conflict, Torah (Biblical) law should have supremacy over the laws of the Knesset. Kahane's legislative proposals focused on revoking the Israeli citizenship for non-Jews and banning Jewish-Gentile marriages and sexual relations, based on the Code of Jewish Law compiled by Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah. None of Israel's mainstream religious parties or prominent rabbis publicly supported Kach legislation. As his political career progressed, Kahane became increasingly isolated in the Knesset. His speeches, boycotted by Knesset members, were made to an empty parliament, except for the duty chairman and the transcriptionist. Kahane's legislative proposals and motions of no-confidence against the government were ignored or rejected by fellow Knesset members. Kahane often pejoratively called other Knesset members "Hellenists" in Hebrew (a reference from Jewish religious texts describing ancient Jews who assimilated into Greek culture after Judea's occupation by Alexander the Great). In 1987, Rabbi Kahane opened a yeshiva (HaRaayon HaYehudi) with funding from US supporters, for the teaching of "the Authentic Jewish Idea". In 1985, the Knesset passed an amendment to Israel's Basic Law, barring "racist" candidates from election. The committee banned Kahane a second time, and he appealed to the Israeli High Court. This time the court found in favor of the committee, declaring Kahane to be unsuitable for election. Assassination In November 1990, after a speech in a Manhattan, New York, Marriott hotel, Kahane was assassinated. The prime suspect, El Sayyid Nosair, was subsequently acquitted of murder but convicted on gun possession charges. Jury Selection Seen As Crucial to Verdict Kahane was buried in Jerusalem. The killer was recharged, convicted, and sentenced to life imprisonment some years later, after the discovery of his membership in one of Sheikh Omar Abd El-Rahman's terror cells connected to Al-Qaeda in the United States. During the filming of a documentary on Kahane, Nosair sent a letter in which he admitted he was the killer. Political legacy Graffiti in Herzliya: "כהנא צדק" ("Kahane was right") Following Kahane's death, no charismatic leader emerged to replace him in the movement, and Kahane's ideology declined in popularity among Israelis. Two small Kahanist factions later emerged; one under the name of Kach and the other Kahane chai (Hebrew: כהנא חי, literally "Kahane lives [on]"). In 1994, following the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre (Al-Haram Al-Ibrahemi mosque massacre) of Palestinian Muslim civilian worshippers in Hebron by Kach supporter Dr. Baruch Goldstein, the Israeli government declared both parties to be terrorist organizations. The U.S. State Department also added Kach and Kahane Chai to its list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations. Providing funds or material support to these organizations is a crime in both Israel and the USA. In late 2000, as bombing attacks on Israel during the Al-Aqsa Intifada began, Kahane supporters spray-painted graffiti on hundreds of bus shelters and bridges all across Israel. The message on each target was identical, simply reading: "Kahane Was Right". The 1994 banning of Kach and Kahane Chai saw no party representing the 'Kahanist' position in politics until the 2008 elections saw Avigdor Lieberman and his Yisrael Beitenu party rise to prominence. Lieberman, who allegedly was a one time Kach member, has been branded "Kahane's successor" by Israeli TV personality Haim Yavin. Michael Ben-Ari, elected to the Knesset in 2009 on the Ihud Haleumi list, however, is a self declared follower of Rabbi Kahane who was involved with Kach for many years. Previously, Herut, which split off from the National Union list ran in 2002 with Michael Kleiner and Hebron resident Baruch Marzel taking the top two spots on the list. The joint effort narrowly missed the 1.5% minimum necessary for entry into the Knesset. The second faction, Jewish National Front led by Baruch Marzel, fared better but also failed to pass the minimum threshold. See also The Yeshiva of the Jewish Idea Politics of Israel Assassinations of politicians in Israel's history Publications (Partially under pseudonym Michael King; with Joseph Churba) The Jewish Stake in Vietnam, Crossroads, 1967 Never Again! A Program for Survival, Pyramid Books, 1972 Time to Go Home, Nash, 1972. Letters from Prison, Jewish Identity Center, 1974 Our Challenge: The Chosen Land, Chilton, 1974 The Story of the Jewish Defense League, Chilton, 1975, 2nd edition, Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane, (Brooklyn, NY), 2000 Why Be Jewish? Intermarriage, Assimilation, and Alienation, Stein & Day, 1977 Listen, Vanessa, I Am a Zionist, Institute of the Authentic Jewish Idea, 1978 They Must Go, Grosset & Dunlop, 1981 Uncomfortable Questions for Comfortable Jews, Lyle Stuart, 1987 Israel: Revolution or Referendum, Barricade Books (Secaucus, NJ), 1990 Or ha-ra'yon, English title: The Jewish Idea, n.p. (Jerusalem), 1992, translated from the Hebrew by Raphael Blumberg, Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1996 On Jews and Judaism: Selected Articles 1961–1990, Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1993 Perush ha-Makabi: al Sefer Devarim, Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1993, 1995 Perush ha-Makabi: al Sefer Shemu'el u-Nevi'im rishonim, Institute for Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1994 Listen World, Listen Jew, 3rd edition, Institute for the Publication of the Writings of Rabbi Meir Kahane (Jerusalem), 1995 Kohen ve-navi: osef ma'amarim, ha-Makhon le-hotsa'at kitve ha-Rav Kahana (Jerusalem), 2000 Cuckooland, illustrated by Shulamith bar Itzhak (yet unpublished). DVD-quality downloadable videos of Meir Kahane's lectures, SamsonBlinded.org Also author of Numbers 23:9: "... lo, it is a people that shall dwell alone and shall not be reckoned among the nations," I. Block, 1970s. Contributor—sometimes under pseudonym Michael King—to periodicals, including New York Times. Editor of Jewish Press, 1968. For supplementary information and insights: The Wit and Wisdom of Rabbi Meir Kahane by Lenny Goldberg Kahane et le Kahanisme" by Shulamith Bar Itzhak.Meir Kahane: Ideologue, Hero, Thinker by Daniel Breslauer. Lewiston/Queenston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1986.The Boundaries of Liberty and Tolerance: The Struggle Against Kahanism in Israel by Raphael Cohen-Almagor. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1994.The False Prophet: Rabbi Meir Kahane, from FBI Informant to Knesset Member by Robert I. Friedman. Brooklyn, NY: Lawrence Hill Books, 1990.Heil Kahane by Yair Kotler. New York: Adama Books, 1986.Israel’s Ayatollahs: Meir Kahane and the Far Right in Israel'' by Raphael Mergui and Phillipe Simonnot. The Roots of Kahanism: Consciousness and Political Reality by Aviezer Ravitzky. Kach and Meir Kahane: The Emergence of Jewish Quasi-Fascism by Ehud Sprinzak. References External links The Internet's Ultimate Rabbi Kahane Resource Kahane books online Kahane.org "The official Kahane website" "Kahane was right" "Kahane Tzadak" Rabbi Meir Kahane at the Jewish Virtual Library Rabbi Meir Kahane Audio International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism: Kach and Kahane Chai Jewish Defense League Meir Kahane, will say only that Bob Dylan has 'come around a couple of times to see what we're all about' Rabbi Meir Kahane's MySpace Page Video and Audio links Rabbi Meir Kahane Videos Rabbi Meir Kahane in Yeshiva University Rabbi Meir Kahane in Beverly Hotel Rabbi Meir Kahane "Why Be Jewish?" (Part 1) Rabbi Meir Kahane "Why Be Jewish?" (Part 2) Rabbi Meir Kahane "Why Be Jewish?" (Part 3) Rabbi Meir Kahane Addressing Camp "Sdei Chemed" Debate: Rabbi Meir Kahane vs. Alan Dershowitz Rabbi Meir Kahane Speaking at Brandeis University Rabbi Meir Kahane in Thunderbird Motel Rabbi Meir Kahane in the National Press Club Rabbi Meir Kahane Audios Debate: Rabbi Meir Kahane vs. Alan Dershowitz

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alan_dershowitz:2

Central_bank

A central bank, reserve bank, or monetary authority is the entity responsible for the monetary policy of a country or of a group of member states. It is a bank that can lend money to other banks in times of need. Its primary responsibility is to maintain the stability of the national currency and money supply, but more active duties include controlling subsidized-loan interest rates, and acting as a lender of last resort to the banking sector during times of financial crisis (private banks often being integral to the national financial system). It may also have supervisory powers, to ensure that banks and other financial institutions do not behave recklessly or fraudulently. Most richer countries today have an "independent" central bank, that is, one which operates under rules designed to prevent political interference. Examples include the European Central Bank (ECB) and the Federal Reserve System in the United States. Some central banks are publicly owned, and others are privately owned. For example, the Reserve Bank of India is publicly owned and directly governed by the Indian government. Another example is the United States Federal Reserve, which is a quasi-public corporation. http://www.federalreserveeducation.org/fed101_html/structure/tour/tour.htm The major difference is that government owned central banks do not charge the taxpayers interest on the national currency, whereas privately owned central banks do charge interest. http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-515319560256183936 Activities and responsibilities The Bank of England, central bank of the United Kingdom Functions of a central bank (not all functions are carried out by all banks): implementing monetary policy controlling the nation's entire money supply the Government's banker and the bankers' bank ("lender of last resort") managing the country's foreign exchange and gold reserves and the Government's stock register regulating and supervising the banking industry setting the official interest rate – used to manage both inflation and the country's exchange rate – and ensuring that this rate takes effect via a variety of policy mechanisms Monetary policy The ECB building in Frankfurt Central banks implement a country's chosen monetary policy. At the most basic level, this involves establishing what form of currency the country may have, whether a fiat currency, gold-backed currency (disallowed for countries with membership of the IMF), currency board or a currency union. When a country has its own national currency, this involves the issue of some form of standardized currency, which is essentially a form of promissory note: a promise to exchange the note for "money" under certain circumstances. Historically, this was often a promise to exchange the money for precious metals in some fixed amount. Now, when many currencies are fiat money, the "promise to pay" consists of nothing more than a promise to pay the same sum in the same currency. In many countries, the central bank may use another country's currency either directly (in a currency union), or indirectly, by using a currency board. In the latter case, local currency is directly backed by the central bank's holdings of a foreign currency in a fixed-ratio; this mechanism is used, notably, in Hong Kong and Estonia. In countries with fiat money, monetary policy may be used as a shorthand form for the interest rate targets and other active measures undertaken by the monetary authority. Currency issuance United States Federal Reserve Many central banks are "banks" in the sense that they hold assets (foreign exchange, gold, and other financial assets) and liabilities. A central bank's primary liabilities are the currency outstanding, and these liabilities are backed by the assets the bank owns. Central banks generally earn money by issuing currency notes and "selling" them to the public for interest-bearing assets, such as government bonds. Since currency usually pays no interest, the difference in interest generates income, called seigniorage. In most central banking systems, this income is remitted to the government. The European Central Bank remits its interest income to its owners, the central banks of the member countries of the European Union. Although central banks generally hold government debt, in some countries the outstanding amount of government debt is smaller than the amount the central bank may wish to hold. In many countries, central banks may hold significant amounts of foreign currency assets, rather than assets in their own national currency, particularly when the national currency is fixed to other currencies. Naming of central banks Hong Kong Monetary Authority, housed in the International Finance Centre, Hong Kong's de facto central bank. There is no standard terminology for the name of a central bank, but many countries use the "Bank of Country" form (e.g., Bank of England, Bank of Canada, Bank of Russia). Some are styled "national" banks, such as the National Bank of Ukraine; but the term "national bank" is more often used by privately-owned commercial banks, especially in the United States. In other cases, central banks may incorporate the word "Central" (e.g. European Central Bank, Central Bank of Ireland). The word "Reserve" is also often included, such as the Reserve Bank of Australia, Reserve Bank of India, Reserve Bank of New Zealand, the South African Reserve Bank, and U.S Federal Reserve System. Many countries have state-owned banks or other quasi-government entities that have entirely separate functions, such as financing imports and exports. In some countries, particularly in some Communist countries, the term national bank may be used to indicate both the monetary authority and the leading banking entity, such as the USSR's Gosbank (state bank). In other countries, the term national bank may be used to indicate that the central bank's goals are broader than monetary stability, such as full employment, industrial development, or other goals. Interest rate interventions Central Bank of Brazil in Brasília Typically a central bank controls certain types of short-term interest rates. These influence the stock- and bond markets as well as mortgage and other interest rates. The European Central Bank for example announces its interest rate at the meeting of its Governing Council; in the case of the Federal Reserve, the Board of Governors. Both the Federal Reserve and the ECB are composed of one or more central bodies that are responsible for the main decisions about interest rates and the size and type of open market operations, and several branches to execute its policies. In the case of the Fed, they are the local Federal Reserve Banks; for the ECB they are the national central banks. Limits of enforcement power The Reserve Bank of India, central bank of India Contrary to popular perception, central banks are not all-powerful and have limited powers to put their policies into effect. Most importantly, although the perception by the public may be that the "central bank" controls some or all interest rates and currency rates, economic theory (and substantial empirical evidence) shows that it is impossible to do both at once in an open economy. Robert Mundell's "impossible trinity" is the most famous formulation of these limited powers, and postulates that it is impossible to target monetary policy (broadly, interest rates), the exchange rate (through a fixed rate) and maintain free capital movement. Since most Western economies are now considered "open" with free capital movement, this essentially means that central banks may target interest rates or exchange rates with credibility, but not both at once. Even when targeting interest rates, most central banks have limited ability to influence the rates actually paid by private individuals and companies. In the most famous case of policy failure, George Soros arbitraged the pound sterling's relationship to the ECU and (after making $2 billion himself and forcing the UK to spend over $8bn defending the pound) forced it to abandon its policy. Since then he has been a harsh critic of clumsy bank policies and argued that no one should be able to do what he did. The most complex relationships are those between the yuan and the US dollar, and between the euro and its neighbours. The situation in Cuba is so exceptional as to require the Cuban peso to be dealt with simply as an exception, since the United States forbids direct trade with Cuba. US dollars were ubiquitous in Cuba's economy after its legalization in 1991, but were officially removed from circulation in 2004 and replaced by the convertible peso. Policy instruments The main monetary policy instruments available to central banks are open market operation, bank reserve requirement, interest rate policy, re-lending and re-discount (including using the term repurchase market), and credit policy (often coordinated with trade policy). While capital adequacy is important, it is defined and regulated by the Bank for International Settlements, and central banks in practice generally do not apply stricter rules. To enable open market operations, a central bank must hold foreign exchange reserves (usually in the form of government bonds) and official gold reserves. It will often have some influence over any official or mandated exchange rates: Some exchange rates are managed, some are market based (free float) and many are somewhere in between ("managed float" or "dirty float"). Interest rates By far the most visible and obvious power of many modern central banks is to influence market interest rates; contrary to popular belief, they rarely "set" rates to a fixed number. Although the mechanism differs from country to country, most use a similar mechanism based on a central bank's ability to create as much fiat money as required. The mechanism to move the market towards a 'target rate' (whichever specific rate is used) is generally to lend money or borrow money in theoretically unlimited quantities, until the targeted market rate is sufficiently close to the target. Central banks may do so by lending money to and borrowing money from (taking deposits from) a limited number of qualified banks, or by purchasing and selling bonds. As an example of how this functions, the Bank of Canada sets a target overnight rate, and a band of plus or minus 0.25%. Qualified banks borrow from each other within this band, but never above or below, because the central bank will always lend to them at the top of the band, and take deposits at the bottom of the band; in principle, the capacity to borrow and lend at the extremes of the band are unlimited. Bank of Canada backgrounder: Target for the Overnight Rate Other central banks use similar mechanisms. It is also notable that the target rates are generally short-term rates. The actual rate that borrowers and lenders receive on the market will depend on (perceived) credit risk, maturity and other factors. For example, a central bank might set a target rate for overnight lending of 4.5%, but rates for (equivalent risk) five-year bonds might be 5%, 4.75%, or, in cases of inverted yield curves, even below the short-term rate. Many central banks have one primary "headline" rate that is quoted as the "central bank rate." In practice, they will have other tools and rates that are used, but only one that is rigorously targeted and enforced. "The rate at which the central bank lends money can indeed be chosen at will by the central bank; this is the rate that makes the financial headlines." - Henry C.K. Liu. Asia Times article explaining modern central bank function in detail Liu explains further that "the U.S. central-bank lending rate is known as the Fed funds rate. The Fed sets a target for the Fed funds rate, which its Open Market Committee tries to match by lending or borrowing in the money market ... a fiat money system set by command of the central bank. The Fed is the head of the central-bank because the U.S. dollar is the key reserve currency for international trade. The global money market is a USA dollar market. All other currencies markets revolve around the U.S. dollar market." Accordingly the U.S. situation is not typical of central banks in general. A typical central bank has several interest rates or monetary policy tools it can set to influence markets. Marginal lending rate (currently 1.75% in the Eurozone) – a fixed rate for institutions to borrow money from the central bank. (In the USA this is called the discount rate). Main refinancing rate (1.00% in the Eurozone) – the publicly visible interest rate the central bank announces. It is also known as minimum bid rate and serves as a bidding floor for refinancing loans. (In the USA this is called the federal funds rate). Deposit rate (0.25% in the Eurozone) – the rate parties receive for deposits at the central bank. These rates directly affect the rates in the money market, the market for short term loans. Open market operations Through open market operations, a central bank influences the money supply in an economy directly. Each time it buys securities, exchanging money for the security, it raises the money supply. Conversely, selling of securities lowers the money supply. Buying of securities thus amounts to printing new money while lowering supply of the specific security. The main open market operations are: Temporary lending of money for collateral securities ("Reverse Operations" or "repurchase operations", otherwise known as the "repo" market). These operations are carried out on a regular basis, where fixed maturity loans (of 1 week and 1 month for the ECB) are auctioned off. Buying or selling securities ("direct operations") on ad-hoc basis. Foreign exchange operations such as forex swaps. All of these interventions can also influence the foreign exchange market and thus the exchange rate. For example the People's Bank of China and the Bank of Japan have on occasion bought several hundred billions of U.S. Treasuries, presumably in order to stop the decline of the U.S. dollar versus the renminbi and the yen. Capital requirements All banks are required to hold a certain percentage of their assets as capital, a rate which may be established by the central bank or the banking supervisor. For international banks, including the 55 member central banks of the Bank for International Settlements, the threshold is 8% (see the Basel Capital Accords) of risk-adjusted assets, whereby certain assets (such as government bonds) are considered to have lower risk and are either partially or fully excluded from total assets for the purposes of calculating capital adequacy. Partly due to concerns about asset inflation and repurchase agreements, capital requirements may be considered more effective than deposit/reserve requirements in preventing indefinite lending: when at the threshold, a bank cannot extend another loan without acquiring further capital on its balance sheet. Reserve requirements In practice, many banks are required to hold a percentage of their deposits as reserves. Such legal reserve requirements were introduced in the nineteenth century to reduce the risk of banks overextending themselves and suffering from bank runs, as this could lead to knock-on effects on other banks. See also money multiplier, Ponzi scheme. As the early 20th century gold standard and late 20th century dollar hegemony evolved, and as banks proliferated and engaged in more complex transactions and were able to profit from dealings globally on a moment's notice, these practices became mandatory, if only to ensure that there was some limit on the ballooning of money supply. Such limits have become harder to enforce. The People's Bank of China retains (and uses) more powers over reserves because the yuan that it manages is a non-convertible currency. Even if reserves were not a legal requirement, prudence would ensure that banks would hold a certain percentage of their assets in the form of cash reserves. It is common to think of commercial banks as passive receivers of deposits from their customers and, for many purposes, this is still an accurate view. This passive view of bank activity is misleading when it comes to considering what determines the nation's money supply and credit. Loan activity by banks plays a fundamental role in determining the money supply. The central-bank money after aggregate settlement - final money - can take only one of two forms: physical cash, which is rarely used in wholesale financial markets, central-bank money. The currency component of the money supply is far smaller than the deposit component. Currency and bank reserves together make up the monetary base, called M1 and M2. Exchange requirements To influence the money supply, some central banks may require that some or all foreign exchange receipts (generally from exports) be exchanged for the local currency. The rate that is used to purchase local currency may be market-based or arbitrarily set by the bank. This tool is generally used in countries with non-convertible currencies or partially-convertible currencies. The recipient of the local currency may be allowed to freely dispose of the funds, required to hold the funds with the central bank for some period of time, or allowed to use the funds subject to certain restrictions. In other cases, the ability to hold or use the foreign exchange may be otherwise limited. In this method, money supply is increased by the central bank when it purchases the foreign currency by issuing (selling) the local currency. The central bank may subsequently reduce the money supply by various means, including selling bonds or foreign exchange interventions. Margin requirements and other tools In some countries, central banks may have other tools that work indirectly to limit lending practices and otherwise restrict or regulate capital markets. For example, a central bank may regulate margin lending, whereby individuals or companies may borrow against pledged securities. The margin requirement establishes a minimum ratio of the value of the securities to the amount borrowed. Central banks often have requirements for the quality of assets that may be held by financial institutions; these requirements may act as a limit on the amount of risk and leverage created by the financial system. These requirements may be direct, such as requiring certain assets to bear certain minimum credit ratings, or indirect, by the central bank lending to counterparties only when security of a certain quality is pledged as collateral. Examples of use The People's Bank of China has been forced into particularly aggressive and differentiating tactics by the extreme complexity and rapid expansion of the economy it manages. It imposed some absolute restrictions on lending to specific industries in 2003, and continues to require 1% more (7%) reserves from urban banks (typically focusing on export) than rural ones. This is not by any means an unusual situation. The USA historically had very wide ranges of reserve requirements between its dozen branches. Domestic development is thought to be optimized mostly by reserve requirements rather than by capital adequacy methods, since they can be more finely tuned and regionally varied. Banking supervision and other activities In some countries a central bank through its subsidiaries controls and monitors the banking sector. In other countries banking supervision is carried out by a government department such as the UK Treasury, or an independent government agency (eg UK's Financial Services Authority). It examines the banks' balance sheets and behaviour and policies toward consumers. Apart from refinancing, it also provides banks with services such as transfer of funds, bank notes and coins or foreign currency. Thus it is often described as the "bank of banks". Many countries such as the United States will monitor and control the banking sector through different agencies and for different purposes, although there is usually significant cooperation between the agencies. For example, money center banks, deposit-taking institutions, and other types of financial institutions may be subject to different (and occasionally overlapping) regulation. Some types of banking regulation may be delegated to other levels of government, such as state or provincial governments. Any cartel of banks is particularly closely watched and controlled. Most countries control bank mergers and are wary of concentration in this industry due to the danger of groupthink and runaway lending bubbles based on a single point of failure, the credit culture of the few large banks. Independence Over the past decade, there has been a trend towards increasing the independence of central banks as a way of improving long-term economic performance. However, while a large volume of economic research has been done to define the relationship between central bank independence and economic performance, the results are ambiguous. Advocates of central bank independence argue that a central bank which is too susceptible to political direction or pressure may encourage economic cycles ("boom and bust"), as politicians may be tempted to boost economic activity in advance of an election, to the detriment of the long-term health of the economy and the country. In this context, independence is usually defined as the central bank’s operational and management independence from the government. The literature on central bank independence has defined a number of types of independence. Legal independence The independence of the central bank is enshrined in law. This type of independence is limited in a democratic state; in almost all cases the central bank is accountable at some level to government officials, either through a government minister or directly to a legislature. Even defining degrees of legal independence has proven to be a challenge since legislation typically provides only a framework within which the government and the central bank work out their relationship. Goal independence The central bank has the right to set its own policy goals, whether inflation targeting, control of the money supply, or maintaining a fixed exchange rate. While this type of independence is more common, many central banks prefer to announce their policy goals in partnership with the appropriate government departments. This increases the transparency of the policy setting process and thereby increases the credibility of the goals chosen by providing assurance that they will not be changed without notice. In addition, the setting of common goals by the central bank and the government helps to avoid situations where monetary and fiscal policy are in conflict; a policy combination that is clearly sub-optimal. Operational independence The central bank has the independence to determine the best way of achieving its policy goals, including the types of instruments used and the timing of their use. This is the most common form of central bank independence. The granting of independence to the Bank of England in 1997 was, in fact, the granting of operational independence; the inflation target continued to be announced in the Chancellor’s annual budget speech to Parliament. Management independence The central bank has the authority to run its own operations (appointing staff, setting budgets, etc) without excessive involvement of the government. The other forms of independence are not possible unless the central bank has a significant degree of management independence. One of the most common statistical indicators used in the literature as a proxy for central bank independence is the “turn-over-rate” of central bank governors. If a government is in the habit of appointing and replacing the governor frequently, it clearly has the capacity to micro-manage the central bank through its choice of governors. It is argued that an independent central bank can run a more credible monetary policy, making market expectations more responsive to signals from the central bank. Recently, both the Bank of England (1997) and the European Central Bank have been made independent and follow a set of published inflation targets so that markets know what to expect. Even the People's Bank of China has been accorded great latitude due to the difficulty of problems it faces, though in the People's Republic of China the official role of the bank remains that of a national bank rather than a central bank, underlined by the official refusal to "unpeg" the yuan or to revalue it "under pressure". The People's Bank of China's independence can thus be read more as independence from the USA which rules the financial markets, than from the Communist Party of China which rules the country. The fact that the Communist Party is not elected also relieves the pressure to please people, increasing its independence. Governments generally have some degree of influence over even "independent" central banks; the aim of independence is primarily to prevent short-term interference. For example, the chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank is appointed by the President of the U.S. (all nominees for this post are recommended by the owners of the Federal Reserve, as are all the board members), and his choice must be confirmed by the Congress. International organizations such as the World Bank, the BIS and the IMF are strong supporters of central bank independence. This results, in part, from a belief in the intrinsic merits of increased independence. The support for independence from the international organizations also derives partly from the connection between increased independence for the central bank and increased transparency in the policy-making process. The IMF’s FSAP review self-assessment, for example, includes a number of questions about central bank independence in the transparency section. An independent central bank will score higher in the review than one that is not independent. History In Europe prior to the 17th century most money was commodity money, typically gold or silver. However, promises to pay were widely circulated and accepted as value at least five hundred years earlier in both Europe and Asia. The medieval European Knights Templar ran probably the best known early prototype of a central banking system, as their promises to pay were widely regarded, and many regard their activities as having laid the basis for the modern banking system. At about the same time, Kublai Khan of the Mongols introduced fiat currency to China, which was imposed by force by the confiscation of specie. The oldest central bank in the world is the Riksbank in Sweden, which was opened in 1668 with help from Dutch businessmen. This was followed in 1694 by the Bank of England, created by Scottish businessman William Paterson in the City of London at the request of the English government to help pay for a war. Although central banks are generally associated with fiat money, under the international gold standard of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries central banks developed in most of Europe and in Japan, though elsewhere free banking or currency boards were more usual at this time. Problems with collapses of banks during downturns, however, was leading to wider support for central banks in those nations which did not as yet possess them, most notably in Australia. With the collapse of the gold standard after World War II, central banks became much more necessary and widespread. The US Federal Reserve was created by the U.S. Congress through the passing of the Glass-Owen Bill, signed by President Woodrow Wilson on December 23, 1913, whilst Australia established its first central bank in 1920, Colombia in 1923, Mexico and Chile in 1925 and Canada and New Zealand in the aftermath of the Great Depression in 1934. By 1935, the only significant indepedent nation that did not possess a central bank was Brazil, which developed a precursor thereto in 1945 and created its present central bank twenty years later. When African and Asian countries gained independence, all of them rapidly established central banks or monetary unions. The People's Bank of China evolved its role as a central bank starting in about 1979 with the introduction of market reforms in that country, and this accelerated in 1989 when the country took a generally capitalist approach to developing at least its export economy. By 2000 the People's Bank of China was in all senses a modern central bank, and emerged as such partly in response to the European Central Bank. This is the most modern bank model and was introduced with the euro to coordinate the European national banks, which continue to separately manage their respective economies other than currency exchange and base interest rates. Criticism According to the Austrian School of Economics, central banking is responsible for the cause of the boom bust economic cycle because central banks set interest rates too low and cause inflation. According to the Austrian Business Cycle Theory, the business cycle unfolds in the following way. Low interest rates tend to stimulate borrowing from the banking system. This expansion of credit causes an expansion of the supply of money, through the money creation process in a fractional reserve banking system. This in turn leads to an unsustainable "monetary boom" during which the "artificially stimulated" borrowing seeks out diminishing investment opportunities. This boom results in widespread malinvestments, causing capital resources to be misallocated into areas that would not attract investment if the money supply remained stable. A correction or "credit crunch" commonly called a "recession" or "bust" occurs when credit creation cannot be sustained. Then the money supply suddenly and sharply contracts when markets finally "clear", causing resources to be reallocated back towards more efficient uses. The main proponents of the Austrian business cycle theory historically were Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek. F.A. Hayek won the Nobel Prize in economics in 1974 based on his elaborations on this theory. Hayek claimed that: The past instability of the market economy is the consequence of the exclusion of the most important regulator of the market mechanism, money, from itself being regulated by the market process. In accordance with arguments outlined in his essay The Use of Knowledge in Society, he argued that monopolistic governmental agency like a central bank can neither possess the relevant information which should govern supply of money, nor have the ability to use it correctly. Demurrage currencies provide an alternative and perhaps complementary means towards central banking's goal of sustaining economic growth with different specific characteristics and a mechanism that follows naturally from the use of commodity currencies, is more uniform in operation, does not devalue the currency unit, and is more predictable and potentially more decentralized in its operation. Historically, the idea of demurrage influenced Keynes' prescription for net-inflationary central bank policy. See also List of central banks Fractional-reserve banking Seigniorage References External links The Federal Reserve System: Purposes and Functions-- A publication of the U.S. Federal Reserve, describing its role in the macroeconomy The Federal Reserve in Plain English—An easy-to-read guide to the structure and functions of the Federal Reserve System The Eurosystem-- Website of the European Central Bank describing the structure of the central banking system in the Eurozone - C E V Borio, Bank for International Settlements, Basel Banking Bunkum : A critique of the role of central banks around the world - Henry C K Liu List of central bank websites at the Bank for International Settlements Seigniorage - List of central banks worldwide with links cbrates.com: Worldwide Central Bank Rates

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Koh-i-Noor

This article is about the diamond. For the film, see Kohinoor. For the Czech pencil manufacturer, see Koh-I-Noor (company). For the brush-footed butterfly, see Amathuxidia amythaon. The Kōh-i Nūr (, Persian/Urdu: کوہ نور, ) which means "Mountain of Light" from Persian, also spelled Kohinoor, Koh-e Noor or Koh-i-Nur is a 105 carat (21.6 g) diamond that was once the largest known diamond in the world. The Kohinoor originated at Golconda in the state of Andhra Pradesh in India. It has belonged to various Sikh, Mughal and Persian rulers who fought bitterly over it at various points in history and seized it as a spoil of war time and again. It was finally seized by the East India Company and became part of the British Crown Jewels when British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli proclaimed Queen Victoria Empress of India in 1877. Like all significant jewels, the Kohinoor has its share of legends. It is a legend that whoever owns the Koh-i-Noor rules the world. Origins and early history The origins of the diamond are unclear. Many early stories of great diamonds in southern India exist, but it is hard to establish which one was the Koh-i-noor. According to some sources, the Koh-i-noor was originally found more than 5000 years ago, and is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit writings under the name Syamantaka. According to some Hindu mythological accounts, Koh-i-noor, a Mountain of Light . Krishna himself obtained the diamond from Jambavantha, whose daughter Jambavati later married Krishna. The legend says that the diamond was from the Sun God to Satrajith (father of Satyabhama)which produces 1000 kg of gold daily. Krishna got the blame of stealing the diamond from Satrajith's brother who is actually killed by a lion which in turn was killed by Jambavantha Kohinoor legend: http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A730801 The Koh-i-noor Diamond . Historical evidence suggests that the Kohinoor originated in the Golconda kingdom, in the south Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, one of the world's earliest diamond producing regions. This region was the only known source for diamonds until 1730 when diamonds were discovered in Brazil. The term "Golconda" diamond has come to define diamonds of the finest white color, clarity and transparency. They are very rare and highly sought after. South Indian folklore is definite in claiming a local origin for the stone. It is likely that the diamond was mined in the Kollur mines near the village Paritala in the present day Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh LARGE AND FAMOUS DIAMONDS Deccan Heritage, H. K. Gupta, A. Parasher and D. Balasubramanian, Indian National Science Academy, 2000, p. 144, Orient Blackswan, ISBN 8173712859 . The diamond became the property of Kakatiya kings. The Khilji dynasty at Delhi ended in 1320 A.D. and Ghiyas ud din Tughluq Shah I ascended the Delhi throne. Tughlaq sent his son Ulugh Khan in 1323 to defeat the Kakatiya king Prataparudra. Ulugh Khan’s raid was repulsed but he returned in a month with a larger and determined army. The unprepared army of Kakatiya was defeated. The loot, plunder and destruction of Orugallu(present day Warangal), the capital of Kakatiya Kingdom, continued for months. Loads of gold, diamonds, pearls and ivory were carried away to Delhi on elephants, horses and camels. The Koh-i-noor diamond was part of the bounty India Before Europe, C.E.B. Asher and C. Talbot, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0521809045, p. 40 A History of India, Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, Edition: 3, Routledge, 1998, p. 160; ISBN 0415154820 . From then onwards, the stone passed through the hands of successive rulers of the Delhi sultanate, finally passing to Babur, the first Mughal emperor, in 1526. The first confirmed note historically mentioning the Koh-i-noor by an identifiable name dates from 1526. Babur mentions in his memoirs, the Baburnama, that the stone had belonged to an un-named Rajah of Malwa in 1294. Babur held the stone's value to be such as to feed the whole world for two days. The Baburnama recounts how Rajah of Malwa was compelled to yield his prized possession to Ala ud din Khilji; it was then owned by a succession of dynasties that ruled the Delhi sultanate, finally coming into the possession of Babur himself in 1526, following his victory over the last ruler of that kingdom. However, the Baburnama was written c.1526-30; Babur's source for this information is unknown, and he may have been recounting the hearsay of his day. He did not at that time call the stone by its present name, but despite some debate about the identity of 'Babur's Diamond' it seems likely that it was the stone which later became known as Koh-i-noor. Both Babur and Humayun mention very clearly in their memoirs the origins of 'Babur's Diamond'. This diamond was with the Kachhwaha rulers of Gwalior and then inherited by the Tomara line. The last of Tomaras, Vikramaditya, was defeated by Sikandar Lodi, Sultan of Delhi and became Delhi sultanate pensioner and resided in Delhi. On the defeat of Lodis and replacement by Mughals, his house was looted by the mughals and Prince Humayun interceded and restored his property even allowing him to leave Delhi and take refuge in Mewar at Chittaur. In return for Humayun's kindness, one of the diamonds, most likely the Koh-i-noor, in possession of Prince Vikaramaditya was given to Humayun in gratitude. Humayun had much bad luck throughout his life. Sher Shah Suri, who defeated Humayun, died in the flames of a burst cannon. His son Jalal Khan was murdered by his brother-in-law, who was overthrown by his minister, who in turn lost the empire of India by the unlucky accident of getting hit in the eye at stroke of victory. Humayun's son, Akbar, never kept the diamond with himself and later only Shah Jahan took it out of his treasury. Akbar's grandson, Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son, Aurangazeb, who orchestrated the death and murder of his three brothers. Tavernier's illustration of the Koh-I-Noor under different angles Stone of the emperors The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, famous for building the Taj Mahal, had the stone placed into his ornate Peacock Throne. His son, Aurangazeb, imprisoned his ailing father at nearby Agra Fort. Legend has it that he had the Kohinoor positioned near a window so that Shah Jahan could see the Taj only by looking at its reflection in the stone. There it stayed until the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739 and the sacking of Agra and Delhi. Along with the Peacock Throne, he also carried off the Koh-i-noor to Persia in 1739. It was allegedly Nadir Shah who exclaimed Koh-i-Noor! when he finally managed to obtain the famous stone, and this is how the stone gained its present name. There is no reference to this name before 1739. The valuation of the Kohinoor is given in the legend that one of Nadir Shah's consorts supposedly said, "If a strong man should take five stones, and throw one north, one south, one east, and one west, and the last straight up into the air, and the space between filled with gold and gems, that would equal the value of the Koh-i-noor." After the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747, the stone came into the hands of Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. In 1830, Shah Shuja, the deposed ruler of Afghanistan, managed to flee with the Kohinoor diamond. He then came to Lahore where it was given to the Sikh Maharaja (King) of Punjab, Ranjit Singh; in return for this Maharaja Ranjit Singh won back the Afghan throne for Shah Shuja The diamond passes out of India Ranjit Singh crowned himself as the ruler of Punjab and willed the Koh-i-noor to Jagannath Temple in Orissa while on his deathbed in 1839. But there was dispute about this last-minute testament, and in any case it was not executed. On March 29, 1849, the British flag was hoisted on the citadel of Lahore and the Punjab was formally proclaimed to be part of the British Empire in India. One of the terms of the Treaty of Lahore, the legal agreement formalising this occupation, was as follows: Lithograph by Emily Eden showing one of the favourite horses of Maharaja Ranjit Singh with the head officer of his stables and his collection of fabulous jewels including the Koh-i-noor diamond the first among the gems shown here The gem called the Koh-i-Noor which was taken from Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk by Maharajah Ranjit Singh shall be surrendered by the Maharajah of Lahore to the Queen of England. The Governor-General in charge for the ratification of this treaty was Lord Dalhousie. More than anyone, Dalhousie was responsible for the British acquiring the Koh-i-Noor, in which he continued to show great interest for the rest of his life. Dalhousie's work in India was sometimes controversial, and his acquisition of the diamond, amongst many other things, was criticised by some contemporary British commentators. Although some suggested that the diamond should have been presented as a gift to the Queen, it is clear that Dalhousie felt strongly that the stone was a spoil of war, and treated it accordingly. Writing to his friend Sir George Cooper in August of 1849, he stated this: The Court [of the East India Company] you say, are ruffled by my having caused the Maharajah to cede to the Queen the Koh-i-noor; while the 'Daily News' and my Lord Ellenborough [Governor-General of India, 1841-44] are indignant because I did not confiscate everything to her Majesty... [My] motive was simply this: that it was more for the honour of the Queen that the Koh-i-noor should be surrendered directly from the hand of the conquered prince into the hands of the sovereign who was his conqueror, than it should be presented to her as a gift -- which is always a favour -- by any joint-stock company among her subjects. So the Court ought to feel. Dalhousie arranged that the diamond should be presented by Maharajah Ranjit Singh's young successor, Duleep Singh, to Queen Victoria in 1851. Maharajaah Duleep Singh was the youngest son of Maharajah Ranjit Singh and his fifth wife Maharani Jind Kaur. Duleep, aged 13, travelled to the United Kingdom to present the jewel. The presentation of the Koh-i-Noor to Queen Victoria was the latest in the long history of transfers of the stone as a spoil of war. Duleep Singh had been placed in the guardianship of Dr John Spence Login and his wife Lena nee Campbell . Dr Login was a surgeon in the British Army who served in West Bengal, East India for some years and was a native of Southend, Stromness, Orkney Islands, Scotland. His family had run Login's Inn in Stromness since the early 1800's. Dr Login, his wife Lena and the young Duleep Singh travelled to England for the purpose of presenting the Koh-i-Noor diamond to Queen Victoria*(see below). In due course the Governor-General received the Koh-i-Noor from Doctor Login, who had been appointed Governor of the Citadel, the Royal Fort at Lahore, with the Toshakhana or Royal Treasury, which Login valued at almost £1,000,000 excluding the Koh-i-Noor, on 6th April 1848, under a receipt dated 7th December 1849 , in the presence of the members of the Board of Administration – the local resident H.M. Lawrence, C.C. Mansel, John Lawrence, younger brother of H.M. Lawrence, and of Sir Henry Elliot, Secretary to the Government of India. The jewel was then sent to England in the care of John Lawrence, and C.C. Mansel for presentation to Queen Victoria, sailing from Bombay in H.M.S. Medea under strict security arrangements. The ship had a difficult voyage – an outbreak of cholera on board when the ship was in Mauritius had the locals demanding its departure and they asked their governor to open fire and destroy the vessel if it did not respond. Shortly thereafter the vessel was hit by a severe gale that blew for some twelve hours. On arrival in Britain the passengers and mail were unloaded in Plymouth, but the Koh-i-noor stayed on board until the ship reached Portsmouth, from where Lawrence and Mansel took the diamond to the East India House in the City of London and passed it into the care of the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the HEIC. The handing over of the Koh-i-Noor diamond to The Queen on 3rd July 1850 as part of the terms of the conclusion of the Sikh War also coincided with the 250th anniversary of the HEIC. Dr Login received a knighthood in 1854 from Queen Victoria and was known as Sir John Spencer Login (he had added the "r' to his middle name to change it from Spence to Spencer). The diamond is now set into the crown worn by the female consort to Monarch of the United Kingdom, and is currently in the Crown of Queen Elizabeth. In 1854 Duleep Singh, who had converted to Christianity in 1853 but who converted back to Sikhism in 1888, travelled to Britain with Doctor Login and his wife. Leading a life of leisure, pleasure and high living on a substantial allowance from the British Government, he was a regular visitor to Windsor and Osborne with the Royal Family. He was befriended by The Queen and the Royal Princes, and treated as next in precedence after the Royal Family. Prince Albert designed a coat of arms for him although it was never recorded at the College of Arms. He was granted British citizenship in 1861 and at that time he was appointed one of the first Knight Commanders of The Most Exalted Order of the Star of India newly created on 25th June 1861, when the following proclamation was issued by The Queen: “The Queen, being desirous of affording to the Princes, Chiefs and People of the Indian Empire, a public and signal testimony of Her regard, by the Institution of an Order of Knighthood, whereby Her resolution to take upon Herself the Government of the Territories in India may be commemorated, and by which Her Majesty may be enabled to reward conspicuous merit and loyalty, has been graciously pleased, by Letters Patent under the Great Seal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, to institute, erect, constitute, and create, an Order of Knighthood, to be known by, and have for ever hereafter, the name, style, and designation, of ‘The Most Exalted Order of the Star of India’” He was created a Knight Grand Commander of the Order in 1866. The prince was the main mourner at the funeral of Sir John Spencer Login who died on 18th April 1863 and was buried at Felixstowe, Suffolk, England. "Everyone was struck with the young Sikh Sovereign's charm of manner; his geniality and love of truth, and his straightforwardness was very unusual in an Oriental. One could not but have great sympathy for the boy, brought up from babyhood to exact the most obsequious servility ; and it was greatly to his credit that he submitted at all to any direction or discipline, or to the idea that his education was to be enforced by any system of authority. My husband was really fond of him, and the two got on famously together; yet there were occasional contests of will between them, and the first real exercise of discipline on the part of his guardian arose out of a matter so trivial as to give it an exceedingly absurd aspect. Duleep Singh had run out into the garden during heavy rain, and got thoroughly drenched. Finding him in this condition, Login wished him to change his clothes, but, half in play, the boy said he would do so at the usual time, and when urged to change at once, he turned obstinate. Then, in the quality of his governor, my husband gave him half-an-hour to do it, of his own accord, and when he still held out, told him how he grieved to coerce him in any way, but that he advised him, as a friend, not to make it necessary to have to use compulsion. Poor little fellow ! In a few minutes he came sobbing to his guardian's room, and ‘pleaded the Treaty of Lahore, which stipulated that he was to be allowed to do as he liked !" - Lady Login's Recollections, Edith Dalhousie Login. Lady Login's Recollections, by Edith Dalhousie Login-daughter of Sir John Spencer Login and Lady Lena Login. Queen Victoria's Maharajah, Duleep Singh, 1838-93, by Michael Alexander and Sushila Anand. 1980. ISBN 1842122320, ISBN 9781842122327 The curse of the Koh-i-Noor The possibility of a curse pertaining to ownership of the diamond dates back to a Hindu text relating to the first authenticated appearance of the diamond in 1306: "He who owns this diamond will own the world, but will also know all its misfortunes. Only God, or a woman, can wear it with impunity." The history and lives of the rulers who owned the Koh-i-Noor diamond were filled with violence, and trouble. Whether or not people believe in the curse, the history of the stone is undeniable The Curse of the Kohinoor Diamond . The Great Exhibition The British public were given a chance to see the Koh-i-Noor when the Great Exhibition was staged in Hyde Park, London in 1851. The correspondent of The Times reported: The Koh-i-Noor is at present decidedly the lion of the Exhibition. A mysterious interest appears to be attached to it, and now that so many precautions have been resorted to, and so much difficulty attends its inspection, the crowd is enormously enhanced, and the policemen at either end of the covered entrance have much trouble in restraining the struggling and impatient multitude. For some hours yesterday there were never less than a couple of hundred persons waiting their turn of admission, and yet, after all, the diamond does not satisfy. Either from the imperfect cutting or the difficulty of placing the lights advantageously, or the immovability of the stone itself, which should be made to revolve on its axis, few catch any of the brilliant rays it reflects when viewed at a particular angle. The Crown Jewels Copy of the new cut of the Koh-i-Noor This disappointment in the appearance of the stone was shared by many. In 1852, under the personal supervision of Victoria's consort, Prince Albert, and the technical direction of James Tennant, the diamond was cut from 186 1/16 carats (37.21 g) to its current 105.602 carats (21.61 g) to increase its brilliance. Albert consulted widely, took enormous pains, and spent some £8,000 on the operation, which reduced the weight of the stone by a huge 42% -- but nevertheless Albert was dissatisfied with the result. The stone then was mounted in a tiara with more than two thousand other diamonds. Later, the stone was to be used as the centrepiece of the crown of the Queen consort of the United Kingdom. Queen Alexandra was the first to use the crown, followed by Queen Mary. In 1936, the stone was set into the crown of the new Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), wife of King George VI; in 2002, the crown rested atop her coffin as she lay in state. Politics of Koh-i-noor claims Given the long history of the diamond, there are many countries with a claim on it. In 1976, Pakistan prime minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto asked British prime minister Jim Callaghan for the Koh-i-Noor to be returned to Pakistan. The prime minister replied to Mr Bhutto with a polite "No", and British diplomats in the countries likely to counter this claim were asked to lobby to 'kill the story'. PM debated diamond's ownership Other claims have been made by India, Indian MPs demand Kohinoor's return The gem remains in the Tower of London. Koh-i-Noor in popular media In the Turkish movie "Hacivat Karagöz neden öldürüldü?" (2006) the Koh-I-Noor was to be given as a present to the Mongols, but because of greed it does not get there. In "Tooth and Claw", an episode of the 2006 series of Doctor Who set in 1879, the Koh-i-Noor diamond was used by the Doctor to save Queen Victoria from a werewolf. In the story, the reason for Prince Albert cutting down the diamond was to try and make it a suitable prism for a light chamber designed to trap the werewolf. The episode was first broadcast in the UK on 22 April 2006. The Koh-i-Noor features as the object of a heist in Lynda La Plante's "Royal Flush" (2002) In one of the George MacDonald Fraser "Flashman" novels, Flashman and the Mountain of Light (published in 1990), the Koh-i-Noor diamond forms part of the backdrop to the storyline, set during the First Anglo-Sikh War as fought between 1845 and 1846. In Henry David Thoreau's book Walden, the appeal of the Koh-i-Noor diamond is mentioned on page 137 to make a point regarding human's quest for material goods. In Hugh Antoine D'Arcy's 1887 poem, "The Face on the Barroom Floor" , the vagabond describes the woman that led to his ruin with the phrase, "...With eyes that would beat the Koh-i-Noor, and a wealth of chestnut hair..." In James Joyce's "Ulysses", in the section written in dialogue, it is mentioned in his stage directions that "Bloom holds up his right hand on which sparkles the Koh-i-Noor diamond." The plot of Agatha Christie's The Secret of Chimneys revolves around finding the Koh-i-Noor, which, in the novel, was stolen and hidden and replaced by a substitute. In The Jewel in the Crown a television mini-series based upon The Raj Quartet, a four-volume novel written by Paul Scott, the title refers, at one level, to a lithograph which depicts Duleep Singh presenting the Koh-I-Noor to Queen Victoria and, at another, to India (Bharat-Varsh) as the real jewel in the crown that was the British Empire. In the Gurinder Chadha movie, Bride and Prejudice one song called "Marriage into Town" tells about Lalita's (Aishwarya Rai) friend, and the many different store owners attempt to sell their products to her for her marriage. One jewelry store owner sings "Cut, color, clarity! The best you'll ever see!" and Aishwarya Rai, after seeing the impressive ornaments, sings in response, "Only the Koh-i-noor is better!" See also Darya-ye Noor Diamond (Sea of Light) Nur-Ul-Ain Diamond (The light of the eye) List of famous diamonds References Sources The Great Diamonds of the World by Edwin Streeter, The Baburnama by Babur, translated into English by Annette Beveridge 1922, Beveridge's Discussion of "great Diamond" (Koh-I-Noor ?) Akbarnama by Abul Fazal, translated into English by Henry Beveridge Travels in India by Jean Baptiste Tavernier, translated into English by Valentine Ball and William Crooke Tavernier's discussion on the Diamond in Appendix I The archives of The Times. http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page3202.asp Photograph of Koh-I-Noor Diamond External links The World of Famous Diamonds History of the Kohinoor

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Malware

Malware, a portmanteau from the words malicious and software, is software designed to infiltrate or damage a computer system without the owner's informed consent. The expression is a general term used by computer professionals to mean a variety of forms of hostile, intrusive, or annoying software or program code. http://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/alerts/info/malware.mspx The term "computer virus" is sometimes used as a catch-all phrase to include all types of malware, including true viruses. Software is considered malware based on the perceived intent of the creator rather than any particular features. Malware includes computer viruses, worms, trojan horses, most rootkits, spyware, dishonest adware, crimeware and other malicious and unwanted software. In law, malware is sometimes known as a computer contaminant, for instance in the legal codes of several U. S. states, including California and West Virginia. National Conference of State Legislatures Virus/Contaminant/Destructive Transmission Statutes by State jcots.state.va.us/2005%20Content/pdf/Computer%20Contamination%20Bill.pdf [§18.2-152.4:1 Penalty for Computer Contamination] Malware is not the same as defective software, that is, software which has a legitimate purpose but contains harmful bugs. Preliminary results from Symantec published in 2008 suggested that "the release rate of malicious code and other unwanted programs may be exceeding that of legitimate software applications." According to F-Secure, "As much malware [was] produced in 2007 as in the previous 20 years altogether." Malware's most common pathway from criminals to users is through the Internet: primarily by e-mail and the World Wide Web. Purposes Many early infectious programs, including the first Internet Worm and a number of MS-DOS viruses, were written as experiments or pranks generally intended to be harmless or merely annoying rather than to cause serious damage to computers. In some cases the perpetrator did not realize how much harm their creations could do. Young programmers learning about viruses and the techniques wrote them for the sole purpose that they could or to see how far it could spread. As late as 1999, widespread viruses such as the Melissa virus appear to have been written chiefly as pranks. Hostile intent related to vandalism can be found in programs designed to cause harm or data loss. Many DOS viruses, and the Windows ExploreZip worm, were designed to destroy files on a hard disk, or to corrupt the file system by writing invalid data. Network-borne worms such as the 2001 Code Red worm or the Ramen worm fall into the same category. Designed to vandalize web pages, these worms may seem like the online equivalent to graffiti tagging, with the author's alias or affinity group appearing everywhere the worm goes. However, since the rise of widespread broadband Internet access, malicious software has come to be designed for a profit motive, either more or less legal (forced advertising) or criminal. For instance, since 2003, the majority of widespread viruses and worms have been designed to take control of users' computers for black-market exploitation. Infected "zombie computers" are used to send email spam, to host contraband data such as child pornography PC World - Zombie PCs: Silent, Growing Threat , or to engage in distributed denial-of-service attacks as a form of extortion. Another strictly for-profit category of malware has emerged in spyware -- programs designed to monitor users' web browsing, display unsolicited advertisements, or redirect affiliate marketing revenues to the spyware creator. Spyware programs do not spread like viruses; they are generally installed by exploiting security holes or are packaged with user-installed software, such as peer-to-peer applications. Infectious malware: viruses and worms The best-known types of malware, viruses and worms, are known for the manner in which they spread, rather than any other particular behavior. The term computer virus is used for a program which has infected some executable software and which causes that software, when run, to spread the virus to other executable software. Viruses may also contain a payload which performs other actions, often malicious. A worm, on the other hand, is a program which actively transmits itself over a network to infect other computers. It too may carry a payload. These definitions lead to the observation that a virus requires user intervention to spread, whereas a worm spreads automatically. Using this distinction, infections transmitted by email or Microsoft Word documents, which rely on the recipient opening a file or email to infect the system, would be classified as viruses rather than worms. Some writers in the trade and popular press appear to misunderstand this distinction, and use the terms interchangeably. Capsule history of viruses and worms Before Internet access became widespread, viruses spread on personal computers by infecting programs or the executable boot sectors of floppy disks. By inserting a copy of itself into the machine code instructions in these executables, a virus causes itself to be run whenever the program is run or the disk is booted. Early computer viruses were written for the Apple II and Macintosh, but they became more widespread with the dominance of the IBM PC and MS-DOS system. Executable-infecting viruses are dependent on users exchanging software or boot floppies, so they spread heavily in computer hobbyist circles. The first worms, network-borne infectious programs, originated not on personal computers, but on multitasking Unix systems. The first well-known worm was the Internet Worm of 1988, which infected SunOS and VAX BSD systems. Unlike a virus, this worm did not insert itself into other programs. Instead, it exploited security holes in network server programs and started itself running as a separate process. This same behavior is used by today's worms as well. With the rise of the Microsoft Windows platform in the 1990s, and the flexible macro systems of its applications, it became possible to write infectious code in the macro language of Microsoft Word and similar programs. These macro viruses infect documents and templates rather than applications, but rely on the fact that macros in a Word document are a form of executable code. Today, worms are most commonly written for the Windows OS, although a small number are also written for Linux and Unix systems. Worms today work in the same basic way as 1988's Internet Worm: they scan the network and leverage vulnerable computers to replicate. Concealment: Trojan horses, rootkits, and backdoors Trojan horses For a malicious program to accomplish its goals, it must be able to do so without being shut down, or deleted by the user or administrator of the computer via which it is running. Concealment can also help get the malware installed in the first place. When a malicious program is disguised as something innocuous or desirable, users may be tempted to install it without knowing what it does. This is the technique of the Trojan horse or trojan. Broadly speaking, a Trojan horse is any program that invites the user to run it, concealing a harmful or malicious payload. The payload may take effect immediately and can lead to many undesirable effects, such as deleting the user's files or further installing malicious or undesirable software. Trojan horses known as droppers are used to start off a worm outbreak, by injecting the worm into users' local networks. One of the most common ways that spyware is distributed is as a Trojan horse, bundled with a piece of desirable software that the user downloads from the Internet. When the user installs the software, the spyware is installed alongside. Spyware authors who attempt to act in a legal fashion may include an end-user license agreement which states the behavior of the spyware in loose terms, and which the users are unlikely to read or understand. Rootkits Once a malicious program is installed on a system, it is essential that it stays concealed, to avoid detection and disinfection. The same is true when a human attacker breaks into a computer directly. Techniques known as rootkits allow this concealment, by modifying the host operating system so that the malware is hidden from the user. Rootkits can prevent a malicious process from being visible in the system's list of processes, or keep its files from being read. Originally, a rootkit was a set of tools installed by a human attacker on a Unix system where the attacker had gained administrator (root) access. Today, the term is used more generally for concealment routines in a malicious program. Some malicious programs contain routines to defend against removal: not merely to hide themselves, but to repel attempts to remove them. An early example of this behavior is recorded in the Jargon File tale of a pair of programs infesting a Xerox CP-V timesharing system: Each ghost-job would detect the fact that the other had been killed, and would start a new copy of the recently slain program within a few milliseconds. The only way to kill both ghosts was to kill them simultaneously (very difficult) or to deliberately crash the system. Catb.org Similar techniques are used by some modern malware, wherein the malware starts a number of processes which monitor and restore one another as needed. Backdoors A backdoor is a method of bypassing normal authentication procedures. Once a system has been compromised (by one of the above methods, or in some other way), one or more backdoors may be installed, in order. Backdoors may also be installed prior to malicious software, to allow attackers entry. The idea has often been suggested that computer manufacturers preinstall backdoors on their systems to provide technical support for customers, but this has never been reliably verified. Crackers typically use backdoors to secure remote access to a computer, while attempting to remain hidden from casual inspection. To install backdoors crackers may use Trojan horses, worms, or other methods. Malware for profit: spyware, botnets, keystroke loggers, and dialers During the 1980s and 1990s, it was usually taken for granted that malicious programs were created as a form of vandalism or prank. More recently, the greater share of malware programs have been written with a financial or profit motive in mind. This can be taken as the malware authors' choice to monetize their control over infected systems: to turn that control into a source of revenue. Spyware programs are commercially produced for the purpose of gathering information about computer users, showing them pop-up ads, or altering web-browser behavior for the financial benefit of the spyware creator. For instance, some spyware programs redirect search engine results to paid advertisements. Others, often called "stealware" by the media, overwrite affiliate marketing codes so that revenue is redirected to the spyware creator rather than the intended recipient. Spyware programs are sometimes installed as Trojan horses of one sort or another. They differ in that their creators present themselves openly as businesses, for instance by selling advertising space on the pop-ups created by the malware. Most such programs present the user with an end-user license agreement which purportedly protects the creator from prosecution under computer contaminant laws. However, spyware EULAs have not yet been upheld in court. Another way that financially-motivated malware creators can profit from their infections is to directly use the infected computers to do work for the creator. The infected computers are used as proxies to send out spam messages. The advantage to spammers of using infected computers is they provide anonymity, protecting the spammer from prosecution. Spammers have also used infected PCs to target anti-spam organizations with distributed denial-of-service attacks. In order to coordinate the activity of many infected computers, attackers have used coordinating systems known as botnets. In a botnet, the malware or malbot logs in to an Internet Relay Chat channel or other chat system. The attacker can then give instructions to all the infected systems simultaneously. Botnets can also be used to push upgraded malware to the infected systems, keeping them resistant to anti-virus software or other security measures. It is possible for a malware creator to profit by stealing sensitive information from a victim. Some malware programs install a key logger, which intercepts the user's keystrokes when entering a password, credit card number, or other information that may exploited. This is then transmitted to the malware creator automatically, enabling credit card fraud and other theft. Similarly, malware may copy the CD key or password for online games, allowing the creator to steal accounts or virtual items. Another way of stealing money from the infected PC owner is to take control of a dial-up modem and dial an expensive toll call. Dialer (or porn dialer) software dials up a premium-rate telephone number such as a U.S. "900 number" and leave the line open, charging the toll to the infected user. Data-stealing malware Data-stealing malware is a web threat that divests victims of personal and proprietary information with the intent of monetizing stolen data through direct use or underground distribution. Content security threats that fall under this umbrella include keyloggers, screen scrapers, spyware, adware, backdoors, and bots. The term does not refer to activities such as spam, phishing, DNS poisoning, SEO abuse, etc. However, when these threats result in file download or direct installation, as most hybrid attacks do, files that act as agents to proxy information will fall into the data-stealing malware category. Characteristics of data-stealing malware Does not leave traces of the event The malware is typically stored in a cache which is routinely flushed The malware may be installed via a drive-by-download process The website hosting the malware as well as the malware is generally temporary or rogue Frequently changes and extends its functions It is difficult for antivirus software to detect final payload attributes due to the combinations of malware components The malware uses multiple file encryption levels Thwarts Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) after successful installation There are no perceivable network anomalies The malware hides in web traffic The malware is stealthier in terms of traffic and resource use Thwarts disk encryption Data is stolen during decryption and display The malware can record keystrokes, passwords, and screenshots Thwarts Data Loss Prevention (DLP) Leakage protection hinges on metadata tagging, not everything is tagged Miscreants can use encryption to port data Examples of data-stealing malware Bancos, an info stealer that waits for the user to access banking websites then spoofs pages of the bank website to steal sensitive information Gator, spyware that covertly monitors web-surfing habits, uploads data to a server for analysis then serves targeted pop-up ads LegMir, spyware that steals personal information such as account names and passwords related to online games Qhost, a Trojan that modifies the Hosts file to point to a different DNS server when banking sites are accessed then opens a spoofed login page to steal login credentials for those financial institutions Data-stealing malware incidents Eleven people were implicated in a massive identity theft and computer fraud scheme targeting nine U.S. retailers (BJ’s Wholesale Club, TJX, DSW Shoe, OfficeMax, Barnes & Noble, Boston Market, Sports Authority and Forever 21). Over 40 million credit and debit card numbers were stolen. Gross, Grant (2008) Eleven charged in massive ID theft scheme from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_threats A Trojan horse program stole more than 1.6 million records belonging to several hundred thousand people from Monster Worldwide Inc’s job search service. The data was used by cybercriminals to craft phishing emails targeted at Monster.com users to plant additional malware on users’ PCs. Keizer, Gregg (2007) Monster.com data theft may be bigger from http://www.pcworld.com/article/136154/monstercom_data_theft_may_be_bigger.html Customers of Hannaford Bros. Co, a supermarket chain based in Maine, were victims of a data security breach involving the potential compromise of 4.2 million debit and credit cards. The company was hit by several class-action law suits. Vijayan, Jaikumar (2008) Hannaford hit by class-action lawsuits in wake of data breach disclosure from http://www.computerworld.com/action/article.do?command=viewArticleBasic&articleId=9070281 The Torpig Trojan has compromised and stolen login credentials from approximately 250,000 online bank accounts as well as a similar number of credit and debit cards. Other information such as email, and FTP accounts from numerous websites, have also been compromised and stolen. BBC News: Trojan virus steals banking info http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7701227.stm Vulnerability to malware In this context, as throughout, it should be borne in mind that the “system” under attack may be of various types, e.g. a single computer and operating system, a network or an application. Various factors make a system more vulnerable to malware: Homogeneity – e.g. when all computers in a network run the same OS, if you can exploit that OS, you can break into any computer running it. Defects – malware leveraging defects in the OS design Unconfirmed code – code from a floppy disk, CD-ROM or USB device may be executed without the user’s agreement. Over-privileged users – some systems allow all users to modify their internal structures. Over-privileged code – most popular systems allow code executed by a user all rights of that user. An often cited cause of vulnerability of networks is homogeneity or software monoculture. In particular, Microsoft Windows has such a large share of the market that concentrating on it will enable a cracker to subvert a large number of systems. Introducing inhomogeneity purely for the sake of robustness would however bring high costs in terms of training and maintenance. Most systems contain bugs which may be exploited by malware. A typical example is the buffer overrun, in which an interface designed to store data in a small area of memory allows the caller to supply more data than will fit. This extra data then overwrites the interface's own structure. In this way malware can force the system to execute malicious code, by replacing legitimate code with its own payload. Originally, PCs had to be booted from floppy disks, and until recently it was common for this to be the default boot device. This meant that a corrupt floppy disk could subvert the computer during booting, and the same applies to CDs. Although that is now less common, it is still possible to forget that one has changed the default, and rare that a BIOS makes one confirm a boot from removable media. In some systems, non-administrator users are over-privileged by design, in the sense that they are allowed to modify internal structures of the system. In some environments, users are over-privileged because they have been inappropriately granted administrator or equivalent status. This is a primarily a configuration decision, but on Microsoft Windows systems the default configuration is to over-privilege the user. This situation exists due to decisions made by Microsoft to prioritize compatibility with older systems above security configuration in newer systems and because typical applications were developed without the under-privileged users in mind. As privilege escalation exploits have increased this priority is shifting for the release of Microsoft Windows Vista. As a result, many existing applications that require excess privilege (over-privileged code) may have compatibility problems with Vista. However, Vista's User Account Control feature attempts to remedy applications not designed for under-privileged users through virtualization, acting as a crutch to resolve the privileged access problem inherent in legacy applications. Malware, running as over-privileged code, can use this privilege to subvert the system. Almost all currently popular operating systems, and also many scripting applications allow code too many privileges, usually in the sense that when a user executes code, the system allows that code all rights of that user. This makes users vulnerable to malware in the form of e-mail attachments, which may or may not be disguised. Given this state of affairs, users are warned only to open attachments they trust, and to be wary of code received from untrusted sources. It is also common for operating systems to be designed so that device drivers need escalated privileges, while they are supplied by more and more hardware manufacturers. Eliminating over-privileged code Over-privileged code dates from the time when most programs were either delivered with a computer or written in-house, and repairing it would at a stroke render most anti-virus software almost redundant. It would, however, have appreciable consequences for the user interface and system management. The system would have to maintain privilege profiles, and know which to apply for each user and program. In the case of newly installed software, an administrator would need to set up default profiles for the new code. Eliminating vulnerability to rogue device drivers is probably harder than for arbitrary rogue executables. Two techniques, used in VMS, that can help are memory mapping only the registers of the device in question and a system interface associating the driver with interrupts from the device. Other approaches are: Various forms of virtualization, allowing the code unlimited access only to virtual resources Various forms of sandbox or jail The security functions of Java, in java.security Such approaches, however, if not fully integrated with the operating system, would reduplicate effort and not be universally applied, both of which would be detrimental to security. Anti-malware programs As malware attacks become more frequent, attention has begun to shift from viruses and spyware protection, to malware protection, and programs have been developed to specifically combat them. Anti-malware programs can combat malware in two ways: They can provide real time protection against the installation of malware software on a computer. This type of spyware protection works the same way as that of anti-virus protection in that the anti-malware software scans all incoming network data for malware software and blocks any threats it comes across. Anti-malware software programs can be used solely for detection and removal of malware software that has already been installed onto a computer. This type of malware protection is normally much easier to use and more popular. This type of anti-malware software scans the contents of the windows registry, operating system files, and installed programs on a computer and will provide a list of any threats found, allowing the user to choose which files to delete or keep, or to compare this list to a list of known malware components, removing files that match. Real-time protection from malware works identically to real-time anti-virus protection: the software scans disk files at download time, and blocks the activity of components known to represent malware. In some cases, it may also intercept attempts to install start-up items or to modify browser settings. Because many malware components are installed as a result of browser exploits or user error, using security software (some of which are anti-malware, though many are not) to "sandbox" browsers (essentially babysit the user and their browser) can also be effective in helping to restrict any damage done. Academic research on malware: a brief overview The notion of a self-reproducing computer program can be traced back to 1949 when John von Neumann presented lectures that encompassed the theory and organization of complicated automata. John von Neumann, "Theory of Self-Reproducing Automata", Part 1: Transcripts of lectures given at the University of Illinois, December 1949, Editor: A. W. Burks, University of Illinois, USA, 1966. Neumann showed that in theory a program could reproduce itself. This constituted a plausibility result in computability theory. Fred Cohen experimented with computer viruses and confirmed Neumann's postulate. He also investigated other properties of malware (detectability, self-obfuscating programs that used rudimentary encryption that he called "evolutionary", and so on). His 1988 doctoral dissertation was on the subject of computer viruses. Fred Cohen, "Computer Viruses", PhD Thesis, University of Southern California, ASP Press, 1988. Cohen's faculty advisor, Leonard Adleman (the A in RSA) presented a rigorous proof that, in the general case, algorithmically determining whether a virus is or is not present is Turing undecidable. L. M. Adleman, "An Abstract Theory of Computer Viruses", Advances in Cryptology---Crypto '88, LNCS 403, pages 354-374, 1988. This problem must not be mistaken for that of determining, within a broad class of programs, that a virus is not present; this problem differs in that it does not require the ability to recognize all viruses. Adleman's proof is perhaps the deepest result in malware computability theory to date and it relies on Cantor's diagonal argument as well as the halting problem. Ironically, it was later shown by Young and Yung that Adleman's work in cryptography is ideal in constructing a virus that is highly resistant to reverse-engineering by presenting the notion of a cryptovirus. A. Young, M. Yung, "Cryptovirology: Extortion-Based Security Threats and Countermeasures," IEEE Symposium on Security & Privacy, pages 129-141, 1996. A cryptovirus is a virus that contains and uses a public key and randomly generated symmetric cipher initialization vector (IV) and session key (SK). In the cryptoviral extortion attack, the virus hybrid encrypts plaintext data on the victim's machine using the randomly generated IV and SK. The IV+SK are then encrypted using the virus writer's public key. In theory the victim must negotiate with the virus writer to get the IV+SK back in order to decrypt the ciphertext (assuming there are no backups). Analysis of the virus reveals the public key, not the IV and SK needed for decryption, or the private key needed to recover the IV and SK. This result was the first to show that computational complexity theory can be used to devise malware that is robust against reverse-engineering. Another growing area of computer virus research is to mathematically model the infection behavior of worms using models such as Lotka–Volterra equations, which has been applied in the study of biological virus. Various virus propagation scenarios have been studied by researchers such as propagation of computer virus, fighting virus with virus like predator codes, H. Toyoizumi, A. Kara. Predators: Good Will Mobile Codes Combat against Computer Viruses. Proc. of the 2002 New Security Paradigms Workshop, 2002 Zakiya M. Tamimi, Javed I. Khan, Model-Based Analysis of Two Fighting Worms, IEEE/IIU Proc. of ICCCE '06, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, May 2006, Vol-I, Page 157-163 effectiveness of patching etc. Grayware Grayware The term "grayware" is also used to describe a kind of Native American pottery and has also been used by some working in computer technology as slang for the human brain. (or greyware) is a general term sometimes used as a classification for applications that behave in a manner that is annoying or undesirable, and yet less serious or troublesome than malware. Grayware encompasses spyware, adware, dialers, joke programs, remote access tools, and any other unwelcome files and programs apart from viruses that are designed to harm the performance of computers on your network. The term has been in use since at least as early as September 2004. Grayware refers to applications or files that are not classified as viruses or trojan horse programs, but can still negatively affect the performance of the computers on your network and introduce significant security risks to your organization. Often grayware performs a variety of undesired actions such as irritating users with pop-up windows, tracking user habits and unnecessarily exposing computer vulnerabilities to attack. Spyware is software that installs components on a computer for the purpose of recording Web surfing habits (primarily for marketing purposes). Spyware sends this information to its author or to other interested parties when the computer is online. Spyware often downloads with items identified as 'free downloads' and does not notify the user of its existence or ask for permission to install the components. The information spyware components gather can include user keystrokes, which means that private information such as login names, passwords, and credit card numbers are vulnerable to theft. Spyware gathers data, such as account user names, passwords, credit card numbers, and other confidential information, and transmits it to third parties. Adware is software that displays advertising banners on Web browsers such as Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox. While not categorized as malware, many users consider adware invasive. Adware programs often create unwanted effects on a system, such as annoying popup ads and the general degradation in either network connection or system performance. Adware programs are typically installed as separate programs that are bundled with certain free software. Many users inadvertently agree to installing adware by accepting the End User License Agreement (EULA) on the free software. Adware are also often installed in tandem with spyware programs. Both programs feed off each other's functionalities - spyware programs profile users' Internet behavior, while adware programs display targeted ads that correspond to the gathered user profile. Web and spam <iframe src="http://example.net/out.ph p?s_id=11" width=0 height=0 /> If an intruder can gain access to a website, it can be hijacked with a single HTML element. The World Wide Web is a criminals' preferred pathway for spreading malware. Today's web threats use combinations of malware to create infection chains. About one in ten Web pages may contain malicious code. Wikis and blogs Innocuous wikis and blogs are not immune to hijacking. It has been reported that the German edition of Wikipedia has recently been used as an attempt to vector infection. Through a form of social engineering, users with ill intent have added links to web pages that contain malicious software with the claim that the web page would provide detections and remedies, when in fact it was a lure to infect. Wikipedia Hijacked to Spread Malware Targeted SMTP threats Targeted SMTP threats also represent an emerging attack vector through which malware is propagated. As users adapt to widespread spam attacks, cybercriminals distribute crimeware to target one specific organization or industry, often for financial gain. "Protecting Corporate Assets from E-mail Crimeware," Avinti, Inc., p.1 HTTP and FTP Infections via "drive-by" download are spread through the Web over HTTP and FTP when resources containing spurious keywords are indexed by legitimate search engines, as well as when JavaScript is surreptitiously added to legitimate websites and advertising networks. See also Browser exploit :Category:Web security exploits Computer insecurity Cyber spying Firewall (networking) Privacy-invasive software Privilege escalation Security in Web applications Social engineering (security) Spy software Targeted threat Web server overload causes References External links US Department of Homeland Security Identity Theft Technology Council report "The Crimeware Landscape: Malware, Phishing, Identity Theft and Beyond" Video: Mark Russinovich - Advanced Malware Cleaning An analysis of targeted attacks using malware Malware Removal Guides and Tutorials Malicious Programs Hit New High -retrieved February 8, 2008 Malware Block List Open Security Foundation Data Loss Database Internet Crime Complaint Center

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Jerry_Falwell

Jerry Lamon Falwell, Sr. (August 11, 1933 – May 15, 2007) was an American evangelical Christian pastor, televangelist, and a conservative commentator. He was the founding pastor of the Thomas Road Baptist Church, a megachurch in Lynchburg, Virginia. He founded Lynchburg Christian Academy (now Liberty Christian Academy) in 1967, Liberty University in 1971, and cofounded the Moral Majority in 1979. Falwell led services at Thomas Road for many years. During his tenure, it changed affiliations from Baptist Bible Fellowship International to the mainly conservative Southern Baptist Convention, and Falwell himself ended his self-identification with fundamentalism in favor of evangelicalism. Falwell's legacy today is strongly mixed and often a source of heated controversy. Supporters praise his advancement of his socially conservative message. Many of his detractors have accused him of hate speech and identified him as an "agent of intolerance", finding fault with his views on LGBT people, religion discrimination, his support of racial segregation during the Civil Rights Movement, his fierce opposition to the Women's Movement, and his controversial statements blaming gays, feminists, pagans, and abortionists for the September 11 attacks. Personal life Falwell was one of twin brothers born in Lynchburg, Virginia to Helen and Carey Hezekiah Falwell. His father was an entrepreneur and onetime bootlegger who was agnostic. His grandfather was a staunch atheist. Falwell married the former Macel Pate on April 12, 1958. The couple had two sons and a daughter (Jerry Falwell, Jr., a lawyer; Jonathan Falwell, a pastor; Jeannie, a surgeon). He graduated from Baptist Bible College in Springfield, Missouri in 1956. This Bible college was unaccredited until 2001. Falwell was eventually awarded three honorary doctoral degrees, and he sometimes used the title "doctor". The honorary doctorates were Doctor of Divinity from Tennessee Temple Theological Seminary , Doctor of Letters from California Graduate School of Theology, and Doctor of Laws from Central University in Seoul, South Korea. Associated organizations Thomas Road Baptist Church In 1956, at age 22, Falwell founded the Thomas Road Baptist Church of Lynchburg, (TRBC) where he served as pastor. The Church went on to become a megachurch, and is now run by Jerry Falwell's son Jonathan Falwell, who serves in the same capacity as his father. Liberty University In 1971, Jerry Falwell founded Liberty University, a Christian liberal arts university in Lynchburg, Virginia. Liberty University has approximately 38,000 students of whom about 12,000 are residential students. US News puts Liberty University as a 4th tier school. Moral Majority In 1979, Falwell founded the Moral Majority, which became one of the largest political lobby groups for evangelical Christians in the United States during the 1980s. The Moral Majority was founded as being "pro-family", "pro-life", "pro-defense" and pro-Israel. The group is credited with delivering two thirds of the white, evangelical Christian vote to Ronald Reagan during the 1980 presidential election. During his time as head of the Moral Majority, Falwell consistently pushed for Republican candidates and for conservative politics leading to criticism by some other conservative Christian leaders such as Billy Graham for giving sermons about political issues that did not have a moral element. Social and political views Families Falwell strongly advocated beliefs and practices he believed were taught by the Bible. He believed in the quintessential patriarchal family in which, ideally, the father is the primary breadwinner and the wife takes care of the home and raises the children until they’re old enough to leave the home. The church, Falwell asserted, was the cornerstone of a successful family. Not only was it a place for spiritual learning and guidance, but also a gathering place for fellowship and socializing with like minded individuals. Often he built conversations he had with parishioners after the worship service into focused speeches or organized goals he would then present to a larger audience via his various media outlets. Civil rights On his Evangelist program The Old-Time Gospel Hour in the mid 1960s, he regularly featured segregationist politicians like Lester Maddox and George Wallace. SPLCenter.org: Holy War About Martin Luther King he said: "I do question the sincerity and nonviolent intentions of some civil rights leaders such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Mr. James Farmer, and others, who are known to have left wing associations." In 1977, Falwell supported Anita Bryant's campaign, which was called by its proponents "Save Our Children", to overturn an ordinance in Dade County, Florida prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, and he supported a similar movement in California. But 28 years later, in an appearance on MSNBC television, Falwell said he was not troubled by reports that the nominee for Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, John G. Roberts (whose appointment was confirmed by the U.S. Senate) had done volunteer legal work for gay rights activists on the case of Romer v. Evans. Falwell told MSNBC's Tucker Carlson that if he were a lawyer, he too would argue for civil rights for LGBT people. "I may not agree with the lifestyle, but that has nothing to do with the civil rights of that part of our constituency," Falwell said. When Carlson countered that conservatives "are always arguing against 'special rights' for gays," Falwell said that equal access to housing, civil marriage, and employment are basic rights, not special rights. "Civil rights for all Americans, black, white, red, yellow, the rich, poor, young, old, gay, straight, et cetera, is not a liberal or conservative value. It's an American value that I would think that we pretty much all agree on." Eartha Jane Melzer, Falwell hints support for some gay rights, The Washington Blade, August 26, 2005. Israel Falwell's staunch pro-Israel stand, sometimes referred to as "Christian Zionism," drew the strong support of the Anti-Defamation League and its leader Abraham Foxman. However, they condemned what they perceived as intolerance towards Muslims in Falwell's public statements. ADL Condemns Falwell's Anti-Muslim Remarks; Urges Him to Apologize Education Falwell repeatedly denounced certain teachings in public schools and secular education in general, calling them breeding grounds for atheism, secularism, and humanism, which he claimed to be in contradiction with Christian morality. He advocated that the United States change its public education system by implementing a school voucher system which would allow parents to send their children to either public or private schools. Jerry Falwell wrote in America Can Be Saved that "I hope I live to see the day when, as in the early days of our country, we won't have any public schools. The churches will have taken them over again and Christians will be running them." Biography: Falwell, Jerry Falwell supported President George W. Bush's Faith Based Initiative, but had strong reservations concerning where the funding would go and the restrictions placed on churches. "My problem is where it might go under his successors... I would not want to put any of the Jerry Falwell Ministries in a position where we might be subservient to a future Bill Clinton, God forbid... It also concerns me that once the pork barrel is filled, suddenly the Church of Scientology, the Jehovah Witnesses [sic], the various and many denominations and religious groups — and I don’t say those words in a pejorative way — begin applying for money — and I don’t see how any can be turned down because of their radical and unpopular views. I don’t know where that would take us." Beliefnet interviews Rev. Jerry Falwell - Beliefnet.com Apartheid In the 1980s Jerry Falwell was critical of sanctions against the apartheid regime of South Africa. He feared that sanctions would result in what, he felt, would be a worse situation, such as a Soviet-backed revolution. He drew the ire of many when he called Nobel Peace Prize winner and Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu a phony "as far as representing the black people of South Africa." An Unholy Uproar - TIME He later apologized for that remark and claimed that he had misspoken. FALWELL DENOUNCES TUTU AS A 'PHONY' He also urged his followers to buy up gold Krugerrands and push U.S. "reinvestment" in South Africa. The Clinton Chronicles In 1994, Falwell promoted and distributed the video documentary The Clinton Chronicles: An Investigation into the Alleged Criminal Activities of Bill Clinton. The video connected Bill Clinton to a murder conspiracy involving Vincent Foster, James McDougall, Ron Brown, and a cocaine-smuggling operation. The theory was discredited, but the video served as effective exposure, and it sold over 150,000 copies. The Falwell connection by Murray Waas Salon.com Funding for the film was provided by "Citizens for Honest Government," to which Jerry Falwell paid $200,000 in 1994 and 1995. In 1995 Citizens for Honest Government interviewed two Arkansas state troopers regarding the murder conspiracy about Vincent Foster. These two troopers Roger Perry and Larry Patterson also gave information regarding the allegations in the Paula Jones affair. Falwell's infomercial for the 80-minute tape included footage of Falwell interviewing a silhouetted journalist who claimed to be afraid for his life. The journalist accused Clinton of orchestrating the deaths of several reporters and personal confidants who had gotten too close to his illegalities. It was subsequently revealed, however, that the silhouetted journalist was, in fact, Patrick Matrisciana, the producer of the video and president of Citizens for Honest Government. "Obviously, I'm not an investigative reporter," Matrisciana admitted to investigative journalist Murray Waas. Later, Falwell seemed to back away from personally trusting the video. In an interview for the 2005 documentary The Hunting of the President, Falwell admitted, "to this day I do not know the accuracy of the claims made in The Clinton Chronicles." The Hunting of the President (DVD) 2005 Comments about LGBT people Falwell has condemned homosexuality as forbidden by the Bible. Pro gay-rights groups called Falwell an "agent of intolerance" and "the founder of the anti-gay industry" for statements he's made and for campaigning against LGBT social movements. Falwell supported Anita Bryant's 1977 "Save Our Children" campaign to overturn a Florida ordinance prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and a similar movement in California. Peter Applebome, Jerry Falwell, Leading Religious Conservative, Dies at 73, The New York Times, May 15, 2007. In urging the repeal of the ordinance, Falwell told one crowd, "Gay folks would just as soon kill you as look at you." When the mostly gay Metropolitan Community Church was almost accepted into the World Council of Churches, Falwell called them "brute beasts" and stated, "this vile and satanic system will one day be utterly annihilated and there'll be a celebration in heaven." He later denied this and was sued and lost the case. Falwell also regularly linked the AIDS pandemic to LGBT issues and stated, “AIDS is not just God's punishment for homosexuals, it is God's punishment for the society that tolerates homosexuals.” Amongst many remarks over the years he is probably most known for statements attributed to him about a Teletubby being a gay role model for homosexual recruitment and stating that gays and lesbians were amongst those in some way responsible for the September 11 attacks. After Ellen DeGeneres came out as a lesbian, televangelist Jerry Falwell referred to her in a sermon as "Ellen DeGenerate." DeGeneres responded by saying "Really, he called me that? Ellen DeGenerate? I've been getting that since the fourth grade." Teletubbies In February 1999, an unsigned article that media outlets attributed to Falwell was published in the National Liberty Journal - a promotional publication of the university he founded - claimed that the Teletubby named Tinky Winky was intended as a gay role model. A 1998 Salon.com article previously had noted Tinky Winky's status as a gay icon. | last=Millman | first=Joyce Arizona supporter funds largest-ever gift annuity to LU (February 27, 2008) By Mitzi Bible - Liberty Journal In response, Steve Rice, spokesperson for Itsy Bitsy Entertainment, which licenses the Teletubbies in the US, said, "I really find it absurd and kind of offensive." The immensely popular UK show was aimed at pre-school children, but the article stated "he is purple - the gay pride color; and his antenna is shaped like a triangle - the gay-pride symbol." Apart from those characteristics Tinky Winky also carries a magic bag which the NLJ article said was a purse. Falwell added "role modelling the gay lifestyle is damaging to the moral lives of children." September 11th attacks After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Falwell said on The 700 Club, "I really believe that the pagans, and the abortionists, and the feminists, and the gays and the lesbians who are actively trying to make that an alternative lifestyle, the ACLU, People For the American Way, all of them who have tried to secularize America. I point the finger in their face and say 'you helped this happen.'" Fellow evangelist Pat Robertson concurred with his sentiment. [ https://home.comcast.net/~joe.grabko/falwell.mp3 - Falwell speaks about WTC disaster, Christian Broadcasting Network] After heavy criticism, Falwell apologized, CNN.com - Falwell apologizes to gays, feminists, lesbians - September 14, 2001 though he later said that he stood by his statement, stating, "if we decide to change all the rules on which this Judeo-Christian nation was built, we cannot expect the Lord to put his shield of protection around us as he has in the past." NY1: Top Stories Labor unions Falwell has also said, "Labor unions should study and read the Bible instead of asking for more money. When people get right with God, they are better workers." Wisconsin State AFL-CIO Salvation In an interview with radio personality Michael Savage, Falwell said that only people who believed that Jesus Christ is the Son of God could go to heaven, a belief Savage, who is Jewish, disagreed with. Legal issues SEC and bonds In 1972 , the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) launched an investigation of bonds issued by Falwell's organizations. The SEC charged Falwell's church with "fraud and deceit" in the issuance of $6.5 million in unsecured church bonds. NPR: Religion, Politics a Potent Mix for Jerry Falwell The church won a 1973 federal court case prosecuted at the behest of the SEC, in which the Court exonerated the church and ruled that there had been no intentional wrong-doing. According to Falwell, the survival of the University could be attributed to the work of Daniel Reber and Jimmy Thomas, as leaders of the non-profit Reber-Thomas Christian Heritage Foundation in Forest, Virginia. It bought Liberty University's debt for $2.5 million, "a fraction of its face value." Sun Myung Moon "funnelled $3.5 million to the Reber-Thomas Christian Heritage Foundation" to purchase the debt and prevent Liberty from going bankrupt. Falwell versus Penthouse Falwell filed a $10 million lawsuit against Penthouse for publishing an article based upon interviews he gave to freelance reporters, after failing to convince a federal court to place an injunction upon the publication of that article. The suit was dismissed in Federal district court on the grounds that the article was not defamatory or an invasion of Falwell's privacy (the Virginia courts had not recognized this privacy tort, which is recognized in other states). "Falwell Says He Will Press $10 Million Penthouse Suit." The New York Times, 5 February 1981. "Penthouse Wins in Court Against Falwell Suit." The New York Times, 7 August 1981. "Falwell Won't Pursue Suit." The New York Times, 10 September 1981. Falwell versus Hustler In November 1983, Larry Flynt's pornographic magazine Hustler carried a parody advertisement of a Campari ad, featuring a fake interview with Falwell in which he admits that his "first time" was incest with his mother in an outhouse while drunk. Falwell sued for $45 million in compensation alleging invasion of privacy, libel, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. Larry Flynt - Biography A jury rejected the invasion of privacy and libel claims, holding that the parody could not have reasonably been taken to describe true events, but ruled in favor of Falwell on the emotional distress claim. This was upheld on appeal. Flynt then appealed to the Supreme Court, winning a unanimous decision on February 24, 1988. The ruling held that public figures cannot circumvent First Amendment protections by attempting to recover damages based on emotional distress suffered from parodies. The decision in favor of Flynt strengthened free speech rights in the United States in relation to parodies of public figures. After the death of Falwell, Larry Flynt released a comment regarding his friendship over the years with Falwell."My mother always told me that no matter how much you dislike a person, when you meet them face to face you will find characteristics about them that you like. Jerry Falwell was a perfect example of that. I hated everything he stood for, but after meeting him in person, years after the trial, Jerry Falwell and I became good friends. He would visit me in California and we would debate together on college campuses. I always appreciated his sincerity even though I knew what he was selling and he knew what I was selling." - Larry Flynt Access Hollywood Falwell versus Jerry Sloan In 1984, Falwell was ordered to pay gay activist and former Baptist Bible College classmate Jerry Sloan $5,000 after losing a court battle. In July, 1984 during a TV debate in Sacramento, California, Falwell denied calling the gay-friendly Metropolitan Community Churches "brute beasts" and "a vile and Satanic system" that will "one day be utterly annihilated and there will be a celebration in heaven". When Sloan insisted he had a tape, Falwell promised $5,000 if he could produce it. Sloan did, Falwell refused to pay, and Sloan successfully sued. The money was donated to build Sacramento's first gay community center, the Lambda Community Center, serving "lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex" communities. Falwell appealed the decision with his attorney charging that the judge in the case was prejudiced. He lost again and was made to pay an additional $2,875 in sanctions and court fees. Falwell versus Christopher Lamparello On April 17, 2006, the Supreme Court declined to hear an appeal of a lower court ruling that Christopher Lamparello's usage of the Internet domain "Fallwell.com" was legal. The United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit had held that Lamparello "clearly created his Web site intending only to provide a forum to criticize ideas, not to steal customers." Supreme Court declines Falwell Web appeal Associated Press. April 17, 2006 Lamparello's website describes itself as not being connected to Jerry Falwell and is critical of Falwell's views on homosexuality. Previous to this, "Falwell's attorneys have fought over domain names in the past" with a man turning over jerryfalwell.com and jerryfallwell.com "after Falwell threatened to sue for trademark infringement." Lawyers for Public Citizen Litigation Group's Internet Free Speech project represented the domain name owners in both cases. Apocalyptic beliefs On July 31 2006, Cable News Network's (CNN) Paula Zahn Now program featured a segment on "whether the crisis in the Middle East is actually a prelude to the end of the world," "marking the third time in eight days that CNN had devoted airtime to those claiming that the ongoing Mideast violence signaled the coming of the Apocalypse." CNN still fixated on Apocalypse predictors. Media matters for America. Aug 1, 2006 In an interview Falwell claimed, "I believe in the premillennial, pre-tribulational coming of Christ for all of his church, and to summarize that, your first poll, do you believe Jesus coming the second time will be in the future, I would vote yes with the 59 percent and with Billy Graham and most evangelicals." In 1999, Falwell declared the Antichrist would probably arrive within a decade and "Of course he'll be Jewish." After accusations of anti-Semitism Falwell apologized and explained that he was simply expressing the theological tenet that the Antichrist and Christ share many attributes. Failing health and death In early 2005, Falwell was hospitalized for two weeks with a viral infection, discharged, and then rehospitalized on May 30 2005, in respiratory arrest. Falwell is taken off ventilator, upgraded to stable condition USA Today May 30, 2005 President George W. Bush contacted Falwell to "wish him well." He was subsequently released from the hospital and returned to his duties. Later in 2005, weighing very much at this point, a stent was implanted to treat a 70% blockage in his coronary arteries. Rev. Jerry Falwell Dies - breitbart.com On May 15 2007, Falwell was found without pulse and unconscious in his office about 10:45 am after missing a morning appointment and was taken to Lynchburg General Hospital. "I had breakfast with him, and he was fine at breakfast… He went to his office, I went to mine and they found him unresponsive" said Ron Godwin, the executive vice president of Falwell's Liberty University. His condition was initially reported as "gravely serious"; CPR was administered unsuccessfully. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070515/ap_on_re_us/jerry_falwell As of 2:10 pm, during a live press conference, a doctor for the hospital confirmed that Falwell had died of "cardiac arrhythmia, or sudden cardiac death." A statement issued by the hospital reported he was pronounced dead at Lynchburg General Hospital at 12:40 pm, EST. http://www.centrahealth.com/news/pressrelease78.aspx Falwell’s family, including his wife Macel and sons Jerry Falwell, Jr. and Jonathan Falwell, were with the corpse at the hospital at the time of the pronouncement. http://www.liberty.edu/administration/index.cfm?PID=14092 Falwell's funeral took place at 1:00 PM EDT on May 22, 2007 at Thomas Road Baptist Church after lying in repose at both the church and Liberty University. Falwell funeral arrangements (Liberty University) Falwell's burial service was private. It took place at a spot on the Liberty University campus near the Carter Glass Mansion, near his office. Thousands Line Up To Attend Jerry Falwell's Funeral Buried nearby is the late B. R. Lakin. http://www.elmertowns.com/bio/BR_Lakin_History%5BETowns%5D.pdf After his death, his two sons succeeded him at his two posts; Jerry Falwell, Jr. took over as Chancellor of Liberty University while Jonathan Falwell became the Senior Pastor of the Thomas Road Baptist Church. The last televised interview with Jerry Falwell was conducted by Christiane Amanpour for the CNN original series CNN Presents: God's Warriors. CNN Press Release He had been interviewed on May 8, one week before his death – there is an online copy of the interview. Publications Champions for God. Victor Books, 1985. Church Aflame. (co-author Elmer Towns) Impact, 1971. Dynamic Faith Journal. Thomas Nelson (64 pages) (January 30, 2006) ISBN 0529122456 Falwell: An Autobiography. Liberty House, 1996. (Ghost written by Mel White ) ISBN 1888684046 Fasting Can Change Your Life. Regal, 1998. Finding Inner Peace and Strength. Doubleday, 1982. If I Should Die Before I Wake. Thomas Nelson, 1986. (ghost-written by Mel White) Liberty Bible Commentary on the New Testament. Thomas Nelson/Liberty University, 1978. Liberty Bible Commentary. Thomas Nelson, 1982. Listen, America! Bantam Books (July 1981) ISBN 0553149989 Stepping Out on Faith. Tyndale House, 1984. Strength for the Journey. Simon & Schuster, 1987. (ghost-written by Mel White) The Fundamentalist Phenomenon. Doubleday, 1981. The Fundamentalist Phenomenon/the Resurgence of Conservative Christianity. Baker Book House, 1986. The New American Family. Word, 1992. When it Hurts Too Much to Cry. Tyndale House, 1984. ISBN 0842379932 Wisdom for Living. Victor Books, 1984. See also Antifeminism Christian evangelist scandals Christian fundamentalism Clinton Chronicles Heritage USA Homophobia Intolerance Jerry Falwell, Jr Jonathan Falwell Liberty University Moral majority New Right The PTL Club Racial segregationists of the Civil Rights era Televangelists Footnotes External links Jerry Falwell Ministries Jerry Falwell Photo Gallery (1933-2007) from Time.com Liberty University Jerry Falwell at the Notable Names Database An NPR: Jerry Falwell timeline. Jerry Falwell introduces keynote speaker, President Ronald Reagan, to speak on interfaith cooperation of military chaplains during combat Dark Side of Rev. Moon: Buying the Right Franklin Graham's Eulogy for Falwell Final Video Interview With Christiane Amanpour Canadian Broadcasting Corporation interview "The Politics of Plague" debate between Rev. Jerry Falwell and Rev Troy Perry TIME magazine cover story on Jerry Falwell, Sept. 2,1985

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Demographics_of_Morocco

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Morocco, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Most Moroccans are Sunni Muslims of Berber or mixed Arab-Berber stock. Morocco was inhabited by Berbers since at least 5000 years ago. The Arabs conquered the territory that would become Morocco in the 7th and 11th centuries, at the time under the rule of various late Byzantine Roman princips and indigenous Berber and Romano-Berber principalities, laying the foundation for the emergence of an Arab-Berber culture. A portion of the population is identified as Haratin and Gnaoua, black or highly mixed race Moroccans. Morocco's Jewish minority has decreased significantly and numbers about 7,000 (See History of the Jews in Morocco). Most of the 100,000 foreign residents are French or Spanish, largely colonists' descendants who are mostly professionals working for European multinationals. Recent studies make clear no significant genetic differences exist between Arabic and non-Arabic speaking populations, highlighting that in common with most of the Arab World, Arabization was mainly via acculturation of indigenous populations over time. According to the European Journal of Human Genetics, Morrocans from North-Western Africa were genetically closer to Iberians than to Sub-Saharan Africans of Bantu ethnicity. European Journal of Human Genetics (2000) 8, 360–366 . Languages Ethnolinguistic Groups in Morocco See also Languages of Morocco Classical Arabic is Morocco's official language (it is the "classical" Arabic of the Qur'an, literature and news media). The country has a distinctive dialect known as Moroccan-Arabic. Approximately 12 million Moroccans speak Berber — which exists in Morocco in three different dialects (Tarifit, Tashelhit, and Central Atlas Tamazight) — either as a first language or bilingually with the spoken Arabic dialect. French, which remains Morocco's unofficial third language, is taught at universally and still serves as Morocco's primary language of commerce and economics; it is also widely used in education and government. Morocco is a member of La Francophonie. Amazigh (Berber) activists have struggled for half a century for the recognition of their language as the official language of Morocco in the Moroccan constitution. They also demand that this language should be taught in all Moroccan schools and universities. About 20,000 Moroccans in the northern part of the country speak Spanish. English, while still far behind French and Spanish in terms of the number of speakers, is rapidly becoming the second foreign language of choice among educated youth, after French. As a result of national education reforms entering into force in late 2002, English will be taught in all public schools from the fourth year on. Emancipation of women The literacy rate is 51% for males and 42.5% for females. Gender bias is commonplace. Only 26% of the non-agricultural labor is female. However, the ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary schools is reasonable at 87.9. Under the rule of Mohammed VI, the government has taken many initiatives to improve the status of women in society. For instance, the Moudawana 2003 code of law has greatly improved the family status code. It has given women the right to decisions on crucial issues like marriage, divorce, and custody of children in the case of remarriage/divorce. http://www.thomaswhite.com/explore-the-world/morocco.aspx Main populated areas Most people live west of the Atlas Mountains, a range that insulates the country from the Sahara Desert. Casablanca is the center of commerce and industry and the leading port; Rabat is the seat of government; Tangier is the gateway to Morocco from Spain and also a major port; Fez is the cultural and religious center; and Marrakech is a major tourist center. Ethnic groups of Morocco http://looklex.com/e.o/morocco_4.htm Population % of total Population Arabs (Arabised-Berbers) 26 000 000 80% Berbers 6 000 000 19% Sahrawis 250 000 0.8% Other 110 000 0.2% Education Education in Morocco is free and compulsory through primary school (age 15). Nevertheless, many children--particularly girls in rural areas--still do not attend school. The country's illiteracy rate is usually around 50% for most of the country, but reaches as high as 90% among girls in rural regions. In July 2006, Prime minister Driss Jettou announced that illiteracy rate has declined by 39%, while two million people had attended literacy courses during the past four years. Morocco has about 230,000 students enrolled in 14 public universities. The oldest and in some ways the most prestigious is Mohammed V in Rabat, with faculties of law, sciences, liberal arts, and medicine. University of Karueein, in Fez, has been a center for Islamic studies for more than 1,000 years. Morocco has one private university, Al Akhawayn University, in Ifrane. Al-Akhawayn, founded in 1993 by King Hassan II and King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, is an English-medium, American-style university comprising about 1,000 students. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of Morocco, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 33,241,259 (July 2006 est.) Arab-berber 99% Other 1 % http://www.ui.se/default.aspx?continent_id=0 Age structure 0-14 years: 31.6% (male 5,343,976; female 5,145,019) 15-64 years: 63.4% (male 10,505,018; female 10,580,599) 65 years and over: 5% (male 725,116; female 941,531) (2006 est.) Population growth rate 1.6% (2006 est.) Birth rate 21.98 births/1,000 population (2002 est.) Death rate 5.58 deaths/1,000 population (2002 est.) Net migration rate -0.87 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.77 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 40.24 deaths/1,000 live births(2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 70.94 years male: 68.62 years female: 73.37 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 2.68 children born/woman (2004 est.) Nationality noun: Moroccan(s) adjective: Moroccan :Category:Moroccan people Ethnic groups :Category:Ethnic groups in Morocco Religions Muslim 98.7%, Christian 1.1%, Jewish 0.2%. The World Factbook - Morocco :Category:Religion in Morocco Literacy Definition: age 10 and over can read and write Total population: 61.55% (2007) L'analphabétisme a reculé au Maroc :Category:Education in Morocco External links Results of the 2004 census References

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Milk

A glass of pasteurized cow milk. Dairy milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals (including monotremes). It provides the primary source of nutrition for newborn mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. The early lactation milk is known as colostrum, and carries the mother's antibodies to the baby. It can reduce the risk of many diseases in the baby. The exact components of raw milk varies by species, but it contains significant amounts of saturated fat, protein and calcium as well as vitamin C. Cow's milk has a pH ranging from 6.4 to 6.8, making it slightly acidic. Comparison of the Cariogenicity of Cola, Honey, Cow Milk, Human Milk, and Sucrose Soil pH: What it Means Types of consumption There are two distinct types of milk consumption: a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals, and a food product for humans of all ages derived from other animals. Nutrition for infant mammals A goat kid feeding on its mother's milk. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, either directly or by expressing the milk to be stored and consumed later. Some cultures, historically or currently, continue to use breast milk to feed their children until they are 7 years old. . . . or just go with the flow?. The Times, May 5, 2005. Food product for humans In many cultures of the world, especially the Western world, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals (in particular, cows) as a food product. For millennia, cow milk has been processed into dairy products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream, and especially the more durable and easily transportable product, cheese. Industrial science has brought us casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, and many other food-additive and industrial products. Humans are an exception in the natural world for consuming milk past infancy. Some humans lose the ability to fully digest milk after childhood (that is, they become lactose intolerant). The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, and a few tropical shrubs. The enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestines after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly. On the other hand, those groups that do continue to tolerate milk often have exercised great creativity in using the milk of domesticated ungulates, not only of cows, but also sheep, goats, yaks, water buffalo, horses, and camels. +Top Ten Milk Consumers — 2006 Per Capita Consumption Country Litres Cheese (kg) Butter (kg) 183.9 19.1 5.3 145.5 18.5 1.0 129.8 10.5 2.9 122.9 20.4 3.3 116.7 16.0 4.3 119.1 9.6 1.0 112.5 22.2 5.6 111.2 12.2 3.7 106.3 11.7 3.7 94.7 12.2 3.3Source: Introduction to Dairy Science and Technology: Milk History, Consumption, Production, and Composition Terminology The term milk is also used for whitish non-animal substitutes such as soy milk, rice milk, almond milk, and coconut milk. Even the regurgitated substance secreted by glands in the mucosa of their upper digestive tract which pigeons feed their young is called crop milk though it bears little resemblance to mammalian milk. History Holstein cattle, the dominant breed in industrialized dairying today. Drinking milk in Germany in 1932 Milking has its advent in the very evolution of placental mammals. While the exact time of its appearance is not known, the immediate ancestors of modern mammals were much like monotremes, including the platypus. Such animals today produce a milk-like substance from glands on the surface of their skin, but without the nipple, for their offspring to drink after hatching from their eggs. Likewise, marsupials, the closest cousin to placental mammals, produce a milk-like substance from a teat-like organ in their pouches. The earliest immediate ancestor of placental mammals known seems to be eomaia, a small creature superficially resembling rodents, that is thought to have lived 125 million years ago, during the Cretaceous era. It almost certainly produced what would be considered milk, in the same way as modern placental mammals. Girl milking a cow by hand. Animal milk is first known to have been used as human food at the beginning of animal domestication. Cow milk was first used as human food in the Middle East. Goats and sheep were domesticated in the Middle East between 9000 and 8000 BC. Goats and sheep are ruminants: mammals adapted to survive on a diet of dry grass, a food source otherwise useless to humans, and one that is easily stockpiled. The animals were probably first kept for meat and hides, but dairying proved to be a more efficient way of turning uncultivated grasslands into sustenance: the food value of an animal killed for meat can be matched by perhaps one year's worth of milk from the same animal, which will keep producing milk — in convenient daily portions — for years. Around 7000 BC, cattle were being herded in parts of Turkey. There is evidence from DNA extraction of skeletons from the Neolithic period that people in northern Europe were missing the necessary genes to process lactase. Scientists claim it is more likely that the genetic mutation allowing the digestion of milk arose at some point after dairy farming began. news.bbc.co.uk : Early man couldn't stomach milk The use of cheese and butter spread in Europe, parts of Asia and parts of Africa. Domestic cows, which previously existed throughout much of Eurasia, were then introduced to the colonies of Europe during the Age of exploration. Milk was first delivered in bottles on January 11, 1878. The day is now remembered as Milk Day and is celebrated annually. The town of Harvard, Illinois also celebrates milk in the summer with a festival known as Milk Days. Theirs is a different tradition meant to celebrate dairy farmers in the "Milk Capital of the World." Harvard Milk Days Other animal sources Goat milk can be used for other applications such as cheese and other dairy products. In addition to cows, the following animals provide milk used by humans for dairy products: Buffalo Camels Donkeys Goats Horses Reindeer Sheep Water buffalo Yaks In Russia and Sweden, small moose dairies also exist. Human milk is not produced or distributed industrially or commercially; however, milk banks exist that allow for the collection of donated human milk and its redistribution to infants who may benefit from human milk for various reasons (premature neonates, babies with allergies or metabolic diseases, etc.). All other female mammals do produce milk, but are rarely or never used to produce dairy products for human consumption. Modern production Milk output in 2005. Click the image for the details. In the Western world today, cow milk is produced on an industrial scale. It is by far the most commonly consumed form of milk in the western world. Commercial dairy farming using automated milking equipment produces the vast majority of milk in developed countries. Types of cattle such as the Holstein have been specially bred for increased milk production. Ninety percent of the dairy cows in the United States and 85% in Great Britain are Holsteins. Other milk cows in the United States include Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Jersey, and Milking Shorthorn. The largest producers of dairy products and milk today are India followed by the United States FAO Food outlook: International dairy product prices are turning down: how far, how fast? FAO online publication, 1 June 2006 and China. In India, Amul, a cooperative owned jointly by 2.6 million small farmers was the engine behind the success of Operation Flood. This table below shows the numbers of buffalo milk productions. Cow milk is produced in a much wider range. Top ten buffalo milk producers — 11 June 2008 Country Production (1,000 tonnes) Footnote 56,960 * 21,500 P 2,900 F 2,300 F 930 F 241.5 F 205 F 200 F 35.1 F 31 F 85396902 A No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision Price It was reported in 2007 that with increased worldwide prosperity and the competition of biofuel production for feedstocks, both the demand for and the price of milk had substantially increased world wide. Particularly notable was the rapid increase of consumption of milk in China and the rise of the price of milk in the United States above the government subsidized price. "A Thirst for Milk Bred by New Wealth Sends Prices Soaring" article by Wayne Arnold in the New York Times September 4, 2007 Physical and chemical structure Schematic of a micelle. Milk is an emulsion or colloid of butterfat globules within a water-based fluid. Each fat globule is surrounded by a membrane consisting of phospholipids and proteins; these emulsifiers keep the individual globules from joining together into noticeable grains of butterfat and also protect the globules from the fat-digesting activity of enzymes found in the fluid portion of the milk. In unhomogenized cow milk, the fat globules average about four micrometers across. The fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K are found within the milkfat portion of the milk. The largest structures in the fluid portion of the milk are casein protein micelles: aggregates of several thousand protein molecules, bonded with the help of nanometer-scale particles of calcium phosphate. Each micelle is roughly spherical and about a tenth of a micrometer across. There are four different types of casein proteins, and collectively they make up around 80 percent of the protein in milk, by weight. Most of the casein proteins are bound into the micelles. There are several competing theories regarding the precise structure of the micelles, but they share one important feature: the outermost layer consists of strands of one type of protein, kappa-casein, reaching out from the body of the micelle into the surrounding fluid. These Kappa-casein molecules all have a negative electrical charge and therefore repel each other, keeping the micelles separated under normal conditions and in a stable colloidal suspension in the water-based surrounding fluid. Dairy Chemistry and Physics, webpage of University of Guelph A simplified representation of a lactose molecule being broken down into glucose and galactose. Both the fat globules and the smaller casein micelles, which are just large enough to deflect light, contribute to the opaque white color of milk. Skimmed milk, however, appears slightly blue because casein micelles scatter the shorter wavelengths (blue compared to red). The fat globules contain some yellow-orange carotene, enough in some breeds — Guernsey and Jersey cows, for instance — to impart a golden or "creamy" hue to a glass of milk. The riboflavin in the whey portion of milk has a greenish color, which can sometimes be discerned in skim milk or whey products. Fat-free skim milk has only the casein micelles to scatter light, and they tend to scatter shorter-wavelength blue light more than they do red, giving skim milk a bluish tint. Dairy Chemistry and Physics, webpage of University of Guelph Milk contains dozens of other types of proteins besides the caseins. They are more water-soluble than the caseins and do not form larger structures. Because these proteins remain suspended in the whey left behind when the caseins coagulate into curds, they are collectively known as whey proteins. Whey proteins make up around twenty percent of the protein in milk, by weight. Lactoglobulin is the most common whey protein by a large margin. The carbohydrate lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes about 40% of whole cow milk's calories. Lactose is a composite of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose. In nature, lactose is found only in milk and a small number of plants. Other components found in raw cow milk are living white blood cells. Mammary-gland cells, various bacteria, and a large number of active enzymes are some other components in milk. Processing Milk products and productions relationships (Click for details) In most Western countries, a centralised dairy facility processes milk and products obtained from milk (dairy products), such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the United States, these dairies are usually local companies, while in the southern hemisphere facilities may be run by very large nationwide or trans-national corporations (such as Fonterra). Pasteurization Pasteurization is used to kill harmful microorganisms by heating the milk for a short time and then cooling it for storage and transportation. Pasteurized milk is still perishable and must be stored cold by both suppliers and consumers. Dairies print expiration dates on each container, after which stores will remove any unsold milk from their shelves. In many countries it is illegal to sell milk that is not pasteurized. A newer process, Ultra Pasteurization or ultra-high temperature treatment(UHT), heats the milk to a higher temperature for a shorter time. This extends its shelf life and allows the milk to be stored unrefrigerated because of the longer lasting sterilization effect. Creaming and homogenization A milking machine in action. Upon standing for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream is often sold as a separate product with its own uses; today the separation of the cream from the milk is usually accomplished rapidly in centrifugal cream separators. The fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk because fat is less dense than water. The smaller the globules, the more other molecular-level forces prevent this from happening. In fact, the cream rises in cow milk much more quickly than a simple model would predict: rather than isolated globules, the fat in the milk tends to form into clusters containing about a million globules, held together by a number of minor whey proteins. These clusters rise faster than individual globules can. The fat globules in milk from goats, sheep, and water buffalo do not form clusters so readily and are smaller to begin with; cream is very slow to separate from these milks. Milk is often homogenized, a treatment which prevents a cream layer from separating out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbulence and cavitation. Homogenization of Milk and Milk Products, webpage of University of Guelph A greater number of smaller particles possess more total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the original fat globule membranes cannot completely cover them. Casein micelles are attracted to the newly-exposed fat surfaces; nearly one-third of the micelles in the milk end up participating in this new membrane structure. The casein weighs down the globules and interferes with the clustering that accelerated separation. The exposed fat globules are briefly vulnerable to certain enzymes present in milk, which could break down the fats and produce rancid flavors. To prevent this, the enzymes are inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immediately before or during homogenization. Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in the mouth than unhomogenized; it is whiter and more resistant to developing off flavors. Creamline, or cream-top, milk is unhomogenized; it may or may not have been pasteurized. Milk which has undergone high-pressure homogenization, sometimes labeled as "ultra-homogenized," has a longer shelf life than milk which has undergone ordinary homogenization at lower pressures. "Research Can Lead To Longer Shelf Life For Dairy Products" Homogenized milk may be more digestible than unhomogenized milk. "Does homogenization affect the human health properties of cow’s milk?" Concerns exist about the health effects of consuming homogenized milk. Work by Kurt A. Oster, M.D. in the 1960s through the 1980s suggested a link between homogenized milk and arterosclerosis, due to damage to plasmalogen as a result of the release of bovine xanthine oxidase (BXO) from the milk fat globular membrane (MFGM) during homogenization. While Oster's work has been widely criticized, it is apparent that homogenization introduces changes to the MFGM and exposures of its proteins, and the effects of these changes on food safety have not been thoroughly investigated. Because the fat globules in the milk are reduced in size and encapsulated into liposomes, they pass through the stomach undigested. (The liposomes are protected from the digestive acids.) Because of the tiny size of the fat globules after the milk has been homogenized, the liposomes are then able to pass into the bloodstream through the walls of the intestines, where the damage occurs. The liposomes contain the partially destroyed BXO enzyme. XO is only found in the liver, unless a person drinks homogenized milk. Then it is found in the liposomes that enter the bloodstream, where it begins to attack plasmalogen. (Plasmalogen makes up 30% of the membrane system in human heart muscle cells.) XO can only either use the plasmalogen or destroy it, and in most autopsies of people who have died from heart and circulatory disease - plasmalogen is missing, arterial inner linings are eaten away, and mineral deposits covered in fat and cholesterol create a deadly plaque in the arteries. The addition of synthetic vitamin D in the milk actually enhances the activity of XO. http://herbalwhirled.blogspot.com/2006/11/pasteurized-homogenized-milk-and-your.html Nutrition and health The composition of milk differs widely between species. Factors such as the type of protein; the proportion of protein, fat, and sugar; the levels of various vitamins and minerals; and the size of the butterfat globules and the strength of the curd are among those than can vary. Introduction to Dairy Science and Technology, webpage of University of Guelph For example: Human milk contains, on average, 1.1% protein, 4.2% fat, 7.0% lactose (a sugar), and supplies 72 kcal of energy per 100 grams. Cow milk contains, on average, 3.4% protein, 3.6% fat, and 4.6% lactose, 0.7% minerals Milk contains traces of ash and supplies 66 kcal of energy per 100 grams. See also Nutritional value further on. Donkey and horse milk have the lowest fat content, while the milk of seals and whales can contain more than 50% fat. Milk From Cows and Other Animals, web page by Washington Dairy Products Commission MSN encarta High fat content is not unique to aquatic animals, as guinea pig milk has an average fat content of 46%. Nutritional value Processed milk began containing differing amounts of fat during the 1950s. A serving (1 cup or 250 ml) of 2%-fat milk contains 285 mg of calcium, which represents 22% to 29% of the daily recommended intake (DRI) of calcium for an adult. Depending on the age, milk contains 8 grams of protein, and a number of other nutrients (either naturally or through fortification) including: Biotin pantothenic acid Iodine Potassium Magnesium Selenium Thiamine Vitamin A Vitamin B12 Riboflavin Vitamins D Vitamin K The amount of calcium from milk that is absorbed by the human body is disputed. Calcium Rich Foods: Get All The Calcium You Need Without Milk Feskanich D, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA. Milk, dietary calcium, and bone fractures in women: a 12-year prospective study. Am J Public Health 1997; 87:992-7. Calcium from dairy products has a greater bioavailability than calcium from certain vegetables, such as spinach, that contain high levels of calcium-chelating agents, Brody T. Calcium and phosphate. In: Nutritional biochemistry. 2nd ed. Boston: Academic Press, 1999:761–94 but a similar or lesser bioavailability than calcium from low-oxalate vegetables such as kale, broccoli, or other vegetables in the Brassica genus. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Heaney and Weaver, 51 (4): 656. Medical research Studies show possible links between low-fat milk consumption and reduced risk of arterial hypertension, coronary heart disease, colorectal cancer and obesity. Overweight individuals who drink milk may benefit from decreased risk of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. Dairy's Role in Managing Blood Pressure, web page of the US National Dairy Council One study has shown that for women desiring to have a child, those who consume full fat dairy products may actually slightly increase their fertility, while those consuming low fat dairy products may slightly reduce their fertility due to interference with ovulation. However, studies in this area are still inconsistent. Fat ice cream and milk may help woman shoot for pregnancy - Pravda.Ru Milk is a source of Conjugated linoleic acid, a fatty acid that inhibits several types of cancer in mice. CLA has been shown to kill human skin cancer, colorectal cancer and breast cancer cells in vitro studies, and may help lower cholesterol and prevent atherosclerosis; CLA is present only in milk from grass-fed cows. It appears to be effective at promoting muscle growth. Controversy Other studies suggest that milk consumption may increase the risk of suffering from certain health problems. Cow milk allergy (CMA) is as an immunologically mediated adverse reaction to one or more cow milk proteins. Rarely is it severe enough to cause death. Cow's milk protein allergy and intolerance in infa...[Pediatr Allergy Immunol. 1994] - PubMed Result Milk contains casein, a substance that breaks down in the human stomach to produce casomorphin, an opioid peptide. In the early 1990s it was hypothesized that casomorphin can cause or aggravate autism, and casein-free diets are widely promoted. Studies supporting these claims have had significant flaws, and the data are inadequate to guide autism treatment recommendations. Studies described in the book The China Study note a correlation between casein intake and the promotion of cancer cell growth when exposed to carcinogens. However other studies have shown whey protein offers a protective effect against colon cancer. Hakkak, et al., "Dietary Whey Protein Protects against Azoxymethane-induced Colon Tumors in Male Rats," Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, Vol. 10, 555-558, May 2001. A study demonstrated that men who drink a large amount of milk and consume dairy products were at a slightly increased risk of developing Parkinson's disease; the effect for women was smaller. H. Chen et al., Consumption of Dairy Products and Risk of Parkinson's Disease, American Journal of Epidemiology. 2007 May;165(9):998-1006 The reason behind this is not fully understood, and it also remains unclear why there is less of a risk for women. Several sources suggest a correlation between high calcium intake (2000 mg per day, or twice the US recommended daily allowance, equivalent to six or more glasses of milk per day) and prostate cancer. Giovannucci, E. et al., Calcium and fructose intake in relation to risk of prostate cancer., Cancer Res. 1998 Feb 1;58(3):442-7. A large study specifically implicates dairy, i.e., low-fat milk and other dairy to which vitamin A palmitate has been added. http://yedda.com/questions/Low_fat_milk_causes_prostate_cancer_7351021963170/ Chan, J.M., Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk in the Physicians' Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001 Oct;74(4):549-54. (disputed publication) A review published by the World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research states that at least eleven human population studies have linked excessive dairy product consumption and prostate cancer, however randomized clinical trial data with appropriate controls only exists for calcium, not dairy produce, where there was no correlation. Chan JM et al., (2005) Role of diet in prostate cancer development and progression. J Clin Oncol 23:8152-60. Medical studies have also shown a possible link between milk consumption and the exacerbation of diseases such as Crohn’s Disease, How Bacteria In Cows' Milk May Cause Crohn's Disease Hirschsprung's disease–mimicking symptoms in babies with existing cow milk allergies, Cow milk protein allergy presenting with Hirschsprung's disease–mimicking symptoms. severe gastroesophageal reflux disease in infants and children hypersenstitive to milk, and the aggravation of Behçet's disease. Humoral and cell mediated immune response to cow's milk proteins in Behçet's disease Bovine growth hormone supplementation Since November 1993, with FDA approval, Monsanto has been selling recombinant bovine somatotropin (rbST), also called rBGH, to dairy farmers. Cows produce bovine growth hormone naturally, but many producers administer additional rBGH because it increase milk production. Bovine growth horome also stimulates liver production of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1). If rbST-treated cows produced milk with higher levels of IGF1 this would be of medical concern, because IGF1 stimulates cancer growth in humans. Elevated levels of IGF1 in human blood has been linked to increased rates of breast, colon, and prostate cancer Kahan, Z et al., Elevated levels of circulating insulin-like growth factor-I, IGF-binding globulin-3 and testosterone predict hormone-dependent breast cancer in postmenopausal women: a case-control study. Int J Oncol. 2006 Jul;29(1):193-200. Pacher, M. et al., Impact of constitutive IGF1/IGF2 stimulation on the transcriptional program of human breast cancer cells. Carcinogenesis. 2006 Jun 14 . Testing has shown that milk from cows given rBGH does not contain more IGF1 than milk from cows that were not given rBGH. IDFA - Biotechnology and Bovine Somatotropin (BST or BGH) . No study has indicated that consumption of rBST-produced milk increases IGF1 levels in humans, nor has any study demonstrated an increased risk of any disease between those consuming rBST and non-rBST produced milk. However, many groups remain concerned. The EU has recommended against Monsanto milk International Scientific Committee Warns of Serious Risks of Breast and Prostate Cancer from Monsanto's Hormonal Milk. Press release of the Cancer Prevention Coalition. On June 9, 2006 the largest milk processor in the world and the two largest supermarkets in the United States--Dean Foods, Wal-Mart, and Kroger--announced that they are "on a nationwide search for rBGH-free milk." Oca News Articles Milk from cows given rBST may be sold in the United States, and the FDA stated that no significant difference has been shown between milk derived from rBST-treated and that from non-rBST-treated cows. Dietary IGF-I and rbST Milk that advertises that it comes from cows not treated with rBST is required to state this finding on its label. Cows receiving rBGH supplements may more frequently contract an udder infection known as mastitis Milk: Epstein, S., America's Health Problem. Web page of the Cancer Prevention Coalition. . Problems with mastitis have led to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan banning milk from rBST treated cows. Mastitis, among other diseases, may be responsible for the fact that levels of white blood cells in milk vary naturally. Mastitis Control Programs: Milk Quality Evaluation Tools for Dairy Farmers Greger, Michael. Paratuberculosis and Crohn's Disease: Got Milk? Pro-vegan online publication, January 2001 Although not considered a human health issue by most authorities, a minority of scientists believe that these cells could contribute to the transmission of bovine paratubeculosis to humans. Paratuberculosis and Crohn's Disease: Got Milk? (Vegan Outreach) The existing empirical evidence is largely inconclusive. Lactose intolerance Lactose, the disaccharide sugar component of all milk must be cleaved in the small intestine by the enzyme lactase in order for its constituents (galactose and glucose) to be absorbed. The production of this enzyme declines significantly after weaning in all mammals. Consequently, many humans become unable to properly digest lactose as they mature. There is a great deal of variance, with some individuals reacting badly to even small amounts of lactose, some able to consume moderate quantities, and some able to consume large quantities of milk and other dairy products without problems. When an individual consumes milk without producing sufficient lactase, they may suffer diarrhea, intestinal gas, cramps and bloating, as the undigested lactose travels through the gastrointestinal tract and serves as nourishment for intestinal microflora who excrete gas, a process known as anaerobic respiration. It is estimated that 30 to 50 million Americans are lactose intolerant, including 75 percent of Native Americans and African-Americans, and 90 percent of Asian Americans. Lactose intolerance is less common among those descended from northern Europeans. Lactose intolerance is a natural process and there is no reliable way to prevent or reverse it. Lactase is readily available in pill form, and many individuals can use it to briefly increase their tolerance for dairy products. Ethical concerns Vegans and some vegetarians do not consume milk for a variety of reasons. They may object to the treatment of cattle or to separating the mother and calf, veal production, and slaughter of "used" cows. Nutrition - comparison by animal source Milk composition analysis, per 100 grams Constituents unit Cow Goat Sheep Water Buffalo Water g 87.8 88.9 83.0 81.1 Protein g 3.2 3.1 5.4 4.5 Fat g 3.9 3.5 6.0 8.0 Carbohydrate g 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9 Energy kcal 66 60 95 110 kJ 275 253 396 463 Sugars (lactose) g 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.9 Fatty acids: Saturated g 2.4 2.3 3.8 4.2 Mono-unsaturated g 1.1 0.8 1.5 1.7 Polyunsaturated g 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.2 Cholesterol mg 14 10 11 8 Calcium IU 120 100 170 195 Source: McCane, Widdowson, Scherz, Kloos. These compositions vary by breed, animal, and point in the lactation period. Jersey cows produce milk of about 5.2% fat, Zebu cows produce milk of about 4.7% fat, Brown Swiss cows produce milk of about 4.0% fat, and Holstein-Friesian cows produce milk of about 3.6% fat. The protein range for these four breeds is 3.3% to 3.9%, while the lactose range is 4.7% to 4.9%. Milk fat percentages in all dairy breeds vary according to digestible fiber, starch and oil intakes, and can therefore be manipulated by dairy farmers' diet formulation strategies. Mastitis infection can cause fat levels to decline. Google Books - Designing Foods: Animal Product Options in the Marketplace Varieties and brands Milk products are sold in a number of varieties based on types/degrees of age (e.g., cheddar), additives (e.g., vitamins), coagulation (e.g., cottage cheese), farming method (e.g., organic, grass-fed). fat content (e.g., half and half), fermentation (e.g., buttermilk), flavoring (e.g., chocolate), homogenization (e.g., raw milk), mammal (e.g., cow, goat, sheep), packaging (e.g., bottle), sterilization (e.g., pasteurization), water content (e.g., dry milk), Organic milk (in the United States) or bio-milk & biologique milk (in Europe) is milk produced without the use of chemical herbicides or pesticides, and generally with more natural fertilizers and higher standards for the animals, and is now easy to find on the shelves in many areas. Demeter certified milk is produced with biodynamic agriculture methods and is similar in standards to organic milk and biological milk, with a few special farm procedures added that are biodynamic-specific. Additives and flavoring In countries where the cattle (and often the people) live indoors, commercially sold milk commonly has vitamin D added to it to make up for lack of exposure to UVB radiation. Reduced fat milks often have added vitamin A to compensate for the loss of the vitamin during fat removal; in the United States this results in reduced fat milks having a higher vitamin A content than whole milk. "How to Buy Dairy Products", Home and Garden Bulletin 255, USDA, February 1995. Retrieved 16 May 2007. To aid digestion in those with lactose intolerance, milk is available in some areas with added bacterial cultures such as Lactobacillus acidophilus ("acidophilus milk") and bifidobacteria ("a/B milk"). "Yogurt and Other Cultured Dairy Products", National Dairy Council, 2000. Another milk with Lactococcus lactis bacteria cultures ("cultured buttermilk") is often used in cooking to replace the traditional use of naturally soured milk, which has become rare due to the ubiquity of pasteurization which kills the naturally occurring lactococcus bacteria. Milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a means of improving sales. Chocolate milk has been sold for many years and has been followed more recently by such other flavors as strawberry and banana. South Australia has the highest consumption of flavored milk per person in the world, where Farmers Union Iced Coffee outsells Coca-Cola, a success shared only by Inca Kola in Peru and Irn-Bru in Scotland. Distribution Because milk spoils so easily, it should, ideally, be distributed as quickly as possible. In many countries milk used to be delivered to households daily, but economic pressure has made milk delivery much less popular, and in many areas daily delivery is no longer available. People buy it chilled at grocery or convenience stores or similar retail outlets. Prior to the widespread use of plastics, milk was sold in wax-coated paper containers; prior to that milk was often distributed to consumers in glass bottles; and before glass bottles, in bulk that was ladled into the customer's container. Glass milk bottles used for home delivery service In the UK, milk can be delivered daily by a milkman who travels his local milk round (route) using a milk float (often battery powered) during the early hours. Milk is delivered in 1 pint glass bottles with aluminium foil tops. Silver top denotes full cream unhomogenized; red top full cream homogenized; red/silver top semi-skimmed; blue/silver check top skimmed; and gold top channel island. Empty bottles are rinsed before being left outside for the milkman to collect and take back to the dairy for washing and reuse. Currently many milkmen operate franchises as opposed to being employed by the dairy and payment is made at regular intervals, by leaving a check; by cash collection; or direct debit. Although there was a steep decline in doorstep delivery sales throughout the 1990s, the service is still prominent, as dairies have diversified and the service is becoming more popular again. The doorstep delivery of milk is seen as part of the UK's heritage, and is relied upon by people up and down the country. In Australia and New Zealand, milk is no longer distributed in glass bottles, due to declining sales and the introduction of long life packaging (UHT). Milk is generally sold in plastic 2 and 3 liter bottles and cardboard cartons as well as the long life varieties. In rural India and Pakistan, milk is delivered daily by a local milkman carrying bulk quantities in a metal container, usually on a bicycle; and in other parts of metropolitan India and Pakistan, milk is usually bought or delivered in a plastic bags or cartons via shops or supermarkets. A glass milk bottle from the US. Note that American milk bottles are generally square In the United States, glass milk bottles have been mostly replaced with milk cartons (tall paper boxes with a square cross-section and a peaked top that can be folded outward upon opening to form a spout) and plastic jugs. Gallons of milk are almost always sold in jugs, while half-gallons and quarts may be found in both paper cartons and plastic jugs, and smaller sizes are almost always in cartons. Recently, milk has been sold in smaller resealable bottles made to fit in automobile cup holders. These individual serving sizes are also sold in flavored varieties. Dry skim milk The half-pint milk carton is the traditional unit as a component of school lunches. In the U.S., pictures of missing children were printed on the larger milk cartons as a public service until it was determined that this was disturbing to children. Milk preserved by the UHT process is sold in cartons often called a brick that lack the peak of the traditional milk carton. Milk preserved in this fashion does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a longer shelf life than milk in ordinary packaging. It is more typically sold unrefrigerated on the shelves in Europe and Latin America than in the United States. Glass milk containers are now rare. Most people purchase milk in bags, plastic jugs or plastic-coated paper cartons. Ultraviolet (UV) light from fluorescent lighting can alter the flavor of milk, so many companies that once distributed milk in transparent or highly translucent containers are now using thicker materials that block the UV light. Many people feel that such "UV protected" milk tastes better. Milk comes in a variety of containers with local variants: Australia and New Zealand: Distributed in a variety of sizes, most commonly in aseptic cartons for up to 1 litres, and plastic screw-top bottles beyond that with the following volumes; 1.1L, 2L, and 3L. 1 litre Bags are starting to appear in supermarkets, but have not yet proved popular. Most UHT-milk is packed in 1 or 2 litre paper containers with a sealed plastic spout. Brazil: Used to be sold in cooled 1 litre bags, just like in South Africa. Nowadays the most common form is 1 litre aseptic cartons containing UHT skimmed, semi-skimmed or whole milk, although the plastic bags are still in use for pasteurized milk. Higher grades of pasteurized milk can be found in cartons or plastic bottles. Sizes other than 1 liter are rare. Canada: 1.33 litre plastic bags (sold as 4 litres in 3 bags) are widely available in some areas (especially the Maritimes, Ontario and Quebec), although the 4 litre plastic jug has supplanted them in western Canada. Other common packaging sizes are 2 litre, 1 litre, 500 millilitre, and 250 millilitre cartons, as well as 4 litre, 1 litre, 250 mL aseptic cartons and 500 millilitre plastic jugs. China: Sweetened milk is a drink popular with students of all ages and is often sold in small plastic bags complete with straw. Adults not wishing to drink at a banquet often drink milk served from cartons or milk tea. Parts of Europe: Sizes of 500 millilitres, 1 litre (the most common), 1.5 litres, 2 litres and 3 litres are commonplace. Hong Kong - milk is sold in glass bottles (220 mL), cartons (236 mL and 1L), plastic jugs (2 litres) and aseptic cartons (250 mL). India and Pakistan: Commonly sold in 500 mL plastic bags. It is still customary to serve the milk boiled, despite pasteurization. Milk is often buffalo milk. Flavored milk is sold in most convenience stores in waxed cardboard containers. Convenience stores also sell many varieties of milk (such as flavored and ultra-pasteurized) in different sizes, usually in aseptic cartons. Indonesia: Usually sold in 1 litre cartons, but smaller, snack-sized cartons are available. Israel: Non-UHT milk is most commonly sold in 1 litre waxed cardboard boxes and 1 litre plastic bags. It may also be found in 0.5L and 2L waxed cardboard boxes, 2L plastic jugs and 1L plastic bottles. UHT milk is available in 1 litre (and less commonly also in 0.25L) carton "bricks". Japan: Commonly sold in 1 litre waxed cardboard boxes. In most city centers there is also home delivery of milk in glass jugs. As seen in China, sweetened and flavored milk drinks are commonly seen in vending machines. South Africa: Commonly sold in 1 litre bags. The bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner cut off before the milk is poured. South Korea: sold in cartons (180mL, 200mL, 500mL 900mL, 1L, 1.8L, 2.3L), plastic jugs (100Ml and 1.8L), aseptic cartons (180mL and 200mL) and plastic bags (100mL). Sweden: Commonly sold in 0.3 L, 1 L or 1.5 L cartons and sometimes as plastic or glass bottles.. Poland: UHT milk is mostly sold in aseptic cartons (500mL, 1L, 2L), and non-UHT in 1L plastic bags or plastic bottles. Milk, UHT is commonly boiled, despite being pasteurized. Turkey: Commonly sold in 500 mL or 1L cartons or special plastic bottles. UHT milk is more popular. Milkmen also serve in smaller towns and villages. United Kingdom: Most stores still stock Imperial sizes: 1 pint (568 mL), 2 pints (1.136 L), 4 pints (2.273 L), 6 pints (3.408 L) or a combination including both metric and imperial sizes. Glass milk bottles delivered to the doorstep by the milkman are typically pint-sized and are returned empty by the householder for repeated reuse. Milk is also sold at supermarkets in either aseptic cartons or HDPE bottles. Milk can still be legally sold by the Imperial pint in reusable bottles in the UK under EU regulations (a distinction only shared with beer and cider), whilst a growing number of manufacturers such as Northern Foods now sell milk in 1 and 2 litre bottles. United States: Commonly sold in gallon (3.78 L), half-gallon (1.89 L) and quart (0.94 L) containers of rigid plastic or, occasionally for sizes less than a gallon, waxed cardboard, although bottles made of opaque PET are starting to become more commonplace in all smaller sizes. The US single-serving size is usually the half-pint (about 240 ml). Occasionally dairies will deliver milk straight to customers in coolers filled with glass bottles (usually half-gallon). Some convenience store chains in the United States (such as Kwik Trip in the Midwest) sell milk in 1/2 gallon bags. Uruguay: Commonly sold in 1 litre bags. The bag is then placed in a plastic jug and the corner cut off before the milk is poured. Practically everywhere, condensed milk and evaporated milk is distributed in metal cans, 250 and 125 ml paper containers and 100 and 200 mL squeeze tubes, and powdered milk (skim and whole) is distributed in boxes or bags. Brazilian Yakult, an example of the use of milk. Spoilage and fermented milk products When raw milk is left standing for a while, it turns "sour". This is the result of fermentation, where lactic acid bacteria ferment the lactose inside the milk into lactic acid. Prolonged fermentation may render the milk unpleasant to consume. This fermentation process is exploited by the introduction of bacterial cultures (e.g. Lactobacilli sp., Streptococcus sp., Leuconostoc sp., etc) to produce a variety of fermented milk products. The reduced pH from lactic acid accumulation denatures proteins and caused the milk to undergo a variety of different transformations in appearance and texture, ranging from an aggregate to smooth consistency. Some of these products include sour cream, yoghurt, cheese, buttermilk, viili, kefir and kumis. See Dairy product for more information. Pasteurization of cow milk initially destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf-life Got Milk? Make Sure It's Pasteurized Shelf-Life of Pasteurized Fluid Milk as Affected by Age of Raw Milk , but eventually results in spoilage that makes it unsuitable for consumption. This causes it to assume an unpleasant odor, and the milk is deemed non-consumable due to unpleasant taste and an increased risk of food poisoning. In raw milk, the presence of lactic acid-producing bacteria, under suitable conditions, ferments the lactose present to lactic acid. The increasing acidity in turn prevents the growth of other organisms, or slows their growth significantly. During pasteurization however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed. In order to prevent spoilage, milk can be kept refrigerated and stored between 1 and 4 degrees Celsius in bulk tanks. Most milk is pasteurized by heating briefly and then refrigerated to allow transport from factory farms to local markets. The spoilage of milk can be forestalled by using ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment; milk so treated can be stored unrefrigerated for several months until opened. Sterilized milk, which is heated for a much longer period of time, will last even longer, but also loses more nutrients and assume a different taste. Condensed milk, made by removing most of the water, can be stored in cans for many years, unrefrigerated, as can evaporated milk. The most durable form of milk is milk powder, which is produced from milk by removing almost all water. The moisture content is usually less than five percent in both drum and spray dried milk powder. Language and culture The importance of milk in human culture is attested to by the numerous expressions embedded in our languages, for example "the milk of human kindness". In ancient Greek mythology, the goddess Hera spilled her breast milk after refusing to feed Heracles, resulting in the Milky Way. In African and Asian developing nations, butter is traditionally made from fermented milk rather than cream. It can take several hours of churning to produce workable butter grains from fermented milk. Crawford et al., part B, section III, ch. 1: Butter. Retrieved 28 November 2005. Holy books have also mentioned milk; the Bible contains references to the Land of Milk and Honey. In the Quran, there is a request to wonder on milk as follows: 'And surely in the livestock there is a lesson for you, We give you to drink of that which is in their bellies from the midst of digested food and blood, pure milk palatable for the drinkers.'(16-The Honeybee, 66). The Ramadhan fast is traditionally broken with a glass of milk and dates. The verb, "to milk" something is often used in the vernacular of many English-speaking countries as a synonym for extortion or, in less loaded terms, taking advantage of a situation where one has another person at a disadvantage The word milk has had many slang meanings over time. In the early 17th century the word was used to mean semen, or vaginal secretions, or to masturbate oneself or someone else. In the 19th century, milk was used to describe a cheap alcoholic drink made from methylated spirits mixed with water. The word was also used to mean defraud, to be idle, to intercept telegrams addressed to someone else, and a weakling. In the mid 1930s, the word was used in Australia meaning to siphon gas from a car. Cassell's Dictionary of Slang Milk is sometimes referred to as moo juice in American English, MILK, MOO JUICE and AMERICAN ENGLISH while Cockney rhyming slang calls it Acker Bilk, Tom Silk, Lady in silk and Kilroy silk. Cockney Rhyming Slang The name of the Russian Molokan (Russian: "Молока́не") religion in Russian is derived from Russian "Молоко́ " meaning "Milk" as they would drink milk on the Russian Orthodox days of fast. Other uses of milk Besides serving as a beverage or source of food, milk is used by farmers and gardeners as an organic fungicide and foliage fertilizer. The potassium, fats, and salts naturally found in milk are absorbed by the leaves, which boost the plant's immune system, helping it to fight off diseases and fungi. Farmers, especially those who maintain grape vineyards, have tested a diluted milk solution in the past, and have found it to be more effective, yet less costly, than commercial products. Testing has also shown that it is unlikely to harm the plant that the solution is applied to. See also Babcock test (determines the butterfat content of milk) Bovine somatotropin Breast Breastfeeding Breast milk (human milk) Casein Casein paint Casomorphin Cheese Dairy products Fat content of milk Square milk jug Got Milk? (US milk lobby ad campaign encouraging the consumption of milk) Grain milk Health mark Lactation Male lactation Mammary gland Milk bottle Milk line Nipple Operation Flood Powdered milk Raw milk Notes References Information on milk by Parmalat Introduction to Dairy Science and Technology: Milk History, Consumption, Production, and Composition Milk Milk Notes External links Harvard School of Public Health: Calcium and Milk: describes claims of milk supporters and critics be-x-old:Малако

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Banach_algebra

In mathematics, especially functional analysis, a Banach algebra, named after Stefan Banach, is an associative algebra A over the real or complex numbers which at the same time is also a Banach space. The algebra multiplication and the Banach space norm are required to be related by the following inequality: (i.e., the norm of the product is less than or equal to the product of the norms.) This ensures that the multiplication operation is continuous. If in the above we relax Banach space to normed space the analogous structure is called a normed algebra. A Banach algebra is called "unital" if it has an identity element for the multiplication whose norm is 1, and "commutative" if its multiplication is commutative. Any Banach algebra (whether it has an identity element or not) can be embedded isometrically into a unital Banach algebra so as to form a closed ideal of . Often one assumes a priori that the algebra under consideration is unital: for one can develop much of the theory by considering and then applying the outcome in the original algebra. However, this is not the case all the time. For example, one cannot define all the trigonometric functions in a Banach algebra without identity. The theory of real Banach algebras can be very different from the theory of complex Banach algebras. For example, the spectrum of an element of a complex Banach algebra can never be empty, whereas in a real Banach algebra it could be empty for some elements. Banach algebras can also be defined over fields of p-adic numbers. This is part of p-adic analysis. Examples The prototypical example of a Banach algebra is , the space of (complex-valued) continuous functions on a locally compact (Hausdorff) space that vanish at infinity. is unital if and only if X is compact. The complex conjugation being an involution, is in fact a C*-algebra. More generally, every C*-algebra is a Banach algebra. The set of real (or complex) numbers is a Banach algebra with norm given by the absolute value. The set of all real or complex n-by-n matrices becomes a unital Banach algebra if we equip it with a sub-multiplicative matrix norm. Take the Banach space Rn (or Cn) with norm ||x|| = max |xi| and define multiplication componentwise: (x1,...,xn)(y1,...,yn) = (x1y1,...,xnyn). The quaternions form a 4-dimensional real Banach algebra, with the norm being given by the absolute value of quaternions. The algebra of all bounded real- or complex-valued functions defined on some set (with pointwise multiplication and the supremum norm) is a unital Banach algebra. The algebra of all bounded continuous real- or complex-valued functions on some locally compact space (again with pointwise operations and supremum norm) is a Banach algebra. Any C*-algebra and B*-algebra are a Banach algebra. The algebra of all continuous linear operators on a Banach space E (with functional composition as multiplication and the operator norm as norm) is a unital Banach algebra. The set of all compact operators on E is a closed ideal in this algebra. The continuous linear operators on a Hilbert space form a C*-algebra and therefore a Banach algebra. If G is a locally compact Hausdorff topological group and μ its Haar measure, then the Banach space L1(G) of all μ-integrable functions on G becomes a Banach algebra under the convolution xy(g) = ∫ x(h) y(h-1g) dμ(h) for x, y in L1(G). Uniform algebra: A Banach algebra that is a subalgebra of C(X) with the supremum norm and that contains the constants and separates the points of X (which must be a compact Hausdorff space). Natural Banach function algebra: A uniform algebra whose all characters are evaluations at points of X. C*-algebra: A Banach algebra that is a closed *-subalgebra of the algebra of bounded operators on some Hilbert space. Measure algebra: A Banach algebra consisting of all Radon measures on some locally compact group, where the product of two measures is given by convolution. Properties Several elementary functions which are defined via power series may be defined in any unital Banach algebra; examples include the exponential function and the trigonometric functions, and more generally any entire function. (In particular, the exponential map can be used to define abstract index groups.) The formula for the geometric series remain valid in general unital Banach algebras. The binomial theorem also holds for two commuting elements of a Banach algebra. The set of invertible elements in any unital Banach algebra is an open set, and the inversion operation on this set is continuous, (and hence homeomorphism) so that it forms a topological group under multiplication. If a Banach algebra has unit 1, then 1 cannot be a commutator; i.e.,   for any x, y ∈ A. The various algebras of functions given in the examples above have very different properties from standard examples of algebras such as the reals. For example: Every real Banach algebra which is a division algebra is isomorphic to the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions. Hence, the only complex Banach algebra which is a division algebra is the complexes. (This is known as the Gelfand-Mazur theorem.) Every unital real Banach algebra with no zero divisors, and in which every principal ideal is closed, is isomorphic to the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions. Every commutative real unital noetherian Banach algebra with no zero divisors is isomorphic to the real or complex numbers. Every commutative real unital noetherian Banach algebra (possibly having zero divisors) is finite-dimensional. Permanently singular elements in Banach algebras are topological divisors of zero, i.e., considering extensions B of Banach algebras A some elements that are singular in the given algebra A have a multiplicative inverse element in a Banach algebra extension B. Topological divisors of zero in A are permanently singular in all Banach extension B of A. Spectral theory Unital Banach algebras over the complex field provide a general setting to study spectral theory. The spectrum of an element x ∈ A, denoted by , consists of all those complex scalars λ such that x − λ1 is not invertible in A. The spectrum of any element x is a closed subset of the closed disc in C with radius ||x|| and center 0, and thus is compact. Moreover, the spectrum of an element x is non-empty and satisfies the spectral radius formula: Given x ∈ A, the holomorphic functional calculus allows to define ƒ(x) ∈ A for any function ƒ holomorphic in a neighborhood of Furthermore, the spectral mapping theorem holds: Takesaki, Theory of Operator Algebras I. Proposition 2.8. When the Banach algebra A is the algebra L(X) of bounded linear operators on a complex Banach space X  (e.g., the algebra of square matrices), the notion of the spectrum in A coincides with the usual one in the operator theory. For ƒ ∈ C(X) (with a compact Hausdorff space X), one sees that: The norm of a normal element x of a C*-algebra coincides with its spectral radius. This generalizes an analogous fact for normal operators. Let A  be a complex unital Banach algebra in which every non-zero element x is invertible (a division algebra). For every a ∈ A, there is λ ∈ C such that a − λ1 is not invertible (because the spectrum of a is not empty) hence a = λ1 : this algebra A is naturally isomorphic to C (the complex case of the Gelfand-Mazur theorem). Ideals and characters Let A  be a unital commutative Banach algebra over C. Since A is then a commutative ring with unit, every non-invertible element of A belongs to some maximal ideal of A. Since a maximal ideal in A is closed, is a Banach algebra that is a field, and it follows from the Gelfand-Mazur theorem that there is a bijection between the set of all maximal ideals of A and the set of all nonzero homomorphisms from A  to C. The set is called the "structure space" or "character space" of A, and its members "characters." A character χ is a linear functional on A which is at the same time multiplicative, χ(a b) = χ(a) χ(b), and satisfies χ(1) = 1. Every character is automatically continuous from A  to C, since the kernel of a character is a maximal ideal, which is closed. Moreover, the norm (i.e., operator norm) of a character is one. Equipped with the topology of pointwise convergence on A (i.e., the topology induced by the weak-* topology of A∗), the character space  is a Hausdorff compact space. For any x ∈ A, where is the Gelfand representation of defined as follows: is the continuous function from to C given by   The spectrum of in the formula above, is the spectrum as element of the algebra    of complex continuous functions on the compact space    Explicitly, . As an algebra, a unital commutative Banach algebra is semisimple (i.e., its Jacobson radical is zero) if and only if its Gelfand representation has trivial kernel. An important example of such an algebra is a commutative C*-algebra. In fact, when A is a commutative unital C*-algebra, the Gelfand representation is then an isometric *-isomorphism between A and . Proof: Since every element of a commutative C*-algebra is normal, the Gelfand representation is isometric; in particular, it is injective and its image is closed. But the image of the Gelfand representation is dense by the Stone-Weierstrass theorem. See also Operator algebras Shilov boundary Automatic continuity Kaplansky's conjecture Approximate identity Notes References

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Foreign_relations_of_Cameroon

Cameroon's noncontentious, low-profile approach to foreign relations puts it squarely in the middle of other African and developing country states on major issues. It supports the principles of noninterference in the affairs of third world countries and increased assistance to underdeveloped countries. Cameroon is an active participant in the United Nations, where its voting record demonstrates its commitment to causes that include international peacekeeping, the rule of law, environmental protection, and Third World economic development. In the UN and other human rights fora, Cameroon's non-confrontational approach has generally led it to avoid criticizing other countries. Cameroon enjoys good relations with the United States and other developed countries. It has particularly close ties with France, with whom it has numerous military, economic, and cultural agreements. The People's Republic of China has a number of health and infrastructure projects underway in Cameroon.In January 2007,China signed a series of economic agreements with Cameroon, giving more than $54 million in loans . Cameroon enjoys generally good relations with its African neighbors, except for Nigeria, with whom it is engaged in a sporadic armed conflict in the oil-rich Bakassi Peninsula. Cameroon has repeatedly demonstrated its preference for resolving this conflict through peaceful legal means and has submitted its case to the International Court of Justice. It supports UN peacekeeping activities in Central Africa. Disputes - international: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula and Lake Chad is currently before the ICJ, as is a dispute with Equatorial Guinea over the exclusive maritime economic zone Cameroon also faces a complaint filed with the African Commission on Human Rights by the Southern Cameroons National Council (SCNC) and the Southern Cameroons Peoples Organisation (SCAPO) against the Government of the Republic of Cameroon, in which the complainants allege that the Republic of Cameroon is illegally occupying the territory of Southern Cameroons. The SCNC and SCAPO ultimately seek the independence of the territory of Southern Cameroons. . As of 2008, both parties have submitted briefs and responded to the Human Rights Commissions' inquiries. A ruling by the African Commission on Human Rights is awaited. References See also Diplomatic missions of Cameroon

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Multivariate_statistics

Multivariate statistics or multivariate analysis in statistics describes a collection of procedures which involve observation and analysis of more than one statistical variable at a time. The word multivariate is defined as: "having or involving a number of independent mathematical or statistical variables". Multivariate - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary Sometimes a distinction is made between bivariate (e.g., ANOVA, t-tests) and multivariate statistics. The special case of two variables is called bivariate. There are many different models, each with its own type of analysis: Clustering systems assign objects into groups (called clusters) so that objects from the same cluster are more similar to each other than objects from different clusters. Hotelling's T-square is a generalization of Student's t statistic that is used in multivariate hypothesis testing. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) methods extend analysis of variance methods to cover cases where there is more than one dependent variable and where the dependent variables cannot simply be combined. Discriminant function or canonical variate analysis attempt to establish whether a set of variables can be used to distinguish between two or more groups. Regression analysis attempts to determine a linear formula that can describe how some variables respond to changes in others. Regression analyses are based on forms of the general linear model. Principal components analysis attempts to determine a smaller set of synthetic variables that could explain the original set. Redundancy analysis a canonical (constrained) variant of Principal components analysis; the synthetic variables are a linear combination of a set of explaining variables. Correspondence analysis or Reciprocal Averaging also attempts to determine a smaller set of synthetic variables that could explain the original set. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) computes a linear predictor from two sets of normally distributed data to allow for classification of new observations. Logistic regression allows regression analysis to estimate and test the influence of covariates on a binary response. Artificial neural networks extend regression methods to non-linear multivariate models. Multidimensional scaling covers various algorithms to determine a set of synthetic variables that best represent the pairwise distances between records. The original method is principal coordinate analysis. Canonical correlation analysis tries to establish whether or not there are linear relationships among two sets of variables (covariates and response). Recursive partitioning creates a decision tree that strives to correctly classify members of the population based on a dichotomous dependent variable See also A/B testing Estimation of covariance matrices Hotelling's T-square distribution Important publications in multivariate analysis Multivariate testing Multivariate normal distribution Wishart distribution Structured data analysis (statistics) Univariate References External links Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis, by G. David Garson Mike Palmer: The Ordination Web Page

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Demiurge

Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek dēmiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker", from dēmios "belonging to the people, public" + ergon "work" Online Etymology Dictionary , and hence a "maker", "artisan" or "craftsman") in philosophical and religious language is a term for a creator deity, responsible for the creation of the physical universe. In the sense of a divine creative principle as expressed in ergon or en-erg-y, Neoplatonism and Gnosticism By Richard T. Wallis, Jay Bregman, International Society for Neoplatonic Studies Published by SUNY Press, 1992 ISBN 0791413373 "Plotinus is also willing to say that the Nous is unlimited (seeIII,8,8, 46) but not in the same way as the One. The One is infinite because of his indeterminate nature: and for this reason only dynamis, never energeia (which implies determination, limit and form), can apply to him. The Nous, however, is determinate, energeia and thus can not be infinite in its very nature. Nonetheless, Nous is in one respect unlimited like the One: in that Nous is the productive source of potentially innumerable logoi".pg 183 the word was first introduced by Plato in Timaeus, 41a (ca. 360 BC). It subsequently appears in a number of different religious and philosophical systems of Late Antiquity besides Platonic realism, most notably in Neoplatonism. In Neoplatonism Plotinus identified the demiurge as nous (divine mind), the first emanation of "the One" (see monad). Neoplatonists personified the demiurge as Zeus, the high god of the Greeks. In Fourth Tractate 'Problems of the Soul' The Demiurge is identified as Zeus.10."When under the name of Zeus we are considering the Demiurge we must leave out all notions of stage and progress, and recognize one unchanging and timeless life." The term also appears in Gnosticism in which the material universe is seen as evil or at least created by a lesser and or inferior creator deity. In Gnosticism, the Demiurge is a being that never should have come into existence, the result of Sophia emanating without her male counterpart. The Gnostics attributed to the Demiurge much of the actions and laws that in the Tanach or Old Testament are attributed to the Hebrew God Yahweh (see the Sethians and Ophites). Alternative Gnostic names for the Demiurge, include Yaldabaoth, "Samael", "Saklas", and "Kosmokrator", and several other variants. He is known as Ptahil in Mandaeanism. The figures of the "Angel of YHWH" and the "Angel of Death" may have contributed to the Gnostic view of the Demiurge. Platonism and Neoplatonism Plato has the speaker Timaeus refer to the demiurge frequently in the Socratic dialogue Timaeus circa 360 BCE. The title character refers to the demiurge as the entity who “fashioned and shaped” the material world. Timaeus describes the Demiurge as unreservedly benevolent and hence desirous of a world as good as possible. The world remains allegedly imperfect, however, because the demiurge had to work on pre-existing chaotic, indeterminate matter. Plato's Timaeus is a fleshing out of Hesiod's cosmology, from Hesiod's work Theogony reconcilling Hesiod to Homer, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origin By Joseph Eddy Fontenrose pg 226 http://books.google.com/books?id=h56ansk4SyQC&pg=PA226&dq=theogony+timaeus&lr=&sig=GZCR7p87-IJEGh8JmQlbHLx7J_s http://books.google.com/books?id=h56ansk4SyQC&pg=PA226&dq=theogony+timaeus&lr=&sig=GZCR7p87-IJEGh8JmQlbHLx7J_s Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's Timaeus By John Sallis pg 86 ISBN 0253213088 http://books.google.com/books?id=gS_9aQ5mYKgC&pg=PA86&dq=theogony+timaeus&sig=pq-zk6XaQB5zvRp-Ek202rHFeTo The mythology of ancient Greece and Italy By Thomas Keightley Whittaker pg 44 Oxford University http://books.google.com/books?id=lWAEAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=theogony+timaeus&source=web&ots=Ky1QUcicnt&sig=h-hUAq6p24pQmBXRsfSwV71asgI in a dialectical discourse between Timaeus and the other guests at a gathering, in the dialog of Timaeus (see also Plato's Symposium). The concept of artist or creator and even the Platonist conflict between the poet as cultural historian and philosopher (see Plato's The Republic) has a link in Plato's expression of the demiurge in his works. For Neoplatonists like Plotinus, however, the demiurge represents a second cause (see Dyad) which is a critical component of the ontological construct of human consciousness as contained within Substance theory. The first and highest aspect of God is the One, the source or the Monad (Plato describes this concept as the Good above the demiurge). The Monad emanated the Nous (consciousness) from its "indeterminate" vitality due to the monad being so abundant that it overflowed back onto itself causing self reflection. Neoplatonism and Gnosticism By Richard T. Wallis, Jay Bregman, International Society for Neoplatonic Studies This self reflection of the indeterminate vitality Plotinus referred to as the demiurge or creator, the principle of organization in reflection to the nonsentient force or dunamis, which is the one or the Monad. The dyad is energy emanated by the force that is then by the motion or force organized into the material world. Plotinus also elucidates the equation of matter with nothing or non-being in his Enneads Plotinus "Matter is therefore a non-existent" Ennead 2, Tractate 4 Section 16 which is to express the concept of idealism or that nothing exists outside of the "mind". This Platonic idealism is in connection with the nous or contemplative faculty within man which orders the force (dunamis) and energy (energeia) it perceives into conscious reality. Schopenhauer wrote of this Neoplatonist philosopher: "With Plotinus there even appears, probably for the first time in Western philosophy, idealism that had long been current in the East even at that time, for it taught (Enneads, iii, lib. vii, c.10) that the soul has made the world by stepping from eternity into time, with the explanation: 'For there is for this universe no other place than the soul or mind' (neque est alter hujus universi locus quam anima), indeed the ideality of time is expressed in the words: 'We should not accept time outside the soul or mind' (oportet autem nequaquam extra animam tempus accipere)." (Parerga and Paralipomena, Volume I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 7)Similarly, professor Ludwig Noiré wrote: "For the first time in Western philosophy we find idealism proper in Plotinus (Enneads, iii, 7, 10), where he says, "The only space or place of the world is the soul," and "Time must not be assumed to exist outside the soul." [5] It is worth noting, however, that like Plato but unlike Schopenhauer and other modern philosophers, Plotinus does not worry about whether or how we can get beyond our ideas in order to know external objects. In this he claimed to reveal Plato's true meaning, a doctrine he learned from Platonic tradition that did not appear outside the academy or in Plato's text. This tradition of creator God as nous (the manifestation of consciousness), can be validated in the works of pre-Plotinus philosophers such as Numenius. As well as a connection between Hebrew cosmology and the Hellenic Platoistic one (see also Philo). Numenius of Apamea was reported to have asked “What else is Plato than Moses speaking Greek?” Fr. 8 Des Places The Demiurge of Neoplatonism is the Nous (mind of God), and is one of the three ordering principles: arche (Gr. "beginning") - the source of all things, logos (Gr. "word") - the underlying order that is hidden beneath appearances, harmonia (Gr. "harmony") - numerical ratios in mathematics. Before Numenius of Apamea and Plotinus' Enneads, no Platonic works ontologically clarified the Demiurge from the allegory in Plato's Timaeus. The idea of Demiurge was, however, addressed before Plotinus in the works of Christian writer Justin Martyr who built his understanding of the demiurge on the works of Numenius. "Plato is just the Greeks Moses Numenius", Frag. 8 (Des Places) The Neoplatonic Writings of Numenius Translated by Kenneth Guthrie Selene Books ISDN 0-933601-03-4 Later Neoplatonist Iamblichus changed the role of the one which by proxy then changed the role of the demiurge as second case or dyad, this is one of the reasons that Iamblichus and his teacher Porphryr were in conflict with one another. Iamblichus The figure of the Demiurge also emerges in the theoretic of Iamblichus, a Neoplatonist, in which it acts to conjoin the transcendent, incommunicable “One” or Source that resides at the summit of the system with the demiurge or material realm via the process of henosis (see Theurgy, Iamblichus and henosis). Iamblichus describes the One, a monad whose first principle or emanation is intellect (nous), and then among "the many" that follow it a second, super-existent "One" that is the producer of intellect or soul ("psyche"). The first and superior "One" is further separated into spheres of the intelligible and the intellective; the latter sphere is the domain of thought, while the former comprises the objects of thought. Thus, a triad is formed of the intelligible nous, the intellective nous, and the psyche in order to reconcile further the various Hellenistic philosophical schools of Aristotle's actus and potentia of the unmoved mover and Plato's demiurge. Then within this intellectual triad Iamblichus assigns the third rank to the Demiurge and identifies it with the perfected or Divine nous, the intellectual triad being promoted to a hebdomad. As in the theoretic of Plotinus, nous produces nature by the mediation of the intellect, so here the intelligible gods are followed by a triad of psychic gods. Gnosticism A lion-faced deity found on a Gnostic gem in Bernard de Montfaucon’s L’antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures may be a depiction of the Demiurge. Gnosticism also presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable God and the demiurgic “creator” of the material. In contrast to Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present the demiurge as antagonistic to the will of the Supreme Being: his act of creation occurs in unconscious semblance of the divine model, and thus is fundamentally flawed, or else is formed with the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine in materiality. Thus, in such systems, the demiurge acts as a solution to the problem of evil. In the Apocryphon of John circa 200 AD, the demiurge has the name “Yaldabaoth,” and proclaims himself as God: "Now the archon (ruler) who is weak has three names. The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Saklas (“fool”), and the third is Samael. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, ‘I am God and there is no other God beside me,’ for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come." The Nag Hammadi Library (see Nag Hammadi) Yaldabaoth Gnostic myth recounts that Sophia (Greek, literally meaning "wisdom"), the Demiurge’s mother and a partial aspect of the divine Pleroma or “Fullness,” desired to create something apart from the divine totality, and without the receipt of divine assent. In this abortive act of separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he himself existed, being ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were his birth-place. The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the divine into human form; this process occurs through the agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Thus Sophia’s power becomes enclosed within the material forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the material universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a return by the subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its primal source. (See Sethian Gnosticism.) Under the name of Nebro (rebel), Yaldabaoth is called an angel in the apocryphal Gospel of Judas. He is first mentioned in "The Cosmos, Chaos, and the Underworld" as one of the twelve angels to come "into being [to] rule over chaos and the [underworld]". He comes from heaven, his "face flashed with fire and whose appearance was defiled with blood". Nebro creates six angels in addition to the angel Saklas to be his assistants. These six in turn create another twelve angels “with each one receiving a portion in the heavens.” Samael “Samael” literally means “Blind God” or “God of the Blind” in Aramaic (Syriac sæmʕa-ʔel). This being is considered not only blind, or ignorant of its own origins, but may in addition be evil; its name is also found in Judaica as the Angel of Death and in Christian demonology. This leads to a further comparison with Satan. Saklas Another alternative title for the Demiurge, “Saklas,” is Aramaic for “fool” (Syriac sækla “the foolish one”). Yahweh Some Gnostic teachers (notably Marcion of Sinope) seem to have directly identified the evil Demiurge with Yahweh, the God of the Old Testament, in opposition and contrast to the God of the New Testament. "YHWH" is not used as a name of the demiurge in extant Gnostic texts; instead, he appears as a subordinate offspring of the chief Archon: "And the chief archon seduced her and he begot in her two sons; the first and the second (are) Eloim and Yave. Eloim has a bear-face and Yave has a cat-face. The one is righteous but the other is unrighteous. (Eloim is righteous but Yave is unrighteous.) Yave he set over the fire and the wind, and Eloim he set over the water and the earth." "Apocryphon of John," translation by Frederik Wisse in the The Nag Hammadi Library. Accessed online at gnosis.org Yaldabaoth is unlikely to be derived "YHWH Sabaoth" as Yaldabaoth has an "L" at the end of "ya", suggesting the name of an angel is the origin of the term as the names of most angels of Jewish origin end with the syllable "el". On the other hand, some angels were called by some YHWH because they represented God's power and authority. This was especially true of the supreme angel that represented God, who was sometimes called the "lesser YHWH", in the Rabbinic tradition called Metatron. A Jewish sect of first century B.C., called the Maghariyyah, held that angels organized the world and ordained the Law. Such views may have been part of the origin of Gnostic Christian belief in the Demiurge and his archons. Satan Still others equated the being with Satan. Catharism apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world directly or indirectly from Gnosticism. "The god of this world" is mentioned by Paul in 2 Corinthians 4:4; John states that "the whole world lies in the grip of the Wicked One" (1 John 5:19). While the Gnostics saw this as a reference to the Demiurge (and, by association, to Satan), this vilification of the Creator of the material world was inimical to both orthodox Christianity and orthodox Judaism. Rather than presenting Satan as the creator and ruler of the world as we know it, Irenaeus, an early Christian opponent of Gnosticism, held that Satan's role was only to lead humanity astray: St. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses Book V, Chapter 24. Earthly rule, therefore, has been appointed by God for the benefit of nations, and not by the devil, who is never at rest at all, nay, who does not love to see even nations conducting themselves after a quiet manner. [...] As, then, "the powers that be are ordained of God," it is clear that the devil lied when he said, "These are delivered unto me; and to whomsoever I will, I give them." [...] Just as if any one, being an apostate, and seizing in a hostile manner another man's territory, should harass the inhabitants of it, in order that he might claim for himself the glory of a king among those ignorant of his apostasy and robbery; so likewise also the devil [...] becoming envious of man, was rendered an apostate from the divine law: for envy is a thing foreign to God. Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Gnosticism attributed falsehood, fallen or evil, to the concept of a Creator (see Zeus and Prometheus), though sometimes the creator is from a fallen, ignorant or lesser rather than evil perspective (in some Gnosticism traditions) such as that of Valentinius. The Neoplatonic philosopher Plotinus addressed within his works what he saw as un-Hellenic and blasphemous to the demiurge or creator of Plato. Neoplatonic Criticism Gnosticism's conception of the Demiurge was criticised by the Neoplatonist philosopher Plotinus. Plotinus is noted as the founder of Neoplatonism (along with his teacher Ammonius Saccas), Neoplatonism His criticism is contained in the ninth tractate of the second of the Enneads. Therein, Plotinus criticizes his opponents for their appropriation of ideas from Plato: From Plato come their punishments, their rivers of the underworld and the changing from body to body; as for the plurality they assert in the Intellectual Realm—the Authentic Existent, the Intellectual-Principle, the Second Creator and the Soul—all this is taken over from the Timaeus. (Ennead 2.9.vi; emphasis added from A. H. Armstrong's introduction to Ennead 2.9) Of note here is the remark concerning the second hypostasis or Creator and third hypostasis or World Soul within Plotnius. Plotinus criticizes his opponents for “all the novelties through which they seek to establish a philosophy of their own” which, he declares, “have been picked up outside of the truth”; they attempt to conceal rather than admit their indebtedness to ancient philosophy, which they have corrupted by their extraneous and misguided embellishments. Thus their understanding of the Demiurge is similarly flawed in comparison to Plato’s original intentions. Whereas Plato's demiurge is good wishing good on his creation, gnosticism contends that the demiurge is not only the originator of evil but is evil as well. Hence the title of Plotinus' refutation "Enneads" The Second Ennead, Ninth Tractate - Against Those That Affirm the Creator of the Kosmos and the Kosmos Itself to be Evil: [Generally Quoted as "Against the Gnostics"]. Plotinus marks his arguments with the disconnect or great barrier that is created between the nous or mind's noumenon (see Heraclitus) and the material world (phenomenon) by believing the material world is evil. The majority view tends to understand Plotinus’ opponents as being a Gnostic sect—certainly, (specifically Sethian) several such groups were present in Alexandria and elsewhere about the Mediterranean during Plotinus’ lifetime, and several of his criticisms bear specific similarity to Gnostic doctrine (Plotinus pointing to the gnostic doctrine of Sophia and her emission of the Demiurge is most notable among these similarities). However, Christos Evangeliou has contended that Plotinus’ opponents might be better described as simply “Christian Gnostics”, arguing that several of Plotinus’ criticisms are as applicable to orthodox Christian doctrine as well. Also, considering the evidence from the time, Evangeliou felt the definition of the term “Gnostics” was unclear. Thus, though the former understanding certainly enjoys the greatest popularity, the identification of Plotinus’ opponents as Gnostic is not without some contention. Of note here is that while Plotinus' student Porphyry names Christianity specifically in Porphyry's own works, and Plotinus is to have been a known associate of the Christian Origen, none of Plotinus' works mention Christ or Christianity. Whereas Plotinus specifically addresses his target in the Enneads as the gnostics. A. H. Armstrong identified the “Gnostics” that Plotinus was attacking as Jewish and Pagan in his introduction to the tract in his translation of the Enneads. Armstrong alluding to Gnosticism being a Hellenic philosophical heresy of sorts, which later engaged Christianity and Neoplatonism. John D. Turner professor of religious studies at the University of Nebraska and famed translator and editor of the Nag Hammadi library stated that the text Plotinus and his students read was Sethian gnosticism which predates Christianity. It appears that Plotinus attempted to clarify how the philosophers of the academy had not arrived at the same erroneous conclusions (such as Dystheism or misotheism for the creator God as an answer to the problem of evil) as the targets of his criticism. Christian heresies Cerinthus According to the heresy of Cerinthus (who shows Ebionite influence), the ancient Hebrew term Elohim, the “uni-plural name,” a name of God throughout Genesis 1, can be interpreted as indicating that a hierarchy of ancient spirits (angels or gods) were co-creators with a Supreme Being, and were partially responsible for creation within the context of a “master plan” exemplified theologically by the Greek word Logos. Psalm 82.1 describes a plurality of gods (ʔelōhim), which an older version in the Septuagint calls the “assembly of the gods”; however, it does not indicate that these gods were co-actors in creation. Also, an abstract similarity can be found between the Logos (as applied to Jesus in the Gospel according to St John) and Plato’s Demiurge, as in John 1:1, which reads: “in the beginning was the Word (Logos), and the Word was with God and the Word was God”. However, typical Christian theology identifies Jesus as the second person in the holy and undivided Trinity, thus rejecting the notion that the world was created by an ignorant or even malevolent demiurge in co-action with a separate, higher and unknowable god. Non-Western Views Hinduism A figure which closely appears to resemble the Platonic Demiurge in Hinduism inasmuch as the Demiurge is the creator, is Brahma, a member of the Hindu Trinity (Trimurti), who figures as the creator god of the universe in all of Hindu mythology. The Demiurge Brahma is a mortal with a lifespan of over 300 trillion years in comparison to the eternal, transcendent, immanent, and ineffable Brahman. Ishvara is Brahman as a personal God and supreme controller of the cosmos. In the Matsya Purana of Hindu mythology, the actual act of creating the current material universe is performed by Manu after its last version is destroyed in pralaya while he is rescued by Vishnu. Manu then sings/chants the universe into existence and creates the various gods along the way. Pirahã Cosmology Among the Pirahã of Amazonas, Brazil, the demiurge Igagai recreated the world after its destruction in a cataclysm that came about when the moon was destroyed. In the cataclysm, all the animals died and all light disappeared from the world, and the higher levels of the cosmos almost fell on top of the earth. Igagai restored the structure of the cosmos, and created the animals that the Pirahã know today. Gonçalves, Marco Antonio. 2001. O mundo inacabado. Ação e criação em uma cosmologia amazônica: Etnografia Pirahã. Rio de Janeiro: Editora da UFRJ. [pp. 39-41] Chinese Religion Pangu can be interpreted as another creator deity. In the beginning there was nothing in the universe except a formless chaos. However this chaos began to coalesce into a cosmic egg for eighteen thousand years. Within it, the perfectly opposed principles of yin and yang became balanced and Pangu emerged (or woke up) from the egg. Pangu is usually depicted as a primitive, hairy giant with horns on his head (like the Greek Pan) and clad in furs. Pangu set about the task of creating the world: he separated Yin from Yang with a swing of his giant axe, creating the Earth (murky Yin) and the Sky (clear Yang). To keep them separated, Pangu stood between them and pushed up the Sky. This task took eighteen thousand years, with each day the sky grew ten feet higher, the Earth ten feet wider, and Pangu ten feet taller. In some versions of the story, Pangu is aided in this task by the four most prominent beasts, namely the Turtle, the Qilin, the Phoenix, and the Dragon. After the eighteen thousand years had elapsed, Pangu was laid to rest. His breath became the wind; his voice the thunder; left eye the sun and right eye the moon; his body became the mountains and extremes of the world; his blood formed rivers; his muscles the fertile lands; his facial hair the stars and milky way; his fur the bushes and forests; his bones the valuable minerals; his bone marrows sacred diamonds; his sweat fell as rain; and the fleas on his fur carried by the wind became human beings all over the world. The distance from Earth and Sky at the end of the 18,000 years would have been 65,700,000 feet, or over 12,443 miles. The first writer to record the myth of Pangu was Xu Zheng (徐整) during the Three Kingdoms (三國) period. References in popular culture In the novel Deus Irae (by Philip K. Dick and Roger Zelazny) there are implicit references to the architect of the Third World War, Carleton Leufteufel, as a demiurge, with his death resultant in temporary reversion of the desolate landscape of post-apocalyptic America. In Dick's Valis, there is a more explicit acknowledgement of gnostic theological concepts, such as the demiurge and Sophia. In Jack Womack's novel Elvissey, an alternate history Elvis Presley is abducted by the Machiavellian DryCo so that he can become a messiah figure for a 21st Century religion that views the original popular entertainer as an avatar of the divine. Unfortunately for DryCo and the alternate Elvis, Valentinian gnosticism is the dominant theological framework in its Southern United States, not evangelical Christianity. Resultantly, this Elvis regards DryCo's intended role as a messianic impersonator for him as equating him with the flawed demiurge creator of the material world. In the 1996 LucasArts game Afterlife, the player is referred to as the Demiurge. The goal of the game is to build and manage both a Heaven and a Hell to provide rewards and punishments for the inhabitants of the local planet. In the animated series Æon Flux, the Demiurge is a god-like entity that Aeon Flux and the Monican resistance want to release into space in order to free the planet from its influence while Trevor Goodchild hopes to use the Demiurge to bring "peace" to the world in his own image. All the while, the Demiurge is using supernatural delusion to pit the two sides against each other. Michael Demiurgos is a principal character in the DC/Vertigo comic book series Lucifer. In this depiction, Michael was created by Yahweh with the demiurgic power to enable the physical creation of the universe. Michael was eventually taken outside of creation by Lucifer, where he released his demiurgic power, allowing Lucifer to create a second universe. Later, Michael's daughter Elaine Belloc became the demiurge. Demiurg (Демиург in Russian) is one of the primary characters of "Overburdened with Evil" (Отягощенные злом, 1988), a novel by Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. The origin of the name is referred to a Gnostic belief system, in which Demiurge is an entity that produces matter which is inherently overburdened with evil. Demiurge is a central concept in the role-playing game Nine Worlds. Players portray Archons, mortals with special powers whose actions as a group represent the will of the Demiurge. In the role-playing game Kult, the Demiurge is an evil being who imprisoned humanity in a world of illusions in order to keep them ignorant of their true nature and power, so that he might rule over them. At the time where the game takes place, the Demiurge has vanished and as a result the illusion-prison is crumbling. Marvel Comics has an entity known as the Demiurge that was responsible for creating the Magic on Earth. Mating with Gaea during a demon crisis, Demiurge fathered Atum, who in turn destroyed or defeated many evil primordial gods such as Set and Chthon. Games Workshop Warhammer 40,000 universe has an alien race known as the Demiurg who are great miners and builders. Ialdabaoth is the name of a Shura God (Kishin, literally meaning "Machine God") in Super Robot Wars Compact 3 and Super Robot Wars Original Generations. The Valar, that appear in J. R. R. Tolkien's The Silmarillion, are referred to as demiurges in Tolkien's book The Road Goes Ever On. Tolkien was a Roman Catholic, and the idea of Valar as gods (as presented in the earlier versions of his mythos) was in clear contradiction with the uniqueness of God, so the Valar had to be angels, with lesser but still immense power. At the conclusion of Gary Gygax's final Gord the Rogue novel Dance of Demons, the protagonist's mentor Gellor is given the role of demiurge. In the DC Comics Hawkman Special from August 2008, an entity that identified itself as the Demiurge abducted Hawkman from the planet Rann in the midst of the Rann-Thanagar Holy War. The being explained that it had a connection to Hawkman's future and revealed that the myriad past lives and convoluted origin of Hawkman may be a deception perpetrated by an unknown source. He claims to have inspired Plato's writing somehow, inspiring the knowledge of himself into him. In the song "Original Sinsuality" from the album "The Beekeeper," Tori Amos references Yaldabaoth, Saklas, Samael and Sophia. References See also Archon Brahma Bythos Christ Pantokrator Conceptions of God dystheism Gnosticism God as the Devil Great Architect of the Universe Henosis Johannite Mandaean Melek Taus Neoplatonism Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Platonism Sethianism Svantovit Theistic Satanism Urizen Yahweh Yaw Gestalt psychology Ahriman cognitive psychology perceptual psychology Form of the Good External links Dark Mirrors of Heaven: Gnostic Cosmogony

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Motorcycle

A pair of motorcycles packed for touring A motorcycle (also called a motorbicycle, motorbike, bike, or cycle) is a single-track, two-wheeled motor vehicle powered by an engine. Motorcycles vary considerably depending on the task for which they are designed, such as long distance travel, navigating congested urban traffic, cruising, sport and racing, or off-road conditions. Being the most affordable form of motorised transport, in some parts of the world they are also the most widespread (e.g., Vietnam). History Replica of the Daimler-Maybach Reitwagen A 1913 Fabrique National in-line four with shaft drive from Belgium Arguably, the first motorcycle was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt (since 1905 a city district of Stuttgart) in 1885. The first petroleum-powered vehicle was essentially a motorised bicycle, although the inventors called their invention the Reitwagen ("riding car"). However, if a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first one may have been American. One such machine was demonstrated at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. in 1867, built by Sylvester Howard Roper of Roxbury, Massachusetts. A pre-war Polish Sokół 1000 In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first motorcycle available for purchase. In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers of bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine. As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased. An historic 1941 Crocker Until the First World War, the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian, producing over 20,000 bikes per year. By 1920, this honour went to Harley-Davidson, with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries. In 1928, DKW took over as the largest manufacturer. After the Second World War, the BSA Group became the largest producer of motorcycles in the world, producing up to 75,000 bikes per year in the 1950s. The German company NSU Motorenwerke AG held the position of largest manufacturer from 1955 until the 1970s. NSU Sportmax streamlined motorcycle, 250 cc class winner of the 1955 Grand Prix season In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and Moto-Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time. NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing. Moto-Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and by 1957 nearly all the Grand Prix races were being won by streamlined machines. The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM in the light of the safety concerns. From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of East German Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s. Today, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Japanese companies such as Honda, Kawasaki, Suzuki, and Yamaha dominate the motorcycle industry, although Harley-Davidson and BMW continue to be popular and supply considerable markets. Other major manufacturers include Piaggio group of Italy, KTM, Triumph, Aprilia, Moto-Guzzi, MV Agusta and Ducati. In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is an enormous market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries. The growth in this market is popularly thought to have started with the 1958 Honda Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008. Honda Sells Its 60 Millionth - Yes, Millionth - Super Cub Wired.com Today, this area is dominated by mostly Indian companies with Hero Honda emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers. World's Cheapest Car -By Forbes For example, its Splendor model which has sold more than 8.5 million to date. Technical aspects A Suzuki GS500 with a clearly visible frame (painted silver). Construction Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in performance, cost and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to a manual five- or six-speed sequential transmission drives the swingarm-mounted rear wheel by a chain, driveshaft or belt. Fuel economy Motorcycle fuel economy benefits from the relatively small mass of the vehicle. This, of course, relates to how the motorcycle is used. One person on a small motorcycle travelling a short distance is generally very economical. However, a large motorcycle generally has bad aerodynamics compared with a typical car, poor aerodynamics of exposed passengers and engines designed for goals other than fuel economy can work to reduce these benefits. Riding style has a large effect on fuel economy. Fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style ranging from a low of reported by a Honda VTR1000F rider, to reported for the Verucci Nitro 50 cc Scooter. A specially designed Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved "on real highways - in real conditions." Due to lower engine displacements (100 cc–200 cc), motorcycles in developing countries offer good fuel economy. In the Indian market, the second most selling company, Bajaj, offers two models with superior fuel economy: XCD 125 and Platina. Both are 125 cc motorbikes with a company-claimed fuel economy of 109 km/l and 111 km/l, respectively. Electric motorcycles Very high fuel economy equivalents can be derived by electric motorcycles. Electric motorcycles are nearly silent, zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles. Operating range and top speed suffer because of limitations of battery technology. Fuel cells and petroleum-electric hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric motors. Dynamics Racing motorcycles leaning in a turn. Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions. For example, a shorter wheelbase would generally make a bike lean faster and would be quicker around corners compared to a longer wheelbase. Longer wheelbase on the other hand provides more stability in a straight line. Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling. Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering, in which the rider steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. Because it is counter-intuitive this practice is often very confusing to novices—and even to many experienced motorcyclists. Short wheelbase motorcycles, such as sport bikes, can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the pavement. These actions, if performed on purpose, are known as wheelies and stoppies respectively. If carried past the point of recovery the resulting upset is known as "looping" the vehicle. Accessories Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as OEM (factory-fitted) or after-market. Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything from mobile electronics to sidecars and trailers. Social aspects Popularity In many cultures, motorcycles are the primary means of motorised transport. According to the Taiwanese government, for example, "the number of automobiles per ten thousand population is around 2,500, and the number of motorcycles is about 5,000." In places such as Vietnam, motorcycle use is extremely high due to a lack of public transport and low income levels that put automobiles out of reach for many. In Vietnam, motorised traffic consist of mostly motorbikes. The four largest motorcycle markets in the world are all in Asia: China, India, Indonesia, and Vietnam. The motorcycle is also popular in Brazil's frontier towns. Amid the global economic downturn of 2008, the motorcycle market grew by 6.5%. Recent years have seen an increase in the popularity of motorcycles elsewhere. In the USA, registrations increased by 51% between 2000 and 2005. This is mainly attributed to increasing fuel prices and urban congestion, but is also partly due to television programmes such as reality show American Chopper, or adventure-travel shows such as Long Way Down. Subcultures A motorcycle rally in Ontario A Hells Angels wall mural in Southampton, UK Around the world, motorcycles have historically been associated with subcultures. Some of these subcultures have been loose-knit social groups such as the cafe racers of 1950s Britain, and the Mods and Rockers of the 1960s. A few are believed to be criminal gangs. Social motorcyclist organisations are popular and are sometimes organised geographically, focus on individual makes, or even specific models. Example motorcycle clubs include: American Motorcyclist Association, Harley Owners Group, Moto Guzzi National Owners Club, Gold Wing Road Riders (GWRRA), and BMW MOA. Some organisations hold large international motorcycle rallies in different parts of the world that are attended by many thousands of riders. Whereas many social motorcycle organisations raise money for charities through organised events and rides, some other motorcycle organisations exist only for the direct benefit of others. Bikers Against Child Abuse (BACA) is one example. BACA assigns members to individual children to help them through difficult situations, or even stay with the child if the child is alone or frightened. In recent decades, motorcyclists have formed political lobbying organisations in order to influence legislators to introduce motorcycle-friendly legislation. One of the oldest such organisations, the British Motorcycle Action Group, was founded in 1973 specifically in response to helmet compulsion, introduced without public consultation. In addition, the British Motorcyclists Federation (BMF), originally founded in 1960 as a reaction to the public perception of motorcyclists as leather-jacketed hooligans, has itself moved into political lobbying. Likewise, the U.S. has ABATE, which, like most such organisations, also works to improve motorcycle safety, as well as running the usual charity fund-raising events and rallies, often for motorcycle-related political interests. Some other lobbying organisations are listed in :Category:Motorcyclists organizations. At the other end of the spectrum from the charitable organizations and the motorcycle rights activists are the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs. These are defined by the Provincial Court of Manitoba as: "Any group of motorcycle enthusiasts who have voluntarily made a commitment to band together and abide by their organizations' rigorous rules enforced by violence, who engage in activities that bring them and their club into serious conflict with society and the law". Organized Crime Fact Sheet- Public Safety Canada The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Criminal Intelligence Service Canada have designated four MCs as Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), which are the Pagans, Hells Angels, Outlaws MC, and Bandidos, FBI Safe Street Violent Crime Initiative - Report Fiscal Year 2000- FBI.org 2004 Annual Report- Criminal Intelligence Service Canada, cisc.gc.ca known as the "Big Four". Motorcycle Gangs- Connecticut Gang Investigators Association Mobility While people choose to ride motorcycles for various reasons, those reasons are increasingly practical, with riders opting for a powered two-wheeler as a cost-efficient alternative to infrequent and expensive public transport systems, or as a means of avoiding or reducing the effects of urban congestion. In places where it is permitted, lane splitting, also known as filtering, allows motorcycles to use the space between vehicles to move through stationary or slow traffic. In the UK, motorcycles are exempt from the £8 per day London congestion charge other vehicles must pay to enter the city during the day. Motorcycles are also exempt from toll charges at some river crossings, such as the Severn Bridge, Dartford Crossing, and Mersey Tunnels. Some cities, such as Bristol, allow motorcycles to use bus lanes and provide dedicated free parking. In the United States, those states that have high-occupancy vehicle lanes also allow for motorcycle travel in them. Other countries have similar policies. In New Zealand motorcycle riders are not required to pay for parking that is controlled by a barrier arm; the arm does not occupy the entire width of the lane, and the motorcyclist simply rides around it. Motorcycle parking in Wellington CBD [Archive] - Kiwi Biker forums Many car parks controlled in this way supply special areas for motorcycles to park, so as not to unnecessarily consume spaces. Safety Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles. United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles. For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles – four times higher than for cars. The same data show that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 – 28 times higher than for cars. Furthermore for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars. Wearing a motorcycle helmet reduces the chances of death or injury in a motorcycle crash The two major causes of motorcycle accidents in the United States are: motorists pulling out or turning in front of motorcyclists and violating their rights-of-way and motorcyclists running wide through turns. The former is sometimes called a SMIDSY, an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of "Sorry mate, I didn't see you". The latter is more common when motorcyclists mix drinking with riding. Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their conspicuousness to other traffic, and separating alcohol and riding. The United Kingdom has several organisations which are dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training over and above what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle test. These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications often benefit from reduced insurance costs. An MSF rider course for novices Motorcycle Safety Education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations. The courses, designed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course. In the UK (except Northern Ireland) and some Australian jurisdictions, such as New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory, it is compulsory to undertake a rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence. In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory in Quebec and Manitoba only, but all provinces and territories have Graduated Licensing programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience. Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province. The Canada Safety Council, a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council. Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums. Types A boulevard cruiser (front) and a sportbike (background) There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many different sub-types of motorcycles for many different purposes. Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well. Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture. Motorcycle rider postures The motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry (anthropometry) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself — falling along a spectrum of three basic postures. Sport - the rider leans forwards into the wind and the weight of the upper torso is supported by air pressure - but only as long as the motorcycle is travelling at speed (typically 50mph/80kmh and upwards). The reduced frontal area cuts wind resistance and, where legal restrictions permit, allow higher cruising and top speeds to be reached. However, at low-speed this position throws the weight of the rider onto the arms instead, and this is quickly tiring to the wrists of unfamiliar riders. Moreover, the sports position makes it more difficult for the rider to look around and foot through traffic. Very narrow, swept-back handlebars (or "clip-ons", short stubs clamped to the telescopic fork tubes) became illegal when they trapped the riders thumbs against the fuel-tank or unpopular because of the restricted steering movement and large turning circles required. Almost all these models now have full-fairings as standard and often come with almost complete engine enclosure. Standard - the rider leans forwards slightly ("Tourer" motorcycles use this position). The rider benefits from freedom of head movement, good visibility in all directions, and easier use of the feet while moving through stationary traffic. However, high speeds in this position leads to strain on the wrists, uneven roads lead to strain on the back, and extra exposure to the wind leads to both higher fuel consumption and a higher wind-chill factor. Many of these motorcycles now have some form of full fairing and will often come with panniers as OEM. Cruiser - the rider sits at a lower seat-height with the upper torso upright or leaning slightly rearwards. Legs are extended forwards, sometimes out of reach of the regular controls on cruiser pegs. This position may suit older riders better, allowing more comfortable circulation in the legs. High speeds are not really practical, and it is difficult for the rider to rise from the seat on encountering speed bumps and other road imperfections. This position was traditionally associated with extended or "raked" front forks but these were not particularly stable at speed and led to bigger turning circles. In some cases they were inadequately stiff and strong. These models may have windscreens but are less likely to have fairings or enclosure. Important factors of a motorcycle's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Likewise, factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height. Legal definitions and restrictions A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger, vehicles (scooters do not count as a separate category). Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheelers as motorcycles. Australia and New Zealand A scooter and a motorcycle In New Zealand, "learner" and "restricted" motorcycles may only have a 250 cc engine capacity, restricting 15-year-old learner riders to speeds of around, or a bit more than, . Note that on a learner license on a motorcycle limits the rider to riding up to 70 km/h (maximum of 80km/h in Australia), anything over this figure would be breaking the law. The legal age to be eligible to apply for a New Zealand motorcycle licence is 15 years and over. New Zealand employs a three stage system for motor vehicle licensing. At age 15, an individual can gain their first licence known as their "learner licence". They must hold this for at least 6 months before they are able to move on to their "restricted licence". They must then hold this "restricted licence" for one and half years. After a period of 6–18 months, depending on age and additional training, a holder of a restricted licence may sit the third and final stage known as the "full licence". Until an individual has their "full licence" they are only able to ride a motorcycle which has an engine capacity of 250 cc or less. A similar system is used in most states of Australia, with some variations. "Learners Permit" and "Provisional" licence holders must not have bikes that exceed a power to weight ratio of 150 kW/tonne or 660 cc, whichever comes first. All 250 cc bikes (with a few listed exceptions) are automatically included in this LAMS (Learner Approved Motorcycle Scheme) list. Before getting a "Learners Permit" a Pre-Learner course is required, which issues a certificate of completion, valid for 3 months. Upon passing a computer test, the rider is granted a Learners Permit, which is valid for 12 months. Whilst on a learners permit, the rider may not carry a pillion or side car and may not exceed or the posted speed limit, whichever is lower. To progress to a Provisional Licence, the rider must successfully complete a Pre-Provisional riders course, followed by a riding skills test called MOST (Motorcycle Operator Skill Test). The rider is then able to obtain a "P1 Provisional Licence". P1 provisional licences can be renewed and must be held without suspension for 12 months, after which time it can be upgraded to a P2 provisional licence. The P2 provisional licence is then to be held for 2 more years before the rider obtains their full licence, providing they have not breached any laws causing them to be suspended or disqualified in that period. P2 provisional riders are permitted to carry a pillion, P1 riders are not. There are exceptions to this rule for mature age licence holders, who may be eligible to bypass the P2 provisional period. The laws of some countries allow anyone with a car licence to legally ride mopeds not exceeding 50 cc in capacity, meaning that they do not need to show any competency in handling such a vehicle. Canada and parts of the US In many jurisdictions, the term "motorcycle" includes trikes In Canada and some U.S. jurisdictions, three-wheeled motor vehicles fall under the auspices of motorcycle regulations. The laws and regulations for legal moped usage in the U.S. vary by state. In the United States, licensing requirements vary widely among the states and territories, but generally riders are required to pass written and practical (on-cycle) competency tests. In about half the states, successful completion of a rider education course (such as those offered by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation) is accepted by state licensing agencies in lieu of examination. The specifics of the motorcycle and moped laws in the U.S. can be obtained from each individual state's Department of Motor Vehicles website. UK All motorcycle riders in the UK must first take a one-day CBT course, regardless of which class of motorcycle they intend to ride. In addition a theory test must be taken prior to taking a practical test for any type of motorcycle licence. Entry level to motorcycling at age 16 is the moped, a motorcycle of engine capacity no greater than 50 cc restricted to a maximum design speed of . At age 17 the rider may have a "light motorcycle" with an engine up to 125 cc and a power output not exceeding . Only a Compulsory Basic Training (CBT) licence is needed to ride a learner motorcycle with an L plate. A "large restricted motorcycle" has a power output of not more than . Riders are restricted to riding large restricted motorcycles or smaller for two years after passing their initial motorcycle test. For riders over age 21 there is a direct access route to gaining a licence to ride a large motorcycle, which allows somebody with no motorcycle experience to train and pass a test in around five days. The exact rules are laid out on the UK Department for Transport (DOT) web-site. Three-wheeled vehicles weighing less than 8 cwt (cwt = hundredweight, 112 lbs) or 406 kg were long classified as motorcycles in the UK and could be driven with a full motorcycle license (a requirement there be no reverse gear fitted was dropped in the 1960s). This exemption was linked to the enduring popularity of three-wheeled vehicles in the UK (such as the Reliant Regal van used in the popular TV series "Only Fools and Horses") but was abolished for new license holders in October 2000. Trike Law The Trike Shop UK. Mass-production of three-wheelers ceased in 1998 but the licensing exemption still benefits trikes and their riders. Environmental impact In 2007 and 2008, motorcycles and scooters, due to good fuel efficiency, attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those affected by increased fuel prices. Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a "Vespanomics" website and platform, citing lower per-mile carbon emissions (40 lb/mile less than the average car, a 65% reduction) and better fuel economy. Other sources, however, point out that while motorcycles may be better in terms of greenhouse gases, a motorcycle releases 10–20 times more total pollution per mile than a new car. This pollution comes in large part from nitrogen oxide, a byproduct of combustion that is a major component of smog and is largely because of their less efficient catalytic converters. United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters), the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734. The average "Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531, for a difference of about 16%, not the claimed 10X factor. Likewise, if one looks at how many of the 2007 motorcycles tested were also catalytic equipped, 54% of them, 2,092, were equipped with a catalytic converter. European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars. Motorcycles must meet Euro III standards, while cars must meet Euro IV standards. Therefore, the difference in total pollution between motorcycles and cars that pass European emission standards would be small, certainly much smaller than the 10X factor claimed by the referenced LA Times article. See also List of motorcycle manufacturers Motorcycle Safety Foundation Motorcycle helmet References External links American Motorcyclist Association - the governing body for motorcycle sport in the U.S. The AMA lobbies for the rights of motorcyclists through the AMA-PAC. Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme - the governing body for international motorcycle sport. The FIM also lobbies for the rights and interests of motorcyclists. Motorcycle Glossary - definitions of motorcycle terms About Motorcycles - comprehensive motorcycle information and news Motorcycle Safety Foundation - an internationally recognised developer of comprehensive, research-based, motorcycle rider education and training.

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Electron

The electron is a subatomic particle that carries a negative electric charge. It has no known substructure and is believed to be a point particle. Electrons participate in gravitational, electromagnetic and weak interactions. Like its rest mass and elementary charge, the intrinsic angular momentum (or spin) of an electron has a constant value. In the collision of an electron and a positron, the electron's antiparticle, both are annihilated. An electron–positron pair can be produced from gamma ray photons with sufficient energy. The concept of an indivisible amount of electric charge was theorized to explain the chemical properties of atoms, beginning in 1838 by British natural philosopher Richard Laming; the name electron was introduced for this charge in 1894 by Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney. The electron was identified as a particle in 1897 by J. J. Thomson and his team of British physicists. Electrons are identical particles that belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family. Electrons have quantum mechanical properties of both a particle and a wave, so they can collide with other particles and be diffracted like light. Each electron occupies a quantum state that describes its random behavior upon measuring a physical parameter, such as its energy or spin orientation. Because an electron is a type of fermion, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state; this property is known as the Pauli exclusion principle. In many physical phenomena, such as electricity, magnetism, and thermal conductivity, electrons play an essential role. An electron generates a magnetic field while moving, and it is deflected by external magnetic fields. When an electron is accelerated, it can absorb or radiate energy in the form of photons. Electrons, together with atomic nuclei made of protons and neutrons, make up atoms. However, electrons contribute less than 0.06% to an atom's total mass. The attractive Coulomb force between an electron and a proton causes electrons to be bound into atoms. The exchange or sharing of the electrons between two or more atoms is the main cause of chemical bonding. Electrons were created by the Big Bang, and they can be annihilated during stellar nucleosynthesis. Electrons are produced by cosmic rays entering the atmosphere and are predicted to be created by Hawking radiation at the event horizon of a black hole. Radioactive isotopes can release an electron from an atomic nucleus as a result of negative beta decay. Laboratory instruments are capable of containing and observing individual electrons, while telescopes can detect electron plasma by its energy emission. Electron plasma has multiple applications, including welding, cathode ray tubes, electron microscopes, radiation therapy, lasers and particle accelerators. History The ancient Greeks noticed that amber, a gemstone that is formed from the hardened sap of trees, attracted small objects when rubbed with fur; apart from lightning, this phenomenon was man's earliest known experience of electricity. In his 1600 treatise De Magnete, the English physician William Gilbert coined the New Latin term electricus, to refer to this property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. Both electric and electricity are derived from the Latin ēlectrum, which came from the Greek word ēlektron (ήλεκτρον) for amber. During the period 1838–51, British natural philosopher Richard Laming conceived the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges. Beginning in 1846, German physicist William Weber theorized that electricity was composed of positively and negatively charged fluids, and their interaction was governed by the inverse square law. After studying the phenomenon of electrolysis in 1874, Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney suggested that there existed a "single definite quantity of electricity", the charge of a monovalent ion. He was able to estimate the value of this elementary charge e by means of Faraday's laws of electrolysis. However, Stoney believed these charges were permanently attached to atoms and could not be removed. In 1881, German physicist Hermann von Helmholtz argued that both positive and negative charges were divided into elementary parts, each of which "behaves like atoms of electricity". In 1894, Stoney coined the term electron to represent these elementary charges, saying, "...an estimate was made of the actual amount of this most remarkable fundamental unit of electricity, for which I have since ventured to suggest the name electron." The English name electron is a combination of the word electric and the suffix -on, with the latter now used to designate a subatomic particle, such as a proton or neutron. At the end of the nineteenth century, the various scientific concepts came together to form a unified theory based upon an electron as a fundamental component of matter. Discovery German physicist Johann Wilhelm Hittorf undertook the study of electrical conductivity in rarified gases. In 1869 he discovered a glow emitted from the cathode that increased in size with decrease in gas pressure. In 1876, German physicist Eugen Goldstein showed that the rays from this glow cast a shadow, and he dubbed them cathode rays. Dahl (1997:55–58). During the 1870s, English chemist and physicist Sir William Crookes developed the first cathode ray tube to have a high vacuum inside. He then showed that the luminescence rays appearing within the tube carried energy and moved from the cathode to the anode. Furthermore, by applying a magnetic field, he was able to deflect the rays, thereby demonstrating that the beam behaved as though it were negatively charged. Dahl (1997:64–78). In 1879, he proposed that these properties could be explained by what he termed 'radiant matter'. He suggested that this was a fourth state of matter, consisting of negatively charged molecules that were being projected with high velocity from the cathode. The German-born British physicist Arthur Schuster expanded upon Crookes' experiments by placing metal plates in parallel to the cathode rays and applying an electrical potential between the plates. The field deflected the rays toward the positive plate, providing further evidence that the rays carried negative charge. By measuring the amount of deflection for a given level of current, in 1890 Schuster was able to estimate the charge-to-mass ratio of the ray components. However, this produced such an unexpectedly large value that little credence was given to his calculations at the time. In 1896, British physicist J. J. Thomson, with his colleagues John S. Townsend and H. A. Wilson, performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were unique particles, rather than waves, atoms or molecules as was believed earlier. Thomson made good estimates of both the charge e and the mass m, finding that cathode ray particles, which he called "corpuscles," had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least massive ion known: hydrogen. He showed that their charge to mass ratio, e/m, was independent of cathode material. He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials and by illuminated materials were universal. The name electron was again proposed for these particles by the Irish physicist George F. Fitzgerald, and it has since gained universal acceptance. While studying naturally fluorescing minerals in 1896, French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered that they emitted radiation without any exposure to an external energy source. These radioactive materials became the subject of much interest by scientists, including New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford who discovered they emitted particles. He designated these particles alpha and beta, based on their ability to penetrate matter. In 1900, Becquerel showed that the beta rays emitted by radium could be deflected by an electric field, and that their mass-to-charge ratio was the same as for cathode rays. This evidence strengthened the view that electrons existed as components of atoms. Buchwald and Warwick (2001:90-91). The electron's charge was more carefully measured by American physicist Robert Millikan in his oil-drop experiment of 1909, which was published in 1911. This experiment used an electric field to prevent a charged droplet of oil from falling as a result of gravity. This device could measure the electric charge from as few as 1–150 ions with an error margin of less than 0.3%. Comparable experiments had been done earlier by Thomson's team, using clouds of charged water droplets generated by electrolysis, and in 1911 by Abram Ioffe, who independently obtained the same result as Millikan using charged microparticles of metals, then published his results in 1913. However, oil drops were more stable than water drops due to their slower evaporation rate, and thus more suited to precise experimentation over longer periods of time. Around the beginning of the twentieth century, it was found that under certain conditions a fast moving charged particle caused a condensation of supersaturated water vapor along its path. In 1911, Charles Wilson used this principle to devise his cloud chamber, allowing the tracks of charged particles, such as fast-moving electrons, to be photographed. This and subsequent particle detectors allowed electrons to be studied individually, rather than in bulk as had been the case before. Atomic theory The Bohr model of the atom, showing quantized states of electron orbital energy. An electron dropping to a lower orbit emits a photon equal to the energy difference between the orbits. By 1914, experiments by physicists Ernest Rutherford, Henry Moseley, James Franck and Gustav Hertz had largely established the structure of an atom as a dense nucleus of positive charge surrounded by lower-mass electrons. In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr postulated that electrons resided in quantized energy states, with the energy determined by the angular momentum of the electron's orbits about the nucleus. The electrons could move between these states, or orbits, by the emission or absorption of photons at specific frequencies. By means of these quantized orbits, he accurately explained the spectral lines of hydrogen that were formed when the gas is energized by heat or electricity. However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectrum of more complex atoms. Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert Newton Lewis, who in 1916 proposed that a covalent bond between two atoms is maintained by a pair of electrons shared by them. Later, in 1923, Walter Heitler and Fritz London gave the full explanation of the electron-pair formation and chemical bonding in terms of the then-recently developed quantum mechanics. In 1919, the American chemist Irving Langmuir elaborated on the Lewis' static model of the atom and suggested that all electrons were distributed in successive "concentric (nearly) spherical shells, all of equal thickness". The shells were, in turn, divided by him in a number of cells each containing one pair of electrons. With this model Langmuir was able to qualitatively explain the chemical properties of all elements in the periodic table, which were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law. In 1924, Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli observed that the shell-like structure of the atom could be explained by a set of four parameters that defined every quantum energy state, as long as each state was inhabited by no more than a single electron. (This prohibition against more than one electron occupying the same quantum energy state became known as the Pauli exclusion principle.) However, what physicists lacked was a physical mechanism to explain the fourth parameter, which had two possible values. This was provided by the Dutch physicists Abraham Goudsmith and George Uhlenbeck when they suggested that an electron, in addition to the angular momentum of its orbit, could possess an intrinsic angular momentum. This property became known as spin, and it explained the previously mysterious splitting of spectral lines observed with a high-resolution spectrograph; this phenomenon is known as fine structure splitting. Quantum mechanics In his 1924 dissertation , French physicist Louis de Broglie hypothesized that all matter possesses a wave–particle duality similar to light: the de Broglie hypothesis. That is, under the appropriate conditions, electrons and other matter would show properties of either particles or waves. The corpuscular properties of a particle are demonstrated when it is shown to have a localized position in space at each moment in time and a trajectory that is subject to modification by external forces. The wave-like nature is observed, for example, when a beam of light is passed through parallel slits and creates interference patterns. In 1927, the interference effect was demonstrated with a beam of electrons by English physicist George Paget Thomson with a thin metal film and by American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer using a crystal of nickel. In quantum mechanics, the behavior of an electron in an atom is described by an orbital, which is a probability distribution rather than an orbit. In the figure, the shading at a point indicates the relative probability of the particle in the lowest-energy orbital being at that point. The success of de Broglie's prediction led to the publication, by Erwin Schrödinger in 1926, of the equation named after him that successfully describes how electron waves propagated. Rather than yielding a solution that determines the location of an electron over time, this wave equation can be used to predict the probability of finding an electron near a position. This approach was later called quantum mechanics, which provided an almost exact derivation to the energy states of an electron in a hydrogen atom. Once spin and the interaction between multiple electrons were considered, the quantum mechanics allowed the configuration of electrons in atoms with higher atomic numbers than hydrogen to be successfully predicted. However, for atoms with multiple electrons, the exact solution to the wave equation is much more complicated, so approximations are necessary. In 1928, building on Wolfgang Pauli's work, Paul Dirac formulated the Dirac equation, which for the first time correctly described an electron moving at velocities close to the speed of light. In order to resolve some problems with in his relativistic equation, in 1930 Dirac developed a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles having negative energy, which was dubbed the Dirac sea. This led him to predict the existence of a positron, the antimatter counterpart of the electron. This particle was discovered in 1932 by Carl D. Anderson, who proposed calling standard electrons negatrons, and using electron as a generic term to describe both the positively and negatively charged variants. This usage of the term 'negatron' is still occasionally encountered today, and it may be shortened to 'negaton'. The first experimental discrepancy in Dirac's theory was discovered in 1947 by Willis Lamb, working in collaboration with graduate student Robert Retherford. They found that certain quantum states of hydrogen atom, which should have the same energy, were shifted in relation to each other, the difference being the Lamb shift. About the same time, Polykarp Kusch, working with Henry M. Foley, discovered the magnetic moment of the electron is slightly larger than predicted by Dirac's theory. This small difference was later called anomalous magnetic dipole moment of the electron. To resolve these issues, a refined version of the quantum electrodynamics theory was developed by Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard P. Feynman. Particle accelerators With the development of the particle accelerator during the first half of the twentieth century, physicists began to delve deeper into the properties of subatomic particles. The first successful attempt to accelerate electrons using magnetic induction was made in 1942 by Donald Kerst. His initial betatron reached energies of 2.3 MeV (million electron volts), while subsequent betatrons achieved 300 MeV. In 1947, synchrotron radiation was discovered with a 70 MeV electron synchrotron at General Electric. This radiation was caused by the acceleration of electrons, moving near the speed of light, through a magnetic field. With a beam energy of 1.5 GeV, the first high-energy particle collider was ADONE, which began operations in 1968. This device accelerated electrons and positrons—the antiparticles of electrons—in opposite directions, effectively doubling the energy of their collision when compared to striking a static target with an electron. The Large Electron-Positron Collider (LEP) at CERN, which was operational from 1989 to 2000, achieved collision energies of 209 GeV and made important measurements for the Standard Model of particle physics. Characteristics Classification Standard model of elementary particles. The electron is at lower left. In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called leptons, which are believed to be elementary or fundamental particles. Electrons have the lowest mass of any electrically charged lepton and belong to the first-generation of fundamental particles. The electron is an analog of the two charged leptons of the second and third generations, the muon and the tauon, respectively, which are identical in charge, spin, and interaction, but are more massive. All members of the lepton group belong to the family of fermions. This family includes all elementary particles with half-odd integer spin; the electron has spin . Leptons differ from the other basic constituent of matter, the quarks, by their lack of strong interaction. If the spin of the electron is oriented in the same direction as its momentum, it is called a right-handed spin; otherwise it is left-handed. Thus the same electron can have left- or right-handed spin, depending on its velocity with respect to an observer. The left-handed spin component of the electron forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino, which is an uncharged, first-generation lepton with little or no mass. The right-handed component of the electron spin is an isospin singlet. Fundamental properties The mass of an electron is approximately , or . Based on Einstein's principle of mass–energy equivalence, this mass corresponds to a rest energy of 0.511 MeV. The ratio between the mass of a proton and that of an electron is about 1836. This ratio is one of the fundamental constants of physics, and the Standard Model of particle physics assumes this and other constants are unchanging. Astronomical measurements show that the ratio has held the same value for at least half the age of the universe. Electrons have an electric charge of , The original source for CODATA is: Individual physical constants from the CODATA are available at: which is used as a standard unit of elementary charge for subatomic particles. Within the limits of experimental accuracy, the electron charge is identical to the charge of a proton, but with the opposite sign. As the symbol e is used for the constant of electric charge, the electron is commonly symbolized by , where the minus sign indicates the negative charge. The positron is symbolized by because it has the same properties as the electron but with a positive rather than negative charge. The electron has no known substructure. Hence, it is defined or assumed to be a point charge with no spatial extent—a point particle. Observation of a single electron in a Penning trap shows the upper limit of the particle's radius is 10−22 meters. The classical electron radius is . This is the radius that is inferred from the electron's electric charge, by assuming that its mass has exclusively electrostatic origin and using the classical theory of electrodynamics alone, while ignoring quantum mechanics. From electrostatics theory, the potential energy of a sphere with radius r and charge e is given by: where ε0 is the vacuum permittivity. For an electron with rest mass m0, the rest energy is equal to: where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. Setting them equal and solving for r gives the classical electron radius. See: There are elementary particles that spontaneously decay into different particles. An example is the muon, which decays into an electron, a neutrino and an antineutrino, with a half life of . However, the electron is thought to be stable on theoretical grounds; an electron decaying into a neutrino and photon would mean that electric charge is not conserved. The experimental lower bound for the electron's mean lifetime is , with a 90% confidence interval. Quantum properties As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the wave–particle duality and can be demonstrated using the double-slit experiment. The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle. In quantum mechanics, the wave-like property of an electron is described mathematically by a complex-valued function, the wave function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi (ψ). When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that an electron will be observed near a location—the electron density. Example of an asymmetric wave function for a quantum state of two identical fermions in a box. If the particles swap position, the wave function inverts. Electrons are identical particles because they can not be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In the quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is, ψ(r1, r2) = −ψ(r2, r1), where the variables r1 and r2 correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead. In the case of antisymmetry, solutions of the wave equation for interacting electrons result in a zero probability that each pair will occupy the same location or state. This is responsible for the Pauli exclusion principle, which precludes any two electrons from occupying the same quantum state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit. Virtual particles Physicists believe that empty space may be continually creating pairs of virtual particles, such as a positron and electron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter. The net energy from this reaction is zero. The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, ΔE•Δt. In effect, the energy needed to create these virtual particles, ΔE, can be "borrowed" from the vacuum for a period of time, Δt, so that their product is no more than the reduced Planck constant, . Thus, for a virtual electron, Δt is at most . Virtual electron-positron pairs appearing at random near an electron (at lower left) While an electron-positron virtual pair is in existence, the coulomb force from the ambient electric field surrounding an electron causes a created positron to be attracted to the original electron, while a created electron experiences a repulsion. This causes the two charged virtual particles to physically separate for a brief period before merging back together, and during this period they behave like an electric dipole. The combined effect of many such pair creations is to partially shield the charge of the electron, in a process called vacuum polarization. Thus the effective charge of an electron is actually smaller than its true value, and the charge increases with decreasing distance from the electron. This polarization was confirmed experimentally in 1997 using the Japanese TRISTAN particle accelerator. A comparable shielding effect is seen for the mass of the electron. The equivalent rest energy consists of the mass-energy of the "bare" particle plus the energy of the surrounding electric field. In classical physics, the energy of the electric field is dependent upon the size of the charged object, which, for a dimensionless particle, results in an infinite energy. Instead, because of vacuum fluctuations, allowance must be made for an electron–positron pair appearing in the electric field and the positron annihilating the original electron, causing the virtual electron to become a real electron. This interaction creates a negative energy imbalance that counteracts the radius-dependency of the electric field. —lists a 9% mass difference for an electron that is the size of the Planck distance. The total mass is referred to as the renormalized mass, because a mathematical technique called renormalization is used by physicists to relate the observed mass and bare mass of the electron. This method replaces the terms used to compute the mass with the actual mass found experimentally, thereby avoiding problems with divergences in the formulas. The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum or spin, which equals in units of ħ, and an intrinsic magnetic moment along its spin axis. The magnitude of the spin is ħ. This magnitude is given by the spin angular momentum, for quantum number s = . See: A projection of the spin on any axis can only be ±; this property is usually stated by referring to the electron as a spin- particle. The magnetic moment associated with the orbital motion of an electron in an atom is expressed in terms of the Bohr magneton, which is a physical constant equal to . The intrinsic angular momentum of an electron is almost equal to one Bohr magneton, with the 0.1% difference (anomalous magnetic moment) being explained by interaction with virtual particles and antiparticles. The extraordinarily precise agreement of this predicted difference with the experimentally determined value is viewed as one of the great achievements of the quantum electrodynamics. In classical physics, the angular momentum and magnetic moment of an object depend upon its physical dimensions. Hence, the concept of a dimensionless electron possessing these properties is unclear. A possible explanation lies in the formation of virtual photons in the electric field generated by the electron. These photons cause the electron to shift about in a jittery fashion (known as zitterbewegung), which results in a net circular motion with precession. This motion produces both the spin and the magnetic moment of the electron. In atoms, this creation of virtual photons explains the Lamb shift observed in spectral lines. Interaction An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law. A subscription required for access. When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field, Munowitz (2005:140). which is related to the motion of electrons (the current) with respect to an observer by the Ampère-Maxwell law. It is this property of induction which supplies the magnetic field that drives an electric motor. The electromagnetic field of an arbitrary moving charged particle is expressed by the Liénard–Wiechert potentials, which are valid even when the particle's speed is close to that of light (or relativistic velocities). A charged particle q (at left) is moving with velocity v through a magnetic field B that is oriented perpendicular to the display. For an electron, q is negative so it follows a curved trajectory toward the top. When an electron is moving through a magnetic field, it is subject to the Lorentz force that exerts an influence in a direction perpendicular to the plane defined by the magnetic field and the electron velocity. This centripetal force causes the electron to follow a helical trajectory through the field at a radius equal to the gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation. Munowitz (2005:160). Radiation from non-relativistic electrons is sometimes termed cyclotron radiation. The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham-Lorentz-Dirac force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself. In the quantum electrodynamics the electromagnetic interaction between particles is mediated by photons. An isolated electron that is not undergoing acceleration is unable to emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum between two charged particles. It is this exchange of virtual photons that, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation. Here, Bremsstrahlung is produced by an electron e deflected by the electric field of an atomic nucleus. The energy change E2 − E1 determines the frequency f of the emitted photon. The relative strength of the electromagnetic interaction between two charged particles, such as an electron and a proton, is given by the fine-structure constant. This value is a dimensionless quantity formed by the ratio of two energies: the electrostatic energy of attraction (or repulsion) at a separation of one Compton wavelength, and the rest energy of the charge. It is given by  7.297353 , which is approximately equal to . The outcome of an elastic collision between a photon and a solitary electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift. The change in wavelength, Δλ, depends on the angle of the recoil, θ, as follows, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and m is the electron mass. See Zombeck (2007:393,396). The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mc, which is known as the Compton wavelength. For an electron, it has a value of . When electrons and positrons collide, they annihilate each other, giving rise to two or more gamma ray photons emitted at roughly 180° to each other. If the electron and positron have negligible momentum, a positronium atom can form before annihilation results in two 0.511 MeV gamma ray photons. On the other hand, high-energy photons may transform into an electron and a positron by a process called pair production, but only in the presence of a nearby charged particle, such as a nucleus. In the theory of electroweak interaction, the left-handed spin component of the electron forms a weak isospin doublet with the electron neutrino. This means that during weak interactions, electron neutrinos behave like electrons. Either member of this doublet can undergo a charged current interaction by emitting or absorbing a W boson and be converted into the other member. Charge is conserved during this reaction because the W boson also carries a charge, cancelling out any net change during the transmutation. Charged current interactions are responsible for the phenomenon of beta decay in a radioactive atom. Both the electron and electron neutrino can undergo a neutral current interaction via a Z0 boson exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino-electron elastic scattering. Atoms and molecules Probability densities for the first few hydrogen atom orbitals, seen in cross-section. The energy level of a bound electron determines the orbital it occupies, and the color shows the probability that the electron will be seen near a position. An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, and only a discrete set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus. Electrons can transfer between different orbitals by the emission or absorption of photons with an energy that matches the difference in potential. Other methods of orbital transfer include collisions with particles, such as electrons, and the Auger effect. In order to escape the atom, the energy of the electron must be increased above its binding energy to the atom. This occurs, for example, with the photoelectric effect, where an incident photon exceeding the atom's ionization energy is absorbed by the electron. The orbital angular momentum of electrons is quantized. Because the electron is charged, it produces a magnetic moment that is proportional to the angular momentum. The net magnetic moment of an atom is equal to the vector sum of all its component orbital and spin magnetic moments. Pairs of electrons in an atom align their spins in opposite directions, giving them different spin quantum numbers that satisfy the Pauli exclusion principle. Thus the magnetic moments of an atom's paired electrons cancel each other out. The nucleus contributes a magnetic moment, but this is negligible in comparison to the effect from the electrons. The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of quantum mechanics. The strongest bonds are formed by the sharing or transfer of electrons between atoms, allowing the formation of molecules. Within a molecule, electrons move under the influence of several nuclei, and occupy molecular orbitals; much as they can occupy atomic orbitals in isolated atoms. A fundamental factor in these molecular structures is the existence of electron pairs. These are electrons with opposed spins, allowing them to occupy the same molecular orbital without violating the Pauli exclusion principle (much like in atoms). Different molecular orbitals have different spatial distribution of the electron density. For instance, in bonded pairs (i.e. in the pairs that actually bind atoms together) electrons can be found with the maximal probability in a relatively small volume between the nuclei. On the contrary, in non-bonded pairs electrons are distributed in a large volume around nuclei. Conductivity Lightning is an example of the phenomena produced by triboelectricity. If a body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei, then that object has an electric charge. (For a single atom or molecule, the object is termed an ion.) When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively charged. When there are fewer electrons than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect. Independent electrons moving in vacuum or certain media are termed free electrons. When free electrons move, they produce a net flow of charge called an electric current, which generates a magnetic field. Likewise a current can be created by a changing magnetic field. These interactions are described mathematically by Maxwell's equations. At a given temperature, each material has an electrical conductivity that determines the value of electric current when an electric potential is applied. Examples of good conductors include metals such as copper and gold, whereas glass and Teflon are poor conductors. In any dielectric material, the electrons remain bound to their respective atoms and the material behaves as an insulator. Any semiconductor has a variable level of conductivity that lies between the extremes of conduction and insulation. On the other hand, metals have an electronic band structure that allows for delocalized electrons. These electrons are not associated with specific atoms, so when an electric field is applied, they are free to move like a gas (called Fermi gas) through the material much like free electrons. Because of collisions between electrons and atoms, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is on the order of millimetres per second. However, the speed at which a change of current at one point in the material causes changes in currents in other parts of the material, the velocity of propagation, is typically about 75% of light speed. This occurs because electrical signals propagate as a wave, with the velocity dependent on the dielectric constant of the material. Metals make relatively good conductors of heat, primarily because the delocalized electrons are free to transport thermal energy between atoms. However, unlike electrical conductivity, the thermal conductivity of a metal is nearly independent of temperature. This is expressed mathematically by the Wiedemann-Franz law, which states that the ratio of thermal conductivity to the electrical conductivity is proportional to the temperature. The thermal disorder in the metallic lattice increases the electrical resistivity of the material, producing a temperature dependence for electrical current. When cooled below a point called the critical temperature, materials can undergo a phase transition in which they lose all resistivity to electrical current, in a process known as superconductivity. In BCS theory, this behavior is modeled by pairs of electrons entering a quantum state known as a Bose–Einstein condensate. These Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons, thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance. (Cooper pairs have a radius of roughly 100 nm, so they can overlap each other.) However, the mechanism by which higher temperature superconductors operate remains uncertain. Motion and energy According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of light, from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in a vacuum, c. However, when relativistic electrons—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to c—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than c, the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation. Lorentz factor as a function of velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes to infinity as v approaches c. The effects of special relativity are based on a quantity known as the Lorentz factor, defined as γ = 1/ where v is the speed of the particle. The kinetic energy Ke of an electron moving with velocity v is: where me is the mass of electron. For example, the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51 GeV. This gives a value of 100,000 for γ, since the mass of an electron is 0.51 MeV/c2. The relativistic momentum of this electron is 100,000 times the momentum that classical mechanics would predict for an electron at the same speed. Solving for the velocity of the electron, and using an approximation for large γ, gives: Since an electron behaves as a wave, at a given velocity it has a characteristic de Broglie wavelength. This is given by λe = h/p where h is Planck's constant and p is the momentum. For the 51 GeV electron above, the wavelength is about , small enough to explore structures well below the size of an atomic nucleus. Formation Pair production caused by the collision of a photon with an atomic nucleus The Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory to explain the early stages in the evolution of the Universe. For the first millisecond of the Big Bang, the temperatures were over 10 billion kelvins and photons had mean energies over a million electron volts. These photons were sufficiently energetic that they could react with each other to form pairs of electrons and positrons, where is a photon, is a positron and is an electron. Likewise, positron-electron pairs annihilated each other and emitted energetic photons. An equilibrium between electrons, positrons and protons was maintained during this phase of the evolution of the Universe. After 15 seconds had passed, however, the temperature of the universe dropped below the threshold where electron-positron formation could occur. Most of the surviving electrons and positrons annihilated each other, releasing gamma radiation that briefly reheated the universe. For reasons that remain uncertain, during the process of leptogenesis there was an excess in the number of electrons over positrons. Hence, about one electron in every billion survived the annihilation process. This excess matched the excess of protons over anti-protons, in a condition known as baryon asymmetry, resulting in a net charge of zero for the universe. The surviving protons and neutrons began to participate in reactions with each other—in the process known as nucleosynthesis, forming isotopes of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of lithium. This process peaked after about five minutes. Any leftover neutrons underwent negative beta decay with a half-life of about a thousand seconds, releasing a proton and electron in the process, where is a neutron, is a proton and is an electron antineutrino. For about the next 300,000–400,000 years, the excess electrons remained too energetic to bind with atomic nuclei. What followed is a period known as recombination, when neutral atoms were formed and the expanding universe became transparent to radiation. Roughly one million years after the big bang, the first generation of stars began to form. Within a star, stellar nucleosynthesis results in the production of positrons from the fusion of atomic nuclei. These antimatter particles immediately annihilate with electrons, releasing gamma rays. The net result is a steady reduction in the number of electrons, and a matching increase in the number of neutrons. However, the process of stellar evolution can result in the synthesis of radioactive isotopes. Selected isotopes can subsequently undergo negative beta decay, emitting an electron and antineutrino from the nucleus. An example is the cobalt-60 (60Co) isotope, which decays to form nickel-60 (60Ni). An extended air shower generated by an energetic cosmic ray striking the Earth's atmosphere At the end of their lifetime, a star with more than about 20 solar masses can undergo gravitational collapse to form a black hole. According to classical physics, these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything, even radiation, from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius. However, it is believed that quantum mechanical effects may allow Hawking radiation to be emitted at this distance. Electrons (and positrons) are thought to be created at the event horizon of these stellar remnants. When pairs of virtual particles (such as an electron and positron) are created in the vicinity of the event horizon, the random spacial distribution of these particles may permit one of them to appear on the exterior; this process is called quantum tunneling. The gravitational potential of the black hole can then supply the energy that transforms this virtual particle into a real particle, allowing it to radiate away into space. In exchange, the other member of the pair is given negative energy, which results in a net loss of mass-energy by the black hole. The rate of Hawking radiation increases with decreasing mass, eventually causing the black hole to evaporate away until, finally, it explodes. Cosmic rays are particles travelling through space with high energies. Energy events as high as have been recorded. When these particles collide with nucleons in the Earth's atmosphere, a shower of particles is generated, including pions. More than half of the cosmic radiation observed from the Earth's surface consists of muons. The particle called a muon is a lepton which is produced in the upper atmosphere by the decay of a pion. A muon, in turn, can decay to form an electron or positron. Thus, for the negatively charged pion , where is a muon and is a muon neutrino. Observation Aurorae are typically caused by energetic electrons precipitating into the atmosphere. Remote observation of electrons requires the detection of their radiated energy. For example, in high-energy environments such as the corona of a star, free electrons form a plasma that radiates energy due to Bremsstrahlung. Electron gas can undergo plasma oscillation, which is waves caused by synchronized variations in electron density, and these produce energy emissions that can be detected by the use of radio telescopes. The frequency of a photon is proportional to its energy. As a bound electron transitions between different energy levels of an atom, it will absorb or emit photons at characteristic frequencies called absorption and emission lines, respectively. For instance, when atoms are irradiated by a source with a broad spectrum, distinct absorption lines will appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation. Each element or molecule displays a characteristic set of spectral lines, such as the hydrogen spectral series. Spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of these lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined. In laboratory conditions, the interactions of individual electrons can be observed by means of particle detectors, which allow measurement of specific properties such as energy, spin and charge. The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations. This enables very precise measurements of the particle properties. For example, in one instance the Penning trap was used to contain a single electron for a period of 10 months. Measurements allowed the magnetic moment of the electron to be measured to a precision of eleven digits, which, in 1980, was a greater accuracy than for any other physical constant. The first video images of an electron's energy distribution were captured by a team at Lund University in Sweden, February 2008. To capture this phenomenon, the scientists used extremely short flashes of light, called attosecond pulses, which allowed the team at the university’s Faculty of Engineering to capture the electron's motion for the first time. The distribution of the electrons in solid materials can be visualized by angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES). This technique uses the photoelectric effect to measure the reciprocal space, a mathematical representation of periodic structures, used to infer the original structure. ARPES can be used to determine the direction, speed and scattering of electrons within the material. Plasma applications During a NASA wind tunnel test, a model of the Space Shuttle is targeted by a beam of electrons, simulating the effect of ionizing gases during re-entry. Particle beams Electron beams are used in welding and lithography. Electron beam processing is used to irradiate materials in order to change their material properties or sterilize medical and food products. In radiation therapy, electron beams are generated by linear accelerators for treatment of superficial tumors. Because an electron beam only penetrates to a limited depth before being absorbed, typically up to 5 cm for beams in the range 5–20 MeV, electron therapy is useful for treating skin lesions such as basal cell carcinomas. An electron beam can be used to supplement the treatment of areas that have been irradiated by X-rays. Particle accelerators use electric fields to propel electrons and their antiparticles to high energies. As these particles pass through magnetic fields, they emit synchrotron radiation. The intensity of this radiation is spin dependent, which causes polarization of the electron beam—a process known as the Sokolov-Ternov effect. The polarized electron beams can be useful for various experiments. Synchrotron radiation can also be used for cooling the electron beams, which reduces the momentum spread of the particles. Once the particles have accelerated to the required energies, separate electron and positron beams are brought into collision. The resulting energy emissions are observed with particle detectors and used to study particle physics. Imaging Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a method of bombarding a crystalline material with a collimated beam of electrons, then observing the resulting diffraction patterns to determine the structure of the material. The required energy of the electrons is typically in the range of 20–200–eV. The reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) technique uses the reflection of a beam of electrons fired at various low angles to characterize the surface of crystalline materials. The beam energy is typically in the range of 8–20 keV and the grazing angle is 1–4°. The electron microscope directs a focused beam of electrons at a specimen. As the beam interacts with the material, the electrons are scattered and lose energy. By recording the changes in the electron beam, investigators can produce an image of the material. In blue light, conventional optical microscopes have a diffraction-limited resolution of about 100 nm. By comparison, electron microscopes are limited by the de Broglie wavelength of the electron. This is equal to 0.0037 nm for electrons accelerated across a 100,000-volt potential. For example, the TEAM electron microscope is capable of 0.05 nm resolution: small enough to resolve individual atoms. This makes the electron microscope a useful laboratory instrument for high resolution imaging. However, electron microscopes are expensive instruments that are costly to maintain. The high vacuum required to operate an electron microscope also prevents them from being used to observe living organisms. There exist two main types of electron microscopes: transmission and scanning. Transmission electron microscopes function in a manner similar to optical microscopes, with a beam of electrons passing through a material. The magnifications range from 1,000× to 1,000,000× or better. Quantum effects of electrons are used in the scanning tunneling microscope to study features on solid surfaces with lateral resolution at the atomic scale of around 0.2 nm. Other In the free electron laser (FEL), a relativistic electron beam is passed through a pair of undulators containing arrays of dipole magnets, whose fields are oriented in alternating directions. The electrons emit synchrotron radiation, which, in turn, coherently interacts with the electrons. This leads to the strong amplification of the radiation field at the resonance frequency. FEL can emit a coherent high-brilliance electromagnetic radiation with a wide range of frequencies, from microwaves to soft X-rays. These devices can be used in the future for manufacturing, communication and various medical applications, such as soft tissue surgery. Electrons are at the heart of cathode ray tubes, which are used extensively as display devices in laboratory instruments, computer monitors and television sets. In a photomultiplier tube, one photon strikes the photocathode, initiating an avalanche of electrons that produces a detectable current. Vacuum tubes used the flow of electrons in a near vacuum to manipulate electrical signals, and they played a critical role in the development of electronics technology. However, vacuum tubes have been largely supplanted by solid-state devices such as the transistor. See also Covalent bonding Electron bubble Exoelectron emission G-factor One-electron universe Spintronics Stern–Gerlach experiment Notes References External links

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Hall_effect

Hall effect diagram, showing electron flow (rather than conventional current). Legend: 1. Electrons (not conventional current!) 2. Hall element, or Hall sensor 3. Magnets 4. Magnetic field 5. Power source DescriptionIn drawing "A", the Hall element takes on a negative charge at the top edge (symbolised by the blue color) and positive at the lower edge (red color). In "B" and "C", either the electric current or the magnetic field is reversed, causing the polarization to reverse. Reversing both current and magnetic field (drawing "D") causes the Hall element to again assume a negative charge at the upper edge. The Hall effect is the production of a potential difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a magnetic field perpendicular to the current. Edwin Hall discovered this effect in 1879. The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the current density and the applied magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made, as its value depends on the type, number and properties of the charge carriers that constitute the current. Theory The Hall effect comes about due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists of the movement of many small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, or both. Moving charges experience a force, called the Lorentz Force, when a magnetic field is present that is not parallel to their motion. When such a magnetic field is absent, the charges follow an approximately straight, 'line of sight' path. However, when a perpendicular magnetic field is applied, their path is curved so that moving charges accumulate on one face of the material. This leaves equal and opposite charges exposed on the other face, where there is a scarcity of mobile charges. The result is an asymmetric distribution of charge density across the Hall element that is perpendicular to both the 'line of sight' path and the applied magnetic field. The separation of charge establishes an electric field that opposes the migration of further charge, so a steady electrical potential builds up for as long as the charge is flowing. For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons) the Hall voltage VH is given by where I is the current across the plate length, B is the magnetic flux density, d is the depth of the plate, e is the electron charge, and n is the charge carrier density of the carrier electrons. The Hall coefficient is defined as where j is the current density of the carrier electrons. In SI units, this becomes As a result, the Hall effect is very useful as a means to measure either the carrier density or the magnetic field. One very important feature of the Hall effect is that it differentiates between positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite. The Hall effect offered the first real proof that electric currents in metals are carried by moving electrons, not by protons. The Hall effect also showed that in some substances (especially p-type semiconductors), it is more appropriate to think of the current as positive "holes" moving rather than negative electrons. A common source of confusion with the Hall Effect is that holes moving to the left are really electrons moving to the right, so one expects the same sign of the Hall coefficient for both electrons and holes. However, the actual electrons that correspond to the fictional "holes" have negative Effective mass, and thus are deflected in the opposite direction Lianxi Ma, Qingli Zhao, Chi Chen. 2009. Holes in Hall Effect. Lat. Am. J. Phys. Edu. Vol 3 No 1 It must be noted though that the sample inhomogeneity might result in spurious sign of the Hall effect, even in ideal van der Pauw configuration of electrodes. For example, positive Hall effect was observed in evidently n-type semiconductors. T. Ohgaki et al. "Positive Hall coefficients obtained from contact misplacement on evident n-type ZnO films and crystals" J. Mat. Res. 23(9) (2008) 2293 Hall effect in semiconductors When a current-carrying semiconductor is kept in a magnetic field, the charge carriers of the semiconductor experience a force in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field and current. At equilibrium, a voltage appears at the semiconductor edges. The simple formula for the Hall coefficient given above becomes more complex in semiconductors where the carriers are generally both electrons and holes which may be present in different concentrations and have different mobilities. For moderate magnetic fields the Hall coefficient is where is the electron concentration, the hole concentration, the electron mobility , the hole mobility and the absolute value of the electronic charge. For large applied fields the simpler expression analogous to that for a single carrier type holds. with Technological applications So-called "Hall effect sensors" are readily available from a number of different manufacturers, and may be used in various sensors such as rotating speed sensors, fluid flow sensors, current sensors, and pressure sensors. Other applications may be found in some electric airsoft guns and on the triggers of electropneumatic paintball guns, as well as current smart phones, and some global positioning systems. Quantum Hall effect For a two dimensional electron system which can be produced in a MOSFET. In the presence of large magnetic field strength and low temperature, one can observe the quantum Hall effect, which is the quantization of the Hall voltage. Spin Hall effect The Spin Hall effect consists in the spin accumulation on the lateral boundaries of a current-carrying sample. No magnetic field is needed. It was predicted by M.I. Dyakonov and V.I. Perel in 1971 and observed experimentally more than 30 years later, both in semiconductors and in metals, at cryogenic as well as at room temperatures. Quantum Spin Hall effect For HgTe two dimensional quantum wells with strong spin-orbit coupling, in zero magnetic field, at low temperature, the Quantum Spin Hall effect has been recently observed. Anomalous Hall Effect In ferromagnetic materials (and paramagnetic materials in a magnetic field), the Hall resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the Anomalous Hall Effect (or the Extraordinary Hall effect), which depends directly on the magnetization of the material, and is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this effect is not due to the contribution of the magnetization to the total magnetic field.) Although a well-recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the various materials. The anomalous Hall effect can be either an extrinsic (disorder-related) effect due to spin-dependent scattering of the charge carriers, or an intrinsic effect which can be described in terms of the Berry phase effect in the crystal momentum space (k-space) . Hall effect in ionized gases (See Electrothermal instability) The Hall effect in an ionized gas (plasma) is significantly different from the Hall effect in solids (where the Hall parameter is always very inferior to unity). In a plasma, the Hall parameter can take any value. The Hall parameter β in a plasma is the ratio between the electron gyrofrequency Ωe and the electron-heavy particle collision frequency ν: where e is the electron charge (1.6 × 10-19 coulomb) B is the magnetic field (in teslas) me is the electron mass (0.9 × 10-30 kg). The Hall parameter value increases with the magnetic field strength. Physically, the trajectories of electrons are curved by the Lorentz force. Nevertheless when the Hall parameter is low, their motion between two encounters with heavy particles (neutral or ion) is almost linear. But if the Hall parameter is high, the electron movements are highly curved. The current density vector J is no more colinear with the electric field vector E. The two vectors J and E make the Hall angle θ which also gives the Hall parameter: Applications Hall effect devices produce a very low signal level and thus require amplification. While suitable for laboratory instruments, the vacuum tube amplifiers available in the first half of the 20th century were too expensive, power consuming, and unreliable for everyday applications. It was only with the development of the low cost integrated circuit that the Hall effect sensor became suitable for mass application. Many devices now sold as "Hall effect sensors" are in fact a device containing both the sensor described above and a high gain integrated circuit (IC) amplifier in a single package. Recent advances have resulted in the addition of ADC (Analog to Digital) converters and I²C (Inter-integrated circuit communication protocol) IC for direct connection to a microcontroller's I/O port being integrated into a single package, see Advanced Hall Effect Current Transducer. Reed switch electrical motors using the hall effect IC is another application. Hall probes are often used to measure magnetic fields, or inspect materials (such as tubing or pipelines) using the principles of Magnetic flux leakage. Advantages over other methods Hall effect devices when appropriately packaged are immune to dust, dirt, mud, and water. These characteristics make Hall effect devices better for position sensing than alternative means such as optical and electromechanical sensing. Hall effect current sensor with internal integrated circuit amplifier. 8 mm opening. Zero current output voltage is midway between the supply voltages that maintain a 4 to 8 volt differential. Non-zero current response is proportional to the voltage supplied and is linear to 60 amperes for this particular (25 A) device. When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced. Thus, it is possible to create a non-contacting current sensor. The device has three terminals. A sensor voltage is applied across two terminals and the third provides a voltage proportional to the current being sensed. This has several advantages; no additional resistance (a shunt, required for the most common current sensing method) need be inserted in the primary circuit. Also, the voltage present on the line to be sensed is not transmitted to the sensor, which enhances the safety of measuring equipment. Ferrite toroid Hall effect current transducer Hall sensors can detect stray magnetic fields easily, including that of Earth, so they work well as electronic compasses: but this also means that such stray fields can hinder accurate measurements of small magnetic fields. To solve this problem, Hall sensors are often integrated with magnetic shielding of some kind. For example, a Hall sensor integrated into a ferrite ring (as shown) can reduce stray fields by a factor of 100 or better. This configuration also provides an improvement in signal-to-noise ratio and drift effects of over 20 times that of a 'bare' Hall device. The range of a given feedthrough sensor may be extended upward and downward by appropriate wiring. To extend the range to lower currents, multiple turns of the current-carrying wire may be made through the opening. To extend the range to higher currents, a current divider may be used. The divider splits the current across two wires of differing widths and the thinner wire, carrying a smaller proportion of the total current, passes through the sensor. The principle of increasing the number of 'turns' a conductor takes around the ferrite core is well understood, each turn having the effect of 'amplifying' the current under measurement. Often these additional turns are carried out by a staple on the PCB. Split ring clamp-on sensor A variation on the ring sensor uses a split sensor which is clamped onto the line enabling the device to be used in temporary test equipment. If used in a permanent installation, a split sensor allows the electrical current to be tested without dismantling the existing circuit. Analog multiplication The output is proportional to both the applied magnetic field and the applied sensor voltage. If the magnetic field is applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is proportional to product of the current through the solenoid and the sensor voltage. As most applications requiring computation are now performed by small (even tiny) digital computers, the remaining useful application is in power sensing, which combines current sensing with voltage sensing in a single Hall effect device. Current sensing By sensing the current provided to a load and using the device's applied voltage as a sensor voltage it is possible to determine the power dissipated by a device. Position and motion sensing Hall effect devices used in motion sensing and motion limit switches can offer enhanced reliability in extreme environments. As there are no moving parts involved within the sensor or magnet, typical life expectancy is improved compared to traditional electromechanical switches. Additionally, the sensor and magnet may be encapsulated in an appropriate protective material. Automotive ignition and fuel injection Commonly used in distributors for ignition timing (and in some types of crank and camshaft position sensors for injection pulse timing, speed sensing, etc.) the Hall effect sensor is used as a direct replacement for the mechanical breaker points used in earlier automotive applications. Its use as an ignition timing device in various distributor types is as follows. A stationary permanent magnet and semiconductor Hall effect chip are mounted next to each other separated by an air gap, forming the Hall effect sensor. A metal rotor consisting of windows and tabs is mounted to a shaft and arranged so that during shaft rotation, the windows and tabs pass through the air gap between the permanent magnet and semiconductor Hall chip. This effectively shields and exposes the Hall chip to the permanent magnet's field respective to whether a tab or window is passing though the Hall sensor. For ignition timing purposes, the metal rotor will have a number of equal-sized tabs and windows matching the number of engine cylinders. This produces a uniform square wave output since the on/off (shielding and exposure) time is equal. This signal is used by the engine computer or ECU to control ignition timing. It is worth noting that many automotive Hall effect sensors have a built-in internal NPN transistor with an open collector and grounded emitter, meaning that rather than a voltage being produced at the Hall sensor signal output wire, the transistor is turned on providing a circuit to ground though the signal output wire. Wheel rotation sensing The sensing of wheel rotation is especially useful in anti-lock brake systems. The principles of such systems have been extended and refined to offer more than anti-skid functions, now providing extended vehicle handling enhancements. Electric motor control Some types of brushless DC electric motors use Hall effect sensors to detect the position of the rotor and feed that information to the motor controller. Industrial applications Applications for Hall Effect sensing have also expanded to industrial applications, which now use Hall Effect Joysticks to control hydraulic valves, replacing the traditional mechanical levers. Such applications include; Mining Trucks, Backhoe Loaders, Cranes, Diggers, Scissor Lifts, etc. Spacecraft propulsion A Hall effect thruster (HET) is a relatively low power device that is used to propel some spacecraft, once they get into orbit or farther out into space. In the HET, atoms are ionized and accelerated by an electric field. A magnetic field is used to trap the ionized electrons. After the positive ions are accelerated by the electric field, trapped electrons are recaptured by the positive ions and result in fast neutral atoms exiting the HET and providing thrust. Neutralizing the ions eliminates the electrostatic attraction that positively charged ions would have had for the electrons that they left behind. Thus the neutral atoms propelled out the rear won't exert an attractive electrostatic force on the spacecraft, which would have partly cancelled the forward propulsion. The Corbino effect The Corbino effect is a phenomenon similar to the Hall effect, but a disc-shaped metal sample is used in place of a rectangular one. A radial current through a circular disc subjected to a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the disc, produces a "circular" current through the disc. See also Capacitor Eddy currents Elementary charge Eric Fawcett Hall effect sensor Hall effect thruster Hall probe Nernst effect Nernst-Ettinghausen effect Quantum Hall effect Spin Hall effect Thermal Hall effect Transducer Van der Pauw method References External links Patents , P. H. Craig, System and apparatus employing the Hall effect General Interactive Java tutorial on the Hall Effect National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Science World (wolfram.com) article. "The Hall Effect". nist.gov. Hall, Edwin, "On a New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents". American Journal of Mathematics vol 2 1879. Spin Hall Effect Detected at Room Temperature Hall Effect Sensing and Application. Honeywell documentation on hall effect sensing, interfacing and applications.

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concentration:3 mobility:3 moderate:1 absolute:1 electronic:2 large:3 simpler:1 expression:1 analogous:1 single:4 hold:1 technological:1 application:15 readily:1 available:2 manufacturer:1 use:20 various:3 rotate:1 speed:2 fluid:1 pressure:1 find:1 airsoft:1 gun:2 trigger:1 electropneumatic:1 paintball:1 well:7 smart:1 phone:1 global:1 positioning:1 system:5 quantum:6 two:6 dimensional:2 produce:6 mosfet:1 presence:1 strength:2 temperature:4 quantization:1 spin:9 accumulation:1 lateral:1 boundary:1 need:2 predict:1 dyakonov:1 v:1 perel:1 experimentally:1 year:1 later:1 cryogenic:1 room:2 hgte:1 strong:1 orbit:2 coupling:1 zero:3 recently:1 anomalous:3 ferromagnetic:1 paramagnetic:1 resistivity:1 include:3 additional:3 contribution:2 know:1 extraordinary:1 directly:1 magnetization:2 often:4 much:1 ordinary:1 total:2 although:1 recognize:1 phenomenon:2 still:1 debate:1 origin:1 extrinsic:1 disorder:1 relate:1 dependent:1 scattering:1 intrinsic:1 describe:2 term:1 berry:1 phase:1 momentum:1 space:3 k:1 ionized:3 gas:2 see:3 electrothermal:1 instability:1 plasma:3 significantly:1 solid:1 parameter:7 always:1 inferior:1 unity:1 β:1 gyrofrequency:1 ωe:1 heavy:2 particle:2 collision:1 frequency:1 ν:1 coulomb:1 tesla:1 kg:1 increase:2 physically:1 trajectory:1 nevertheless:1 encounter:1 neutral:3 ion:5 almost:1 linear:2 high:4 highly:1 vector:3 colinear:1 angle:1 θ:1 device:15 signal:5 level:1 require:3 amplification:1 suitable:2 laboratory:2 instrument:1 vacuum:1 tube:2 amplifier:3 half:1 century:1 expensive:1 consuming:1 unreliable:1 everyday:1 development:1 cost:1 integrate:6 circuit:7 sell:1 fact:1 contain:1 gain:1 ic:3 package:3 recent:1 advance:1 addition:1 adc:1 analog:2 digital:2 converter:1 inter:1 communication:1 protocol:1 direct:2 connection:1 microcontroller:1 port:1 advanced:1 transducer:3 reed:1 switch:3 motor:4 another:1 probe:2 inspect:1 pipeline:1 principle:3 leakage:1 advantage:2 method:3 appropriately:1 immune:1 dust:1 dirt:1 mud:1 water:1 position:4 sense:10 alternative:1 optical:1 electromechanical:2 sensing:8 internal:2 integrated:1 mm:1 opening:2 output:6 midway:1 supply:2 voltages:1 maintain:1 volt:1 differential:1 non:2 response:1 proportional:4 ampere:1 particular:1 possible:2 create:1 three:1 terminal:2 third:1 provide:6 several:1 resistance:1 shunt:1 insert:1 primary:1 transmit:1 enhance:1 safety:1 equipment:2 ferrite:3 toroid:1 detect:3 stray:3 easily:1 earth:1 work:1 compass:1 hinder:1 accurate:1 measurement:2 solve:1 problem:1 shielding:1 kind:1 ring:3 reduce:1 factor:1 good:1 improvement:1 noise:1 drift:1 time:2 bare:1 range:3 feedthrough:1 extend:5 upward:1 downward:1 wiring:1 multiple:1 turn:5 wire:5 divider:2 split:4 differ:1 width:1 thinner:1 proportion:1 pass:2 around:1 core:1 understood:1 amplify:1 staple:1 pcb:1 clamp:2 variation:1 onto:1 enable:1 temporary:1 test:2 permanent:4 installation:1 allow:1 without:1 dismantle:1 exist:1 multiplication:1 solenoid:2 computation:1 perform:1 tiny:1 computer:2 remain:1 combine:1 load:1 determine:1 dissipate:1 limit:1 enhanced:1 reliability:1 extreme:1 environment:1 part:1 involve:1 within:1 typical:1 life:1 expectancy:1 improve:1 compare:1 traditional:2 additionally:1 encapsulate:1 protective:1 automotive:3 ignition:5 fuel:1 injection:2 commonly:1 distributor:2 timing:5 crank:1 camshaft:1 pulse:1 etc:2 replacement:1 mechanical:2 breaker:1 point:1 earlier:1 stationary:1 chip:3 mount:2 next:1 separate:1 air:2 gap:2 form:1 rotor:3 consisting:1 window:4 tab:3 shaft:2 arrange:1 rotation:3 tabs:1 pas:1 effectively:1 shield:2 respective:1 whether:1 purpose:1 size:1 match:1 engine:2 cylinder:1 uniform:1 square:1 wave:1 since:1 exposure:1 ecu:1 control:3 worth:1 npn:1 transistor:2 open:1 collector:1 ground:2 emitter:1 wheel:2 anti:2 lock:1 brake:1 refine:1 skid:1 function:1 vehicle:1 handle:1 enhancement:1 brushless:1 dc:1 feed:1 information:1 controller:1 industrial:2 expand:1 joystick:1 hydraulic:1 valve:1 replace:1 lever:1 mine:1 truck:1 backhoe:1 loader:1 crane:1 digger:1 scissor:1 lift:1 spacecraft:3 propulsion:2 thruster:2 het:3 relatively:1 propel:2 get:1 farther:1 atom:3 ionize:1 accelerate:2 trap:2 recapture:1 fast:1 exit:1 thrust:1 neutralize:1 eliminate:1 electrostatic:2 attraction:1 positively:1 would:2 behind:1 rear:1 win:1 exert:1 attractive:1 partly:1 cancel:1 forward:1 corbino:2 similar:1 disc:4 shape:1 place:1 rectangular:1 radial:1 circular:2 subject:1 plane:1 capacitor:1 eddy:1 elementary:1 eric:1 fawcett:1 nernst:2 ettinghausen:1 thermal:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 patent:1 h:1 craig:1 apparatus:1 employ:1 general:1 interactive:1 java:1 tutorial:1 national:1 science:1 world:1 wolfram:1 com:1 article:1 nist:1 gov:1 new:1 action:1 american:1 journal:1 mathematics:1 honeywell:1 documentation:1 interfacing:1 |@bigram magnetic_field:29 magnetic_flux:2 van_der:2 et_al:1 global_positioning:1 ferromagnetic_material:1 ionized_gas:2 frequency_ν:1 angle_θ:1 vacuum_tube:1 integrate_circuit:3 digital_converter:1 integrated_circuit:1 upward_downward:1 life_expectancy:1 ignition_timing:4 permanent_magnet:3 lock_brake:1 spacecraft_propulsion:1 electrostatic_attraction:1 positively_charge:1 perpendicular_plane:1 external_link:1 nist_gov:1

Communications_in_Guam

Though Guam is part of the United States, some U.S. long distance plans and courier services list Guam as an international location. As a result of Guam being added to the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) in 1997, calls made to the U.S., Canada, or other participating countries from Guam only require the caller to dial a 1 followed by the area code. In this way, only domestic charges are incurred. Before Guam's inclusion, calling the U.S. required dialing the international 011 first, thus resulting in higher long distance rates and less frequent calls to the U.S. by relatives in Guam. Because of Guam's inclusion in NANP, prices of long distance calls to these destinations has dropped significantly to the point where now calling the U.S. from Guam or calling Guam from the U.S. costs the same. Some companies in the U.S. mainland still treat Guam as a foreign country and refuse to sell and ship items to Guam. However, if an item is shipped via USPS, shipping costs to Guam are the same as shipping costs to any of the states. Many others will ship to Guam but will charge the shipping as an international destination. This is mainly because the company is using a private shipping company like UPS, FedEx, or DHL for its shipping. According to the local (Guam) offices of UPS, FedEx, and DHL, Guam isn't regarded as international, so there isn't supposed to be an international charge, but in many cases, there still is. This results in a higher cost for the product compared to the states. Much of the mail to and from Guam routes through Hawaii and awaits cargo space on Continental Airlines which is contracted to deliver mail between Hawaii and Guam. Continental Airlines has slightly improved their service between Hawaii and Guam by buying newer airplanes and finally replacing their aging fleet in recent years. Telephones - main lines in use: 85,000 (2007) Telephones - mobile cellular: 98,000 (2007) Telephone system: domestic: GTA: ~70,000 local access lines,dial-up and DSL, Internet, long distance service, TDMA and GSM wireless services international: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean); submarine cables to United States and Japan international access code: +1.671 (in the North American Numbering Plan, Area code 671) Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 7, shortwave 2 (2005) Radios: 300,000 (2007) Television broadcast stations: 8 (2007) Televisions: 200,000 (2007) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): ? (2007) Country code (Top-level domain): GU See also : Guam

Communications_in_Guam |@lemmatized though:1 guam:19 part:1 united:2 state:4 u:7 long:4 distance:4 plan:3 courier:1 service:5 list:1 international:7 location:1 result:3 add:1 north:2 american:2 numbering:2 nanp:2 call:6 make:1 canada:1 participate:1 country:3 require:2 caller:1 dial:3 follow:1 area:2 code:4 way:1 domestic:2 charge:3 incur:1 inclusion:2 first:1 thus:1 high:2 rate:1 less:1 frequent:1 relative:1 price:1 destination:2 drop:1 significantly:1 point:1 cost:4 company:3 mainland:1 still:2 treat:1 foreign:1 refuse:1 sell:1 ship:3 item:2 however:1 via:1 usps:1 shipping:5 many:2 others:1 mainly:1 use:2 private:1 like:1 ups:2 fedex:2 dhl:2 accord:1 local:2 office:1 regard:1 suppose:1 case:1 product:1 compare:1 much:1 mail:2 route:1 hawaii:3 awaits:1 cargo:1 space:1 continental:2 airline:2 contract:1 deliver:1 slightly:1 improve:1 buy:1 new:1 airplane:1 finally:1 replace:1 age:1 fleet:1 recent:1 year:1 telephone:3 main:1 line:2 mobile:1 cellular:1 system:1 gta:1 access:2 dsl:1 internet:2 tdma:1 gsm:1 wireless:1 satellite:1 earth:1 station:3 intelsat:1 pacific:1 ocean:1 submarine:1 cable:1 japan:1 radio:2 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:2 provider:1 isps:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 gu:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram guam_guam:1 mobile_cellular:1 station_intelsat:1 pacific_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isps:1

Transport_in_Japan

300 (Left) and 700 Series Shinkansen trains at Tokyo Station. Transportation in Japan is modern and infrastructure spending has been large. Japan's road spending has been large. Japan's Road to Deep Deficit Is Paved With Public Works, New York Times in 1997 . The 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of transportation. Chapter 9 Transport, Statistical Handbook of Japan Japan has left-hand traffic. A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and are operated by toll-collecting enterprises. Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; for instance, 7 JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway, and Keio Corporation. Often, strategies of these enterprises contain real estate or department stores next to stations. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities. All trains are known for punctuality. There are 173 airports, and the largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's busiest airport. The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and Chūbu Centrair International Airport (Nagoya area). The largest ports include Nagoya Port. Rail transportation Yamanote Line, Tokyo Streetcar in Kumamoto In Japan, railways are a major means of passenger transportation, especially for mass and high-speed transport between major cities and for commuter transport in metropolitan areas. Seven Japan Railways Group companies, once state-owned until 1987, cover most parts of Japan. There also are railway services operated by private rail companies, regional governments, and companies funded by both regional governments and private companies. Japanese trains are also famous for always being on time. Five stations (Shinjuku Station, Ikebukuro Station, Shibuya Station, Umeda Station, and Yokohama Station) serve more than 2 million passengers each on an average day, making Japan the most railway using nation per capita (see Rail usage statistics by country). Total railways of 23,670.7 km include entirely electrified 2,893.1 km of 1,435 mm standard gauge and 89.8 km of 1,372 mm narrow gauge, all of which is electrified. About the half of 20,656.8 km 1,067 mm gauge and 40 km of 762 mm gauge track are electrified. Fukuoka, Kobe, Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka, Sapporo, Sendai, Tokyo and Yokohama have subway systems. Most Japanese people traveled on foot until the latter part of the 19th century. The first railway was built between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872 and many more developed. Japan now has one of the worlds most developed transportation networks. Mass transportation is well developed in Japan, but the road system lags behind and is inadequate for the number of cars. Road construction is difficult because of the high areas of population and the limited amount of usable land. Shinkansen are the high speed trains in Japan and they are known as bullet trains. About 250 Shinkansen trains operate daily. The fastest shinkansen trains are the N700 series and 500 series Nozomi, which operate at a maximum speed of 300 km/h. Shinkansen trains are known to be very punctual. A train is recorded as late if it does not arrive at the specified time. In 2003, the average delay per train on the Tokaido Shinkansen was 6 seconds. The Japan Times: "Tokaido Shinkansen Line fetes 40 years" (2 October 2004). Retrieved on 27 April 2009. Road transportation The Chuo Expressway has beautiful views of Mount Fuji. Japan has 1,152,207 km of highways with 863,003 km (including 6,114 km of expressways) paved and 289,204 km of unpaved ways (1997 est.). A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities on Honshū, Shikoku and Kyūshū. Hokkaidō has a separate network, and Okinawa Island has a highway of this type. In the year 2005, the toll collecting companies, formerly Japan Highway Public Corporation, have been transformed into private companies in public ownership, and there are plans to sell parts of them. The aim of this policy is to encourage competition and decrease tolls. Road passenger and freight transport expanded considerably during the 1980s as private ownership of motor vehicles greatly increased along with the quality and extent of the nation's roads. Bus companies including the JR Bus companies operates long-distance bus service on the nation's expanding expressway network. In addition to relatively low fares and deluxe seating, the buses are well utilized because they continue service during the night, when air and train service is limited. The cargo sector grew rapidly in the 1980s, recording 274.2 billion tonne-kilometres in 1990. The freight handled by motor vehicles, mainly trucks, in 1990, was over 6 billion tonnes, accounting for 90 percent of domestic freight tonnage and about 50 percent of tonne-kilometres. Recent large infrastructure projects were the construction of the Great Seto Bridge and the Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line (opened 1997). Although road fatalities have been decreasing due in part to stricter enforcement of drink driving laws, 2004 still saw 7,358 deaths on Japanese roads. http://www.driveandstayalive.com Air transport Kansai Airport, Osaka Japan has many airports. The main international gateways are Narita International Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and Chūbu Centrair International Airport (Nagoya area). The main domestic hub is Tokyo International Airport (Haneda Airport), Asia's busiest airport; other major traffic hubs include Osaka International Airport (Itami Airport), New Chitose Airport outside Sapporo, and Fukuoka Airport. 14 heliports are estimated to exist (1999). The two main airlines are All Nippon Airways and Japan Airlines. Other passenger carriers include Skymark Airlines, Skynet Asia Airways, Air Do and Star Flyer. United Airlines and Northwest Airlines are major international operators from Narita Airport. Domestic air travel in Japan has historically been highly regulated. From 1972, the three major domestic airlines (JAL, ANA, and JAS) were allocated certain routes, with JAL and ANA sharing trunk routes, and ANA and JAS sharing local feeder routes. JAL also had a flag-carrier monopoly on international routes until 1986. Airfares were set by the government until 2000, although carriers had freedom to adjust the standard fares starting in 1995 (when discounts of up to 50% were permitted). Today, fares can be set by carriers, but the government retains the ability to veto fares that are impermissibly high. Marine transport Ferry Miyajima on the Inland Sea near Miyajima, Hiroshima There are 1770 km of Waterways in Japan; seagoing craft ply all coastal inland seas. The twenty-two major seaports designated as special important ports by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport include Chiba, Fushiki/Toyama, Himeji, Hiroshima, Kawasaki, Kitakyūshū, Kobe, Kudamatsu, Muroran, Nagoya, Niigata, Osaka, Sakai/Senpoku, Sendai/Shiogama, Shimizu, Shimonoseki, Tokyo, Tomakomai, Wakayama, Yokkaichi, and Yokohama. Japan has 662 ships of with a volume of or over, totaling or . There are 146 bulk ships, 49 cargo ships, 13 chemical tankers, 16 combination bulk, 4 with combination of ore and oil, 25 container, 45 liquefied gas, 9 passenger, 2 passenger and cargo combination ships, 214 petroleum tankers, 22 refrigerated cargo, 48 roll-on/roll-off ships, 9 short-sea passenger, and 60 vehicle carriers (1999 est.). Ferries connect Hokkaidō to Honshū, and Okinawa Island to Kyūshū and Honshū. They also connect other smaller islands and the main islands. The scheduled international passenger routes are to China, Russia, South Korea and Taiwan. Coastal and cross-channel ferries on the main islands decreased in routes and frequencies following the development of bridges and expressways but some are still operating (as of 2007.) Pipelines Japan has 84 km of pipelines for crude oil, 322 km for petroleum products, and 1,800 km for natural gas. References External links Hyperdia - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese Jorudan - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese Toei Transportation Information - English information on Toei bus, subway, and trolley services and multilingual maps Domestic aviation in Japan: Responding to market forces amid regulatory constraints Japan Automobile Research Institute (JARI)

Transport_in_Japan |@lemmatized leave:2 series:3 shinkansen:8 train:12 tokyo:9 station:8 transportation:9 japan:23 modern:1 infrastructure:3 spending:2 large:6 road:10 deep:1 deficit:1 pave:2 public:3 work:1 new:2 york:1 time:4 million:2 kilometer:1 paved:1 main:6 mean:2 chapter:1 transport:7 statistical:1 handbook:1 hand:1 traffic:2 single:2 network:5 high:7 speed:6 divide:2 limited:3 access:2 toll:5 roads:2 connects:2 major:9 city:4 operate:6 collecting:1 enterprise:3 dozen:1 japanese:6 railway:8 company:9 compete:1 regional:3 local:2 passenger:9 market:2 instance:1 jr:2 kintetsu:1 corporation:3 seibu:1 keio:1 often:1 strategy:1 contain:1 real:1 estate:1 department:1 store:1 next:1 connect:3 know:3 punctuality:1 airport:20 domestic:6 haneda:2 asia:3 busy:2 international:13 gateway:2 narita:3 area:8 kansai:3 osaka:6 kobe:4 kyoto:3 chūbu:2 centrair:2 nagoya:5 port:3 include:7 rail:3 yamanote:1 line:3 streetcar:1 kumamoto:1 especially:1 mass:2 commuter:1 metropolitan:1 seven:1 group:1 state:1 cover:1 part:4 also:4 service:5 private:4 government:4 fund:1 famous:1 always:1 five:1 shinjuku:1 ikebukuro:1 shibuya:1 umeda:1 yokohama:4 serve:1 average:2 day:1 make:1 use:1 nation:3 per:2 caput:1 see:1 usage:1 statistic:1 country:1 total:2 km:14 entirely:1 electrified:1 mm:4 standard:2 gauge:4 narrow:1 electrify:2 half:1 track:1 fukuoka:2 sapporo:2 sendai:2 subway:2 system:2 people:1 travel:4 foot:1 latter:1 century:1 first:1 build:1 many:2 developed:2 one:1 world:1 well:2 develop:1 lag:1 behind:1 inadequate:1 number:1 car:1 construction:2 difficult:1 population:1 amount:1 usable:1 land:2 bullet:1 daily:1 fast:1 nozomi:1 maximum:1 h:1 punctual:1 record:2 late:1 arrive:1 specified:1 delay:1 tokaido:2 second:1 fete:1 year:2 october:1 retrieve:1 april:1 chuo:1 expressway:4 beautiful:1 view:1 mount:1 fuji:1 highway:3 unpaved:1 way:1 est:2 honshū:3 shikoku:1 kyūshū:2 hokkaidō:2 separate:1 okinawa:2 island:5 type:1 collect:1 formerly:1 transform:1 ownership:2 plan:3 sell:1 aim:1 policy:1 encourage:1 competition:1 decrease:3 freight:3 expand:2 considerably:1 motor:2 vehicle:3 greatly:1 increase:1 along:1 quality:1 extent:1 bus:5 long:1 distance:1 addition:1 relatively:1 low:1 fare:4 deluxe:1 seating:1 utilized:1 continue:1 night:1 air:4 limit:1 cargo:4 sector:1 grow:1 rapidly:1 billion:2 tonne:3 kilometre:2 handle:1 mainly:1 truck:1 account:1 percent:2 tonnage:1 recent:1 project:1 great:1 seto:1 bridge:2 bay:1 aqua:1 opened:1 although:2 fatality:1 due:1 stricter:1 enforcement:1 drink:1 drive:1 law:1 still:2 saw:1 death:1 http:1 www:1 driveandstayalive:1 com:1 hub:2 itami:1 chitose:1 outside:1 heliport:1 estimate:1 exist:1 two:2 airline:6 nippon:1 airway:2 carrier:5 skymark:1 skynet:1 star:1 flyer:1 united:1 northwest:1 operator:1 historically:1 highly:1 regulate:1 three:1 jal:3 ana:3 jas:2 allocate:1 certain:1 route:6 share:2 trunk:1 feeder:1 flag:1 monopoly:1 airfare:1 set:2 freedom:1 adjust:1 start:1 discount:1 permit:1 today:1 retain:1 ability:1 veto:1 impermissibly:1 marine:1 ferry:3 miyajima:2 inland:2 sea:3 near:1 hiroshima:2 waterway:1 seagoing:1 craft:1 ply:1 coastal:2 twenty:1 seaport:1 designate:1 special:1 important:1 ministry:1 chiba:1 fushiki:1 toyama:1 himeji:1 kawasaki:1 kitakyūshū:1 kudamatsu:1 muroran:1 niigata:1 sakai:1 senpoku:1 shiogama:1 shimizu:1 shimonoseki:1 tomakomai:1 wakayama:1 yokkaichi:1 ship:5 volume:1 bulk:2 chemical:1 tanker:2 combination:3 ore:1 oil:2 container:1 liquefy:1 gas:2 petroleum:2 refrigerate:1 roll:2 short:1 small:1 scheduled:1 china:1 russia:1 south:1 korea:1 taiwan:1 cross:1 channel:1 frequency:1 follow:1 development:1 pipeline:2 crude:1 product:1 natural:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 hyperdia:1 tool:2 support:2 english:3 jorudan:1 toei:2 information:2 trolley:1 multilingual:1 map:1 aviation:1 respond:1 force:1 amid:1 regulatory:1 constraint:1 automobile:1 research:1 institute:1 jari:1 |@bigram shinkansen_train:5 kilometer_paved:1 paved_road:1 toll_roads:2 real_estate:1 busy_airport:2 osaka_kobe:2 kobe_kyoto:3 per_caput:1 narrow_gauge:1 gauge_electrify:1 lag_behind:1 mount_fuji:1 km_unpaved:1 shikoku_kyūshū:1 toll_road:1 passenger_freight:1 http_www:1 airport_heliport:1 yokohama_japan:1 liquefy_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 tanker_refrigerate:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 pipeline_crude:1 crude_oil:1 external_link:1

American_League_Championship_Series

In Major League Baseball, the American League Championship Series (ALCS), played in October, is a playoff round that determines the winner of the American League pennant. The winner of the series advances to play the winner of the National League Championship Series in baseball's championship, the World Series. The reigning American League Champions are the Tampa Bay Rays. It began in 1969, when the American League was reorganized into two divisions, East and West. The winners of each division played each other in a best-of-five series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven. In 1994, the league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and a wild-card team advancing to a best-of-five playoff round, known as the American League Division Series or ALDS. The winners of that round then advanced to the best-of-seven ALCS. This is the system currently in use. The ALCS and NLCS, since the expansion to best-of-seven, are always played in a 2-3-2 format: Games 1, 2, 6, and 7 are played in the stadium of the team that has home field advantage, and Games 3, 4, and 5 are played in the stadium of the team that does not. The series concludes when one team records its fourth win. Home field advantage is given to the team that has the better record, unless that team happens to be the Wild Card team. In that case, the other team gets home field advantage, because by rule the Wild Card team is never allowed home field advantage in a Division Series or LCS. In the event that both teams have identical records in the regular season, home field advantage goes to the team that has the winning head-to-head record. The Texas Rangers are the only American League team to never appear in an ALCS. The other 13 teams and the Milwaukee Brewers (members of the AL from 1969-1997) have each appeared at least once. The Lee MacPhail Most Valuable Player (MVP) award is given to the outstanding player in the ALCS. No MVP award is given for Division Series play. The William Harridge Trophy is awarded to the ALCS winner. For American League pennant winners prior to 1969, see American League pennant winners 1901-68. ALCS results (1969-present) Click the link on the far left for detailed information on that series. Year Winner Loser Record Series MVP Notable Television Network 1969 Baltimore Orioles Minnesota Twins 3-0   Dick Hall becomes the first pitcher to record a win in League Championship Series play NBC 1970 Baltimore Orioles Minnesota Twins 3-0   NBC 1971 Baltimore Orioles Oakland Athletics 3-0   NBC 1972 Oakland Athletics Detroit Tigers 3-2   NBC 1973 Oakland Athletics Baltimore Orioles 3-2   NBC 1974 Oakland Athletics Baltimore Orioles 3-1   NBC 1975 Boston Red Sox Oakland Athletics 3-0   NBC 1976 New York Yankees Kansas City Royals 3-2   Chris Chambliss hits the series-ending home run in Game 5. ABC 1977 New York Yankees Kansas City Royals 3-2   The visiting Yankees score three runs in the top of the ninth inning of Game 5 on their way to the second of three straight World Series appearances. NBC 1978 New York Yankees Kansas City Royals 3-1   George Brett sets an ALCS single-game record with three home runs in Game 4 and sets the full series record with two triples (a mark since equaled by Kenny Lofton) ABC 1979 Baltimore Orioles California Angels 3-1   NBC 1980 Kansas City Royals New York Yankees 3-0 Frank White, Kansas City The Royals sweep the Yankees to become the first AL expansion team to win a pennant. ABC 1981 New York Yankees Oakland Athletics 3-0 Graig Nettles, New York Professional cheerleader Krazy George Henderson debuts "the wave" during Game 3 in Oakland. NBC 1982 Milwaukee Brewers California Angels 3-2 Fred Lynn, California First LCS ever to match two expansion teams. The city of Milwaukee's first pennant since 1958 (that one being won by the Braves). ABC 1983 Baltimore Orioles Chicago White Sox 3-1 Mike Boddicker, Baltimore The White Sox' first playoff appearance since 1959 is stopped cold by the eventual World Series champions. NBC 1984 Detroit Tigers Kansas City Royals 3-0 Kirk Gibson, DetroitPaced by Gibson's hitting, the Tigers sweep the Royals en route to a World Championship. ABC 1985 Kansas City Royals Toronto Blue Jays 4-3 George Brett, Kansas City The first best-of-seven ALCS. Down 3 games to 1, Kansas City comes back, including two road wins. Jim Sundberg breaks Game 7 wide open with a 3-RBI triple. NBC 1986 Boston Red Sox California Angels 4-3 Marty Barrett, Boston Angels are one out (one strike) from the pennant in Game 5 when Dave Henderson hits a go-ahead home run against Donnie Moore. The Angels tie the game but the Red Sox win in extra innings, then take the next two at home. ABC 1987 Minnesota Twins Detroit Tigers 4-1 Gary Gaetti, Minnesota The Twins advanced to their first World Series since 1965 despite having the weakest record of any of the 4 division champions in 1987. NBC 1988 Oakland Athletics Boston Red Sox 4-0 Dennis Eckersley, Oakland Eckersley sets an unbreakable record with 4 saves in the series. ABC 1989 Oakland Athletics Toronto Blue Jays 4-1 Rickey Henderson, Oakland Henderson's 8 steals (in just 5 games) are an ALCS record, but the big story is the mammoth home run José Canseco blasts into the highest deck of the SkyDome. NBC 1990 Oakland Athletics Boston Red Sox 4-0 Dave Stewart, Oakland Roger Clemens gets ejected in Game 4, putting the nail in Boston's coffin. CBS 1991 Minnesota Twins Toronto Blue Jays 4-1 Kirby Puckett, Minnesota CBS 1992 Toronto Blue Jays Oakland Athletics 4-2 Roberto Alomar, Toronto MVP Alomar hits a crucial 9th-inning home run off Dennis Eckersley in Game 4. The Jays become the first non-U.S. team to win a pennant. CBS 1993 Toronto Blue Jays Chicago White Sox 4-2 Dave Stewart, Toronto The Blue Jays knocked off the White Sox in 6 games en route to their second consecutive World Championship. CBS 1994 Not held due to labor dispute. 1995 Cleveland Indians Seattle Mariners 4-2 Orel Hershiser, Cleveland In the first-ever LCS appearance for both teams, Hershiser became the first player to win LCS MVP awards in both leagues as Cleveland won their first AL Pennant since 1954. ABC (Games 1-2), NBC (Games 3-6) 1996 New York Yankees Baltimore Orioles† 4-1 Bernie Williams, New York Aided by fan Jeffrey Maier, who reached over the right field wall to pull a fly ball into the stands and out of the reach of Orioles outfielder Tony Tarasco, Derek Jeter hit a game-tying home run in Game 1, then Williams hit the walk-off shot in extra innings. NBC 1997 Cleveland Indians Baltimore Orioles 4-2 Marquis Grissom, Cleveland An 11th inning Home Run by Tony Fernández in Game 6 propelled Cleveland to its second pennant in three years. FOX 1998 New York Yankees Cleveland Indians 4-2 David Wells, New York The Yankees defeat of the Indians in 6 games would be the first of four consecutive AL Pennants for the Yankees. NBC 1999 New York Yankees Boston Red Sox† 4-1 Orlando Hernández, New York Bernie Williams' game-winning home run in the 11th inning of Game 1 sent the Yankees on their way to their second consecutive AL Pennant. FOX 2000 New York Yankees Seattle Mariners† 4-2 David Justice, New York Justice's towering homer off Arthur Rhodes in Game 6 ensured the first Subway Series since 1956. Roger Clemens set an ALCS record with 15 strikeouts in a one-hit shutout of Seattle in Game 4. NBC 2001 New York Yankees Seattle Mariners 4-1 Andy Pettitte, New York Although the Mariners boasted a record 116 wins in the regular season, the Yankees wiped them out in 5 games. Alfonso Soriano hit a walk-off home run in Game 4. FOX 2002 Anaheim Angels† Minnesota Twins 4-1 Adam Kennedy, Anaheim The series MVP hit three home runs in the deciding Game 5 despite swatting just 7 in the regular season, as the Angels won their first-ever pennant. FOX 2003 New York Yankees Boston Red Sox† 4-3 Mariano Rivera, New York Aaron Boone hit an 11th-inning blast off Tim Wakefield to cap off an exciting Game 7. Considered by some to be the best game in the Yankees-Red Sox Rivalry, it may be better known for Grady Little refusing to pull ace Pedro Martínez from the game. The series was also marred by a fight in Game 3, instigated after Pedro Martínez hit Karim Garcia in retaliation for Roger Clemens throwing a pitch near the head of Manny Ramírez. The fight was memorable for Don Zimmer's charge toward Martinez in the fracas, which Martinez was able to avoid by side-stepping Zimmer and pushing him to the ground. FOX 2004 Boston Red Sox† New York Yankees 4-3 David Ortiz, Boston Boston becomes the first baseball team in history to win a series after losing the first three games. The series featured, among other things, two consecutive postseason blown saves by Yankee closer Mariano Rivera and two consecutive game winning hits from Red Sox slugger David Ortiz, both in Games 4 and 5. The Red Sox' first pennant since 1986. FOX 2005 Chicago White Sox Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim 4-1 Paul Konerko, Chicago After Neal Cotts worked ⅔ of an inning in a Game 1 loss, the White Sox, aided by a controversial Doug Eddings dropped third strike call in Game 2, pitched 4 complete games in a row. Konerko hit two first inning homers in Games 3 and 4. The White Sox' first pennant since 1959. FOX 2006 Detroit Tigers† Oakland Athletics 4-0 Plácido Polanco, Detroit Magglio Ordóñez hit a game-winning, series ending home run in the bottom of the ninth of Game 4 to complete the sweep. Oakland also went a playoff record 0-for-13 with runners in scoring position in Game 1, hitting into four double-plays. FOX 2007 Boston Red Sox Cleveland Indians 4-3 Josh Beckett, Boston In Game 4, Kevin Youkilis, David Ortiz, and Manny Ramírez of Boston hit the first back-to-back-to-back home runs in LCS history. In Game 7, the tie-breaking game, the Red Sox and Indians were neck and neck, 3-2, until the 7th inning when Boston scored two more runs, and in the 8th, when they scored six more. The Red Sox rallied from a 3-1 series deficit, outscoring the Indians 30-5 over the final three games. FOX 2008 Tampa Bay Rays Boston Red Sox† 4-3 Matt Garza, Tampa Bay After blowing a 7-0 lead late in a potential series-clinching Game 5 and a 3-1 series lead, the Rays rebound behind starter Matt Garza, who outpitches Red Sox ace Jon Lester for the second time in a week, finishing the series with a 2-0 record, a 1.38 ERA, 14 strikeouts and the ALCS MVP award. The Rays win their first-ever pennant in their first-ever postseason trip, the first team to do so since the 1997 Florida Marlins and the first American League team to do so since the 1982 Milwaukee Brewers. TBS†Denotes wild-card team (since 1995). See also American League pennant winners 1901-68 American League Division Series (ALDS) AL Wildcard (since 1994) References ALCS Boxscores and Play-by-Play at Baseball-Reference.com

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Demographics_of_French_Polynesia

This article is about the demographic features of the population of French Polynesia, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 274 578 (July 2006 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 26,1% (male 36 541; female 34 999) 15-64 years: 67,9% (male 96 769; female 89 593) 65 years and over: 6,1% (male 8 428; female 8 248) (2000 est.) Population growth rate 1.48% (2006 est.) Birth rate 16,68 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 4,69 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 2,85 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1,05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1,04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1,08 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 1,02 male(s)/female total population: 1,07 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate 8,29 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 76,1 years male: 73,69 years female: 78,63 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 2,01 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality noun: French, or French Polynesian(s) adjective: French Polynesian Ethnic groups Polynesian 78%, East Asian (mainly Chinese) 12%, local French European 6%, metropolitan French European 4%, other Europeans 2% Religions Protestantism 54%, Roman Catholicism 30%, other 10%, no religion 6% Languages French (official) 61,1%, Tahitian (official) 31,4%, Asian languages 1,2%, other 0,3%, unspecified 6% (2002) Other languages with only local (if any official) status: Marquesan (North Marquesan, South Marquesan), Puka-Pukan, Rarotongan (Cook Island Maori), Tuamotuan, Mangarevan, Tubuaian and Rapan. Literacy definition: age 14 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 98% female: 98% (1977 est.)

Demographics_of_French_Polynesia |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:11 french:7 polynesia:1 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:2 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:11 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 polynesian:3 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 east:1 asian:2 mainly:1 chinese:1 local:2 european:3 metropolitan:1 religion:2 protestantism:1 roman:1 catholicism:1 language:2 official:3 tahitian:1 languages:1 unspecified:1 marquesan:3 north:1 south:1 puka:1 pukan:1 rarotongan:1 cook:1 island:1 maori:1 tuamotuan:1 mangarevan:1 tubuaian:1 rapan:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 |@bigram french_polynesia:1 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 roman_catholicism:1 literacy_definition:1

Data_warehouse

Data warehouse is a repository of an organization's electronically stored data. Data warehouses are designed to facilitate reporting and analysis Inmon, W.H. Tech Topic: What is a Data Warehouse? Prism Solutions. Volume 1. 1995. . This definition of the data warehouse focuses on data storage. However, the means to retrieve and analyze data, to extract, transform and load data, and to manage the data dictionary are also considered essential components of a data warehousing system. Many references to data warehousing use this broader context. Thus, an expanded definition for data warehousing includes business intelligence tools, tools to extract, transform, and load data into the repository, and tools to manage and retrieve metadata. In contrast to data warehouses are operational databases that support day-to-day transaction processing. History of data warehousing The concept of data warehousing dates back to the late 1980s when IBM researchers Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy developed the "business data warehouse". In essence, the data warehousing concept was intended to provide an architectural model for the flow of data from operational systems to decision support environments. The concept attempted to address the various problems associated with this flow - mainly, the high costs associated with it. In the absence of a data warehousing architecture, an enormous amount of redundancy was required to support multiple decision support environments. In larger corporations it was typical for multiple decision support environments to operate independently. Each environment served different users but often required much of the same data. The process of gathering, cleaning and integrating data from various sources, usually long existing operational systems (usually referred to as legacy systems), was typically in part replicated for each environment. Moreover, the operational systems were frequently reexamined as new decision support requirements emerged. Often new requirements necessitated gathering, cleaning and integrating new data from the operational systems that were logically related to prior gathered data. Based on analogies with real-life warehouses, data warehouses were intended as large-scale collection/storage/staging areas for corporate data. Data could be retrieved from one central point or data could be distributed to "retail stores" or "data marts" that were tailored for ready access by users. Key developments in early years of data warehousing were: 1960s - General Mills and Dartmouth College, in a joint research project, develop the terms dimensions and facts. Kimball 2002, pg. 16 1970s - ACNielsen and IRI provide dimensional data marts for retail sales. 1983 - Teradata introduces a database management system specifically designed for decision support. 1988 - Barry Devlin and Paul Murphy publish the article An architecture for a business and information systems in IBM Systems Journal where they introduce the term "business data warehouse". 1990 - Red Brick Systems introduces Red Brick Warehouse, a database management system specifically for data warehousing. 1991 - Prism Solutions introduces Prism Warehouse Manager, software for developing a data warehouse. 1991 - Bill Inmon publishes the book Building the Data Warehouse. 1995 - The Data Warehousing Institute, a for-profit organization that promotes data warehousing, is founded. 1996 - Ralph Kimball publishes the book The Data Warehouse Toolkit. 1997 - Oracle 8, with support for star queries, is released. Data warehouse architecture Architecture, in the context of an organization's data warehousing efforts, is a conceptualization of how the data warehouse is built. There is no right or wrong architecture, rather multiple architectures exist to support various environments and situations. The worthiness of the architecture can be judged in how the conceptualization aids in the building, maintenance, and usage of the data warehouse. One possible simple conceptualization of a data warehouse architecture consists of the following interconnected layers: Operational database layer The source data for the data warehouse - An organization's Enterprise Resource Planning systems fall into this layer. Data access layer The interface between the operational and informational access layer - Tools to extract, transform, load data into the warehouse fall into this layer. Metadata layer The data directory - This is usually more detailed than an operational system data directory. There are dictionaries for the entire warehouse and sometimes dictionaries for the data that can be accessed by a particular reporting and analysis tool. Informational access layer The data accessed for reporting and analyzing and the tools for reporting and analyzing data - Business intelligence tools fall into this layer. And the Inmon-Kimball differences about design methodology, discussed later in this article, have to do with this layer. Normalized versus dimensional approach for storage of data There are two leading approaches to storing data in a data warehouse - the dimensional approach and the normalized approach. In the dimensional approach, transaction data are partitioned into either "facts", which are generally numeric transaction data, or "dimensions", which are the reference information that gives context to the facts. For example, a sales transaction can be broken up into facts such as the number of products ordered and the price paid for the products, and into dimensions such as order date, customer name, product number, order ship-to and bill-to locations, and salesperson responsible for receiving the order. A key advantage of a dimensional approach is that the data warehouse is easier for the user to understand and to use. Also, the retrieval of data from the data warehouse tends to operate very quickly. The main disadvantages of the dimensional approach are: 1) In order to maintain the integrity of facts and dimensions, loading the data warehouse with data from different operational systems is complicated, and 2) It is difficult to modify the data warehouse structure if the organization adopting the dimensional approach changes the way in which it does business. In the normalized approach, the data in the data warehouse are stored following, to a degree, database normalization rules. Tables are grouped together by subject areas that reflect general data categories (e.g., data on customers, products, finance, etc.) The main advantage of this approach is that it is straightforward to add information into the database. A disadvantage of this approach is that, because of the number of tables involved, it can be difficult for users both to 1) join data from different sources into meaningful information and then 2) access the information without a precise understanding of the sources of data and of the data structure of the data warehouse. These approaches are not mutually exclusive. Dimensional approaches can involve normalizing data to a degree. Conforming information Another important fact in designing a data warehouse is which data to conform and how to conform the data. For example, one operational system feeding data into the data warehouse may use "M" and "F" to denote sex of an employee while another operational system may use "Male" and "Female". Though this is a simple example, much of the work in implementing a data warehouse is devoted to making similar meaning data consistent when they are stored in the data warehouse. Typically, extract, transform, load tools are used in this work. Master Data Management has the aim of conforming data that could be considered "dimensions". Top-down versus bottom-up design methodologies Bottom-up design Ralph Kimball, a well-known author on data warehousing, Kimball 2002, pg. 310 is a proponent of an approach frequently considered as bottom-up , to data warehouse design. In the so-called bottom-up approach data marts are first created to provide reporting and analytical capabilities for specific business processes. Data marts contain atomic data and, if necessary, summarized data. These data marts can eventually be unioned together to create a comprehensive data warehouse. The combination of data marts is managed through the implementation of what Kimball calls "a data warehouse bus architecture". Ericsson 2004, pp. 28-29 Business value can be returned as quickly as the first data marts can be created. Maintaining tight management over the data warehouse bus architecture is fundamental to maintaining the integrity of the data warehouse. The most important management task is making sure dimensions among data marts are consistent. In Kimball words, this means that the dimensions "conform". Top-down design Bill Inmon, one of the first authors on the subject of data warehousing, has defined a data warehouse as a centralized repository for the entire enterprise. Inmon is one of the leading proponents of the top-down approach to data warehouse design, in which the data warehouse is designed using a normalized enterprise data model. "Atomic" data, that is, data at the lowest level of detail, are stored in the data warehouse. Dimensional data marts containing data needed for specific business processes or specific departments are created from the data warehouse. In the Inmon vision the data warehouse is at the center of the "Corporate Information Factory" (CIF), which provides a logical framework for delivering business intelligence (BI) and business management capabilities. Inmon states that the data warehouse is: Subject-oriented The data in the data warehouse is organized so that all the data elements relating to the same real-world event or object are linked together. Time-variant The changes to the data in the data warehouse are tracked and recorded so that reports can be produced showing changes over time. Non-volatile Data in the data warehouse is never over-written or deleted - once committed, the data is static, read-only, and retained for future reporting. Integrated The data warehouse contains data from most or all of an organization's operational systems and this data is made consistent. The top-down design methodology generates highly consistent dimensional views of data across data marts since all data marts are loaded from the centralized repository. Top-down design has also proven to be robust against business changes. Generating new dimensional data marts against the data stored in the data warehouse is a relatively simple task. The main disadvantage to the top-down methodology is that it represents a very large project with a very broad scope. The up-front cost for implementing a data warehouse using the top-down methodology is significant, and the duration of time from the start of project to the point that end users experience initial benefits can be substantial. In addition, the top-down methodology can be inflexible and unresponsive to changing departmental needs during the implementation phases. Hybrid design Over time it has become apparent to proponents of bottom-up and top-down data warehouse design that both methodologies have benefits and risks. Hybrid methodologies have evolved to take advantage of the fast turn-around time of bottom-up design and the enterprise-wide data consistency of top-down design. Data warehouses versus operational systems Operational systems are optimized for preservation of data integrity and speed of recording of business transactions through use of database normalization and an entity-relationship model. Operational system designers generally follow the Codd rules of data normalization in order to ensure data integrity. Codd defined five increasingly stringent rules of normalization. Fully normalized database designs (that is, those satisfying all five Codd rules) often result in information from a business transaction being stored in dozens to hundreds of tables. Relational databases are efficient at managing the relationships between these tables. The databases have very fast insert/update performance because only a small amount of data in those tables is affected each time a transaction is processed. Finally, in order to improve performance, older data are usually periodically purged from operational systems. Data warehouses are optimized for speed of data retrieval. Frequently data in data warehouses are denormalised via a dimension-based model. Also, to speed data retrieval, data warehouse data are often stored multiple times - in their most granular form and in summarized forms called aggregates. Data warehouse data are gathered from the operational systems and held in the data warehouse even after the data has been purged from the operational systems. Evolution in organization use of data warehouses Organizations generally start off with relatively simple use of data warehousing. Over time, more sophisticated use of data warehousing evolves. The following general stages of use of the data warehouse can be distinguished: Off line Operational Database Data warehouses in this initial stage are developed by simply copying the data off an operational system to another server where the processing load of reporting against the copied data does not impact the operational system's performance. Off line Data Warehouse Data warehouses at this stage are updated from data in the operational systems on a regular basis and the data warehouse data is stored in a data structure designed to facilitate reporting. Real Time Data Warehouse Data warehouses at this stage are updated every time an operational system performs a transaction (e.g. an order or a delivery or a booking.) Integrated Data Warehouse Data warehouses at this stage are updated every time an operational system performs a transaction. The data warehouses then generate transactions that are passed back into the operational systems. Benefits of data warehousing Some of the benefits that a data warehouse provides are as follows: Yang, Jun. WareHouse Information Prototype at Stanford (WHIPS). . Stanford University. July 7, 1998. Caldeira, C. "Data Warehousing - Conceitos e Modelos". Edições Sílabo. 2008. ISBN 978-972-618-479-9 A data warehouse provides a common data model for all data of interest regardless of the data's source. This makes it easier to report and analyze information than it would be if multiple data models were used to retrieve information such as sales invoices, order receipts, general ledger charges, etc. Prior to loading data into the data warehouse, inconsistencies are identified and resolved. This greatly simplifies reporting and analysis. Information in the data warehouse is under the control of data warehouse users so that, even if the source system data is purged over time, the information in the warehouse can be stored safely for extended periods of time. Because they are separate from operational systems, data warehouses provide retrieval of data without slowing down operational systems. Data warehouses can work in conjunction with and, hence, enhance the value of operational business applications, notably customer relationship management (CRM) systems. Data warehouses facilitate decision support system applications such as trend reports (e.g., the items with the most sales in a particular area within the last two years), exception reports, and reports that show actual performance versus goals. Disadvantages of data warehouses There are also disadvantages to using a data warehouse. Some of them are: Data warehouses are not the optimal environment for unstructured data. Because data must be extracted, transformed and loaded into the warehouse, there is an element of latency in data warehouse data. Over their life, data warehouses can have high costs. The data warehouse is usually not static. Maintenance costs are high. Data warehouses can get outdated relatively quickly. There is a cost of delivering suboptimal information to the organization. There is often a fine line between data warehouses and operational systems. Duplicate, expensive functionality may be developed. Or, functionality may be developed in the data warehouse that, in retrospect, should have been developed in the operational systems and vice versa. Sample Applications Some of the applications data warehousing can be used for are: Credit card churn analysis Insurance fraud analysis Call record analysis Logistics management. The future of data warehousing Data warehousing, like any technology niche, has a history of innovations that did not receive market acceptance. Pendse, Nigel and Bange, Carsten "The Missing Next Big Things", http://www.olapreport.com/Faileddozen.htm A 2009 Gartner Group paper predicted these developments in business intelligence/data warehousing market . "Gartner Reveals Five Business Intelligence Predictions for 2009 and Beyond", http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=856714 Because of lack of information, processes, and tools, through 2012, more than 35 per cent of the top 5,000 global companies will regularly fail to make insightful decisions about significant changes in their business and markets. By 2012, business units will control at least 40 per cent of the total budget for business intelligence. By 2010, 20 per cent of organizations will have an industry-specific analytic application delivered via software as a service as a standard component of their business intelligence portfolio. In 2009, collaborative decision making will emerge as a new product category that combines social software with business intelligence platform capabilities. By 2012, one-third of analytic applications applied to business processes will be delivered through coarse-grained application mashups. See also Accounting intelligence Business Intelligence Business intelligence tools Data integration Data mart Data mining Data mining agent Data warehouse appliance Database Management System (DBMS) Decision support Executive Information System (EIS) Extract, transform, and load (ETL) Master Data Management (MDM) On Line Analytical Processing (OLAP) Online transaction processing (OLTP) Operational Data Store (ODS) Screen scraping Snowflake schema Software as a Service (Saas) Star schema Slowly Changing Dimension References Further reading Davenport, Thomas H. and Harris, Jeanne G. Competing on Analytics: The New Science of Winning (2007) Harvard Business School Press. ISBN 978-1422103326 Kimball, Ralph and Ross, Margy. The Data Warehouse Toolkit Second Edition (2002) John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-20024-7 External links Bill Inmon Channel Ralph Kimball articles Business Intelligence Network Neil Raden writings Data Warehousing Information Center

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European_Economic_Community

The European Economic Community (EEC) (also referred to as simply the European Community, For an example see this 1987 article from the New York Times: Steps Drafted For European Central Bank. or the Common Market in the English-speaking world) was an international organization created in 1957 to bring about economic integration (including a single market) between Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. It was enlarged later to include six additional states and, from 1967, its institutions also governed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom) under the term European Communities. When the European Union (EU) was created in 1993, the EEC was transformed into the European Community, one of the EU's three pillars, with EEC institutions continuing as those of the EU. History Background In 1951, the Treaty of Paris was signed, creating the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). This was an international community based on supranationalism and international law, designed to help the economy of Europe and prevent future war by integrating its members together. In the aim of creating a federal Europe two further communities were proposed: a European Defence Community (EDC) and a European Political Community (EPC). While the treaty for the latter was being drawn up by the Common Assembly, the ECSC parliamentary chamber, the EDC was rejected by the French Parliament. President Jean Monnet, a leading figure behind the communities, resigned from the High Authority in protest and began work on alternative communities, based on economic integration rather than political integration. Raymond F. Mikesell, The Lessons of Benelux and the European Coal and Steel Community for the European Economic Community, The American Economic Review, Vol. 48, No. 2, Papers and Proceedings of the Seventieth Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association (May, 1958), pp. 428-441 After the Messina Conference in 1955, Paul Henri Spaak was given the task to prepare a report on the idea of a customs union. The so-called Spaak Report Spaak report of the Spaak Committee formed the cornerstone of the intergovernmental negotiations at Val Duchesse castle in 1956. Together with the Ohlin Report the Spaak Report would provide the basis for the Treaty of Rome. In 1956, Paul Henri Spaak lead the Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom at the Val Duchesse castle, which prepared for the Treaty of Rome in 1957. The conference led to the signature, on 25 March 1957, of the Treaty of Rome establishing a European Economic Community. Creation and early years The resulting communities were the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom). These were markedly less supranational than the previous communities, due to protests from some countries that their sovereignty was being infringed (however there would still be concerns with the behaviour of the Hallstein Commission). The first formal meeting of the Hallstein Commission, was held on 16 January 1958 at the Castle of the Valley of the Duchess. The EEC (direct ancestor of the modern Community) was to create a customs union while Euratom would promote co-operation in the atomic energy sphere. The EEC rapidly became the most important of these and expanded its activities. One of the first important accomplishments of the EEC was the establishment (1962) of common price levels for agricultural products. In 1968, internal tariffs (tariffs on trade between member nations) were removed on certain products. Another crisis was triggered in regard to proposals for the financing of the Common Agricultural Policy, which came into force in 1962. The transitional period whereby decisions were made by unanimity had come to an end, and majority-voting in the Council had taken effect. Then-French President Charles de Gaulle's opposition to supranationalism and fear of the other members challenging the CAP led to an "empty chair policy" where by French representatives were withdrawn from the European institutions until the French veto was reinstated. Eventually, a compromise was reached with the Luxembourg compromise on 29 January 1966 whereby a gentlemen's agreement permitted members to use a veto on areas of national interest. Fifty years of fraternal rivalry news.bbc.co.uk 19/03/07 The 'empty chair' policy ena.lu In 1967 the Merger Treaty came into operation, which combined the institutions of the ECSC and Euratom into that of the EEC, they already shared a Parliamentary Assembly and Courts. Collectively they were known as the European Communities. The Communities still had independent personalities although were increasingly integrated. Future treaties granted the community new powers beyond simple economic matters which had achieved a high level of integration. As it got closer to the goal of political integration and a peaceful and united Europe, what Mikhail Gorbachev described as a Common European Home. Enlargement and elections French President Charles de Gaulle vetoed British membership, held back the development of Parliament's powers and was at the centre of the 'empty chair crisis' of 1967 The 1960s saw the first attempts at enlargement. On 3 May 1960 Denmark, Ireland, Norway and the United Kingdom applied to join the three Communities. However, President Charles de Gaulle saw British membership as a Trojan horse for US influence and vetoed membership, and the applications of all four countries were suspended. The four countries resubmitted their applications on 11 May 1967 and with Georges Pompidou succeeding Charles de Gaulle as French President, the veto was lifted. Negations began in 1970 under the pro-European government of Edward Heath, who had to deal with disagreements relating to the Common Agricultural Policy and the UK's relationship with the Commonwealth of Nations. Nevertheless, two years later the accession treaties were signed and all but Norway acceded to the Community (Norway rejected membership in a referendum). The Treaties of Rome had stated that the European Parliament must be directly elected, however this required the Council to agree on a common voting system first. The Council procrastinated on the issue and the Parliament remained appointed, French President Charles de Gaulle was particularly active in blocking the development of the Parliament, with it only being granted Budgetary powers following his resignation. Parliament pressured for agreement and on 20 September 1976 the Council agreed part of the necessary instruments for election, deferring details on electoral systems which remain varied to this day. During President Jenkin's tenure, in June 1979, the elections were held in all the then-members (see European Parliament election, 1979). Election of the President of the European Parliament, European Parliament The new Parliament, galvanised by direct election and new powers, started working full time and became more active than the previous assemblies. Shortly after its election, Parliament became the first Community institution to propose that the Community adopt the Flag of Europe. The European Council agreed to this and adopted the Symbols of Europe as those of the Community in 1984. Towards Maastricht Enlargement, 1957 to 2007 Greece applied to join the community on 12 June 1975, following the restoration of democracy, and joined on 1 January 1981. The accession treaty with Greece ena.lu Following on from Greece, and after their own democratic restoration, Spain and Portugal applied to the communities in 1977 and joined together on 1 January 1986. The Accession Treaties with Spain and Portugal ena.li In 1987 Turkey formally applied to join the Community and began the longest application process for any country (as of 2009, they are still in negotiations with the EU). With the prospect of further enlargement, and a desire to increase areas of co-operation, the Single European Act was signed by the foreign ministers on the 17 and 28 February 1986 in Luxembourg and the Hague respectively. In a single document it dealt with reform of institutions, extension of powers, foreign policy cooperation and the single market. It came into force on 1 July 1987. Single European Act ena.lu The act was influenced by work on what would be the Maastricht Treaty, which was agreed on 10 December 1991, signed the following year and coming into force on 1 November 1993 establishing the European Union. The EU absorbed the EEC as one of its three pillars. The EEC's areas of activities became the European Community pillar, continuing to follow the supranational structure of the EEC. The EEC institutions became those of the EU, some changing their name accordingly, however the Court, Parliament and Commission had only limited input in the new pillars, as they worked on a more intergovernmental system than the European Community. If the Treaty of Lisbon is to come into force, this pillar system would be abolished and the Community way would be followed by these pillars also. Aims and achievements The main aim of the EEC, as stated in its preamble, was to "preserve peace and liberty and to lay the foundations of an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe". Calling for balanced economic growth, this was to be accomplished through 1) the establishment of a customs union with a common external tariff 2) common policies for agriculture, transport and trade 3) enlargement of the EEC to the rest of Europe. For the customs union, the treaty provided for a 10 % reduction in custom duties and up to 20 % of global import quotas. Progress on the customs union proceeded much faster than the twelve years planned, however France faced some setbacks due to their war with Algeria. Members The six states that founded the EEC and the other two Communities were known as the "inner six" (the "outer seven" were those countries who formed the European Free Trade Association). The six were France, West Germany, Italy and the three Benelux countries: Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. The first enlargement was in 1973, with the accession of Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom. Greece, Spain and Portugal joined throughout in the 1980s. Following the creation of the EU in 1993, it has enlarged to include a further fifteen countries by 2007. Founding members in green, later members in blue State Accession State Accession Belgium Italy Denmark Luxembourg France Netherlands West Germany Portugal Greece Spain Ireland United Kingdom Member states are represented in some form in each institution. The Council is also composed of one national minister who represents their national government. Each state also has a right to one European Commissioner each, although in the European Commission they are not supposed to represent their national interest but that of the Community. Prior to 2004, the larger members (France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom) have had two Commissioners. In the European Parliament, members are allocated a set number seats related to their population, however these (since 1979) have been directly elected and they sit according to political allegiance, not national origin. Most other institutions, including the European Court of Justice, have some form of national division of its members. Institutions There were three political institutions which held the executive and legislative power of the EEC, plus one judicial institution and a fifth body created in 1975. These institutions (except for the Auditors) were created in 1957 by the EEC but from 1967 onwards they applied to all three Communities. The Council represents governments, the Parliament represents citizens and the Commission represents the European interest. Essentially, the Council, Parliament or another party place a request for legislation to the Commission. The Commission then drafts this and presents it to the Council for approval and the Parliament for an opinion (in some cases it had a veto, depending upon the legislative procedure in use). The Commission's duty is to ensure it is implemented by dealing with the day-to-day running of the Union and taking others to Court if they fail to comply. After the Maastricht treaty in 1993, these institutions became those of the European Union, though limited in some areas due to the pillar structure. Despite this, Parliament in particular has gained more power over legislation and security of the Commission. The Court was the highest authority in the law, settling legal disputes in the Community, while the Auditors had no power but to investigate. Background The High Authority had more executive powers than the Commission which replaced it The EEC inherited some of the Institutions of the ECSC in that the Common Assembly and Court of Justice of the ECSC had their authority extended to the EEC and Euratom in the same role. However the EEC, and Euratom, had different executive bodies to the ECSC. In place of the ECSC's Council of Ministers was the Council of the European Economic Community, and in place of the High Authority was the Commission of the European Communities. There was greater difference between these than name: the French government of the day had grown suspicious of the supranational power of the High Authority and sought to curb its powers in favour of the intergovernmental style Council. Hence the Council had a greater executive role in the running of the Community than was the situation in the EEC. By virtue of the Merger Treaty in 1967, the executives of the ECSC and Euratom were merged with that of the EEC, creating a single institutional structure governing the three separate Communities. From here on, the term European Communities were used for the institutions (for example, from Commission of the European Economic Community to the Commission of the European Communities. Council The Council of the European Communities was a body holding legislative and executive powers and was thus the main decision making body of the Community. Its Presidency rotated between the states every six months and it is related to the European Council, which is an informal gather of national leaders (started in 1961) on the same basis as the Council. President Jacques Delors the last, and most successful, EEC Commission President. The Council was composed of one national ministers from each state. However the Council meets in various forms depending upon the topic. For example, if agriculture was being discussed, the Council would be composed of each national minister for agriculture. They represented their governments and were accountable to their national political systems. Votes are taken either by majority (with votes allocated according to population) or unanimity. In these various forms they share some legislative and budgetary power of the Parliament. Commission The Commission of the European Communities was the executive arm of the community, drafting Community law, dealing with the day to running of the Community and upholding the treaties. It was designed to be independent, representing the Community interest, but was composed of national representatives (two from each of the larger states, one from the smaller states). One of its members was the President, appointed by the Council, who chaired the body and represented it. Parliament The European Parliament held its first elections in 1979, slowly gaining more influence over Community decision making. Under the Community, the European Parliament (formerly the European Parliamentary Assembly) had an advisory role to the Council and Commission. There were a number of Community legislative procedures, at first there was only the consultation procedure, which meant Parliament had to be consulted, although it was often ignored. The Single European Act gave Parliament more power, with the assent procedure giving it a right to veto proposals and the cooperation procedure giving it equal power with the Council if the Council was not unanimous. In 1970 and 1975, the Budgetary treaties gave Parliament power over the Community budget. The Parliament's members, up-until 1979 were national MPs serving part time in the Parliament. The Treaties of Rome had required elections to be held once the Council had decided on a voting system, but this did not happen and elections were delayed until 1979 (see European Parliament election, 1979). After that, Parliament was elected every five years. Court The Court of Justice of the European Communities was the highest court of on matters of Community law and was composed of one judge per state with a President elected from among them. Its role was to ensure that Community law was applied in the same way across all states and to settle legal disputes between institutions or states. It became a powerful institution as Community law overrides national law. Auditors The fifth institution is the European Court of Auditors, which despite its name had no judicial powers like the Court of Justice. Instead, it ensured that taxpayer funds from the Community budget have been correctly spent. The court provided an audit report for each financial year to the Council and Parliament and gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions. It is the only institutions not mentioned in the original treaties, having been set up in 1975. See also History of the European Communities (1958-1972) History of the European Communities (1973-1993) European Commission Delors Commission Location of European Union institutions Brussels and the European Union European Institutions in Strasbourg References Further reading Jean Monnet, Prospect for a New Europe (1959) Bela Balassa, The Theory of Economic Integration (1962) Walter Hallstein, A New Path to Peaceful Union (1962) Paul-Henri Spaak, The Continuing Battle: Memories of a European (1971) External links European Union website Treaty establishing the European Economic Community European NAvigator History of the Rome Treaties European NAvigator Papers of J. Robert Schaetzel, ambassador to European Economic Community, 1966-1972, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library

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Handfasting

An example of a handfasting knot where each wedding guest has tied a ribbon around the clasped hands of the couple Handfasting is a traditional European ceremony of (temporary or permanent) betrothal or wedding. It is common in Celtic and Slavic countries. The term is derived from the verb to handfast, used in Middle to Early Modern English for the making of a contract of marriage. http://www.reference.com/search?q=Handfasting History The term is originally a loan from Old Norse hand-festa "to strike a bargain by joining hands". The Council of Trent changed Roman Catholic marriage laws to require the presence of a priest. This change did not extend to the regions affected by the Protestant Reformation, and in Scotland, marriage by consent remained in effect. By the 18th century, the Kirk of Scotland no longer recognized marriages formed by mutual consent and subsequent sexual intercourse, even though the Scottish civil authorities did. This situation persisted until 1940, when Scottish marriage laws were reformed. In the 18th century, well after the term handfasting had passed out of usage, there arose a popular myth that it referred to a sort of "trial marriage". A.E. Anton, in Handfasting' in Scotland (1958) finds that the first reference to such a "trial marriage" is by Thomas Pennant in his 1790 Tour in Scotland. This report had been taken at face value throughout the 19th century, and was perpetuated e.g. in Walter Scott's 1820 novel The Monastery. Modern usage Neopagan handfasting In the present day, some Neopagans practice this ritual. The marriage vows taken may be for "a year and a day", a lifetime, "for all of eternity" or "for as long as love shall last". Whether the ceremony is legal, or a private spiritual commitment, is up to the couple. Depending on the state where the handfasting is performed, and whether or not the officiant is a legally recognized minister, the ceremony itself may be legally binding, or couples may choose to make it legal by also having a civil ceremony. Modern handfastings are performed for heterosexual or homosexual couples, as well as for larger groups in the case of polyamorous relationships. Currently, handfasting is a legal Pagan wedding ceremony in Scotland, but not in England, Wales or Ireland. As with many Neopagan rituals, some groups may use historically attested forms of the ceremony, striving to be as traditional as possible, while others may use only the basic idea of handfasting and largely create a new ceremony. As many different traditions of Neopaganism use some variation on the handfasting ceremony, there is no universal ritual form that is followed, and the elements included are generally up to the couple being handfasted. In cases where the couple belong to a specific religious or cultural tradition, there may be a specific form of the ritual used by all or most members of that particular tradition. The couple may conduct the ceremony themselves or may have an officiant perform the ceremony. In some traditions, the couple may jump over a broom at the end of the ceremony. Some may instead leap over a small fire together. Today, some couples opt for a handfasting ceremony in place of, or incorporated into, their public wedding. As summer is the traditional time for handfastings, they are often held outdoors. As with more conventional marriage ceremonies, couples often exchange rings during a handfasting, symbolizing their commitment to each other. Many couples choose rings that reflect their spiritual and cultural traditions, while others choose plainer, more conventional wedding rings. Outside neopaganism Traditional pre-Christian elements are often adopted into modern Christian and secular wedding ceremonies is many parts of Europe (syncretism), and a handfasting-style ceremony is also practised outside of the neopagan subculture. References Anton, A. E. "'Handfasting' in Scotland." The Scottish Historical Review 37, no. 124 (October 1958): 89–102. External links Historical handfasting Handfasting Information- facts and beliefs

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Legnica

Legnica () is a city on the Kaczawa river in south-western Poland. According to official figures for 2006, it has a total population of 105,485. The city was formerly known in Polish as Lignica; it was officially renamed Legnica in 1946, after it had passed to Poland from Germany following World War II. Information on history from the city's website Since 1999 Legnica has been part of Lower Silesian Voivodeship (from 1975 to 1998 it was the administrative seat of the former Legnica Voivodeship). The city constitutes a separate urban gmina and city county, as well as being the seat of Legnica County (which surrounds but does not include the city). History The area of Legnica was at the intersection of travel routes of Celtic and East Germanic tribes. Tacitus in his Germania and Ptolemy recorded the Lugii (Lygii) in Magna Germania, and mentioned their town of Lugidunum, which has been attributed to both Legnica Pierre Deschamps. Dictionnaire de géographie ancienne et moderne. Straubling & Müller, 1922. and Głogów. James Cowles Prichard. Researches Into the Physical History of Mankind. Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper. London, 1841. When the East Germanic tribes left for southern Europe, West Slavic tribes moved in and were the first group to settle it permanently. The city was first officially mentioned in chronicles from 1004, although settlement dates to the 7th century. It was originally known as Lignica. It became the residence of the dukes of Lower Silesia in 1163, when the emperor granted ducal titles and liens to Silesian Dukes and was the seat of a principality ruled from 1248-1675. The Silesian dukes by the 17th century started to use an invented name "Silesian Piasts" and in 1847 a Polish historian for the first time wrote about a Piast Dynasty. Legnica became famous for the Battle of Legnica (or Battle of Wahlstatt) that took place at Legnickie Pole near the city on 9 April 1241 during the Mongol invasion of Europe. The Christian army of the Polish duke Henry II the Pious of Silesia, supported by the feudal nobility, included Poles, Bavarian miners and military orders, was decisively defeated by the Mongols. Although the Mongols killed Henry and destroyed his forces, their advance into Europe was halted when they turned back to attend to the election of a new Khagan (Grand Khan) following the death in the same year of Ögedei Khan. Minor celebrations are held annually in Legnica to commemorate the battle. As the capital of the Duchy of Legnica at the beginning of the 14th century, Legnica was one of the most important cities of Central Europe, having a population of approximately 16,000 residents. The city began to expand quickly after the discovery of gold in the Kaczawa River between Legnica and Złotoryja (Goldberg). Legnica, along with other Silesian duchies, became a vassal of the Kingdom of Bohemia during the 14th century and was included within the Holy Roman Empire. The Protestant Reformation was introduced in the duchy as early as 1522 and the population became Lutheran. After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia at Mohács in 1526, Legnica was inherited by the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria. The first map of Silesia was made by native son Martin Helwig. In 1676, Legnica passed to direct Habsburg rule after the death of the last Silesian Piast duke, Georg Wilhelm (son of Duke Christian of Brieg), despite the earlier inheritance pact by Brandenburg and Silesia, by which it was to go to Brandenburg. Silesian aristocracy was trained at the Liegnitz Ritter-Akademie. Legnica cathedral In 1742 most of Silesia, including Liegnitz, became part of the Kingdom of Prussia after King Frederick the Great's defeat of Austria in the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1760 during the Seven Years' War, Liegnitz was the site of the Battle of Liegnitz when Frederick's army defeated an Austrian army led by Laudon. In 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars, the Prussians, under Field Marshal Blücher, defeated the French forces of MacDonald in the Battle of Katzbach nearby. After the administrative reorganization of the Prussian state following the Congress of Vienna, Liegnitz and the surrounding territory (Landkreis Liegnitz) were incorporated into the Regierungsbezirk (administrative district) Liegnitz, within the Province of Silesia on 1 May 1816. Along with the rest of Prussia, the town became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the unification of Germany. On 1 January 1874 Liegnitz became the third city in Lower Silesia (after Breslau and Görlitz) to be raised to an urban district, although the district administrator of the surrounding Landkreis Liegnitz continued to have his seat in the city. Train station in Liegnitz (Legnica) in 1915. The census of 1910 gave Liegnitz's population as 95.86 % German, 0.15 % German and Polish, 1.27 % Polish, 2.26 % Wendish, and 0.19 % Czechs. On 1 April 1937 parts of the Landkreis Liegnitz communities of Alt Beckern, Groß Beckern, Hummel, Liegnitzer Vorwerke, Pfaffendorf und Prinkendorf were incorporated into the city of Liegnitz. After the Treaty of Versailles following World War I, Liegnitz was part of the newly created Province of Lower Silesia from 1919 to 1938, then of the Province of Silesia from 1938 to 1941, and again of the Province of Lower Silesia from 1941 to 1945. After the defeat of Nazi Germany during World War II, Liegnitz and all of Silesia east of the Neisse river was transferred to Poland following the Potsdam Conference in 1945. The German population was expelled from between 1945 and 1947 and replaced with Poles and, as the medieval Polish name Lignica was considered archaic, the town was renamed Legnica. The transfer to Poland decided at Potsdam in 1945 was officially recognized by East Germany in 1950, by West Germany under Chancellor Willy Brandt in the Treaty of Warsaw signed in 1970, and finally by the reunited Germany by the Two Plus Four Agreement in 1990. By 1990 only a handful of Polonized Germans, pre-war citizens of Liegnitz, remained of the pre-1945 German population. The city was only partly damaged in World War II. After 1965 most parts of the preserved old town with its precious town houses were demolished, the historical layout of a city was abolished and the city was rebuilt in modern forms.<ref>Dehio - Handbuch der Kunstdenkmäler in Polen: Schlesien, Herder-Institut Marburg and Krajowy Osrodek Badan i Dokumentacji Zabytkow Warszawa, Deutscher Kunstverlag 2005, ISBN 342203109X, page 521.</ref> From 1945 to 1990, during the Cold War, the headquarters of the Soviet forces in Poland, the so-called Northern Group of Forces, was located in the city. This fact had a strong influence on the life of the city. For much of the period, the city was divided into Polish and Soviet areas, with the latter closed to the public. These were first established in July 1945, when the Soviets forcibly ejected newly arrived Polish inhabitants from the parts of the city they wanted for their own use. The ejection was perceived by some as a particularly brutal action, and rumours circulated exaggerating its severity, though no evidence of anyone being killed in the course of it has come to light. In April 1946 city officials estimated that they were 16,700 Poles, 12,800 Germans, and 60,000 Russians in Legnica. The last Soviet units left the city in 1993. In the 1950s and 1960s the local copper and nickel industries became a major factor in the economic development of the area. Until the winter of 2003, the longest osobowy (standard railway train stopping at every station, in contrast to fast and express trains) train service in Poland ran from Katowice to Legnica (via Kędzierzyn-Koźle, Nysa, and Jaworzyna Śląska). Economy Industry: copper mining and processing, KGHM Polska Miedź owns a large copper mill on the western outskirts of town. There is a Special Economic Zone in Legnica, where Lenovo will be opening a factory in summer 2008. Education state-run colleges and universities Witelon University of Applied Sciences (Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Zawodowa im. Witelona) Wrocław University of Technology Foreign Language Teacher Training College other Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania / The Polish Open University Wyższa Szkoła Menedżerska Wyższe Seminarium Duchowne Twin towns As of 2007, Legnica is twinned with five other European towns. Blansko, Czech Republic Drohobych, Ukraine Orenburg, Russia Wuppertal, Germany Roanne, France Environment Legnica is noted for its parks and gardens, and has seven hundred hectares of green space, mostly along the banks of the Kaczawa river; the Tarninow district is particularly attractive. Legnica: Welcome to Legnica Important Roads In the south of Legnica there are Highway—A4. Legnica has also a district, which is a part of country road no 3. Public transport Legnica has public transport. In city there are 20 normal bus lines, 1 belt-line, 2 night lines and 3 suburban. The town has an airport (airport code EPLE) with a 1600-metre runway, the remains of a former Soviet air base, but it is (as of 2007) in a poor state and not used for commercial flights. Sports Miedź Legnica - men's football team (Polish Cup winner 1992; 3rd league in seasons 2003/2004 and 2004/2005) Politics Municipal politics Legnica tends to be a left-of-center town with a considerable influence of workers' unions. The Municipal Council of Legnica (Rada miejska miasta Legnica) is the legislative branch of the local government and is composed of 25 members elected in local elections every five years. The mayor or town president (Prezydent miasta'') is the executive branch of the local government and is directly elected in the same municipal elections. Legnica - Jelenia Góra constituency Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Legnica-Jelenia Gora constituency: Ryszard Bonda, Samoobrona Bronisława Kowalska, SLD-UP Adam Lipiński, PiS Tadeusz Maćkała, PO Ryszard Maraszek, SLD-UP Olgierd Poniźnik, SLD-UP Władysław Rak, SLD-UP Tadeusz Samborski, PSL Jerzy Szmajdziński, SLD-UP Halina Szustak, LPR Michał Turkiewicz, SLD-UP Ryszard Zbrzyzny, SLD-UP . Notable residents Henry II the Pious (1196/1207-1241), ruler of several duchies Witelo (1230-?), philosopher and scientist Bolesław II the Bald (1220-1278), ruler of several Polish duchies Jerzy Liban (1464-1546), composer and philologist Hans von Schweinichen (1552-1616), court steward Hans Aßmann Freiherr von Abschatz (1646-1699), lyricist and translator Christian Josef Willenberg (1676-1731), military engineer Georg Rudolf Böhmer (1723-1803), pharmacist and botanist Benjamin Bilse (1816-1902), conductor and composer Wilhelm Haberling (1871-1940), doctor and historian of medicine Paul Löbe (1875-1967), social democratic politician Horst Lange (1904-1971), author Erich von Manstein Günther Reich (1921-1989), opera singer Peter Marzinkowski (born 1939), first Bishop of Alindao Aleksandra Klejnowska, weightlifter Tomasz Kot, Actor Agnieszka Bernacka (born 1977), Designer and Artist References External links Map of Silesia with town of Li(e)gnitz in 1600 Li(e)gnitz on HRE Germany map in 1600 Municipal website Lca.pl City hall Legnica

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Skye

Skye or the Isle of Skye (Scottish Gaelic An t-Eilean Sgitheanach ), is the largest and most northerly island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. The island's peninsulas radiate out from a mountainous centre dominated by the Cuillin hills. Although it has been suggested that the Gaelic name describes this shape there is no definitive agreement as to its origins. The island has been occupied since the Mesolithic and has a colourful history including a time of Norse rule and a long period of domination by clans Leod and Donald. The events of the 19th century had a devastating impact on the human population, which today numbers around 9,200. In contrast to many other Scottish islands this represents a 4% increase from the census of 1991. The residents are augmented in the summer by large numbers of tourists and visitors. The main industries are tourism, agriculture, fishing and whisky-distilling. The largest settlement is Portree, which is known for its picturesque harbour. Just over 30% of the residents on Skye speak Gaelic. Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area and is now linked to the mainland by a road bridge. The island is renowned for its spectacular scenery, vibrant culture and heritage, and its abundant wildlife including the Golden Eagle, Red Deer and Salmon. Etymology Looking south from the Quiraing, Skye. Skye's history includes the influence of Gaelic, Norse and English speaking peoples and the relationships between their names for the island are not straightforward. The Gaelic name for the Isle of Skye is An t-Eilean Sgitheanach (or Sgiathanach, a more recent and less common spelling). The meaning of this name is not clear. Various etymologies have been proposed, such as the "winged isle" or "the notched isle" Mac an Tàilleir, Iain (2003) Placenames. (pdf) Pàrlamaid na h-Alba. Retrieved 23 March 2007. but no definitive solution has been found to date and the placename may be from a substratum language and simply be opaque. Oftedal, M. The Gaelic of Leurbost Norsk Tidskrift for Sprogvidenskap 1956 For example, writing in 1549, Donald Munro, High Dean of the Isles wrote: "This Ile is callit Ellan Skiannach in Irish, that is to say in Inglish the wyngit Ile, be reason it has mony wyngis and pointis lyand furth fra it, throw the dividing of thir foirsaid Lochis". Munro, D. (1818) Description of the Western Isles of Scotland called Hybrides, by Mr. Donald Munro, High Dean of the Isles, who travelled through most of them in the year 1549. Miscellanea Scotica, 2. Quoted in Murray (1966) page 146. English translation from Lowland Scots: This isle is called Ellan Skiannach in Gaelic, that is to say in English, "The Winged Isle", by reason of its many wings and points that come from it, through dividing of the land by the aforesaid lochs. This was by no means the first written reference. Roman sources refer to the Scitis (see the Ravenna Cosmography) "Group 34: islands in the Irish Sea and the Western Isles 1" kmatthews.org.uk. Retrieved 1 March 2008. and Scetis can be found on a map by Ptolemy. Strang, Alistair (1997) Explaining Ptolemy's Roman Britain. Britannia. Vol. 28 pp. 1-30. A possible derivation from *skitis, an early Celtic word for "winged", which may describe the island's peninsulas that radiate out from a mountainous centre, has also been suggested. Skye is the northernmost of the Inner Hebrides, coloured red on this map of western Scotland. In the Norse sagas Skye is called Skíð, for example in the Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar saga "Haakon Haakonsøns Saga" Norwegian translation by P. A. Munch. saganet.is. Retrieved 3 June 2008. and a skaldic poem in the Heimskringla from c. 1230 which contains the line Hungrþverrir lét herjat hríðar gagls á Skíði Schultz, W. (1869-72) "Saga Magnús konungs berfœtts" Heimskringla.no. Retrieved 4 June 2008. which translates as "the hunger battle-birds were filled in Skye with blood of foemen killed". "Magnus Barefoot's Saga". English translation: en.wikisource.org Retrieved 4 June 2008. According to other authors, it was referred to in Norse as skuy (misty isle), *skýey or skuyö (isle of cloud). It is not certain whether the Gaelic poetic name for the island, Eilean a' Cheò "isle of the mist" precedes or postdates the Norse name. Some legends also associate the isle with the mythic figure of Queen Scáthach. MacLeod, Fiona "The Laughter of Scathach the Queen" (pdf) horrormasters.com. Retrieved 1 March 2008. PronunciationScots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: Scots Gaelic: Pronunciation: The problems with the proposed Gaelic etymologies can be summed up as follows. Firstly, the Gaelic word for "winged" is sgiathach and sgiathanach is not attested in Gaelic except in the place name and the ethnonym Sgiathanach "person from Skye". Secondly, the recorded pronunciations all point towards a clear [a] preceding the -ach ending: [s̪kʲiəhanəx], [s̪kʲiə.anəx] or [s̪kʲiaːnəx]. Borgstrøm, C. (1941) The Dialects of Skye and Ross-shire. Oslo. Norwegian University Press. This means the form Sgiathanach is very unlikely to be based on the Gaelic plural of "wing" (sgiathan), which contains a schwa ([s̪kʲiəhən]) and would represent a highly unusual adjectival form based on a plural noun. Thirdly, the diminutive/nominaliser ending -an would result in [s̪kʲiəhan] but the form sciathán is only attested in modern Irish. The Old Irish attested form is scíath (cognate with modern Welsh ysgwydd "shoulder") with a reconstructed Celtic form *skeito-, which suggests the Irish form sgiathán is an innovation and an unlikely root for Sgiathanach. MacBain, A. (1911) An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language Stirling. Eneas MacKay. 1982 edition by Gairm ISBN 901771686. Finally, deriving the name from Scáthach involves two main problems: there would be a case of unexplained palatalisation of [s̪k] to [s̪kʲ] and an unexplained extra element -an-. The roots of the Roman and Greek forms, Scit- and Scet- (meaning unknown), could be the root of Sgitheanach as they would regularly develop into Old Gaelic [s̪gʲiθ-] and be an entirely logical source for the attested Norse Skíð. It would also lead to modern Sgitheanach via a regular suffigation of -an and -ach to form an ethnonym and adjective. This would also explain the use of an apparent root form in An Cuan Sgith(e) the Little Minch (the strait separating the Outer Hebrides from the Inner Hebrides) and the older Irish form of Scíth rather than the modern An tOileán Sgiathanach, for example: Do ṡiuḃal sé Scíṫ agus an dá Uiḃeast agus Beinn a’ Ṁaola... "He travelled Skye and the two Uists and Benbecula...". Ó Caḋlaiġ, C. An Ḟiannuiḋeaċt Oifig an tSoláṫair 1937 In this case the interpretation of the name as "winged" may simply be a case of folk-etymology. For discussions of phonological development see Borgstrøm (1941), Oftedal, Magne (1956) The Gaelic of Leurbost. Oslo. Norsk Tidskrift for Sprogvidenskap and McCone, Kim (ed) (1994) Stair na Gaeilge: In Ómós do Phádraig Ó Fiannachta. Coláiste Phàdraig, Maigh Nuad. ISBN 0-901519-90-1. In April 2007 it was reported in the media that the island's official name had been changed by the Highland Council to Eilean a' Cheò. However, the Council clarified that this name referred only to one of its 22 wards in the then impending election, and that there were no plans to change signage or discontinue the English name. Geography Skye and the surrounding islands At , Skye is the second-largest island in Scotland after Lewis and Harris. The coastline of Skye is a series of peninsulas and bays radiating out from a centre dominated by the Cuillin (Gaelic:An Cuiltheann) hills. The main peninsulas include Trotternish in the north, Waternish, Duirinish, Minginish and Strathaird to the west and Sleat in the south. Surrounding islands include Isay, Longay, Pabay, Raasay, Rona, Scalpay, Soay and Wiay. Malcolm Slesser suggested that its shape "sticks out of the west coast of northern Scotland like a lobster's claw ready to snap at the fish bone of Harris and Lewis" Slesser (1970) page 19. and W. H. Murray that "Skye is sixty miles long, but what might be its breadth is beyond the ingenuity of man to state". Martin Martin visited the island and reported on it at length in a 1703 publication. His geological observations included a note that: The Black Cuillin, which are mainly composed of basalt and gabbro, include 12 Munros and provide some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland. The ascent of Sgurr a' Ghreadaidh is one of the longest rock climbs in Britain and the Inaccessible Pinnacle is the only peak in Scotland that requires technical climbing skills to reach the summit. "Sgurr Dearg and the In Pinn" skyewalk.co.uk Retrieved 2 March 2008. A full traverse of the Cuillin ridge may take 15–20 hours to complete. Wells, Colin (2007) "Running in Heaven". Glasgow. Sunday Herald Retrieved 9 March 2008. The Red Hills (Gaelic: Am Binnean Dearg) to the south are sometimes also known as the Red Cuillin. They are mainly composed of granite that has weathered into more rounded hills with many long screes slopes on their flanks. The highest point of these hills is Glamaig, one of only two Corbetts on Skye. Johnstone, Scott et al. (1990) The Corbetts and Other Scottish Hills. Edinburgh. Scottish Mountaineering Trust. The vertical west face of Am Basteir in the Cuillin, with Sgurr nan Gillean in the background Trotternish is underlain by basalt, which provides relatively rich soils and a variety of unusual rock features. The Kilt Rock is named for the tartan-like patterns in the 105 metre (350 ft) cliffs. The Quirang is a spectacular series of rock pinnacles on the eastern side of the main spine of the peninsula and further south is the rock pillar of the Old Man of Storr. Murray (1966) page 149 Beyond Loch Snizort to the west of Trotternish is the Waternish peninsula, which ends in Ardmore Point's double rock arch. Duirinish is separated from Waternish by Loch Dunvegan. It is ringed by sea cliffs which reach 295 metres (967 ft) at Waterstein Head. Oolitic loam provides good arable land in the main strath. Lochs Bracadale and Harport lie between Duirinish and Minginish which includes the narrow valleys of Talisker and Glen Brittle and whose beaches are formed from black basaltic sands. Murray (1966) pages 156-61 Strathaird is a relatively small peninsula close to the Cuillin hills with several small crofting communities. "The locality" Elgol & Torrin Historical Society (Comunn Eachdraidh Ealaghol agus Na Torran) Retrieved 9 March 2008. The bedrock of Sleat is Torridonian sandstone which produces poor soils and boggy ground, although its lower elevations and relatively sheltered eastern shores produces a lush growth of hedgerows and crops. Murray (1966) pages 147 and 165. Climate The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream create a mild oceanic climate. Temperatures are generally cool, averaging 6.5 °C (44 °F) in January and 15.4 °C (60 °F) in July at Duntulm in Trotternish. Figures provided for Staffin, only a few miles to the east, average 4.6 °C (40.2 °F) in January and 15.6 °C (60.0 °F) in July at noon. Slesser (1970) pp. 31-3. (20-year averages). See also "Weather Data for Staffin Isle of Skye". carbostweather.co.uk. Retrieved 7 June 2008. Snow seldom lies at sea level and frosts are fewer than the mainland. Winds are a limiting factor for vegetation with speeds of 128 km/h (80 mph) being recorded and south-westerlies the most common. High winds are especially likely on the exposed coasts of Trotternish and Waternish. Murray (1966) page 147. In common with most islands of the west coast of Scotland, rainfall is generally high at between 1500-2000 mm (60-80 in) per annum and the elevated Cuillin are wetter still. Variations can be considerable, with the north tending to be drier than the south. Broadford, for example, averages more than 2,870 mm (113 inches) per annum. Slesser (1970) pp. 27-30 Trotternish averages 200 hours of bright sunshine in May, the sunniest month. Murray, W.H. (1973) The Islands of Western Scotland. London. Eyre Methuen. p.79. Portree, Skye's largest settlement Towns and villages Portree in the north at the base of Trotternish is the largest settlement, and main service centre on the island, with a population of 1,960. "Highland Profile" The Highland Council (2004 estimate). Retrieved 8 March 2008. Broadford is on the east side of the island and Dunvegan in the west. Kyleakin is linked to Kyle of Lochalsh on the mainland by the Skye Bridge that spans the narrows of Loch Alsh. Uig is on the west of the Trotternish peninsula and Edinbane is located between Dunvegan and Portree. History Prehistory A Mesolithic hunter-gatherer site dating to the 7th millennium BC at An Corran in Staffin is one of the oldest archaeological sites in Scotland. Its occupation is probably linked to that of the rock shelter at Sand, Applecross on the coast of Wester Ross. Surveys of the area between the two along shores of the Inner Sound and Sound of Raasay have revealed thirty three sites with potentially Mesolithic deposits. "An Corran" Staffin Community Trust (Urras an Taobh Sear) Retrieved 15 March 2008. Wickham-Jones, C.R. and Hardy, K. "Scotlands First Settlers". History Scotland Magazine. Retrieved 15 March 2008. Finds of bloodstone microliths on the foreshore at Orbost on the west coast of the island near Dunvegan also suggest Mesolithic occupation of the area. These tools probably originate from the nearby island of Rùm. Aesthetics, morality and bureaucracy: A case study of land reform and perceptions of landscape change in Northwest Scotland (pdf) Centre for International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric. Retrieved 19 May 2008. Rubha an Dùnain, an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin, has a variety of archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic onwards. Loch na h-Airde, which is situated close to the ruins of a promontory fort, is linked to the sea by the artificial 'Viking canal' and there are remains of prehistoric settlement dating from the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages nearby. "Skye survey" University of Edinburgh. Retrieved 15 March 2008. Dun Ringill is a ruined Iron Age hill fort on the Strathaird peninsula, which was further fortified in the Middle Ages and may have been the seat of Clan MacKinnon. Ritchie, Anna and Ritchie, Graham (1998) Scotland: An Oxford Archaeological Guide. Oxford University Press. ISBN 019288002-0 Norse Rule The Norse held sway throughout the Hebrides from the 9th century until after the Treaty of Perth in 1266. However, little remains of their presence in the written or archeological record on Skye. Viking heritage is nonetheless claimed by Clan MacLeod and Norse tradition is celebrated in the winter fire festival at Dunvegan, during which a replica Viking long boat is set alight. "The Norse Connection" celtictraditions.com. Retrieved 15 March 2008. Clans & Scottish Rule Skye as shown on Blaeu's 1654 Atlas of Scotland The most powerful clans on Skye in the post–Norse period were Clan MacLeod, originally based in Trotternish, and Clan MacDonald of Sleat. The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods, and the attempt by the former to murder church-goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg, resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578. Murray (1966) p. 156. "The Massacre at Trumpan Church and the subsequent Battle of the Spoiled Dyke". The Hendry Family. Retrieved 25 May 2008. After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops. Although she was born on South Uist her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye and she is buried at Kilmuir in Trotternish. Skye was visited by Samuel Johnson and James Boswell during their 1773 Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. Boswell wrote of their visit to Kilmuir that "To see Dr. Samuel Johnson, the great champion of the English Tories, salute Miss Flora MacDonald in the isle of Sky, was a striking sight; for though somewhat congenial in their notions, it was very improbable they should meet here. Boswell (1785) pp. 142-3. Written on her gravestone are Johnson's words that hers was "A name that will be mentioned in history, and if courage and fidelity be virtues, mentioned with honour". Murray (1966) pages 152-4. In the wake of the rebellion the clan system was broken up and Skye became a series of landed estates. Of the island in general, Johnson observed: Dunvegan Castle, looking towards MacLeod's Tables Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from this period, especially castles. Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the thirteenth century. The castle contains the Fairy Flag and is reputed to have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland. "Dunvegan Castle" dunvegancastle.com Retrieved 2 March 2008. The 18th century Armadale Castle, once home of Clan Donald of Sleat was abandoned as a residence in 1925 but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre. "Armadale Castle" Clan Donald Centre. Retrieved 2 March 2008. Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds, Knock Castle, and Dunscaith Castle, the legendary home of Queen Scáthach. "The Barony of MacDonald" baronage.co.uk Retrieved 2 March 2008. Caisteal Maol built in the late 15th century near Kyleakin and once a seat of Clan MacKinnon is another ruin. "Caisteal Maol" castles.org Retrieved 2 March 2008. Clearances Restored black house, Isle of Skye From the latter part of the 18th century up to the mid-19th century, the inhabitants of Skye were devastated by famine and clearances. The "Battle of the Braes" involved a demonstration against a lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices. The incident involved numerous crofters and about 50 police officers. This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission, which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands. Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order. "Battle of the Braes" highlandclearances.info. Retrieved 29 March 2008. An example of a clearance village can be seen at Boreraig, Strath Swordale. The clearances contributed to a severely depleted population, which measured less than nine thousand at the 1991 census. Overview of population trends In common with many Scottish islands, Skye's population peaked in the 19th century and has experienced a significant decline since then in the wake of the Clearances. By 1971 the population was less than a third of its 1841 peak recorded figure. The later years of the twentieth century saw a revival and the total grew by over 28% in the thirty years to 2001. YearPopulation 1755 11,252 1794 14,470 1821 20,827 1841 23,082 1881 16,889 1891 15,705 1931 9,908YearPopulation 1951 8,537 1961 7,479 1971 7,183 1981 7,276 1991 8,847 2001 9,232 The changing relationship between the residents and the land is evidenced by Robert Carruther's remark circa 1852 that "There is now a village in Portree containing three hundred inhabitants". Even if this estimate is inexact the population of the island's largest settlement has likely increased since then by about 600%. During the period the total number of island residents has declined by 50% or more. Carruthers was the editor of the National Illustrated Library's 1852 edition of Boswell (1785) who added a footnote to this effect. See p. 141. Gaelic Skye has historically been a very strong Gaelic speaking area. Both in the 1901 and 1921 census, all parishes in Skye were reported to be over 75% Gaelic speaking. By 1971, only the Kilmuir parish still had more than 75% Gaelic speakers, the rest of Skye ranged between 50-74%. At the time, this made Kilmuir the only area outside the Western Isles which had more than 75% Gaelic speakers. Mac an Tàilleir, Iain (2004) 1901-2001 Gaelic in the Census (PowerPoint ) Linguae Celticae. Retrieved 1 June 2008. By the time of the 2001 census Kilmuir had 47% Gaelic speakers, with Skye overall having an unevenly distributed 31%. The strongest Gaelic speaking areas are located in the north and south-west of the island (Staffin 61%, Tarskavaig and Achnacloich 54%). The weakest areas are in the west and east (Galtrigill 18%, Luib 23%, Kylerhea 19%). Other areas on Skye range between 48% (Earlish) and 25% (Kyleakin). Government and politics The Old Man of Storr, Skye In terms of local government, Skye forms part of the Highland Council area (Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd) based in Inverness. "The Highland Council (Comhairle na Gaidhealtachd)". Retrieved 8 March 2008. From 1975 to 1996, Skye, along with the neighbouring mainland area of Lochalsh, constituted a local government district within the Highland administrative area. In 1996 the district was included into the Highland Unitary Authority, and formed one of the new council's area committees. "Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994: Chapter 39". Office of Public Sector Information. Retrieved 8 March 2008. Following the 2007 elections, Skye now forms a four-member ward called Eilean a' Cheò; it is currently represented by two Independents, one Scottish National Party, and one Liberal Democrat councillor. Skye is in the Highlands electoral region and comprises a part of the Ross Skye and Inverness West Scottish Parliament constituency, which elects one member under the first past the post basis to represent it. Currently this is John Farquhar Munro for the Liberal Democrats. In addition, Skye forms part of the wider Ross Skye and Lochaber UK Parliament constituency, which elects one member to the House of Commons. The present Member of Parliament is Charles Kennedy MP for the Liberal Democrats, who is a former leader of the party and has represented the area since 1983. "Member Profile: Charles Kennedy" United Kingdom Parliament. Retrieved 8 March 2008. Economy Caisteal Maol and Kyleakin The largest employer on the island and its environs is the public sector, which accounts for about a third of the total workforce, principally in administration, education and health. The second largest employer in the area is the distribution, hotels and restaurants sector, highlighting the importance of tourism. Key attractions include Dunvegan Castle, the Clan Donald Visitor centre, and The Aros Experience in Portree. "The Aros Experience" Visit Britain. Retrieved 8 March 2008. There are about a dozen large landowners on Skye, the largest again being the public sector, the Department of Agriculture owning most of the northern part of the island. However, small firms dominate employment in the private sector. The Talisker Distillery, which produces a single malt whisky, is manufactured beside Loch Harport on the west coast of the island. Three other whiskies (Mac na Mara (lit. "son of the sea" , Tè Bheag nan Eilean (lit. "wee dram of the isles" ) and Poit Dhubh (lit. "black pot" ) are produced by blender Pràban na Linne (lit. "a smugglers den by the sound of Sleat"), based at Eilean Iarmain . "Talisker Scotch Whisky Distillery". Scotchwhisky.net. Retrieved 8 March 2008. "Pràban - The Home of fine Scottish Whisky" gaelicwhisky.com. Retrieved 8 March 2008. These are marketed using predominantly Gaelic-language labels. Crofting is still important, but although there are about 2,000 crofts on Skye only 100 or so are large enough to enable a crofter to earn a livelihood entirely from the land. MacDonald, Jonathan (1988) A Short History of Crofting in Skye eidosnet.co.uk. Retrieved 8 March 2008. Cod and herring stocks have declined but commercial fishing remains important, especially fish farming of salmon and shellfish such as scampi. The west coast of Scotland has a considerable renewable energy potential and the Isle of Skye Renewables Co-op has recently bought a stake in the Ben Aketil wind farm near Dunvegan. "Welcome" Isle of Skye Renewables Cooperative Ltd. Retrieved 31 March 2008. Parker, David et al. (April 2008) "Leading by Example" Durham. New Sector: Issue 78. The unemployment rate in the area tends to be higher than that for the Highlands as a whole, and is seasonal in nature. The population is growing and in common with many other scenic rural areas in Scotland, significant increases are expected in the percentage of the population aged 45 to 64 years. "About our area" HIE Skye and Wester Ross. Retrieved 8 March 2008. Statistics are not produced for Skye alone, but for the HIE Skye and Wester Ross area, in which the public sector provides 37.1% of the labour force. Transport Skye is linked to the mainland by the Skye Bridge, while ferries sail from Armadale on the island to Mallaig, and from Kylerhea to Glenelg. Ferries also run from Uig to Tarbert on Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist, and from Sconser to Raasay. Skye Bridge, Isle of Skye The Skye Bridge, linking Skye with the mainland of Scotland, opened in 1995 under a private finance initiative. The high tolls charged (£5.70 each way for summer visitors) met with widespread opposition, spearheaded by the pressure group SKAT (Skye and Kyle Against Tolls). On 21 December 2004 it was announced that the Scottish Executive had purchased the bridge from its owners and the tolls were immediately removed. "SKAT Fought the Cost of Over The Sea To Skye" SKAT. Retrieved 9 March 2008. Bus services run to Inverness and Glasgow, and there are local services on the island, mainly starting from Portree or Broadford. Train services run from Kyle of Lochalsh at the mainland end of the Skye Bridge to Inverness, as well as from Glasgow to Mallaig from where the ferry can be caught to Armadale. "Travel Information" University of Glasgow. Retrieved 9 March 2008. There is also a small aerodrome at Ashaig near Broadford, which is used exclusively by private aircraft. "Finding (on) Ashaig Airstrip" Aerlines. Retrieved 9 March 2008. The A87 trunk road traverses the island from the Skye Bridge to Uig, linking most of the major settlements. Many of the island's roads have been widened in the past forty years, but there are still substantial sections of single track road. Culture The new college buildings, Sabhal Mòr Ostaig Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, a Scottish Gaelic college based in Sleat. "Weclome to Sabhal Mòr Ostaig" UHI Millennium Institute. Retrieved 8 March 2008. In addition to members of the Church of Scotland and a smaller number of Roman Catholics many residents of Skye belong to the Free Church of Scotland, known for its strict observance of the Sabbath. Pacione, Michael (2005) "The Geography of Religious Affiliation in Scotland". The Professional Geographer 57(2). Oxford. Blackwell. The 2001 census statistics used are based on local authority areas and do not specifically identify Free Church adherents. However the averages for Highland and Eilean Siar, between which the total for Skye is likely to lie are 48-42% Church of Scotland, 7-13% Roman Catholic and 12-28% 'Other Christian', of whom the majority will be Free Church members. The total for all other religions combined is 1% for both areas. Shinty is a highly popular sport played throughout the island. Portree based Skye Camanachd won the Camanachd Cup in 1990. Media and the arts Skye has a strong folk music tradition, although in recent years dance and rock music have been growing in popularity on the island. Gaelic folk rock band Runrig started in Skye and former singer Donnie Munro still works on the island. "Donnie Munro: Biography" donniemunro.co.uk. Retrieved 5 April 2007 Jethro Tull singer Ian Anderson owned an estate at Strathaird on Skye at one time. Several Tull songs are written about Skye, including Dun Ringil, Broadford Bazaar, and Acres Wild (which contains the lines "Come with me to the Winged Isle, / Northern father's western child" as a poetic reference to the island itself). The Annotated Jethro Tull Lyrics Page Cupofwonder.com Retrieved 10 November 2007. The Isle of Skye Music Festival featured sets from The Fun Lovin' Criminals and Sparks, but collapsed in 2007. of Skye Music Festival 07" Skye Music Festival. Retrieved 8 March 2008. "Isle of Skye Music Festival 2006 " efestivals.co.uk. Retrieved 8 March 2008. Electronic musician Mylo was born in Skye and frequently returns there to perform. "Mylo Biography" mylo.tv Retrieved 8 March 2008. The poet Sorley MacLean, a native of the Isle of Raasay which lies off the island's east coast, lived much of his life on Skye. "Sorley Maclean 1911 - 1996" bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 8 March 2008. The island has been immortalised in the traditional song The Skye Boat Song and is the notional setting for the novel To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf, although the Skye of the novel bears little relation to the real island. Woolf, Virginia (1927) To the Lighthouse. London. Hogarth. John Buchan descriptions of the island, as featured in his Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast, are more true to life. Buchan, John. Mr Standfast. (London: Penguin Books, 1919) Skye has been used as a location for a number of feature films. The Ashaig aerodrome was used for the opening scenes of the 1980 film Flash Gordon. "Scotland's starring role in 100 films" Edinburgh. The Scotsman. Retrieved 1 March 2008. Stardust, released in 2007 and starring Robert De Niro and Michelle Pfeiffer, featured scenes shot as Eilean Iarmain and the Quiraing. Synnot, Siobhan "Michelle Pfeiffer: My Battle With Scottish Weather" (6 October 2007). Glasgow. Daily Record. Retrieved 21 October 2007. Another 2007 film, Seachd: The Inaccessible Pinnacle, was shot almost entirely in various locations on the island (a small number of scenes being filmed on the mainland). "Seachd: The Innacessible Pinnacle" seachd.com Retrieved 2 March 2008. The West Highland Free Press is published at Broadford. This weekly newspaper takes as its motto "An Tìr, an Cànan 's na Daoine" - "The Land, the Language and the People" which reflects its radical, campaigning priorities. The Free Press was founded in 1972 and circulates in Skye, Wester Ross and the Outer Hebrides. West Highland Free Press. Broadford. Retrieved 2 March 2008. Loch Fada, Trotternish, looking towards The Storr Wildlife The Hebrides generally lack biodiversity in comparison to mainland Britain, For example, there are only half the number of mammalian species that exist on mainland Britain. See Murray, W.H. (1973) The Islands of Western Scotland. London. Eyre Methuen. Page 72. but like most of the larger islands Skye has much to offer the naturalist. Observing the abdundance of game birds Martin Martin wrote: Similarly, Samuel Johnson noted that: The Black Guillemot or Tystie (Cepphus grylle) In the modern era avian life includes the Corncrake, Red-throated Diver, Rock Dove, Kittiwake, Tystie, Atlantic Puffin, Goldeneye, Golden Eagle and White-tailed Sea Eagle. "Wildlife of Trotternish, Isle of Skye" eidosnet.co.uk. Retrieved 29 March 2008. The Chough last bred on the island in 1900. Fraser Darling (1969) page 79. Mountain Hare (apparently absent in the 18th century) and Rabbit are now abundant and predated on by Wild Cat and Pine Marten. Fraser Darling (1969) pages 71-2. The rich fresh water streams contain Brown Trout, Atlantic Salmon and Water Shrew. Fraser Darling (1969) page 286. "Trout Fishing in Scotland:Skye" trout-salmon-fishing.com. Retrieved 29 March 2008. 'Salmon and Trout Fishing on the River Snizort" skyesalmon.co.uk. Retrieved 29 March 2008. Offshore the Edible Crab and Oyster are also found, the latter especially in the Sound of Scalpay. Fraser Darling (1969) page 84. There are also nationally important Horse Mussel and Brittlestar beds in the sea lochs. Heather moor containing Ling, Bell Heather, Cross-leaved Heath, Bog Myrtle and Fescues is everywhere abundant. The high Black Cuillins weather too slowly to produce a soil that sustains a rich plant life, but each of the main peninsulas has an individual flora. The basalt underpinnings of Trotternish produce a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including Alpine Pearlwort and Mossy Cyphal. The low-lying fields of Waternish contain Corn Marigold and Corn Spurrey. The sea cliffs of Duirinish boast Mountain Avens and Fir Clubmoss. Minginish produces Fairy Flax, Cats-ear and Black Bog-rush. Slack, Alf "Flora" in Slesser (1970) pp 45-58. There is a fine example of Brachypodium-rich Ash woodland at Tokavaig in Sleat incorporating Silver Birch, Hazel, Bird Cherry, and Hawthorn. Fraser Darling (1969) page 156. The local Biodiversity Action Plan recommends land management measures to control the spread of Ragwort and Bracken and identifies four non-native, invasive species as threatening native biodiversity: Japanese Knotweed, Rhododendron, New Zealand Flatworm and Mink. It also identifies problems of over-grazing resulting in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland, caused by the large numbers of Red Deer and sheep. Skye & Lochalsh Biodiversity Action Plan (2003) (pdf) Skye and Lochalsh Biodiversity Group. Retrieved 29 March 2008. See also :Category:Mountains and hills of Skye List of islands of Scotland Notes References External links Skye and Lochalsh tourist and business information The independent guide to Skye Free independent guide to walks on the Isle of Skye SKAT homepage Isle of Skye images The Isle of Skye Music Festival homepage Skye Flora

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Early_music

Early music is commonly defined as European classical music from the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the Baroque. The Early Music Movement as a trend in history is the study and performance of music from composers before our own era and began in 1829 when Felix Mendelssohn conducted Bach's St Matthew Passion. Performance practice The early music movement of the 20th century has been closely associated with the concept of performance practice. With the renewed interest in early music came an interest in using period instruments and historically aware playing techniques. Notation and performance According to Margaret Bent (1998,), Early music notation, "is under-prescriptive by our standards; when translated into modern form it acquires a prescriptive weight that overspecifies and distorts its original openness." Before about 1600, written music did not consistently state which instruments are used when. A century earlier, people who wrote down music did not always specify whether lines of polyphony were to be sung or played on an instrument. Similarly, the notation frequently does not indicate what key to play the music in, if any. Accidentals were not necessary. Notations for rhythm go back only to about 1200. There is thus a speculative element to all modern performances of Medieval and Renaissance music. However, Renaissance musicians would have been highly trained in dyadic counterpoint and thus possessed this and other information necessary to read a score, "what modern notation [now] requires [accidentals] would then have been perfectly apparent without notation to a singer versed in counterpoint" (ibid). See the article on Renaissance music and its section on notation and performance. In the early-music revival of the 20th century, the concept of historically informed performance—that is, using available documentation and other contextual evidence to recreate as closely as possible the original ways of playing the instruments used in early music—became an important facet of the performance of early musical notation. See also Early Music Network Early Music Revival Historically informed performance List of early music ensembles Neo-medieval music History of music Sources Bent, Margaret. "The Grammar of Early Music: Preconditions for Analysis" in Judd, Cristle Collins (ed.) (1998). Tonal Structures of Early Music. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-2388-3. Judd, Cristle Collins. "Introduction: Analyzing Early Music" in Judd, Cristle Collins (ed.) (1998). Tonal Structures of Early Music. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-2388-3. External links Early Music FAQ What is Early Music? Ancient Tunes, Young Ears: Teaching Early Music to Kids Early MusiChicago - Early Music in Chicago and Beyond, with many links and resources of general interest

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Parabola

A parabola A parabola obtained as the intersection of a cone with a plane. In mathematics, the parabola (, from the Greek παραβολή) is a conic section, the intersection of a right circular conical surface and a plane parallel to a generating straight line of that surface. Given a point (the focus) and a line (the directrix) that lie in a plane, the locus of points in that plane that are equidistant to them is a parabola. A particular case arises when the plane is tangent to the conical surface of a circle. In this case, the intersection is a degenerate parabola consisting of a straight line. The parabola is an important concept in abstract mathematics, but it is also seen with considerable frequency in the physical world, and there are many practical applications for the construct in engineering, physics, and other domains. Analytic Geometry Equations Parabolas are conic sections. A diagram showing the reflective property, the directrix (solid green), and the lines connecting the focus and directrix to the parabola (blue) In Cartesian coordinates, a parabola with an axis parallel to the axis with vertex , focus , and directrix , with being the distance from the vertex to the focus, has the equation with axis parallel to the -axis or, alternatively with axis parallel to the x-axis More generally, a parabola is a curve in the Cartesian plane defined by an irreducible equation of the form such that , where all of the coefficients are real, where or , and where more than one solution, defining a pair of points (x, y) on the parabola, exists. That the equation is irreducible means it does not factor as a product of two not necessarily distinct linear equations. Other geometric definitions A parabola may also be characterized as a conic section with an eccentricity of 1. As a consequence of this, all parabolas are similar. A parabola can also be obtained as the limit of a sequence of ellipses where one focus is kept fixed as the other is allowed to move arbitrarily far away in one direction. In this sense, a parabola may be considered an ellipse that has one focus at infinity. The parabola is an inverse transform of a cardioid. A parabola has a single axis of reflective symmetry, which passes through its focus and is perpendicular to its directrix. The point of intersection of this axis and the parabola is called the vertex. A parabola spun about this axis in three dimensions traces out a shape known as a paraboloid of revolution. The parabola is found in numerous situations in the physical world (see below). Equations (with vertex (h, k) and distance p between vertex and focus - note that if the vertex is below the focus, or equivalently above the directrix, p is positive, otherwise p is negative; similarly with horizontal axis of symmetry p is positive if vertex is to the left of the focus, or equivalently to the right of the directrix) Cartesian Vertical axis of symmetry . Horizontal axis of symmetry . General parabola The general form for a parabola is which is derived from the general conic equation and the fact that, for a parabola, Latus rectum, semi-latus rectum, and polar coordinates In polar coordinates, a parabola with the focus at the origin and the directrix parallel to the y-axis, is given by the equation where l is the semilatus rectum: the distance from the focus to the parabola itself, measured along a line perpendicular to the axis. Note that this is twice the distance from the focus to the apex of the parabola or the perpendicular distance from the focus to the latus rectum. The latus rectum is the chord that passes through the focus and is perpendicular to the axis. It has a length of 4l. Gauss-mapped form A Gauss-mapped form: has normal . Derivation of the focus Parabolic curve showing directrix (L) and focus (F). The distance from a given point Pn to the focus is always the same as the distance from Pn to a point Qn directly below, on the directrix. Parabolic curve showing arbitrary line (L), focus (F), and vertex (V). L is an arbitrary line perpendicular to the axis of symmetry and opposite the focus of the parabola from the vertex (i.e. farther from V than from F.) The length of any line F - Pn - Qn is the same. This is similar to saying that a parabola is an ellipse, but with one focal point at infinity. To derive the focus of a simple parabola, where the axis of symmetry is parallel to the y-axis with the vertex at (0,0), such as then there is a point (0,f) — the focus, F — such that any point P on the parabola will be equidistant from both the focus and the linea directrix, L. The linea directrix is a a line perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the parabola (in this case parallel to the x axis) and passes through the point (0,-f). So any point P=(x,y) on the parabola will be equidistant both to (0,f) and (x,-f). FP, a line from the focus to a point on the parabola, has the same length as QP, a line drawn from that point on the parabola perpendicular to the linea directrix, intersecting at point Q. Imagine a right triangle with two legs, x and f-y (the vertical distance between F and P). The length of the hypotenuse, FP, is given by (Note that (f-y) and (y-f) produce the same result because it is squared.) The line QP is given by adding y (the vertical distance between the point P and the x-axis) and f (the vertical distance between the x-axis and the linea directrix). These two line segments are equal, and, as indicated above, y=ax², thus Square both sides, Cancel out terms from both sides, Divide out the x² from both sides (we assume that x is not zero), So, for a parabola such as f(x)=x², the a coefficient is 1, so the focus F is (0,¼) As stated above, this is the derivation of the focus for a simple parabola, one centered at the origin and with symmetry around the y-axis. For any generalized parabola, with its equation given in the standard form , the focus is located at the point which may also be written as and the directrix is designated by the equation which may also be written as Reflective property of the tangent The tangent of the parabola described by equation (1) has slope This line intersects the y-axis at the point (0,-y) = (0, - a x²), and the x-axis at the point (x/2,0). Let this point be called G. Point G is also the midpoint of points F and Q: Since G is the midpoint of line FQ, this means that and it is already known that P is equidistant from both F and Q: and, thirdly, line GP is equal to itself, therefore: It follows that . Line QP can be extended beyond P to some point T, and line GP can be extended beyond P to some point R. Then and are vertical, so they are equal (congruent). But is equal to . Therefore is equal to . The line RG is tangent to the parabola at P, so any light beam bouncing off point P will behave as if line RG were a mirror and it were bouncing off that mirror. Let a light beam travel down the vertical line TP and bounce off from P. The beam's angle of inclination from the mirror is , so when it bounces off, its angle of inclination must be equal to . But has been shown to be equal to . Therefore the beam bounces off along the line FP: directly towards the focus. Conclusion: Any light beam moving vertically downwards in the concavity of the parabola (parallel to the axis of symmetry) will bounce off the parabola moving directly towards the focus. (See parabolic reflector.) When b varies Vertex of a parabola: Finding the y-coordinate'We know the x''-coordinate at the vertex is , so substitute it into the equation Simplifying: Thus, the vertex is at point Parabolas in the physical world A bouncing ball captured with a stroboscopic flash at 25 images per second. Note that the ball becomes significantly non-spherical after each bounce, especially after the first. That, along with spin and air resistance, causes the curve swept out to deviate slightly from the expected perfect parabola In nature, approximations of parabolas and paraboloids are found in many diverse situations. The most well-known instance of the parabola in the history of physics is the trajectory of a particle or body in motion under the influence of a uniform gravitational field without air resistance (for instance, a baseball flying through the air, neglecting air friction). The parabolic trajectory of projectiles was discovered experimentally by Galileo in the early 17th century, who performed experiments with balls rolling on inclined planes. He also later proved this mathematically in his book 'Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences' Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences (1638) (The Motion of Projectiles: Theorem 1); see [http:oll.libertyfund.org] . However, this parabolic shape, as Newton recognized, is only an approximation of the actual elliptical shape of the trajectory, and is obtained by assuming that the gravitational force is constant (not pointing toward the center of the earth) in the area of interest. Often, this difference is negligible, and leads to a simpler formula for tracking motion. For objects extended in space, such as a diver jumping from a diving board, the object itself follows a complex motion as it rotates, but the center of mass of the object nevertheless forms a parabola. As in all cases in the physical world, the trajectory is always an approximation of a parabola. The presence of air resistance, for example, always distorts the shape, although at low speeds, the shape is a good approximation of a parabola. At higher speeds, such as in ballistics, the shape is highly distorted and does not resemble a parabola. Parabolic shape formed by a liquid surface under rotation. Two liquids of different densities are contained in a narrow rectangular tank Another situation in which parabola may arise in nature is in two-body orbits, for example, of a small planetoid or other object under the influence of the gravitation of the sun. Such parabolic orbits are a special case that are rarely found in nature. Orbits that form a hyperbola or an ellipse are much more common. In fact, the parabolic orbit is the borderline case between those two types of orbit. An object following a parabolic orbit moves at the exact escape velocity of the object it is orbiting, while elliptical orbits are slower and hyperbolic orbits are faster. Approximations of parabolas are also found in the shape of the main cables on a typical suspension bridge. Freely hanging cables as seen on a simple suspension bridge do not describe parabolic curves, but rather hyperbolic catenary curves. Under the influence of a uniform load (such as a horizontal suspended deck), the otherwise hyperbolic cable is deformed toward a parabola. Paraboloids arise in several physical situations as well. The most well-known instance is the parabolic reflector, which is a mirror or similar reflective device that concentrates light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation to a common focal point. The principle of the parabolic reflector may have been discovered in the 3rd century BC by the geometer Archimedes, who, according to a legend of debatable veracity, constructed parabolic mirrors to defend Syracuse against the Roman fleet, by concentrating the sun's rays to set fire to the decks of the Roman ships. The principle was applied to telescopes in the 17th century. Today, paraboloid reflectors can be commonly observed throughout much of the world in microwave and satellite dish antennas. Paraboloids are also observed in the surface of a liquid confined to a container and rotated around the central axis. In this case, the centrifugal force causes the liquid to climb the walls of the container, forming a parabolic surface. This is the principle behind the liquid mirror telescope. Aircraft used to create a weightless state for purposes of experimentation, such as NASA's “Vomit Comet,” follow a vertically parabolic trajectory for brief periods in order to trace the course of an object in free fall, which produces the same effect as zero gravity for most purposes. See also Catenary Conic section Ellipse Hyperbola Locus Parabolic constant Parabolic reflector Parabolic partial differential equation Paraboloid Quadratic equation Quadratic function References External links Apollonius' Derivation of the Parabola at Convergence Interactive parabola-drag focus, see axis of symmetry, directrix, standard and vertex forms Archimedes Triangle and Squaring of Parabola at cut-the-knot Two Tangents to Parabola at cut-the-knot Parabola As Envelope of Straight Lines at cut-the-knot Parabolic Mirror at cut-the-knot Three Parabola Tangents at cut-the-knot Module for the Tangent Parabola Focal Properties of Parabola at cut-the-knot Parabola As Envelope II at cut-the-knot

Parabola |@lemmatized parabola:62 obtain:3 intersection:4 cone:1 plane:7 mathematics:2 greek:1 παραβολή:1 conic:5 section:4 right:3 circular:1 conical:2 surface:6 parallel:8 generate:1 straight:3 line:23 give:6 point:27 focus:30 directrix:16 lie:1 locus:2 equidistant:4 particular:1 case:7 arise:3 tangent:7 circle:1 degenerate:1 consisting:1 important:1 concept:1 abstract:1 also:10 see:7 considerable:1 frequency:1 physical:5 world:5 many:2 practical:1 application:1 construct:2 engineering:1 physic:2 domain:1 analytic:1 geometry:1 equation:14 diagram:1 show:4 reflective:4 property:3 solid:1 green:1 connect:1 blue:1 cartesian:3 coordinate:5 axis:28 vertex:14 distance:10 alternatively:1 x:13 generally:1 curve:6 define:2 irreducible:2 form:11 coefficient:2 real:1 one:6 solution:1 pair:1 exist:1 mean:2 factor:1 product:1 two:9 necessarily:1 distinct:1 linear:1 geometric:1 definition:1 may:6 characterize:1 eccentricity:1 consequence:1 similar:3 limit:1 sequence:1 ellipsis:1 kept:1 fixed:1 allow:1 move:4 arbitrarily:1 far:1 away:1 direction:1 sense:1 consider:1 ellipse:4 infinity:2 inverse:1 transform:1 cardioid:1 single:1 symmetry:10 pass:3 perpendicular:7 call:2 spun:1 three:2 dimension:1 trace:2 shape:8 know:5 paraboloid:6 revolution:1 find:5 numerous:1 situation:4 h:1 k:1 p:14 note:4 equivalently:2 positive:2 otherwise:2 negative:1 similarly:1 horizontal:3 left:1 vertical:6 general:3 derive:2 fact:2 latus:4 rectum:5 semi:1 polar:2 origin:2 l:5 semilatus:1 measure:1 along:3 twice:1 apex:1 chord:1 length:4 gauss:2 map:1 mapped:1 normal:1 derivation:3 parabolic:19 f:18 pn:3 always:3 qn:2 directly:3 arbitrary:2 v:2 opposite:1 e:1 farther:1 say:1 focal:3 simple:3 linea:4 fp:3 qp:3 drawn:1 intersect:2 q:3 imagine:1 triangle:2 leg:1 hypotenuse:1 produce:2 result:1 square:2 add:1 segment:1 equal:7 indicate:1 thus:2 side:3 cancel:1 term:1 divide:1 assume:2 zero:2 state:2 center:3 around:2 generalized:1 standard:2 locate:1 write:2 designate:1 describe:2 slope:1 let:2 g:3 midpoint:2 since:1 fq:1 already:1 thirdly:1 gp:2 therefore:3 follow:4 extend:3 beyond:2 r:1 congruent:1 rg:2 light:4 beam:5 bounce:8 behave:1 mirror:7 travel:1 tp:1 angle:2 inclination:2 must:1 towards:2 conclusion:1 vertically:2 downwards:1 concavity:1 reflector:5 b:1 vary:1 substitute:1 simplifying:1 ball:3 capture:1 stroboscopic:1 flash:1 image:1 per:1 second:1 become:1 significantly:1 non:1 spherical:1 especially:1 first:1 spin:1 air:5 resistance:3 cause:2 sweep:1 deviate:1 slightly:1 expect:1 perfect:1 nature:3 approximation:5 diverse:1 well:3 instance:3 history:1 trajectory:5 particle:1 body:2 motion:4 influence:3 uniform:2 gravitational:2 field:1 without:1 baseball:1 fly:1 neglect:1 friction:1 projectile:2 discover:2 experimentally:1 galileo:1 early:1 century:3 perform:1 experiment:1 roll:1 inclined:1 later:1 prove:1 mathematically:1 book:1 dialogue:2 concern:2 new:2 science:2 theorem:1 http:1 oll:1 libertyfund:1 org:1 however:1 newton:1 recognize:1 actual:1 elliptical:2 force:2 constant:2 toward:2 earth:1 area:1 interest:1 often:1 difference:1 negligible:1 lead:1 simpler:1 formula:1 track:1 object:7 space:1 diver:1 jumping:1 dive:1 board:1 complex:1 rotate:2 mass:1 nevertheless:1 presence:1 example:2 distort:2 although:1 low:1 speed:2 good:1 high:1 ballistics:1 highly:1 resemble:1 liquid:5 rotation:1 different:1 density:1 contain:1 narrow:1 rectangular:1 tank:1 another:1 orbit:9 small:1 planetoid:1 gravitation:1 sun:2 special:1 rarely:1 hyperbola:2 much:2 common:2 borderline:1 type:1 exact:1 escape:1 velocity:1 slow:1 hyperbolic:3 faster:1 main:1 cable:3 typical:1 suspension:2 bridge:2 freely:1 hang:1 rather:1 catenary:2 load:1 suspend:1 deck:2 deform:1 several:1 device:1 concentrate:2 electromagnetic:1 radiation:1 principle:3 bc:1 geometer:1 archimedes:2 accord:1 legend:1 debatable:1 veracity:1 defend:1 syracuse:1 roman:2 fleet:1 ray:1 set:1 fire:1 ship:1 apply:1 telescope:2 today:1 commonly:1 observe:2 throughout:1 microwave:1 satellite:1 dish:1 antenna:1 confine:1 container:2 central:1 centrifugal:1 climb:1 wall:1 behind:1 aircraft:1 use:1 create:1 weightless:1 purpose:2 experimentation:1 nasa:1 vomit:1 comet:1 brief:1 period:1 order:1 course:1 free:1 fall:1 effect:1 gravity:1 partial:1 differential:1 quadratic:2 function:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 apollonius:1 convergence:1 interactive:1 drag:1 squaring:1 cut:7 knot:7 envelope:2 module:1 ii:1 |@bigram conic_section:4 analytic_geometry:1 cartesian_coordinate:1 latus_rectum:4 semi_latus:1 polar_coordinate:2 perpendicular_axis:4 parabolic_curve:3 length_hypotenuse:1 parabolic_reflector:4 parabolic_trajectory:2 trajectory_projectile:1 inclined_plane:1 elliptical_orbit:1 suspension_bridge:2 catenary_curve:1 electromagnetic_radiation:1 parabolic_mirror:2 centrifugal_force:1 partial_differential:1 differential_equation:1 quadratic_equation:1 external_link:1 cut_knot:7

Heterocyclic_compound

Pyridine, a simple heterocyclic compound Heterocyclic compounds are organic compounds containing at least one atom of carbon, and at least one element other than carbon, such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen within a ring structure. These structures may comprise either simple aromatic rings or non-aromatic rings. Some examples are pyridine (C5H5N), pyrimidine (C4H4N2) and dioxane (C4H8O2). Note that compounds such as cyclopropane, an anaesthetic with explosive properties, and cyclohexane, a solvent, are not heterocyclic; they are cycloalkanes. The stem '-cyclic' implies a ring structure, whereas 'hetero' refers to an atom other than carbon, as above. Many heterocyclic compounds, including some amines, are carcinogenic. Heterocyclic chemistry is the chemistry branch dealing exclusively with synthesis, properties, and applications of heterocycles. IUPAC name is Hantzsch-Widman nomenclature. 3-Membered rings Heterocycles with three atoms in the ring are more reactive because of ring strain. Those containing one heteroatom are, in general, stable. Those with two heteroatoms are more likely to occur as reactive intermediates. Common 3-membered heterocycles are: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Aziridine Azirine Oxygen Ethylene oxide (epoxides, oxiranes) Oxirene Sulfur Thiirane (episulfides) Those with two heteroatoms include: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Oxygen Dioxirane 4-Membered rings Compounds with one heteroatom: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Azetidine Oxygen Oxetane Sulfur Thietane Compounds with two heteroatoms: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Oxygen Dioxetane Sulfur Dithietane Dithiete 5-Membered rings With heterocycles containing five atoms, the unsaturated compounds are frequently more stable because of aromaticity. Five-membered rings with a single heteroatom: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Tetrahydropyrrole (azolidine, pyrrolidine) Dihydropyrrole (pyrroline), Pyrrole Oxygen Tetrahydrofuran (oxolane) Dihydrofuran, Furan Sulfur Tetrahydrothiophene (thiolane) Dihydrothiophene, Thiophene Arsenic Arsole The 5-membered ring compounds containing two heteroatoms, at least one of which is nitrogen, are collectively called the azoles. Thiazoles and isothiazoles contain a sulfur and a nitrogen atom in the ring. Dithiolanes have two sulfur atoms. Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Imidazolidine Pyrazole, Imidazole Nitrogen/oxygen Oxazolidine Oxazole, Isoxazole Nitrogen/sulfur Thiazolidine Thiazole, Isothiazole Oxygen Dioxolane Sulfur Dithiolane A large group of 5-membered ring compounds with three heteroatoms also exists. One example is dithiazoles that contain two sulfur and a nitrogen atom. Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen 1,2,3-Triazole, 1,2,4-Triazole Nitrogen/2-sulfur Dithiazole Five-member ring compounds with four heteroatoms: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Tetrazole With 5-heteroatoms, the compound may be considered inorganic rather than heterocyclic. Pentazole is the all nitrogen heteroatom unsaturated compound. 6-Membered rings Six membered rings with a single heteroatom: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Piperidine Pyridine Oxygen Tetrahydropyran Pyran Sulfur Thiane Thiine (thiapyrane) With two heteroatoms: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Piperazine Diazines Nitrogen / oxygen Oxazine Nitrogen / sulfur Thiazine Sulfur Dithiane Oxygen Dioxane Dioxin With three heteroatoms: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Triazine Oxygen Trioxane With four heteroatoms: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Tetrazine The hypothetical compound with six nitrogen heteroatoms would be hexazine. 7-Membered rings With 7-membered rings, aromatic stabilization is not available. Compounds with one heteroatom include: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen AzepineSulfur Thiepin Those with two heteroatoms include: Heteroatom Saturated Unsaturated Nitrogen Diazepine Fused rings Heterocyclic rings systems that are formally derived by fusion with other rings, either carbocyclic or heterocyclic, have a variety of common and systematic names. For example, with the benzo-fused unsaturated nitrogen heterocycles, pyrrole provides indole or isoindole depending on the orientation. The pyridine analog is quinoline or isoquinoline. For azepine, benzazepine is the preferred name. Similarly, the compounds with two benzene rings fused to the central heterocycle are carbazole, acridine, and dibenzoazepine. References External links Hantzsch-Widman nomenclature, IUPAC Heterocyclic amines in cooked meat, US CDC List of known and probable carcinogens, American Cancer Society List of known carcinogens by the State of California, Proposition 65 (more comprehensive)

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Janusz_Zajdel

Janusz A. Zajdel Janusz Andrzej Zajdel (August 15, 1938 in Warsaw – July 19, 1985 in Warsaw) was a prominent Polish science fiction author. He died from cancer. Zajdel is a precursor of social and dystopian fiction. In his works, he envisions totalitarian states and collapsed societies. His heroes are desperately trying to find sense in world around them, sometimes, as in Cylinder van Troffa, they are outsiders from a different time or place, trying to adapt to a new environment. The main recurring theme in his works is a comparison of the readers' gloomy, hopeless situations to what may happen in a space environment if we carry totalitarian ideas and habits into space worlds: Red Space Republics or Space Labour Camps, or both. Frederik Pohl dedicated book Tales From The Planet Earth to Zajdel and A. Bertram Chandler. This book also contains one of Zajdel's short stories, "Particularly Difficult Territory", translated into English. Selected bibliography Lalande 21185, 1966 Cylinder van Troffa ("Van Troff's cylinder"), 1980 Limes inferior, 1982 Cała prawda o planecie Ksi ("Complete Truth about planet Xi") ,1983 Wyjście z cienia ("Out of the Shadow"), 1983 Paradyzja ("Paradise, the World in Orbit"), 1984 Dokąd jedzie ten tramwaj? ("Where is that tram going?"), 1988 — Collection of short stories See also Janusz A. Zajdel Award, a Polish science fiction fandom award named after him Science fiction and fantasy in Poland Social science fiction References

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Kiribati

Kiribati ( kiribati - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary ; in Gilbertese), officially the Republic of Kiribati, is an island nation located in the central tropical Pacific Ocean. It is composed of 32 atolls and one raised coral island, dispersed over 3,500,000 square kilometres, (1,351,000 square miles) straddling the equator, and bordering the International Date Line to the east. The name Kiribati is the local pronunciation of "Gilberts", derived from the main island chain, the Gilbert Islands. Etymology Kiribati was named Gilbert Islands after the British Captain Thomas Gilbert, who sighted the islands in 1788. The current name, Kiribati, is an adaptation of "Gilberts", from the former European name the "Gilbert Islands". Although the indigenous Gilbertese language name for the Gilbert Islands proper is Tungaru, the new state chose the name "Kiribati," the Gilbertese rendition of "Gilberts," as an equivalent of the former colony to acknowledge the inclusion of islands which were never considered part of the Gilberts chain. Reilly Ridgell. Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. 3rd Edition. Honolulu: Bess Press, 1995. p. 95 History Early history The area now called Kiribati has been inhabited by Micronesians speaking the same Oceanic language since sometime between 3000 BC "Cinderellas of the Empire", Barrie Macdonald, IPS, University of the South Pacific, 2001, p. 1 and AD 1300. The area was not isolated; invaders from Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji later introduced Polynesian and Melanesian cultural aspects, respectively. Intermarriage tended to blur cultural differences and resulted in a significant degree of cultural homogenisation. I-Kiribati Ministry of Finance and Economic Development: "History" Colonial era The islands were first sighted by British and American ships in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The main island chain was named the Gilbert Islands in 1820 by a Russian admiral, Adam von Krusenstern, and French captain Louis Duperrey, after a British captain named Thomas Gilbert, who crossed the archipelago in 1788 when sailing from Australia to China. American troops during the Gilbert Island Campaign From the early 19th century, Western whalers, merchant vessels and slave traders visited the islands, introducing diseases and firearms. see reference note n°3 The first British settlers arrived in 1837. In 1892 the Gilbert Islands consented to become a British protectorate together with the nearby Ellice Islands. They were administered by the Western Pacific High Commission based in Fiji. Together they became the crown colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands in 1916. Kiritimati (Christmas Island) became part of the colony in 1919 and the Phoenix Islands were added in 1937. Tarawa Atoll and others of the Gilbert group were occupied by Japan during World War II. Tarawa was the site of one of the bloodiest battles in US Marine Corps history. Marines landed in November 1943; the Battle of Tarawa was fought at Kiribati's former capital Betio on Tarawa Atoll. Some of the islands of Kiribati, especially in the remote Line Islands, were formerly used by the United States and Great Britain for nuclear weapons testing including hydrogen bombs in the late 1960s. Independence to present day The Gilbert and Ellice Islands gained self-rule in 1971, and were separated in 1975 and granted internal self-government by Britain. In 1978 the Ellice Islands became the independent nation of Tuvalu. The Gilbert Islands became independent as Kiribati on July 12, 1979. Although the indigenous Gilbertese language name for the Gilbert Islands proper is "Tungaru", the new state chose the name "Kiribati", the Gilbertese rendition of "Gilberts", as an equivalent of the former colony to acknowledge the inclusion of Banaba, the Line Islands, and the Phoenix Islands, which were never considered part of the Gilberts chain. Reilly Ridgell. "Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia". 3rd Edition. Honolulu: Bess Press, 1995. p. 95 In the Treaty of Tarawa, signed shortly after independence and ratified in 1983, the United States relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited Phoenix Islands and those of the Line Islands that are part of Kiribati territory. Overcrowding has been a problem. In 1988 it was announced that 4,700 residents of the main island group would be resettled onto less-populated islands. Teburoro Tito was elected president in 1994. Kiribati's 1995 act of moving the international date line far to the east to encompass Kiribati's Line Islands group, so that it would no longer be divided by the date line, courted controversy. The move, which fulfilled one of President Tito's campaign promises, was intended to allow businesses all across the expansive nation to keep the same business week. This also enabled Kiribati to become the first country to see the dawn of the third millennium, an event of significance for tourism. Tito was reelected in 1998. Kiribati gained UN membership in 1999. In 2002 Kiribati passed a controversial law enabling the government to shut down newspapers. The legislation followed the launching of Kiribati's first successful nongovernment-run newspaper. President Tito was reelected in 2003, but was removed from office in March 2003 by a no-confidence vote and replaced by a Council of State. Anote Tong of the opposition party Boutokaan Te Koaua was elected to succeed Tito in July 2003. He was re-elected in 2007. In the summer of 2008, Kiribati officials asked Australia and New Zealand to accept Kiribati citizens as permanent refugees. Kiribati is expected to be the first country in which land territory disappears due to global climate change. Kiribati News | World | Page 1 In June 2008, the Kiribati president Anote Tong said that the country has reached "the point of no return"; he added: "To plan for the day when you no longer have a country is indeed painful but I think we have to do that." "Leader of disappearing island nation says climate change an issue of survival, not economics", International Herald Tribune, June 5, 2008 "Kiribati leader warns the world that it may already be too late", TV3, June 5, 2008 "Kiribati's President: 'Our Lives Are At Stake': For the Islands of Kiribati, Global Warming Poses Immediate Dangers", Australian Broadcasting Corporation, April 2, 2007 "Paradise lost: climate change forces South Sea islanders to seek sanctuary abroad", The Independent, June 6, 2008 "Tiny atoll in Pacific cries out for help", The Times of India, June 6, 2008 Politics The Former Kiribati House of Assembly The Kiribati Constitution, promulgated July 12, 1979, provides for free and open elections. The executive branch consists of a president (te Beretitenti), a vice president and a cabinet (the president is also chief of the cabinet and has to be MP). Under the constitution, the president, nominated from among the elected legislators, is limited to three 4-year terms. The cabinet is composed of the president, vice president and 10 ministers (appointed by the president) who are members of the House of Assembly. The legislative branch is the unicameral Maneaba Ni Maungatabu (House of Assembly). It has elected members, including by constitutional mandate a representative of the Banaban people in Fiji (Rabi Island, former Ocean Islanders), in addition to the attorney general, who serves as an ex-officio member. Legislators serve for a four-year term. The constitutional provisions governing administration of justice are similar to those in other former British possessions in that the judiciary is free from governmental interference. The judicial branch is made up of the High Court (in Betio) and the Court of Appeal. The president appoints the presiding judges. Local government is through island councils with elected members. Local affairs are handled in a manner similar to town meetings in colonial America. Island councils make their own estimates of revenue and expenditure and generally are free from central government controls. Kiribati has formal political parties but their organisation is quite informal. Ad hoc opposition groups tend to coalesce around specific issues. Today the only recognisable parties are the Boutokaan te Koaua Party, Maneaban te Mauri Party, Maurin Kiribati Party and Tabomoa Party. There is universal suffrage at age 18. http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/erc/bgnotes/eap/kiribati9506.html In government terms, Kiribati has a Police Force, which carries out law enforcement functions and paramilitary duties, and which has small police posts on all islands, but no military. The police have one patrol boat. Pacific Forum class patrol boat Security assistance would be provided if necessary by Australia and New Zealand. Island groups Kiribati was formally divided into districts until its independence. The country now is divided into three island groups which have no administrative function, including a group which unites the Line Islands and the Phoenix Islands (ministry at London, Christmas). Each inhabited island has its own council (three councils on Tarawa: Betio, South-Tarawa, North-Tarawa; two councils on Tabiteuea). The original districts used to be: Banaba Central Gilberts Line Islands Northern Gilberts Southern Gilberts Tarawa Atoll The island groups include: Gilbert Islands Phoenix Islands, now the largest protected marine reserve in the world. http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSSP231103 Reuters Line Islands Four of the former districts (including Tarawa) lie in the Gilbert Islands, where most of the country's population lives. Five of the Line Islands are uninhabited (Malden Island, Starbuck Island, Caroline Island, Vostok Island and Flint Island). The Phoenix Islands are uninhabited except for Kanton, and have no representation. Banaba itself is sparsely inhabited now. There is also a non-elected representative of the Banabans on Rabi Island in the nation of Fiji. Each of the 21 inhabited islands has a local council that takes care of the daily affairs. Tarawa Atoll has three councils: Betio Town Council, Te Inainano Urban Council (for the rest of South Tarawa) and Eutan Tarawa Council (for North Tarawa). Foreign relations Kiribati was admitted as the 186th member of the United Nations in September 1999. Regional relations Kiribati maintains cordial relations with most countries and has close relations with its Pacific neighbours, Japan, Australia and New Zealand; the latter three provide the majority of the country's foreign aid. Taiwan and Japan also have specified-period licences to fish in Kiribati's waters. In November 1999 it was announced that Japan's National Space Development Agency planned to lease land on Kiritimati (Christmas Island) for 20 years, on which to build a spaceport. The agreement stipulated that Japan was to pay US$840,000 per year and would also pay for any damage to roads and the environment. A Japanese-built downrange tracking station operates on Kiritimati FDSN Station Info - XMAS and an abandoned airfield on the island was designated as the landing strip for a proposed reusable unmanned space shuttle called HOPE-X. HOPE-X, however, was eventually canceled by Japan in 2003. United States relations The Peace Corps, an independent United States federal agency, has announced plans to pull out of Kiribati in November 2008 after 35 years of working in the country. Michael Koffman, the Peace Corps Country Director for Kiribati, cited the frequently cancelled and erratic domestic air service in the country as the main reason why the Peace Corps was leaving Kiribati. Geography Kiribati consists of about 32 atolls and one island (Banaba), with at least three in each hemisphere. The groups of islands are: Banaba: an isolated island between Nauru and the Gilbert Islands Gilbert Islands: 16 atolls located some 930 miles (1,500 km) north of Fiji Phoenix Islands: 8 atolls and coral islands located some 1,100 miles (1,800 km) southeast of the Gilberts Line Islands: 8 atolls and one reef, located about 2,050 miles (3,300 km) east of the Gilberts Caroline Atoll channel between west side of Long Island and Nake Island. Banaba (or Ocean Island) is a raised-coral island which was once a rich source of phosphates, but it was mostly mined out before independence. The rest of the land in Kiribati consists of the sand and reef rock islets of atolls or coral islands which rise but a few metres (at most 6.5 feet) above sea level. The soil is thin and calcareous, making agriculture very difficult. Kiritimati (Christmas Island) in the Line Islands is the world's largest atoll. Based on a 1995 realignment of the International Date Line, Kiribati is now the easternmost country in the world, and was the first country to enter into the year 2000 at Caroline Island, which, not coincidentally, has been renamed Millennium Island. According to the South Pacific Regional Environment Program, two small uninhabited Kiribati islets, Tebua Tarawa and Abanuea, disappeared underwater in 1999. The islet of Tepuka Savilivili (Tuvalu; not a Gilbertese name) no longer has any coconut trees due to salination. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that sea levels will rise by about half a metre (20 in) by 2100 due to global warming and a further rise would be inevitable. It is thus likely that within a century the nation's arable land will become subject to increased soil salination and will be largely submerged. Debate on Climate Shifts to Issue of Irreparable Change - washingtonpost.com Kiribati is the only country in the world to be located in all four hemispheres, by straddling the Equator and lying on both sides of the 180th meridian and the International Date Line. Economy This is word for word copied from the CIA factbook. Kiribati has few natural resources. Commercially viable phosphate deposits were exhausted at the time of independence. Copra and fish now represent the bulk of production and exports. Tourism provides more than one-fifth of GDP. Foreign financial aid, largely from the United Kingdom and Japan, is a critical supplement, equal in recent years to 25% to 50% of GDP. Agriculture accounts for 12.4% of GDP and 71% of labour; industry 0.9% of GDP and 1.9% of labour; trade 18.5% of GDP and 4.1% of labour; commercial trade 5.7% of GDP and 1.4% of labour; and service industries 5.7% of GDP and 1.4% of labour. The main trading partners are Australia, USA, France, Japan, Hong Kong and Germany. In 1956 Kiribati established a sovereign wealth fund to act as a store of wealth for the country's earnings from phosphate mining. In 2008 the Revenue Equalization Reserve Fund was valued at US$ 400 million. Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute Balance of payments Kiribati's narrow export base and its enormous need for imports contribute to the country’s large deficit in the merchandise trade balance. However, the country has several sources of external income, including fishing licence fees, investment income, seamen’s remittances and external grants. These inflows are usually more than sufficient to finance the large trade deficit. As a result, Kiribati’s current account balance has been in surplus most of the time in the past decade. International reserves have remained at around US$300 million since 2001. Demographics The native people of Kiribati are called I-Kiribati. The word Kiribati is the local spelling of the word Gilbert and the original name of this British colony was the Gilbert Islands. The indigenous format of the name was adopted when independence was gained in 1979. Ethnically, the I-Kiribati are Micronesians. Recent archaeological evidence indicates that Austronesians originally settled the islands thousands of years ago. Around the 14th century, Fijians and Tongans invaded the islands, thus complicating the ethnic range; people of Polynesian ancestry further diversified the ethnic typologies. Intermarriage among all ancestral groups, however, has led to a population reasonably homogeneous in appearance and traditions. The people of Kiribati speak an Oceanic language called "Gilbertese". Although English is the official language, it is not used very often outside the island capital of Tarawa. It is more likely that English is mixed in its use with Gilbertese. Older generations of I-Kiribati tend to use more complicated versions of the language. Christianity is the major religion, having been introduced by missionaries in the 19th century. The population is predominantly Roman Catholic, although a substantial portion of the population is Congregationalist Protestant. Many other Protestant denominations, including more evangelical types, are also represented. The Bahá'í religion also exists in Kiribati, along with Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), the latter numbering 11,511 at the end of 2005. Global Mormonism » Kiribati at globalmormonism.byu.edu Human rights Kiribati is a constitutional multiparty republic. The government of Kiribati works to respect the civil and human rights of its citizens. There are only a few areas in which problems remain, but the law provides effective means of addressing individual complaints . Some limits on the freedoms of press and speech, and a few incidences of extrajudicial communal justice, have been reported. Human development The population of Kiribati has a life expectancy at birth of 60 years (57 for males, and 63 for females) and an infant mortality rate of 54 deaths per 1,000 live births. The people of Kiribati mostly live in villages with populations between 50 and 3,000 on the outer islands. Most houses are made of materials obtained from coconut and pandanus trees. Frequent droughts hinder reliable large-scale agriculture, so the islanders have largely turned to the sea for livelihood and subsistence. Most are outrigger sailors and fishers. Copra plantations serve as a second source of employment. In recent years, large numbers of citizens have moved to the more urban island capital of Tarawa. Education Primary education is free and compulsory for the first six years, now being extended to nine years. Mission schools are slowly being absorbed into the government primary school system. Higher education is expanding; students may seek technical, teacher or marine training, or study in other countries. To date, most choosing to do the latter have gone to Fiji, and those wishing to complete medical training have been sent to Cuba. Pacific Magazine: I-Kiribati Students Perform Well In Cuba Transport Kiribati's Bonriki International Airport is the hub of the national (domestic) airline, Air Kiribati, which operates flights to seven destinations in the Gilbert Islands. From these islands, the aircraft continue a few minutes after having landed to Air Kiribati's remaining nine destinations. Fiji's national carrier Air Pacific also provides an international service from Fiji's main airport, Nadi International Airport. Our Airline, the national airline of Nauru, formerly provided service to Nauru International Airport, connecting to Honiara, the capital of the Solomon Islands, and further to Brisbane, Australia, but this service was cancelled in June 2008 . Culture Songs (te anene) and above all dances (te mwaie) are held in high regard by some unspecified people. Music Kiribati folk music is generally based around chanting or other forms of vocalizing, accompanied by body percussion. Public performances in modern Kiribati are generally performed by a seated chorus, accompanied by a guitar. However, during formal performances of the standing dance (Te Kaimatoa) or the hip dance (Te Buki) a wooden box is used as a percussion instrument. This box is constructed so as to give a hollow and reverberating tone when struck simultaneously by a chorus of men sitting around it. Traditional songs are often love-themed, but there are also competitive, religious, children's, patriotic, war and wedding songs . There are also stick dances (which accompany legends and semi-historical stories . These stick dances or 'tirere' (pronounced seerere) are only performed during major festivals. Dance The uniqueness of Kiribati when compared with other forms of Pacific island dance is its emphasis on the outstretched arms of the dancer and the sudden birdlike movement of the head. The Frigate bird (Fregata minor) on the Kiribati flag refers to this bird-like style of Kiribati dancing. Most dances are in the standing or sitting position with movement limited and staggered. Smiling whilst dancing is generally considered vulgar within the context of Kiribati dancing. This is due to its origin of not being solely as a form of entertainment but as a form of storytelling and a display of the skill, beauty and endurance of the dancer. See Robert Louis Stevenson's In the South Seas and the Montana New Zealand Book Awards winner Akekeia! by Tony & Joan Whincup, Wellington, 2001. Outside perspectives Edward Carlyon Eliot, who was Resident Commissioner of the Gilbert & Ellice Islands (now Kiribati & Tuvalu) from 1913 to 1920 describes this period in his book "Broken Atoms" (autobiographical reminiscences) Pub. G. Bles, London, 1938. Sir Arthur Grimble wrote about his time working in the British colonial service in Kiribati (then the Gilbert Islands) from 1914 to 1932 in two popular books A Pattern of Islands (1952) and Return to the Islands (1957). He also undertook academic studies of Gilbertese culture. J. Maarten Troost's more recent autobiographical experiences on the Tarawa Atoll are documented in his book The Sex Lives of Cannibals (2004). See also Commonwealth of Nations List of international rankings Outline of geography Outline of Kiribati Communications in Kiribati Law enforcement in Kiribati Transportation in Kiribati Kiribati Scout Association List of islands belonging to Kiribati References (1997) Pancorbo, Luis: "Kiribati existe" Pp. 29–43; y "De Abemama a Madrid" Pp.43–54 en "Son los mares del Sur". Maeva, Madrid. ISBN 84-86478-60-X External links Parliament of Kiribati Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Kiribati from UCB Libraries GovPubs Phoenix Islands Protected Area Paradise Lost? (A recent PBS/NOW program on global warming) be-x-old:Кірыбаці

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Heterosexuality

A male and a female holding hands. Heterosexuality refers to sexual behavior and attraction to people of the opposite sex, or to a heterosexual orientation. As a sexual orientation, heterosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, physical or romantic attractions primarily to "persons of the opposite sex"; it also refers to "an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them." APA California Amicus Brief Please fix this cite and remove this comment when done. The term is usually applied to human beings, but it is also observed in all mammals. The physical action of heterosexual fertilization is the only means of sexual reproductive capability among humans without the use of current assisted reproductive technologies, but this may change in the future. The associations with romantic love and identity in addition to its original, exclusively sexual, meaning dates back to early human societies and gender role separation. As such, gender role separation has been the subject of considerable scholarly commentary and study in human societies since the earliest written records. Heterosexuality has been more intensely studied by medicine and later biology disciplines, and more recently that of psychology. Heterosexuality, along with bisexuality and homosexuality together make up the heterosexual-homosexual continuum. Etymology Hetero- comes from the Greek word heteros, meaning "different" or "other", from "one at one, together" p.345, Klein and the Latin for sex (that is, characteristic sex or sexual differentiation). The term "heterosexual" was first published in 1892 in C.G. Craddock's translation of Krafft-Ebbing's "Psychopathia Sexualis". The noun came into use from early 1920s, but did not enter common use until 1960s. Colloquial shortening "hetero" is attested from 1933. Heterosexuality is first recorded in 1900. p.22, Mills [2] "Heterosexual" was first listed in Merriam-Webster's New International Dictionary as a medical term for "morbid sexual passion for one of the opposite sex", however in 1934 in their Second Edition Unabridged it is a "manifestation of sexual passion for one of the opposite sex; normal sexuality". (p.92, Katz) The adjective heterosexual is used for intimate relationships and/or sexual relations between male and female Terminology The current use of the term heterosexual has its roots in the broader 19th century tradition of personality taxonomy. It continues to influence the development of the modern concept of sexual orientation, and can be used to describe individuals' sexual orientation, sexual history, or self-identification. Some reject the term "heterosexual" as the word only refers to one's sexual behavior and does not refer to non-sexual romantic feelings. As a result, the terms straight is sometimes preferred when discussing a person of this sexual orientation, whose sexual history is predominated by this behavior, or who identifies as such, and to differentiate with other sexual orientations that strangely lack the intuitively suggested term "bent". Some opposite-sex oriented people personally prefer the term "heterosexual" rather than "straight", as they may perceive the former as describing a sexual orientation and the latter as describing a cultural or socio-political group with which they do not identify. The term "heterosexual" is suggested to have come into use as a neologism after, and opposite to the word "homosexual" by Karl Maria Kertbeny in 1868. History and demographics The prevalence of exclusive heterosexuality has varied over the centuries and also from culture to culture. The history of heterosexuality is part of the history of sexuality. That history and science derivative of it is far from complete. Owing to complications of human politics and prejudice, coupled with the malleable nature of human behaviour, it will be some time before the history and nature of all forms of human sexual behaviour are truly known. Academic study Biological Prenatal hormonal theory The neurobiology of the masculinization of the brain is fairly well understood. Estradiol and testosterone, which is catalyzed by the enzyme 5α-reductase into dihydrotestosterone, act upon androgen receptors in the brain to masculinize it. If there are few androgen receptors (people with Androgen insensitivity syndrome) or too much androgen (females with Congenital adrenal hyperplasia), there can be physical and psychological effects. Vilain, E. (2000). Genetics of Sexual Development. Annual Review of Sex Research, 11:1-25 It has been suggested that both male and female heterosexuality are results of variation in this process. Wilson, G. and Rahman, Q., (2005). Born Gay. Chapter 5. London: Peter Owen Publishers In these studies heterosexuality in females is linked to a lower amount of masculinization than is found in lesbian females, though when dealing with male heterosexuality there are results supporting both higher and lower degrees of masculinization than homosexual males. (See the main article for further details.) Physiological differences in heterosexual persons See: Physiological differences Natural selection An array of opinion holds that much human behavior is ultimately explainable in terms of natural selection. From this point of view, the shifting social balance between heterosexual and homosexual desire has evolved more as a fitter survival strategy for the species than either an exclusively heterosexual or homosexual configuration of desire. Heterosexual behaviors in animals In the animal kingdom, sexual reproduction results from heterosexual coitus between sexually mature partners. Psychological Behavioral studies At the beginning of the 20th century, early theoretical discussions in the field of psychoanalysis posited original bisexuality in human psychological development. Quantitative studies by Alfred Kinsey in the 1940s and Dr. Fritz Klein's sexual orientation grid in the 1980s find distributions similar to those postulated by their predecessors. Many modern studies, most notably Sexual Behavior in the Human Male by Alfred Kinsey, have found that the majority of humans have had both heterosexual and homosexual experiences or sensations and are bisexual. Contemporary scientific research suggests that the majority of the human population is bisexual, adhering to a fluid sexual scale rather than a category, as Western society typically views sexual nature. However, social pressures influence people to adhere to categories or labels rather than behave in a manner that more closely resembles their nature as suggested by this research. Kinsey himself, along with current sex therapists, focused on the historicity and fluidity of sexual orientation. Kinsey's studies consistently found sexual orientation to be something that evolves in many directions over a person's lifetime; rarely, but not necessarily, including forming attractions to a new sex. Rarely do individuals radically reorient their sexualities rapidly—and still less do they do so volitionally—but often sexualities expand, shift, and absorb new elements over decades. For example, socially normative "age-appropriate" sexuality requires a shifting object of attraction (especially in the passage through adolescence). Contemporary queer theory, incorporating many ideas from social constructionism, tends to look at sexuality as something that has meaning only within a given historical framework. Sexuality, then, is seen as a participation in a larger social discourse and, though in some sense fluid, not as something strictly determinable by the individual. Most sexual orientation specialists follow the general conclusion of Alfred Kinsey regarding the sexual continuum, according to which a minority of humans are exclusively heterosexual or homosexual, and that the majority are bisexual. The consensus of psychologists is that sexual orientation, in most individuals, is shaped at an early age and is not voluntarily changeable. Other studies have disputed Kinsey's methodology. "His figures were undermined when it was revealed that he had disproportionately interviewed homosexuals and prisoners (many sex offenders)."<ref>Tom Bethell (April 2005). "Kinsey as Pervert".</cite> American Spectator, 38, 42-44. ISSN 0148-8414.</ref><ref>Julia A. Ericksen (May 1998). "With enough cases, why do you need statistics? Revisiting Kinsey's methodology".</cite> The Journal of Sex Research 35 (2): 132-40, ISSN 0022-4499.</ref> However, Kinsey's idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys acceptance today and is supported by findings in the human and animal kingdoms, including biological studies of structural brain differences between those belonging to different sexual orientations. Sexologists have attributed discrepancies in some findings to negative societal attitudes towards a particular sexual orientation. For example, people may state different sexual orientations depending on whether their immediate social environment is public or private. Reluctance to disclose one's actual sexual orientation is often referred to as "being in the closet." Individuals capable of enjoyable sexual relations with both sexes or one sex may feel inclined to restrict themselves to heterosexual or homosexual relations in societies that stigmatize same-sex or opposite-sex relations. In traditional societies, individuals are often under heavy social pressure to marry and have children, irrespective of their desired sexual orientation. Although the concept of three basic sexual orientations is widely recognized, a small minority maintain that there are other legitimate sexual orientations besides homosexuality, bisexuality and heterosexuality. These may include significant or exclusive orientation towards a particular type of transsexual or transgender individual (e.g. female-to-male transsexual men), intersexed individuals, or those who identify as non-gendered or other-gendered. Nature versus nurture The considerable "Nature versus nurture"-debate exists over whether predominantly biological or psychological factors produce sexual orientation in humans. Candidate factors include genes, the exposure of fetuses to certain hormones (or lack thereof) and environmental factors. Historically, Freud and many other psychologists, particularly in psychoanalytic or developmental traditions, speculated that formative childhood experiences helped produce sexual orientation; as an example Freud believed that all human teenagers are predominantly bisexual and transition to heterosexuality in adulthood; those who remain homosexual as adults he believed had experienced some traumatic event that arrested their sexual development; however, he did believe all adults, even those who had no traumatic experience, still retained latent homosexuality to varying degrees. The APA currently officially states that "some people believe that sexual orientation is innate and fixed; however, sexual orientation develops across a person’s lifetime", a radical reversal from the recent past, when non-normative sexuality was considered a deviancy or mental ailment treatable through institutionalization or other radical means. Critique of studies The studies performed in order to find the origin of sexual orientation have been criticized for being too limited in scope, mostly for focusing only on heterosexuality and homosexuality as two diametrically opposite poles with no orientation in between. It is also asserted that scientific studies focus too much on the search for a biological explanation for sexual orientation, and not enough on the combined effects of both biology and psychology. In a brief put forth by the Council for Responsible Genetics, it was stated that sexual orientation is not fixed either way, and on the discourse over sexual orientation: "Noticeably missing from this debate is the notion, championed by Kinsey, that human sexual expression is as variable among people as many other complex traits. Yet just like intelligence, sexuality is a complex human feature that modern science is attempting to explain with genetics... Rather than determining that this results from purely biological processes, a trait evolves from developmental processes that include both biological and social elements. In addition, scientists rarely take into consideration sexual preferences that are not described by the two poles heterosexual and homosexual 'in hopes of maximizing the chance that they will find something of interest.'" According to the American Psychological Association (APA), there are numerous theories about the origins of a person's sexual orientation, but some believe that "sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors," and that genetic factors play a "significant role" in determining a person's sexuality.[5] Religious aspects Almost all religions believe sex between a man and a women is allowed, but there are a few that believe that it is a sin, such as The Shakers, The Harmony Society, and The Ephrata Cloister. These religions tend to view all sexual relations as sinful, and promote celibacy. Other religions view heterosexuality as being inferior to celibacy. Some religions require celibacy for certain roles, such as Catholic priests; however Catholicism does not view marriage as inferior to the priesthood. Abrahamic religions have several scriptures related to heterosexuality. In Genesis 2:24, which is considered scripture by Abrahamic religions, there is a commandment stating "Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh"() In 1 Corinthians, part of the Christian Bible, Christians are advised: People in the traditional marriage movement, believe that only unions between one man and one woman should be legally defined as marriages. For the most part, religious traditions in the world reserve marriage to heterosexual unions, but there are exceptions including Unitarian Universalist, Metropolitan Community Church and some Anglican dioceses and Quaker, United Church of Canada and Reform Jewish congregations. "World Religions and Same Sex Marriage", Marriage Law Project, Columbus School of Law at The Catholic University of America, Washington, DC, July 2002 revision Affirming Congregations and Ministries of the United Church of Canada Symbolism One common version of a Heterosexuality symbol History of heterosexual symbolism dates back to the earliest artefacts of humanity which included ritual fertility carvings and primitive rock art. This was later expressed in the symbolism of fertility rites and polytheistic worship which often included images of human reproductive organs. The modern symbols of heterosexuality in the societies derived from Europe are still referenced to the symbols used in these ancient beliefs, with the image in this section being a combination of the symbol for Mars as the definitive male stereotype of a warrior, and Venus, the Roman goddess of love. Slang The term "straight" originated as a mid-20th century gay slang term for heterosexuals, ultimately coming from the phrase "to go straight" (as in "straight and narrow"), or stop engaging in homosexual sex.[3] One of the first uses of the word in this way was in 1941 by author G. W. Henry. Henry, G. W. (1941). Sex Variants: A Study of Homosexual Patterns. New York: Paul B. Hoeber Henry's book concerned conversations with homosexual males and used this term in connection with the reference to ex-gays. It currently simply is a colloquial term for "heterosexual" having, like many words, changed in primary meaning over time. The term breeder, a word which is normally applied to animals, is sometimes used by lesbian or gay persons to describe heterosexuals in a negative or humorous way. See also Heterosexism Human sexuality Queer heterosexual Footnotes References Wikholm, Andrew, Words: Heterosexual. Gay History.com. (Cited February 14, 2004) "Straight, Ex-gay". Descriptors for Sexual Minorities. "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", H2G2. BBC. (Cited February 14, 2004) Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality. American Psychiatric Association. (Cited February 9, 2004) Heterosexual Sex. World Sex Explorer. (Cited February 14, 2004) Katz, Jonathan Ned (1995) The Invention of Heterosexuality. NY, NY: Dutton (Penguin Books). ISBN 0-525-93845-1. Johnson, P (2005) Love, Heterosexuality and Society. Routledge: London. Mills, Jonathan, Love, Covenant & Meaning, Regent College Publishing, 1997 Klein, Ernest, A comprehensive etymological dictionary of the English language: Dealing with the origin of words and their sense development thus illustrating the history of civilization and culture, Elsevier, Oxford, 2000 Further reading Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Male. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33412-8 Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., Sexual Behavior in the Human Female. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-33411-X Bohan, Janis S., Psychology and Sexual Orientation: Coming to Terms, Routledge, 1996 ISBN 0415915147 External links Keel, Robert O., Heterosexual Deviance. (Goode, 1994, chapter 8, and Chapter 9, 6th edition, 2001.) Sociology of Deviant Behavior: FS 2003, University of Missouri - St. Louis. "Heterosexual partner rights raise questions". The News' View, Yale Daily News Publishing Company. January 27, 2004. Coleman, Thomas F., What's Wrong with Excluding Heterosexual Couples from Domestic Partner Benefits Programs? Unmarried America, American Association for Single People.

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Lyra

Lyra (, genitive Lyrae ; from Greek λύρα) is a constellation. Its name derived from the lyre, a stringed musical instrument well known for its use in classical antiquity and later. Lyra was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union today. Lyra is a small constellation, but its principal star, Vega, is one of the brightest in the sky. Beginning at the north, Lyra is bordered by the Dragon Draco, the Greek hero Hercules, the little fox Vulpecula and Cygnus the swan. Notable features Stars See also: List of stars in Lyra Lyra's brightest stars include the following: Autostar Suite Astronomer Edition. CD-ROM. Meade, April 2006. α Lyr (Vega): with an apparent brightness of 0.03m this is the second brightest star of the northern hemisphere (after Arcturus) and the fifth brightest star in all; its spectral class is A0 V and it lies at a distance of only 25.3 ly. β Lyr (Sheliak): a group of eclipsing binaries is named after this variable star (3.45m, spectral class B8 II), the Beta-Lyrae-stars. γ Lyr (Sulafat): the main star of this multiple star system is of magnitude 3.24m and spectral class B9 III δ Lyr: a double star consisting of a blue-white star of mag. 6m and a semi-regular red giant varying between ε Lyr: a well-known quadruple star, also called "the Double Double" because each of the two brighter components ζ Lyr: another double star which can be split using binoculars. RR Lyr: lent its name to a class of pulsating variable rated r superstars the RR Lyrae-stars. Deep sky objects In Lyra can be found the objects M56, M57, and Kuiper 90. M56 is a rather loose globular cluster at a distance of approximately 32,900 light years, with a diameter of about 85 light years. Its apparent brightness is 8.3m. M57 is also known as the "Ring Nebula". It is one of the best known of all planetary nebulae; its integrated magnitude is 8.8m. It is thought to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years old as we see it today. Kuiper 90 is also known as 17 Lyrae C (Gliese 747AB), a red dwarf system near 17 Lyrae, but really at 26 light years from the Sun. Its period is 5 years, and its magnitude is 11.26 in the V band. BD +36 3317, a white star in the young open cluster Stephenson 1, was discovered as a binary eclipsing system by Violat-Bordonau in 2008. History In the past, Lyra was often represented on star maps as a vulture or an eagle carrying a lyre, either enclosed in its wings, or in its beak. It was sometimes referred to as Aquila Cadens or Vultur Cadens (falling eagle or falling vulture). Mythology In Greek mythology, Lyra was associated with the myth of Orpheus, the musician who was killed by the Bacchantes. After his death, his lyre was thrown into the river; Zeus sent an eagle to retrieve the lyre, and ordered both of them to be placed in the sky. In Australian Aboriginal Astronomy, Lyra is known by the Boorong people in Victoria as the Malleefowl constellation. Lyra was known as Urcuchillay by the Incas and was worshipped as an animal deity. Fictional references In the film K-PAX, the constellation of Lyra is the location of the planet K-PAX, which is an inhabited world that orbits twin stars and has seven moons. Lyra's main star, Vega, is the scenario of, or referred in, many fiction stories. See Vega in fiction for more details. Citations

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Harappa

Location of Harappa in the Indus Valley and extent of Indus Valley Civilization (green). Harappa (; Urdu: , Hindi: हड़प्पा) is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, about 35 km (22 miles) southwest of Sahiwal. The modern town is located near the former course of the Ravi River and also beside the ruins of an ancient fortified city, which was part of the Cemetery H culture and the Indus Valley Civilization, and is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents—considered large for its time. Although the Harappa Culture extended well beyond the bounds of present day Pakistan, its centres were in Sindh and the Punjab. Basham, A. L. 1968. Review of A Short History of Pakistan by A. H. Dani (with an introduction by I. H. Qureshi). Karachi: University of Karachi Press. 1967 Pacific Affairs 41(4) : 641-643. In 2005 a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artifacts during the early stages of construction work. A plea from the prominent Pakistani archaeologist Ahmed Hasan Dani to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a restoration of the site. Tahir, Zulqernain. 26 May 2005. Probe body on Harappa park, Dawn. Retrieved 13 January 2006. History One of the most fascinating yet mysterious cultures of the ancient world is the Harappan civilization. This culture existed along the Indus River in present day Pakistan and India. It was named after the city of Harappa as it was the first of that civilization's cities discovered. Harappa and the city of Mohenjo-Daro were the greatest achievements of the Indus valley civilization (although it should be noted that this is in part owing to the relative lack of systematic excavations and published information on other Indus Valley Civilization urban centers). These cities are well known for their impressive, organized and regular layout, road and street networks, drainage and step-wells for water. Over one hundred other towns and villages also existed in this region. The writing system of the Indus Valley Civilization, evinced in numerous seals, pottery graffiti and a probable sign at Dholavira, remains undeciphered. The Indus Valley civilization (also known as Harappan culture) has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, emerged circa 2600 BC along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh. The civilization, with a writing system, urban centers, and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s after excavations at Mohenjo-daro (which means "mound of the dead") in Sindh near Sukkur, and Harappa, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in east Punjab, India in the north, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artifacts have nevertheless been found. Kenoyer, J.M., 1997, Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New insights from Harappa Pakistan, World Archaeology, 29(2), pp. 260-280, High definition archaeology Culture and economy Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are generally characterized as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers." Library of Congress: Country Studies. 1995. Harappan Culture. Retrieved 13 January 2006. Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardized system of urban layout and planning, such similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion. The chert weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilization, on the other hand, were highly standardized, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was still not employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, were domesticated." Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralized administration for each city, though not the whole civilization, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. There appears to be a complete lack of priestly "pomp or lavish display" that was common in other civilizations. Archaeology By far the most exquisite but most obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite seals engraved with human or animal motifs. Large numbers of the seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro, many bearing pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a kind of script. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the script remains undeciphered. It is also unknown if it reflects proto-Dravidian, proto-Sramanic (Jain), non-Vedic (non-Hindu or non-Brahmnic), or is perhaps related to Brāhmī script. The ascription of Indus Valley Civilization iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence of such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of Harappan material culture as seen from both Pakistan and India-based scholars. Decline and fall of Harappan civilization There has been much speculation on the decline and fall of this civilization. The decline of the Harappans was gradual at first and may have come to a very abrupt termination later on Dales, George F., "The Decline of the Harappans", Scientific American, May 1966, pp 92-100. . In the period of climate history coinciding with the decline of the Harappans, a significant change in the global climate took place by the expansion of arctic air. This may have been responsible for such things as drought in northern Iowa, affecting the Mill Creek Indians, and in Greece, affecting the Mycenaeans Reid A. Bryson and Thomas J. Murray, Climates of Hunger, (Madison, Wisconson: Univ. of Wisconson Press, 1977), pp. 3-17, 31-34. . It may have contributed to the fall of the Harappans as well. Climates of Hunger Another possibility is an invasion from the Aryans, who inhabited the region of present day Northwest India. The Aryans were a warlike people, but it has not been proven that they in fact had a hand in wiping out the civilization of the Indus Valley. The Santorini volcano of 1400 B.C is another matter for speculation. 1Reid A. Bryson and Thomas J. Murray, Saturday Review, April 1, 1967, pp. 52-56 , but this has its problems too; evidence indicates that by that time the Harappans were already in decline. They were also quite a distance removed from the volcano. One factor which is certain, however, is that the Harappans engaged in deforestation and misuse of grazing land, which in turn caused pollution and desertification Claiborne, Robert, Climate, Man and History, (New York: Norton, 1970), p. 292 . This could have played a part in the decline and fall of Harappan civilization - either as one of other factors, or as the sole factor. Notes The earliest radiocarbon dating mentioned on the web is 2725+-185 BCE (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BCE calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BCE. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986-1990: A multidisciplanary approach to Third Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29-59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin. Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BCE. Mohenjo-daro is another major city of the same period, located in Sindh province of Pakistan. Dholavira is an ancient Metropolitan City. The Harappans used roughly the same size bricks and weights as were used in other Indus cities, such as Mohenjo Daro and Dholavira. These cities were well planned with wide streets, public and private wells, drains, bathing platforms and reservoirs. One of its most well-known structures is the so-called Great Bath of Mohenjo Daro. References See also Charles Masson - First European explorer of Harappa Dholavira Lothal Harappan architecture Mehrgarh Mohenjo-daro Sokhta Koh External links Harappa.com

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Conservatism

Conservatism is a political and social term from the Latin verb conservare meaning to save or preserve. Freedom and Consumerism: A Critique of Zygmunt Bauman's Sociology By Mark Davis, Zygmunt Bauman Edition: revised Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2008 ISBN 0754672719, 9780754672715 189 pages page 114 As the name suggests it usually indicates support for tradition and traditional values though the meaning has changed in different countries and time periods. The modern political term conservative was used by French politician Chateaubriand in 1819. The Scary Echo of the Intolerance of the French Revolution in America Today In Western politics, the term conservatism often refers to the school of thought started by Edmund Burke and similar thinkers. BBC: Edmund Burke (1729 - 1797) Scholar R. J. White wrote: "To put conservatism in a bottle with a label is like trying to liquify the atmosphere […] The difficulty arises from the nature of the thing. For conservatism is less a political doctrine than a habit of mind, a mode of feeling, a way of living." As part of introduction to The Conservative Tradition, ed. R.J. White (London: Nicholas Kaye, 1950) Russell Kirk considered conservatism "the negation of ideology". "10 Conservative Principles" Conservative political parties have diverse views; the Liberal Democratic Party in Japan, the Republican Party in the United States, the Conservative Party in Britain, the Liberal Party of Australia, and the Bharatiya Janata Party in India are all considered major conservative parties with varying positions. Development of Western conservatism Edmund Burke (1729–1797) From the beginning, some political thought could be labelled "conservative" but it was not until the Age of Enlightenment, and the reaction to events surrounding the French Revolution of 1789, that conservatism rose as a distinct political attitude or train of thought. Many point to the rise of a conservative disposition in the wake of the Protestant Reformation, specifically to the works of influential Anglican theologian, Richard Hooker, emphasizing moderation in the political balancing of interests towards the goals of social harmony and common good. Edmund Burke’s polemic Reflections on the Revolution in France helped conservatism gain prominence. Edmund Burke supported the American Revolution, but opposed the French Revolution, which he saw as violent and chaotic. He pressed for parliamentary control of royal patronage and expenditure. BBC: Edmund Burke (1729 - 1797) His classical conservative position insisted that conservatism has no ideology, in the sense of a utopian program, with some form of master plan. Burke developed his ideas in response to the enlightened idea of a society guided by abstract reason. He anticipated the critique of modernism, a term used at the end of the 19th century by the Dutch religious conservative Abraham Kuyper. Burke did not seek "to give praise or blame to any thing which relates to human actions, and human concerns, on a simple view of the object in all the nakedness and solitude of metaphysical abstraction". RRF, Langford 1981-, Volume VIII, 58 Burke said some people had less reason than others, and thus some people will make better governments than others if they rely upon reason. The proper formulation of government came not from abstractions such as reason, but from time-honoured development of the state, piecemeal progress through experience and the continuation of other important societal institutions such as the family and the Church. He argued that tradition draws on the wisdom of many generations and the tests of time, while reason may be a mask for the preferences of one man, and at best represents only the untested wisdom of one generation. However, Burke wrote, "A state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation." Burke insisted further change be organic rather than revolutionary. An attempt to modify the complex web of human interactions that form human society, for the sake of some doctrine or theory, runs the risk of running afoul of the iron law of unintended consequences. Western Conservatism has also been influenced by the Counter-Enlightenment works of Joseph de Maistre. Maistre argued for the restoration of hereditary monarchy, which he regarded as a divinely sanctioned institution, and for the indirect authority of the Pope over temporal matters. He also defended the principle of hierarchical authority, which the Revolution sought to destroy. Maistre published in 1819 his masterpiece Du Pape ("On the Pope"). The work is divided into four parts. In the first he argues that, in the Church, the pope is sovereign, and that it is an essential characteristic of all sovereign power that its decisions should be subject to no appeal. Consequently, the pope is infallible in his teaching, since it is by his teaching that he exercises his sovereignty. In the remaining divisions the author examines the relations of the pope and the temporal powers, civilization and the welfare of nations, and the schismatic Churches. He argues that nations require protection against abuses of power by a sovereignty superior to all others, and that this sovereignty should be that of the papacy, the historical saviour and maker of European civilization. Conservatives strongly support the right of property, and Carl B. Cone, in Burke and the Nature of Politics, pointed out that this view, expressed as philosophy, also served the interests of the people involved. Carl B. Cone, Burke and the Nature of Politics, University of Kentucky Press, 1957 Conservatives are usually economic liberals, diverging from classical liberalism in the tradition of Adam Smith. American Chronicle | Liberal / Conservative (Part 1) Economics Some conservatives look to a modified free market order, such as the American System, ordoliberalism, or Friedrich List's National System. The latter view differs from strict laissez-faire, in that the state's role is to promote competition while maintaining the national interest, community and identity. Most conservatives strongly support the sovereign nation (although that was not so in the 19th century), and patriotically identify with their own nation. Nationalist separatist movements may be both radical and conservative. Forms of conservatism Liberal conservatism Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that combines conservative values and policies with liberal stances. As these latter two terms have had different meanings over time and across countries, liberal conservatism also has a wide variety of meanings. Historically, the term often referred to the combination of economic liberalism, which champions laissez-faire markets, with the classical conservatism concern for established tradition, respect for authority and religious values. It contrasted itself with classical liberalism, which supported freedom for the individual in both the economic and social spheres. Over time, the general conservative ideology in many countries adopted economic liberal arguments, and the term liberal conservatism was replaced with conservatism. This is also the case in countries where liberal economic ideas have been the tradition, such as the United States, and are thus considered conservative. In other countries where liberal conservative movements have entered the political mainstream, such as Italy and Spain, the terms liberal and conservative may be synonymous. The liberal conservative tradition in the United States combines the economic individualism of the classical liberals with a Burkean form of conservatism (which has also become part of the American conservative tradition, such as in the writings of Russell Kirk). A secondary meaning for the term liberal conservatism that has developed in Europe is a combination of more modern conservative (less traditionalist) views with those of social liberalism. This has developed as an opposition to the more collectivist views of socialism. Often this involves stressing what are now conservative views of free-market economics and belief in individual responsibility, with social liberal views on defence of civil rights, environmentalism and support for a limited welfare state. This philosophy is that of Swedish Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt. In continental Europe, this is sometimes also translated into English as social conservatism. Conservative liberalism Conservative liberalism is a variant of liberalism that combines liberal values and policies with conservative stances, or, more simply, the right wing of the liberal movement. http://www.ipolitique.fr/liberalisme-conservateur.htm http://www.parties-and-elections.de/contents.html M. Gallagher, M. Laver and P. Mair, Representative Government in Europe, p. 221. The roots of conservative liberalism are found at the beginning of the history of liberalism. Until the two World Wars, in most European countries the political class was formed by conservative liberals, from Germany to Italy. Conservative liberalism is a more positive and less radical version of classical liberalism. Allen R.T., Beyond Liberalism, p. 2. The events such as World War I occurring after 1917 brought the more radical version of classical liberalism to a more conservative (i.e. more moderate) type of liberalism. Allen R.T., Beyond Liberalism, p. 13. Libertarian conservatism Libertarian conservatism describes certain political ideologies within the United States and Canada which combines libertarian economic issues with aspects of conservatism. Its five main branches are Constitutionalism, paleolibertarianism, neolibertarianism, small government conservatism and Christian libertarianism. They generally differ from paleoconservatives, in that they are in favor of more personal and economic freedom. Agorists such as Samuel Edward Konkin III labeled libertarian conservatism right-libertarianism. In contrast to paleoconservatives, libertarian conservatives support strict laissez-faire policies such as free trade, opposition to the Federal Reserve and opposition to business regulations. They are vehemently opposed to environmental regulations, corporate welfare, subsidies, and other areas of economic intervention. Many of them have views in accord to Ludwig von Mises. However, many of them oppose abortion, as they see it as a positive liberty and violates the non-aggression principle because abortion is aggression towards the fetus. Fiscal conservatism Fiscal conservatism is the economic philosophy of prudence in government spending and debt. Edmund Burke, in his 'Reflections on the Revolution in France', articulated its principles: ...[I]t is to the property of the citizen, and not to the demands of the creditor of the state, that the first and original faith of civil society is pledged. The claim of the citizen is prior in time, paramount in title, superior in equity. The fortunes of individuals, whether possessed by acquisition or by descent or in virtue of a participation in the goods of some community, were no part of the creditor's security, expressed or implied...[T]he public, whether represented by a monarch or by a senate, can pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large. In other words, a government does not have the right to run up large debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer; the taxpayers' right not to be taxed oppressively takes precedence even over paying back debts a government may have imprudently undertaken. Green conservatism Green conservatism is a term used to refer to conservatives who have incorporated green concerns into their ideology. The Conservative Party in the United Kingdom under David Cameron has embraced a green agenda that includes proposals designed to impose a tax on workplace car parking spaces, a halt to airport growth, a tax on 4x4 vehicles and restrictions on car advertising. Cultural conservatism Cultural conservatism is a philosophy that supports preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture. The culture in question may be as large as Western culture or Chinese civilization or as small as that of Tibet. Cultural conservatives try to adapt norms handed down from the past. The norms may be romantic, like the anti-metric movement that demands the retention of avoirdupois weights and measures in Britain and opposes their replacement with the metric system. They may be institutional: in the West this has included chivalry and feudalism, as well as capitalism, laicité and the rule of law. In the subset social conservatism, the norms may also be what is viewed as a question of morality. In some cultures, practices such as homosexuality are seen as immoral. In others, it is considered immoral for a woman to reveal too much of her body. Cultural conservatives often argue that old institutions have adapted to a particular place or culture and therefore ought to be preserved. Others argue that a people have a right to their cultural norms, their own language and traditions. Religious conservatism Religious conservatives seek to apply the teachings of particular ideologies to politics, sometimes by proclaiming the value of those teachings, at other times seeking to have those teachings influence laws. Religious conservatism may support, or be supported by, secular customs. In other places or at other times, religious conservatism may find itself at odds with the culture in which the believers reside. In some cultures, there is conflict between two or more different groups of religious conservatives, each claiming both that their view is correct, and that opposing views are wrong. Because many religions preserve a founding text, or at least a set of well-established traditions, the possibility of radical religious conservatism arises. These are radical both in the sense of abolishing the status quo and of a perceived return to the radix or root of a belief. They are ante conservative in their claim to be preserving the belief in its original or pristine form. Radical religious conservatism generally sees the status quo as corrupted by abuses, corruption, or heresy. One example of such a movement was the Radical Reformation within the Protestant Reformation and the later Restorationists of the 1800s. Similar phenomena have arisen in practically all the world's religions, in many cases triggered by the violent cultural collision between the traditional society in question and the modern Western society that has developed throughout the world over the past 500 years. Conservatism in different countries Australia Malcolm Turnbull, the leader of Liberal Party of Australia. Conservatism in Australia is related to British and American conservatism in many respects, but has a distinct political tradition. One scholar argues that Australian conservatism is traditionally composed of diverse groups and interests that are united more by opposition to certain political developments than by a distinct shared ideology. In terms of partisan politics, conservatism has often been defined as opposition to the Australian Labor Party. Australian groups that have historically been grouped on the conservative side include social conservatives, British Empire nationalists, organizations supporting rural interests, anti-socialist Catholics, fundamentalist Christians and free-market liberals." Historically, for the first 70 years after the Federation of Australia, the non-Labor (and hence implicitly conservative) side of Australian politics was associated with policies of moderate protectionism in trade, and of support for the welfare state, coupled with maintenance of Australia's ties to the British Empire. Many scholars have seen the government of Robert Menzies as exemplifying this trend. However, from the 1980s, free-market economic policies were increasingly associated with conservatism in Australian politics, following the same trend as the United States under Ronald Reagan and the United Kingdom under Margaret Thatcher. In contemporary Australian politics, the Liberal Party of Australia is seen as the main conservative party. Botswana Seretse Khama founded the conservative Botswana Democratic Party and it has been the most popular party in Botswana. According to the Economic Freedom of the World survey, Botswana is Africa's second most capitalist country. Canada Canadian conservatism has always been rooted in a preference for the traditional and established ways of doing things, even as it has shifted in economic, foreign and social policy. Like Burke, they rejected the sense of both ideology and revolution, preferring pragmatism and evolution. It is for that reason that unlike conservatives in the United States, Canadian conservatives are generally not republicans, preferring the monarchy and Westminster system of government. (The United States is a federal republic, while Canada is a constitutional monarchy, a distinction resulting from the American Revolution and its aftermath.) People's Republic of China In the People's Republic of China, New Conservatism (新保守主义), sometimes translated as "Neoconservatism", was a movement which first arose in the early 1990s and argued that progress was best accomplished through gradual reform of society, eschewing revolution and sudden overthrow of the governmental system. This movement was based heavily on the ideas of Edmund Burke and was described in the West by the scholar Joseph Fewsmith. Other than the name, the movement had no connection with neoconservatism in the United States (the US movement is instead referred to as Niukang in Chinese), though, from the standpoint of philosophy, it can be identified as a form of conservative thought, albeit ideologically different from "old conservatism" (旧保守主义). The new conservatism movement in China was in general supportive of the current government, while at the same time being opposed to aspects of the government which advocated the notion of revolution. Unlike the official ideology, however, Chinese new conservatism was neutral on the validity of Marxism and skeptical toward Mao Zedong, founder and long-time leader of the People's Republic of China. Chinese new conservatism had significant support from the Shanghai Clique in the Politburo. Seen from a Chinese new-conservative perspective, the Great Leap Forward, the Cultural Revolution, and the Tiananmen Protests of 1989 were all in error in that they attempted to change society through revolutionary means. Republic of China Republic of China's current President Ma Ying-jeou, who pledged to expand free trade. In the Republic of China, the conservative Kuomintang (KMT) (the most popular party) generally supports Chinese nationalism and Chinese reunification. Germany Angela Merkel, the first female chancellor of Germany. In Germany, conservatism has often been represented by Christian Democratic parties. They form the bulk of the European People's Party faction in the European Parliament. The origin of these parties is usually in Catholic parties of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and Catholic social teaching was their original inspiration. Over the years, conservatism gradually became their main ideological inspiration, and they generally became less Catholic. The German Christian Democratic Union (CDU), its Bavarian sister party Christian Social Union (CSU), and the Dutch Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) are Protestant-Catholic parties. India Conservatism in India is represented by Hindu nationalist parties like the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) Thomas Blom Hansen, The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India, Princeton University Press, 2001, ISBN 140080342X, 9781400803422 . BJP advocates conservative social policies, self reliance, robust economic growth, foreign policy driven by a nationalist agenda, and strong national defense. Hindutva has a special place in its ideology and the party believes that ancient Hindu culture and values will make India a more enlightened society. BJP falls more correctly in the Centre-right definition. Iran In Iran, conservatism is represented by parties such as the Combatant Clergy Association (CCA), which includes the nation’s foremost politicized clerics (including the current Ayatollah) http://www.s2online.org/news/country/Iraq/IRANpol.htm and is considered to be part of the "Islamic right". Elections Summaries for POLS 168 -- Middle East Politics (Fall 2007) The CCA was the majority party in the fourth and fifth parliaments after the Islamic revolution. akhbare-rooz (iranian political Bulletin) It was founded in 1977 by a group of clerics with intentions to use cultural approaches to overthrow the Shah. Some conservative Iranian political parties and organizations are part of the powerful Alliance of Builders of Islamic Iran. Israel In Israel, Likud is the major centre-right political party. Founded in 1973 as an alliance of several right-wing and liberal parties, Likud's victory in the 1977 elections was a major turning point in the country's political history. Israel at the Polls, 1992 By Daniel Judah Elazar, Shmuel Sandler Likud supports free market capitalism and liberalism. Likud, under the guidance of Finance minister Binyamin Netanyahu, pushed through legislation to reduce value added tax (VAT), income and corporate taxes, as well as customs duty. The party has instituted free trade (especially with the European Union and the United States) and has dismantled certain monopolies (e.g. Bezeq and the sea ports). It has privatized numerous government-owned companies (e.g. El Al and Bank Leumi). Likud has in the past espoused hawkish policies towards the Palestinians, including opposition to Palestinian statehood and support of the Jewish settlers in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, it has also been the party which carried out the first peace agreements with Arab states. For instance, in 1979, Likud Prime Minister, Menachem Begin, signed the Camp David Accords with Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat, which returned the Sinai Peninsula (occupied by Israel in the Six-Day War of 1967) to Egypt in return for peace between the two countries. Yitzhak Shamir also granted some legitimacy to the Palestinians by meeting them at the ill-fated Madrid Conference following the Persian Gulf War in 1991. However, Shamir refused to concede the idea of a Palestinian state, and as a result was blamed by some (including U.S. Secretary of State James Baker) for the failure of the summit. Later, as Prime Minister, Binyamin Netanyahu restated Likud's position of opposing Palestinian statehood, which after the Oslo Accords was largely accepted by the opposition Labor Party, even though the shape of any such state was not clear. The Likud emphasize such nationalist themes as the flag and the victory in Israel's 1948 war with neighbouring Arab states. The Likud advocates teaching values in childhood education. The Likud endorses press freedom and promotion of private-sector media, which has grown markedly under governments Likud has led. A Likud government headed by Ariel Sharon, however, closed the popular right-wing pirate radio station Arutz 7 ("Channel 7). Arutz 7 was popular with the settlement movement and often criticised the government from a right-wing perspective. However, the Likud is inclined towards the Torah and expresses support for it within the context of civil Judaism, as a result of its Irgun past, which aligned itself according to the word of the Tanakh. Japan Junichiro Koizumi, a leader of the right-wing Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) who won the largest party majority ever in modern Japanese history. Japan's conservative Liberal Democratic Party - which has dominated elections for half a century - traditionally identified itself with a number of general goals such as rapid, export-based economic growth and close cooperation with the United States in foreign and defense policies, as well as several newer issues, such as administrative reform. Administrative reform encompassed several themes: simplification and streamlining of government bureaucracy; privatization of stateowned enterprises; and adoption of measures, including tax reform, needed to prepare for the strain on the economy posed by an aging society. Other priorities in the early 1990s included promoting a more active and positive role for Japan in the rapidly developing Asia-Pacific region, internationalizing Japan's economy by liberalizing and promoting domestic demand, creating a hightechnology information society, and promoting scientific research. Nepal The Nepali politics can be viewed as a very interesting clash of left wing parties, liberal democratic parties, conservative democratic parties and the ultra-conservatism practiced by the now-abolished Monarchy. Because of the decade long Maoist insurgency and the movements of other parties, people of Nepal seem to be rejecting the idea of extreme conservatism, and consequently the Nepalese monarchy has now been abolished. However, an intense debate still exists between intellectuals and political activists regarding the degree of conservatism in Nepali politics. While the Unified CPN (Maoist) propose a progressive ideology, rejecting all the conservative ideas; The CPN-UML, a democratic party with communist background, seems to be supporting progressive ideas blended with some conservatism. The right wing party of Nepali Congress, is considered to be more conservative than others because of their history of supporting the idea of the now abolished Hindu State as well as the idea of Ceremonial Monarchy. However, Nepali Congress too has adopted a Republican set up after the 2006 democracy movement in Nepal. Historians view the inter party clash in this small nation as a melting pot of all the ideologies of the political spectrum and the intense discussions continues to intrigue many political analysts. Netherlands Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a writer and a former MEP from the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy. The Dutch conservative-liberal People's Party for Freedom and Democracy advocates lower taxes, legal cannabis and legal euthanasia. The Party for Freedom is a newly formed conservative party, advocating strict restriction on immigration from Muslim countries, free-market capitalism, and a return to humanist and Christian traditions. It is led by Geert Wilders. New Zealand John Key, Current Prime Minister of New Zealand. The New Zealand National Party ("National" or "the Nats") currently forms the largest (in terms of parliamentary seats) political party in the next New Zealand Parliament, and thus function as the core of a governing coalition. For many decades "National" has been the largest liberal-conservative political party in New Zealand. The National Party advocates policies of reducing taxes, reducing social welfare payments, promoting free trade, restoring or maintaining New Zealand's defence alliances, and promoting one standard of citizenship for all New Zealanders ("One law for all"). Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia has been under the influence of conservative clerics who uphold a strict interpretation of Islamic law, and the monarchy supports conservative social polices. Oxford Islamic Studies Online Saudi Arabia Women are required to dress modestly, and all sexual activity outside of a traditional heterosexual marriage is illegal. Dancing, playing music or showing movies in public are forbidden. Saudi Arabia Country Specific Information Scandinavian countries In Scandinavian countries, conservatism has been represented in liberal conservative parties such as the National Coalition party in Finland, the Moderate Party in Sweden, Høyre in Norway and the Conservative People's Party in Denmark. Domestically, these parties generally support market-oriented policies. Denmark's conservative-liberal Venstre has been characterized as a classical liberal party. Their current leader (Anders Fogh Rasmussen) wrote the book Fra Socialstat til Minimalstat (), which advocated an extensive reform along classical liberal lines. South Korea In the 2008 parliamentary elections, the conservative Grand National Party won 37% of the vote in South Korea, compared with 25% for the liberal United Democratic Party http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/k/korea/korea2008.txt . After decades of free market policies, free trade, and low taxation, South Korea is a major economic power and one of the wealthiest countries in Asia. It had one of the world's fastest growing economies since the 1960s, now highly developed Korea, Republic of and the fourth largest in Asia and 13th largest in the world. Forming the G20 industrial nations and the world's top ten exporters, it is an APEC and OECD member, defined as a High Income Nation by the World Bank and an Advanced Economy by the IMF and CIA. The Asian Tiger is leading the Next Eleven nations and is still among the world's fastest growing developed countries. Today, its success story is known as the "Miracle on the Han River", a role model for many developing countries. Seoul's Green Revolution - TIME United Kingdom Conservatism in the United Kingdom is related to its counterparts in other Western nations, but has a distinct tradition. Edmund Burke is often considered the father of conservatism in the English-speaking world. Burke was a Whig, while the term Tory is given to the later Conservative Party. One Australian scholar argues, "For Edmund Burke and Australians of a like mind, the essence of conservatism lies not in a body of theory, but in the disposition to maintain those institutions seen as central to the beliefs and practices of society." Worthington, Glen, Conservatism in Australian National Politics, Parliament of Australia Parliamentary Library, 19 February 2002 Margaret Thatcher, a radical reformer of Britain. The old established form of English, and after the Act of Union, British conservatism, was the Tory Party. It reflected the attitudes of a rural land owning class, and championed the institutions of the monarchy, the Anglican Church, the family, and property as the best defence of the social order. In the early stages of the industrial revolution, it seemed to be totally opposed to a process that seemed to undermine some of these bulwarks. The new industrial elite were seen by many as enemies to the social order. Robert Peel was able to reconcile the new industrial class to the Tory landed class by persuading the latter to accept the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. He created a new political group that sought to preserve the old status quo while accepting the basics of laissez-faire and free trade. The new coalition of traditional landowners and sympathetic industrialists constituted the new Conservative Party. Benjamin Disraeli gave the new party a political ideology. As a young man, he was influenced by the romantic movement and medievalism, and developed a devastating critique of industrialism. In his novels, he outlined an England divided into two nations, each living in perfect ignorance of each other. He foresaw, like Karl Marx, the phenomenon of an alienated industrial proletariat. His solution involved a return to an idealised view of a corporate or organic society, in which everyone had duties and responsibilities towards other people or groups. This "one nation" conservatism is still a significant tradition in British politics. It has animated a great deal of social reform undertaken by successive Conservative governments. Although nominally a Conservative, Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the demands of the Chartists and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the middle class, helping to found the Young England group in 1842 to promote the view that the rich should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by the middle class. The conversion of the Conservative Party into a modern mass organisation was accelerated by the concept of Tory Democracy attributed to Lord Randolph Churchill. David Cameron, the leader of Conservative Party. A Liberal-Conservative coalition during World War I, coupled with the ascent of the Labour Party, hastened the collapse of the Liberals in the 1920s. After World War II, the Conservative Party made concessions to the socialist policies of the Left. This compromise was a pragmatic measure to regain power, but also the result of the early successes of central planning and state ownership forming a cross-party consensus. This was known as Butskellism, after the almost identical Keynesian policies of Rab Butler on behalf of the Conservatives, and Hugh Gaitskell for Labour. However, in the 1980s, under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher, and the influence of Keith Joseph, there was a dramatic shift in the ideological direction of British conservatism, with a movement towards free-market economic policies. As one commentator explains, "The privatization of state owned industries, unthinkable before, became commonplace [during Thatcher's government] and has now been imitated all over the world." Davies, Stephen, Margaret Thatcher and the Rebirth of Conservatism, Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs, July 1993 Some commentators have questioned whether Thatcherism was consistent with the traditional concept of conservatism in the United Kingdom, and saw her views as more consistent with radical classical liberalism. Thatcher was described as "a radical in a conservative party", and her ideology has been seen as confronting "established institutions" and the "accepted beliefs of the elite", both concepts incompatible with the traditional conception of conservatism as signifying support for the established order and existing social convention. United States Conservatism in the United States includes a variety of political ideologies including fiscal conservatism, supply-side economics, social conservatism, libertarian conservatism, bioconservatism and religious conservatism, About atheism as well as support for a strong military. Modern American conservatism was largely born out of alliance between classical liberals and social conservatives in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Clark, B. (1998). Political economy: A comparative approach. Westport, CT: Praeger. Contemporary American conservatism traces its heritage back to Irish political philosopher Edmund Burke, who developed his views in response to the French Revolution. Kirk, Russell, The Conservative Mind, p. 6. US President Abraham Lincoln wrote, that conservatism is "the adherence to the old and tried, against the new and untried." Kirk, Russell, The Conservative Mind, p. 8. US president Ronald Reagan, who was a self-declared conservative, is widely seen as a symbol of American conservatism. In an interview, he said "I believe the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism." Inside Ronald Reagan, a Reason magazine Interview with Ronald Reagan, July 1975. Organizations in the US committed to promoting conservative ideology include the American Conservative Union, Eagle Forum, Heritage Foundation and the Hoover Institution. US-based media outlets that are conservative include Human Events, National Review, The American Conservative, Policy Review, and The Weekly Standard. In the US, social conservatives emphasize traditional views of social units such as the family, church, or locale. Social conservatism may entail defining marriage as relationships between one man and one woman (thereby prohibiting same-sex marriage and polygamy) and laws placing restrictions on the practice of abortion. While many religious conservatives believe that government should have a role in defending moral values, libertarian conservatives such as Barry Goldwater advocated a hands-off government where social values were concerned. Psychology A meta-analysis of research literature by Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sulloway in 2003 found that many factors, such as intolerance of ambiguity and need for cognitive closure, contribute to the degree of one's political conservatism. Jost, J.J, Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A.A., & Sulloway, F.J. (2003). Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 339-375. A study by Kathleen Maclay stated these traits "might be associated with such generally valued characteristics as personal commitment and unwavering loyalty." The research also suggested that both liberals and conservatives are resistant to change; liberals simply have a higher tolerance. http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/07/22_politics.shtml According to psychologist Robert Altemeyer, individuals who are politically conservative tend to rank high in Right-Wing Authoritarianism on his RWA scale. Altemeyer, B. (1981). Right-wing authoritarianism. Winnipeg, Canada: University of Manitoba Press. This finding was echoed by Theodor Adorno. A study done on Israeli and Palestinian students in Israel found that RWA scores of right-wing party supporters were significantly higher than those of left-wing party supporters. Rubinstein, G. (1996). Two peoples in one land: A validation study of Altemeyer's Right-Wing Authoritarianism Scale in the Palestinian and Jewish societies in Israel. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27, 216-230. However, a 2005 study by H. Michael Crowson and colleagues suggested a moderate gap between RWA and other conservative positions. "The results indicated that conservatism is not synonymous with RWA." Crowson, H. Michael, Stephen J. Thoma, and Nita Hestevold. "Is political conservatism synonymous with authoritarianism?." The Journal of Social Psychology 145.5 (Oct 2005): 571(22). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale. Remote Access. 20 May 2009 <http://find.galegroup.com/itx/start.do?prodId=EAIM>. Psychologist Felicia Pratto and her colleagues have found evidence to support the idea that a high Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) is strongly correlated with conservative political views, and opposition to social engineering to promote equality, though Pratto's findings have been highly controversial. Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L.M., & Malle, B.F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 741-763. Pratto and her colleagues found that high SDO scores were highly correlated with measures of prejudice. They were refuted in this claim by David J. Schneider, who wrote that "correlations between prejudice and political conservative are reduced virtually to zero when controls for SDO are instituted" The psychology of stereotyping, David J. Schneider, Guilford Press, 2005 ISBN 1593851936, 9781593851934 704 pages page 275 and by Kenneth Minogue who wrote "It is characteristic of the conservative temperament to value established identities, to praise habit and to respect prejudice, not because it is irrational, but because such things anchor the darting impusles of human beings in solidities of custom which we do not often begin to value until we are already losing them. Radicalism often generates youth movements, while conservatism is a condition found among the mature, who have discovered what it is in life they most value." The Social science encyclopedia, Jessica Kuper, Taylor & Francis, 1985 ISBN 0710200080, 9780710200082 916 pages pp 155-6 Another study stated that opposition is not based on racism or sexism, but on a "principled conservatism," Sidanius, J., Pratto, F., & Bobo, L. (1996). Racism, conservatism, affirmative action, and intellectual sophistication: A matter of principled conservatism or group dominance? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70(3), 476-490. a perspective based on "concern for equity, color-blindness, and genuine conservative values." Furthermore, the study suggested that racism and conservatism are independent, and weakly correlated among the highly educated. In an effort to examine the relationship between education, SDO, and racism, Sidanius and his colleagues conducted a survey in which subjects were asked about their political and social attitudes. Results indicated partial support for the principled-conservatism position. However, contrary to predictions, correlations among SDO, political conservatism, and racism were strongest among the most well educated, and weakest among the least well educated. See also 'And' theory of conservatism Black conservatism Classical liberalism Conservative liberalism Conservative Party (UK) Conservative Political Parties Conservative Revolutionary movement Free market Free trade Globalization Latin Conservatism Liberal conservatismLiberal Democratic Party (Japan) Liberalism Liberal Party of Australia Libertarianism Libertarian Republican Neoconservatism Paleoconservatism Political spectrum Reactionary Right-wing politics Roman Catholic conservatism References Further reading RightWingersGuide.com Our Culture, What's Left of It: The Mandarins and the Masses / Theodore Dalrymple (2005) ISBN 1566636434 Fascists and conservatives : the radical right and the establishment in twentieth-century Europe / Martin Blinkhorn., 1990 Edmund Burke. Reflections on the Revolution in France, Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. October 1997: ISBN 0-87220-020-5 (paper). Crunden, Robert, The Superfluous Men: Critics of American Culture, 1900–1945, 1999. ISBN 1-882926-30-7 Recent conservative political thought : American perspectives / Russell G Fryer., 1979 Paul E. Gottfried, The Conservative Movement, 1993. ISBN 0-8057-9749-1 The British Right : Conservative and right wing politics in Britain / Neill Nugent., 1977 America alone : the neo-conservatives and the global order / Stefan A Halper., 2004 Ted Honderich Conservatism Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind, 7th Ed., 2001. ISBN 0-89526-171-5 Russell Kirk, The Politics of Prudence, 1993. ISBN 1-882926-01-3 The conservative press in twentieth-century America / Ronald Lora., 1999 From the New Deal to the New Right: race and the southern origins of modern conservatism / Joseph E Lowndes., 2008 Jerry Z. Muller Conservatism Right-wing women : from conservatives to extremists around the world / P Bacchetta., 2002 Unmaking law : the Conservative campaign to roll back the common law / Jay M Feinman., 2004 Radicals or conservatives? The contemporary American right / James McEvoy., 1971 Robert Nisbet Conservatism: Dream and Reality, 2001. ISBN 0-7658-0862-5 James Page, 'Ought the Neo-Cons Be Considered Conservatives? A Philosophical Response'.AQ: Journal of Contemporary Analysis. 75(6):32-33/40. 2003; available on-line at http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00003599/ Conservatism in America since 1930 : a reader / Gregory L Schneider., 2003 Noel O'Sullivan Conservatism The new racism : conservatives and the ideology of the tribe / Martin Barker., 1982 A time for choosing : the rise of modern American conservatism / Jonathan M Schoenwald., 2001 Roger Scruton The Meaning of Conservatism Facing fascism : the Conservative party and the European dictators, 1935–1940 / N J Crowson., 1997 Alexander Lee and Timothy Stanley The End of Politics: Triangulation, Realignment and the Battle for the Centre Ground (Politico's Publishing, 17 July 2006): ISBN 1-84275-174-3 (hardcover) James Fitzjames Stephen, Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. External links Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Conservatism.

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Jello_Biafra

Eric Reed Boucher (born June 17, 1958), more widely known by the stage name Jello Biafra, is an American musician, spoken word artist and leading figure of the Green Party. Biafra first gained attention as the lead singer and songwriter for San Francisco punk rock band Dead Kennedys. After his time with the band concluded, he took over the influential independent record label Alternative Tentacles, founded in 1979 by him and Dead Kennedys bandmate East Bay Ray. Although now primarily focused on spoken word art, he has continued as a musician in numerous collaborations. Politically, Jello is a member of the Green Party and actively supports leftist political causes. Biafra ran for the party's Presidential nomination in 2000, finishing second to Ralph Nader. Corrections - New York Times He is a self-identified anarchist Biafra, Jello. "Platform for 2000 Green Party Presidential Primary". March 7, 2000. who advocates civil disobedience, direct action, culture jamming, and pranksterism in the name of political change. Biafra is known to use absurdist media tactics in the tradition of the Yippies to highlight issues of civil rights, social justice, economic populism, boosterism, anti-corporatism, peace movements, anti-consumerism, environmentalism, anti-globalization, universal health care, LGBT rights, anti-capitalism, reproductive rights, feminism, and the separation of church and state. Early life Eric Boucher was born in Boulder, Colorado, U.S. to parents Stanley Boucher, a psychiatric social worker and poet, and Virginia Boucher, a librarian. He also had a sister Julie J. Boucher, the Associate Director of the Library Research Service at the Colorado State Library who died in a mountain-climbing accident on October 12, 1996. Julie Boucher Memorial Award for Intellectual Freedom As a child, Boucher developed an interest in international politics that was encouraged by his parents. He was an avid watcher of news and one of his earliest memories is of the John F. Kennedy assassination. Alternative Tentacles - Bands Biafra says he has been a fan of rock music since first hearing it in 1965, when his parents accidentally tuned in to a rock radio station. During the 1970s, he became involved in activism in reaction to several events of the era including the Vietnam War, the Chicago 7 trial, and the Kent State shootings. "Biography of Jello Biafra" (2001). AlternativeTentacles.com. Retrieved February 19, 2005. He began his career in music in January 1977 as a roadie for the punk rock band The Ravers (who would later change their name to The Nails). In the autumn of that year, he began attending the University of California, Santa Cruz. He studied acting and the history of Paraguay before leaving to become involved in San Francisco, California's punk scene. Musical career The Dead Kennedys Jello Biafra when he was with Dead Kennedys. Taken from Dead Kennedys: The Early Years Live In June 1978 he responded to an ad put out by guitarist East Bay Ray and together they formed the Dead Kennedys. He began performing with the band under the stage name Occupant, but shortly after began using his current stage name. Biafra wrote the band's lyrics, most of which were political in nature and displayed a sardonic, sometimes absurdist, sense of humor despite their serious subject matter. In the tradition of UK peace punk bands like Crass, Dead Kennedys was one of the first US punk bands to write politically themed songs. The lyrics Biafra wrote helped popularize the use of humorous lyrics in hardcore. Biafra cites Joey Ramone as the inspiration for his use of humor in his songs (as well as being the musician who made him interested in punk rock), noting in particular songs by The Ramones such as "Beat on the Brat" and "Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue". Biafra, Jello. "Joey Ramone". Machine Gun in the Clown's Hand. San Francisco: Alternative Tentacles. 2002. MP3 link Biafra initially attempted to compose music on guitar, but his inexperience on the instrument and his own admission of being "a fumbler with my hands" led Dead Kennedys bassist Klaus Flouride to suggest that Biafra simply sing the parts he was envisioning to the band. V. Vale, Incredibly Strange Music, Vol. 2, RE/Search Publications, 1995 Biafra would later sing his riffs and melodies into a tape recorder, which he brought to the band's rehearsal and/or recording sessions. This would later become an issue when the other Dead Kennedys sued Biafra over royalties and publishing rights. By all accounts, including his own, Biafra is not a conventionally skilled musician, though he and his collaborators (Joey Shithead of D.O.A. in particular) attest that he is a skilled composer Keithley, Joe. I, Shithead. Arsenal Pulp Press, 2004. and his work, particularly with Dead Kennedys, is highly respected by punk-oriented critics and fans. Biafra's first popular song was the first single by Dead Kennedys, "California Über Alles". The song, which spoofed California governor Jerry Brown, was the first of many political songs by the group and Biafra. The song's popularity resulted in it being covered by other musicians, such as The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy (who rewrote the lyrics to parody Pete Wilson), John Linnell of They Might Be Giants and Six Feet Under on their Graveyard Classics album of cover versions. Not long afterward, Dead Kennedys made a second and bigger hit with "Holiday in Cambodia" from their debut album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables. Allmusic cites this song as "possibly the most successful single of the American hardcore scene" Mason, Stewart. "Holiday In Cambodia: Song Review". Allmusic. Retrieved January 25, 2006. and Biafra counts it as his personal favorite Dead Kennedys song. Minor hits from the album included "Kill the Poor" (about potential abuse of the then-new neutron bomb) and a satirical cover of Elvis Presley's "Viva Las Vegas". Dead Kennedys received some controversy in the spring of 1981 over the single "Too Drunk to Fuck". The song became a big hit in Britain, and the BBC feared that it would manage to be a big enough hit to appear among the top 30 songs on the national charts, requiring a mention on Top of the Pops. However, the single's popularity was slightly less than what was required, peaking at the 31st position. Later albums would also contain memorable songs, but with less popularity than the earlier ones. The EP In God We Trust, Inc. contained the song "Nazi Punks Fuck Off!" as well as "We've Got A Bigger Problem Now", a rewritten version of "California Über Alles" about Ronald Reagan. Punk musician and scholar Vic Bondi considers the latter song to be the song that "defined the lyrical agenda of much of hardcore music, and represented its break with punk". Bondi, Vic. "Feeding Noise Back Into the System: Hardcore, Hip Hop, and Heavy Metal" (paper presented at the New England American Studies Association Conference, Brandeis University, Boston, MA, May 1, 1993). page 5. The band's most controversial album, Frankenchrist, brought with it the song "MTV Get Off the Air", which accused MTV of promoting poor quality music and sedating the public. The album also contained a controversial poster by Swiss surrealist artist H. R. Giger entitled Penis Landscape. The Dead Kennedys toured widely during their career, starting in the late 1970s. They began playing mostly at southern Californian clubs (most notably the Whisky a Go Go), but eventually they moved on to major clubs across the country, including CBGB in New York. Later, they played to larger audiences such as at the 1980 Bay Area Music Awards (where they played the notorious "Pull My Strings" for the only time), and headlined the 1983 Rock Against Reagan festival. Ackerman, Spencer. "Reagan's Punk Rock. Reagan Youth". The New Republic. June 14, 2004. Biafra has been a prominent figure of the Californian punk scene and was one of the founding members of the San Francisco hardcore punk community. Many later hardcore bands would cite the Dead Kennedys as a major influence. Biafra's spoken word work has been less influential to other artists than his music. However, Biafra's spoken word is often mentioned by Sean Kennedy as being a major influence on his work: "Episode 2". SKTFMTV. By Sean Kennedy. Perf. Sean Kennedy, Jello Biafra. Rantmedia. Hardcore punk author Steven Blush describes Biafra as hardcore's "biggest star" who was a "powerful presence whose political insurgence and rabid fandom made him the father figure of a burgeoning subculture [and an] inspirational force [who] could also be a real prick... Biafra was a visionary, incendiary [performer]." Blush, Steven. American Hardcore: A Tribal History. Los Angeles: Feral House, 2001. p. 102–103 ISBN 0-922915-71-7 After the Dead Kennedys disbanded, Biafra's new songs were recorded with other bands, releasing only spoken word albums as solo projects. These collaborations had less popularity than Biafra's earlier work. However, his song "That's Progress", originally recorded with D.O.A. for the album Last Scream Of The Missing Neighbors, received considerable exposure when it appeared on the album Rock Against Bush, Vol. 1. Obscenity prosecution In April 1986, police officers raided his house in response to complaints by the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC). Drozdowski, Ted. "Bullshit detector". Providence Phoenix. Retrieved January 24, 2006. In June 1986, then–L.A. deputy city attorney Michael Guarino, working under then–City Attorney James Hahn, brought Biafra to trial in Los Angeles for distributing "harmful matter" in the Dead Kennedys album Frankenchrist. This American Life #285. Radio program broadcast by WBEZ-Chicago, orig. 3/25/05. Guarino alleged that a family claimed that the poster somehow harmed their children. This was the first ever instance of a musician being put on trial for obscenity. Many sources cite the trial for 2 Live Crew as the first, but that trial took place three years after Biafra's trial. In actuality, the dispute was about neither the music nor the lyrics from the album, but rather the print of the H. R. Giger poster Landscape XX (Penis Landscape) included with the album. Biafra believes the trial was politically motivated; it was often reported that the PMRC took Biafra to court as a cost-effective way of sending a message out to other musicians who have content considered offensive in their music. Biafra, Jello. The Far Right and the Censorship of Music: An Attack on Freedom of Expression. April 17, 1987. Music author Reebee Garofalo argued that Biafra and Alternative Tentacles may have been targeted because the label was a "small, self-managed and self-supported company that could ill afford a protracted legal battle." Garofalo, Reebee. Rockin' Out: Popular Music in the USA. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1997. p.433–434 ISBN 0-205-13703-2 Facing the possible sentence of a year in jail and a $2000 fine, Biafra, Dirk Dirksen, and Suzanne Stefanac founded the No More Censorship Defense Fund, a benefit made up of several punk rock bands, to help pay for his legal fees, which neither he nor his record label could afford. The jury deadlocked 5 to 7 in favor of acquittal, prompting a mistrial; despite a district attorney motion to re-try the case, the judge ordered all charges dropped. The Dead Kennedys disbanded during the trial, in December 1986, due to the mounting legal costs; in the wake of their disbandment, Biafra made a career of his spoken word performances. His early spoken word albums focused heavily on the trial (especially in High Priest of Harmful Matter), which made him renowned for his anti-censorship stance. Jello had a cameo role as an FBI agent, arresting the main characters played by Tim Robbins and John Cusack, in the 1988 film Tapeheads. His character says, while arresting them, "Remember what we did to Jello Biafra?", lampooning the obscenity prosecution. On March 25, 2005, Biafra appeared on the U.S. radio program This American Life, "Episode 285: Know Your Enemy", which featured a phone call between Jello Biafra and Michael Guarino, the prosecutor in the Frankenchrist trial. The episode was about Guarino's change of opinion and the reconciliation between Guarino and Biafra. Lawsuit by former band members In October 1998, former members of the Dead Kennedys sued Biafra for nonpayment of royalties. According to Biafra, the suit resulted from his refusal to allow one of the band's most well known singles, "Holiday in Cambodia", to be used in a commercial for Levi's Dockers; Biafra opposes Levi's because he believes that they use unfair business practices and sweatshop labor. Chun, Kimberly. "Everything's Better With Jello". SFGate.com. May 11, 2001. The three former members claimed that their motive had nothing to do with advertising, and that they had filed suit because Biafra had denied them royalties and failed to promote their albums. Biafra maintained that he had never denied them royalties, and that he himself had not even received royalties for rereleases of their albums or "posthumous" live albums which had been licensed to other labels by the Decay Music partnership. "Jello Biafra Warns Of Bait-And-Switch Tactics In Fake Dead Kennedys Tour". AlternativeTentacles.com. January 14, 2002. Decay Music denied this charge and have posted what they say are his cashed royalty checks, although there is no evidence that Biafra ever endorsed and deposited these payments. DeadKennedys.com. April 5, 2004. Biafra also complained about the songwriting credits in new reissues and archival live albums of songs that Biafra claims he composed himself to the entire band. In May 2000, a jury found Biafra liable for fraud and malice and ordered him to pay $200,000, including $20,000 in punitive damages, to the band members. “Music Industry News Network” January 16, 2001 After an appeal by Biafra’s lawyers, in June 2003, the California Court of Appeal unanimously upheld all the conditions of the 2000 verdict against Biafra and Alternative Tentacles. California Court of Appeals “Dead Kennedys v. Jello Biafra” The other band members reunited in 2001 without Biafra under the name of "DK Kennedys" (later returning to the original band name), replacing Biafra first with Brandon Cruz, then with Jeff Penalty, and finally with Ron "Skip" Greer. Dead Kennedys fans criticized the new band, owing to Biafra's absence. Biafra himself has also openly criticized his former bandmates' legal tactics and reunion tours, most notably in the song "Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)", which he performed with The Melvins. The Dead Kennedys reunion project was indefinitely halted in 2008 for health reasons. Other bands In 1988, Biafra, with Al Jourgensen and Paul Barker of the band Ministry, and Jeff Ward, formed Lard. The band became yet another side project for Ministry, with Biafra providing vocals and lyrics. According to a March 2009 interview with Jourgensen, he and Biafra are working on a new Lard album, which is being recorded in Jourgensen's El Paso studio . . While working on the film Terminal City Ricochet in 1989, Biafra did a song for the film's soundtrack with D.O.A. As a result, Biafra worked with D.O.A. on the album Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors. Biafra also worked with Nomeansno on the soundtrack, which led to their collaboration on the album The Sky Is Falling and I Want My Mommy the following year. Biafra also provided lyrics for the song "Biotech is Godzilla" for Sepultura's 1993 album Chaos A.D.. In 1999, Biafra and other members of the anti-globalization movement protested the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle. Along with other prominent West Coast musicians, he formed the short-lived band the No WTO Combo to help promote the movement's cause. The band was originally scheduled to play during the protest, but the performance was canceled due to riots. The band performed a short set the following night at the Showbox in downtown Seattle (outside of the curfew area), along with the hiphop group Spearhead. No WTO Combo later released a CD of recordings from the concert, entitled Live from the Battle in Seattle. As of late 2005, Biafra was performing with the band The Melvins under the name "Jello Biafra and the Melvins", though fans sometimes refer to them as "The Jelvins." Together they have released two albums, and have been working on material for a third collaborative release, much of which was premiered live at two concerts at the Great American Music Hall in San Francisco during an event called Biafra Five-O, commemorating Biafra's 50th birthday, the 30th anniversary of Dead Kennedys, and the beginning of legalized same-sex marriage in California. Biafra is also working with a new band known as Jello Biafra and his Axis of Merry Evildoers, which includes Ralph Spight of Victims Family on guitar and Billy Gould of Faith No More on bass. This group debuted during Biafra Five-O. Alternative Tentacles In June 1979, Biafra co-founded the record label Alternative Tentacles, with which the Dead Kennedys released their first single, "California Über Alles". In the Appeal Verdict of Dead Kennedys v. Jello Biafra, the label was legally formalized in 1981 but it existed informally since 1979. Biafra became the sole owner of the label in 1986. The label was created to allow the band to release albums without having to deal with pressure from major labels to change their music (although the major labels were not willing to sign the band due to their songs being deemed too controversial). Huey, Steve. "Jello Biafra". Allmusic. Retrieved February 20, 2005. After dealing with Cherry Red in the UK and IRS Records in the US for their first album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables, the band released all later albums (and later pressings of Fresh Fruit) on Alternative Tentacles (with the exception of live albums released after the band's break-up, which the other band members compiled from recordings in the band partnership's vaults without Biafra's input or endorsement). Biafra has been the owner of the company ever since its founding, though he does not receive a salary for his position (Biafra has referred to his position in the company as "absentee thoughtlord"). Vander Molen, Jodi. "Jello Biafra Interview". The Progressive. February 2002. Biafra is an ardent collector of unusual vinyl records of all kinds, from 50's and 60's ethno-pop recordings by the likes of Les Baxter and Esquivel to vanity pressings that have circulated regionally, to German crooner Heino; he cites his always growing collection as one of his biggest musical influences. In 1993 he gave an interview to RE/Search Publications for their second Incredibly Strange Music book focusing primarily on these records. His heavy interest in such recordings (often categorized as outsider music) eventually led to Biafra discovering the prolific (and schizophrenic) singer/songwriter/artist Wesley Willis, whom he signed to Alternative Tentacles in 1994, preceding Willis' major label deal with American Recordings. His collection grew so large that on October 1, 2005, Biafra donated a portion of his collection to an annual yard sale co-promoted by Alternative Tentacles and held at their warehouse in Emeryville, California. Alternative Tentacles News Page: Jello and AT Yard Sale Saturday, September 30, 2005, AlternativeTenacles.com. Retrieved May 10, 2006. In 2006, along with Alternative Tentacles employee and The Frisk lead singer Jesse Luscious, Biafra began co-hosting The Alternative Tentacles Batcast, a downloadable podcast hosted by alternativetentacles.com. The show primarily focuses on interviews with artists and bands that are currently signed to the Alternative Tentacles label, although there are also occasional episodes where Biafra devoted the show to answering fan questions. Spoken word Biafra first became a spoken word artist in January 1986, starting with a performance at University of California, Los Angeles. In his performance he combined his sense of humor with his political beliefs, much in the same way that he did with the lyrics to his songs. Biafra has held this career since, but did not begin recording spoken word records until after the disbanding of the Dead Kennedys. His ninth spoken word album, In the Grip of Official Treason, was released in October 2006. Politics Mayoral campaign In the autumn of 1979, Biafra ran for mayor of San Francisco as a prank, using the Jell-O ad campaign catchphrase, "There's always room for Jello", as his campaign slogan. Having entered the race before creating a campaign platform, Biafra later wrote his platform on a napkin while attending a Pere Ubu concert. As he campaigned, Biafra wore campaign t-shirts from his opponent Quentin Kopp's previous campaign and at one point vacuumed leaves off the front lawn of another opponent, current U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein, to mock her publicity stunt of sweeping streets in downtown San Francisco for a few hours. Supporters committed equally odd actions; two well known signs held by supporters said "If he doesn't win I'll kill myself" and "What if he does win?" His platform included unconventional points such as forcing businessmen to wear clown suits within city limits, erecting statues of Dan White all over town and allowing the parks department to sell eggs and tomatoes with which people could pelt them, and a citywide ban on cars (although the latter point was not considered abnormal by many voters at the time, as the city was suffering from serious pollution problems). Biafra has expressed irritation that these parts of his platform attained such notoriety, preferring instead to be remembered for serious proposals such as legalizing squatting in vacant, tax-delinquent buildings and requiring police officers to keep their jobs by running for election voted on by the people of the neighborhoods they patrol. Biafra, Jello. "Running for Mayor". I Blow Minds for a Living. San Francisco: Alternative Tentacles. 1991. He finished fourth out of a field of ten, receiving 3.5% of the vote (6,591 votes); the election ended in a runoff that did not involve him (Feinstein was declared the winner). In reaction to his campaign (and that of Sister Boom-Boom, a drag queen who also ran for mayor and handily won the third place spot above Biafra), San Francisco passed a resolution stating that candidates could run only under their given name. Pfeiffer. "'You'd Look Nice as a Drawstring Lamp': Dead Kennedys, Cynicism and Discursive Space". Universität Gesamthochschule Siegen. 2000. p. 1 Presidential campaign In 2000, the New York State Green Party drafted Biafra as a candidate for the Green Party presidential nomination, and a few supporters were elected to the party's nominating convention in Denver, Colorado. Despite the fact that his address to the convention was positively received, the party overwhelmingly chose Ralph Nader as the presidential candidate with 295 of the 319 delegate votes. Biafra finished in a second place tie with Stephen Gaskin, both received 10 votes. Biafra, along with a camera crew (dubbed by Biafra as "The Camcorder Truth Jihad"), later reported for the Independent Media Center at the Republican and Democratic conventions. Biafra detailed these events in his album Become The Media, which has resulted in him being credited with coining the slogan "Don't hate the media, become the media". Indymedia and related alternative media often use this line, or the now more apt "Don't hate the media, be the media." Post-2000 After losing the 2000 nomination, Jello became highly active in Ralph Nader's presidential campaign, as well as in 2004 and 2008. During the 2008 campaign Jello played at rallies http://www.livedaily.com/blog/2518.html and answered questions for journalists in support of Ralph Nader. After Barack Obama won the general election, Jello wrote an open letter making suggestions on how to run his term as president. http://www.punknews.org/article/31618 Due to these involvements, along with a Draft movement, http://www.jello2012.com Jello has been noted as a potential candidate for the 2012 election. Personal life Biafra married Therese Soder, aka Ninotchka, lead singer of San Francisco-area punk band The Situations on October 31, 1981. Soder can be heard singing background vocals on "Forest Fire" and "Winnebago Warrior" from the Dead Kennedys' album Plastic Surgery Disasters, and playing synthesiser on "Drug Me" from the Dead Kennedys' Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables. Flipper vocalist/bassist Bruce Loose conducted the wedding, having paid to join the Universal Life Church as a minister just to conduct the ceremony, which took place in a graveyard. New Musical Express press clipping reproduced in Dead Kennedys: An Unauthorized Biography, Last Gasp, 1983. The wedding reception, which members of Flipper, Black Flag, and D.O.A. attended, was held at director Joe Rees' Target Video studios. Henry Rollins, Get In The Van: On The Road With Black Flag, 2.13.61 Publications, 1994 The marriage ended in 1986. Plaster cast On April 29, 1991, Biafra was one of the clients of the famous Cynthia Plaster Caster. This entailed having a groupie provide oral sex while Cynthia Albritton poured dental cast over his erect penis, providing a "cast" for her collection from famous rock musicians. Albritton, Cynthia Official Website List of Castees and Failures Retrieved September 20, 2008 Requires Flash Personal attack On May 7, 1994 people who believed Biafra was a sell out attacked him at the 924 Gilman Street club in Berkeley, California. Biafra claims that he was attacked by a man nicknamed Cretin, who crashed into him while slamdancing. The crash injured Biafra's leg, causing an argument between the two men. During the argument, Cretin pushed Biafra to the floor and five or six friends of Cretin assaulted Biafra while he was down, yelling "Sellout rock star, kick him", and attempting to pull out his hair. Goldberg, Michael. "Jello Biafra Attacked". Rolling Stone. July 14, 1994 & July 28, 1994. Biafra was later hospitalized with serious injuries. Allmusic, having had both his legs broken. However, the July 14 or 28th 1994 issue of Rolling Stone claims that his injuries included "extensive damage to the ligaments of one knee as well as a superficial head wound". The attack derailed Biafra's plans for both a Canadian spoken-word tour and an accompanying album, and the production of Pure Chewing Satisfaction was halted. However, Biafra returned to the Gilman club a few months after the incident to perform a spoken-word performance as an act of reconciliation with the club. Samples Partial discography For a more complete list, see the Jello Biafra discography. Dead Kennedys 1980 - Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables 1981 - In God We Trust, Inc. 1982 - Plastic Surgery Disasters 1985 - Frankenchrist 1986 - Bedtime for Democracy 1987 - Give Me Convenience OR Give Me Death Spoken Word 1987 - No More Cocoons 1989 - High Priest of Harmful Matter: Tales From the Trial 1991 - I Blow Minds for a Living 1994 - Beyond the Valley of the Gift Police 1998 - If Evolution Is Outlawed, Only Outlaws Will Evolve 2000 - Become the Media 2002 - The Big Ka-Boom, Pt. 1 2002 - Machine Gun in the Clown's Hand 2006 - In the Grip of Official Treason Collaborations 1989 - The Power of Lard with Lard 1990 - Supernaut with 1000 Homo DJs - "Hey Asshole" (credited as Count Ringworm) 1990 - Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors with D.O.A. 1990 - The Last Temptation of Reid with Lard 1991 - The Sky is Falling and I Want My Mommy with Nomeansno 1991 - Tumor Circus with Steel Pole Bath Tub by Tumor Circus 1992 - Body Count with Body Count - "Freedom of Speech" 1993 - Chaos A.D. with Sepultura - "Biotech Is Godzilla" (credited on the lyrics) 1994 - Prairie Home Invasion with Mojo Nixon 1995 - Raza Odiada with Brujeria (band)- "Raza Odiada(Pito Wilson)" (as the voice of Pete Wilson) 1997 - Helter Skelter with The D.O.C. - "Secret Plan" 1997 - Pure Chewing Satisfaction with Lard 1997 - Ixnay on the Hombre with The Offspring - "Disclaimer" 1998 - Every Home a Prison with Coldcut 2000 - 70's Rock Must Die with Lard 2000 - Deviant with Pitchshifter - "As Seen on T.V." 2000 - Live from the Battle in Seattle with No WTO Combo 2001 - Nation with Sepultura - "Politricks" 2004 - Never Breathe What You Can't See with The Melvins (credited on the inner sleeve as Osama McDonald) 2005 - The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code with Napalm Death - "The Great and the Good" 2005 - Sieg Howdy! with The Melvins (credited on the inner sleeve as J Lo) 2005 - Hell's Winter with Cage - "Grand Ol' Party Crash" (credited on the Cage as the voice of George W. Bush) 2006 - J'Irai Chier dans Ton Vomi with Métal Urbain 2006 - Cocked and Loaded with Revolting Cocks - "Viagra Culture"(credited on the inner sleeve as Jello Biafra as well as all of his former stage names including Occupant, Smegma Pigvomit, Osama McDonald, and J Lo) 2007 - Deadline with Leftöver Crack - "Baby-Punchers" 2008 - Everybody Make Some Noise! with The A.K.A.s 2009 - All Sewn Up: A Tribute to Patrik Fitzgerald with Motorpsycho - "Punch" Filmography 1977 - This Is America, Pt. 2 1978 - Massacre At Central High 1983 - Anarchism in America 1986 - Lovedolls Superstar, directed by Dave Markey 1988 - Tapeheads, directed by Bill Fishman 1990 - Terminal City Ricochet 1991 - Highway 61, directed by Bruce McDonald 1994 - Skulhedface, directed by Melanie Mandl 1997 - Mary Jane's Not a Virgin Anymore, directed by Sarah Jacobson 1999 - The Widower 1999 - Virtue 2001 - Plaster Caster 2002 - Bikini Bandits, directed by Steve and Peter Grasse 2004 - Death and Texas 2004 - Punk: Attitude 2005 - We Jam Econo: The Story Of The Minutemen 2006 - Punk's Not Dead, directed by Susan Dynner 2006 - Whose War?, directed by Donald Farmer 2007 - American Drug War: The Last White Hope, directed by Kevin Booth 2008 - Nerdcore Rising, directed by Negin Farsad References and footnotes External links Biafra's label Alternative Tentacles Alternative Tentacles at MySpace Alternative Tentacle's Jello Biafra Biography with MP3s and Discography Audio recordings of Biafra's keynote speech at H2K Audio recordings of Biafra's State of the World Address at H2K2 Audio recordings of Biafra's keynote speech at the Fifth HOPE Audio recordings from HOPE Number Six, featuring Jello Biafra's keynote address Audio interviews of Jello Biafra and Nardwuar Jello Biafra Scratch Magazine Interview Juice Magazine Jello Biafra Interview Democracy Now Interview with Jello Biafra Audio of Jello Biafra Speaking at Peace Rally in San Francisco Punknews.org interview with Jello Biafra Maximumrocknroll Interview - Jello Biafra participates in 1984 discussion Plazm Magazine 1996 interview with Jello Biafra Discussed politics and the elections with Dan Patterson on the Creepy Sleepy Show, December 2006] The Onion A.V. Club interview Photos of Jello in the DKs Unofficial Fan Site Draft Jello Biafra movement

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Lilia_Podkopayeva

Lilia Alexandrivna Podkopayeva (; (Liliya Aleksandrovna Podkopaeva); born August 15, 1978 in Donetsk) is a retired Ukrainian gymnast who became the 1996 Olympic all-around champion. Podkoypayeva was often referred to as the "complete package" gymnast, possessing equal qualities of technical skill and artistic expression. Her routines were known for their melding of balletic, expressive choreography, clean execution, impeccable form and extremely difficult skills. In addition, Podkopayeva was known for being strong on all four apparatus, without an obvious weak event. She was the originator of two skills that are still included in the Code of Points: the Podkopayeva vault and a double front half-out salto on the floor exercise. Gymnastics career Podkopayeva was introduced to gymnastics at the age of five by her grandmother. As a junior, before the breakup of the Soviet Union, she briefly trained at the Soviets' renowned Round Lake gymnastics facility. At the 1996 Olympics, Russian (and former Soviet) head coach Leonid Arkaev noted that Podkopayeva was the gymnast with whom he most missed working. In Ukraine, Podkopayeva trained at the National Training Center in Kiev under the tutelage of former European, World and Olympic gold medalist Ludmilla Tourischeva. Podkopayeva made her senior international debut in 1993. Only 14 at that year's World Championships, she placed 16th in the all-around. She qualified for the vault final, but crashed on her first attempt and finished last. In 1994, Podkopayeva's competitive fortunes improved immensely. At the 1994 World Championships, she finished sixth in the all-around — a ten place improvement from the previous year--and won a silver medal on the balance beam. At the European Championships, she earned four medals, winning floor exercise, silver on the beam, and winning bronze in the vault and team events. She also qualified for the all-around and the uneven bars final, where she placed fifth and sixth, respectively. Podkopayeva also did well at the Goodwill Games in St. Petersburg, where she won the vault title, placed 4th in the all-around, won a silver medal with the Ukrainian team and a second silver on floor. Podkpopayeva competed in the 1995 World Championships with a new set of routines and an optimum physical condition. Due to her past inconsistencies, she was widely considered to be an underdog. However, while other more decorated gymnasts faltered, Podkopayeva had the meet of her life, winning the all-around title. She beat Svetlana Khorkina of Russia and Lavinia Milosovici of Romania, who finished second and third. In the event finals, Lilia excelled again, taking another gold medal on the vault and silvers on the uneven bars and the beam. Her contributions in the team competition also helped the Ukrainians to a fifth-place finish, allowing them to qualify a full team to the 1996 Olympic Games. In early 1996, Podkopayeva was seriously injured when she fell from the beam in practice, breaking one rib and fracturing another. She recovered sufficiently to win three gold medals at the 1996 European Championships in the all-around, bars and floor finals. In the all-around, Lilia pushed her childhood idol Svetlana Boginskaya into second place. She also won a bronze on the vault. As the defending World and European Champion, Podkopayeva was a favorite at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. In the team competition, on every event except optional vault, she posted the highest scores of the Ukrainian team, helping them to a fifth-place finish. She qualified in first place to the all-around final, where she had a strong performance and won the gold medal. In doing so, she became the first female gymnast to win the Olympic all-around title as a defending World Champion since Ludmilla Tourischeva in 1972. In addition, Podkopayeva also became the first female gymnast since Tourischeva to hold the European, World, and Olympic all-around titles at the same time. She also became the first, and to date, only, Olympic all-around champion to come from a team that finished outside the medals. She dedicated her title to her beloved grandmother, who had died just three weeks prior to the Olympics. Podkopayeva won a second gold medal in the floor exercise final and a silver on the beam — becoming the only female gymnast since Nadia Comenaci to win an individial event gold after winning the all-round title in the same Olympics. Podkopayeva originally intended to continue competing after the 1996 Olympics, and she was a part of the Ukrainian team at the 1997 Worlds. However, injuries forced her to sit out Worlds and to later retire. Life after gymnastics Podkopayeva is currently the Ukrainian United Nations Goodwill Ambassador for HIV/AIDS. http://www.un.org.ua/en/ambassadors/ . She is married to Ukrainian businessman Timofei Nagorny. They are the parents of two children: Vadim, adopted in Ukraine in July 2006; and Karolina, born in November of the same year. Podkopyeva is still actively involved with the sport of gymnastics, and is Ukraine's Ambassador of Sport to the Council of Europe. She was certified as an international brevet judge in 2004, and also coaches extensively in the U.S. and Ukraine. In Ukraine, Podkopayeva founded the Golden Lily tournament. The event, started in 2002, has evolved from an international gymnastics competition to a gala exhibition. She has additionally worked as a television personality, hosting a show entitled "Aerobics for Champions." In 2006, she won the Ukrainian version of Dancing With the Stars, and represented Ukraine at the Eurovision Dance Contest 2008 with Sergey Kostetskiy. References External links and sources International Gymnastics Legends: Lilia Podkopayeva List of competitive results at Gymn Forum The Golden Lily Competition (in Ukrainian) "Big Plans for Podkopayeva" International Gymnast, July 2006 Interview with Lilia Podkopayeva, International Gymnast,'' 2004

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Opole_Voivodeship

Opole Voivodeship (also known as Opole Province, or by its Polish name of województwo opolskie or simply Opolskie; ) is a Polish voivodeship, or province, created on January 1, 1999, out of the former Opole Voivodeship and parts of Częstochowa Voivodeship, pursuant to the Polish local government reforms adopted in 1998. The province's name derives from that of the region's capital and largest city, Opole, pronounced . Opole Voivodeship is bordered by Lower Silesian Voivodeship to the west, Greater Poland and Łódź Voivodeships to the north, Silesian Voivodeship to the east, and the Czech Republic to the south. Opole Province's geographic location, economic potential, and its population's level of education make it an attractive business partner for other Polish regions (especially Lower Silesian and Silesian Voivodeships) and for foreign investors. Formed in 1997, the Praděd/Pradziad Euroregion has facilitated economic, cultural and tourist exchanges between the border areas of Poland and the Czech Republic. Geography The voivodeship lies in south-western Poland, the major part of it being on the Silesian Lowland (Nizina Śląska). To the east, the region touches upon the Silesian Upland (Silesian Uplands, Wyżyna Śląska) with the famous Saint Anne Mountain; the Sudetes range, the Opawskie Mountains, lies to the south-west. The Oder River cuts across the middle of the voivodeship. Northern part of the voivodeship, along the Malapanew river is densely forested, while the south is covered by arable land. Demographics The Opole voivodeship is the smallest region in the administrative make-up of the country in terms of both area, and population. 10% of the 1 million inhabitants of this voivodeship are ethnic Germans, which is 70% of all the ethnic Germans in Poland. (See Germans of Poland). Transportation The transport route from Germany to Ukraine runs through Opole. The region has four border crossings and direct rail connections to all important Polish cities, as well as to Frankfurt, Munich, Budapest, Kiev, and the Baltic ports. Cities and towns The voivodeship contains 35 cities and towns. These are listed below in descending order of population (according to official figures for 2006 ): 1. Opole (128,034) 2. Kędzierzyn-Koźle (65,572) 3. Nysa (47,283) 4. Brzeg (38,303) 5. Kluczbork (25,910) 6. Prudnik (23,133) 7. Strzelce Opolskie (20,059) 8. Krapkowice (18,112) 9. Namysłów (16,557) 10. Głuchołazy (14,887) 11. Głubczyce (13,333) 12. Zdzieszowice (13,329) 13. Olesno (10,106) 14. Ozimek (9,944) 15. Grodków (8,771) 16. Zawadzkie (8,331) 17. Praszka (8,230) 18. Paczków (8,147) 19. Niemodlin (6,849) 20. Kietrz (6,365) 21. Wołczyn (6,139) 22. Gogolin (6,077) 23. Lewin Brzeski (5,826) 24. Głogówek (5,816) 25. Otmuchów (5,261) 26. Dobrodzień (4,168) 27. Byczyna (3,677) 28. Kolonowskie (3,432) 29. Baborów (3,175) 30. Leśnica (2,945) 31. Prószków (2,713) 32. Biała Prudnicka (2,653) 33. Gorzów Śląski (2,606) 34. Korfantów (1,883) 35. Ujazd (1,652) Administrative division Opole Voivodeship is divided into 12 counties (powiats): 1 city county and 11 land counties. These are further divided into 71 gminas. The counties are listed in the following table (ordering is by decreasing population). English andPolish namesArea(km²)Population(2006)SeatOther townsTotalgminasCity counties Opole96128,034  1Land countiesNysa Countypowiat nyski 1,224145,640NysaGłuchołazy, Paczków, Otmuchów, Korfantów9Opole Countypowiat opolski 1,587134,874Opole *Ozimek, Niemodlin, Prószków13Kędzierzyn-Koźle Countypowiat kędzierzyńsko-kozielski 625102,118Kędzierzyn-Koźle 6Brzeg Countypowiat brzeski 87792,361BrzegGrodków, Lewin Brzeski6Strzelce Countypowiat strzelecki 74480,828Strzelce OpolskieZawadzkie, Kolonowskie, Leśnica, Ujazd7Kluczbork Countypowiat kluczborski 85270,082KluczborkWołczyn, Byczyna4Olesno Countypowiat oleski 97468,269OlesnoPraszka, Dobrodzień, Gorzów Śląski7Krapkowice Countypowiat krapkowicki 44267,926KrapkowiceZdzieszowice, Gogolin5Prudnik Countypowiat prudnicki 57159,931PrudnikGłogówek, Biała Prudnicka4Głubczyce Countypowiat głubczycki 67350,326GłubczyceKietrz, Baborów4Namysłów Countypowiat namysłowski 74843,957Namysłów 5* seat not part of the county Economy The Opole voivodeship is an industrial as well as an agricultural region. With respect to mineral resources, of major importance are deposits of raw materials for building: limestone (Strzelce Opolskie), marl (near Opole), marble, and basalt. The favourable climate, fertile soils, and high farming culture contribute to the development of agriculture, which is among the most productive in the country. A total of nineteen industries are represented in the voivodeship. The most important are cement and lime, furniture, food, car manufacturing, and chemical industries. In 1997, the biggest production growth in the area was in companies producing wood and wood products, electrical equipment, machinery and appliances, as well as cellulose and paper products. In 1997, the top company in the region was Zakłady Azotowe S.A. in Kędzierzyn-Koźle, whose income was over PLN 860 million. The voivodship's economy consists of more than 53,000 businesses, mostly small and medium-sized, employing over 332,000 people. Manufacturing companies employ over 89,000 people; 95.7% of all the region's business operate in the private sector. Universities There are three state-run universities in the region: the Opole University, the Opole University of Technology, and the State Medical College. All of them are based in the voivodeship's capital. Among the region's private schools, the Opole School of Management and Administration has been certified as a degree-granting institution by the Ministry of National Education. Opole University of Technology Opole University State Medical College Opole School of Management and Administration Bogdan Jański College The State Higher Vocational School in Nysa, PWSZ in NYSA Tourism Moszna Castle, near Opole The Opole voivodeship is a green region with three large lakes: Turawskie, Nyskie, and Otmuchowskie (the latter two are connected). The Opawskie Mountains are extremely popular. The region also includes the castle in Brzeg, built during the reign of the Piast dynasty — pearl of the Silesian Renaissance, the Franciscan monastery on top of Saint Anne Mountain, as well as the mediæval defence fortifications in Paczkow (referred to as the Polish Carcassonne). The region has the warmest climate in the country. Protected areas in Opole Voivodeship include the following three areas designated as Landscape Parks: Opawskie Mountains Landscape Park Góra Świętej Anny Landscape Park Stobrawa Landscape Park Most popular surnames in the region Nowak: 5,538 Wieczorek: 2,654 Mazur: 2,512 Previous Opole voivodeships Opole Voivodeship 1975-1999. Opole Voivodeship was also a unit of administrative division and local government in Poland between 1975 and 1998. Major cities and towns — (population in 1995): Opole, capital city (130,600) Kędzierzyn-Koźle (70,700) Nysa (49,000) Brzeg (39,900) Kluczbork (26,900) Prudnik (24,300) Strzelce Opolskie (21,900) Krapkowice (20,100) Opole Voivodeship (1950–1975) This administrative region of the People's Republic of Poland (1950–1975) was created as a result of the partition of Katowice Voivodeship in 1950. External links Opolskie - photogallery Self-Government of the Opolskie Voivodeship Opolski Urząd Wojewódzki Official website be-x-old:Апольскае ваяводзтва

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Julius_Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar Fully, Caius Iulius Caii filius Caii nepos Caesar Imperator ("Gaius Julius Caesar, son of Gaius, grandson of Gaius, Imperator"). Official name after deification in 42 BC: Divus Iulius ("The Divine Julius"). ( in Classical Latin; conventionally in English), (13 July 100 BC There is some dispute over the date of Caesar's birth. The day is sometimes stated to be be 12 July when his feast-day was celebrated after deification, but this was because his true birthday clashed with the Ludi Apollinares. Some scholars, based on the dates he held certain magistracies, have made a case for 101 or 102 BC as the year of his birth, but scholarly consensus favours 100 BC. Goldsworthy, 30 – 15 March 44 BC After Caesar's death the leap years were not inserted according to his intent and there is uncertainty about when leap years were observed between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive; the dates in this article between 45 BC and AD 4 inclusive are those observed in Rome and there is an uncertainty of about a day as to where those dates would be on the proleptic Julian calendar. See Blackburn, B and Holford-Strevens, L. (1999 corrected 2003). The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press. p. 671. ISBN 978-0192142313 ), was a Roman military and political leader. He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. A politician of the populares tradition, he formed an unofficial triumvirate with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus which dominated Roman politics for several years, opposed in the Roman Senate by optimates including Marcus Porcius Cato and Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world to the North Sea, and he also conducted the first Roman invasion of Britain in 55 BC. The collapse of the triumvirate, however, led to a stand-off with Pompey and the Senate. Leading his legions across the Rubicon, Caesar began a civil war in 49 BC from which he became the master of the Roman world. After assuming control of government, he began extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He heavily centralised the bureaucracy of the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity" (dictator perpetuo). A group of senators, led by Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of March (March 15) in 44 BC, hoping to restore the normal running of the Republic. However, the result was another Roman civil war, which ultimately led to the establishment of a permanent autocracy by Caesar's adopted heir, Gaius Octavianus. In 42 BC, two years after his assassination, the Senate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the Roman deities. Much of Caesar's life is known from his own Commentaries (Commentarii) on his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources such as the letters and speeches of his political rival Cicero, the historical writings of Sallust, and the poetry of Catullus. Many more details of his life are recorded by later historians, such as Appian, Suetonius, Plutarch, Cassius Dio and Strabo. Early life Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia, which claimed descent from Iulus, son of the legendary Trojan prince Aeneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Venus. See also: Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Julius 6; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41; Virgil, Aeneid The cognomen "Caesar" originated, according to Pliny the Elder, with an ancestor who was born by caesarean section (from the Latin verb to cut, caedere, caes-). Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.7. The misconception that Julius Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the 10th century (Suda kappa 1199). Julius wasn't the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure was only performed on dead women, while Caesar's mother, Aurelia, lived long after he was born. The Historia Augusta suggests three alternative explanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair (Latin caesaries); that he had bright grey eyes (Latin oculis caesiis); or that he killed an elephant (caesai in Moorish) in battle. Historia Augusta: Aelius 2. Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name. Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential, having produced only three consuls. Caesar's father, also called Gaius Julius Caesar, reached the rank of praetor, the second highest of the Republic's elected magistracies, and governed the province of Asia, perhaps through the influence of his prominent brother-in-law Gaius Marius. Suetonius, Julius 1; Plutarch, Caesar 1, Marius 6; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54; Inscriptiones Italiae, 13.3.51–52 His mother, Aurelia Cotta, came from an influential family which had produced several consuls. Marcus Antonius Gnipho, an orator and grammarian of Gaulish origin, was employed as Caesar's tutor. Suetonius, Lives of Eminent Grammarians 7 Caesar had two sisters, both called Julia. Little else is recorded of Caesar's childhood. Suetonius and Plutarch's biographies of him both begin abruptly in Caesar's teens; the opening paragraphs of both appear to be lost. Plutarch, Caesar 1; Suetonius, Julius 1 Caesar's formative years were a time of turmoil. The Social War was fought from 91 to 88 BC between Rome and her Italian allies over the issue of Roman citizenship, while Mithridates of Pontus threatened Rome's eastern provinces. Domestically, Roman politics was divided between politicians known as optimates and populares, neither of which had a common agenda and so cannot be considered a political party or even a faction. The optimates were those politicians who pursued their agendas through traditional, constitutional routes in the Senate; the populares those who preferred to bypass traditional procedure and pursue their agendas by appealing directly to the electorate. Caesar's uncle Marius was a popularis, Marius' protégé Lucius Cornelius Sulla was an optimas, and in Caesar's youth their rivalry led to civil war. Both Marius and Sulla distinguished themselves in the Social War, and both wanted command of the war against Mithridates, which was initially given to Sulla; but when Sulla left the city to take command of his army, a tribune passed a law transferring the appointment to Marius. Sulla responded by marching on Rome, reclaiming his command and forcing Marius into exile, but when he left on campaign Marius returned at the head of a makeshift army. He and his ally Lucius Cornelius Cinna seized the city and declared Sulla a public enemy, and Marius's troops took violent revenge on Sulla's supporters. Marius died early in 86 BC, but his followers remained in power.<ref>Appian, Civil Wars 1.34–75; Plutarch, Marius 32–46, Sulla 6–10; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.15–20; Eutropius 5; Florus, Epitome of Roman History 2.6, 2.9</ref> In 85 BC Caesar's father died suddenly while putting on his shoes one morning, without any apparent cause, Suetonius, Julius 1; Pliny the Elder, Natural History 7.54 and at sixteen, Caesar was the head of the family. The following year he was nominated to be the new Flamen Dialis, high priest of Jupiter, as Merula, the previous incumbent, had died in Marius's purges. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.22; Florus, Epitome of Roman History 2.9 Since the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to Cossutia, a plebeian girl of wealthy equestrian family he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Cinna's daughter Cornelia. Suetonius, Julius 1; Plutarch, Caesar 1; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.41 Then, having brought Mithridates to terms, Sulla returned to finish the civil war against Marius' followers. After a campaign throughout Italy he seized Rome at the Battle of the Colline Gate in November 82 BC and had himself appointed to the revived office of dictator; but whereas a dictator was traditionally appointed for six months at a time, Sulla's appointment had no term limit. Statues of Marius were destroyed and Marius' body was exhumed and thrown in the Tiber. Cinna was already dead, killed by his own soldiers in a mutiny. Appian, Civil Wars 1.76–102; Plutarch, Sulla 24–33; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.23–28; Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 5; Florus, Epitome of Roman History 2.9 Sulla's proscriptions saw hundreds of his political enemies killed or exiled. Caesar, as the nephew of Marius and son-in-law of Cinna, was targeted. He was stripped of his inheritance, his wife's dowry and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and was forced to go into hiding. The threat against him was lifted by the intervention of his mother's family, which included supporters of Sulla, and the Vestal Virgins. Sulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he saw many a Marius in Caesar. Early career Rather than returning to Rome, Caesar joined the army, serving under Marcus Minucius Thermus in Asia and Servilius Isauricus in Cilicia. He served with distinction, winning the Civic Crown for his part in the siege of Mytilene. On a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of King Nicomedes's fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an affair with the king arose, which would persist for the rest of his life. Suetonius, Julius 2–3; Plutarch, Caesar 2–3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.20 Ironically, the loss of his priesthood had allowed him to pursue a military career: the Flamen Dialis was not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his own bed or one night outside Rome, or look upon an army. William Smith, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities: Flamen In 80 BC, after two years in office, Sulla resigned his dictatorship, re-established consular government and, after serving as consul, retired to private life. Appian. Civil Wars 1.103 Caesar later ridiculed Sulla's relinquishing of the dictatorship—"Sulla did not know his political ABC's". Suetonius, Julius 77. He died two years later in 78 BC and was accorded a state funeral. Plutarch, Sulla 36–38 Hearing of Sulla's death, Caesar felt safe enough to return to Rome. Lacking means since his inheritance was confiscated, he acquired a modest house in the Subura, a lower class neighbourhood of Rome. Suetonius, Julius 46 His return coincided with an attempted anti-Sullan coup by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus but Caesar, lacking confidence in Lepidus's leadership, did not participate. Suetonius, Julius 3; Appian, Civil Wars 1.107 Instead he turned to legal advocacy. He became known for his exceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high-pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for extortion and corruption. Even Cicero praised him: "Come now, what orator would you rank above him...?" Suetonius, Julius 55 Aiming at rhetorical perfection, Caesar travelled to Rhodes in 75 BC to study under Apollonius Molon, who had previously taught Cicero. Suetonius, Julius 4. Plutarch (Caesar 3–4) reports the same events but follows a different chronology. On the way across the Aegean Sea, Again, according to Suetonius's chronology (Julius 4). Plutarch (Caesar 1.8–2) says this happened earlier, on his return from Nicomedes's court. Velleius Paterculus (Roman History 2:41.3–42 says merely that it happened when he was a young man. Caesar was kidnapped by Cilician (not to be confused with Sicilian) pirates and held prisoner in the Dodecanese islet of Pharmacusa. Plutarch, Caesar 1–2 He maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity. When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of twenty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty. Freeman, 39 After the ransom was paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them in Pergamon. Marcus Junctus, the governor of Asia, refused to execute them as Caesar demanded, preferring to sell them as slaves, Freeman, 39–40 but Caesar returned to the coast and had them crucified on his own authority, as he had promised to when in captivity Freeman, 40 —a promise the pirates had taken as a joke. He then proceeded to Rhodes, but was soon called back into military action in Asia, raising a band of auxiliaries to repel an incursion from Pontus. On his return to Rome he was elected military tribune, a first step on the cursus honorum of Roman politics. The war against Spartacus took place around this time (73–71 BC), but it is not recorded what role, if any, Caesar played in it. He was elected quaestor for 69 BC, Freeman, 51 and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, widow of Marius, and included images of Marius, unseen since the days of Sulla, in the funeral procession. His own wife Cornelia also died that year. Freeman, 52 After her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 69 BC, Caesar went to serve his quaestorship in Hispania under Antistius Vetus. Goldsworthy, 100 While there he is said to have encountered a statue of Alexander the Great, and realised with dissatisfaction he was now at an age when Alexander had the world at his feet, while he had achieved comparatively little. He requested, and was granted, an early discharge from his duties, and returned to Roman politics. On his return in 67 BC, Goldsworthy, 101 he married Pompeia, a granddaughter of Sulla. Suetonius, Julius 5–8; Plutarch, Caesar 5; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43 He was elected aedile and restored the trophies of Marius's victories; a controversial move given the Sullan regime was still in place. He also brought prosecutions against men who had benefited from Sulla's proscriptions, and spent a great deal of borrowed money on public works and games, outshining his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. He was also suspected of involvement in two abortive coup attempts. Suetonius, Julius 9–11; Plutarch, Caesar 5.6–6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.8, 10 Coming to prominence His bust in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. 63 BC was an eventful year for Caesar. He persuaded a tribune, Titus Labienus, to prosecute the optimate senator Gaius Rabirius for the political murder, 37 years previously, of the tribune Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, and had himself appointed as one of the two judges to try the case. Rabirius was defended by both Cicero and Quintus Hortensius, but was convicted of perduellio (treason). While he was exercising his right of appeal to the people, the praetor Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer adjourned the assembly by taking down the military flag from the Janiculum hill. Labienus could have resumed the prosecution at a later session, but did not do so: Caesar's point had been made, and the matter was allowed to drop. Cicero, For Gaius Rabirius; Cassius Dio, Roman History 26–28 Labienus would remain an important ally of Caesar over the next decade. The same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of Pontifex Maximus, chief priest of the Roman state religion, after the death of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, who had been appointed to the post by Sulla. He ran against two powerful optimates, the former consuls Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus. There were accusations of bribery by all sides. Caesar is said to have told his mother on the morning of the election that he would return as Pontifex Maximus or not at all, expecting to be forced into exile by the enormous debts he had run up to fund his campaign. In any event he won comfortably, despite his opponents' greater experience and standing, possibly because the two older men split their votes. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.43; Plutarch, Caesar 7; Suetonius, Julius 13 The post came with an official residence on the Via Sacra. When Cicero, who was consul that year, exposed Catiline's conspiracy to seize control of the republic, Catulus and others accused Caesar of involvement in the plot. Sallust, Catiline War 49 Caesar, who had been elected praetor for the following year, took part in the debate in the Senate on how to deal with the conspirators. During the debate, Caesar was passed a note. Marcus Porcius Cato, who would become his most implacable political opponent, accused him of corresponding with the conspirators, and demanded that the message be read aloud. Caesar passed him the note, which, embarrassingly, turned out to be a love letter from Cato's half-sister Servilia. Caesar argued persuasively against the death penalty for the conspirators, proposing life imprisonment instead, but a speech by Cato proved decisive, and the conspirators were executed. Cicero, Against Catiline 4.7–9; Sallust, Catiline War 50–55; Plutarch, Caesar 7.5–8.3, Cicero 20–21, Cato the Younger 22–24; Suetonius, Julius 14 The following year a commission was set up to investigate the conspiracy, and Caesar was again accused of complicity. On Cicero's evidence that he had reported what he knew of the plot voluntarily, however, he was cleared, and one of his accusers, and also one of the commissioners, were sent to prison. Suetonius, Julius 17 While praetor in 62 BC, Caesar supported Metellus Celer, now tribune, in proposing controversial legislation, and the pair were so obstinate they were suspended from office by the Senate. Caesar attempted to continue to perform his duties, only giving way when violence was threatened. The Senate was persuaded to reinstate him after he quelled public demonstrations in his favour. Suetonius, Julius 16 That year the festival of the Bona Dea ("good goddess") was held at Caesar's house. No men were permitted to attend, but a young patrician named Publius Clodius Pulcher managed to gain admittance disguised as a woman, apparently for the purpose of seducing Caesar's wife Pompeia. He was caught and prosecuted for sacrilege. Caesar gave no evidence against Clodius at his trial, careful not to offend one of the most powerful patrician families of Rome, and Clodius was acquitted after rampant bribery and intimidation. Nevertheless, Caesar divorced Pompeia, saying that "my wife ought not even to be under suspicion." Cicero, Letters to Atticus 1.12, 1.13, 1.14; Plutarch, Caesar 9–10; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.45 After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior (Outer Iberia), but he was still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave. He turned to Marcus Licinius Crassus, one of Rome's richest men. In return for political support in his opposition to the interests of Pompey, Crassus paid some of Caesar's debts and acted as guarantor for others. Even so, to avoid becoming a private citizen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended. In Hispania he conquered the Callaici and Lusitani, being hailed as imperator by his troops, reformed the law regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem. Plutarch, Caesar 11–12; Suetonius, Julius 18.1 Being hailed as imperator entitled Caesar to a triumph. However, he also wanted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic. If he were to celebrate a triumph, he would have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he would need to lay down his command and enter Rome as a private citizen. He could not do both in the time available. He asked the senate for permission to stand in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal. Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. Plutarch, Julius 13; Suetonius, Julius 18.2 First consulship and triumvirate Three candidates stood for the consulship: Caesar, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, who had been aedile with Caesar several years earlier, and Lucius Lucceius. The election was dirty. Caesar canvassed Cicero for support, and made an alliance with the wealthy Lucceius, but the establishment threw its financial weight behind the conservative Bibulus, and even Cato, with his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in his favour. Caesar and Bibulus were elected as consuls for 59 BC. Plutarch, Caesar 13–14; Suetonius 19 Caesar was already in Crassus's political debt, but he also made overtures to Pompey, who was unsuccessfully fighting the Senate for ratification of his eastern settlements and farmland for his veterans. Pompey and Crassus had been at odds since they were consuls together in 70 BC, and Caesar knew if he allied himself with one he would lose the support of the other, so he endeavoured to reconcile them. Between the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business. This informal alliance, known as the First Triumvirate (rule of three men), was cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia. Cicero, Letters to Atticus 2.1, 2.3, 2.17; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.44; Plutarch, Caesar 13–14, Pompey 47, Crassus 14; Suetonius, Julius 19.2; Cassius Dio, Roman History 37.54–58 Caesar also married again, this time Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, who was elected to the consulship for the following year. Suetonius, Julius 21 Caesar proposed a law for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by Pompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public. Pompey filled the city with soldiers, and the triumvirate's opponents were intimidated. Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the new law, but was driven from the forum by Caesar's armed supporters. His lictors had their fasces broken, two tribunes accompanying him were wounded, and Bibulus himself had a bucket of excrement thrown over him. In fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens. These attempts to obstruct Caesar's legislation proved ineffective. Roman satirists ever after referred to the year as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar". Cicero, Letters to Atticus 2.15, 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 44.4; Plutarch, Caesar 14, Pompey 47–48, Cato the Younger 32–33; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.1–8 When Caesar and Bibulus were first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit Caesar's future power by allotting the woods and pastures of Italy, rather than governorship of a province, as their proconsular duties after their year of office was over. Suetonius, Julius 19.2 With the help of Piso and Pompey, Caesar later had this overturned, and was instead appointed to govern Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy) and Illyricum (the western Balkans), with Transalpine Gaul (southern France) later added, giving him command of four legions. The term of his proconsulship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the usual one. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2:44.4; Plutarch, Caesar 14.10, Crassus 14.3, Pompey 48, Cato the Younger 33.3; Suetonius, Julius 22; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38:8.5 When his consulship ended, Caesar narrowly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and quickly left for his province. Suetonius, Julius 23 Conquest of Gaul Caesar was still deeply in debt, and there was money to be made as a provincial governor, whether by extortion See Cicero's speeches against Verres for an example of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province's expense. or by military adventurism. Caesar had four legions under his command, two of his provinces, Illyricum and Gallia Narbonensis, bordered on unconquered territory, and independent Gaul was known to be unstable. Rome's allies the Aedui had been defeated by their Gallic rivals, with the help of a contingent of Germanic Suebi under Ariovistus, who had settled in conquered Aeduan land, and the Helvetii were mobilising for a mass migration, which the Romans feared had warlike intent. Caesar raised two new legions and defeated first the Helvetii, then Ariovistus, and left his army in winter quarters in the territory of the Sequani, signaling that his interest in the lands outside Gallia Narbonensis would not be temporary. Cicero, Letters to Atticus 1.19; Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 1; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 38.31–50 Roman silver Denarius with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the campaigns of Caesar He began his second year with double the military strength he had begun with, having raised another two legions in Cisalpine Gaul during the winter. The legality of this was dubious, as the Cisalpine Gauls were not Roman citizens. In response to Caesar's activities the previous year, the Belgic tribes of north-eastern Gaul had begun to arm themselves. Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against a united Belgic army, conquered the tribes piecemeal. Meanwhile, one legion, commanded by Crassus' son Publius, began the conquest of the tribes of the Armorican peninsula. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 2; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.1–5 During the spring of 56 BC the Triumvirate held a conference at Luca (modern Lucca) in Cisalpine Gaul. Rome was in turmoil, and Clodius' populist campaigns had been undermining relations between Crassus and Pompey. The meeting renewed the Triumvirate and extended Caesar's proconsulship for another five years. Crassus and Pompey would be consuls again, with similarly long-term proconsulships to follow: Syria for Crassus, the Hispanian provinces for Pompey. Cicero, Letters to his brother Quintus 2.3; Suetonius, Julius 24; Plutarch, Caesar 21, Crassus 14–15, Pompey 51 The conquest of Armorica was completed when Caesar defeated the Veneti in a naval battle, while young Crassus conquered the Aquitani of the south-west. By the end of campaigning in 56 BC only the Morini and Menapii of the coastal Low Countries still held out. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 3; Cassius Dio, Roman History 39.40–46 In 55 BC Caesar repelled an incursion into Gaul by the Germanic Usipetes and Tencteri, and followed it up by building a bridge across the Rhine and making a show of force in Germanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge. Late that summer, having subdued the Morini and Menapii, he crossed to Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided the Veneti against him the previous year. His intelligence was poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the Kent coast he was unable to advance further, and returned to Gaul for the winter. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 4; Appian, Gallic Wars Epit. 4; Cassius Dio, Roman History 47–53 He returned the following year, better prepared and with a larger force, and achieved more. He advanced inland, establishing Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as a friendly king and bringing his rival, Cassivellaunus, to terms. But poor harvests led to widespread revolt in Gaul, led by Ambiorix of the Eburones, forcing Caesar to campaign through the winter and into the following year. With the defeat of Ambiorix, Caesar believed Gaul was now pacified. Cicero, Letters to friends 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.10, 7.17; Letters to his brother Quintus 2.13, 2.15, 3.1; Letters to Atticus 4.15, 4.17, 4.18; Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 5–6; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.1–11 While Caesar was in Britain his daughter Julia, Pompey's wife, had died in childbirth. Caesar tried to resecure Pompey's support by offering him his great-niece Octavia in marriage, alienating Octavia's husband Gaius Marcellus, but Pompey declined. In 53 BC Crassus was killed leading a failed invasion of Parthia. Rome was on the edge of violence. Pompey was appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married Cornelia, daughter of Caesar's political opponent Quintus Metellus Scipio, whom he invited to become his consular colleague once order was restored. The Triumvirate was dead. Suetonius, Julius ; Plutarch, Caesar 23.5, Pompey 53–55, Crassus 16–33; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 46–47 Vercingetorix surrenders to Caesar , by Lionel Royer In 52 BC another, larger revolt erupted in Gaul, led by Vercingetorix of the Arverni. Vercingetorix managed to unite the Gallic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements including the Battle of Gergovia, but Caesar's elaborate siege-works at the Battle of Alesia finally forced his surrender. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 7; Cassius Dio, Roman History 40.33–42 Despite scattered outbreaks of warfare the following year, Aulus Hirtius, Commentaries on the Gallic War Book 8 Gaul was effectively conquered. Titus Labienus was Caesar's most senior legate during his Gallic campaigns, having the status of propraetor. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War 1.21 Other prominent men who served under him included his relative Lucius Julius Caesar, Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War 7.65 Crassus' sons Marcus Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War 6.6 and Publius, Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War 2.34 Cicero's brother Quintus, Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War 6.32f. Decimus Brutus, Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War 3.11 and Mark Antony. Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the Gallic War 7.81f. Plutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men in the course of the Gallic Wars, of whom 1 million died, and another million were enslaved. 300 tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed. Almost the entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) was slaughtered. Julius Caesar reports that 368,000 of the Helvetii left home, of whom 92,000 could bear arms, and only 110,000 returned after the campaign. However, in view of the difficulty of finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar's propagandistic purposes, and the common gross exaggeration of numbers in ancient texts, the totals of enemy combatants in particular are likely to be far too high. Furger-Gunti considers an army of more than 60,000 fighting Helvetii extremely unlikely in the view of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 40,000 warriors out of a total of 160,000 emigrants. Furger-Gunti, 102. Delbrück suggests an even lower number of 100,000 people, out of which only 16,000 were fighters, which would make the Celtic force about half the size of the Roman body of ca. 30,000 men. H. Delbrück Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte, Vol. 1, 1900, pp. 428 and 459f. Military career Historians place the generalship of Caesar as one of the greatest military strategists and tacticians who ever lived, along with Alexander the Great, Sun Tzu, Hannibal, Genghis Khan, and Napoleon Bonaparte. Caesar suffered occasional tactical defeats, such as Battle of Gergovia during the Gallic War and the Battle of Dyrrhachium during the Civil War. However, his tactical brilliance was highlighted by such feats as his circumvallation of Alesia during the Gallic War, the rout of Pompey's numerically superior forces at Pharsalus during the Civil War, and the complete destruction of Pharnaces' army at Battle of Zela. Caesar's successful campaigning in any terrain and under all weather conditions owes much to the strict but fair discipline of his legionaries, whose admiration and devotion to him were proverbial due to his promotion of those of skill over those of nobility. Caesar's infantry and cavalry were first rate, and he made heavy use of formidable Roman artillery and his army's superlative engineering abilities. There was also the legendary speed with which he manoeuvred his troops; Caesar's army sometimes marched as many as a day. His Commentaries on the Gallic Wars describe how, during the siege of one Gallic city built on a very steep and high plateau, his engineers tunnelled through solid rock, found the source of the spring from which the town was drawing its water supply, and diverted it to the use of the army. The town, cut off from their water supply, capitulated at once. Caesar also used a cipher system to communicate with his generals which has now come to be known as the Caesar cipher. Civil war An engraving depicting Gaius Julius Caesar. In 50 BC, the Senate, led by Pompey, ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome because his term as Proconsul had finished. Suetonius, Julius 28 Moreover, the Senate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship in absentia. Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and politically marginalised if he entered Rome without the immunity enjoyed by a Consul or without the power of his army. Pompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason. On January 10, 49 BC Caesar crossed the Rubicon river (the frontier boundary of Italy) with only one legion and ignited civil war. Upon crossing the Rubicon, Plutarch reports that Caesar quoted the Athenian playwright Menander in Greek, saying ἀνερρίφθω κύβος (let the die be thrown). Plutarch, Caesar 60.2 Suetonius gives the Latin approximation alea iacta est (the die is thrown). Suetonius, Julius 32 The Optimates, including Metellus Scipio and Cato the Younger, fled to the south, having little confidence in the newly raised troops especially since so many cities in northern Italy had voluntarily surrendered. An attempted stand by a consulate legion in Samarium resulted in the consul being handed over by the defenders and the legion surrendering without significant fighting. Despite greatly outnumbering Caesar, who only had his Thirteenth Legion with him, Pompey had no intention of fighting. Caesar pursued Pompey to Brindisium, hoping to capture Pompey before the trapped Senate and their legions could escape. Plutarch, Caesar 35.2 Pompey managed to elude him, sailing out of the harbour before Caesar could break the barricades. Lacking a naval force since Pompey had already scoured the coasts of all ships for evacuation of his forces, Caesar decided to head for Hispania saying "I set forth to fight an army without a leader, so as later to fight a leader without an army." Leaving Marcus Aemilius Lepidus as prefect of Rome, and the rest of Italy under Mark Antony as tribune, Caesar made an astonishing 27-day route-march to Hispania, rejoining two of his Gallic legions, where he defeated Pompey's lieutenants. He then returned east, to challenge Pompey in Greece where on July 10, 48 BC at Dyrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat when the line of fortification was broken. He decisively defeated Pompey, despite Pompey's numerical advantage (nearly twice the number of infantry and considerably more cavalry), at Pharsalus in an exceedingly short engagement in 48 BC. Plutarch, Caesar 42–45 In Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator, Plutarch, Caesar 37.2 with Mark Antony as his Master of the Horse; Caesar presided over his own election to a second consulate (with Publius Servilius Vatia as his colleague) and then, after eleven days, resigned this dictatorate. Martin Jehne, Der Staat des Dicators Caesar, Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15-38. Cleopatra Before Caesar by the artist Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1866. He pursued Pompey to Alexandria, where Pompey was murdered by a former Roman officer serving in the court of King Ptolemy XIII. Plutarch, Pompey 77–79 Caesar then became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regent queen, the Pharaoh Cleopatra VII. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, Plutarch, Pompey 80.5 which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain Pothinus as a gift. In any event, Caesar defeated the Ptolemaic forces in 47 BC in the Battle of the Nile and installed Cleopatra as ruler. Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory of the Alexandrine civil war with a triumphant procession on the Nile in the spring of 47 B.C. The royal barge was accompanied by 400 additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luxurious lifestyle of the Egyptian pharaohs. Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as Roman Law only recognised between two Roman citizens. Caesar continued his relationship with Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, which lasted 14 years – in Roman eyes, this did not constitute adultery – and possibly fathered a son called Caesarion. Cleopatra visited Rome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar's villa just outside Rome across the Tiber. Late in 48 BC, Caesar was again appointed Dictator, with a term of one year. After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, Caesar went to the Middle East, where he annihilated King Pharnaces II of Pontus in the Battle of Zela; his victory was so swift and complete that he mocked Pompey's previous victories over such poor enemies. Suetonius, Julius 35.2 Thence, he proceeded to Africa to deal with the remnants of Pompey's senatorial supporters. He quickly gained a significant victory at Thapsus in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio (who died in the battle) and Cato the Younger (who committed suicide). Plutarch, Caesar 52–54 After this victory, he was appointed Dictator for ten years. Martin Jehne, Der Staat des Dicators Caesar, Köln/Wien 1987, p. 15-38. Technically, Caesar was not appointed Dictator with a term of ten years but he was appointed annual dictator for the next ten years in advance. Nevertheless, Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius and Sextus Pompeius, together with Titus Labienus, Caesar's former propraetorian legate (legatus propraetore) and second in command in the Gallic War, escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of Munda in March 45 BC. Plutarch, Caesar 56 During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) and 45 BC (without colleague). Aftermath of the civil war While he was still campaigning in Hispania, the Senate began bestowing honours on Caesar in absentia. Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there was no serious public opposition to him. Great games and celebrations were held on April 21 to honour Caesar’s victory at Munda. Plutarch writes that many Romans found the triumph held following Caesar's victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil war had not been foreigners, but instead fellow Romans. Plutarch, Caesar 56.7–56.8 Caesar was the first to print his own bust on a Roman minted coin. On Caesar's return to Italy in September 45 BC, he filed his will, naming his grand-nephew Gaius Octavius (Octavian) as the heir to everything, including his name. Caesar also wrote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, Marcus Junius Brutus would be the next heir in succession. Caesar tightly regulated the purchase of state-subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fixed number, all of whom were entered into a special register. From 47 to 44 he made plans for the distribution of land to about 15,000 of his veterans. In 63 BC Caesar had been elected Pontifex Maximus, and one of his roles as such was settling the calendar. A complete overhaul of the old Roman calendar proved to be one of his most long lasting and influential reforms. In 46 BC, Caesar established a 365-day year with a leap year every fourth year. Suetonius, Julius 40 (This Julian calendar was subsequently modified by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 into the modern Gregorian calendar.) As a result of this reform, a certain Roman year (mostly equivalent to 46 BC in the modern calendar) was made 445 days long, to bring the calendar into line with the seasons. The month of July is named after Julius in his honour. Suetonius, Julius 76 The Forum of Caesar, with its Temple of Venus Genetrix, was built among many other public works. Assassination On the Ides of March (March 15; see Roman calendar) of 44 BC, a group of senators called Caesar to the forum for the purpose of reading a petition, written by the senators, asking him to hand power back to the Senate. However, the petition was a fake. Mark Antony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified Liberator named Servilius Casca, and fearing the worst, went to head Caesar off at the steps of the forum. However, the group of senators intercepted Caesar just as he was passing the Theatre of Pompey, located in the Campus Martius, and directed him to a room adjoining the east portico. A diabase bust of Caesar. As Caesar began to read the false petition, Tillius Cimber, who had handed him the petition, pulled down Caesar's tunic. According to Suetonius, Caesar then cried to Cimber, "Why, this is violence!" ("Ista quidem vis est!"). Suetonius, Life of the Caesars, Julius trans. J C Rolfe At the same time, the aforementioned Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator's neck. Caesar turned around quickly and caught Casca by the arm. According to Plutarch, he said in Latin, "Casca, you villain, what are you doing?" Plutarch, Life of Caesar, ch. 66: "'" Casca, frightened, shouted "Help, brother!" in Greek ("", "adelphe, boethei!"). Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, was striking out at the dictator. Caesar attempted to get away, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell; the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lower steps of the portico. According to Eutropius, around sixty or more men participated in the assassination. He was stabbed 23 times. Woolf Greg (2006), Et Tu Brute? – The Murder of Caesar and Political Assassination, 199 pages – ISBN 1-8619-7741-7 According to Suetonius, a physician later established that only one wound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal. Suetonius, Julius, c. 82. The dictator's last words are not known with certainty, and are a contested subject among scholars and historians alike. Suetonius reports that others have said Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase "" Suetonius, Julius 82.2 (transliterated as "Kai su, teknon?": "You too, child?" in English). However, Suetonius himself says Caesar said nothing. Plutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators. Plutarch, Caesar 66.9 The version best known in the English-speaking world is the Latin phrase "Et tu, Brute?" ("And you, Brutus?", commonly rendered as "You too, Brutus"); this derives from Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, where it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: "Et tu, Brute? Then fall, Caesar." It has no basis in historical fact and Shakespeare's use of Latin here is not from any assumption that Caesar would have been using the language, but because the phrase was already popular at the time the play was written. It appears, for example, in Richard Eedes' Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582 and The True Tragedie of Richarde Duke of Yorke &tc of 1595, Shakespeare's source work for other plays. According to Plutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped forward as if to say something to his fellow senators; they, however, fled the building. Plutarch, Caesar, 67 Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol while crying out to their beloved city: "People of Rome, we are once again free!". They were met with silence, as the citizens of Rome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of what had taken place had begun to spread. A wax statue of Caesar was erected in the forum displaying the 23 stab wounds. A crowd who had amassed there started a fire, which badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings. In the ensuing chaos Mark Antony, Octavian (later Augustus Caesar), and others fought a series of five civil wars, which would end in the formation of the Roman Empire. Aftermath of the assassination Deification of Julius Caesar as represented in a 16th-century engraving. The result unforeseen by the assassins was that Caesar's death precipitated the end of the Roman Republic. Florus, Epitome 2.7.1 The Roman middle and lower classes, with whom Caesar was immensely popular and had been since before Gaul, became enraged that a small group of high-browed aristocrats had killed their champion. Antony did not give the speech that Shakespeare penned for him more than 1600 years later ("Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears..."), but he did give a dramatic eulogy that appealed to the common people, a reflection of public opinion following Caesar's murder. Antony, who had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the Roman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps with the intent of taking control of Rome himself. But, to his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephew Gaius Octavian his sole heir, bequeathing him the immensely potent Caesar name as well as making him one of the wealthiest citizens in the Republic. Suetonius, Julius 83.2 Gaius Octavian became, for all intents and purposes, the son of the great Caesar, and consequently also inherited the loyalty of much of the Roman populace. Octavian, aged only 19 at the time of Caesar's death, proved to have considerable political skills, and while Antony dealt with Decimus Brutus in the first round of the new civil wars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position. In order to combat Brutus and Cassius, who were massing an enormous army in Greece, Antony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar's war chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar's name would provide for any action he took against them. With the passage of the lex Titia on November 27, 43 BC, the Second Triumvirate was officially formed, comprised of Antony, Octavian, and Caesar's loyal cavalry commander Lepidus. Suetonius, Augustus 13.1; Florus, Epitome 2.6 It formally deified Caesar as Divus Iulius in 42 BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Divi filius ("Son of a god"). Seeing that Caesar's clemency had resulted in his murder, the Second Triumvirate brought back the horror of proscription, abandoned since Sulla. Florus, Epitome 2.6.3 It engaged in the legally-sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents in order to secure funding for its forty-five legions in the second civil war against Brutus and Cassius. Antony and Octavius defeated them at Philippi. Florus, Epitome 2.7.11–14; Appian, The Civil Wars 5.3 Afterward, Mark Antony married Caesar's lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously wealthy Egypt as a base to dominate Rome. A third civil war broke out between Octavian on one hand and Antony and Cleopatra on the other. This final civil war, culminating in the latter's defeat at Actium, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, who became the first Roman emperor, under the name Caesar Augustus, a name that raised him to status of a deity. Florus, Epitome 2.34.66 Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade Parthia, the Caucasus and Scythia, and then swing back onto Germania through Eastern Europe. These plans were thwarted by his assassination. Plutarch, Caesar 58.6 His successors did attempt the conquests of Parthia and Germania, but without lasting results. Health Based on remarks by Plutarch, Plutarch, Caesar 17, 45, 60; see also Suetonius, Julius 45. Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy. Modern scholarship is "sharply divided" on the subject, and it is more certain that he was plagued by malaria, particularly during the Sullan proscriptions of the 80s. Ronald T. Ridley, "The Dictator's Mistake: Caesar's Escape from Sulla," Historia 49 (2000), pp. 225–226, citing doubters of epilepsy: F. Kanngiesser, "Notes on the Pathology of the Julian Dynasty," Glasgow Medical Journal 77 (1912) 428–432; T. Cawthorne, "Julius Caesar and the Falling Sickness,” Proceedings of Royal Society of Medicine 51 (1957) 27–30, who prefers Ménière's disease; and O. Temkin, The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology (Baltimore 1971), p 162. Caesar had four documented episodes of what may have been complex partial seizures. He may additionally have had absence seizures in his youth. The earliest accounts of these seizures were made by the biographer Suetonius who was born after Caesar died. The claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, which can cause epileptoid seizures. Literary works Caesar was considered during his lifetime to be one of the best orators and authors of prose in Rome—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. Cicero, Brutus, 252. Among his most famous works were his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his Anticato, a document written to blacken Cato's reputation and respond to Cicero's Cato memorial. Unfortunately, the majority of his works and speeches have been lost. Memoirs Commentarii de Bello Gallico, an account written by Julius Caesar about his nine years of war in Gaul The Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War), campaigns in Gallia and Britannia during his term as proconsul; and The Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War), events of the Civil War until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt. Other works historically attributed to Caesar, but whose authorship is doubted, are: De Bello Alexandrino (On the Alexandrine War), campaign in Alexandria; De Bello Africo (On the African War), campaigns in North Africa; and De Bello Hispaniensi (On the Hispanic War), campaigns in the Iberian peninsula. These narratives were written and published on a yearly basis during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". Apparently simple and direct in style—to the point that Caesar's Commentarii are commonly studied by first and second year Latin students—they are in fact highly sophisticated and subtly slanted advertisements for his political agenda, aimed most particularly at the middle-brow readership of minor aristocrats in Rome, Italy, and the provinces. Name Using the Latin alphabet as it existed in the day of Caesar (i.e., without lower case letters, "J", or "U"), Caesar's name is properly rendered "GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR". The form "CAIVS" is also attested using the old Roman pronunciation of letter C as G; it is an antique form of the more common "GAIVS". It is often seen abbreviated to "C. IVLIVS CAESAR". (The letterform "Æ" is a ligature, which is often encountered in Latin inscriptions where it was used to save space, and is nothing more than the letters "ae".) In Classical Latin, it was . Note that the first name, like the second, is properly pronounced in three syllables, not two. See Latin spelling and pronunciation. In the days of the late Roman Republic, many historical writings were done in Greek, a language most educated Romans studied. Young wealthy Roman boys were often taught by Greek slaves and sometimes sent to Athens for advanced training, as was Caesar's principal assassin, Brutus. In Greek, during Caesar's time, his family name was written Καίσαρ, reflecting its contemporary pronunciation. Thus his name is pronounced in a similar way to the pronunciation of the German Kaiser. This German name was phonemically but not phonetically derived from the Middle Ages Ecclesiastical Latin, in which the familiar part "Caesar" is , from which the modern English pronunciation is derived, as well as the title of Tsar. His name is also remembered in Norse mythology, where he is manifested as the legendary king Kjárr. Family Parents Father Gaius Julius Caesar the Elder Mother Aurelia (related to the Aurelia Cottae) Sisters Julia Caesaris "Maior" (the elder) Julia Caesaris "Minor" (the younger) Wives First marriage to Cornelia Cinnilla, from 83 BC until her death in childbirth in 69 or 68 BC Second marriage to Pompeia, from 67 BC until he divorced her around 61 BC Third marriage to Calpurnia Pisonis, from 59 BC until Caesar's death Children Julia with Cornelia Cinnilla, born in 83 or 82 BC Caesarion, with Cleopatra VII, born 47 BC. He was killed at age 17 by Caesar's adopted son Octavianus. adopted: Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great-nephew by blood, who later became Emperor Augustus. Marcus Junius Brutus: The historian Plutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother Servilia had been Caesar's lover during their youth. "Considering that Brutus was born about that time in which their loves were at the highest, Caesar had a belief that he was his own child": Grandchildren Grandson from Julia and Pompey, dead at several days, unnamed. Lovers Cleopatra VII Servilia Caepionis mother of Brutus Eunoë, queen of Mauretania and wife of Bogudes Notable relatives Gaius Marius (married to his Aunt Julia) Mark Antony Lucius Julius Caesar Julius Sabinus, a Gaul of the Lingones at the time of the Batavian rebellion of AD 69, claimed to be the great-grandson of Caesar on the grounds that his great-grandmother had been Caesar's lover during the Gallic war. Tacitus, Histories 4.55 Political rivals and rumours of homosexual activity Roman society viewed the passive role during sex, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority. Indeed, Suetonius says that in Caesar's Gallic triumph, his soldiers sang that, "Caesar may have conquered the Gauls, but Nicomedes conquered Caesar." Suetonius, Julius 49 According to Cicero, Bibulus, Gaius Memmius, and others (mainly Caesar's enemies), he had an affair with Nicomedes IV of Bithynia early in his career. The tales were repeated, referring to Caesar as the Queen of Bithynia, by some Roman politicians as a way to humiliate and degrade him. It is possible that the rumors were spread only as a form of character assassination. Caesar himself, according to Cassius Dio, denied the accusations under oath. Suetonius, Julius 49; Cassius Dio, Roman History 43.20 This form of slander was popular during this time in the Roman Republic to demean and discredit political opponents. A favorite tactic used by the opposition was to accuse a popular political rival as living a Hellenistic lifestyle based on Greek and Eastern culture, where homosexuality and a lavish lifestyle were more acceptable than in Roman tradition. Catullus wrote two poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer Mamurra were lovers, Catullus, Carmina 29, 57 but later apologised. Suetonius, Julius 73 Mark Antony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours. Suetonius described Antony's accusation of an affair with Octavian as political slander. The boy Octavian was to become the first Roman emperor following Caesar's death. Suetonius, Augustus 68, 71 Chronology of his life Honours and titles As a young man he was awarded the Corona Civica (civic crown) for valour while fighting in Asia Minor and went on to receive many honours. These included titles such as Pater Patriae (Father of the Fatherland), and Dictator. He was also elected Pontifex Maximus in 63 BC. The many titles bestowed on him by the Senate are sometimes cited as a cause of his assassination, as it seemed inappropriate to many contemporaries for a man to be awarded so many honours. Divus Iulius or Divus Julius (the divine Julius or the deified Julius) was the official title that was given to Caesar posthumously by decree of the Roman Senate on the 1 January 42 BC. Mark Antony had been appointed as flamen (priest) to Caesar shortly before the latter was assassinated. According to Dio Cassius, 44.6.4. Julius Caesar was the first historical Roman to be deified. The cult of Divus Iulius was promoted by both Octavian and Mark Antony. After the death of Antony, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of Divi Filius (son of a god). Caesar's cognomen would itself become a title; it was greatly promulgated by the Bible, by the famous verse "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s". The title became the German Kaiser and Slavic Tsar/Czar. The last tsar in nominal power was Simeon II of Bulgaria whose reign ended in 1946; for two thousand years after Julius Caesar's assassination, there was at least one head of state bearing his name. Depictions For the marble bust from Arles discovered in 2007–8 alleged to be Caesar's likeness, and the ensuing controversy, see Arles portrait bust. References Primary sources Own writings Forum Romanum Index to Caesar's works online in Latin and translation omnia munda mundis Hypertext of Caesar's De Bello Gallico Ancient historians' writings Appian, Book 13 (English translation) Cassius Dio, Books 37–44 (English translation) Plutarch on Antony (English translation, Dryden edition) Plutarch: The Life of Julius Caesar (English translation) Plutarch: The Life of Mark Antony (English translation) Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar. (Latin and English, cross-linked: the English translation by J. C. Rolfe) Suetonius: The Life of Julius Caesar (J. C. Rolfe English translation, modified) Secondary sources External links C. Julius Caesar Jona Lendering's in‑depth history of Caesar (Livius. Org) Guide to online resources History of Julius Caesar Julius Caesar at BBC History Succession table Caesar was acclaimed Imperator in 60 and 45 BC. In the Roman Republic, this was an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders. After an especially great victory, an army's troops in the field would proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the Senate for a triumph. After being acclaimed imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, where he would relinquish the title as well as his imperium.</div>

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Foreign_relations_of_Japan

Since the surrender after World War II and the return to the international community by the Treaty of San Francisco, Japanese diplomatic policy has been based on close partnership with the United States and the emphasis on the international cooperation such as the United Nations. In the Cold War, Japan took a part in the Western world's confrontation of the Soviet Union in East Asia. In the rapid economic developments in the 1960s and 1970s, Japan recovered its influences and became regarded as one of the major powers in the world. Japanese influences are viewed as highly positive, except by two countries: China and South Korea. BBC World Service Poll, 6 March 2007 PDF) During the Cold War, Japanese foreign policy was not self-assertive, relatively focused on their economic growth. However the end of the Cold War and bitter lessons from the Gulf War changed the policy slowly. Japanese government decided to participate in the Peacekeeping operations by the UN, and sent their troops to Cambodia, Mozambique, Golan Heights and the East Timor in the 1990s and 2000s 国連平和維持活動（PKO）, Ministry of Foreign Affairs . After the September 11 attacks, Japanese naval vessels have been assigned to resupply duties in the Indian Ocean to the present date. The Ground Self-Defense Force also dispatched their troops to Southern Iraq for the restoration of basic infrastructures. Relations by region and country Asia North and South Korea Japan strongly supports the U.S. in its efforts to encourage Pyongyang to abide by the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and its agreements with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Despite the August 31, 1998 North Korean missile test which overflew the Home Islands, Japan has maintained its support for the Korean Energy Development Organization (KEDO) and the Agreed Framework, which seeks to freeze the North Korean nuclear program. The U.S., Japan, and South Korea closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, at least on a government level. Japan has limited economic and commercial ties with North Korea. Japanese normalization talks halted when North Korea refused to discuss a number of issues with Japan. Japan and South Korea have many disputes. The former president in South Korea Roh Moo-hyun is rejecting the conference with the Prime Minister in Japan. However Both The former president in Japan Fukuda Yasuo and Korean President Lee Myung-bak are emphasizing the importance of Japan-South Korea relations to "open a new era in Japan-South Korea relations" China During the Meiji Era, China was one of the first countries to feel Japanese Imperialism. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, relations with Japan changed from hostility and an absence of contact to cordiality and extremely close cooperation in many fields. During the 1960s the two countries resumed trade for the first time since World War Two under the Liao-Takasaki Agreement. On September 29, 1972, Japan and China signed a treaty establishing diplomatic relations between the states. The 1990s led to an enormous growth in China’s economic welfare. Trade between Japan and China was one of the many reasons China was able to grow in the double-digit rates during 1980s and 1990s. Japan was in the forefront among leading industrialized nations in restoring closer economic and political relations with China. Resumption of Japan's multi-billion dollar investments to China and increased visits to China by Japanese officials, culminating in the October 1992 visit of Emperor Akihito, gave a clear indication that Japan considered closer ties with China in its economic and strategic interest. Despite a 1995 apology regarding World War II by Japanese Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama, tensions still remain, mostly because many Chinese feel there is a lack of true remorse for the wartime crimes, reinforced by numerous visits to the Yasukuni Shrine by Japanese Prime ministers, attempts to revise textbooks by Japanese nationalists, the continued dispute over Japan's atrocities in the Nanking Massacre, and the resurgence of nationalism and militarism in Japan. Taiwan South-East Asia By 1990 Japan's interaction with the vast majority of Asia-Pacific countries, especially its burgeoning economic exchanges, was multifaceted and increasingly important to the recipient countries. The developing countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) regarded Japan as critical to their development. Japan's aid to the ASEAN countries totaled US $1.9 billion in Japanese fiscal year (FY) 1988 versus about US $333 million for the United States during U.S. FY 1988. Japan was the number one foreign investor in the ASEAN countries, with cumulative investment as of March 1989 of about US $14.5 billion, more than twice that of the United States. Japan's share of total foreign investment in ASEAN countries in the same period ranged from 70 to 80 percent in Thailand to 20 percent in Indonesia. In the late 1980s, the Japanese government was making a concerted effort to enhance its diplomatic stature, especially in Asia. Toshiki Kaifu's much publicized spring 1991 tour of five Southeast Asian nations—Malaysia, Brunei, Thailand, Singapore, and the Philippines—culminated in a May 3 major foreign policy address in Singapore, in which he called for a new partnership with the ASEAN and pledged that Japan would go beyond the purely economic sphere to seek an "appropriate role in the political sphere as a nation of peace." As evidence of this new role, Japan took an active part in promoting negotiations to resolve the Cambodian conflict. In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the ASEAN Plus Three meetings. In 2005 the ASEAN plus Three countries together with India, Australia and New Zealand held the inaugural East Asia Summit (EAS). India Indian, Japanese and US naval warships take part in a military exercise near Bōsō Peninsula in 2007. India is one of the only three nations with whom Japan has a security pact, the other two being the United States and Australia. http://blogs.reuters.com/pakistan/2008/10/25/india-japan-in-security-pact-a-new-architecture-for-asia/ Throughout history, bilateral foreign relations between Japan and India have generally been friendly and strong. In December 2006, Prime Minister Singh's visit to Japan culminated in the signing of the "Joint Statement Towards Japan-India Strategic and Global Partnership." According to Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's arc of freedom theory, it is in Japan's interests to develop closer ties with India, world's most populous democracy, while its relations with China remain chilly. To this end, Japan has funded many infrastructure projects in India, most notably in New Delhi's metro subway system and Maruti. India Rediscovering East Asia, PINR Indian applicants have been welcomed in 2006/7 to the JET Programme, starting with just one slot available in 2006 and 41 in 2007. India and Japan signed a security cooperation agreement in which both will hold military exercises, police the Indian Ocean and conduct military-to-military exchanges on fighting terrorism, making India one of only three countries, the other two being the United States and Australia, with which Japan has such a security pact. http://blogs.reuters.com/pakistan/2008/10/25/india-japan-in-security-pact-a-new-architecture-for-asia/ South Asia In South Asia, Japan's role is mainly that of an aid donor. Japan's aid to seven South Asian countries totaled US$1.1 billion in 1988 and 1989, dropping to just under US$900 million in 1990. Except for Pakistan, which received heavy inputs of aid from the United States, all other South Asian countries receive most of their aid from Japan. Four South Asian nations—India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka—are in the top ten list of Tokyo's aid recipients worldwide. A point to note is that Indian Government has a no receive aid policy since the tsunami that struck India but indian registerred NGOs look to Japan for much investment in their projects Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu signaled a broadening of Japan's interest in South Asia with his swing through the region in April 1990. In an address to the Indian parliament, Kaifu stressed the role of free markets and democracy in bringing about "a new international order," and he emphasized the need for a settlement of the Kashmir territorial dispute between India and Pakistan and for economic liberalization to attract foreign investment and promote dynamic growth. To India, which was very short of hard currency, Kaifu pledged a new concessional loan of ¥100 billion (about US$650 million) for the coming year. Sri Lanka and Japan are two close friends since the early stages of post World War (II) since Sri Lanka extended a great support for Japanese development plans at the UN secretarial discussions. Middle East Israel On May 15, 1952, diplomatic relations were established with the government of Japan at a Legation level. However, the Japanese government refrained from appointing a Minister Plenipotentiary to Israel until 1955. Relations between the two states were distant at first, but after 1958, as demand no break occurred. This had been at the same time that OPEC had imposed an oil embargo against several countries, including Japan. North America Canada Some Canadian-Japanese contacts predate the mutual establishment of permanent legations. The first known Japanese immigrant to Canada, Manzo Nagano, landed in New Westminster, British Columbia in 1877. Ambassade du Japon au Canada: 80 années d'histoire, Contact initial. Japan's consulate in Vancouver was established in 1889, 40 years before its embassy was opened in Ottawa in 1929. Numata, Sadaaki. "Japan-Canada Partnership from a Pacific Perspective," Embassy of Japan in Canada. October 18, 2005. Canadians G. G. Cochran helped in founding Doshisha University in Kyoto, and Davidson McDonald helped in establishing Aoyama Gakuin University in Tokyo. Foreign Ministry of Japan: Episodes in Japan-Canada Relations. In the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, a Canadian steamship, the RMS Empress of Australia and her captain, Samuel Robinson achieved international acclaim for stalwart rescue efforts during the immediate aftermath of that disaster. "Capt. Samuel Robinson, Who Won Fame For Rescue Work in Jap Quake, Dies," New York Times. September 7, 1958. Canadian military attaché Herbert Cyril Thacker served in the field with Japanese forces in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), for which the Japanese government awarded him the Order of the Sacred Treasure, Third Class L'Harmattan web site (in French) and the Japanese War medal for service during that campaign. _____. (1922). Prominent People of the Maritime Provinces, p. 193. Canada and Japan have had diplomatic relations since 1928. Both countries are characterized by their active role in the Asia-Pacific community, as well as a relationship consisting of important economic, political, and socio-cultural ties. As major international donors, both Canada and Japan are strongly committed to promoting human rights, sustainable development and peace initiatives. Canada-Japan relations are underpinned by their partnership in multilateral institutions: the G-7/8; the United Nations; the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Quad (Canada, the European Union, Japan and the United States), and by their common interest in the Pacific community, including participation in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) and the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF). H.I.M. Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko will visit Canada in 2009. Nishida, Tsuneo. "Toyako Summit identified a range of global challenges," The Gazette (Montreal). August 4, 2008. Mexico The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation concluded in 1888 between Japan and Mexico was the nation's first "equal" treaty with a foreign country. Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Japan-Mexico Foreign Relations In 1897, the 35 members of the so-called Enomoto Colonization Party settle in the Mexican state of Chiapas. This was the first organized emigration from Japan to Latin America. President Álvaro Obregón was awarded Japan's Order of the Chrysanthemum at a special ceremony in Mexico City. On November 27, 1924, Baron Shigetsuma Furuya, Special Ambassador from Japan to Mexico, conferred the honor on Obregón. It was reported that this had been the first time that the Order had been conferred outside the Imperial family. "Japan Decorates Obregon; Order of the Chrysanthemum is Conferred by Special Ambassador," New York Times, November 28, 1924. In 1952, Mexico becomes the second country to ratify the San Francisco Peace Treaty, preceded only by the United Kingdom. [see above] Mexico and Japan on September 17, 2004, signed the "Agreement Between Japan and The United Mexican States For The Strengthening of The Economic Partnership." This was the among many historic steps led by Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to strengthen global economic stability. United States The United States is Japan's closest ally, and Japan relies on the U.S. for its national security to a high degree. As two of the world's top economic powers, both countries also rely on close economic ties for their wealth, despite ongoing and occasionally acrimonious trade frictions. Although its constitution and government policy preclude an offensive military role for Japan in international affairs, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the 1960 U.S.-Japan Security Treaty has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation of Article 9 of the Japanese constitution. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the mutual security treaty for strategic protection. The relationship probably hit a post-war nadir around the early 1990s, when Japan's "economic rise" was seen as a threat to American power. Japan was the primary financier of the Gulf War, yet received major criticism in some US circles for its refusal to commit actual military support. Following the collapse of the so-called Bubble economy and the 1990s boom in the US, the Japanese economy was perceived as less of a threat to US interests. Some observers still feel that Japan's willingness to deploy troops in support of current US operations in Iraq, as spear-headed by Koizumi and the conservative LDP, reflects a vow not to be excluded from the group of countries the US considers friends. This decision may reflect a realpolitik understanding of the threat Japan faces from a rapidly modernizing China, which from its continued and indeed growing pattern of anti-Japanese demonstrations reveals the belief that old historical scores remain unsettled. Brazil {{Infobox Bilateral relations|Brazil-Japan|Brazil|Japan}} Australia Australia-Japan relations have elements of tension as well as acknowledged mutuality of strong interests, beliefs and friendship. Memories of World War II linger among the older members of the Australian public, as does a contemporary fear of Japanese economic domination over countries, particularly Australia, although such fears have fallen off in response to Japan's economic stagnation in the 1990s. At the same time, government and business leaders see Japan as a vital export market and an essential element in Australia's strong future growth and prosperity in the Asia Pacific region. Australia is also a major source of food and raw materials for Japan. In 1990 Australia accounted for 5.3 percent of total Japanese imports, a share that held relatively steady in the late 1980s. Due to its ability to export raw materials, Australia had a trade surplus with Japan. Australia was the largest single supplier of coal, iron ore, wool, and sugar to Japan in 1990. Australia is also a supplier of uranium. Japanese investment by 1988 made Australia the single largest source of Japanese regional imports. The ban on American and Canadian beef recently made Australia the largest supplier of beef in Japan. Resource development projects in Australia attracted Japanese capital, as did trade protectionism by necessitating local production for the Australian market. Investments in Australia totaled US$8.1 billion in 1988, accounting for 4.4 percent of Japanese direct investment abroad. Australia and Japanese relations have been growing for some time and will most likely continue to do so in the future. There is some tension regarding the issue of whaling. Russia Japan's relations with Russia are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the four islands that make up the Northern Territories (Kuriles), which the U.S.S.R. seized towards the end of World War II. The stalemate has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war. The dispute over the Kuril Islands exacerbated the Japan-Russo relations when the Japanese government published a new guideline for school textbooks on July 16, 2008 to teach Japanese children that their country has sovereignty over the Kuril Islands. The Russian public was outraged by the action the Foreign Minister of Russia criticized the action while reaffirming its sovereignty over the islands. Russia hopes to solve territorial dispute with Japan by strengthening trust, Xinhua News Agency, Accessed 2008-07-19 Japanese schoolbooks to claim Russia's Southern Kuril Islands, RussiaToday, Accessed 2008-07-19 The United States supports Japan on the Northern Territories issue and recognizes Japanese sovereignty over the islands. Despite the lack of progress in resolving the Northern Territories dispute, Japan and Russia have made some progress in developing other aspects of the relationship. Even without a peace treaty, most Japanese do not feel that relationship with Russia is troubled. That said, remembrance of the almost last-minute Soviet declaration of war on the defeated Japan in World War II and subsequent exploitation of former Japanese soldiers in harsh Siberian prison labor camps remains. Holy See Diplomatic relations between Japan and the Vatican were established in March 1942. The first Papal visit to Japan took place in 1981. Present Apostolic Nuncio to Japan is Archbishop Alberto Bottari de Castello (since 2005) Western Europe Although cultural and noneconomic ties with Western Europe grew significantly during the 1980s, the economic nexus remained by far the most important element of Japanese-West European relations throughout the decade. Events in West European relations, as well as political, economic, or even military matters, were topics of concern to most Japanese commentators because of the immediate implications for Japan. The major issues centred on the effect of the coming West European economic unification on Japan's trade, investment, and other opportunities in Western Europe. Some West European leaders were anxious to restrict Japanese access to the newly integrated European Union (until November 1993, the European Community), but others appeared open to Japanese trade and investment. In partial response to the strengthening economic ties among nations in Western Europe and to the United States-Canada-Mexico North American Free Trade Agreement, Japan and other countries along the Asia-Pacific rim began moving in the late 1980s toward greater economic cooperation. On July 18, 1991, after several months of difficult negotiations, Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu signed a joint statement with the Dutch prime minister and head of the European Community Council, Ruud Lubbers, and with the European Commission president, Jacques Delors, pledging closer Japanese-European Community consultations on foreign relations, scientific and technological cooperation, assistance to developing countries, and efforts to reduce trade conflicts. Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials hoped that this agreement would help to broaden Japanese-European Community political links and raise them above the narrow confines of trade disputes. Other countries Beyond its immediate neighbors, Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility which accompanies its economic strength. Prime Minister Fukuda stressed a changing direction in his recent policy speech to the Diet: "Japan aspires to become a hub of human resource development as well as for research and intellectual contribution to further promote cooperation in the field of peace-building." Komura, Masahiko. "Building Peacebuilders for the Future," Tokyo Peacebuilders Symposium 2008. March 24, 2008. This follows the modest success of a Japanese-conceived peace plan which became the foundation for nationwide elections in Cambodia in 1998. Japan has expanded ties with the Middle East, including controversial water supply activities in Iraq. Iraq reconstruction. Japan's contribution to peacekeeping troops in Sudan remains steady; [see above] and Japan is increasingly active in Africa. In May 2008, the first Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize will be awarded at Fourth Tokyo International Conference on African Development (TICAD IV), "Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize" which signals a changing emphasis in bilateral relations. Japan has continued to extend significant support to development and technical assistance projects in Latin America. Latin America Debates and frictions Japan has formally issued statements for its military occupations during and before World War II, but it has done little in helping to improve its relationships with neighboring countries, especially the People's Republic of China, North Korea and South Korea. Despite some formal statements of regret from Prime Ministers Hosokawa Morihiro and Murayama Tomiichi, these countries still insist that Japan has yet to formally express remorse for its wrongdoings in the 20th century. Japan’s official stance is that all war related reparation claims have been resolved (except for North Korea). Unofficial visits to the controversial Yasukuni Jinja by past and present Prime Ministers belonging to the Liberal Democratic Party and the exclusion or generalization of some elements of Japan’s military history in a number school textbooks have also clouded the issue. In 2004 the People’s Republic of China, North Korea, and South Korea also criticized Japan for sending its Ground Self Defence Forces to Iraq, which was seen as a return to militarism. The government of Japan insisted that its forces would only participate in reconstruction and humanitarian aid missions. There is a strong anti-Japanese sentiment in the People’s Republic of China, North Korea and South Korea. However, division is not always the case. South Korea and Japan successfully dual-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup together bridging a physical and political gap between the two countries. The high popularity of Bae Yong Joon, a South Korean actor, in Japan was also seen as a sign that the two cultures had moved closer together. Disputed territories Japan has several territorial disputes with its neighbors concerning the control of certain outlying islands. It vies with Russia for the Southern Kuril Islands (including Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the Habomai group) which were occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945; with South Korea over Liancourt Rocks (Japanese: "Takeshima", Korean: "Dokdo"); with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (Taiwan) over the Senkaku Islands; and with the People's Republic of China over the status of Okinotorishima. These disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of crude oil and natural gas. See also List of diplomatic missions in Japan Diplomatic missions of Japan List of war apology statements issued by Japan Hotta Masayoshi References External links Various articles and discussion papers on Japan's foreign relations in the electronic journal of contemporary Japaneses studies Rwanda: Kagame Addresses Japanese Senate

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Hartmann_Schedel

Opening from the Nuremberg Chronicle showing Erfurt 1493 Woodcut of the City of Rhodes, by Hartmann Schedel Hartmann Schedel (13 February 1440 – 28 November 1514), was a German physician, humanist and historian, one of the first cartographers to make use of the printing press. He was born in Nuremberg. Matheolus Perusinus served as his tutor. Schedel is best known for his writing the text for the Nuremberg Chronicle, known as Schedelsche Weltchronik (English translation: Schedel's World Chronicle'), published in 1493 in Nuremberg. The Chronicle is therefore an incunabulum. This was probably a commission from Anton Koberger, as much of the point of the work was its lavish illustrations. Many of the maps in his Nuremberg Chronicle illustrated cities and countries for the first time ever, because not too much was known till then. Cities were featured in the chronicle as the material was ready and Kraków, Lübeck, Nissa or Neyß are described towards the end. The Schedel chronicle also has a section on the kingdom of Poland and its origin (on page 263 vom koenigreich Poln und seinem ursprung). The history starts with Boleslaw I of Poland and makes no mention of a Mieszko I. With the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1447, it became feasible to print books and maps for a larger customer basis. Books had previously been rare and very expensive, due to them having to be handwritten. He was also a notable collector of books, art and old master prints. An album he had bound in 1504, which once contained five engravings by Jacopo de' Barberi, provides important evidence for dating de' Barbari's work. Gallery Editions Hartmann Schedel: Registrum huius operis libri cronicarum cu [cum] figuris et imagibus [imaginibus] ab inicio mudi [mundi]. [Nachdruck der Ausgabe Nürnberg, Koberger, 1493]. Ostfildern: Quantum Books, [2002?]. - CCXCIX, [51] S., ISBN 3-935293-04-6 Hartmann Schedel: Register des Buchs der Croniken und geschichten mit figuren und pildnussen von anbeginn der welt bis auf dise unnsere Zeit. [Durch Georgium Alten ... in diss Teutsch gebracht]. Reprint [der Ausg.] Nürnberg, Koberger, 1493, 1. Wiederdruck. München: Reprint-Verlag Kölbl, 1991. - [9], CCLXXXVI Bl., IDN: 947020551 Hartmann Schedel: Weltchronik. Nachdruck [der] kolorierten Gesamtausgabe von 1493. Einleitung und Kommentar von Stephan Füssel. Augsburg: Weltbild, 2004. - 680 S., ISBN 3-8289-0803-9 Stephan Füssel (Hg.): Schedel'sche Weltchronik. Taschen Verlag, Köln 2001. ISBN 3-8228-5725-4 http://www.obrasraras.usp.br/ - Digitalisat der lateinischen Ausgabe (mit brasil-portugiesischer Bedien-Oberfläche) Digitalisat der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek Digitalisat der Beloit copy (Morse Library, Beloit College, Beloit, WI 53511, United States) - http://www.beloit.edu/nuremberg/inside/contents/index.htm Holzschnitte aus einem der Exemplare der Bibliothèque nationale de France - http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b2200022x Literature Elisabeth Rücker: Hartmann Schedels Weltchronik, das größte Buchunternehmen der Dürerzeit. Verlag Prestel, München 1988. ISBN 3-7913-0876-9 Stephan Füssel (Hrsg.): 500 Jahre Schedelsche Weltchronik. Carl, Nürnberg 1994. ISBN 3-418-00372-9 Peter Zahn: Hartmann Schedels Weltchronik. Bilanz der jüngeren Forschung. In: Bibliotheksforum Bayern 24 (1996), 230-248 Christoph Reske: Die Produktion der Schedelschen Weltchronik in Nürnberg. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 2000. ISBN 3-447-04296-6 See also Patriziat Nürnberg External links

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Keanu_Reeves

Keanu Charles Reeves ( [kay-AH-noo, often mispronounced as kee-AH-noo]; born September 2, 1964) is a Canadian-American-British actor best known for his portrayals of Ted Logan in Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure and Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey, Officer Jack Traven in Speed, and Neo in the action film trilogy The Matrix. Other notable roles include starring as Siddhartha Gautama in Little Buddha; as Scott Favor in the drama My Own Private Idaho opposite River Phoenix; as Johnny Mnemonic in the sci-fi film Johnny Mnemonic opposite Dolph Lundgren; as Kevin Lomax in the supernatural thriller The Devil's Advocate opposite Al Pacino; the chevalier Danceny in Dangerous Liaisons; and starring roles in Chain Reaction, Constantine and the surf drama Point Break opposite Patrick Swayze. He played bass guitar in the grunge band Dogstar during the 1990s, and more recently in the band Becky. In an ET online survey in 2006, he was included in the "Top Ten of America's Favorite Stars". On January 31, 2005, Reeves received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Biography Early life Reeves was born in Beirut, Lebanon, the son of Patricia Bond (née Taylor), a costume designer/performer, and Samuel Nowlin Reeves, Jr., a geologist. Reeves's mother is English, and his father is an American of Hawaiian and Chinese descent. Reeves's mother was working in Beirut when she met his father. Reeves' father worked as an unskilled laborer and, it is alleged, earned his GED while imprisoned in Hawaii for selling heroin at Hilo International Airport (Reeves' father confirmed this in a 2001 interview). He abandoned his wife and family when Reeves was 3, and Reeves does not currently have any relationship with him. Reeves is named after his uncle, Henry Keanu Reeves. Keanu is a Hawaiian word which means cool breeze over the mountains. When Reeves first arrived in Hollywood, his agent thought his first name was too exotic, so during the early days of his film career he was sometimes credited as K.C. Reeves. Reeves has one biological sister named Kim (born 1966 in Australia) who was diagnosed with leukemia in the early 1990s. Additionally, through his mother he has a half-sister named Karina Miller (born 1976 in Toronto) and through his father another half-sister named Emma Rose Reeves (born 1980 in Hawaii). Reeves experienced an unstable childhood moving around the world frequently and living with various stepfathers. His parents divorced in 1966. His mother became a costume designer and moved the family to Australia and then to New York City. There she met and married Paul Aaron, a Broadway and Hollywood director. The couple moved to Toronto but divorced in 1971. Reeves' mother then married Robert Miller, a rock promoter, in 1976, but the couple divorced in 1980. Her fourth husband, Jack Bond, was a hairdresser. That marriage broke up in 1994. Grandparents and nannies babysat Reeves and his sisters. Reeves grew up primarily in Toronto. Within a span of five years, he attended four different high schools, including the Etobicoke School of the Arts, from which he was later expelled. Half-jokingly, Reeves says that he was expelled "because I was greasy and running around a lot. I was just a little too rambunctious and shot my mouth off once too often. I was not generally the most well-oiled machine in the school. I was just getting in their way, I guess." Reeves excelled more in hockey than in academics, as his educational development was challenged by dyslexia. He was a successful goalie at one of his high schools (De La Salle College "Oaklands"). His team nicknamed him "The Wall," and voted him MVP. Reeves says that he would dream of becoming an Olympic hockey player for Canada. After leaving De La Salle College, he attended a free school (Avondale Alternative), which allowed him to obtain an education while working as an actor; he later dropped out, never obtaining his high school diploma. Career Reeves began his acting career at the age of nine. He appeared on stage at a production of Damn Yankees. At 15, he played Mercutio in a stage production of Romeo and Juliet at the Leah Posluns Theatre. Reeves made his screen acting debut in a CBC Television comedy series, Hangin' In. Throughout the early 1980s, he appeared in commercials (including one for Coca-Cola), short films including the NFB drama One Step Away and stage work such as Brad Fraser's cult hit Wolf Boy in Toronto. In 1984, he was a correspondent for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation TV youth program Going Great. YouTube clip CBC RetroBites: Keanu Reeves Reeves' first studio movie appearance was in the Rob Lowe ice hockey film Youngblood, which was filmed in Canada. In it, he played a Quebecois goalie. Shortly after the movie's release, Reeves drove to Los Angeles in his 1969 Volvo. His ex-stepfather Paul Aaron, a stage and television director, had convinced Erwin Stoff to be Reeves' manager and agent before he even arrived in Los Angeles. Stoff has remained Reeves' manager, and has coproduced many of his films. After a few minor roles, Reeves received a more sizable role in 1986's River's Edge. Following the film's success, he spent the late 1980s appearing in a number of movies aimed at teenage audiences, including Permanent Record, and the unexpectedly successful 1989 comedy, Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure, which, along with its 1991 sequel, Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey, typecast Reeves as a sweet-natured teen. Much of his subsequent portrayal in the press and much of the response to his acting has been influenced by his portrayal of the airheaded Ted. Reeves has said that "I used to have nightmares that they would put 'He played Ted' on my tombstone". During the early 1990s, Reeves started to break out of his teen-film period. He appeared in high-budget action films like Point Break, for which he won MTV's "Most Desirable Male" award in 1992. He was also involved in various lower-budget independent films, including the well-received 1991 film, My Own Private Idaho with his close friend, the late River Phoenix. In 1994, Reeves' career reached a new high as a result of his starring role in the action film Speed. His casting in the film was controversial since, except for Point Break, he was primarily known for comedies and indie dramas. He had never been the sole headliner on a film. The summer action film had a fairly large budget and was helmed by novice cinematographer-turned-director Jan de Bont. The unexpected international success of the film made Reeves and co-star Sandra Bullock into A-List stars. Reeves' career choices after Speed were eclectic: despite his successes, Reeves has never stopped accepting supporting roles, and he has always been willing to support experimental efforts. He scored a hit with a romantic lead role in A Walk in the Clouds. He made news by refusing to take part in Speed 2: Cruise Control and choosing to play the title role in a Manitoba Theatre Centre production of Hamlet in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Reeves got surprisingly good reviews for his interpretation of one of Shakespeare's most famous characters. Roger Lewis, the Sunday Times critic, wrote that "He quite embodied the innocence, the splendid fury, the animal grace of the leaps and bounds, the emotional violence, that form the Prince of Denmark...He is one of the top three Hamlets I have seen, for a simple reason: he * is* Hamlet." Reeves' other choices after A Walk in the Clouds, however, failed with critics and audiences. Big-budget films such as Johnny Mnemonic and Chain Reaction were critically panned and failed at the box office, while indie films like Feeling Minnesota were also critical failures. Reeves started to climb out of his career low after starring in the horror/drama The Devil's Advocate alongside Al Pacino and Charlize Theron. Reeves deferred his salary for The Devil's Advocate so that Pacino would be cast, as he would do later for the less successful The Replacements, guaranteeing the casting of Gene Hackman. The Devil's Advocate did well at the box office, received good reviews, and proved that Reeves could play a grown-up with a career although many critics felt that his poor performance detracted from an otherwise enjoyable movie. The 1999 science fiction hit, The Matrix, solidified Reeves's place as an international superstar. In between the first Matrix film and its sequels, Reeves received positive reviews for his portrayal of an abusive husband in The Gift. Aside from The Gift, Reeves appeared in several films that received mostly negative reviews and unimpressive box office grosses, including The Watcher, Sweet November and The Replacements. However, the two Matrix sequels, The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions, Something's Gotta Give, and the 2005 horror-action film, Constantine, proved to be box office successes and brought Reeves back into the public spotlight. His 2006 film, A Scanner Darkly, based on the science fiction novel by Philip K. Dick, received favorable reviews, and The Lake House, his romantic outing with Sandra Bullock, did not do well at the box office. Reeves played the main character in two 2008 films, Street Kings and The Day the Earth Stood Still. In February 2009 The Private Life of Pippa Lee -where Reeves starred alongside with Robin Wright Penn, Julianne Moore, Alan Arkin, Winona Ryder, Maria Bello, Monica Bellucci, Zoe Kazan, Ryan McDonald, Blake Lively, Robin Weigert-, was presented at Berlinale. In January 2009, it was revealed that Reeves will star in the live-action film adaptation of the anime series Cowboy Bebop, slated for release in 2011. Other rumoured upcoming projects include the samurai film 47 Ronin, Chef - story by Reeves and written by Steven Knight - and as producer and star for the space drama Passengers, written by Jon Spaihts. Personal life For nearly a decade following his initial rise to stardom, Reeves preferred to live in rented homes and hotels and was a long term resident of the Chateau Marmont. Reeves bought his first house in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles around 2003, and also has an apartment on Central Park West in New York City. Although born in Lebanon, Reeves is not a Lebanese citizen, because his parents were not Lebanese. Instead, he is a naturalized Canadian citizen who also holds American and British citizenship through the principle of Jus sanguinis. Reeves has never been married. In December 1999, Reeves' girlfriend Jennifer Syme gave birth to a stillborn daughter who was named Ava Archer Syme-Reeves. In April 2001, Syme was killed in a car accident. She was buried next to their daughter in the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles, California. In 2008 Reeves was sued, unsuccessfully in Los Angeles Superior Court for $711,974 by paparazzo Alison Silva for allegedly hitting and injuring him with his Porsche after visiting a relative at a Los Angeles medical facility. The paparazzo's lawsuit took a year and a half to make it to trial, with all 12 jurors rejecting the case in just over an hour. Filmography Year Film Role 1985 Letting Go Stereo Teen #1 One Step Away Ron Petrie 1986 YoungbloodHeaver FlyingTommy Wernicke Young Again Mike Riley, age 17 Under the Influence Eddie Talbot Act of Vengeance Buddy Martin River's Edge Matt Brotherhood of Justice Derek Babes in Toyland Jack 1988 Permanent Record Chris Townsend The Prince of Pennsylvania Rupert Marshetta The Night Before Winston Connelly Dangerous Liaisons Le Chevalier Raphael Danceny 1989 Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure Ted "Theodore" Logan Parenthood Tod Higgins 1990 I Love You to Death Marlon James Tune in Tomorrow Martin Loader 1991 Point Break FBI Special Agent John 'Johnny' Utah Bill & Ted's Bogus Journey Ted "Theodore" Logan/Evil Ted My Own Private Idaho Scott Favor Providence Eric 1992 Bram Stoker's Dracula Jonathan Harker 1993 Much Ado About Nothing Don John Little Buddha Prince Siddhartha/Lord Buddha Poetic Justice Homeless Man (Uncredited) Freaked Ortiz the Dog Boy (Uncredited) Even Cowgirls Get the Blues Julian Gitche1994 Speed Officer Jack Traven 1995 Johnny Mnemonic Johnny A Walk in the Clouds Sgt. Paul Sutton 1996 Chain Reaction Eddie Kasalivich Feeling Minnesota Jjaks Clayton 1997 The Last Time I Committed Suicide Harry The Devil's Advocate Kevin Lomax 1999 The Matrix Thomas Anderson/Neo Me and Will Himself 2000 The Replacements Shane Falco The Watcher David Allen Griffin The Gift Donnie Barksdale 2001 Sweet November Nelson Moss Hardball Conor O'Neill 2003 The Matrix ReloadedThomas Anderson/Neo The AnimatrixThomas Anderson/Neo The Matrix RevolutionsThomas Anderson/Neo Something's Gotta Give Dr. Julian Mercer 2005 Constantine John Constantine Thumbsucker Perry Lyman Ellie Parker Himself 2006 The Lake House Alex Wyler A Scanner Darkly Bob Arctor 2008 Street Kings Detective Tom Ludlow The Day the Earth Stood Still Klaatu2009 The Private Lives of Pippa Lee Chris2011 Cowboy Bebop Spike Spiegel References Further reading External links

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Impi

An impi is an isiZulu word for any armed body of men. However, in English it is often used to refer to a Zulu regiment, which is called an ibutho in Zulu. The first impis were formed by Zulu king Shaka, who was then only the exiled illegitimate son of king Senzangakona, but already showing much prowess as a general in the army of Mthethwa king Dingiswayo in the Mthethwa-Ndwandwe war in the early 1810s. Youth Impi warriors were trained as early as age six, joining the army as udibi porters at first, being enrolled into same-age groups (intanga). Until they were buta'''d, Zulu boys accompanied their fathers and brothers on campaign as servants. Eventually, they would go to the nearest ikhanda to kleza (which literally means to drink directly from the udder), at which point they would become inkwebane, or cadets. They would spend their time training until they were formally enlisted by the king. They would challenge each other to stick fights, which had to be accepted on pain of dishonor. Enlistment After their 20th birthdays, young men would be sorted into formal ibutho (plural amabutho) or regiments. They would build their ikhanda (often referred to as a 'homestead', as it was basically a stockaded group of huts surrounding a corral for cattle), their gathering place when summoned for active service. Active service continued until a man married, a privilege only the king bestowed. The amabutho were recruited on the basis of age rather than regional or tribal origin. The reason for this was to enhance the centralised power of the Zulu king at the expense of clan and tribal leaders. They swore loyalty to the king of the Zulu nation. Every ibutho was a thousand warriors strong and originally contained warriors from the same intanga, although this practice later changed as casualties suffered by the regiments made reinforcements necessary. Each ibutho had its own colour, which was used for shields, headdress and other ornaments. An impi - a force which contained several amabutho - was also accompanied by udibi, young boys who carried implements like cooking pots and sleeping mats and on occasion acted as scouts. Shaka insisted that troops wear no shoes—they could run faster and were not disabled by the loss of their sandals. Training for this was to stamp thorns into the ground with bare feet. Service In wartime, the Zulu soldier went into battle minimally dressed, painting his upper body and face with chalk and red ochre, despite the popular conception of elaborately panoplied warriors. In Shaka's day, warriors often wore elaborate plumes and cow tail regalia, but by the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, many warriors wore only loin cloth into battle. As weapons he carried the iklwa stabbing spear (losing one could result in execution) and knobkerrie (clubs or cudgels) for beating an enemy in the manner of a mace. He also carried shields, which were property of the king. The iklwa with its long (c. 25 cm) tip was an invention of Shaka that superseded the older thrown assegai (it was so named because of the sucking sound it made when withdrawn from a human body). It could theoretically be used both in melee and as a thrown weapon, but warriors were forbidden in Shaka's day from throwing it, which would disarm them and give their opponents something to throw back. Moreover, Shaka felt it discouraged warriors from closing into hand to hand combat. However, after the Zulus encountered the Boers and the British, who were armed with firearms, the Zulus re-introduced the throwing spear in an effort to counter their enemies' firepower. By the time of Zulu War, king Cetshwayo also equipped them with muskets and they also used rifles captured from the British. However, many of their weapons were obsolete or in bad condition and warriors were usually badly trained in their use. Tactics The Zulu deployment at Isandhlwana shows the well-organized tactical system of the impi. Note the weight given to the left horn, which worked with the chest to pin the British down, drawing the bulk of their fire, and opening up gaps to exploit. The right horn meanwhile circled around the mountain to attack the English rear. The reserves struck deeper, cutting off and pursuing fugitives, and eventually attacking Rorke's Drift. Isandlwana 1879: The Great Zulu Victory, by Ian Knight, Osprey: 2002, pp. 49, See also Donald Morris, The Washing of The Spears, Touchstone: 1965, p. 263-382 Shaka used impi with a modified encircling tactic known as impondo zankoma ('bull's horns'), which divided impi troops into four groups. The main group (isifuba, 'chest') would face the enemy, two wings (izimpondo, 'horns') on two sides of the enemy and then force them towards the center. The fourth party (usually composed of veterans) remained as a reserve. They travelled light, and carried their own food or foraged along the way. On a forced march, the Zulu could cover up to 50 miles a day. Donald Morris, The Washing of the Spears, Touchstone: 1965, pp. 46-53 Tactics against their enemies (other African tribes, the Boers, and the British) were surprise and overwhelming force, rather than siege or long campaigns. During the Anglo-Zulu War, British commander Lord Chelmsford complained that they did not 'fight fair'. Rudyard Kipling refers to them in his poem "Fuzzy-Wuzzy":We took our chanst among the Khyber 'ills,The Boers knocked us silly at a mile,The Burman give us Irriwady Chills,'An a Zulu Impi dished us up in style.History Against the Ndwandwe, numerically superior northern neighbours who invaded Zulu territory to suppress them, Shaka played hide-and-seek games, while laying waste to the land to prevent foraging. Shaka waited and only attacked when the Ndwandwe were divided or exhausted. Impi were also famous for their custom known as 'washing of spears (in their enemy's blood)' in which they cut open the belly of dead (and allegedly sometimes still living) opponents. The Zulus believed that this meant the release of the opponent's spirit so it could not haunt the killer. Complex ceremonies surrounded battles, and great honours were bestowed upon the courageous in battle. Cowards were dishonoured and occasionally executed. Wounds were crudely serviced, but the Zulus had an unusual rate of recovery. Overall, the Zulu army was versatile and all but invincible against other African armies. However, they faced tougher and technologically deadlier opposition when confronted with the Boers, from around 1830 and later the British. Although Zulu impis under Dingane had some early success against the Trek Boers, they suffered a bloody defeat when attacking a fortified laager at the battle of Blood River in 1838. Similarly, the Zulus scored a famous victory over the British at the battle of Isandlwana in 1879, but ultimately were no match for the Martini-Henry rifles and Gatling machine guns used against them by the British troops.They suffered successive defeats at the Battle of Rorke's Drift, battle of Kambula, battle of Gingindlovu and the battle of Ulundi, which led to the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom. Legacy Impi have become synonymous with the Zulu nation in international popular culture. For instance, in the computer games Civilization III', Civilization IV: Warlords and Civilization: Revolution, the Impi is the unique unit for the Zulu faction with Shaka as their leader. Impi is also the title of a very famous South Africa song by the band Juluka which has become something of an unofficial national anthem, especially at major international sports events and especially where the opponent is England. References Bibliography Ian Knight, Brave Men's Blood - the Anglo-Zulu war of 1879Ian Knight, The ZulusIan Knight, 'Anatomy of the Zulu Army' D.R. Morris, The Washing of the Spears'' External links www.shakazuluproductions.com

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Imperial_units

This article is about the post-1824 measures used in the British Empire and countries in the British sphere of influence. For information about the units used in England before 1824, see English units. For information about the units used in the USA, see United States customary units. For information about the system of weight, see Avoirdupois. Imperial units or the imperial system is a system of units, first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824, later refined (until 1959) and reduced. Systems of imperial units are sometimes referred to as foot-pound-second, after the base units of length, mass and time. The units were introduced in the British Empire, excluding the then already independent United States. As of 2008, all countries that used the imperial system have become officially metric, except for the United States, Burma and Liberia, however some other countries have laws mandating or permitting other systems of measurement, such as the United Kingdom which still uses many imperial measures, such as miles and yards for road signs, lb/oz, pints, etc. for many products, and also uses inches and barleycorns for clothing and shoe sizes respectively. The former Weights and Measures office in Seven Sisters, London. Relation to other systems The distinction between the imperial system and the U.S. customary units (also called standard or English units) or older British/English units/systems and newer additions is often not drawn precisely. Most length units are shared between the imperial and U.S. systems, albeit partially and temporally defined differently. Capacity measures differ the most due to the introduction of the imperial gallon and the unification of wet and dry measures. The avoirdupois system applies only to weights; it has a long designation and a short designation for the hundredweight and ton. The term imperial should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in Weights and Measures Act of 1824 or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions such as the slug or poundal. Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other. Units Length Imperial standards of length 1876 in Trafalgar Square, London. After the 1 July 1959 deadline, agreed upon in 1958, the US and the British yard were defined identically, at 0.9144 metres to match the international yard. Metric equivalents in this article usually assume this latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the Imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 metres. Sears et al. 1928. Phil Trans A 227:281 + Table of length equivalent units Unit Relative to previous Feet Millimetres Metres Notes thou 0.0254 25.4 μmThe unit is known as a mil in the United States. inch 1000 thou 25.4 foot 12 inches 1 304.8 0.3048 yard 3 feet 3 914.4 0.9144 Defined as exactly 0.9144 metres since 1956. furlong 220 yards 660 201.168 mile 8 furlongs 5280 1609.344 league 3 miles 15,840 4828.032 No longer an official unit in any nation. Maritime units fathom 6.08 or 6 The exact figure was 6.08 feet but 6 feet was in use in practice. 1,853.184 The British Admiralty in practice used a fathom as 6 feet. This was despite its being of a nautical mile (i.e. 6.08 feet) until 1970, when the international nautical mile of exactly 1852 metres was adopted. The commonly accepted definition of a fathom was always 6 feet. The conflict was inconsequential in determining depth as Admiralty nautical charts used feet as depths below 5 fathoms on older imperial charts. Today all charts worldwide are metric, except for USA Hydrographic Office charts, which use feet for all depth ranges. cable ~100 fathoms 608 185.3184 One tenth of a nautical mile. When in use it was approximated colloquially as 100 fathoms. nautical mile 10 cables 6,080 1,853.184 Used to measure distances at sea. This value referred to the British nautical (Admiralty) mile of 6,080 ft; the modern international mile is slightly different. Gunter's survey units (17th century onwards) link 201.168 pole 25 links 5029.2 5.0292 The pole is also called rod or perch. chain 4 poles 66 20.1168 furlong Until the adoption of the international definition of 1852 metres in 1970, the British nautical mile was defined as 6,080 feet. It was not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units, because it was derived from the circumference of the Earth (like the original metre). Area + Area Unit Relation to units of length Square feet Square rods Square miles Square metres Hectares Notes perch 1 rod × 1 rod 272.251 0.002529Although the proper term is square rod, for centuries this unit has been called a pole or perch or, more properly square pole or square perch. rood 1 furlong × 1 rod 10,890400.1012The rood is also called a rod. http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2F0272%2FKC%2FKCAR%2F6%2F2;recurse=1 http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2F0272%2FKC%2FKCAR%2FMON%2F38 acre 43,560160 0.4047Note: All equivalences are exact except the hectares, which are accurate to four significant figures. Volume In 1824, Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the imperial gallon. The imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 lb of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 in Hg at a temperature of 62 °F. In 1963 this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 lb of distilled water of density 0.998 859 g/ml weighed in air of density 0.001 217 g/ml against weights of density 8.136 g/ml. This works out to 4.545 964 591 L, or 277.420 cu in. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 switched to a gallon of exactly 4.546 09 L (approximately 277.4 cu in). Sizes.com + Table of volume units Unit Imperial ounce Imperial pint Millilitres Cubic inches US ounces US pints fluid ounce (fl oz) 1 gill 5 pint (pt) 20 1 quart (qt) 40 2 gallon (gal) 160 8 Note: The millilitre equivalences are exact whereas the conversions to cubic-inch and US measures are correct to five significant figures. For a comparison to the US customary system see the article on Comparison of the imperial and US customary measurement systems. Mass In the 19th and 20th centuries Britain has used three different systems for mass and weight: The distinction between mass and weight is not always clearly drawn. In certain contexts the term pound may refer to a unit of force rather than mass. troy weight, used for precious metals; avoirdupois weight, used for most other purposes; and apothecaries' weight, now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes. The troy pound () was made the primary unit of mass by the 1824 Act; however, its use was abolished in Britain on 6 January 1879, making the Avoirdupois pound the primary unit of mass with only the troy ounce () and its decimal subdivisions retained. In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the pound, and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it. + Table of mass units Unit Pounds Grams Kilograms Notes grain Exactly milligrams. drachm 1.7718451953125 ounce (oz) pound (lb) 1 Exactly grams by definition. stone (st) 14 A person's weight is often quoted in stone and pounds in English-speaking countries, with the exception of the United States and Canada, where it is usually quoted in pounds. quarter 28 A "quarter" was also commonly used to refer to a quarter of a pound in a retail context. hundredweight (cwt) 112 ton (t) 2240 20 hundredweights in both systems, US hundredweight being lighter. The British ton (the long ton), is 2240 pounds, which is very close to a metric tonne, whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the "short ton" of 2000 pounds (907.184 74 kg). Each is divided into 20 hundredweights (cwt), the British hundredweight of 112 pounds being 12% heavier than the American hundredweight. Current use of imperial units A baby bottle that measures in three measurement systems—imperial (UK), US customary, and metric. United Kingdom British law now defines each imperial unit in terms of the metric equivalent. The metric system is in official use within the United Kingdom; however, use of Imperial unit is widespread in many cases. The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 require that all measuring devices used in trade or retail be capable of measuring and displaying metric quantities. This has now been proven in court against the so-called "Metric Martyrs", a small group of market traders who insisted on trading in imperial units only. Contrary to the impression given by some press reports, these regulations have never placed any obstacle in the way of using imperial units alongside metric units. Almost all traders in the UK will accept requests from customers specified in imperial units, and scales which display in both unit systems are commonplace in the retail trade. Metric price signs may currently be accompanied by imperial price signs (known as supplementary indicators) provided that the imperial signs are no larger and no more prominent than the official metric ones. The EU's deadline of 31 December 2009 to enforce metric-only labels and ban any supplementary indicators (imperial measurements) on goods after the deadline has been abolished. On 9 May 2007 the European Commission agreed to allow supplementary indications alongside the statutory metric indications beyond 2009. The United Kingdom completed its legal transition to SI units in 1995, but a few imperial units are still in official use: draught beer must be sold in pints, road-sign distances must be in yards and miles, road-sign clearance heights must be in feet and inches (although an equivalent in metres may be shown as well) and road speed limits must be in miles per hour, therefore instruments in vehicles sold in Britain must be capable of displaying miles per hour. (Foreign vehicles, such as all post-2005 Irish vehicles, may legally have instruments displayed only in kilometres per hour.) Even though the troy pound was outlawed in Great Britain in the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, the troy ounce still may be used for the weight of precious stones and metals. The railways are also a big user of imperial units, with distances officially measured in miles and yards or miles and chains, and also feet and inches, and speeds are in miles per hour, although many modern metro and tram systems are entirely metric, and London Underground uses both metric (for distances) and imperial (for speeds). Metric is also used for the Channel Tunnel and on High Speed 1. Adjacent to Ashford International railway station and Dollands Moor Freight Yard, railway speeds are given in both metric and imperial units. The use of SI units is mandated by law for the retail sale of food and other commodities, but most British people still use imperial units in colloquial discussion of distance (miles) and speed (miles per hour). Milk is available in both half-litre and pint containers. Most people still measure their weight in stone and pounds, and height in feet and inches—but these must be converted to metric if recorded officially, for example in medical records. Petrol is sometimes quoted as being so much per gallon, despite having been sold exclusively in litres for two decades. Likewise, fuel consumption for cars is still usually in miles per gallon, though official figures always include litres per 100 km equivalents. Fahrenheit equivalents are occasionally given after Celsius in weather forecasts. Threads on non metric nuts and bolts etc are sometimes referred to as Imperial, especially in the UK. Canada In the 1970s the metric system and SI units were introduced in Canada to replace the imperial system. Within the government, efforts to implement the metric system were extensive; almost any agency, institution, or function provided by the government uses SI units exclusively. Imperial units were eliminated from all road signs, although both systems of measurement will still be found on privately-owned signs, such as the height warnings at the entrance of a multi-storey parking facility. In the 1980s, momentum to fully convert to the metric system stalled when the government of Brian Mulroney was elected. There was heavy opposition to metrication and as a compromise the government maintains legal definitions for and allows use of imperial units as long as metric units are shown as well. The law requires that measured products (such as fuel and meat) be priced in metric units, although an imperial price can be shown if a metric price is present. However, there tends to be leniency in regards to fruits and vegetables being priced in imperial units only. Environment Canada still offers an imperial unit option beside metric units, even though weather is typically measured and reported in metric units in the Canadian media. However, some radio stations near the United States border (such as CIMX and CIDR) primarily use imperial units to report the weather. Imperial units are still used in ordinary conversation. Few older Canadians would exclusively use SI units to describe their weight and height. Although drivers' licences in some provinces like British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland and Labrador use SI units, other provinces like Saskatchewan use imperial units. Driver’s Licences: Photo ID In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per hundredweight (short), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms. Imperial units still dominate in recipes, construction, house renovation and gardening, although often informally. Land is now surveyed and registered in metric units, although initial surveys used imperial units. For example, partitioning of farm land on the prairies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was done in imperial units; this accounts for imperial units of distance and area retaining wide use in the prairie provinces. The size of most apartments, condominiums and houses continues to be described in square feet rather than square metres, and carpet or flooring tile is purchased by the square foot. Motor-vehicle fuel consumption is reported in both litres per 100 km and statute miles per imperial gallon, http://www.oee.nrcan.gc.ca/transportation/tools/fuelratings/ratings-search.cfm?attr=8 leading to the erroneous impression that Canadian vehicles are 20% more fuel-efficient than their apparently-identical American counterparts, their fuel economy being reported in statute miles per US gallon. (neither country specifies which gallon is used) Imperial units also retain common use in firearms and ammunition. Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even when the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g. 0.204 Ruger, 0.17 HMR, where the calibre is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). However, ammunition which is classified in metric already is still kept metric (e.g. 9 mm, 7.62 mm). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in terms of grains for both metric and imperial cartridges. As in most of the western world, air navigation is based on nautical units, e.g. the nautical mile, which is neither imperial nor metric. Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa and Hong Kong Some imperial measurements remain in limited use in Australia, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, South Africa and Hong Kong. Real estate agents continue to use acres and square feet to describe area in conjunction with hectares and square metres. Measurements in feet and inches, especially for a person's height, are frequently met in conversation and non-governmental publications. Towns and villages in Malaysia with no proper names had adopted the mile (known also as batu in Malay) to denote their locations along a rural main road (i.e. "3rd Mile", "Batu Enam" or "Batu 11"); many of their names remain unchanged even after the adoption of the metric system for distance in the country. Republic of Ireland The Republic of Ireland has officially changed over to the metric system since entering the European Union, with distances on new road signs being metric since 1977 and speed limits being metric since 2005. However the imperial system remains in limited use, particularly for sales of beer in pubs (traditionally sold by the pint) and some other commodities (such as milk). A minority of old road signs with distances in miles still remain, and the majority of cars sold pre-2005 feature speedometers with miles per hour. The imperial system is still often used in everyday conversation, particularly by the elder generation. United States The United States uses a hodgepodge of metric and customary units. The customary units in use there are historically derived from units which were in use in England at the time of settlement. The measurements of most of these units in England itself were subsequently changed. In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in grains. In commercial HVAC practice, (heating, cooling & air-conditioning) humidity is expressed in grains per pound. Other countries Petrol/gasoline is still sold by the imperial gallon in Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Burma, Grenada, Guyana, Sierra Leone and the United Arab Emirates. See also Board foot Cooking weights and measures Conversion of units Cord (unit of volume) History of measurement Metrication Unit of measurement References Appendices B and C of NIST Handbook 44 Barry N. Taylor's NIST Special Publication 811, also available as a PDF file 6 George IV chapter 12, 1825 (statute) External links British Weights And Measures Association Canada Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72 General table of units of measure - NIST - pdf How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement be-x-old:Ангельская сыстэма мер

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Italian_language

Italian (, or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 60 million people in Italy, and by a total of around 70 million in the world. Ethnologue report for language code:ita (Italy) - Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version In Switzerland, Italian is one of four official languages. It is also the official language of San Marino, as well as the primary language of Vatican City. Legge sulle fonti del diritto of 7 June 1929, laws and regulations are published in the Italian-language Supplemento per le leggi e disposizioni dello Stato della Città del Vaticano attached to the Acta Apostolicae Sedis. See also Languages of the Vatican City Standard Italian, adopted by the state after the unification of Italy, is based on Tuscan (in particular on the dialects of the city of Florence) and is somewhat intermediate between the Italo-Dalmatian languages of the South and the Gallo-Romance Northern Italian languages. Its development was also influenced by the other Italian dialects and by the Germanic language of the post-Roman Barbaric invaders but first and foremost it has been directly and heavily influenced by Latin. Unlike most other Romance languages, Italian has retained the contrast between short and long consonants which existed in Latin. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive. Of the Romance languages, Italian is considered to be the closest to Latin in terms of vocabulary. Lexical similarity is 89% with French, 87% with Catalan, 85% with Sardinian, 82% with Spanish, 78% with Rhaeto-Romance, 77% with Romanian, and 52% with Maltese. Writing system Italian is written using the Latin alphabet. The letters J, K, W, X and Y are not considered part of the standard Italian alphabet, but appear in loanwords (such as jeans, whisky, taxi). X has become a commonly used letter in genuine Italian words with the prefix extra-. J in Italian is an old-fashioned orthographic variant of I, appearing in the first name "Jacopo" as well as in some Italian place names, e.g., the towns of Bajardo, Bojano, Joppolo, Jesolo, Jesi, among numerous others, and in the alternative spelling Mar Jonio (also spelled Mar Ionio) for the Ionian Sea. J may also appear in many words from different dialects, but its use is discouraged in contemporary Italian, and it is not part of the standard 21-letter contemporary Italian alphabet. Each of these foreign letters has an Italian equivalent spelling: gi for j, c or ch for k, u or v for w (depending on what sound it makes), s, ss, or cs for x, and i for y. Italian uses the acute accent over the letter E (as in perché, why/because) to indicate a front mid-closed vowel, and the grave accent (as in tè, tea) to indicate a front mid-open vowel. The grave accent is also used on letters A, I, O, and U to mark stress when it falls on the final vowel of a word (for instance gioventù, youth). Typically, the penultimate syllable is stressed. If syllables other than the last one are stressed, the accent is not mandatory, unlike in Spanish, and, in virtually all cases, it is omitted. When the word is potentially ambiguous (as principi), the accent is sometimes used for disambiguation (in this case, prìncipi, princes, or princìpi, principles). This is, however, not compulsory. This example demonstrates how meanings may depend on pronunciation (as in è, third person of the verb to be, and e, "and"). Rare words with three or more syllables can confuse Italians themselves, and the pronunciation of Istanbul is a common example of a word in which placement of stress is not clearly established. Turkish, like French, tends to put the accent on the ultimate syllable, but Italian doesn't. So we can hear "Istànbul" or "Ìstanbul". Another instance is the American State of Florida: the correct way to pronounce it in Italian is as in Spanish, "Florìda", but since there is an Italian word with the same meaning ("flourishing"), "flòrida", and because of the influence of English, most Italians pronounce it that way. Dictionaries give the latter as an alternative pronunciation. Dizionario d'ortografia e di pronunzia The letter H at the beginning of a word is used to distinguish ho, hai, ha, hanno (present indicative of avere, 'to have') from o ('or'), ai ('to the'), a ('to'), anno ('year'). In the spoken language this letter is always silent in the words given above, even though in ho it changes the pronunciation making the vowel open. H is also used in combinations with other letters (see below), but no phoneme exists in Italian. In foreign words entered in common use, like "hotel" or "hovercraft", the H is commonly silent, so they are pronounced as and The letter Z represents , for example: zanzara (mosquito), or , for example: nazione (nation), depending on context, though there are few minimal pairs. The same goes for S, which can represent or . However, these two phonemes are in complementary distribution everywhere except between two vowels in the same word, and even in that environment there are extremely few minimal pairs, so that this distinction is being lost in many varieties. The letters c and g represent affricates: as in "chair" and as in "gem", respectively, before the front vowels I and E. They are pronounced as plosives , (as in "call" and "gall") otherwise. Front/back vowel rules for C and G are similar in French, Romanian, Spanish, and to some extent English (including Old English). Swedish and Norwegian have similar rules for K and G. (See also palatalization.) However, an H can be added between C or G and E or I to convert the preceding consonant to a plosive, and an I can be added between C or G and A, O or U to signal that the consonant is an affricate. For example: {| class="wikitable" ! !colspan="2"|Before back vowel (A, O, U) !colspan="2"|Before front vowel (I, E) |- !rowspan="2"| Plosive !C |caramella !CH |china |- !G |gallo !GH |ghiro |- !rowspan="2"| Affricate !CI |ciaramella !C |Cina |- !GI |giallo !G |giro |} Note that the H is silent in the digraphs CH and GH, as also the I in cia, cio, ciu and even cie is not pronounced as a separate vowel, unless it carries the primary stress. For example, it is silent in ciao and cielo , but it is pronounced in farmacia and farmacie . There are three other special digraphs in Italian: GN, GL and SC. GN represents . GL represents only before i, and never at the beginning of a word, except in the personal pronoun and definite article gli. (Compare with Spanish ñ and ll, Portuguese nh and lh.) SC represents fricative before i or e. Except in the speech of some Northern Italians, all of these are normally geminate between vowels. In general, there is a clear one-to-one correspondence between letters or digraphs and phonemes; in standard varieties of Italian, there is little allophonic variation. The most notable exceptions are assimilation of /n/ in point of articulation before consonants, assimilatory voicing of /s/ to following voiced consonants, and vowel length (vowels are long in stressed open syllables – except at the end of words, and short elsewhere) — compare with the enormous number of allophones of the English phoneme /t/. Spelling is clearly phonemic and difficult to mistake given a clear pronunciation. Exceptions are generally only found in foreign borrowings. There are fewer cases of dyslexia than among speakers of languages such as English, E. Paulescu et al., Dyslexia - cultural diversity and biological unity, "Science", vol. 291, pp. 2165–2167. and the concept of a spelling bee is strange to Italians. History The history of the Italian language is long, but the modern standard of the language was largely shaped by relatively recent events. The earliest surviving texts which can definitely be called Italian (or more accurately, vernacular, as opposed to its predecessor Vulgar Latin) are legal formulae from the region of Benevento dating from 960-963. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the first years of the 14th century through the works of Dante Alighieri, who mixed southern Italian languages, especially Sicilian, with his native Tuscan in his epic poems known collectively as the Commedia, to which Giovanni Boccaccio later affixed the title Divina. Dante's much-loved works were read throughout Italy and his written dialect became the "canonical standard" that all educated Italians could understand. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language and, thus, the dialect of Tuscany became the basis for what would become the official language of Italy. Italy has always had a distinctive dialect for each city since the cities were, until recently, thought of as city-states. The latter now has considerable variety, however. As Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout the nation, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. The most characteristic differences, for instance, between Roman Italian and Milanese Italian are the gemination of initial consonants and the pronunciation of stressed "e", and of "s" in some cases (e.g. va bene "all right": is pronounced by a Roman (and by any standard-speaker, like a Florentine), by a Milanese (and by any speaker whose native dialect lies at North of La Spezia-Rimini Line); a casa "at home": Roman and standard , Milanese and generally northern ). (See Raddoppiamento fonosintattico). In contrast to the Northern Italian language, southern Italian dialects and languages were largely untouched by the Franco-Occitan influences introduced to Italy, mainly by bards from France, during the Middle Ages but, after the Norman conquest of southern Italy, Sicily became the first Italian land to adopt Occitan lyric moods (and words) in poetry. Even in the case of Northern Italian language, however, scholars are careful not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages. (See La Spezia-Rimini Line). The economic might and relative advanced development of Tuscany at the time (Late Middle Ages), gave its dialect weight, though Venetian language remained widespread in medieval Italian commercial life. Also, the increasing political and cultural relevance of Florence during the periods of the rise of Medici's bank, Humanism and the Renaissance made its dialect, or rather a refined version of it, a standard in the arts. The re-discovery of Dante's De vulgari eloquentia and a renewed interest in linguistics in the 16th century sparked a debate which raged throughout Italy concerning which criteria should be chosen to establish a modern Italian standard to be used as much as a literary as a spoken language. Scholars were divided into three factions: the purists, headed by Pietro Bembo who in his Gli Asolani claimed that the language might only be based on the great literary classics (notably, Petrarch, and Boccaccio but not Dante as Bembo believed that the Divine Comedy was not dignified enough as it used elements from not-lyric registers of the language), Niccolò Machiavelli and other Florentines who preferred the version spoken by ordinary people in their own times, and the courtiers like Baldassarre Castiglione and Gian Giorgio Trissino who insisted that each local vernacular must contribute to the new standard. A fourth faction claimed that the best variety of Italian was the one that the papal court adopted. Eventually Bembo's ideas prevailed, the result being the publication of the first Italian dictionary in 1612 and the foundation of the Accademia della Crusca in Florence (1582-3), the official legislative body of the Italian language. Two notable defining moments in the history of the Italian language came between 1500 and 1850. Both events were invasions. The rulers of Spain (themselves members of the Habsburg dynasty) invaded and occupied Italy down to Rome and the Vatican in the mid-16th century (see the aftermath of the Italian Wars). This occupation left a lasting influence upon the formerly irregular Italian grammar, simplifying it to conform more with the dominant Spanish language. The second was the conquest and occupation of Italy by Napoleon in the early 19th century (who was himself of Italian-Corsican descent). This conquest propelled the unification of Italy and pushed the Italian language to a lingua franca, further reducing regional languages in order to compensate for the increased united nature of the people. Italian literature's first modern novel, I Promessi Sposi (The Betrothed), by Alessandro Manzoni further defined the standard by "rinsing" his Milanese 'in the waters of the Arno" (Florence's river), as he states in the Preface to his 1840 edition. After unification a huge number of civil servants and soldiers recruited from all over the country introduced many more words and idioms from their home languages ("ciao" is Venetian, "panettone" is Milanese dialect of the Lombard language etc.). Classification Italian is most closely related to the other two Italo-Dalmatian languages, Sicilian and the extinct Dalmatian. The three are part of the Italo-Western grouping of the Romance languages, which are a subgroup of the Italic branch of Indo-European. Geographic distribution The geographic distribution of the Italian language in the world: large Italian-speaking communities are shown in green; light blue indicates the former Italian colonies, where Italian was taught and spoken until their independence, and it is understood to some extent today. The total speakers of Italian as a maternal language are between 60 and 70 million. The speakers who use Italian as a second or cultural language are estimated at around 110-120 million. Official: Sovereign Military Order of Malta Regional: (Only in Slovenian Littoral) (Only in Istria County) Significant / Historically official: (in Corsica and Nizzardo) (Dalmatia) (Only in Dodecanese 1912-1943) Used by some immigrant communities in: 1,500,000 1,500,000 mother tounge Italian speakers in Brazil 1,500,000 1,500,000 mother tounge Italian speakers in Argentina 1,500,000 1,008,370 over 1 million Americans speak Italian at home 500,000-1,000,000 661,000 Statistics Canada 2006 548,000 548,000 mother tounge Italian speakers in Germany 353,605 353,605 mother tounge Italian speakers in Australia 200,000 200,000 mother tounge Italian speakers in the UK 72,400 72,400 mother tounge Italian speakers in Egypt |speakers= Maternal language: 62 - 70 million Microsoft Word - Frontespizio.doc Cultural language: c. 110-120 million Italian is the official language of Italy and San Marino, and one of the official languages of Switzerland, spoken mainly in the cantons of Ticino and part of Grisons (Grigioni in Italian), a region referred to as Italian Switzerland. It is also the second official language in some areas of Istria, in Slovenia and Croatia, where an Italian minority exists, just as in the Croatian city of Rijeka just outside Istria. It is the primary language of the Vatican City and is widely used and taught in Monaco and Malta. It served as Malta's official language until the Maltese language was enshrined in the 1934 Constitution. It is also spoken to a significant extent in France, with over 1,000,000 speakers Ethnologue report for France (especially in Corsica and the County of Nice, areas that historically spoke Italian dialects before annexation to France), and it is understood by large part of people in Albania and Montenegro, reached by many Italian TV channels. Italian is also spoken by some in former Italian colonies in Africa (Libya, Somalia, Ethiopia, and Eritrea). However, its use has sharply dropped off since the colonial period. In Eritrea, Italian is widely understood Languages of Eritrea - Tigrinya . In fact, for 50 years, during the colonial period, Italian was the language of education, but , there is only one Italian-language school remaining, with 470 pupils. The name of the only Italian-language school in Eritrea is Scuole Asmara Scuole Asmara (in Italian) , which was also the only Italian-language school in Ethiopia, when Eritrea was a province of Ethiopia Tekle M. Woldemikael, "Language, Education, and Public Policy in Eritrea," in African Studies Review, Vol. 46, No. 1. (Apr., 2003), pp. 117–136. . The number of Italian speakers may increase a little when the number of students at that school increases and because it is still spoken in commerce , and Eritrea will be the only African nation where Italian is widely spoken and understood. In Somalia, Italian used to be a major language but due to the civil war and lack of education, only the older generation still uses it. The only Italian-language school in the nation was damaged by the war. In Libya, although Italian is mostly spoken by older generations, it is still taught, spoken, and understood in big cities. In Egypt and Tunisia, it is mostly spoken by Italian Egyptians and Italian Tunisians and some professionals of non-Italian descent. In all of the above former Italian African colonies, most of the fluent Italian speakers are people who grew up in officially Italian-speaking nations, most especially Italy, and returned to Africa. Italian and Italian dialects are widely used by Italian immigrants and many of their descendants (see Italians) living throughout Western Europe (especially France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Luxembourg), the United States, Canada, Australia, and Latin America (especially Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Venezuela). In the United States, Italian speakers are most commonly found in five cities: Boston (7,000), Boston, Massachusetts, MLA Data Center Chicago (12,000), Chicago, Illinois, MLA Data Center the Miami region (27,000), http://www.mla.org/cgi-shl/docstudio/docs.pl?map_data_results New York City (140,000), New York, New York, MLA Data Center and Philadelphia (15,000). Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, MLA Data Center According to the United States Census in 2000, over 1 million Italian Americans spoke Italian at home, with the largest concentrations (nearly half) found in the states of New York (294,271) and New Jersey (116,365). In Canada, Italian is the fourth most commonly spoken language, with 661,000 speakers (or about 2.1% of the population) according to the 2006 Census. Particularly large Italian-speaking communities are found in Montreal (c. 179,000) and Toronto (c. 262,000). Statistics Canada 2006 Italian is the second most commonly spoken language in Australia, where 353,605 Italian Australians, or 1.9% of the population, reported speaking Italian at home in the 2001 Census. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2005, "Language other than English" (spreadsheet of figures from 2001 Census) In 2001 there were 130,000 Italian speakers in Melbourne, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002, "A Snapshot of Melbourne" and 90,000 in Sydney. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002, "A Snapshot of Sydney" Italian language education Italian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first foreign language; in fact, Italian generally is the fourth or fifth most taught foreign language in the world. 9 In anglophone parts of Canada, Italian is, after French, the third most taught language. In francophone Canada it is third after English. In the United States and the United Kingdom, Italian ranks fourth (after Spanish-French-German and French-German-Spanish respectively). Throughout the world, Italian is the fifth most taught foreign language, after English, French, Spanish, and German. www.iic-colonia.de In the European Union, Italian is spoken as a mother tongue by 13% of the population (64 million, mainly in Italy itself) and as a second language by 3% (14 million); among EU member states, it is most likely to be desired (and therefore learned) as a second language in Malta (61%), Croatia (14%), Slovenia (12%), Austria (11%), Romania (8%), France (6%), and Greece (6%). , February 2006 It is also an important second language in Albania and Switzerland, which are not EU members or candidates. Influence and derived languages From the late 19th to the mid 20th century, thousands of Italians settled in Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, where they formed a very strong physical and cultural presence (see the Italian diaspora). In some cases, colonies were established where variants of Italian dialects were used, and some continue to use a derived dialect. An example is Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, where Talian is used, and in the town of Chipilo near Puebla, Mexico; each continuing to use a derived form of Venetian dating back to the 19th century. Another example is Cocoliche, an Italian-Spanish pidgin once spoken in Argentina and especially in Buenos Aires, and Lunfardo. Rioplatense Spanish, and particularly the speech of the city of Buenos Aires, has intonation patterns that resemble those of Italian dialects, Unidad en la diversidad – Portal informativo sobre la lengua castellana due to the fact that Argentina has had a continuous large influx of Italian settlers since the second half of the 19th century; initially primarily from Northern Italy; then, since the beginning of the twentieth century, mostly from Southern Italy. Italian as a lingua franca Starting in late medieval times, Italian language variants replaced Latin to become the primary commercial language in much of Europe and the Mediterranean Sea (especially the Tuscan and Venetian variants). This was consolidated during the Renaissance with the strength of Italian and the rise of humanism in the arts. During the Renaissance,. Italy held artistic sway over the rest of Europe. All educated European gentlemen were expected to make the Grand Tour, visiting Italy to see its great historical monuments and works of art. It thus became expected that educated Europeans would learn at least some Italian; the English poet John Milton, for instance, wrote some of his early poetry in Italian. In England, Italian became the second most common modern language to be learned, after French (though the classical languages, Latin and Greek, came first). However, by the late 18th century, Italian tended to be replaced by German as the second modern language in the curriculum. Yet Italian loanwords continue to be used in most other European languages in matters of art and music. Within the Catholic church, Italian is known by a large part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and is used in substitution for Latin in some official documents. The presence of Italian as the primary language in the Vatican City indicates not only use within the Holy See, but also throughout the world where an episcopal seat is present. It continues to be used in music and opera. Other examples where Italian is sometimes used as a means of communication is in some sports (sometimes in football and motorsports) and in the design and fashion industries. Dialects In Italy, all Romance languages spoken as the vernacular, other than standard Italian and other unrelated, non-Italian languages, are termed "Italian dialects". Many Italian dialects may be considered as historical languages in their own right. Ethnologue web reference for Italian These include recognized language groups such as Friulian, Neapolitan, Sardinian, Sicilian, Venetian, and others, and regional variants of these languages such as Calabrian. The distinction between dialect and language has been made by scholars (such as Francesco Bruni): on the one hand are the languages that made up the Italian koine; and on the other, those which had very little or no part in it, such as Albanian, Greek, German, Ladin, and Occitan, which are still spoken by minorities. Non-standard dialects are not generally used for mass communication and are usually limited to native speakers in informal contexts. In the past, speaking in dialect was often deprecated as a sign of poor education. The younger generations, especially those under 35 (though it may vary in different areas), do not speak dialects but standard Italian in all situations, usually with local accents and idioms. Regional differences can be recognized by various factors: the openness of vowels, the length of the consonants, and influence of the local dialect (for example, annà replaces andare in the area of Rome for the infinitive "to go"). Sounds Vowels Italian has seven vowel phonemes: , , , , , , , represented by five letters: "a, e, i, o, u". The pairs -, and - are seldom distinguished in writing and often confused, even though most varieties of Italian employ both phonemes consistently. Compare, for example standard "perché" (why, because) and "senti" (you hear), as pronounced by most central and southern speakers, with and , employed by some northern speakers. As a result, the usage is strongly indicative of a person's origin. The standard (Tuscan) usage of these vowels is listed in vocabularies, and employed outside Tuscany mainly by specialists, especially actors and very few (television) journalists. These are truly different phonemes, however: compare (fishing) and (peach), both spelled pesca (). Similarly ('barrel') and ('beatings'), both spelled botte, discriminate and (). In general, vowel combinations usually pronounce each vowel separately. Diphthongs exist (e.g. uo, iu, ie, ai), but are limited to an unstressed u or i before or after a stressed vowel. The unstressed u in a diphthong approximates the English semivowel w, and the unstressed i approximates the semivowel y. E.g.: buono , ieri . Triphthongs exist in Italian as well, like "continuiamo" ("we continue"). Three vowel combinations exist only in the form semiconsonant ( or ), followed by a vowel, followed by a desinence vowel (usually ), as in miei, suoi, or two semiconsonants followed by a vowel, as the group -uia- exemplified above, or -iuo- in the word aiuola. Mobile diphthongs Many Latin words with a short e or o have Italian counterparts with a mobile diphthong (ie and uo respectively). When the vowel sound is stressed, it is pronounced and written as a diphthong; when not stressed, it is pronounced and written as a single vowel. So Latin focus gave rise to Italian fuoco (meaning both "fire" and "optical focus"): when unstressed, as in focale ("focal") the "o" remains alone. Latin pes (more precisely its accusative form pedem) is the source of Italian piede (foot): but unstressed "e" was left unchanged in pedone (pedestrian) and pedale (pedal). From Latin iocus comes Italian giuoco ("play", "game"), though in this case gioco is more common: giocare means "to play (a game)". From Latin homo comes Italian uomo (man), but also umano (human) and ominide (hominid). From Latin ovum comes Italian uovo (egg) and ovaie (ovaries). (The same phenomenon occurs in Spanish: juego (play, game) and jugar (to play), nieve (snow) and nevar (to snow)). Consonants Two symbols in a table cell denote the voiceless and voiced consonant, respectively. +Consonants of Italian BilabialLabio-dentalAlveolarPost-alveolarPalatalVelarNasal Plosive, , , Affricate, , Fricative, , , ()TrillLateralApproximant Nasals undergo assimilation when followed by a consonant, e.g., when preceding a velar ( or ) only appears, etc. Italian has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by length. Length is distinctive for all consonants except for , , , , which are always geminate, and which is always single. Geminate plosives and affricates are realised as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and are realized as lengthened continuants. The flap consonant is typically dialectal. The correct standard pronunciation is . Of special interest to the linguistic study of Italian is the Gorgia Toscana, or "Tuscan Throat", the weakening or lenition of certain intervocalic consonants in Tuscan dialects. See also Syntactic doubling. The voiced postalveolar fricative is only present in loanwords. For example, garage . Assimilation Italian has few diphthongs, so most unfamiliar diphthongs that are heard in foreign words (in particular, those beginning with vowel "a", "e", or "o") will be assimilated as the corresponding diaeresis (i.e., the vowel sounds will be pronounced separately). Italian phonotactics do not usually permit verbs and polysyllabic nouns to end with consonants, excepting poetry and song, so foreign words may receive extra terminal vowel sounds. Grammar Common variations in the writing systems Some variations in the usage of the writing system may be present in practical use. These are scorned by educated people, but they are so common in certain contexts that knowledge of them may be useful. Usage of x instead of per: this is very common among teenagers and in SMS abbreviations. The multiplication operator is pronounced "per" in Italian, and so it is sometimes used to replace the word "per", which means "for"; thus, for example, "per te" ("for you") is shortened to "x te" (compare with English "4 U"). Words containing per can also have it replaced with x: for example, perché (both "why" and "because") is often shortened as xché or xké or x' (see below). This usage might be useful to jot down quick notes or to fit more text into the low character limit of an SMS, but it is unacceptable in formal writing. Usage of foreign letters such as k, j and y, especially in nicknames and SMS language: ke instead of che, Giusy instead of Giuseppina (or sometimes Giuseppe). This is curiously mirrored in the usage of i in English names such as Staci instead of Stacey, or in the usage of c in Northern Europe (Jacob instead of Jakob). The use of "k" instead of "ch" or "c" to represent a plosive sound is documented in some historical texts from before the standardization of the Italian language; however, that usage is no longer standard in Italian. Possibly because it is associated with the German language, the letter "k" has sometimes also been used in satire to suggest that a political figure is an authoritarian or even a "pseudo-nazi": Francesco Cossiga was famously nicknamed Kossiga by rioting students during his tenure as minister of internal affairs. [Cf. the politicized spelling Amerika in the USA.] Use of the following abbreviations is limited to the electronic communications media and is deprecated in all other cases: nn instead of non (not), cmq instead of comunque (anyway, however), cm instead of come (how, like, as), d instead of di (of), (io/loro) sn instead of (io/loro) sono (I am/they are), (io) dv instead of (io) devo (I must/I have to) or instead of dove (where), (tu) 6 instead of (tu) sei (you are). Whenever ASCII characters are not available, or when they cannot be relied on, for example in emails, sometimes accents are replaced by apostrophes for convenience, such as in perche' instead of perché (this was standard in the days of manual typewriters that had no accents, and is still common for upper case letters). Uppercase È is particularly rare, as it is absent from the Italian keyboard layout, and is very often written as E''' (even though there are several ways of producing the uppercase È on a computer). This never happens in books or other professionally typeset material. On the other hand, many people confuse the grave and the acute accent, and write perchè instead of perché or caffé instead of caffè, since these two accents are usually written in the same way in handwriting; this is never justifiable. Examples Conversation {| class="wikitable" ! English (inglese) || Italian (italiano) || Audio |- ||Yes || Sì|| (listen) |- ||No || No|| (listen) |- ||Of course! || Certo! / Certamente! / Naturalmente!|| |- ||Hello! || Ciao! (informal) / Salve! (general)|| (listen) |- ||How are you? || Come stai? (informal) / Come sta? (formal) / Come state? (plural) / Come va? (general) || |- ||Good morning! || Buon giorno! (= Good day!)|| |- ||Good afternoon! || Buon pomeriggio! / Buona sera! (more usual)|| |- ||Good evening! || Buona sera!|| |- ||Good night! || Buona notte! (for a good night sleeping) / Buona serata! (for a good night awake)|| |- ||Have a nice day! || Buona giornata! (formal)|| |- ||Have a good lunch/dinner! || Buon appetito!|| |- ||Goodbye! || Arrivederci (general) / Arrivederla (formal) / Ciao! (informal)|| (listen) |- ||Good luck! Thank you!|| Buona fortuna! Grazie! (general) / In bocca al lupo! Crepi (il lupo)! (to wish s.o. to overcome a difficulty, similar to "Break a leg!"; the call and response literally means: "Into the mouth of the wolf!" "May him die!"|| |- ||I love you || Ti amo (between lovers only) / Ti voglio bene (in the sense of "I am fond of you", between friends, relatives etc.)|| |- ||Welcome [to...] || Benvenuto/-i (for male/males or mixed) / Benvenuta/-e (for female/females) [a / in...]|| |- ||Please || Per piacere / Per favore / Per cortesia|| (listen) |- ||Thank you! || Grazie! (general) / Ti ringrazio! (informal) / La ringrazio! (formal) / Vi ringrazio! (plural) || (listen) |- ||You're welcome! || Prego! |- ||I'm sorry || Mi dispiace (general) / Scusa(mi) (informal) / Mi scusi (formal) / Scusatemi (plural) / Sono desolato (if male) / Sono desolata (if female)|| (listen) |- ||Excuse me || Scusa(mi) (informal) / (Mi) scusi (formal) / Scusate(mi) (plural) / (Con) permesso! (in order to pass on, to advance) || |- ||Who? || Chi?|| |- ||What? || Che cosa? / Cosa? / Che?|| |- ||When? || Quando?|| |- ||Where? || Dove?|| |- ||Why? || Perché?|| |- ||Because || Perché|| |- ||How? || Come?|| |- ||How much? / How many? || Quanto? / Quanti? / Quante?|| |- ||What's your name? || Come ti chiami? (informal) / Come si chiama? (formal)|| |- ||My name is || Mi chiamo|| |- ||His/her name is || Si chiama|| |- ||This is || Questo è (male) / Questa è (female)|| |- ||Yes, I understand. || Sì, capisco. / Ho capito.|| |- ||I do not understand. || Non capisco. / Non ho capito.|| (listen) |- ||Do you speak English? || Parli inglese? (informal) / Parla inglese? (formal) / Parlate inglese? (plural)|| (listen) |- ||I don't understand Italian.|| Non capisco l'italiano.|| |- ||Help me!|| Aiutami! (informal) / Mi aiuti! (formal) / Aiutatemi! (plural) / Aiuto! (general)|| |- ||You're right/wrong! || (Tu) hai ragione/torto! (informal) / (Lei) ha ragione/torto! (formal) / (Voi) avete ragione/torto! (plural)|| |- ||What time is it?|| Che ora è? / Che ore sono?|| |- ||Where is the bathroom?|| Dov'è il bagno?|| (listen) |- ||The bill, please. (In restaurant)|| Il conto, per favore.|| |- ||The study of Italian sharpens the mind.|| Lo studio dell'italiano acuisce l'ingegno.|| |} Numbers English Italian IPAIPA OneunoTwodueThreetreFourquattroFivecinqueSixseiSevensetteEightottoNinenoveTendieci English Italian IPAElevenundiciTwelvedodiciThirteentrediciFourteenquattordiciFifteenquindiciSixteensediciSeventeendiciasetteEighteendiciottoNineteendiciannoveTwentyventi English Italian IPATwenty-oneventunoTwenty-twoventidueTwenty-threeventitreTwenty-fourventiquattroTwenty-fiveventicinqueTwenty-sixventiseiTwenty-sevenventisetteTwenty-eightventottoTwenty-nineventinoveThirtytrenta Days of the Week English Italian IPAMondaylunedìTuesdaymartedìWednesdaymercoledìThursdaygiovedìFridayvenerdìSaturdaysabatoSundaydomenica Pronunciations English Italian IPA Audio English inglese Italian italiano Yes sì (listen) No no (listen) Hello ciao (listen) Cheers salute! Goodbye arrivederci (listen) Good day buon giorno Good evening buona sera How are you? come stai?; come sta? ; Sorry mi dispiace Excuse me scusa; scusi ; Again di nuovo; ancora ; When quando Where dove Why/because perché How come How much is it? quanto costa? Thank you! grazie! Enjoy the meal! buon appetito! You're welcome! prego! I love you (friendly) ti voglio bene I love you (romantic) ti amo Sample texts There is a recording of Dante's Divine Comedy read by Lino Pertile available at http://etcweb.princeton.edu/dante/pdp/ See also Italian grammar Italian literature Italian alphabet Italian phonology Guide to phonetic transliteration of Italian Italian exonyms Italian honorifics Italian profanity Italian musical terms Italian Wikipedia Italian Sign Language Italian dialects List of languages of Italy List of English words of Italian origin Sicilian School Veronese Riddle Enciclopedia Italiana AP Italian Language and Culture CELI CILS (Qualification) References and notes Bibliography M. Vitale, Studi di Storia della Lingua Italiana, LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 1992, ISBN 88-7916-015-X S. Morgana, Capitoli di Storia Linguistica Italiana, LED Edizioni Universitarie, Milano, 2003, ISBN 88-7916-211-X External links Swadesh list in English and Italian Italian proverbs "Learn Italian," BBC Italian Grammar Primer The online edition (2007) of the Dizionario d'ortografia e di pronunzia (DOP), a pronouncing dictionary of standard Italian, RAI be-x-old:Італьянская мова

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Bridge

The Akashi-Kaikyō Bridge in Japan, world's longest span. The Si-o-se Pol over the Zayandeh River in Iran. The Salginatobel Bridge in the Swiss Alps. A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road, railroad track, river, body of water, or any other physical obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of bridges will vary depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain where the bridge is to be constructed. History Roman bridge of Córdoba, Spain, built in the 1st century BC. Roman Bridge in Cordoba ( 1st century B.C.) Ponte di Pietra in Verona, Italy. A log bridge in the French Alps near Vallorcine. An English 18th century example of a bridge in the Palladian style, with shops on the span: Pulteney Bridge, Bath A Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) Chinese miniature model of two residential towers joined by a bridge The first bridges were made by nature — as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or planks and eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Epic literature of India provides mythological accounts of bridges constructed from India to Lanka by the army of Rama. Kinney, pg. 190 Buck pg 78 The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges. Dikshitar, pg. 332 A Mauryan bridge near Girnar was surveyed by James Princep. The bridge was swept away during a flood, and later repaired by Puspagupta, the chief architect of emperor Chandragupta I. The bridge also fell under the care of the Yavana Tushaspa, and the Satrap Rudra Daman. Dutt, pg 46 The use of stronger bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible in India by about the 4th century. "suspension bridge" in Encyclopaedia Britannica (2008). 2008 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. A number of bridges, both for military and commercial purposes, were constructed by the Mughal administration in India. Nath, pg. 213 The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans. Context for World Heritage Bridges The Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier designs. Some stand today. History of BRIDGES An example is the Alcántara Bridge, built over the river Tagus, in Spain. The Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. Lessons from Roman Cement and Concrete One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime, sand, and volcanic rock. Brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered. Although large Chinese bridges of wooden construction existed at the time of the Warring States, the oldest surviving stone bridge in China is the Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595 to 605 AD during the Sui Dynasty. This bridge is also historically significant as it is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone segmental arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at least the Alconétar Bridge (approximately 2nd century AD), while the enormous Roman era Trajan's Bridge (105 AD) featured open-spandrel segmental arches in wooden construction. Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European colonization in the 1500s. During the 18th century there were many innovations in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich, Johannes Grubenmann, and others. The first book on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. A major breakthrough in bridge technology came with the erection of the The Iron Bridge in Coalbrookdale, England in 1779. It used cast iron for the first time as arches to cross the river Severn. With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel. Etymology The Oxford English Dictionary traces the origin of the word bridge to an Old English word brycg, of the same meaning, derived from a hypothetical Proto-Germanic root brugjō. There are cognates in other Germanic languages (for instance Brücke in German, brug in Dutch, brúgv in Faroese or bro in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish). Types of bridges There are six main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges, suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges and truss bridges. Beam bridges Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by piers. The earliest beam bridges were simple logs that sat across streams and similar simple structures. In modern times, beam bridges are large box steel girder bridges. Weight on top of the beam pushes straight down on the piers at either end of the bridge. Cantilever bridges Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers—horizontal beams that are supported on only one end. Most cantilever bridges use two cantilever arms extending from opposite sides of the obstacle to be crossed, meeting at the center. The largest cantilever bridge is the Quebec Bridge in Quebec, Canada. Arch bridges Stone arch bridge in Shaharah, Yemen Arch bridges are arch-shaped and have abutments at each end. The earliest known arch bridges were built by the Greeks and include the Arkadiko Bridge. The weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments at either side. Dubai in the United Arab Emirates is currently building the Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing which is scheduled for completion in 2012. When completed, it will be the largest arch bridge in the world. Suspension bridges Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the floor of a lake or river. The longest suspension bridge in the world is the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge in Japan. See simple suspension bridge, stressed ribbon bridge, underspanned suspension bridge, suspended-deck suspension bridge, and self-anchored suspension bridge. Cable-stayed bridges Like suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges are held up by cables. However, in a cable-stayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately shorter. The first known cable-stayed bridge was designed in 1784 by C.T. Loescher. The longest cable-stayed bridge is the Sutong Bridge over the Yangtze River in China. Truss bridges Continuous under-deck truss bridge Truss bridges are composed of connected elements. They have a solid deck and a lattice of pin-jointed girders for the sides. Early truss bridges were made of wood, and later of wood with iron tensile rods, but modern truss bridges are made completely of metals such as wrought iron and steel or sometimes of reinforced concrete. The Quebec Bridge, mentioned above as a cantilever bridge, is also the world's longest truss bridge. World's Longest Bridge Spans By use A bridge is designed for trains, pedestrian or road traffic, a pipeline or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. An aqueduct is a bridge that carries water, resembling a viaduct, which is a bridge that connects points of equal height. A road-rail bridge carries both road and rail traffic. Bridges are subject to unplanned uses as well. The areas underneath some bridges have become makeshift shelters and homes to homeless people, and the undersides of bridges all around the world are spots of prevalent graffiti. Some bridges attract people attempting suicide, and become known as suicide bridges. To create a beautiful image, some bridges are built much taller than necessary. This type, often found in east-Asian style gardens, is called a Moon bridge, evoking a rising full moon. Other garden bridges may cross only a dry bed of stream washed pebbles, intended only to convey an impression of a stream. Often in palaces a bridge will be built over an artificial waterway as symbolic of a passage to an important place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a sinuous waterway in an important courtyard of the Forbidden City in Beijing, the People's Republic of China. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the use of the Emperor, Empress, and their attendants. Differences and similarities in bridge structure A bridge taxonomy showing evolutionary relationships Bridges may be classified by how the forces of tension, compression, bending, torsion and shear are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principal forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear. In a suspension or cable-stayed span, the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified by their lineage, which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram to the right. Efficiency A bridge's structural efficiency may be considered to be the ratio of load carried to bridge mass, given a specific set of material types. In one common challenge students are divided into groups and given a quantity of wood sticks, a distance to span, and glue, and then asked to construct a bridge that will be tested to destruction by the progressive addition of load at the center of the span. The bridge taking the greatest load is by this test the most structurally efficient. A more refined measure for this exercise is to weigh the completed bridge rather than measure against a fixed quantity of materials provided and determine the multiple of this weight that the bridge can carry, a test that emphasizes economy of materials and efficient glue joints (see balsa wood bridge). A bridge's economic efficiency will be site and traffic dependent, the ratio of savings by having a bridge (instead of, for example, a ferry, or a longer road route) compared to its cost. The lifetime cost is composed of materials, labor, machinery, engineering, cost of money, insurance, maintenance, refurbishment, and ultimately, demolition and associated disposal, recycling, and replacement, less the value of scrap and reuse of components. Bridges employing only compression are relatively inefficient structurally, but may be highly cost efficient where suitable materials are available near the site and the cost of labor is low. For medium spans, trusses or box beams are usually most economical, while in some cases, the appearance of the bridge may be more important than its cost efficiency. The longest spans usually require suspension bridges. Double-decker bridge "Metrobridge" Vorobyovy Gory (:ru:Метромост) double-deck bridge in Moscow carries the Moscow Metro. Double-decker bridges have two levels, such as the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge, with two road levels. Tsing Ma Bridge and Kap Shui Mun Bridge in Hong Kong have six lanes on their upper decks, and on their lower decks there are two lanes and a pair of tracks for MTR metro trains. Some double-decker bridges only use one level for street traffic; the Washington Avenue Bridge in Minneapolis reserves its lower level for automobile traffic and its upper level for pedestrian and bicycle traffic (predominantly students at the University of Minnesota). Robert Stephenson's High Level Bridge across the River Tyne in Newcastle upon Tyne, completed in 1849, is an early example of a double-deck bridge. The upper level carries a railway, and the lower level is used for road traffic. Another example is Craigavon Bridge in Derry, Northern Ireland. The Oresund Bridge between Copenhagen and Malmö consists of a four-lane highway on the upper level and a pair of railway tracks at the lower level. The George Washington Bridge between New Jersey and New York has two roadway levels. It was built with only the upper roadway as traffic demands did not require more capacity. A truss work between the roadway levels provides stiffness to the roadways and reduced movement of the upper level when installed. Tower Bridge is different example of a double-decker bridge, with the central section consisting of a low level bascule span and a high level footbridge. More than just a bridge Juscelino Kubitschek bridge - Brasília, Brazil. Some bridges carry special installations such as the tower of Nový Most bridge in Bratislava which carries a restaurant. Other suspension bridge towers carry transmission antennas. A bridge can carry overhead power lines as does the Storstrøm Bridge. Costs and cost overruns in bridge construction have been studied by Flyvbjerg et al. (2003). The average cost overrun in building a bridge was found to be 34%. Flyvbjerg, Bent, Nils Bruzelius, and Werner Rothengatter, 2003. Megaprojects and Risk: An Anatomy of Ambition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). In railway parlance, an overbridge is a bridge crossing over the course of the railway. In contrast, an underbridge allows passage under the line. Bridge failures The failure of bridges is of special concern for structural engineers in trying to learn lessons vital to bridge design, construction and maintenance. The failure of bridges first assumed national interest during the Victorian era when many new designs were being built, often using new materials. Movable bridges Visual index Index to types Index to related topics See also Architectural structure Cost overrun in bridge construction Landscape architecture List of bridge disasters Sea bridge BS 5400, a British Standard for steel, concrete and composite bridges contrast with tunnel References General references Brown, David J. Bridges: Three Thousand Years of Defying Nature. Richmond Hill, Ont: Firefly Books, 2005. ISBN 1-55407-099-6. Sandak, Cass R. Bridges. An Easy-read modern wonders book. New York: F. Watts, 1983. ISBN 0-531-04624-9. Whitney, Charles S. Bridges of the World: Their Design and Construction. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 2003. ISBN 0-486-42995-4. Unabridged republication of Bridges : a study in their art, science, and evolution. 1929. Dikshitar, V. R. R. Dikshitar (1993). The Mauryan Polity. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120810236. Dutt, Romesh Chunder (2000). A History of Civilisation in Ancient India: Vol II. Routledge. ISBN 0415231884. Nath, R. (1982). History of Mughal Architecture. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 8170171598. Kinney, A. R.; el al. (2003). Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824827791. Buck, William; el al. (2000). Ramayana. University of California Press. ISBN 0520227034 External links en.Broer.no a site for bridges Digital Bridge: Bridges of the Nineteenth Century, a collection of digitized books at Lehigh University Structurae - International Database and Gallery of Engineerings Structures with over 10000 Bridges. U.S. Federal Highway Administration Bridge Technology Descriptions and photographs of five bridge disasters Bridge enthusiast site Interesting Flexible Arch Bridge design Video on how bridges are made (Grade school level educational film by National Association of Manufactures.) The Museum of Japanese Timber BridgesFukuoka University

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nineteenth_century:1

Politics_of_Djibouti

Politics of Djibouti takes place in a framework of a semi-presidential republic. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The party system is dominated by the conservative People's Rally for Progress. The parliamentary party system is dominated by the People's Rally for Progress and the current President is Ismail Omar Guelleh. The country's current constitution was approved in September 1992. In 1981, Hassan Gouled Aptidon was elected as President of Djibouti. He was re-elected, unopposed, to a second 6-year term in April 1987 and to a third 6-year term in May 1993 multiparty elections. The electorate approved the current constitution in September 1992. Many laws and decrees from before independence remain in effect. In early 1992, the government decided to permit multiple party politics and agreed to the registration of four political parties. By the time of the national assembly elections in December 1992, only three had qualified. They are the Rassemblement Populaire Pour le Progres (People's Rally for Progress) (RPP) which was the only legal party from 1981 until 1992, the Parti du Renouveau Démocratique (The Party for Democratic Renewal) (PRD), and the Parti National Démocratique (National Democratic Party) (PND). Only the RPP and the PRD contested the national assembly elections, and the PND withdrew, claiming that there were too many unanswered questions on the conduct of the elections and too many opportunities for government fraud. The RPP won all 65 seats in the national assembly, with a turnout of less than 50% of the electorate. In 1999, President Hassan Gouled Aptidon's chief of staff, head of security, and key advisor for over 20 years, Ismail Omar Guelleh was elected to the Presidency as the RPP candidate. He received 74% of the vote, the other 26% going to opposition candidate Moussa Ahmed Idriss, of the Unified Djiboutian Opposition (ODU). For the first time since independence, no group boycotted the election. Moussa Ahmed Idriss and the ODU later challenged the results based on election "irregularities" and the assertion that "foreigners" had voted in various districts of the capital; however, international and locally based observers considered the election to be generally fair, and cited only minor technical difficulties. Ismail Omar Guelleh took the oath of office as the second President of the Republic of Djibouti on May 8, 1999, with the support of an alliance between the RPP and the government-recognized section of the Afar-led FRUD. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with cabinet posts roughly divided. However, it is the Issas who presently dominate the government, civil service, and the ruling party, a situation that has bred resentment and political competition between the Somali Issas and the Afars. In early November 1991, civil war erupted in Djibouti between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. In February 2000, another branch of FRUD signed a peace accord with the government. On 12 May 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on 7 February 2000 in Paris. Ahmed Dini Ahmed represented the FRUD. Djibouti has its own armed forces, including a small army, which has grown significantly since the start of the civil war. In recent years the armed force has downsized and with the peace accord with the FRUD in 2001, the armed forces are expected to continue its downsizing. The country's security also is supplemented by a special security arrangement with the Government of France. France maintains one of its largest military bases outside France in Djibouti. There are some 2,600 French troops, which includes a unit of the French Foreign Legion, the 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade, stationed in Djibouti. The right to own property is respected in Djibouti. The government has reorganized the labor unions. While there have been open elections of union leaders, the Government of Djibouti is working with the ILO to hold new elections. Although women in Djibouti enjoy a higher public status than in many other Islamic countries, women's rights and family planning face difficult challenges, many stemming from poverty. Few women hold senior positions. Education of girls still lags behind boys and, because of the high unemployment rate, employment opportunities are better for male applicants. |President |Ismail Omar Guelleh |RPP |8 May 1999 |- |Prime Minister |Dileita Mohamed Dileita |RPP |4 March 2001 |} The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president and the Council of Ministers is responsible to the president. Legislative branch The National Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) has 65 members, 32 Somali ( 26 Issa, 3 Gadabursi & 3 Isaaq), 30 Afar and 3 Arab, elected for a five year term in multi-seat (4 to 37 seats) constituencies. Political parties and elections Administrative divisions Djibouti is divided in 5 districts (cercles, singular - cercle); 'Ali Sabih, Dikhil, Djibouti, Obock, Tadjoura. International organization participation ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IGAD, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, ITUC, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO External links

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Abaddon

Apollyon (top) battling Christian in John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. Abaddon (, , Greek: , , Coptic: , meaning "A place of destruction", "The Destroyer", "Depths of Hell") in the Revelation of St. John, is the king of tormenting locusts and the angel of the bottomless pit. (KJV, Rev. 9:1-11). The exact nature of Abaddon is debated. In Judaism and Christianity Biblical mentions Abaddon comes to mean "place of destruction", or the realm of the dead, and is associated with Sheol. (Job 26:6; Proverbs 15:11) Revelation 9:1-11 describes Abaddon as being the king of the bottomless pit locusts that resemble battle horses with crowned human faces, having women's hair (denoting length), lions' teeth, locusts' wings, and the tail of a scorpion. It appears to have been St. John who first personified the term to stand for an angel. Other theological works The text of the Thanksgiving Hymns—which was found in the Dead Sea Scrolls—tells of "the Sheol of Abaddon" and of the "torrents of Belial [that] burst into Abaddon". The Biblical Antiquities attributed to Philo mentions Abaddon as a place (sheol, hell), not as a spirit or demon or angel. In the 3rd century Acts of Thomas, Abaddon is the name of a demon, or the Devil himself. Abaddon has also been identified as the angel of death and destruction, demon of the abyss, and chief of demons of the underworld hierarchy, where he is equated with Samael or Satan. In magic, Abaddon is often identified with the Destroying Angel of the Apocalypse. Abaddon is also one of the compartments of Gehenna. Metzger & Coogan (1993) Oxford Companion to the Bible, p3. By extension, it can mean an underworld abode of lost souls, or hell. In some legends, it is identified as a realm where the damned lie in fire and snow, one of the places in Hell that Moses visited. The Legends of the Jews, volume II: From Joseph to Exodus, Lewis Ginzberg, 1909. In the lore of the Coptic Church, Abbaton is the name given to the angel of death. He is given particularly important roles in two sources, a homily entitled The Enthronment of Abbaton by Timothy of Alexandria, and the Apocalyspe of Bartholomew. Atiya, Aziz S. The Coptic Encyclopedia. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1991. ISBN 002897025X In the homily by Timothy, Abbaton was first named Muriel, and had been given the task by God of collecting the earth which would be used in the creation of Adam. Upon completion of this task, the angel was then named to be guardian. Everybody, including the angels, demons, and corporeal entities, felt fear of him. Abbaton engaged in prayer and ultimately obtained the promise that any men who venerated him during their lifetime stood the chance of being saved. Abbaton is also said to have a prominent role in the Last Judgement, as the one who will take the souls to the Valley of Josaphat. He is described in the Apocalypse of Bartholomew as being present in the Tomb of Jesus at the moment of his resurrection. Identifying Abaddon The symbolism of Revelation 9:11 leaves the exact identification of Abaddon open for interpretation. Some bible scholars believe him to be the antichrist Matthew Henry Commentary on Revelation 9, accessed 4/15/2007 or Satan. Jamieson, Fausset & Brown Commentary, accessed 4/15/2007 Halley (2000) Halley's Bible Handbook with the New International Version, p936. MacDonald (1995) Believer's Bible Commentary, p2366. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Abaddon is Jesus. Insight on the Scriptures Page 12 Watchtower, Dec. 1, 1961, p. 719 (However, original Jehovah's Witness doctrine stated that Abaddon was Satan.) Charles Taze Russell’s Studies in the Scriptures, vol. 7, p. 159, 1917 edition Some also believe Abaddon to be just an angel. Concerning the angel holding the key to the bottomless pit from Revelation 9 and 20, Gustav Davidson, in A Dictionary of Angels, Including the Fallen Angels, writes: In Revelation 20:1 he "laid hold of the dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him a thousand years." According to the foregoing, Apollion is a holy (good) angel, servant and messenger of God; but in occult and, generally, in noncanonical writings, he is evil . See also Abaddon in popular culture External links Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Abaddon Occultopedia, Abaddon References

Abaddon |@lemmatized apollyon:1 top:1 battle:2 christian:1 john:3 bunyan:1 pilgrim:1 progress:1 abaddon:19 greek:1 coptic:3 mean:3 place:4 destruction:3 destroyer:1 depth:1 hell:4 revelation:6 st:2 king:2 torment:1 locust:2 angel:13 bottomless:3 pit:3 kjv:1 rev:1 exact:2 nature:1 debate:1 judaism:1 christianity:1 biblical:2 mention:2 come:1 realm:2 dead:2 associate:1 sheol:3 job:1 proverb:1 describes:1 locusts:1 resemble:1 horse:1 crowned:1 human:1 face:1 woman:1 hair:1 denote:1 length:1 lion:1 teeth:1 wing:1 tail:1 scorpion:1 appear:1 first:2 personify:1 term:1 stand:2 theological:1 work:1 text:1 thanksgiving:1 hymn:1 find:1 sea:1 scroll:1 tell:1 torrent:1 belial:1 burst:1 antiquity:1 attribute:1 philo:1 spirit:1 demon:5 century:1 act:1 thomas:1 name:4 devil:2 also:5 identify:4 death:2 abyss:1 chief:1 underworld:2 hierarchy:1 equate:1 samael:1 satan:4 magic:1 often:1 destroy:1 apocalypse:2 one:3 compartment:1 gehenna:1 metzger:1 coogan:1 oxford:1 companion:1 bible:4 extension:1 abode:1 lose:1 soul:2 legend:2 damned:1 lie:1 fire:1 snow:1 moses:1 visit:1 jew:1 volume:1 ii:1 joseph:1 exodus:1 lewis:1 ginzberg:1 lore:1 church:1 abbaton:5 give:3 particularly:1 important:1 role:2 two:1 source:1 homily:2 entitle:1 enthronment:1 timothy:2 alexandria:1 apocalyspe:1 bartholomew:2 atiya:1 aziz:1 encyclopedia:2 new:2 york:1 macmillan:1 publish:1 co:1 isbn:1 muriel:1 task:2 god:2 collect:1 earth:1 would:1 use:1 creation:1 adam:1 upon:1 completion:1 guardian:1 everybody:1 include:2 corporeal:1 entity:1 felt:1 fear:1 engage:1 prayer:1 ultimately:1 obtain:1 promise:1 men:1 venerate:1 lifetime:1 chance:1 save:1 say:1 prominent:1 last:1 judgement:1 take:1 valley:1 josaphat:1 describe:1 present:1 tomb:1 jesus:2 moment:1 resurrection:1 symbolism:1 leave:1 identification:1 open:1 interpretation:1 scholar:1 believe:3 antichrist:1 matthew:1 henry:1 commentary:3 access:2 jamieson:1 fausset:1 brown:1 halley:2 handbook:1 international:1 version:1 macdonald:1 believer:1 jehovah:2 witness:2 insight:1 scripture:2 page:1 watchtower:1 dec:1 p:2 however:1 original:1 doctrine:1 state:1 charles:1 taze:1 russell:1 study:1 vol:1 edition:1 concern:1 hold:2 key:1 gustav:1 davidson:1 dictionary:1 fallen:1 writes:1 laid:1 dragon:1 old:1 serpent:1 bind:1 thousand:1 year:1 accord:1 foregoing:1 apollion:1 holy:1 good:1 servant:1 messenger:1 occult:1 generally:1 noncanonical:1 writing:1 evil:1 see:1 popular:1 culture:1 external:1 link:1 schaff:1 herzog:1 religious:1 knowledge:1 occultopedia:1 reference:1 |@bigram bunyan_pilgrim:1 pilgrim_progress:1 bottomless_pit:3 coogan_oxford:1 jehovah_witness:2 external_link:1 schaff_herzog:1 herzog_encyclopedia:1

Alphonse,_Count_of_Poitiers

Coat of arms: Per pale azure semé-de-lis or (France ancient) dimidiating gules semé of castles or (Castile). Alfonso or Alphonse (11 November 1220 – 21 August 1271) was the Count of Poitou from 1225 and Count of Toulouse (as Alfonso II) from 1247. Alphonse was a son of Louis VIII, King of France and Blanche of Castile. He was a younger brother of Louis IX of France and an older brother of Charles I of Sicily. The Treaty of Paris stipulated that a brother of King Louis was to marry Joan of Toulouse, daughter of Raymond VII of Toulouse, and so in 1237 Alphonse married her. Fawtier 123 By the terms of his father's will he received an appanage of Poitou and Auvergne. He won the battle of Taillebourg in the Saintonge War with his brother Louis IX, against a revolt allied with king Henry III of England. He took part in two crusades with his brother, St Louis, in 1248 (the Seventh Crusade) and in 1270 (the Eighth Crusade). For the first of these, he raised a large sum and a substantial force, arriving in Damietta on 24 October 1249, after the town had already been captured. Strayer, 496-7 He sailed for home on 10 August 1250. Strayer 505 His father-in-law had died while he was away, and he went directly to Toulouse to take possession. Hallam 218 There was some resistance to his accession as count, which was suppressed with the help of his mother Blanche of Castile who was acting as regent in the absence of Louis IX. Hallam 258 The county of Toulouse, since them, was joined to the Alphonse's appanage. In 1252, on the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, he was joint regent with Charles of Anjou until the return of Louis IX. During that time he took a great part in the campaigns and negotiations which led to the Treaty of Paris in 1259, under which King Henry III of England recognized his loss of continental territory to France (including Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Poitou) in exchange for France withdrawing support from English rebels. His main work was on his own estates. There he repaired the evils of the Albigensian war and made a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing the way for union with the crown. The charter known as "Alphonsine," granted to the town of Riom, became the code of public law for Auvergne. Honest and moderate, protecting the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic character and his continual and pressing need of money. He is noted for ordering the first recorded local expulsion of Jews, when he did so in Poitou in 1249. Aside from the crusades, Alfonso stayed primarily in Paris, governing his estates by officials, inspectors who reviewed the officials work, and a constant stream of messages. Petit-Dutaillis 299-300 When Louis IX again engaged in a crusade (the Eighth Crusade), Alphonse again raised a large sum of money and accompanied his brother. Strayer 511 . This time, however, he did not return to France, dying while on his way back, probably at Savona in Italy, on 21 August 1271. His death without heirs raised some questions as to the succession to his lands. One possibility was that they should revert to the crown, another that they should be redistributed to his family. The latter was claimed by Charles of Anjou, but in 1283 Parlement decided that the County of Toulouse should revert to the crown, if there were no male heirs. Alfonso's wife Joan (who died five days after Alfonso) had attempted to dispose of some of her inherited lands in her will. Joan was the only surviving child and heiress of Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne, and Marquis of Provence, so under Provencal and French law, the lands should have gone to her nearest male relative. But, her will was invalidated by Parlement in 1274 One specific bequest in Alfonso's will, giving his wife's lands in the Comtat Venaissin to the Holy See, was allowed, and it became a Papal territory, a status that it retained until 1791. Ancestry Notes References English-language (translated by Lionel Butler and R. J. Adam) (translated by E. D. Hunt) French-language B. Ledain, (Poitiers, 1869) E. Bourarie, (Paris, 1870) A. Molinier, (Toulouse, 1880) A. Molinier, in the (Paris, 1894 and 1895).

Alphonse,_Count_of_Poitiers |@lemmatized coat:1 arm:1 per:1 pale:1 azure:1 semé:2 de:1 li:1 france:6 ancient:1 dimidiating:1 gules:1 castle:1 castile:4 alfonso:6 alphonse:5 november:1 august:3 count:4 poitou:4 toulouse:8 ii:1 son:1 louis:8 viii:1 king:4 blanche:3 young:1 brother:6 ix:5 old:1 charles:3 sicily:1 treaty:2 paris:5 stipulate:1 marry:2 joan:3 daughter:1 raymond:2 vii:2 fawtier:1 term:1 father:2 receive:1 appanage:2 auvergne:2 win:1 battle:1 taillebourg:1 saintonge:1 war:2 revolt:1 ally:1 henry:2 iii:2 england:2 take:3 part:2 two:1 crusade:6 st:1 seventh:1 eighth:2 first:3 raise:3 large:2 sum:2 substantial:1 force:1 arrive:1 damietta:1 october:1 town:2 already:1 capture:1 strayer:3 sail:1 home:1 law:3 die:3 away:1 go:2 directly:1 possession:1 hallam:2 resistance:1 accession:1 suppress:1 help:1 mother:2 act:1 regent:2 absence:1 county:2 since:1 join:1 death:2 joint:1 anjou:3 return:2 time:2 great:1 campaign:1 negotiation:1 lead:1 recognize:1 loss:1 continental:1 territory:2 include:1 normandy:1 maine:1 exchange:1 withdraw:1 support:1 english:2 rebel:1 main:1 work:2 estate:2 repair:1 evil:1 albigensian:1 make:1 attempt:2 administrative:1 centralization:1 thus:1 prepare:1 way:2 union:1 crown:3 charter:1 know:1 alphonsine:1 grant:1 riom:1 become:2 code:1 public:1 honest:1 moderate:1 protect:1 middle:1 class:1 exaction:1 noble:1 exercise:1 happy:1 influence:1 upon:1 south:1 spite:1 naturally:1 despotic:1 character:1 continual:1 press:1 need:1 money:2 note:2 order:1 record:1 local:1 expulsion:1 jew:1 aside:1 stay:1 primarily:1 govern:1 official:2 inspector:1 review:1 constant:1 stream:1 message:1 petit:1 dutaillis:1 engage:1 accompany:1 however:1 back:1 probably:1 savona:1 italy:1 without:1 heir:2 question:1 succession:1 land:4 one:2 possibility:1 revert:2 another:1 redistribute:1 family:1 latter:1 claim:1 parlement:2 decide:1 male:2 wife:2 five:1 day:1 dispose:1 inherited:1 surviving:1 child:1 heiress:1 duke:1 narbonne:1 marquis:1 provence:1 provencal:1 french:2 near:1 relative:1 invalidate:1 specific:1 bequest:1 give:1 comtat:1 venaissin:1 holy:1 see:1 allow:1 papal:1 status:1 retain:1 ancestry:1 reference:1 language:2 translate:2 lionel:1 butler:1 r:1 j:1 adam:1 e:2 hunt:1 b:1 ledain:1 poitier:1 bourarie:1 molinier:2 |@bigram coat_arm:1 blanche_castile:3

Medicine

The ancient Greek symbol today associated with medicine the world over: the rod of Asclepius with its encoiled serpent. The World Health Organization, the Royal Society of Medicine, the American Medical and Osteopathic Associations, the British and the Australian Medical Associations are some of the bodies that incorporate it in their insignia Medicine is the art and science of healing. It encompasses a range of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Contemporary medicine applies health science, biomedical research, and medical technology to diagnose and treat injury and disease, typically through medication, surgery, or some other form of therapy. The word medicine is derived from the Latin ars medicina, meaning the art of healing. Etymology: Latin: medicina, from ars medicina "the medical art," from medicus "physician."(Etym.Online) Cf. mederi "to heal," etym. "know the best course for," from PIE base *med- "to measure, limit. Cf. Greek medos "counsel, plan," Avestan vi-mad "physician") "Medicine" Online Etymology Dictionary Though medical technology and clinical expertise are pivotal to contemporary medicine, successful face-to-face relief of actual suffering continues to require the application of ordinary human feeling and compassion, known in English as bedside manner. History The ancient Sumerian god Ningishzida, the patron of medicine, accompanied by two gryphons. It is the oldest known image of a caduceus, the symbol of medicine in the form of two snakes coiled around an axial rod. It dates from more than 4000 years ago Prehistoric medicine incorporated plants (herbalism), animal parts and minerals. In many cases these materials were used ritually as magical substances by priests, shamans, or medicine men. Well-known spiritual systems include animism (the notion of inanimate objects having spirits), spiritualism (an appeal to gods or communion with ancestor spirits); shamanism (the vesting of an individual with mystic powers); and divination (magically obtaining the truth). The field of medical anthropology studies the various prehistoric medical systems and their interaction with society. Early records on medicine have been discovered from early Ayurvedic medicine in the Indian subcontinent, ancient Egyptian medicine, traditional Chinese medicine and ancient Greek medicine. Early Greek doctor Hippocrates, who is also called the Father of Medicine, Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus., U.S. National Library of Medicine The father of modern medicine: the first research of the physical factor of tetanus, European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases and Galen laid a foundation for later developments in a rational approach to medicine. After the fall of Rome and the onset of the Dark Ages, Islamic physicians made major medical breakthroughs, supported by the translation of Hippocrates' and Galen's works into Arabic. Notable Islamic medical pioneers include polymath Avicenna, who is also called the Father of Modern Medicine, Medical Practitioners Abulcasis, the father of surgery, Avenzoar, the father of experimental surgery, Ibn al-Nafis, the father of circulatory physiology, and Averroes. Rhazes, who is called the father of pediatrics, first disproved the Grecian theory of humorism, which nevertheless remained influential in Western medieval medicine. While major developments in medicine were occurring in the Islamic world during the medieval period, the Western world remained dependent upon the Greco-Roman theory of humorism, which led to questionable treatments such as bloodletting. Islamic medicine and medieval medicine collided during the crusades, with Islamic doctors receiving mixed impressions. As the medieval ages ended, important early figures in medicine emerged in Europe, including Gabriele Falloppio and William Harvey. An ancient Greek patient gets medical treatment: this aryballos (circa 480-470 BCE, now in Paris's Louvre Museum, probably contained healing oil The major shift in medical thinking was the gradual rejection, especially during the Black Death in the 14th and 15th centuries, of what may be called the 'traditional authority' approach to science and medicine. This was the notion that because some prominent person in the past said something must be so, then that was the way it was, and anything one observed to the contrary was an anomaly (which was paralleled by a similar shift in European society in general - see Copernicus's rejection of Ptolemy's theories on astronomy). Physicians like Ibn al-Nafis and Vesalius led the way in improving upon or indeed rejecting the theories of great authorities from the past (such as Hippocrates, and Galen), many of whose theories were in time discredited. Modern scientific biomedical research (where results are testable and reproducible) began to replace early Western traditions based on herbalism, the Greek "four humours" and other such pre-modern notions. The modern era really began with Robert Koch's discoveries around 1880 of the transmission of disease by bacteria, and then the discovery of antibiotics around 1900. The post-18th century modernity period brought more groundbreaking researchers from Europe. From Germany and Austrian doctors such as Rudolf Virchow, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, Karl Landsteiner, and Otto Loewi) made contributions. In the United Kingdom Alexander Fleming, Joseph Lister, Francis Crick, and Florence Nightingale are considered important. From New Zealand and Australia came Maurice Wilkins, Howard Florey, and Frank Macfarlane Burnet). In the United States William Williams Keen, Harvey Cushing, William Coley, James D. Watson, Italy (Salvador Luria), Switzerland (Alexandre Yersin), Japan (Kitasato Shibasaburo), and France (Jean-Martin Charcot, Claude Bernard, Paul Broca and others did significant work. Russian (Nikolai Korotkov also did significant work, as did Sir William Osler and Harvey Cushing. The Persian philosopher Avicenna, sometimes called the Father of Modern Medicine. His Canon of Medicine, written during the Islamic Golden Age, probed the nature of contagious disease, identified anaesthetics and medicinal drugs, introduced quarantine and experimental medicine, and even the idea of clinical trials As science and technology developed, medicine became more reliant upon medications. Pharmacology developed from herbalism and many drugs are still derived from plants (atropine, ephedrine, warfarin, aspirin, digoxin, vinca alkaloids, taxol, hyoscine, etc). The first of these was arsphenamine / Salvarsan discovered by Paul Ehrlich in 1908 after he observed that bacteria took up toxic dyes that human cells did not. Vaccines were discovered by Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur. The first major class of antibiotics was the sulfa drugs, derived by French chemists originally from azo dyes. This has become increasingly sophisticated; modern biotechnology allows drugs targeted towards specific physiological processes to be developed, sometimes designed for compatibility with the body to reduce side-effects. Genomics and knowledge of human genetics is having some influence on medicine, as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now been identified, and the development of techniques in molecular biology and genetics are influencing medical technology, practice and decision-making. Evidence-based medicine is a contemporary movement to establish the most effective algorithms of practice (ways of doing things) through the use of systematic reviews and meta-analysis. The movement is facilitated by the modern global information science, which allows all evidence to be collected and analyzed according to standard protocols which are then disseminated to healthcare providers. One problem with this 'best practice' approach is that it could be seen to stifle novel approaches to treatment. The Cochrane Collaboration leads this movement. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews revealed that, according to two readers, 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, and 22.5% concluded positive effect. Clinical practice Girl having her head bandaged, as depicted by the portraitist Henriette Browne (1829-1901) In clinical practice doctors personally assess patients in order to diagnose, treat, and prevent disease using clinical judgment. The doctor-patient relationship typically begins an interaction with an examination of the patient's medical history and medical record, followed a medical interview and a physical examination. Basic diagnostic medical devices (e.g. stethoscope, tongue depressor) are typically used. After examination for signs and interviewing for symptoms, the doctor may order medical tests (e.g. blood tests), take a biopsy, or prescribe pharmaceutical drugs or other therapies. Differential diagnosis methods help to rule out conditions based on the information provided. During the encounter, properly informing the patient of all relevant facts is an important part of the relationship and the development of trust. The medical encounter is then documented in the medical record, which is a legal document in many jurisdictions. Followups may be shorter but follow the same general procedure. The components of the medical interview and encounter are: Chief complaint (cc): the reason for the current medical visit. These are the 'symptoms.' They are in the patient's own words and are recorded along with the duration of each one. Also called 'presenting complaint.' History of present illness / complaint (HPI): the chronological order of events of symptoms and further clarification of each symptom. Current activity: occupation, hobbies, what the patient actually does. Medications (Rx): what drugs the patient takes including prescribed, over-the-counter, and home remedies, as well as alternative and herbal medicines/herbal remedies. Allergies are also recorded. Past medical history (PMH/PMHx): concurrent medical problems, past hospitalizations and operations, injuries, past infectious diseases and/or vaccinations, history of known allergies. Social history (SH): birthplace, residences, marital history, social and economic status, habits (including diet, medications, tobacco, alcohol). Family history (FH): listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient. A family tree is sometimes used. Review of systems (ROS) or systems inquiry: a set of additional questions to ask which may be missed on HPI: a general enquiry (have you noticed any weight loss, change in sleep quality, fevers, lumps and bumps? etc), followed by questions on the body's main organ systems (heart, lungs, digestive tract, urinary tract, etc). The physical examination is the examination of the patient looking for signs of disease ('Symptoms' are what the patient volunteers, 'Signs' are what the healthcare provider detects by examination). The healthcare provider uses the senses of sight, hearing, touch, and sometimes smell (taste has been made redundant by the availability of modern lab tests). Four chief methods are used: inspection, palpation (feel), percussion (tap to determine resonance characteristics), and auscultation (listen); smelling may be useful (e.g. infection, uremia, diabetic ketoacidosis). The clinical examination involves study of: Vital signs including height, weight, body temperature, blood pressure, pulse, respiration rate, hemoglobin oxygen saturation General appearance of the patient and specific indicators of disease (nutritional status, presence of jaundice, pallor or clubbing) Skin Head, eye, ear, nose, and throat (HEENT) Cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels) Respiratory (large airways and lungs) Abdomen and rectum Genitalia (and pregnancy if the patient is or could be pregnant) Musculoskeletal (including spine and extremities) Neurological (consciousness, awareness, brain, vision, cranial nerves, spinal cord and peripheral nerves) Psychiatric (orientation, mental state, evidence of abnormal perception or thought) Laboratory and imaging studies results may be obtained, if necessary. The medical decision-making (MDM) process involves analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses (the differential diagnoses), along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient's problem. The treatment plan may include ordering additional laboratory tests and studies, starting therapy, referral to a specialist, or watchful observation. Follow-up may be advised. This process is used by primary care providers as well as specialists. It may take only a few minutes if the problem is simple and straightforward. On the other hand, it may take weeks in a patient who has been hospitalized with bizarre symptoms or multi-system problems, with involvement by several specialists. On subsequent visits, the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history, symptoms, physical findings, and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations. Institutions Contemporary medicine is in general conducted within health care systems. Legal, credentialing and financing frameworks are established by individual governments, augmented on occasion by international organizations. The characteristics of any given health care system have significant impact on the way medical care is provided. Advanced industrial countries (with the exception of the United States) Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations, Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science, 2004-01-14 and many developing countries provide medical services though a system of universal health care which aims to guarantee care for all through a single-payer health care system, or compulsory private or co-operative health insurance. This is intended to ensure that the entire population has access to medical care on the basis of need rather than ability to pay. Delivery may be via private medical practices or by state-owned hospitals and clinics, or by charities; most commonly by a combination of all three. Most tribal societies, but also some communist countries (e.g. China) and the United States, Insuring America's Health: Principles and Recommendations, Institute of Medicine at the National Academies of Science, 2004-01-14 provide no guarantee of health care for the population as a whole. In such societies, health care is available to those that can afford to pay for it or have self insured it (either directly or as part of an employment contract) or who may be covered by care financed by the government or tribe directly. Modern drug ampoules Transparency of information is another factor defining a delivery system. Access to information on conditions, treatments, quality and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients / consumers and therefore the incentives of medical professionals. While the US health care system has come under fire for lack of openness, new legislation may encourage greater openness. There is a perceived tension between the need for transparency on the one hand and such issues as patient confidentiality and the possible exploitation of information for commercial gain on the other. Delivery Provision of medical care is classified into primary, secondary and tertiary care categories. Primary care medical services are provided by physicians, physician assistants, or other health professionals who have first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care. These occur in physician offices, clinics, nursing homes, schools, home visits and other places close to patients. About 90% of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider. These include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses, preventive care and health education for all ages and both sexes. Secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient. Referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists. These include both ambulatory care and inpatient services, emergency rooms, intensive care medicine, surgery services, physical therapy, labor and delivery, endoscopy units, diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services, hospice centers, etc. Some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting. Tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals. These include trauma centers, burn treatment centers, advanced neonatology unit services, organ transplants, high-risk pregnancy, radiation oncology, etc. Modern medical care also depends on information - still delivered in many health care settings on paper records, but increasingly nowadays by electronic means. Branches Working together as an interdisciplinary team, many highly-trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care. Examples include: nurses, emergency medical technicians and paramedics, laboratory scientists, (pharmacy, pharmacists), (physiotherapy,physiotherapists), respiratory therapists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, radiographers, dietitians and bioengineers. The scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields. Dentistry, while a separate discipline from medicine, is considered a medical field. A patient admitted to hospital is usually under the care of a specific team based on their main presenting problem, e.g. the Cardiology team, who then may interact with other specialties, e.g. surgical, radiology, to help diagnose or treat the main problem or any subsequent complications / developments. Physicians have many specializations and subspecializations into certain branches of medicine, which are listed below. There are variations from country to country regarding which specialties certain subspecialties are in. The main branches of medicine used in Wikipedia are: Basic sciences of medicine; this is what every physician is educated in, and some return to in biomedical research. Medical specialties interdisciplinary fields, where different medical specialties are mixed to function in certain occasions. Basic sciences Anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms. In contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy, cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms, especially the structure and function of their chemical components. Biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense. A knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning, evaluation, and interpretation of medical research. It is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence-based medicine. Cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells. Embryology is the study of the early development of organisms. Epidemiology is the study of the demographics of disease processes, and includes, but is not limited to, the study of epidemics. Genetics is the study of genes, and their role in biological inheritance. Histology is the study of the structures of biological tissues by light microscopy, electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Immunology is the study of the immune system, which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in humans, for example. Medical physics is the study of the applications of physics principles in medicine. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, including protozoa, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Neuroscience includes those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system. A main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain and spinal cord. Nutrition science (theoretical focus) and dietetics (practical focus) is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease, especially in determining an optimal diet. Medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, weight and eating disorders, allergies, malnutrition, and neoplastic diseases. Pathology as a science is the study of disease—the causes, course, progression and resolution thereof. Pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions. Physiology is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechanisms. Toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons. Specialties In the broadest meaning of "medicine", there are many different specialties. However, within medical circles, there are two broad categories: "Medicine" and "Surgery." "Medicine" refers to the practice of non-operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in "Internal Medicine". "Surgery" refers to the practice of operative medicine, and most subspecialties in this area require preliminary training in "General Surgery." There are some specialties of medicine that do not fit into either of these categories, such as radiology, pathology, or anesthesia, and those are also discussed further below. Surgery Surgical specialties employ operative treatment. In addition, surgeons must decide when an operation is necessary, and also treat many non-surgical issues, particularly in the surgical intensive care unit (SICU), where a variety of critical issues arise. Surgery has many subspecialties, e.g. general surgery,Transplant surgery, trauma surgery, cardiovascular surgery, neurosurgery, maxillofacial surgery, orthopedic surgery, otolaryngology, plastic surgery, oncologic surgery, vascular surgery, and pediatric surgery. In some centers, anesthesiology is part of the division of surgery (for logistical and planning purposes), although it is not a surgical discipline. Surgical training in the U.S. requires a minimum of five years of residency after medical school. Sub-specialties of surgery often require seven or more years. In addition, fellowships can last an additional one to three years. Because post-residency fellowships can be competitive, many trainees devote two additional years to research. Thus in some cases surgical training will not finish until more than a decade after medical school. Furthermore, surgical training can be very difficult and time consuming. A surgical resident's average work week is approximately 75 hours. Some subspecialties of surgery, such as neurosurgery, require even longer hours, and utilize an extension to the 80 hour regulated work week, allowing up to 88 hours per week. Many surgical programs still exceed this work hour limit. Attempts to limit the amount of hours worked has been difficult because of the large volume of patients who require surgical care, the limited amount of resources (including a shortage of people willing to enter into surgery as a career), Dorsey, et al., "Influence of Controllable Lifestyle on Recent Trends in Specialty Choice by US Medical Students the need to perform long operations and still provide care to all pre- and post-operative patients, and the need to provide constant coverage in the OR, ICU, and ER. 'Medicine' as a specialty Internal medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis, management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases, either of one particular organ system or of the body as a whole. According to some sources, an emphasis on internal structures is implied. In North America, specialists in internal medicine are commonly called "internists". Elsewhere, especially in Commonwealth nations, such specialists are often called physicians. These terms, internist or physician (in the narrow sense, common outside North America), generally exclude practitioners of gynecology and obstetrics, pathology, psychiatry, and especially surgery and its subspecialities. Because their patients are often seriously ill or require complex investigations, internists do much of their work in hospitals. Formerly, many internists were not subspecialized; such general physicians would see any complex nonsurgical problem; this style of practice has become much less common. In modern urban practice, most internists are subspecialists: that is, they generally limit their medical practice to problems of one organ system or to one particular area of medical knowledge. For example, gastroenterologists and nephrologists specialize respectively in diseases of the gut and the kidneys. In Commonwealth and some other countries, specialist pediatricians and geriatricians are also described as specialist physicians (or internists) who have subspecialized by age of patient rather than by organ system. Elsewhere, especially in North America, general pediatrics is often a form of Primary care. There are many subspecialities (or subdisciplines) of internal medicine: Cardiology Critical care medicine Dermatology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Geriatrics Hematology Hepatology Infectious diseases Nephrology Neurology Oncology Pediatrics Pulmonology Rheumatology Sleep medicine Training in internal medicine (as opposed to surgical training), varies considerably across the world: see the articles on Medical education and Physician for more details. In North America, it requires at least three years of residency training after medical school, which can then be followed by a one to three year fellowship in the subspecialties listed above. In general, resident work hours in medicine are less than those in surgery, averaging about 60 hours per week in the USA. Diagnostic specialties Clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services which apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients. In the United States these services are supervised by a pathologist. The personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff who do not hold medical degrees, but who usually hold an undergraduate medical technology degree, who actually perform the tests, assays, and procedures needed for providing the specific services. Subspecialties include Transfusion medicine, Cellular pathology, Clinical chemistry, Hematology, Clinical microbiology and Clinical immunology. Pathology as a medical specialty is the branch of medicine that deals with the study of diseases and the morphologic, physiologic changes produced by them. As a diagnostic specialty, pathology can be considered the basis of modern scientific medical knowledge and plays a large role in evidence-based medicine. Many modern molecular tests such as flow cytometry, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry, cytogenetics, gene rearrangements studies and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) fall within the territory of pathology. Radiology is concerned with imaging of the human body, e.g. by x-rays, x-ray computed tomography, ultrasonography, and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography. Clinical neurophysiology is concerned with testing the physiology or function of the central and peripheral aspects of the nervous system. These kinds of tests can be divided into recordings of: (1) spontaneous or continuously running electrical activity, or (2) stimulus evoked responses. Subspecialties include Electroencephalography, Electromyography, Evoked potential, Nerve conduction study and Polysomnography. Sometimes these tests are performed by techs without a medical degree, but the interpretation of these tests is done by a medical professional. Other Following are some selected fields of medical specialties that don't directly fit into any of the above mentioned groups. Ophthalmology exclusively concerned with the eye and ocular adnexa, combining conservative and surgical therapy. Dermatology is concerned with the skin and its diseases. In the UK, dermatology is a subspecialty of general medicine. Emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life-threatening conditions, including trauma, surgical, medical, pediatric, and psychiatric emergencies. Obstetrics and gynecology (often abbreviated as OB/GYN (American English) or Obs & Gynae (British English)) are concerned respectively with childbirth and the female reproductive and associated organs. Reproductive medicine and fertility medicine are generally practiced by gynecological specialists. Palliative care is a relatively modern branch of clinical medicine that deals with pain and symptom relief and emotional support in patients with terminal illnesses including cancer and heart failure. Pediatrics (AE) or paediatrics (BE) is devoted to the care of infants, children, and adolescents. Like internal medicine, there are many pediatric subspecialties for specific age ranges, organ systems, disease classes, and sites of care delivery. Physical medicine and rehabilitation (or physiatry) is concerned with functional improvement after injury, illness, or congenital disorders. Psychiatry is the branch of medicine concerned with the bio-psycho-social study of the etiology, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of cognitive, perceptual, emotional and behavioral disorders. Related non-medical fields include psychotherapy and clinical psychology. Interdisciplinary fields Interdisciplinary sub-specialties of medicine are: General practice, family practice, family medicine or primary care is, in many countries, the first port-of-call for patients with non-emergency medical problems. Many other health science fields, e.g. dietetics Bioethics is a field of study which concerns the relationship between biology, science, medicine and ethics, philosophy and theology. Biomedical Engineering is a field dealing with the application of engineering principles to medical practice. Clinical pharmacology is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients. Conservation medicine studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. Also known as ecological medicine, environmental medicine, or medical geology. Disaster medicine deals with medical aspects of emergency preparedness, disaster mitigation and management. Diving medicine (or hyperbaric medicine) is the prevention and treatment of diving-related problems. Evolutionary medicine is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory. Forensic medicine deals with medical questions in legal context, such as determination of the time and cause of death. Gender-based medicine studies the biological and physiological differences between the human sexes and how that affects differences in disease. Hospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients. Physicians whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists in the USA. Medical humanities includes the humanities (literature, philosophy, ethics, history and religion), social science (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their application to medical education and practice. Medical informatics, medical computer science, medical information and eHealth are relatively recent fields that deal with the application of computers and information technology to medicine. Nosology is the classification of diseases for various purposes. Nosokinetics is the science/subject of measuring and modelling the process of care in health and social care systems. Pain management (also called pain medicine) is the medical discipline concerned with the relief of pain. Preventive medicine is the branch of medicine concerned with preventing disease. Community health or public health is an aspect of health services concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. Occupational medicine'''s principal role is the provision of health advice to organizations and individuals to ensure that the highest standards of health and safety at work can be achieved and maintained.Aerospace medicine deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel.Osteopathic medicine, a branch of the U.S. medical profession.Pharmacogenomics is a form of individualized medicine.Sports medicine deals with the treatment and preventive care of athletes, amateur and professional. The team includes specialty physicians and surgeons, athletic trainers, physical therapists, coaches, other personnel, and, of course, the athlete.Therapeutics is the field, more commonly referenced in earlier periods of history, of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health .Travel medicine or emporiatrics deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly different environments.Urgent care focuses on delivery of unscheduled, walk-in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to require care in an emergency department. In some jurisdictions this function is combined with the emergency room. Veterinary medicine; veterinarians apply similar techniques as physicians to the care of animals. Wilderness medicine; its about practice of medicine in the wild ,where conventional medical facilities may not be available. Education Painted by Toulouse-Lautrec in the year of his own death: an examination in the Paris faculty of medicine, 1901 Medical education and training varies around the world. It typically involves entry level education at a university medical school, followed by a period of supervised practice or internship, and/or residency. This can be followed by postgraduate vocational training. A variety of teaching methods have been employed in medical education, still itself a focus of active research. Many regulatory authorities require continuing medical education, since knowledge, techniques and medical technology continue to evolve at a rapid rate. Legal controls In most countries, it is a legal requirement for a medical doctor to be licensed or registered. In general, this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization, which may ask the applicant to pass exams. This restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to physicians that are trained and qualified by national standards. It is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain. While the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in "evidence based", Western, or Hippocratic Medicine, they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health. Doctors who are negligent or intentionally harmful in their care of patients can face charges of medical malpractice and be subject to civil, criminal, or professional sanctions. Statute of limitations There is only a limited time during which a medical malpractice lawsuit can be filed. In the USA and Canada, these statute of limitations laws vary between 1 and 4 years (see Medical malpractice for more information). Controversy The Catholic social theorist Ivan Illich subjected contemporary western medicine to detailed attack in his Medical Nemesis'', first published in 1975. He argued that the medicalization in recent decades of so many of life's vicissitudes — birth and death, for example — frequently caused more harm than good and rendered many people in effect lifelong patients. He marshalled a body of statistics to show what he considered the shocking extent of post-operative side-effects and drug-induced illness in advanced industrial society. He was the first to introduce to a wider public the notion of iatrogenesis. Others have since voiced similar views, but none so trenchantly, perhaps, as Illich. Through the course of the twentieth century, healthcare providers focused increasingly on the technology that was enabling them to make dramatic improvements in patients' health. The ensuing development of a more mechanistic, detached practice, with the perception of an attendant loss of patient-focused care, known as the medical model of health, led to criticisms that medicine was neglecting a holistic model. The inability of modern medicine to properly address some common complaints continues to prompt many people to seek support from alternative medicine. Although most alternative approaches lack scientific validation, some, notably acupuncture for some conditions and certain herbs, are backed by evidence. The HealthWatch Award 2005: Prof. Edzard Ernst, ''Complementary medicine: the good the bad and the ugly.'.' Retrieved 5 August 2006. Medical errors and overmedication are also the focus of complaints and negative coverage. Practitioners of human factors engineering believe that there is much that medicine may usefully gain by emulating concepts in aviation safety, where it is recognized that it is dangerous to place too much responsibility on one "superhuman" individual and expect him or her not to make errors. Reporting systems and checking mechanisms are becoming more common in identifying sources of error and improving practice. Clinical versus statistical, algorithmic diagnostic methods were famously examined in psychiatric practice in a 1954 book by Paul E. Meehl, which controversially found statistical methods superior. A 2000 meta-analysis comparing these methods in both psychology and medicine found that statistical or "mechanical" diagnostic methods were generally, although not always, superior. Disparities in quality of care given are often an additional cause of controversy. For example, elderly mentally ill patients received poorer care during hospitalization in a 2008 study. Rural poor African-American men were used in a study of syphilis that denied them basic medical care. See also List of causes of death by rate List of diseases List of disorders List of important publications in medicine Medical Encyclopedia Medical equipment Medical literature Pharmacognosy Timeline of medicine and medical technology References External links be-x-old:Мэдыцына

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Bobby_Charlton

Sir Robert "Bobby" Charlton CBE (born 11 October 1937 in Ashington, Northumberland) is a former English professional football player who won the World Cup and was named the European Footballer of the Year in 1966. He played almost all of his club football at Manchester United, where he became renowned for his attacking instincts from midfield and his ferocious long-range shot. He began to play for United's first team in 1956, and over the next two seasons gained a regular place in the team, during which time he survived the Munich air disaster of 1958. After helping United to win the Football League in 1965, he won a World Cup medal with England in 1966 and another Football League title with United the following year. In 1968, he captained the Manchester United team that won the European Cup, scoring two goals in the final to help his team be the first English side to win the competition. He has scored more goals for England and United than any other player. He had made more appearances for Manchester United than any other player (758 ), a record superseded by Ryan Giggs at the Champions League Final in Moscow on 21 May 2008. Charlton is considered by many to be one of the greatest English players of all time. At the time of his retirement from the England team in 1970, he was the nation's most capped player, having turned out 106 times at the highest level. This record has since been eclipsed by Bobby Moore, Peter Shilton and then David Beckham. He left Manchester United in 1973, becoming player-manager of Preston North End, but decided management was not for him and left after one season. After assuming the post of the director at Wigan Athletic F.C. for some time, he became a member of Manchester United's board of directors in 1984 and remains one as of May 2009. He set goalscoring records for both the England team and Manchester United, with both records remaining intact some 35 years after the end of his playing career. He was knighted in 1994. Early life Charlton was related to several professional footballers on his mother's side of the family: his uncles were Jack Milburn (Leeds United and Bradford City), George Milburn (Leeds United and Chesterfield), Jim Milburn (Leeds United and Bradford City) and Stan Milburn (Chesterfield, Leicester City and Rochdale), and legendary Newcastle United and England footballer Jackie Milburn was his mother's cousin. However, Charlton credits much of the early development of his career to his grandfather Tanner and his mother Cissie. Charlton 2007, p.19 His elder brother, Jack, initially went to work applying to the Police Service before also becoming a professional footballer with Leeds United. On 9 February 1953, Bedlington Grammar School pupil Charlton was spotted playing for East Northumberland schools by Manchester United chief scout Joe Armstrong. Charlton went on to play for England schoolboys, and despite offers that followed from several other clubs, the 15-year-old signed with United on 1 January 1953, along with Wilf McGuinness, also aged 15. Initially his mother was reluctant to let him commit to an insecure football career, so he began an apprenticeship as an electrical engineer; however he went on to turn professional in October 1954. Charlton 2007, p.62 Charlton became one of the famed Busby Babes, the collection of precociously talented footballers who emerged through the system at Old Trafford in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s as Matt Busby set about a long-term plan of rebuilding the club after the Second World War. He worked his way through the pecking order of teams, scoring regularly for the youth and reserve sides before he was handed his first team debut against Charlton Athletic in October 1956. At the same time, he was doing his National Service in Shrewsbury, where Busby had advised him to apply as it meant he could still play for United at the weekend. Also doing his army service in Shrewsbury at the same time was his United team-mate Duncan Edwards. Charlton 2007, p.70 Joining the first team Charlton played 14 times for United in that first season. They won the League championship but were denied the 20th century's first "double" when they controversially lost the 1957 FA Cup final to Aston Villa. Charlton, still only 19, was selected for the game which saw United goalkeeper Ray Wood carried off with a broken cheekbone after a clash with Villa centre forward Peter McParland. Though Charlton was a candidate to go in goal to replace Wood (in the days before substitutes, and certainly before goalkeeping substitutes), it was team-mate Jackie Blanchflower who ended up between the posts. Charlton was an established player by the time the next season was fully underway, which saw United, as current League champions, become the first English team to compete in the European Cup. Previously, the Football Association had scorned the competition but United made progress, reaching the semi finals where they lost to holders Real Madrid. Their reputation was further enhanced the next season as they reached the quarter finals to play Red Star Belgrade. In the first leg at home, United won 2–1. The return in Yugoslavia saw Charlton score twice as United stormed 3–0 ahead although the hosts came back to earn a 3–3 draw. However, United maintained their aggregate lead to reach the last four and were in jubilant mood as they left to catch their flight home, thinking of an important League game against Wolves at the weekend. Munich The aeroplane which took the United players and staff home from Zemun Airport needed to stop in Munich to refuel. This was carried out in worsening weather, and by the time the refuelling was complete and the call was made for the passengers to re-board the aircraft, the wintry showers had taken hold and snow had settled heavily on the runway and around the airport. There were two aborted take-offs which led to concern on board, and the passengers were advised by a stewardess to disembark again while a minor technical error was fixed. Back in the airport terminal for barely ten minutes, the call to reconvene on the plane came and a number of passengers began to feel nervous. Charlton and team-mate Dennis Viollet swapped places with Tommy Taylor and David Pegg, who had decided they would be safer at the back of the plane. The plane clipped the fence at the end of the runway on its next take-off attempt and a wing tore through a nearby house, setting it alight. The wing and part of the tail came off and hit a tree and a wooden hut spinning along the snow until coming to a halt. It had been cut in half. Charlton, strapped into his seat, had fallen out of the cabin and when United goalkeeper Harry Gregg (who had somehow got through a hole in the plane unscathed and begun a one-man rescue mission) found him, he thought he was dead. That said, he grabbed both Charlton and Viollet by their trouser waistbands and dragged them away from the plane in constant fear that it would explode. Gregg returned to the plane to try to help the appallingly injured Busby and Blanchflower and when he turned around again, he was relieved to see that Charlton and Viollet, both of whom he had presumed to be dead, had got out of their detached seats and were looking into the wreckage. Charlton suffered cuts to his head and severe shock and was in hospital for a week. Seven of his team-mates had perished at the scene, including Taylor and Pegg, with whom he and Viollet had swapped seats prior to the fatal take-off attempt. Club captain Roger Byrne was also killed, along with Mark Jones, Billy Whelan, Eddie Colman and Geoff Bent. Duncan Edwards died a fortnight later from the injuries he had sustained. In total, the crash claimed 23 lives. Initially, ice on the wings was blamed, but another inquiry later declared that slush on the runway had made the plane's facility to achieve a safe take-off almost impossible. Charlton was the first survivor to leave hospital. He arrived back in Manchester on 14 February 1958, eight days after the crash. As he convalesced, he spent some time kicking a ball around with local youths and a famous photograph of him was taken. He was still only 20 years old, yet now there was an expectation that he would help with the rebuilding of the club as Busby's aides tried to piece together what remained of the season. Not unexpectedly, United went out of the European Cup to Milan in the semi finals to a 5–2 aggregate defeat and fell behind in the League. Yet somehow they reached their second consecutive FA Cup final and the big day at Wembley coincided with Busby's return to work. His words could not inspire a side which was playing on a nation's goodwill and sentiment, and Nat Lofthouse scored twice to give a professional Bolton Wanderers side a 2–0 win. Hero of United & England At the same time, Charlton's emergence as the country's leading young football talent was completed when he was called up to join the England squad for a British Home Championship game against Scotland at Hampden Park. It would be the start of a long, prolific, record-breaking and globally respected career for his country. Charlton was handed his debut as England romped home 4–0, with the new player gaining even more admirers after scoring a magnificent thumping volley dispatched with authority after a cross by the left winger Tom Finney. He scored both goals in his second game as England beat Portugal 2–1 in a friendly at Wembley; and overcame obvious nerves on a return to Belgrade to play his third match against Yugoslavia. Unfortunately, England lost that game 5–0 and Charlton played poorly. He was selected for the squad which competed at the 1958 World Cup in Sweden, but didn't kick a ball, something at which critics expressed surprise and bewilderment, even allowing for his lacklustre performance in Belgrade. Charlton began to settle back into his footballing life with Manchester United and England and enhanced his reputation as a scorer of great goals as well as a great goalscorer – rarely is a player regarded as both. In 1959 he scored a hat-trick as England demolished the USA 8–1; and his second England hat-trick came in 1961 in an 8–0 thrashing of Mexico. He also managed to score in every British Home Championship tournament he played in except 1963 in an association with the tournament which lasted from 1958 to 1970 and included 16 goals and ten tournament victories (five shared). He played in qualifiers for the 1962 World Cup in Chile against Luxembourg and Portugal and was named in the squad for the finals themselves. His goal in the 3–1 group win over Argentina was his 25th for England in just 38 appearances, but his individual success could not be replicated by that of the team, which was eliminated in the quarter final by Brazil, who went on to win the tournament. Further success with Manchester United came at last when they beat Leicester City 3–1 in the FA Cup final of 1963, with Charlton finally earning a winners' medal in his third final. Busby's post-Munich rebuilding programme continued to progress with two League championships within three seasons, with United taking the title in 1965 and 1967. In between, there was the pressing matter for Charlton of the 1966 World Cup for which England, as hosts, had not needed to qualify. A successful (though trophyless) season with Manchester United had seen him take the honours of Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year and European Footballer Of The Year into the competition. By now, England were coached by Alf Ramsey who had managed to gain sole control of the recruitment and team selection procedure from the committee-based call-up system which had lasted up to the previous World Cup. Ramsey had already cleared out some of the older players who had been reliant on the loyalty of the committee for their continued selection – it was well known that decorum on the pitch at club level had been just as big a factor in playing for England as ability and form. Luckily for Charlton, he had all three. Charlton had remained the attacking midfield player, with Ramsey planning to build a team around him. He was still scoring and creating freely and as the tournament was about to start, he was expected to become one of its stars and galvanise his established reputation as one of the world's best footballers. 1966: World Cup Glory England drew the opening game of the tournament 0–0 with Uruguay, and Charlton scored the first goal in the 2–0 win over Mexico. This was followed by an identical scoreline against France, allowing England to qualify for the quarter finals. England defeated Argentina 1–0 – the game was the only one in which Charlton received a caution – and faced Portugal in the semi finals. This turned out to be one of Charlton's most important games for England. Charlton opened the scoring with a crisp side-footed finish after a run by Roger Hunt had forced the Portuguese goalkeeper out of his net; his second was a sweetly struck shot after a run and pull-back from Geoff Hurst. Charlton and Hunt were now England's joint-highest scorers in the tournament with three each, and a final against West Germany beckoned. The final turned out to be one of Charlton's quieter days; he and a young Franz Beckenbauer effectively marked each other out of the game. England won 4–2 after extra time. European glory Charlton's next England game was his 75th as England beat Northern Ireland; 2 caps later and he had become England's second most-capped player, behind the veteran Billy Wright, who was approaching his 100th appearance when Charlton was starting out and ended with 105 caps. In 1968, Manchester United reached the European Cup final, ten seasons after Munich. Even though other clubs had taken part in the competition in the intervening decade, the team which got to this final was still the first English side to do so. On a highly emotional night at Wembley, Charlton scored twice in a 4–1 win after extra time against Benfica and, as United captain, lifted the trophy. Weeks later he scored his 45th England goal in a friendly against Sweden, breaking the record of 44 set the previous year by Jimmy Greaves. He was then in the England team which made it to the semi-finals of the 1968 European Championships where they were knocked out by Yugoslavia in Florence but he did not play in the semi-final itself having picked up an injury in a friendly against Sweden. England defeated the Soviet Union 2–0 in the third place match. In 1969, Charlton was awarded the OBE for services to football. More milestones followed as he won his 100th England cap on 21 April 1970 against Northern Ireland, and was made captain by Ramsey for the occasion. Inevitably, he scored. This was his 48th goal for his country – his 49th and final goal would follow a month later in a 4–0 win over Colombia during a warm-up tour for the 1970 World Cup, designed to get the players adapted to altitude conditions. Charlton's inevitable selection by Ramsey for the tournament made him the first – and still, to date, only – England player to feature in four World Cup squads. World Cup 1970 and retirement from playing football England began the tournament with two victories in the group stages, plus a memorable defeat against Brazil. Charlton played in all three, though was substituted for Alan Ball in the final game of the group against Czechoslovakia. Ramsey, confident of victory and progress to the quarter final, wanted Charlton to rest. England duly reached the last eight where they again faced West Germany. Charlton controlled the midfield and suppressed Beckenbauer's runs from deep as England coasted to a 2–0 lead. Beckenbauer pulled a goal back for the Germans and Ramsey replaced the ageing and tired Charlton with Colin Bell who further tested the German keeper Maier and also provided a great cross for Geoff Hurst who uncharacteristically squandered the chance. West Germany, who had a habit of coming back from behind, eventually scored twice – a back header from Uwe Seeler made it 2–2 after which Gerd Müller's goal finished England off. England were out and, after a record 106 caps and 49 goals, Charlton decided to end his international career at the age of 32. On the flight home from Mexico, he asked Ramsey not to consider him again. His brother Jack, two years his senior but 71 caps his junior, did likewise. Despite populist opinion the substitution did not change the game as Beckenbauer had scored before Charlton left the field, hence Charlton had failed to cancel out the German. Charlton himself conceded that the substitution did not affect the game in a BBC documentary. His caps record lasted until 1973 when Bobby Moore overtook him, and Charlton currently lies fourth in the all-time England appearances list behind Moore,David Beckham, and Peter Shilton, whose own England career began in the first game after Charlton's had ended. As of October 2008, Charlton's goalscoring record still stands. During the early 1970s, Manchester United were no longer competing among the top teams in England, and at several stages were battling against relegation. At times, Charlton was not on speaking terms with United's other superstars George Best and Denis Law, and Best refused to play in Charlton's testimonial match against Celtic, saying that "to do so would be hypocritical". Charlton left Manchester United at the end of the 1972–73 season, having scored 249 goals and set a club record of 758 appearances, a record which Ryan Giggs broke in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final. His goalscoring record, however, is still intact by a comfortable margin. His last game was against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge, and before the game the BBC cameras for Match Of The Day captured the Chelsea chairman handing Charlton a commemorative cigarette case. International goals Scores and results list England's goal tally first. Date Venue Opponent Result Competition Scored 19 April 1958 Hampden Park, Glasgow 4–0 British Home Championship 1 (1) 7 May 1958 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–1 Friendly match 2 (3) 4 October 1958 Windsor Park, Belfast 3–3 British Home Championship 2 (5) 22 October 1958 Empire Stadium, Wembley 5–0 Friendly match 1 (6) 11 April 1959 Empire Stadium, Wembley 1–0 British Home Championship 1 (7) 6 May 1959 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–2 Friendly match 1 (8) 28 May 1959 Wrigley Field, Los Angeles 8–1 Friendly match 3 (11) 28 October 1959 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–3 Friendly match 1 (12) 9 April 1960 Hampden Park, Glasgow 1–1 British Home Championship 1 (13) 8 October 1960 Windsor Park, Belfast 5–2 British Home Championship 1 (14) 15 October 1960 Stade Municipal, Luxembourg-Ville 9–0 1962 FIFA World Cup qualification 3 (17) 23 November 1960 Empire Stadium, Wembley 5–1 British Home Championship 1 (18) 10 May 1961 Empire Stadium, Wembley 8–0 Friendly match 3 (21) 28 September 1961 Highbury, London 4–1 1962 FIFA World Cup qualification 2 (23) 22 November 1961 Empire Stadium, Wembley 1–1 British Home Championship 1 (24) 2 June 1962 Estadio El Teniente, Rancagua 3–1 1962 FIFA World Cup 1 (25) 29 May 1963 Tehelné Pole, Bratislava 4–2 Friendly match 1 (26) 2 June 1963 Zentralstadion, Leipzig 2–1 Friendly match 1 (27) 5 June 1963 St. Jakob-Park, Basel 8–1 Friendly match 3 (30) 12 October 1963 Ninian Park, Cardiff 4–0 British Home Championship 1 (31) 17 May 1964 Estádio Nacional, Lisbon 4–3 Friendly match 1 (32) 27 May 1964 Downing Stadium, New York 10–0 Friendly match 1 (33) 11 April 1965 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–2 British Home Championship 1 (34) 20 October 1965 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–3 Friendly match 1 (35) 2 April 1966 Hampden Park, Glasgow 4–3 British Home Championship 1 (36) 4 May 1966 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–0 Friendly match 1 (37) 16 June 1966 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–0 1966 FIFA World Cup 1 (38) 26 July 1966 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–1 1966 FIFA World Cup 2 (40) 16 November 1966 Empire Stadium, Wembley 5–1 British Home Championship 1 (41) 21 October 1967 Ninian Park, Cardiff 2–1 British Home Championship 1 (42) 22 November 1967 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–0 British Home Championship 1 (43) 3 April 1968 Empire Stadium, Wembley 1–0 <small>1968 UEFA European Football Championship qualifier<small> 1 (44) 22 May 1968 Empire Stadium, Wembley 3–1 Friendly match 1 (45) 8 June 1968 Stadio Olimpico, Rome 2–0 1968 UEFA European Football Championship 1 (46) 7 May 1969 Empire Stadium, Wembley 2–1 British Home Championship 1 (47) 21 April 1970 Empire Stadium, Wembley 3–1 British Home Championship 1 (48) 20 May 1970 Estadio El Campín, Bogotá 4–0 Friendly match 1 (49) After playing football Charlton became the player-manager of Preston North End in 1973, taking United and England team-mate Nobby Stiles with him as player-coach, but his first season ended in relegation and although he began playing again he left at the end of the following season. However, he was awarded the CBE that year and began a casual association with the BBC for punditry on matches which continued for many years. In 1975 he scored 18 goals in 31 appearances for Waterford United. He then joined Wigan Athletic as a director, and was briefly caretaker manager there. He then spent some time playing in South Africa. He also built up several businesses in areas such as travel, jewellery and hampers, and ran soccer schools in the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia and China. In 1984, he was invited to become member of the board of directors at Manchester United, partly because of his football knowledge and partly because it was felt that the club needed a "name" on the board after the resignation of Sir Matt Busby. He remains a director of Manchester United as of 2008. Charlton led the Manchester United side in receiving the European Cup in 2008, 50 years on from the Munich air disaster – Charlton initially refused UEFA President Michel Platini's offer of a winners' medal, having not participated in the match itself. Charlton was also at Barcelona in 1999 when Manchester won the Champions League during that year. Charlton helped to promote Manchester's bids for the 1996 and 2000 Olympic Games and the 2002 Commonwealth Games, England's bid for the 2006 FIFA World Cup and London's successful bid for the 2012 Olympic Games. He received a knighthood in 1994 and was an Inaugural Inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002. On accepting his award he commented “I’m really proud to be included in the National Football Museum’s Hall of Fame. It’s a great honour. If you look at the names included I have to say I couldn’t argue with them. They are all great players and people I would love to have played with." He is also the (honorary) president of the National Football Museum, an organisation about which he said “I can’t think of a better Museum anywhere in the world.”. On 14 December 2008 Charlton was awarded the prestigious BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award. On 2 March 2009, Charlton was given the freedom of the city of Manchester, stating "I'm just so proud, it's fantastic. It's a great city. I have always been very proud of it." Charlton is involved in a number of charitable activities including fund raising for cancer hospitals PNHS Press release, Sir Bobby's Hole In One For Christie's , and the land mine clearance charity Mines Advisory Group Yean Maly, CAMBODIA: Sir Bobby Charlton and Tony Hawk fly in, . Miscellaneous & family life He met his wife, Norma Ball, at an ice rink in Manchester and they married in 1961. They have two daughters – Suzanne and Andrea. Suzanne was a weather forecaster for the BBC during the 1990s. In 2007, while publicising his forthcoming autobiography, Charlton revealed that he has a long-running feud with his brother, Jack. They have rarely spoken since a falling-out between his wife Norma and his mother Cissie (who died in 1996 at the age of 84). It would appear that the two brothers are again on speaking terms, as Jack presented him with his BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award on 14 December 2008. He said that he was 'knocked out' as he was presented the award by his brother. He received a standing ovation as he stood waiting for his prize. Charlton began to lose his hair in the early 1960s and for a while refused to go bald gracefully, sporting a style of stranded, isolated hairs which would often flop around when he was running before he would tug them back over his head. This style is today still known as "the Bobby Charlton Comb-Over". In the Runrig hit Hearthammer, the narrator recalls his past, both good and bad times of his life, and he sings "The Di Stefano twists, the Charlton goals" thus paying homage to two of the successful players of this time. Statistics |- |1956–57 |rowspan="17"|Manchester United |rowspan="17"|First Division |14||10||2||1||||||1||1||17||12 |- |1957–58 |21||8||7||5||||||2||3||30||16 |- |1958–59 |38||29||1||0||||||||||39||29 |- |1959–60 |37||18||3||3||||||||||40||21 |- |1960–61 |39||21||3||0||||||||||42||21 |- |1961–62 |37||8||6||2||||||||||43||10 |- |1962–63 |28||7||6||2||||||||||34||9 |- |1963–64 |40||9||7||2||||||6||4||54||15 |- |1964–65 |41||10||7||0||||||11||8||59||18 |- |1965–66 |38||16||7||0||||||8||2||54||18 |- |1966–67 |42||12||2||0||||||||||44||12 |- |1967–68 |41||15||2||1||||||9||2||53||20 |- |1968–69 |32||5||6||0||||||8||2||48||7 |- |1969–70 |40||12||9||1||8||1||||||57||14 |- |1970–71 |42||5||2||0||6||3||||||50||8 |- |1971–72 |40||8||7||2||6||2||||||53||12 |- |1972–73 |36||6||1||0||4||1||||||41||7 |- !colspan=3|Total !606!!199!!78!!19!!24!!7!!45!!22!!758!!249 |- |1974–75 |Preston North End |Third Division |38||8||4||1||3||1||||||45||10 |- !colspan=3|Total !38!!8!!4!!1!!3!!1!!!!!!45!!10 |- |1975–76 |Waterford United |Football League of Ireland | || || || || || || || ||31||18 |- !colspan=3|Total ! !! !! !! !! !! !! !! !!31!!18 644||207||82||20||27||8||45||22||803||259 ||||||||||||||||31||18 ||||||||||||||||834||277 |} Honours International World Cup (1): 1966 British Championship (10, 5 shared): 1958 (shared), 1959 (shared), 1960 (shared), 1961, 1964 (shared), 1965, 1966, 1968, 1969, 1970 (shared) Club First Division (3): 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67 FA Cup (1): 1962–63 European Cup (1): 1967–68 Charity Shield (4): 1956, 1957, 1965, 1967 Individual European Player of the Year: winner: 1966; 2nd: 1967, 1968 FWA Footballer of the Year: 1966 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award: 2008 References Notes External links FIFA World Cup: Bobby Charlton International Football Hall of Fame: Bobby Charlton Planet World Cup: Bobby Charlton Manchester United Legends: Bobby Charlton English Football Hall of Fame Profile Bobby Charlton Manchester United photo 1, biography & stats at sporting-heroes.net Bobby Charlton Manchester United photo 2, biography & stats at sporting-heroes.net A fans view: Bobby Charlton - legend

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Beowulf

The first page of the Beowulf manuscript Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem of unknown authorship, dating as recorded in the Nowell Codex manuscript from between the 8th to the early 11th century, set in Denmark and Sweden. Commonly cited as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature, Beowulf has been the subject of much scholarly study, theory, speculation, discourse, and, at 3182 lines, has been noted for its length. In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel, who has been attacking the mead hall in Denmark called Heorot and its inhabitants; Grendel's mother; and an unnamed dragon. The last battle takes place later in life, after returning to Geatland (modern southern Sweden), where Beowulf has become king. In the final battle, Beowulf is fatally wounded. After his death he is buried in a tumulus in Geatland by his retainers. The most common English pronunciation of "Beowulf" is , but the "ēo" in Bēowulf was a diphthong, and a more authentic pronunciation would be with two syllables and the stress on the first (). The Beowulf manuscript Provenance The earliest known owner is the 16th century scholar Laurence Nowell, after whom the manuscript is named, though its official designation is Cotton Vitellius A.XV because it was one of Robert Bruce Cotton's holdings in the middle of the 17th century. Kevin Kiernan argues that Nowell most likely acquired it through William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley in 1563, when Nowell entered Cecil’s household as a tutor to his ward, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford. It suffered damage in the Cotton Library fire at Ashburnham House in 1731. Since then, parts of the manuscript have crumbled along with many of the letters. Rebinding efforts, though saving the manuscript from much degeneration, have nonetheless covered up other letters of the poem, causing further loss. Kevin Kiernan, Professor of English at the University of Kentucky is foremost in the computer digitization and preservation of the manuscript (the Electronic Beowulf Project ), using fiber optic backlighting to further reveal lost letters of the poem. The poem is known only from a single manuscript, which is estimated to date from close to AD 1000. Kiernan has argued from an examination of the manuscript that it was the author's own working copy. He dated the work to the reign of Canute the Great. The poem appears in what is today called the Beowulf manuscript or Nowell Codex (British Library MS Cotton Vitellius A.xv), along with other works. The earliest extant reference to the first foliation of the Nowell Codex was made sometime between 1628 and 1650 by Franciscus Junius (the younger). . The owner of the codex before Nowell remains a mystery. The Reverend Thomas Smith and Humfrey Wanley undertook the task of cataloguing the Cotton library, in which the Nowell Codex was held. Smith’s catalogue appeared in 1696, and Humfrey’s in 1705. The Beowulf manuscript itself is mentioned in name for the first time in a letter in 1700 between George Hickes, Wanley’s assistant, and Wanley. In the letter to Wanley, Hickes responds to an apparent charge against Smith, made by Wanley, that Smith had failed to mention the Beowulf script when cataloguing Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XV. Hickes replies to Wanley "I can find nothing yet of Beowulph." It has been theorized that Smith failed to mention the Beowulf manuscript because of his reliance on previous catalogues or because either he had no idea how to describe it or because it was temporarily out of the codex. The two scribes The Beowulf manuscript was transcribed from an original by two scribes: Scribe A and Scribe B, the latter of whom took over at line 1939. The handwriting of the two scribes is ill-matched. The script of Scribe B is archaic. Both scribes proofread their work, and Scribe B even proofread the work of Scribe A. The work of Scribe B bears a striking resemblance to the work of the first scribe of the Blickling homilies, and so much so that it is believed they derive from the same scriptorium. In fact, for at least a century, some scholars have maintained that the description of Grendel’s mere in Beowulf was borrowed from St.Paul’s vision of Hell in Homily 16 of the Blickling homilies. Transcription Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin made the first transcriptions of the manuscript in 1786 and published the results in 1815, working under a historical research commission of the Danish government. He made one himself, and had another done by a professional copyist who knew no Anglo-Saxon. Since that time, the manuscript has crumbled further, and the Thorkelin transcripts remain a prized secondary source for Beowulf scholars. The recovery of at least 2000 letters can be attributed to these transcripts. Their accuracy has been called into question, however (e.g., by Chauncey Brewster Tinker in The Translations of Beowulf Gutenberg copy of Chauncey Brewster Tinker's The Translations of Beowulf (1903) , a comprehensive survey of 19th century translations and editions of Beowulf), and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more readable in Thorkelin's time is unclear. Authorship and date Beowulf was written in England, but is set in Scandinavia. It has variously been dated to between the 8th and the early 11th centuries. It is an epic poem told in historical perspective; a story of epic events and of great people of a heroic past. Although its author is unknown, its themes and subject matter are generally believed to have been formed through oral tradition, the passing down of stories by scops (Old English poets) and it is considered partly historical. Opinion differs as to whether the composition of the poem is contemporary with its transcription, or whether the poem was composed at an earlier time and orally transmitted for many years, and then transcribed at a later date. Lord felt strongly the manuscript represents the transcription of a performance, though likely taken at more than one sitting. Kiernan (1996) argues on the basis of paleographical and codicological evidence, that the poem is contemporary with the manuscript. Kiernan’s reasoning has in part to do with the much-discussed political context of the poem: it has been held by most scholars, until recently, that the poem was composed in the 8th century or earlier on the assumption that a poem eliciting sympathy for the Danes could not have been composed by Anglo-Saxons during the Viking Ages of the 9th and 10th centuries. Kiernan argues against an 8th century provenance because this would still require that the poem be transmitted by Anglo-Saxons through the Viking Age, holds that the paleographic and codicological evidence encourages the belief that Beowulf is an 11th century composite poem, and states that Scribe A and Scribe B are the authors and that Scribe B is the more poignant of the two. The 11th century date is due to scholars who argue that, rather than transcription of the tale from the oral tradition by a literate monk, Beowulf reflects an original interpretation of the story by the poet. Debate over oral tradition The question of whether Beowulf was passed down through the oral tradition prior to its present manuscript form has been the subject of much debate, and involves more than the mere matter of how it was composed. Rather, given the implications of the theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition and Oral tradition, the question concerns how the poem is to be understood, and what sorts of interpretations are legitimate. Scholarly discussion about Beowulf in the context of the oral tradition was extremely active throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The debate might be framed starkly as follows: on the one hand, we can hypothesize a poem put together from various tales concerning the hero (the Grendel episode, the Grendel's mother story, and the firedrake narrative). These fragments would be held for many years in tradition, and learned by apprenticeship from one generation of illiterate poets to the next. The poem is composed orally and extemporaneously, and the archive of tradition on which it draws is oral, pagan, Germanic, heroic, and tribal. On the other hand, one might posit a poem which is composed by a literate scribe, who acquired literacy by way of learning Latin (and absorbing Latinate culture and ways of thinking), probably a monk and therefore profoundly Christian in outlook. On this view, the pagan references would be a sort of decorative archaizing. "The Christian Coloring of Beowulf" (F. A. Blackburn, PMLA 12 (1897), 210-17 "The Pagan Coloring of Beowulf" (Larry D. Benson, in Old English Poetry: fifteen essays. R.P. Creed, ed. Providence (Rhode Island): Brown University Press, 1967: 193-213). M. H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt assert in their introduction to Beowulf in the Norton Anthology of English Literature that, "The poet was reviving the heroic language, style, and pagan world of ancient Germanic oral poetry [...] it is now widely believed that Beowulf is the work of a single poet who was a Christian and that his poem reflects well-established Christian tradition." However, scholars such as D.K. Crowne, have proposed the idea that the poem was passed down from reciter to reciter under the theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition, which hypothesizes that epic poems were (at least to some extent) improvised by whoever was reciting them. In his landmark work, The Singer of Tales, Albert Lord refers to the work of Francis P. Magoun and others, saying “the documentation is complete, thorough and accurate. This exhaustive analysis is in itself sufficient to prove that Beowulf was composed orally.” Lord, Albert. The Singer of Tales. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960. p. 198 Examination of Beowulf and other Anglo-Saxon poetry for evidence of oral-formulaic composition has met with mixed response. While "themes" (inherited narrative subunits for representing familiar classes of event, such as the "arming the hero", Zumthor, Paul. “The Text and the Voice.” Transl. Marilyn C. Englehardt. New Literary History 16(1984):67-92 or the particularly well-studied "hero on the beach" theme Crowne, D.K. 'The Hero on the Beach: An Example of Composition by Theme in Anglo-Saxon Poetry', Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, 61 (1960) ) do exist across Anglo-Saxon and other Germanic works, some scholars conclude that Anglo-Saxon poetry is a mix of oral-formulaic and literate patterns, arguing that the poems both were composed on a word-by-word basis and followed larger formulae and patterns. Benson, Larry D. "The Literary Character of Anglo-Saxon Formulaic Poetry" Publications of the Modern Language Association 81 (1966):, 334-41 Larry Benson argued that the interpretation of Beowulf as an entirely formulaic work diminishes the ability of the reader to analyze the poem in a unified manner, and with due attention to the poet’s creativity. Instead, he proposed that other pieces of Germanic literature contain "kernels of tradition" from which Beowulf borrows and expands upon. Benson, Larry. "The Originality of Beowulf" The Interpretation of Narrative. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970. pp 1-44 Foley, John M. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1985. p.126 A few years later, Ann Watts published a book in which she argued against the imperfect application of traditional, Homeric, oral-formulaic theory to Anglo-Saxon poetry. She also argued that the two traditions are not comparable and should not be regarded as such. Watts, Ann C. The Lyre and the Harp: A Comparative Reconsideration of Oral Tradition in Homer and Old English Epic Poetry. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1969. p. 124, et al. Thomas Gardner agreed with Watts, in a paper published four years later which argued that the Beowulf text is of too varied a nature to be completely constructed from formulae and themes. Gardner, Thomas. "How Free Was the Beowulf Poet?" Modern Philology. 1973. p. 111-27. John Miles Foley held, specifically with reference to the “Beowulf” debate, Foley, John Miles. The Theory of Oral Composition: History and Methodology. Bloomington: IUP, 1991, pp. 109 f. that while comparative work was both necessary and valid, it must be conducted with a view to the particularities of a given tradition; Foley argued with a view to developments of oral traditional theory that do not assume, or depend upon, finally unverifiable assumptions about composition, and that discard the oral/literate dichotomy focused on composition in favor of a more fluid continuum of traditionality and textuality. Bäuml, Franz H. "Varieties and Consequences of Medieval Literacy and Illiteracy", in Speculum, Vol. 55, No. 2 (1980), pp.243-244. Havelock, Eric Alfred. Preface to Plato. Vol. 1 A History of the Greek Mind, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA: 1963. Curschmann, Michael. The Concept of the Formula as an Impediment to Our Understanding of Medieval Oral Poetry” Medievalia et Humanistica, n.s. 8(1977):63-76 Zumthor, Paul. “The Text and the Voice.” Transl. Marilyn C. Englehardt. New Literary History 16(1984):67-92 Finally, in the view of Ursula Schaefer, the question of whether the poem was "oral" or "literate" becomes something of a red herring. Schaefer, Ursula. Vokalitat: Altenglische Dichtung zwischen Mundlichkeit und Schriftlichkeit, ScriptOralia 39 (Tubingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1992 In this model, the poem is created, and is interpretable, within both noetic horizons. Schaefer’s concept of "vocality" offers neither a compromise nor a synthesis of the views which see the poem as on the one hand Germanic, pagan, and oral and on the other Latin-derived, Christian, and literate, but, as stated by Monika Otter: "…a 'tertium quid', a modality that participates in both oral and literate culture yet also has a logic and aesthetic of its own." http://serials.infomotions.com/bmcr/bmcr-9404-otter-vokalitaet.txt Dialect The poem mixes the West Saxon and Anglian dialects of Old English, though they are predominantly West Saxon, as are other Old English poems copied at the time. There is a bewildering array of linguistic forms in the Beowulf manuscript. It is this fact that leads some scholars to believe that Beowulf has endured a long and complicated transmission through all the main dialect areas. The poem retains a complicated mix of the following dialectical forms: Mercian, Northumbrian, Early West Saxon, Kentish and Late West Saxon. Kiernan argues that it is virtually impossible that there could have been a process of transmission which could have sustained the complicated mix of forms from dialect to dialect, from generation to generation, and from scribe to scribe. Kiernan’s argument against an early dating based on a mixture of forms is long and involved, but he concludes that the mixture of forms points to a comparatively straightforward history of the written text as: ... an 11th-century MS; an 11-th century Mercian poet using an archaic poetic dialect; and 11th-century standard literary dialect that contained early and late, cross-dialectical forms, and admitted spelling variations; and (perhaps) two 11th century scribes following slightly different spelling practices. According to this view, Beowulf can largely be seen to be the product of antiquarian interests and that it tells readers more about "an 11th century Anglo-Saxon’s notions about Denmark, and its pre-history, than it does about the age of Bede and a 7th or 8th century Anglo-Saxon’s notions about his ancestors’ homeland." Form and metre An Old English poem such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. Anglo-Saxon poets typically used alliterative verse, a form of verse that uses alliteration as the principal structuring device to unify lines of poetry, as opposed to other devices such as rhyme. This is a technique in which the first half of the line (the a-verse) is linked to the second half (the b-verse) through similarity in initial sound. In addition, the two halves are divided by a caesura: The poet has a choice of epithets or formulae to use in order to fulfill the alliteration. When speaking or reading Old English poetry, it is important to remember for alliterative purposes that many of the letters are not pronounced the same way as they are in modern English. The letter "h", for example, is always pronounced (Hroðgar: HROTH-gar), and the digraph "cg" is pronounced like "dj", as in the word "edge". Both f and s vary in pronunciation depending on their phonetic environment. Between vowels or voiced consonants, they are voiced, sounding like modern v and z, respectively. Otherwise they are unvoiced, like modern f in "fat" and s in "sat". Some letters which are no longer found in modern English, such as thorn, þ, and eth, ð — representing both pronunciations of modern English "th", as in "cloth" and "clothe" — are used extensively both in the original manuscript and in modern English editions. The voicing of these characters echoes that of f and s. Both are voiced (as in "clothe") between other voiced sounds: oðer, laþleas, suþern. Otherwise they are unvoiced (as in "cloth"): þunor, suð, soþfæst. Kennings are also a significant technique in Beowulf. They are evocative poetic descriptions of everyday things, often created to fill the alliterative requirements of the metre. For example, a poet might call the sea the "swan-road" or the "whale-road"; a king might be called a "ring-giver." There are many kennings in Beowulf, and the device is typical of much of classic poetry in Old English, which is heavily formulaic. The poem also makes extensive use of elided metaphors. "Beowulf." Norton Anthology of English Literature. ed. Stephen Greenblatt. 8th Edition. pp 29-33 J.R.R. Tolkien argued that the poem is an elegy. Story The main protagonist, whose name is Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, comes to the aid of Hroðgar, the king of the Danes, whose great hall, Heorot, is plagued by the monster Grendel. Beowulf kills both Grendel and Grendel's mother, the latter with a magical sword. Later in his life, Beowulf is himself king of the Geats, and finds his realm terrorized by a dragon whose treasure had been stolen from his hoard in a burial mound. He attacked the dragon with his thegns, but they did not succeed. Beowulf decided to follow the dragon into its lair, at Earnanæs, but only his young Swedish relative Wiglaf dared join him. Beowulf finally slays the dragon, but is mortally wounded. He is buried in a tumulus by the sea. As an epic Beowulf is considered an epic poem in that the main character is a hero who travels great distances to prove his strength at impossible odds against supernatural demons and beasts. The poet who composed Beowulf, while objective in telling the tale, nonetheless utilizes a certain style to maintain excitement and adventure within the story. An elaborate history of characters and their lineages are spoken of, as well as their interactions with each other, debts owed and repaid, and deeds of valor. Historical background Ohthere's mound The events described in the poem take place in the late 5th century, after the Anglo-Saxons had begun migration and settlement in England, and before the beginning of the 7th century, a time when the Saxons were either newly arrived or in close contact with their fellow Germanic kinsmen in Scandinavia and Northern Germany. The poem could have been transmitted in England by people of Geatish origins. It has been suggested that Beowulf was first composed in the 7th century at Rendlesham in East Anglia, as Sutton Hoo also shows close connections with Scandinavia, and also that the East Anglian royal dynasty, the Wuffings, were descendants of the Geatish Wulfings. Others have associated this poem with the court of King Alfred, or with the court of King Canute. An approximation of the central regions of the tribes mentioned in Beowulf. The red area is Västergötland (the core region of Geatland), the yellow area is the territory ruled by the Wulfings, the pink area is the Danish territory. The green area is the land of the Swedes. The blue area represents the land of Jutes, while the orange area belongs to Frisians. For a more detailed discussion on the fragmented political situation of Scandinavia during the 6th century, see Scandza. The poem deals with legends, i.e., it was composed for entertainment and does not separate between fictional elements and real historic events, such as the raid by King Hygelac into Frisia, ca. 516. Scholars generally agree that many of the personalities of Beowulf also appear in Scandinavian sources, but this does not only concern people (e.g., Healfdene, Hroðgar, Halga, Hroðulf, Eadgils and Ohthere), but also clans (e.g., Scyldings, Scylfings and Wulfings) and some of the events (e.g., the Battle on the Ice of Lake Vänern). The Scandinavian sources are notably Ynglinga saga, Gesta Danorum, Hrólfr Kraki's saga and the Latin summary of the lost Skjöldunga saga. As far as Sweden is concerned, the dating of the events in the poem has been confirmed by archaeological excavations of the barrows indicated by Snorri Sturluson and by Swedish tradition as the graves of Ohthere (dated to c. 530) and his son Eadgils (dated to c. 575) in Uppland, Sweden. In Denmark, recent archaeological excavations at Lejre, where Scandinavian tradition located the seat of the Scyldings, i.e., Heorot, have revealed that a hall was built in the mid-6th century, exactly the time period of Beowulf. Three halls, each about 50 metres long, were found during the excavation. The majority view appears to be that people such as King Hroðgar and the Scyldings in Beowulf are based on real people in 6th century Scandinavia. Like the Finnsburg Fragment and several shorter surviving poems, Beowulf has consequently been used as a source of information about Scandinavian personalities such as Eadgils and Hygelac, and about continental Germanic personalities such as Offa, king of the continental Angles. Eadgils was buried at Uppsala, according to Snorri Sturluson. When Eadgils' mound (to the left) was excavated, in 1874, the finds supported Beowulf and the sagas. Nineteenth-century archeological evidence may confirm elements of the Beowulf story. Eadgils was buried at Uppsala, according to Snorri Sturluson. When Eadgils' mound (to the left in the photo) was excavated in 1874, the finds supported Beowulf and the sagas. They showed that a powerful man was buried in a large barrow, c 575, on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings. These remains include a Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets and a tafl game with Roman pawns of ivory. He was dressed in a costly suit made of Frankish cloth with golden threads, and he wore a belt with a costly buckle. There were four cameos from the Middle East which were probably part of a casket. This would have been a burial fitting a king who was famous for his wealth in Old Norse sources. Ongenþeow's barrow (to the right in the photo) has not been excavated. Structured by battles Jane Chance (Professor of English, Rice University) in her 1980 article "The Structural Unity of Beowulf: The Problem of Grendel's Mother" argued that there are two standard interpretations of the poem: one view which suggests a two-part structure (i.e., the poem is divided between Beowulf's battles with Grendel and with the dragon) and the other, a three-part structure (this interpretation argues that Beowulf's battle with Grendel's mother is structurally separate from his battle with Grendel). Chance stated that, "this view of the structure as two-part has generally prevailed since its inception in J. R. R. Tolkien's Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics in Proceedings of the British Academy 22 (1936)." In contrast, she argued that the three-part structure has become "increasingly popular." First battle: Grendel Beowulf is challenged by a Danish coast guard, Evelyn Paul (1911).Beowulf begins with the story of King Hroðgar, who built the great hall Heorot for his people. In it he, his wife Wealhþeow, and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating, until Grendel, an outcast from society who is angered by the singing, attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hroðgar's warriors while they sleep. But Grendel dares not touch the throne of Hroðgar, because he is described as protected by a powerful god. Hroðgar and his people, helpless against Grendel's attacks, abandon Heorot. Beowulf, a young warrior from Geatland, hears of Hroðgar's troubles and with his king's permission leaves his homeland to help Hroðgar. Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. After they fall asleep, Grendel enters the hall and attacks, devouring one of Beowulf's men. Beowulf, who bears no weapon as this would be an unfair advantage over the unarmed beast, has been feigning sleep and leaps up to clench Grendel's hand. The two battle until it seems as though the hall might collapse. Beowulf's retainers draw their swords and rush to his aid, but their blades can not pierce Grendel's skin as he is immune to human weapons. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body at the shoulder and Grendel runs to his home in the marshes to die. Second battle: Grendel's mother The next night, after celebrating Grendel's death, Hroðgar and his men sleep in Heorot. Grendel's mother appears and attacks the hall. She kills Hroðgar's most trusted warrior, Æschere, in revenge for Grendel's death. Hroðgar, Beowulf, and their men track Grendel's mother to her lair under a lake. Beowulf prepares himself for battle; he is presented with a sword, Hrunting, by a warrior called Unferth. After stipulating a number of conditions to Hroðgar in case of his death (including the taking in of his kinsmen and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf dives into the lake. He is swiftly detected and attacked by Grendel's mother. However, she is unable to harm Beowulf through his armor and drags him to the bottom of the lake. In a cavern containing Grendel's body and the remains of men that the two have killed, Grendel's mother and Beowulf engage in fierce combat. Grendel's mother at first prevails after Beowulf, finding that Hrunting cannot harm his foe, discards it in fury. Beowulf is again saved from his opponent's attack by his armor and, grasping a mighty sword from Grendel's mother's armory (which no other man could have hefted in battle), Beowulf beheads her. Traveling further into the lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse and severs his head. Beowulf then returns to the surface and to his men at the "ninth hour" (l. 1600, "nōn", about 3pm). He returns to Heorot, where Hroðgar gives Beowulf many gifts, including the sword Nægling, his family's heirloom. Third battle: The dragon A 1908 depiction of Beowulf fighting the unnamed dragon by J. R. Skelton.Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, late in Beowulf's life, a slave steals a golden cup from the lair of an unnamed dragon (sometimes referred to as Sua) at Earnaness. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but only one of the warriors, a brave young man named Wiglaf, stays to help Beowulf. Beowulf kills the dragon with Wiglaf's help, but dies from the wounds he has received. After he is cremated, Beowulf is buried in Geatland on a cliff overlooking the sea, where sailors are able to see his tumulus. The dragon's treasure is buried with him, in accordance with Beowulf's wishes, rather than distributed to his people. There is a curse associated with the hoard and it is also a Germanic and Scandinavian burial practice. Structured by funerals It is widely accepted that there are three funerals in Beowulf. These funerals help to outline changes in the poem’s story as well as the audiences’ views on earthly possessions, battle and glory. The funerals are also paired with the three battles described above. The three funerals share similarities regarding the offerings for the dead and the change in theme through the description of each funeral. Gale Owen-Crocker (Professor of Anglo-Saxon, University of Manchester) in The Four Funerals in Beowulf (2000) argues that a passage in the poem, commonly known as “The Lay of the Last Survivor” (lines 2247-66), is an additional funeral. The funerals are themselves involved in the ritual of hoarding: the deposition of sacrificial objects with both religious and socio-economic functions. . Scyld Scefing (lines 1–52) The first funeral in the poem is of Scyld Scefing (translated in some versions as "Shield Shiefson") the king of the Danes. The first fitt helps the poet illustrate the settings of the poem by introducing Hrothgar’s lineage. The funeral leads to the introduction of the hero, Beowulf and his confrontation with the first monster, Grendel. This passage begins by describing Scyld’s glory as a “scourge of many tribes, a wrecker of mead-benches.” Scyld’s glory and importance is shown by the prestigious death he obtains through his service as the king of the Danes. His importance is proven once more by the grand funeral given to him by his people: his funeral at sea with many weapons and treasures shows he was a great soldier and an even greater leader to his people. The poet introduces the concepts of a heroic society through Scyld. The possessions buried with the king are elaborately described to emphasize the importance of such items. The importance of these earthly possessions are then used to establish this dead king’s greatness in respect to the treasure. Scyld’s funeral helps the poet to elaborate on the glory of battle in a heroic society and how earthly possessions help define a person‘s importance. This funeral also helps the poet to develop the plot to lead into the confrontation between the protagonist, Beowulf, and the main antagonist, Grendel. Hildeburg’s kin (lines 1107–24) The second funeral in the poem is that of Hildeburg’s kin and is the second fitt of this poem. The funeral is sung in Heorot to celebrate Beowulf's victory over Grendel. It also signifies the beginning of the protagonist’s battle against Grendel's mother. The death of Hildeburg’s brother, son(s), and husband are the results of battle. The battle also leads to Scyld’s death and mirrors the use of funeral offerings for the dead with extravagant possessions. As with the Dane’s king, Hildeburg’s relatives are buried with their armor and gold to signify their importance. However, the relatives’ funeral differs from the first as it was a cremation ceremony. Furthermore, the poet focuses on the strong emotions of those who died while in battle. The gory details of “heads melt[ing], gashes [springing] open…and the blood [springing] out from the body’s wounds” describes war as a horrifying event instead of one of glory. Although the poet maintains the theme of possessions as important even in death, the glory of battle is challenged by the vicious nature of war. The second funeral displays different concepts from the first and a change of direction in the plot that leads to Beowulf's fight against Grendel's Mother. Lay of the Last Survivor (lines 2247–66) "The Lay of the Last Survivor" is arguably an addition to the other three funerals in Beowulf because of the striking similarities that define the importance of the other burials. The parallels that identify this passage with the other three funerals are the similar burial customs, changes in setting and plot, and changes of theme. The lament appears to be a funeral because of the Last Survivor’s description of burial offerings that are also found in the funerals of Scyld Scefing, Hildeburg’s kin, and Beowulf. The Last Survivor describes the many treasures left for the dead such as the weapons, armour and gold cups that have strong parallels to Scyld’s “well furbished ship…,bladed weapons and coats of mail,” Hildeburg’s Kin’s “blood-plastered coats of mail [and] boar-shaped helmets” and Beowulf's treasure from the dragon. An additional argument towards viewing this passage as a funeral lies in the statement, “tumbling hawk [and] swift horse” mentioned in the poem. This is an animal offering which was a burial custom during the era of the poem. Moreover this passage, like the other funerals, signifies changes in setting and plot. One can also argue that it is the 3rd part to the poem since it describes the settings during the time lapse for the final battle between Beowulf and the Dragon. The poet also describes death in battle as horrifying, a concept continued from the second part of the poem, through the Last Survivor’s eyes. Beowulf’s funeral (lines 3137–82) The fourth and final funeral of the poem is Beowulf's funeral. After the final battle against the dragon, Beowulf receives fatal wounds and dies. The greatness of Beowulf's life is demonstrated through this funeral, particularly through the many offerings of his people. In addition, the immense hoard of the dragon is buried with the hero. The poet also bestows on Beowulf more significance than the others through his description of the cremation. “Weohstan’s son(pause) commanded it be announced to many men(pause) that they should fetch from afar wood for the pyre.” for their leader’s funeral. The dragon’s remains are thrown into the sea, a parallel to Scyld’s burial in his ship. Beowulf's funeral is the fourth fitt of the poem and acts as an epilogue for the hero who is the, “most gracious and fair-minded, kindest to his people and keenest to win fame.” Interpretation and criticism In historical terms, the poem's characters would have been Norse pagans (the historical events of the poem took place before the Christianization of Scandinavia), yet the poem was recorded by Christian Anglo-Saxons who had largely converted from their native Anglo-Saxon paganism around the 7th century - both Anglo-Saxon paganism and Norse paganism share a common origin as both are forms of Germanic paganism. Beowulf thus depicts a Germanic warrior society, in which the relationship between the lord of the region and those who served under him was of paramount importance. M. H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt note that: Although Hrothgar and Beowulf are portrayed as morally upright and enlightened Pagans, they fully espouse and frequently affirm the values of Germanic heroic poetry. In the poetry depicting warrior society, the most important of human relationships was that which existed between the warrior - the thane - and his lord, a relationship based less on subordination of one man's will to another's than on mutual trust and respect. When a warrior vowed loyalty to his lord, he became not so much his servant as his voluntary companion, one who would take pride in defending him and fighting in his wars. In return, the lord was expected to take care of his thanes and to reward them richly for their valor. This society was strongly defined in terms of kinship; if someone was killed, it was the duty of surviving kin to exact revenge either with their own lives or through weregild, a payment of reparation. Stanley B. Greenfield (Professor of English, University of Oregon) has suggested that references to the human body throughout Beowulf emphasize the relative position of thanes to their lord. He argues that the term “shoulder-companion” could refer to both a physical arm as well as a thane (Aeschere) who was very valuable to his lord (Hrothgar). With Aeschere's death, Hrothgar turns to Beowulf as his new "arm." Greenfield, Stanley. (1989) Hero and Exile. London: Hambleton Press, 59 In addition Greenfield argues, the foot is used for the opposite effect, only appearing four times in the poem. It is used in conjunction with Unferth (a man described by Beowulf as weak, traitorous, and cowardly). Greenfield notes that Unferth is described as “at the king’s feet” (line 499). Unferth is also a member of the foot troops, who, throughout the story, do nothing and “generally serve as backdrops for more heroic action.” Greenfield, Stanley. (1989) Hero and Exile. London: Hambleton Press, 61 At the same time, Richard North (Professor of English, University College London) argues that the Beowulf poet interpreted "Danish myths in Christian form" (as the poem would have served as a form of entertainment for a Christian audience), and states: "As yet we are no closer to finding out why the first audience of Beowulf liked to hear stories about people routinely classified as damned. This question is pressing, given [...] that Anglo-Saxons saw the Danes as 'heathens' rather than as foreigners." Richard North, "The King's Soul: Danish Mythology in Beowulf," in the Origins of Beowulf: From Vergil to Wiglaf, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 195 Grendel's mother and Grendel are described as descendants of Cain, a fact which some scholars link to The Cain Tradition. Williams, David:"Cain and Beowulf: A Study in Secular Allegory. University of Toronto Press, 1982 Allen Cabaniss argues that there are several similarities between Beowulf and the Bible. First he argues, for similarities between Beowulf and Jesus: both are brave and selfless in overcoming the evils that oppose them, and both are kings that die to save their people. Cabaniss, A: "Liturgy and Literature", page 101. University of Alabama Press, 1970 Secondly, he argues for a similarity between part of The Book of Revelation (“shall have their part in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone: which is the second death." Revelation 21:8) and the home of Grendel and Grendel's mother. Cabaniss, A: "Liturgy and Literature", page 102. University of Alabama Press, 1970 Third, he compares the words of Jesus in the Gospel of Luke (when he pardons those who call for his crucifixion) to the portion of the poem when (before plunging into the perilous lake) Beowulf forgives his enemy, Unferth. Scholars disagree, however, as to the meaning and nature of the poem: is it a Christian work set in a Germanic pagan context? The questions suggests that the conversion from the Germanic pagan beliefs to Christian ones was a very slow and gradual process over several centuries, and it remains unclear the ultimate nature of the poem's message in respect to religious belief at the time it was written. Robert F. Yeager (Professor of literature, University of North Carolina at Asheville) notes the facts that form the basis for these questions: That the scribes of Cotton Vitellius A.XV were Christian is beyond doubt; and it is equally certain that Beowulf was composed in a Christianized England, since conversion took place in the sixth and seventh centuries. Yet the only Biblical references in Beowulf are to the Old Testament, and Christ is never mentioned. The poem is set in pagan times, and none of the characters is demonstrably Christian. In fact, when we are told what anyone in the poem believes, we learn that they are pagans. Beowulf’s own beliefs are not expressed explicitly. He offers eloquent prayers to a higher power, addressing himself to the “Father Almighty” or the “Wielder of All.” Were those the prayers of a pagan who used phrases the Christians subsequently appropriated? Or, did the poem’s author intend to see Beowulf as a Christian Ur-hero, symbolically refulgent with Christian virtues? Translations and glossaries In 1805 Sharon Turner translated selected verses into English. This was followed in 1814 by John Josias Conybeare who published an edition "in English paraphrase and Latin verse translation." In 1815, Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin published the first complete edition in Latin. Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig reviewed this edition in 1815 and created the first complete verse translation in Danish in 1820. In 1837, J. M. Kemble created an important literal translation in English. In 1895, William Morris & A. J. Wyatt's published the ninth English translation. During the early 20th century, Frederick Klaeber's Beowulf and The Fight at Finnsburg (which included the poem in Old English, an extensive glossary of Old English terms, and general background information) became the "central source used by graduate students for the study of the poem and by scholars and teachers as the basis of their translations." In 1999, Nobel Laureate Seamus Heaney's edition of Beowulf was published by Faber & Faber and includes "Northern Irish diction and turns of phrase." In 2000, W.W. Norton added it to the Norton Anthology of English Literature. The barrow of Skalunda, a barrow that was identified by the archaeologist Birger Nerman as Beowulf's burial mound. (Om *Birger Nermans och °Carl Otto Fasts idéer angående hednatima kungars gravplats.) Artistic adaptations Bibliography Dictionaries Cameron, Angus, et al. Dictionary of Old English (Microfiche). Toronto: Published for the Dictionary of Old English Project Centre for Medieval Studies University of Toronto by the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 1986/1994. Text Hypertext editions: Breeden, David. The Adventures of Beowulf: an Adaptation from the Old English. Klaeber, Frederick, ed. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. Third ed. Boston: Heath, 1950. Lancashire, Ian (for the Department of English, University of Toronto). Beowulf: Representative Poetry Online. McMaster University. Beowulf in hypertext. Northern Virginia Community College. Comparison of various English translations. Ringler, Dick (University of Wisconsin-Madison). Beowulf: A New Translation For Oral Delivery. Slade, Benjamin. Beowulf on Steorarume (Beowulf in Cyberspace). University of Virginia. Audio reading of Beowulf in Old English. Modern English translations: Alexander, Michael. Beowulf : A Verse Translation. Penguin Classics;. Rev. ed. London: New York, 2003. Anderson, Sarah M., Alan Sullivan, and Timothy Murphy. Beowulf. A Longman Cultural Edition;. New York: Pearson/Longman, 2004. Crossley-Holland, Kevin; Mitchell, Bruce. Beowulf: A New Translation. London: Macmillan, 1968 Donaldson, E. Talbot, and Nicholas Howe. Beowulf : A Prose Translation : Backgrounds and Contexts, Criticism. A Norton Critical Edition. 2nd ed. New York: Norton, 2002. Garmonsway, George Norman, et al. Beowulf and Its Analogues. (Revised 1980). ed. London: Dent, 1980. Gummere, Frances. 'Beowulf'. St Petersburg, Florida:Red and Black Publishers, 2007. ISBN 978-0-979-1813-1-3. Hudson, Marc. Beowulf. Introduction and notes by Martin Garrett. Ware: Wordsworth Classics, 2007. Heaney, Seamus Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001. ISBN 0-393-32097-9 Lehmann, Ruth. Beowulf : An Imitative Translation. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1988. R. M. Liuzza. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press, 2000. Osborn, Marijane. Annotated List of Beowulf Translations. Raffel, Burton. Beowulf. New York: Signet Classic, 1999. Ringler, Dick. Beowulf: A New Translation For Oral Delivery. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-87220-893-3 Swanton, Michael (ed.). Beowulf (Manchester Medieval Studies). Manchester: University, 1997. Szobody, Michelle L. & Justin Gerard (Illustrator) Beowulf, Book I: Grendel the Ghastly. Greenville, SC: Portland Studios, 2007. ISBN 9780979718304 Old English and modern English: I. Chickering, Howell D. Beowulf: a dual-language edition.New York: Anchor books ed., 1977,1989 ISBN 0-385-06213-3 Heaney, Seamus Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001. ISBN 0-393-32097-9 Old English with glossaries: Alexander, Michael. Beowulf: A Glossed Text. Second ed. Penguin: London, 2000. Jack, George. Beowulf : A Student Edition. Oxford University Press: New York, 1997. Klaeber, Frederick, ed. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. Third ed. Boston: Heath, 1950. Mitchell, Bruce, et al. Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Shorter Texts. Oxford, UK: Malden Ma., 1998. Porter, John. Beowulf: text and translation. Anglo-Saxon Books, 1991. Rebsamen, Frederick R. Beowulf : A Verse Translation. 1st ed. New York, NY: Icon Editions, 1991. Wrenn, C.L., ed. Beowulf with the Finnesburg Fragment. 3rd ed. London: Harrap, 1973. Audio Ringler, Dick & Norman Gilliland. Beowulf: The Complete Story—A Drama. Madison, WI: NEMO Productions, 2006. ISBN ISBN 0-9715093-2-8 P. Baker. Readings from Beowulf. In Old English. Scholarship M.H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt. Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Middle Ages (Vol 1), Beowulf. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000. 29-32. Alfano, Christine. "The Issue of Feminine Monstrosity: A Re-evaluation of Grendel's Mother." Comitatus 23 (1992): 1-16. Battaglia, Frank. "The Germanic Earth Goddess in Beowulf." Mankind Quarterly 31.4 (Summer 1991): 415-46. Chadwick, Nora K. "The Monsters and Beowulf." The Anglo-Saxons: Studies in Some Aspects of Their History. Ed. Peter ed Clemoes. London: Bowes & Bowes, 1959. 171-203. Chance, Jane. "The Structural Unity of Beowulf: The Problem of Grendel's Mother." New Readings on Women in Old English Literature. Eds. Helen Damico and Alexandra Hennessey Olsen. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. 248-61. Creed, Robert P. Reconstructing the Rhythm of Beowulf. Damico, Helen. Beowulf's Wealhtheow and the Valkyrie Tradition. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. Drout, Michael. Beowulf and the Critics. Gillam, Doreen M. "The Use of the Term 'Aeglaeca' in Beowulf at Lines 893 and 2592." Studia Germanica Gandensia 3 (1961): 145-69. Grigsby, John. Beowulf & Grendel: The Truth Behind England's Oldest Legend. Watkins Publishing. London, 2005. (2006 reprint edition distributed by Sterling Publishing). The Heroic Age, Issue 5. "Anthropological and Cultural Approaches to Beowulf." Summer/Autumn 2001. Horner, Shari. The Discourse of Enclosure: Representing Women in Old English Literature. New York: SUNY Press, 2001. Nicholson, Lewis E. (Ed.). An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism. (1963), Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-00006-9 North, Richard. Origins of Beowulf: From Vergil to Wiglaf. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Orchard, Andy. A Critical Companion to Beowulf. Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 2003. ---. Pride and Prodigies: Studies in the Monsters of the Beowulf-Manuscript. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003. Stanley, E.G. "Did Beowulf Commit 'Feaxfeng' against Grendel's Mother." Notes and Queries 23 (1976): 339-40. Tolkien, J.R.R.. Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics (1983). London: George Allen & Unwin. ISBN 0-0480-9019-0 Trask, Richard M. "Preface to the Poems: Beowulf and Judith: Epic Companions." Beowulf and Judith : Two Heroes. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1998. 11-14. References External links Comparison of various English translations Another translation comparison site, but with a broader range of material Resources for the Study of Beowulf - University of Nevada Beowulf resources Beowulf manuscript in The British Library's Online Gallery Beowulf Full text and audio. Full summary of Beowulf Simple Plot Summary of Beowulf - At Literapedia — 1910 Translation by Francis B. Gummere be-x-old:Бэавульф

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Louis_Pasteur

Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist born in Dole. He is best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of disease. His experiments supported the germ theory of disease, also reducing mortality from puerperal fever (childbed), and he created the first vaccine for rabies. He was best known to the general public for inventing a method to stop milk and wine from causing sickness - this process came to be called Pasteurization. He is regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch. Pasteur also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals. He is buried beneath the Institute Pasteur, a rare honour in France, where being buried in a cemetery is mandatory save for the fewer than 300 "Great Men" who are entombed in the Panthéon. Early life and biography Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole in the Jura region of France and grew up in the town of Arbois. Catholic Ency. paragraph 1 There, he later had his house and laboratory, which is now a Pasteur museum. His father, Jean Pasteur's college headmaster, who recommended that the young man apply for the École Normale Supérieure, which accepted him, recognized Louis’s natural talent. After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, Catholic Ency. par. 2 where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector in 1849. They were married on May 29, 1849 and together they had five children, only two of whom survived to adulthood, three of them died, two of typhoid and one of a brain tumor. Catholic observers often said that Louis Pasteur remained through out his whole life an ardent Christian. According to his grandson Pasteur Vallery-Radot, however, Pasteur had only kept from his Catholic background a spiritualism without religious practice. The well-known quotation attributed to Pasteur: "The more I know, the more nearly is my faith that of the Breton peasant. Could I but know all I would have the faith of a Breton peasant's wife." Catholic Ency. par. 9 would be apocryphal. Pasteur Vallery-Radot, Letter to Paul Dupuy, 1939, quoted by Hilaire Cuny, Pasteur et le mystère de la vie, Paris, Seghers, 1963, p. 53–54. Patrice Pinet, Pasteur et la philosophie, Paris, 2005, p. 134–135, quotes analogous assertions of Pasteur Vallery-Radot, with references to Pasteur Vallery-Radot, Pasteur inconnu, p. 232, and André George, Pasteur, Paris, 1958, p. 187. According to Maurice Vallery-Radot (Pasteur, 1994, p. 378), the false quotation appeared for the first time in the Semaine religieuse .... du diocèse de Versailles, 6 October 1895, p. 153, shortly after the death of Pasteur. Maurice Vallery-Radot, grandson of the brother of the son-in-law of Pasteur and outspoken Catholic, Œuvre d'Orient holds that Pasteur fundamentally remained catholic, but does not claim that he went to mass. Maurice Vallery-Radot, Pasteur, Paris, Perrin, 1994, p. 377–407. Work on chirality and the polarization of light Pasteur separated the left and right crystal shapes from each other to form two piles of crystals: in solution one form rotated light to the left, the other to the right, while an equal mixture of the two forms canceled each other's rotation. Hence, the mixture does not rotate polarized light. In Pasteur's early work as a chemist, he resolved a problem concerning the nature of tartaric acid (1849). A solution of this compound derived from living things (specifically, wine lees) rotated the plane of polarization of light passing through it. The mystery was that tartaric acid derived by chemical synthesis had no such effect, even though its chemical reactions were identical and its elemental composition was the same. Upon examination of the minuscule crystals of Sodium Ammonium Tartrate, Pasteur noticed that the crystals came in two asymmetric forms that were mirror images of one another. Tediously sorting the crystals by hand gave two forms of the compound: solutions of one form rotated polarized light clockwise, while the other form rotated light counterclockwise. An equal mix of the two had no polarizing effect on light. Pasteur correctly deduced the molecule in question was asymmetric and could exist in two different forms that resemble one another as would left- and right-hand gloves, and that the biological source of the compound provided purely the one type. This was the first time anyone had demonstrated chiral molecules. Pasteur's doctoral thesis on crystallography attracted the attention of M. Puillet and he helped Pasteur garner a position of professor of chemistry at the Faculté (College) of Strasbourg. In 1854, he was named Dean of the new Faculty of Sciences in Lille. In 1856, he was made administrator and director of scientific studies of the École Normale Supérieure. Germ theory Pasteur demonstrated that fermentation is caused by the growth of microorganisms, and that the emergent growth of microorganisms in nutrient broths is not due to spontaneous generation Catholic Ency. par. 3 but rather to biogenesis (Omne vivum ex ovo). Bottle en col de cygne used by Pasteur Institut Pasteur de Lille He exposed boiled broths to air in vessels that contained a filter to prevent all particles from passing through to the growth medium, and even in vessels with no filter at all, with air being admitted via a long tortuous tube that would not allow dust particles to pass. Nothing grew in the broths unless the flasks were broken open; therefore, the living organisms that grew in such broths came from outside, as spores on dust, rather than spontaneously generated within the broth. This was one of the last and most important experiments disproving the theory of spontaneous generation. The experiment also supported germ theory. While Pasteur was not the first to propose germ theory (Girolamo Fracastoro, Agostino Bassi, Friedrich Henle and others had suggested it earlier), he developed it and conducted experiments that clearly indicated its correctness and managed to convince most of Europe it was true. Today he is often regarded as the father of germ theory and bacteriology, together with Robert Koch. Ullmann 383 Pasteur's research also showed that the growth of microorganisms was responsible for spoiling beverages, such as beer, wine and milk. With this established, he invented a process in which liquids such as milk were heated to kill most bacteria and molds already present within them. He and Claude Bernard completed the first test on April 20, 1862. This process was soon afterwards known as pasteurization. Ullmann 384 Beverage contamination led Pasteur to the idea that microorganisms infecting animals and humans cause disease. He proposed preventing the entry of microorganisms into the human body, leading Joseph Lister to develop antiseptic methods in surgery. In 1865, two parasitic diseases called pébrine and flacherie were killing great numbers of silkworms at Alais (now Alès). Pasteur worked several years proving it was a microbe attacking silkworm eggs which caused the disease, and that eliminating this microbe within silkworm nurseries would eradicate the disease. Catholic Ency. par. 4 Pasteur also discovered anaerobiosis, whereby some microorganisms can develop and live without air or oxygen, called the Pasteur effect. Immunology and vaccination Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled and failed to induce the disease in some chickens he was infecting with the disease. Upon reusing these healthy chickens, Pasteur discovered that he could not infect them, even with fresh bacteria; the weakened bacteria had caused the chickens to become immune to the disease, even though they had only caused mild symptoms. Catholic Ency. par. 5 Ullmann 385 His assistant Charles Chamberland (of French origin) had been instructed to inoculate the chickens after Pasteur went on holiday. Chamberland failed to do this, but instead went on holiday himself. On his return, the month old cultures made the chickens unwell, but instead of the infection being fatal, as it usually was, the chickens recovered completely. Chamberland assumed an error had been made, and wanted to discard the apparently faulty culture when Pasteur stopped him. Pasteur guessed the recovered animals now might be immune to the disease, as were the animals at Eure-et-Loir that had recovered from anthrax. Miller 278–279 In the 1870s, he applied this immunisation method to anthrax, which affected cattle, and aroused interest in combating other diseases. Louis Pasteur in his laboratory, painting by A. Edelfeldt in 1885 Pasteur publicly claimed he had made the anthrax vaccine by exposing the bacillus to oxygen. His laboratory notebooks, now in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, in fact show Pasteur used the method of rival Jean-Joseph-Henri Toussaint, a Toulouse veterinary surgeon, to create the anthrax vaccine. This method used the oxidizing agent potassium dichromate. Pasteur's oxygen method did eventually produce a vaccine but only after he had been awarded a patent on the production of an anthrax vaccine. The notion of a weak form of a disease causing immunity to the virulent version was not new; this had been known for a long time for smallpox. Inoculation with smallpox was known to result in far less scarring, and greatly reduced mortality, in comparison to the naturally acquired disease. Edward Jenner had also discovered vaccination, using cowpox to give cross-immunity to smallpox (in 1796), and by Pasteur's time this had generally replaced the use of actual smallpox material in inoculation. The difference between smallpox vaccination and cholera and anthrax vaccination was that the weakened form of the latter two disease organisms had been generated artificially, and so a naturally weak form of the disease organism did not need to be found. This discovery revolutionized work in infectious diseases, and Pasteur gave these artificially weakened diseases the generic name of vaccines, to honour Jenner's discovery. Pasteur produced the first vaccine for rabies by growing the virus in rabbits, and then weakening it by drying the affected nerve tissue. The rabies vaccine was initially created by Emile Roux, a French doctor and a colleague of Pasteur who had been working with a killed vaccine produced by desiccating the spinal cords of infected rabbits. The vaccine had only been tested on eleven dogs before its first human trial. Catholic Ency. par. 6 This vaccine was first used on 9-year old Joseph Meister, on July 6, 1885, after the boy was badly mauled by a rabid dog. This was done at some personal risk for Pasteur, since he was not a licensed physician and could have faced prosecution for treating the boy. However, left without treatment, the boy faced almost certain death from rabies. After consulting with colleagues, Pasteur decided to go ahead with the treatment. The treatment proved to be a spectacular success, with Meister avoiding the disease; thus, Pasteur was hailed as a hero and the legal matter was not pursued. The treatment's success laid the foundations for the manufacture of many other vaccines. The first of the Pasteur Institutes was also built on the basis of this achievement. Legal risk was not the only kind Pasteur undertook. In The Story of San Michele, Axel Munthe writes of the rabies vaccine research: Louis Pasteur portrait in his later years. Because of his study in germs, Pasteur encouraged doctors to sanitize their hands and equipment before surgery. Prior to this, few doctors or their assistants practiced the procedure of washing their hands and equipment. Allegations of deception In 1995, the centennial of the death of Louis Pasteur, the New York Times ran an article titled "Pasteur's Deception". After having thoroughly read Pasteur's lab notes the science historian Gerald L. Geison declared that Pasteur had given a misleading account of the preparation of the anthrax vaccine used in the experiment on at Pouilly-le-Fort. See Gerald Geison, The Private Science of Louis Pasteur, Princeton University Press, 1995. ISBN 069101552X. Honours and final days His death occurred in 1895, near Paris, from complications of a series of strokes that had started in 1868. He died while listening to the story of St Vincent de Paul, whom he admired and sought to emulate. Catholic Ency. par. 9 . He was buried in the Cathedral of Notre Dame, but his remains were reinterred in a crypt in the Institut Pasteur, Paris, where he is remembered for his life-saving work. Pasteur won the Leeuwenhoek medal, microbiology's highest Dutch honor in Arts and Sciences, in 1895. Microbe Magazine: Awards: Leeuwenhoek Medal He was a Grand Croix of the Legion of Honor–one of only 75 in all of France. Both Institute Pasteur and Université Louis Pasteur were named after him. In many localities worldwide, there are streets named in his honour. For example, in the USA: the Medical school at Stanford University, Palo Alto and Irvine, California, Boston, Massachusetts and Polk, Florida; Jonquière, Québec; San Salvador de Jujuy (Argentina), Yarmouth and Norfolk in the United Kingdom, Jericho and Wulguru in Queensland, (Australia); Ho Chi Minh City in Viet Nam; Batna in Algeria, Tehran in Iran, Milan in Italy and Bucharest in Romania. Pasteur was ranked #12 in the 1978 edition of Michael H. Hart's controversial book, The 100: A Ranking Of The Most Influential Persons in History. However, Pasteur was promoted to no. 11, replacing Karl Marx in the 1992 revised edition of the book. Statements In his triumphal lecture at the Sorbonne in 1864, Pasteur said "Never will the doctrine of spontaneous generation recover from the mortal blow struck by this simple experiment" (referring to his swan-neck flask experiment wherein he proved that fermenting microorganisms would not form in a flask containing fermentable juice until an entry path was created for them). See also Infection control Infectious disease Modern medicine Pasteur Institute The Story of Louis Pasteur (a 1936 biographical film). References Biographies Influence on medicine and society Footnotes External links The Institut Pasteur - Foundation Dedicated to the prevention and treatment of diseases through biological research, education and public health activities The Pasteur Foundation - A US nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting the mission of the Institut Pasteur in Paris. Full archive of newsletters available online containing examples of US Tributes to Louis Pasteur. Pasteur's Papers on the Germ Theory The Pasteur Galaxy Louis Pasteur featured on the 5 French Franc banknote from 1966. Germ Theory and Its Applications to Medicine and Surgery, 1878 LIFE magazine's top 100 events of the millennium: Germ theory of disease and Pasteur Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) profile, AccessExcellence.org The complete work of Pasteur, BNF (Bibliothèque nationale de France) Comptes rendus de l’Académie des sciences Articles published by Pasteur be-x-old:Люі Пастэр

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Nicholas_II_of_Russia

Nicholas II (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov; ) ( – 17 July 1918) was the last Emperor of Russia, Grand Duke of Finland, and claimed the title of King of Poland. In 1831, the Russian tsars were deposed from the Polish throne, but they soon took control of the country as part of Russia and abolished the separate monarchy. However, they continued to use this title. See November Uprising. His official title was Nicholas II, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias Nicholas's full title was We, Nicholas the Second, by the grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, King of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauric Chersonesos, Tsar of Georgia, Lord of Pskov, and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Finland, Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogitia, Belostok, Karelia, of Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgaria, and other territories; Lord and Grand Duke of Nizhny Novgorod, Chernigov; Sovereign of Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, , and all the northern territories; and Sovereign of Iveria, Kartalinia, and the Kabardinian lands and Armenian territories; Hereditary Lord and Ruler of the Cherkass and Mountain Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan, Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Oldenburg, and so forth, and so forth, and so forth. and he is currently regarded as Saint Nicholas the Passion Bearer by the Russian Orthodox Church. Nicholas II ruled from 1894 until his abdication on 15 March 1917. His reign saw Imperial Russia go from being one of the foremost great powers of the world to an economic and military disaster. Critics nicknamed him Bloody Nicholas because of the Khodynka Tragedy, Bloody Sunday, and those anti-Semitic pogroms that occured during his reign. As head of state, he approved the Russian mobilization of August 1914 which marked the first fatal step into World War I and thus into the demise of the Romanov dynasty. Nicholas II abdicated following the February Revolution of 1917 during which he and his family were imprisoned first in the Alexander Palace at Tsarskoe Selo, then later in the Governor's Mansion in Tobolsk, and finally at the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg. Nicholas II, his wife, his son, his four daughters, the family's medical doctor, the Tsar's Valet, the Empress' Lady in Waiting and the family's cook were all killed in the same room by the Bolsheviks on the night of 17 July 1918. This led to the canonization of Nicholas II, his wife the Empress and their children as martyrs by various groups tied to the Russian Orthodox Church within Russia and, prominently, by the Russian Orthodox Church outside Russia. Family background Nicholas was the son of Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia, the latter of whom was born "Princess Dagmar of Denmark". His paternal grandparents were Emperor Alexander II and Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia, the latter of whom was born "Princess Marie of Hesse". His maternal grandparents were King Christian IX of Denmark and Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel. Nicholas often referred to his father nostalgically in letters after Alexander's death in 1894, although as a child he was jealous of his physical strength. He was also very close to his mother, revealed in their published letters to and from one another. Nicholas had three younger brothers: Alexander (1869-1870), George (1871-1899) and Michael (1878-1918) and two younger sisters: Xenia (1875-1960) and Olga (1882-1960). Since his father's cousin, Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich, shared the same first name, the Grand Duke was often known within the Imperial Family as "Nicholasha" to distinguish him from the future Tsar. Maternally, Nicholas was the nephew of several monarchs, including King George I of Greece, King Frederick VIII of Denmark, Alexandra, Queen consort of the United Kingdom, and The Crown Princess of Hanover. Nicholas, Nicholas's wife, and Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany were all first cousins of George V, king of Great Britain. Nicholas and Wilhelm were not first cousins with each other, but they were fifth cousins since they were both also descended from George II, King of England. Tsarevich Nicholas II with his mother (1870). Nicholas became Tsarevich following the assassination of his grandfather, Alexander II on 13 March 1881 and the subsequent accession of his father, Alexander III. Nicholas and other family members witnessed this event while staying at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, p.38 , but for security reasons, the new Tsar and his family relocated their primary residence to the Gatchina Palace outside the city. Eastern journey of Nicholas II After the Grand Embassy of Peter I, a long trip for educational purposes became an important part of training for the state activity of the members of the Russian Imperial house. In 1890 Emperor Alexander III of Russia decided to establish the Trans-Siberian Railway and his heir Tsarevich Nicholas took part in the opening ceremony. Although Nicholas attended meetings of the Imperial Council, his obligations were limited until he acceded to the throne, which was not expected for many years, since his father was only forty-five. Massie, Robert, Nicholas and Alexandra, p.40 While he was Tsarevich, Nicholas had an affair with the ballet dancer Mathilde Kschessinska. Against the initial wishes of his parents, Nicholas was determined to marry Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt, the fourth daughter of Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by the Rhine and Princess Alice of the Great Britain, second eldest daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert. His parents intended a more politically beneficial arrangement with Princess Hélène, daughter of Philippe, comte de Paris, pretender to the French throne, hoping to cement Russia's new alliance with France, but eventually yielded to their son's insistence. Engagement, marriage, and accession Nicholas became engaged to Alix of Hesse in April 1894. Alix was hesitant to accept the engagement due to the requirement that she convert from Lutheranism to Russian Orthodoxy and renounce her former faith. An exception was made for Alix where she could convert without renouncing her Lutheran faith and convert with a clear conscience. Nicholas and Alix became formally engaged on 8 April 1894. Alix converted to Orthodoxy in November 1894, and took the name Alexandra Fedorovna. Nicholas took the throne in 1894 at the age of 26 following Alexander III's unexpected death. Throughout 1894, Alexander's health rapidly declined and at 49, he died of kidney disease. Because Alexander had expected to live and rule for another 20 or 30 years, Nicholas did not have as much political training or imperial experience as perhaps necessary. It is said that Nicholas felt unprepared for the duties of the crown asking his cousin, "What is going to happen to me and all of Russia?" Feinstein, Elaine (2006). Excerpt from Anna of All the Russias. Vintage. ISBN 978-1-4000-3378-2. Finance Minister Sergei Witte, however, recognized the need to train Nicholas early, suggesting to Alexander that Nicholas act as chairman of the Siberian Railway Committee. Andre Pierre, trans., Journal Intime de Nicholas II, 45 Alexander argued that Nicholas was not mature enough to take on serious responsibilities, to which Witte replied that if he was not introduced to state affairs Nicholas would never be ready to understand them. Andre Pierre, trans., Journal Intime de Nicholas II, 45 Nicholas also acted as chairman of the Special Committee on Famine Relief, established after the devastating famines and droughts of 1891-1892, and he served on the Finance Committee and State Military Council before his coronation. Robert D. Warth, Nicholas II, The Life and Reign of Russia's Last Monarch, 14 Perhaps under prepared and unskilled, Nicholas was not altogether untrained for his duties as tsar. Throughout his reign, Nicholas chose to maintain the conservative policies favored by his father. While Alexander had concentrated on the formulation of general policy, Nicholas devoted much more attention to the details of administration. Portrait by L. Tuxen of the coronation of Tsar Nicholas II and the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, which took place on at the Uspensky Sobor Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin amongst extraordinary opulence and splendor. Seated upon the dais, from left to right, the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna, Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna, and Tsar Nicholas II Nicholas and Alix's wedding was originally scheduled for the following spring, however it was moved forward at Nicholas' insistence. Staggering under the weight of his new office, he had no intention of allowing the one person who gave him confidence to leave his side. Nicholas and Alexandra- Robert K. Massie, 42. The wedding took place on November 26 1894. Alexandra wore the traditional dress of Romanov brides, and Nicholas a Hussar's uniform. Each holding a lighted candle Nicholas and Alexandra faced the Metropolitan. A few minutes before one in the afternoon, they were married. Nicholas and Alexandra- Robert K. Massie 44 Despite a visit to the United Kingdom before his accession, where he observed the House of Commons in debate and seemed impressed by the machinery of democracy , Nicholas turned his back on any notion of giving away any power to elected representatives in Russia. Shortly after he came to the Throne, a deputation of peasants and workers from various towns' local assemblies (zemstvos) came to the Winter Palace proposing court reforms, such as the adoption of a constitutional monarchy, Robert D. Warth, Nicholas II, The Life and Reign of Russia's Last Monarch, 20 and reform that would improve the political and social life of the peasantry. Andre Pierre, trans., Journal Intime de Nicholas II, 127 Although the addresses they had sent in beforehand were couched in mild and loyal terms, Nicholas was angry and ignored advice from an Imperial Family Council by saying to them: "... it has come to my knowledge that during the last months there have been heard in some assemblies of the zemstvos the voices of those who have indulged in a senseless dream that the zemstvos be called upon to participate in the government of the country. I want everyone to know that I will devote all my strength to maintain, for the good of the whole nation, the principle of absolute autocracy, as firmly and as strongly as did my late lamented father." Princess Catherine Radziwill — Nicholas II, The Last of the Tsars, 100. These words showed Nicholas's intentions to continue his father's policies and possibly contributed to the beginnings of the new tsar's unpopularity and sense that he was ignorant of the problems and needs of the people. Reign On May 14, 1896 Nicholas' formal coronation as Tsar was held in Uspensky Cathedral located within the Kremlin. Robert D. Warth, Nicholas II, The Life and Reign of Russia's Last Monarch, 26 In celebration on May 18, 1896 a large festival with food, free beer and souvenirs was held in Khodynka Field outside Moscow. Khodynka was chosen as the location as it was believed to be the sacred centre of the Russian Empire and would therefore demonstrate Nicholas' legitimacy as tsar and ties to the old autocracy. John Merriman, A History of Modern Europe Volume Two, 1017 Khodynka was also used as a military training ground and the field was uneven with trenches. When food and drink were handed out, the crowd rushed to get their share and individuals were tripped and trampled. Robert D. Warth, Nicholas II, The Life and Reign of Russia's Last Monarch, 26-27 Of the approximate half million in attendance, it is estimated that 1,429 individuals died Robert D. Warth, Nicholas II, The Life and Reign of Russia's Last Monarch, 26 and another 9,000 to 20,000 were injured. John Merriman, A History of Modern Europe Volume Two, 1017 The Khodynka Tragedy was seen as a bad omen and in addition to his conservative policies, Nicholas found gaining popular trust difficult from the beginning of his reign. The first years of his reign saw little more than continuation and development of the policy pursued by . Nicholas allotted money for All-Russia exhibition of 1896. In 1897 restoration of gold standard by Sergei Witte, Minister of Finance, completed the series of financial reforms, initiated fifteen years earlier. By 1902, the Great Siberian railway was sort of completed, this helped for the Russian trade in the Far East but the railway still required huge amounts of work (England and France railways completed in 1930s). In foreign relations, Nicholas followed policies of his father, strengthening Franco-Russian Alliance and pursuing a policy of general European pacification, which culminated in the famous Hague peace conference. This conference, suggested and promoted by Nicholas II, was convened with the view of terminating the arms race, and setting up machinery for the peaceful settlement of international disputes. The results of the conference were less than expected, because of the mutual distrust existing between great powers. Still, Hague conventions were among the first formal statements of the laws of war. Russo-Japanese War A clash between Russia and Japan was almost inevitable by the turn of the 20th century. Russia had expanded in the East, and the growth of her settlement and territorial ambitions, as her southward path to the Balkans was frustrated, conflicted with Japan's own territorial ambitions on the Chinese and Asian mainland. War began in 1904 with a surprise Japanese attack on the Russian fleet in Port Arthur, without formal declaration of war. The Russian Baltic fleet traversed the world to balance power in the East, but after many misadventures on the way, was almost annihilated by the Japanese in the Battle of the Tsushima Strait. On land the Russian army experienced logistical problems. While commands and supplies came from St. Petersburg, combat took place in east Asian ports with only the Trans-Siberian Railway for transport of supplies as well as troops both ways. The 6,000-mile track between St. Petersburg and Port Arthur was one-way, with no track around Lake Baikal, allowing only gradual build-up of the forces on the front. Besieged Port Arthur fell to the Japanese, after nine months of heroic resistance. In mid-1905, Nicholas II accepted American mediation, appointing Sergei Witte chief plenipotentiary for the peace talks. War was ended by the Treaty of Portsmouth. Nicholas's stance on the war was something that baffled many. Nicholas approached the war with confidence and saw it as an opportunity to raise Russian morale and patriotism, paying little attention to the finances of a long-distance war. Robert D. Warth, Nicholas II, The Life and Reign of Russia's Last Monarch, 67 Shortly before the Japanese attack on Port Arthur, Nicholas held strong to the belief that there would be no war. He felt that it was his divine power to rule and protect Russia, and that a war with Japan would simply not happen. Despite the onset of the war and the many defeats Russia suffered, Nicholas still believed in, and expected, a final victory. Many people took the Tsar's confidence and stubbornness for indifference; believing him to be completely impervious. As Russia continued to face defeat by the Japanese, the call for peace grew. Nicholas's own mother, as well as his cousin, Kaiser William, urged Nicholas to open peace negotiations. Despite the efforts for peace, Nicholas remained evasive. It was not until March 27-28 and the annihilation of the Russian fleet by the Japanese, that Nicholas finally decided to pursue peace. Anti-Semitic pogroms of 1903-1906 The administration of Nicholas II published anti-Semitic propaganda that encouraged people to riot in various parts of the Pale of Settlement, resulting in the pogroms of 1903-1906. Viacheslav Plehve, the Minister of the Interior, paid the Kishinev newspaper "Bessarabets" for anti-Semitic material, and the press during the Russo-Japanese War accused the Jews of being a fifth column. This accusation encouraged the eruption of numerous pogroms, especially after Russia lost the war. Pogroms also resulted from the government's reaction to the 1905 revolution. 1905 Revolution With the defeat of Russia by a non-Western power, the prestige of the government and the authority of the autocratic empire was brought down significantly. Peter Kenez, A History of the Soviet Union From the Beginning to the End, This was hugely significant in regards to the illiterate peasantry or 'darl masses' who although followed their own (almost pagan rituals) had until this point held complete naive faith in Tsar Nicholas II. 7 Defeat was a severe blow and the Imperial government collapsed, with the ensuing revolutionary outbreaks of 1905-1906. In hope to frighten any further contradiction many demonstrators were shot in front of the Winter Palace in St.Petersburg; the Emperor's Uncle, Grand Duke Sergei, was killed by a revolutionary's bomb in Moscow as he left the Kremlin. The Black Sea Fleet mutinied, and a railway strike developed into a general strike which paralized the country. Tsar Nicholas II, who was taken by surprise by the events, mixed his anger with bewilderment. He wrote to his mother after months of disorder, "It makes me sick to read the news! Nothing but strikes in schools and factories, murdered policemen, Cossacks and soldiers, riots, disorder, mutinies. But the ministers, instead of acting with quick decision, only assemble in council like a lot of frightened hens and cackle about providing united ministerial action... ominous quiet days began, quiet indeed because there was complete order in the streets, but at the same time everybody knew that something was going to happen — the troops were waiting for the signal, but the other side would not begin. One had the same feeling, as before a thunderstorm in summer! Everybody was on edge and extremely nervous and of course, that sort of strain could not go on for long.... We are in the midst of a revolution with an administrative apparatus entirely disorganized, and in this lies the main danger." Lyons, M, Nicholas II, The Last Tsar,116 Bloody Sunday On Saturday, 9 January 1905, a priest named George Gapon informed the government that a march would take place the following day and asked that the Tsar be present to receive a petition. The ministers met hurriedly to consider the problem. There was never any thought that the Tsar, who was at Tsarskoe Selo and had been told of neither the march nor the petition, would actually be asked to meet Gapon. The suggestion that some other member of the Imperial family receive the petition was rejected. Finally informed by the Prefect of Police that he lacked the men to pluck Gapon from among his followers and place him under arrest, the newly appointed Minster of the Interior, Prince Sviatopolk-Mirsky, and his colleagues could think of nothing to do except bring additional troops into the city and hope that matters would not get out of hand. That evening Nicholas learned for the first time from Mirsky what the next day might bring. He wrote in his diary, "Troops have been brought from the outskirts to reinforce the garrison. Up to now the workers have been calm. Their number is estimated at 120,000. At the head of their union is a kind of socialist priest named Gapon. Mirsky came this evening to present his report on the measures taken." Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, 124 At Tsarskoe Selo, Nicholas was stunned when he heard what had happened. He wrote in his diary, "A painful day. Serious disorders took place in Petersburg when the workers tried to come to the Winter Palace. The troops have been forced to fire in several parts of the city and there are many killed and wounded. Lord, how painful and sad this is." Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, p.125 On Sunday, 22 January 1905, Father Gapon began his march. Locking arms, the workers marched peacefully through the streets. Some carried crosses, icons and religious banners, others carried national flags and portraits of the Tsar. As they walked they sang religious hymns and the Imperial anthem, 'God Save The Tsar'. At 2PM all of the converging processions were scheduled to arrive at the Winter Palace. There was no single confrontation with the troops. Throughout the city, at bridges on strategic boulevards, the marchers found their way blocked by lines of infantry, backed by Cossacks and Hussars; and the soldiers opened fire on the crowd. The official number of victims was ninety-two dead and several hundred wounded. Gapon vanished and the other leaders of the march were seized. Expelled from the capital, they circulated through the empire, exaggerating the casualties into thousands. That day, which became known as "Bloody Sunday", was a turning point in Russian history. It shattered the ancient, legendary belief that the Tsar and the people were one. As bullets riddled their icons, their banners and their portraits of Nicholas, the people shrieked, "The Tsar will not help us!" Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, 124-125 Outside Russia, the future British Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald attacked the Tsar calling him a "blood-stained creature and a common murderer". Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna wrote, "Nicky had the police report a few days before. That Saturday he telephoned my mother at the Anitchkov and said that she and I were to leave for Gatchina at once. He and Alicky went to Tsarskoe Selo. Insofar as I remember, my Uncles Vladimir and Nicholas were the only members of the family left in St.Petersburg, but there may have been others. I felt at the time that all those arrangements were hideously wrong. Nicky's ministers and the Chief of Police had it all their way. My mother and I wanted him to stay in St.Petersburg and to face the crowd. I am positive that, for all the ugly mood of some of the workmen, Nicky's appearance would have calmed them. They would have presented their petition and gone back to their homes. But that wretched Epiphany incident had left all the senior officials in a state of panic. They kept on telling Nicky that he had no right to run such a risk, that he owed it to the country to leave the capital, that even with the utmost precautions taken there might always be some loophole left. My mother and I did all we could to persuade him that the ministers' advice was wrong, but Nicky preferred to follow it and he was the first to repent when he heard of the tragic outcome." Vorres, I, The Last Grand Duchess, 121 From his hiding place, Father Gapon issued a letter. He stated, "Nicholas Romanov, formerly Tsar and at present soul-murderer of the Russian empire. The innocent blood of workers, their wives and children lies forever between you and the Russian people ... May all the blood which must be spilled fall upon you, you Hangman. I call upon all the socialist parties of Russia to come to an immediate agreement among themselves and bring an armed uprising against Tsarism." Gapon's body was found hanging in an abandoned cottage in Finland in April 1906. Relationship with the Duma <center>Silver Coin of Tsar Nicholas II, dated 1898, with the Imperial coat-of-arms on the reverse. The Russian inscription reads: B[ozheyu] M[ilostyu] Nikolay Imperator i Samoderzhets Vseross[iyskiy].; English: "By the grace of God, Nicholas II, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias". Under pressure from the attempted Russian Revolution of 1905, on 5 August 1905 Tsar Nicholas II issued a manifesto about the convocation of the State Duma, initially thought to be an advisory organ. Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna, younger sister of Nicholas II wrote, "There was such gloom at Tsarskoe Selo. I did not understand anything about politics. I just felt everything was going wrong with the country and all of us. The October Constitution did not seem to satisfy anyone. I went with my mother to the first Duma. I remember the large group of deputies from among peasants and factory people. The peasants looked sullen. But the workmen were worse: they looked as though they hated us. I remember the distress in Alicky's eyes." Minister of the Court Count Fredericks commented, "The Deputies, they give one the impression of a gang of criminals who are only waiting for the signal to throw themselves upon the ministers and cut their throats. I will never again set foot among those people." Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, 242 The Dowager Empress noticed "incomprehensible hatred." In the October Manifesto, the tsar pledged to introduce basic civil liberties, provide for broad participation in the State Duma, and endow the Duma with legislative and oversight powers. However, determined to preserve "autocracy" even in the context of reform, he restricted the Duma's authority in many ways—not least of which was an absence of parliamentary control over the appointment or dismissal of cabinet ministers. Nicholas's relations with the Duma were not good. The First Duma, with a majority of Kadets, almost immediately came into conflict with him. Scarcely had the 524 members sat down at the Tauride Palace when they formulated an 'Address to the Throne'. It demanded universal suffrage, radical land reform, the release of all political prisoners and the dismissal of ministers appointed by the Tsar in favour of ministers acceptable to the Duma. Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, p.243 Although Nicholas initially had a good relationship with his relatively liberal prime minister, Sergei Witte, Alexandra distrusted him (because he instigated an investigation of Rasputin), and as the political situation deteriorated, Nicholas dissolved the Duma. The Duma was populated with radicals, many of whom wished to push through legislation that would abolish private property ownership, among other things. Witte, unable to grasp the seemingly insurmountable problems of reforming Russia and the monarchy, wrote to Nicholas on 14 April 1906 resigning his office (however, other accounts have said that Witte was forced to resign by the Emperor). Nicholas was not ungracious to Witte and an Imperial Rescript was published on 22 April creating Witte a Knight of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky, with diamonds (the last two words were written in the Emperor's own hand, followed by "I remain unalterably well-disposed to you and sincerely grateful, for ever more Nicholas."). A second Duma met for the first time in February 1907. The leftist parties including the Social Democrats and the Social Revolutionaries which had boycotted the First Duma, had won two hundred seats in the Second, more than a third of the membership. Again Nicholas waited impatiently to rid himself of the Duma. In two letters to his mother he let his bitterness flow, "A grotesque deputation is coming from England to see liberal members of the Duma. Uncle Bertie informed us that they were very sorry but were unable to take action to stop their coming. Their famous "liberty", of course. How angry they would be if a deputation went from us to the Irish to wish them success in their struggle against their government." Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, 244 A little while later Nicholas wrote, "All would be well if everything said in the Duma remained within its walls. Every word spoken, however, comes out in the next day's papers which are avidly read by everyone. In many places the populace is getting restive again. They begin to talk about land once more and are waiting to see what the Duma is going to say on the question. I am getting telgrams from everywhere, petitioning me to order a dissolution, but it is too early for that. One has to let them do something manifestly stupid or mean and then — slap! And they are gone!" Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, 245 After the Second Duma resulted in similar problems, the new prime minister Pyotr Stolypin (whom Witte described as 'reactionary') unilaterally dissolved it, and changed the electoral laws to allow for future Dumas to have a more conservative content, and to be dominated by the liberal-conservative Octobrist Party of Alexander Guchkov. Stolypin, a skillful politician, had ambitious plans for reform. These included making loans available to the lower classes to enable them to buy land, with the intent of forming a farming class loyal to the crown. Nevertheless, when the Duma remained hostile, Stolypin had no qualms about invoking Article 87 of the Fundamental Laws, which empowered the Tsar to issue 'urgent and extraordinary' emergency decrees 'during the recess of the State Duma'. Stolypin's most famous legislative act, the change in peasant land tenure, was promulgated under Article 87. The third Duma remained an independent body. This time the members proceeded cautiously. Instead of hurling themselves at the government, opposing parties within the Duma worked to develop the body as a whole. In the classic manner of the British Parliament, the Duma reached for power grasping for the national purse strings. The Duma had the right to question ministers behind closed doors as to their proposed expenditures. These sessions, endorsed by Stolypin, were educational for both sides, and, in time, mutual antagonism was replaced by mutual respect. Even the sensitive area of military expenditure, where the October Manifesto clearly had reserved decisions to the throne, a Duma commission began to operate. Composed of aggressive patriots no less anxious than Nicholas to restore the fallen honour of Russian arms, the Duma commission frequently recommended expenditures even larger than those proposed. King George V (right) with his first cousin Tsar Nicholas II, Berlin, 1913. Note the close physical resemblance between the two monarchs With the passage of time, Nicholas also began to have confidence in the Duma. "This Duma cannot be reproached with an attempt to seize power and there is no need at all to quarrel with it" he said to Stolypin in 1909. Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, p.246 Unfortunately Stolypin's plans were undercut by conservatives at court. Reactionaries such as Prince Vladimir Orlov never tired of telling the Tsar that the very existence of the Duma was a blot on the autocracy. Stolypin, they whispered, was a traitor and secret revolutionary who was conniving with the Duma to steal the prerogatives assigned the Tsar by God. Witte also engaged in constant intrigue against Stolypin. Although Stolypin had had nothing to do with Witte's fall, Witte blamed him. Stolypin had unwittingly angered the Empress. He had ordered an investigation into Rasputin and presented it to the Tsar. Stolypin, on his own authority, ordered Rasputin to leave St.Petersburg. Alexandra protested vehemently but Nicholas refused to overrule his Prime Minister. Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, 247 who had more influence with the Emperor. By the time of Stolypin's assassination by Dmitry Bogrov, a student (and police informant) in a theatre in Kiev on 18 September 1911, Stolypin had grown weary of the burdens of office. For a man who preferred clear decisive action, working with a sovereign who believed in fatalism and mysticism was frustrating. As an example, Nicholas once returned a document unsigned with the note: "Despite most convincing arguments in favour of adopting a positive decision in this matter, an inner voice keeps on insisting more and more that I do not accept responsibility for it. So far my conscience has not deceived me. Therefore I intend in this case to follow its dictates. I know that you, too, believe that "a Tsar's heart is in God's hands". Let it be so. For all laws established by me I bear a great responsibility before God, and I am ready to answer for my decision at any time." Alexandra, believing that Stolypin had severed the bonds that her son depended on for life, hated the Prime Minister. In March 1911, in a fit of anger stating that he no longer commanded the imperial confidence, Stolypin asked to be relieved of his office. Two years earlier when Stolypin had casually mentioned resigning to Nicholas he was informed, "This is not a question of confidence or lack of it. It is my will. Remember that we live in Russia, not abroad ... and therefore I shall not consider the possibility of any resignation." Massie, R, Nicholas and Alexandra, 248 In 1912, a fourth Duma was elected with almost the same membership as the third. "The Duma started too fast. Now it is slower, but better, and more lasting." stated Nicholas to Sir Bernard Pares. The first World War was a complete and utter disaster for Russia. By late 1916, among the Romanov family desperation reached the point of which Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich, younger brother of Alexander III and the Tsar's only surviving uncle was deputed to beg Nicholas to grant a constitution and a government responsible to the Duma. Nicholas sternly refused, reproaching his uncle for asking him to break his coronation oath to maintain autocratic power intact for his successors. In the Duma on 2 December 1916, Purishkevich, a fervent patriot, monarchist and war worker denounced the dark forces which surrounded the throne in a thunderous two hour speech which was tumultuously applauded. "Revolution" he warned "and an obscure peasant shall govern Russia no longer". Tames, R, Last of the Tsars, 49 Tsarevich Alexei's illness Further complicating domestic matters was the matter of the succession. Alexandra bore Nicholas four daughters, Olga in 1895, Tatiana in 1897, Maria in 1899 and Anastasia in 1901, before their son Alexei was born on 12 August 1904. The young heir was afflicted with hemophilia, a hereditary disease that prevents blood clotting properly, which at that time was untreatable and usually led to an untimely death. As a granddaughter of Queen Victoria, Alexandra carried the same gene mutation that afflicted several of the major European royal houses such as Spain and Prussia. Hemophilia therefore became known as "the royal disease". Alexandra had passed it on to her son. As all of Nicholas and Alexandra's daughters perished with their parents and brother in Yekaterinburg in 1918, it is not known whether any of them inherited the gene as carriers. Because of the fragility of the autocracy at this time, Nicholas and Alexandra chose not to divulge Alexei's condition to anyone outside the royal household. In fact, there were many in the Imperial household who were unaware of the exact nature of the Tsarevich's illness. They knew that he suffered from some serious malady; however, the exact nature of his suffering was not revealed to all. At first Alexandra turned to Russian doctors and medics to treat Alexei; however, their treatments generally failed, and Alexandra increasingly turned to mystics and holy men. One of these, Grigori Rasputin, appeared to have some success. Rasputin's influence over Empress Alexandra, and consequently the Tsar, grew stronger ever since 1912, when Alexei almost died from an injury on a family vacation to the hunting lodges at Bialowieza and Spala (now part of Poland). The bleeding went unstopped and grew steadily worse until it was assumed that the Tsarevich would not survive, and the Last Sacrament was administered on October 10, 1912. Desperate, Alexandra called Rasputin as a last resort, and the reply came, "God has seen your tears and heard your prayers. Do not grieve. The Little One will not die. Do not allow the doctors to bother him too much." R Massie Nicholas and Alexandra Page 185 Miraculously it seemed to Alexandra, the hemorrhage stopped the next day and the boy began to recover. Alexandra took this as a sign that Rasputin was a holy man and that God was with him; for the rest of her life she would defend him and turn her wrath against anyone who dared to question his moral character. World War I Following the assination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Serb nationalist association known as the Black Hand, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914, Nicholas vacillated as to Russia's course of action. The outbreak of war was not inevitable, but leaders, diplomats and nineteenth-century alliances created a climate for large-scale conflict. The concept of Pan-Slavism and ethnicity allied Russia and Serbia in a treaty of protection, and Germany and Austria were similarly allied. Territorial conflict created rivalries between Germany and France and between Austria and Serbia, and as a consequence alliance networks developed across Europe. The Triple Entente and Triple Alliance networks were set before the war, but only understood by allied government leaders and kept secret from the greater public. The assassination of Ferdinand tripped these alliance networks bringing each country into conflict with one another as each independently declared war. Nicholas wanted neither to abandon Serbia to the ultimatum of Austria-Hungary, nor to provoke a general war. In a series of letters exchanged with Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany (the so-called "Willy and Nicky correspondence") the two proclaimed their desire for peace, and each attempted to get the other to back down. Nicholas took stern measures in this regard, demanding that Russia's mobilization be only against the Austrian border, in the hopes of preventing war with the German Empire. The Russians had no contingency plans for a partial mobilization, and on July 31, 1914 Nicholas took the fateful step of confirming the order for a general mobilization. Nicholas was strongly counselled against mobilization of the Russian forces but chose to ignore such advice. Nicholas put the Russian army on "alert" John Merriman, A History of Modern Europe Volume Two, 967 on July 25. Although this was not mobilization, it threatened the German and Austrian borders and looked like a military declaration of war. John Merriman, A History of Modern Europe Volume Two, 967 On July 28, Austria formally declared war against Serbia, bringing Russia and Germany into conflict as protectorates, and France and Britain and Russian allies. Count Witte told the French Ambassador Paleologue that from Russia's point of view the war was madness, Slav solidarity was simply nonsense and Russia could hope for nothing from the war. Tames, R, Last of the Tsars, 43 Tsar Nicholas II (1915) by Boris Kustodiev. On 31 July Russia completed its mobilization, but still maintained that it would not attack if peace talks were to begin. Germany then replied that Russia must demobilize within the next twelve hours. In Saint Petersburg, at 7PM, with the ultimatum to Russia expired, the German ambassador to Russia met with the Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov, asked three times if Russia would not reconsider and then with shaking hands delivered the note accepting Russia's war challenge and declaring war. The outbreak of war on 1 August 1914 found Russia grossly unprepared. Russia and her allies placed their faith in her army, the famous 'Russian steamroller'. Tames, R, Last of the Tsars, 42 Its pre-war regular strength was 1,400,000; mobilisation added 3,100,000 reserves and millions more stood ready behind them. In every other respect, however, Russia was unprepared for war. Germany had ten times as much railway track per square mile and whereas Russian soldiers travelled an average of to reach the front, German soldiers travelled less than a quarter of that distance. Russian heavy industry was still too small to equip the massive armies the Tsar could raise and her reserves of munitions were pitifully small. With the Baltic Sea barred by German U-boats and the Dardanelles by the guns of her former ally Turkey, Russia could receive help only via Archangel which was frozen solid in winter, or Vladivostock, which was over from the front line. The Russian High Command was moreover greatly weakened by the mutual contempt between Vladimir Sukhomlinov, the Minister of War, and the redoubtable warrior giant Grand Duke Nicholas Nicolaievich who commanded the armies in the field. In spite of all of this, an immediate attack was ordered against the German province of East Prussia. The Germans mobilized there with great efficiency and completely defeated the two Russian armies which had invaded. The Battle of Tannenberg where an entire Russian army was annihilated cast an ominous shadow over the empire's future. The loyal officers lost were the very ones needed to protect the dynasty. The Russian armies later had moderate success against both the Austro-Hungarian armies and against the forces of the Ottoman Empire. They never succeeded against the might of the German army. Gradually a war of attrition set in on the vast Eastern Front, where the Russians were facing the combined forces of the German and Austro-Hungarian Empires, and they suffered staggering losses. General Denikin, retreating from Galicia wrote, "The German heavy artillery swept away whole lines of trenches, and their defenders with them. We hardly replied. There was nothing with which we could reply. Our regiments, although completely exhausted, were beating off one attack after another by bayonet .... Blood flowed unendingly, the ranks became thinner and thinner and thinner. The number of graves multiplied. Tames, R, Last of the Tsars, 46 Total losses for the spring and summer of 1915 amounted to 1,400,000 killed or wounded, while 976,000 had been taken prisoner. On 5 August with the army in retreat, Warsaw fell. Defeat at the front bred disorder at home. At first the targets were German and for three days in June shops, bakeries, factories, private houses and country estates belonging to people with German names were looted and burned. Then the inflamed mobs turned on the government declaring the Empress should be shut up in a convent, the Tsar deposed and Rasputin hanged. Nicholas was by no means deaf to these discontents. An emergency session of the Duma was summoned and a Special Defence Council established, its members drawn from the Duma and the Tsar's ministers. In July 1915, King Christian X of Denmark, first cousin of the Tsar, sent Hans Niels Andersen to Tsarskoe Selo with an offer to act as a mediator. He made several trips between London, Berlin and Petrograd and in July saw the Dowager Empress Maria Fyodorovna. Andersen told her they should conclude peace. Nicholas chose to turn down King Christian's offer of mediation. Hall, C, Little Mother of Russia, 264 The energetic and efficient General Alexei Polivanov replaced Sukhomlinov as Minister of War. The situation did not improve and the retreat however continued and Nicholas urged on by Alexandra and feeling that it was his duty, and that his personal presence would inspire his troops, decided to lead his army directly yet again against advice given. He assumed the role of commander-in-chief after dismissing his cousin from that position, the highly respected and experienced Nikolai Nikolaevich (September 1915) following the loss of the Russian Kingdom of Poland. This was a fatal mistake as he was now directly associated as commander-in-chief with all subsequent losses. He was also away at the remote HQ at Mogilev, far from the direct governance of the empire, and when revolution broke out in Petrograd he was unable to prevent it being so cut-off from his government. In reality the move was largely symbolic, since all important military decisions were made by his chief-of-staff General Michael Alexeiev, and Nicholas did little more than review troops, inspect field hospitals, and preside over military luncheons. The Fate of the Romanovs (2003) by Greg King and Penny Wilson The Duma was still calling for political reforms and political unrest continued throughout the war. Cut off from public opinion, Nicholas could not see that the dynasty was in decline. With Nicholas at the front, domestic issues and control of the capital were left with his wife Alexandra, however Alexandra's relationship with Grigori Rasputin and her German background made further discredited the dynasty's authority. Nicholas had been repeatedly warned about the destructive influence of Grigori Rasputin but had failed to remove him. Nicholas had refused to censor the press and wild rumours and accusations about Alexandra and Rasputin appeared almost daily. Alexandra was even brought under allegations of treason and undermining the government due to her German roots. It was during the war that St. Petersburg was symbolically renamed Petrograd, the Slavic equivalent, in response to increasing war-time Germanophobia. Robert D. Warth, Nicholas II, The Life and Reign of Russia's Last Monarch, 199 Anger at Nicholas's failure to act and the extreme damage that Rasputin's influence was doing to Russia's war effort and to the monarchy led to his (Rasputin's) murder by a group of nobles, led by Prince Felix Yusupov and Grand Duke Dmitri Pavlovich, a cousin of the Tsar, on 16 December 1916. End of reign There was mounting hardship as the government failed to produce supplies, creating massive riots and rebellions. With Nicholas away at the front in 1915, authority appeared to collapse (Empress Alexandra ran the government from Saint Petersburg from 1915), and Saint Petersburg was left in the hands of strikers and mutineering conscript soldiers. Despite efforts by the British Ambassador Sir George Buchanan to warn the Tsar that he should grant constitutional reforms to fend off revolution, Nicholas continued to bury himself away at the Staff HQ (Stavka) away at Moghilev, leaving his capital and court open to intrigues and insurrection. By early 1917, Russia was on the verge of total collapse. The army had taken 15 million men from the farms and food prices had soared. An egg cost four times what it had in 1914, butter five times as much. The severe winter dealt the railways, overburdened by emergency shipments of coal and supplies, the final blow. Russia began the war with 20,000 locomotives; by 1917 9,000 were in service, while the number of serviceable railway wagons had dwindled from half a million to 170,000. In February 1917, 1,200 locomotives burst their boilers and nearly 60,000 wagons were immobilised. In Petrograd supplies of flour and fuel all but disappeared. Tames, R, Last of the Tsars, 52 War-time prohibition of alcohol was enacted by Nicholas in order to boost patriotism and productivity, but instead damaged the treasury and funding of the war. Robert D. Warth, Nicholas II, The Life and Reign of Russia's Last Monarch, 199 [[Image:Nikolaus II. (Russland).jpg|left|thumb|One of the last photographs taken of Nicholas II, showing him at Tsarskoe Seloe after his abdication in March 1917]] February 23 1917 in Petrograd (as the capital had been renamed) a combination of very severe cold weather allied with acute food shortages caused people to start to break shop windows to get bread and other necessaries. In the streets, red banners appeared and the crowds chanted "Down with the German woman! Down with Protopopov! Down with the war!" Police started to shoot at the populace from rooftops which incited riots. The troops in the capital were poorly-motivated and their officers had no reason to be loyal to the regime. They were angry and full of revolutionary fervor and sided with the populace. The Tsar's Cabinet begged Nicholas to return to the capital and offered to resign completely. Five hundred miles away the Tsar, misinformed by Protopopov that the situation was under control, ordered that firm steps be taken against the demonstrators. For this task the Petrograd garrison was quite unsuitable. The cream of the old regular army lay in their graves in Poland and Galicia. In Petrograd 170,000 recruits, country boys or older men from the working-class suburbs of the capital itself, remained to keep control under the command of wounded officers invalided from the front, and cadets from the military academies. Many units, lacking both officers and rifles, had never undergone formal training. General Khabalov attempted to put the Tsar's instructions into effect on the morning of Sunday, 11 March 1917. Despite huge posters ordering people to keep off the streets, vast crowds gathered and were only dispersed after some 200 had been shot dead, though a company of the Volinsky Regiment fired into the air rather than into the mob, and a company of the Pavlovsky Life Guards shot the officer who gave the command to open fire. Nicholas, informed of the situation by Rodzianko, ordered reinforcements to the capital and suspended the Duma. Tames, R, Last of the Tsars, p.53 It was all too late. On 12 March the Volinsky Regiment mutinied and was quickly followed by the Semonovsky, the Ismailovsky, the Litovsky and even the legendary Preobrajensky Guard, the oldest and staunchest regiment founded by Peter the Great. The arsenal was pillaged, the Ministry of the Interior, Military Government building, police headquarters, the Law Courts and a score of police buildings were put to the torch. By noon the fortress of Peter and Paul with its heavy artillery was in the hands of the insurgents. By nightfall 60,000 soldiers had joined the revolution. Order broke down and members of the Parliament (Duma) formed a Provisional Government to try to restore order but it was impossible to turn the tide of revolutionary change. Already the Duma and the Soviet had formed the nucleus of a Provisional Government and decided that Nicholas must abdicate. Faced with this demand, which was echoed by his generals, deprived of loyal troops, with his family firmly in the hands of the Provisional Government and fearful of unleashing civil war and opening the way for German conquest, Nicholas had no choice but to submit. At the end of the "February Revolution" of 1917 (February in the Old Russian Calendar), on 2 March (Julian Calendar)/ 15 March (Gregorian Calendar) 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. He firstly abdicated in favour of Tsarevich Alexei, but swiftly changed his mind after advice from doctors that the heir would not live long apart from his parents who would be forced into exile. Nicholas drew up a new manifesto naming his brother, Grand Duke Michael, as the next Emperor of all the Russias. He issued the following statement (which was suppressed by the Provisional Government): Grand Duke Mikhail declined to accept the throne until the people were allowed to vote through a Constituent Assembly for the continuance of the monarchy or a republic. The abdication of Nicholas II and the subsequent Bolshevik revolution brought three centuries of the Romanov dynasty's rule to an end. It also paved the way for massive destruction of Russian culture with the closure and demolition of many churches and monasteries, the theft of valuables and estates from the former aristocracy and monied classes and the suppression of religious and folk art forms. The fall of autocratic tsardom brought joy to Liberals and Socialists in Britain and France and made it possible for the United States of America, the first foreign government to recognise the Provisional government, to enter the war early in April fighting in an alliance of democracies against an alliance of empires. In Russia, the announcement of the Tsar's abdication was greeted with many emotions. These included delight, relief, fear, anger and confusion. Tames, R, Last of the Tsars, 55 Final Months and Death In August 1917, the Kerensky government evacuated the Romanovs to Tobolsk in the Urals, allegedly to protect them from the rising tide of revolution. There they lived in the former Governor's Mansion in considerable comfort. In October 1917, however, the Bolsheviks seized power from Kerensky's Provisional Government; Nicholas followed the events in October with interest but as yet no alarm. He continued to underestimate Lenin's importance but already began to feel that his abdication had done Russia more harm than good. In the meantime he and his family occupied themselves with keeping warm. Conditions of imprisonment became more strict, and talk of putting Nicholas on trial grew more frequent. The Tsar was forbidden to wear epaulettes and the sentries scrawled lewd drawings on the fence to offend his daughters. On 1 March 1918, the family was placed on soldier's rations, which meant parting with ten devoted servants and giving up butter and coffee as luxuries. What kept the family's spirits up was the belief that help was at hand. Tames, R, Last of the Tsars, 62 The Romanovs believed that various plots were underway to break them out of captivity and smuggle them to safety. But on 30 April 1918 they were transferred to their final destination: the town of Ekaterinberg, where they were imprisoned in the two-story Ipatiev House, the home of the military engineer Nikolai Nikolayevich Ipatiev.. On the night of 16/17 July 1918, the royal family was awakened around 2:00 am, told to dress, and led down into a half-basement room at the back of the Ipatiev house; the pretext for this move was the family's safety - that anti-Bolshevik forces were approaching Ekaterinberg, and the house might be fired upon. Present with Nicholas, Alexandra and their children were their doctor, and three of their servants, who had voluntarily chosen to remain with family - the Tsar's personal physician Eugene Botkin, his wife's maid Anna Demidova, and the family's chef, Ivan Kharitonov, and footman, Alexei Trupp. A firing squad had been assembled and was waiting in an adjoining room, composed of seven Communist soldiers from Central Europe, and three local Bolsheviks, all under the command of Bolshevik officer Yakov Yurovsky (the soldiers are often described as Hungarians; in his account, Yurovsky described them as "Latvians"). Nicholas was carrying his son; when the family arrived in the basement, the former empress complained that there were no chairs for them to sit in. Yurovsky ordered chairs brought in, and when the empress and the heir were seated, the executioners filed into the room. Yurovsky announced to them that they had been condemned to death by the Ural Soviet of Workers' Deputies. A stunned Nicholas asked, "What? What?" and turned toward his family. Yurovsky repeated the order. One witness among the several who later wrote accounts of Nicholas's last moments reported that the Tsar said, "You know not what you do," paraphrasing Jesus's words on the cross. The executioners drew revolvers and the shooting began. Nicholas was the first to die; Yurovsky shot him multiple times in the head and chest. Anastasia, Tatiana, Olga, and Maria survived the first hail of bullets; the sisters were wearing over 1.3 kilograms of diamonds and precious gems sewn into their clothing, which provided some initial protection from the bullets and bayonets. Massie, R, The Romanovs The Final Chapter, 8 They were stabbed with bayonets and then shot at close range in the head. Massie, R, The Romanovs The Final Chapter, 6 An official announcement appeared in the national press two days later, announcing the killing of the Tsar, but not of his family, in Yekaterinburg. It declared that the monarch had been executed on the order of the Presidium of the Ural Regional Soviet, because the approach of the anti-Bolshevik Czechoslovak Legion in the area posed a danger that the Romanovs might be freed. |Yekaterinburg's "Church on the Blood", built on the spot where the Ipatiev House once stood. In January 1998, the remains excavated from underneath a dirt road near Yekaterinburg, in 1991, were identified as those of Nicholas II and his family (excluding one of the sisters, and Alexei). The identifications by separate Russian, British and American scientists using DNA analysis concur and were found to be conclusive. . In April 2008, the Russian authorities announced that in 2007 they had found the two missing skeletal Romanov remains near Yekaterinburg and confirmed their identifies by DNA testing. On 1 October 2008, Russia's Supreme Court ruled that Nicholas II and his family were victims of political repression and should be rehabilitated. BBCNews. Russia's last tsar rehabilitated. Retrieved on 2008-10-01 Last tsar’s family rehabilitated In March 2009, results of the DNA testing were published, confirming that the two bodies discovered in 2007 were those of Crown Prince Alexei and one of his sisters. "DNA proves Bolsheviks killed all of Russian Czar's children", CNN (March 11, 2009 Sainthood In 1981, Nicholas and his immediate family were recognised as martyred saints by the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. On 14 August 2000, they were recognised by the synod of the Russian Orthodox Church. This time they were not named as martyrs, since their death did not result immediately from their Christian faith; instead, they were canonized as passion bearers. According to a statement by the Moscow synod, they were glorified as saints for the following reasons: In the last Orthodox Russian monarch and members of his family we see people who sincerely strove to incarnate in their lives the commands of the Gospel. In the suffering borne by the Royal Family in prison with humility, patience, and meekness, and in their martyrs deaths in Yekaterinburg in the night of 4/17 July 1918 was revealed the light of the faith of Christ that conquers evil. However, Nicholas' canonization was controversial. The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad was split on the issue back in 1981. Some members suggesting that the emperor was a weak ruler and had failed to prevent the outbreak of Communism in Russia. It was pointed out by one priest that martyrdom in the Russian Orthodox Church has nothing to do with the martyr's personal actions but is instead related to why he or she was killed. Massie, Robert K., The Fate of the Romanovs: The Final Chapter, Random House, ISBN 394-58048-6, 1995, 134-135 A further criticism was found in that the Orthodox Church outside of Russia seemed to be using Nicholas' murder as propaganda against the Jews. King, Greg, and Wilson, Penny, The Fate of the Romanovs, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., p. 495 The Russian Orthodox Church inside Russia rejected the family's classification as martyrs because they were not killed because of their religious faith. Religious leaders in both churches also had objections to canonizing the Tsar's family because they perceived him as a weak emperor whose incompetence led to the revolution, the suffering of his people and made him at least partially responsible for his own murder and those of his wife and children. For these opponents, the fact that the Tsar was, in private life, a kind man and a good husband and father did not override his poor governance of Russia. Despite the original opposition the Russian Orthodox Church inside Russia ultimately recognised the family as "passion bearers," or people who met their deaths with Christian humility. The bodies of Tsar Nicholas II, Tsarina Alexandra, and three of their daughters, and those of four non-family members killed with them, were discovered in 1979 near Yekaterinburg by amateur archaeologist Alexander Avdonin and, after DNA testing were finally interred at St. Peter and Paul Cathedral in Saint Petersburg on 17 July 1998, eighty years after they were murdered. The Russian Orthodox Church does not recognize these remains as being those of the Royal Family, and considers the grave at the St. Peter and Paul Cathedral to be purely symbolic. On 23 August 2007, prosecutors acting on standard procedures have reopened the investigation surrounding the deaths of the Imperial Family. Yekaterinburg researcher Sergei Pogorelov said that "bones found in a burned area of ground near Yekaterinburg belong to a boy and a young woman roughly the ages of Nicholas’ 13-year-old hemophiliac son, Alexei, and a daughter whose remains also never have been found." On April 30, 2008, DNA tests performed by a U.S. laboratory have proved that bone fragments exhumed in the Ural Mountains belong to two children (Crown Prince Alexei and Grand Duchess Maria) of Russia's last czar, according to Russian news agencies. On 30 April it was announced by Russian authorities that the remains of the entire family have now been identified. Details on further testing of the Imperial remains are contained in Rogaev, E.I., Grigorenko, A.P., Moliaka, I.K., Faskhutdinova, G., Goltsov,A., Lahti, A., Hildebrandt, C., Kittler, E.L.W. and Morozova, I., "Genomic identification in historical case of Nicholas II Royal family.", Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, (2009). The mitochondrial DNA of Alexandra, Alexei, and Maria are identical and of haplogroup H1. The mitochondrial DNA of Nicholas was haplogroup T2. Their sequences are published at GenBank as FJ656214, FJ656215, FJ656216, and FJ656217. Ancestors Patrilineal descent Nicholas's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations — which means that if Nicholas II were to have chosen an historically accurate house name it would have been Oldenburg, as all his male-line ancestors were of that house. See also Tsars of Russia family tree. House of Oldenburg: Egilmar I of Lerigau, dates unknown Egilmar II of Lerigau, d. 1142 Christian I of Oldenburg, d. 1167 Moritz of Oldenburg, d. 1209 Christian II of Oldenburg, d. 1233 John I, Count of Oldenburg, d. 1275 Christian III, Count of Oldenburg, d. 1285 John II, Count of Oldenburg, d. 1314 Conrad I, Count of Oldenburg, 1300 - 1347 Christian V, Count of Oldenburg, 1340 - 1423 Dietrich, Count of Oldenburg, 1398 - 1440 Christian I of Denmark, 1426 - 1481 Frederick I of Denmark, 1471 - 1533 Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1526 - 1586 John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1575 - 1616 Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1597 - 1659 Christian Albert, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1641 - 1695 Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1671 - 1702 Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1700 - 1739 Peter III of Russia, 1728 - 1762, putative father of Paul I of Russia, 1754 - 1801 Nicholas I of Russia, 1796 - 1855 Alexander II of Russia, 1818 - 1881 Alexander III of Russia, 1845 - 1894 Nicholas II of Russia, 1868 - 1918 Issue The children of Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra are as follows: NameBirthDeathNotesGrand Duchess Olga Nikolaevna17 July 1918shot at Yekaterinburg by the BolsheviksGrand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna17 July 1918shot at Yekaterinburg by the BolsheviksGrand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna17 July 1918shot at Yekaterinburg by the BolsheviksGrand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna17 July 1918shot at Yekaterinburg by the BolsheviksGrand Duke Tsarevich Alexei17 July 1918shot at Yekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks Titles and Styles Nicholas II (right) with Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany (left) in 1905. Nicholas is wearing a German Army uniform, while Wilhelm wears a Russian Army tunic. His Imperial Highness Grand Duke Nikolay Alexandrovich of Russia (1868-1881) His Imperial Highness The Tsarevitch of Russia (1881-1894) His Imperial Majesty The Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias (1894-1917) References Books, letters and articles The Sokolov Report, in Victor Alexandrov, "The End of The Romanovs", London: 1966 Boris Antonov, Russian Tsars, St.Petersburg, Ivan Fiodorov Art Publishers (ISBN 5-93893-109-6) Paul Grabbe, "The Private World of the Last Tsar" New York: 1985 Ferro, Marc, Nicholas II: Last of the Tsars. New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 1993 (hardcover, ISBN 0-19-508192-7); 1995 (paperback, ISBN 0-19-509382-8) Genrikh Ioffe, Revoliutsiia i sud'ba Romanovykh Moscow: Respublika, 1992 Coryne Hall & John Van der Kiste, Once A Grand Duchess : Xenia, Sister of Nicholas II, Phoenix Mill, Sutton Publishing Ltd., 2002 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7509-2749-6) Greg King, The Court of the Last Tsar: Pomp, Power and Pageantry in the Reign of Nicholas II 2006 Greg King and Penny Wilson, "The Fate of the Romanovs" 2003 Dominic Lieven, Nicholas II: Emperor of All the Russias. 1993. Andrei Maylunas and Sergei Mironenko, A Lifelong Passion: Nicholas & Alexandra 1999 Marvin Lyons, Nicholas II The Last Tsar, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974 (hardcover, ISBN 0 7100 7802 1) Shay McNeal, "The Secret Plot to Save the Tsar" 2001 Robert K. Massie, Nicholas and Alexandra 1967 Robert K. Massie, The Romanovs. The Final Chapter 1995, ISBN 0394580486 Bernard Pares, "The Fall of the Russian Monarchy" London: 1939, reprint London: 1988 and Konstantin Pleshakov, The Flight of the Romanovs. 1999. Edvard Radzinsky, The Last Tsar: The Life and Death of Nicholas II (1992) ISBN 0-385-42371-3 Mark D. Steinberg and Vladimir M. Khrustalev, The Fall of the Romanovs: Political Dreams and Personal Struggles in a Time of Revolution, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995. Anthony Summers and Tom Mangold, The File on the Tsar. 1976. Richard Tames, Last of the Tsars, London, Pan Books Ltd, 1972 Andrew M. Verner, The Crisis of the Russian Autocracy: Nicholas II and the 1905 Revolution 1990 Ian Vorres, The Last Grand Duchess, London, Finedawn Publishers, 1985 (hardcover) Richard Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, vol. 2 2000 Prince Felix Yussupov, Lost Splendour Elisabeth Heresch, "Nikolaus II. Feigheit, Lüge und Verrat". F.A.Herbig Verlagsbuchhandlung, München, 1992 The Complete Wartime Correspondence of Tsar Nicholas II and the Empress Alexandra, April 1914 – March 1917. Edited by Joseph T. Furhmann Fuhrmann. Westport, Conn. and London: 1999 Letters of Tsar Nicholas and Empress Marie Ed. Edward J. Bing. London: 1937 Letters of the Tsar to the Tsaritsa, 1914–1917 Trans. from Russian translations from the original English. E. L. Hynes. London and New York: 1929. Nicky-Sunny Letters: correspondence of the Tsar and Tsaritsa, 1914–1917. Hattiesburg, Miss: 1970. The Secret Letters of the Last Tsar: Being the Confidential Correspondence between Nicholas II and his Mother, Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna. Ed. Edward J. Bing. New York and Toronto: 1938 Willy-Nicky Correspondence: Being the Secret and Intimate Telegrams Exchanged Between the Kaiser and the Tsar. Ed. Herman Bernstein. New York: 1917. Paul Benckendorff, Last Days at Tsarskoe Selo. London: 1927 Sophie Buxhoeveden, The Life and Tragedy of Alexandra Fedorovna, Empress of Russia: A Biography London: 1928 Pierre Gilliard, Thirteen Years at the Russian Court New York: 1921 A. A. Mossolov (Mosolov), At the Court of the Last Tsar London: 1935 Anna Vyrubova, Memories of the Russian Court London: 1923 A.Yarmolinsky, editor, "The Memoirs of Count Witte" New York & Toronto: 1921 Sir George Buchanan (British Ambassador) My Mission to Russia & Other Diplomatic Memories (2 vols, Cassell, 1923) Meriel Buchanan, Dissolution of an Empire, Cassell, 1932 Gleb Botkin, The Real Romanovs, Fleming H. Revell Co, 1931 Mark D. Steinberg and Vladimir M. Khrustalev, The Fall of the Romanovs: Political Dreams and Personal Struggles in a Time of Revolution. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995 External links The Execution of Tsar Nicholas II, 1918, EyeWitness to History. Brief Summary of Czar Abdication Proclamation, 2 March 1917 (the signature was put in pencil) (translation included) Letters of Nicholas II Tsar at Stavka Letters of the Tsar to the Tsaritsa 1914–17. Letters of Tsaritsa to the Tsar 1914–17. Letters of Nicholas II written from exile. At the Court of the Last Tsar — the memoirs of Mossolov, head of Nicholas's Court Chancellery from 1900–16. Last Days at Tsarskoe Selo by Count Paul Beckendorff. Thirteen Years at the Russian Court by Pierre Gilliard. Six Years at the Russian Court by Margaret Eager. Memories of the Russian Court by Anna Vyrubova. Marriage Ceremony of Nicholas and Alexandra. Nicholas and Alexandra Exhibition Frozentears.org A Media Library to Nicholas II and his Family. Yakov Yurovsky's account of the Execution of the Imperial Family Scientists Reopen Tsar Mystery Ipatiev House — Romanov Memorial An immensely detailed site on the historical context, circumstances and drama surrounding the Romanov's execution. The Murder of Russia's Imperial Family, Nicolay Sokolov. Investigation of execution of the Romanov Imperial Family in 1918. Nikolai II — Life and Death, Edvard Radzinski. Later published in English as The Last Tsar: the Life and Death of Nicholas II. New Russian Martyrs. Tsar Nicholas and His Family. A story of life, canonization. Photoalbum. Russian History Magazine Articles about the Romanovs from Atlantis magazine. Russia's Last Czar Declared Victim of Repression - October 2008 (TIME magazine) |- |-

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Bambara_language

The historic heartland of the Bambara people. Bambara, also known as Bamanankan in the language itself (literally "the language of the Bamanan"), is a language spoken in Mali by as many as six million people (including second language users). The differences between Bambara and Dioula are minimal. Dioula is a language spoken or understood by a lesser number of people in Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, and The Gambia. The Bambara language is the mother tongue of the Bambara ethnic group, numbering about 2,700,000 people, but serves also as a lingua franca in Mali (it is estimated that about 80% of the population speaks it as a first or second language). Bambara belongs to a group of closely-related languages called Manding, within the larger Mandé group. It is an SOV language and has two tones. It uses seven vowels a, e, , i, o, and u (the letters approximate their IPA equivalents). Writing was introduced during the French occupation and alphabetisation is a major issue especially in rural areas. Although written literature is only slowly evolving (due to the predominance of French as the "language of the educated"), there exists a wealth of oral literature, which is often tales of kings and heroes. This oral literature is mainly tradited by the "Griots" (Jɛliw in Bambara) who are a mixture of storytellers, praise singers and human history books who have studied the trade of singing and reciting for many years. Many of their songs are very old and are said to date back to the old kingdom of Mali. Bambara is a national language of Mali, and also the most widely understood language in Mali. Bambara has many local dialects. Some dialect variants: Somono, Segou, San, Beledugu, Ganadugu, Wasulu and Sikasso. Jula (Dioula) Jula is a dialect in the Manding linguistic continuum and is closely related to Bambara. It is a widely-used trade language in West Africa. Writing Since the seventies Bambara has mostly been written in the Latin alphabet, using some additional phonetic characters. The vowels are a, e, (formerly è), i, o, (formerly ò), u; accents can be used to indicate tonality. The former digraph ny is now written or ñ (Senegal). The ambiguous digraph "ng" represented both the sound of English "finger" and the of "singer". The 1966 Bamako spelling conventions render the latter sound as "ŋ". The N'Ko alphabet is a script devised by Solomana Kante in 1949 as a writing system for the Mande languages of West Africa; N’Ko means 'I say' in all Mande languages. Kante created N’Ko in response to what he felt were beliefs that Africans were a "cultureless people" since prior to this time there had been no indigenous African writing system for his language. N'ko came first into use in Kankan, Guinea as a Maninka alphabet and disseminated from there into other Mande-speaking parts of West Africa. N'ko and the Arabic script are still in use for Bambara, although the Latin alphabet is much more common. Grammar Bambara belongs to a group of closely-related languages called Manding (related to Mandinka, Mande language group). It is an SOV language and has two (mid/standard and high) tones; e.g. sa 'death' vs. sá 'snake.' The typical argument structure of the language consists of a subject, followed by an aspectival auxiliary, followed by the direct object, and finally a transitive verb. Naturally, if the verb is intransitive, the direct object is not found. Bambara does not inflect for gender. Gender for a noun can be specified by adding a suffix, -ce or -ke for male and -muso for female. The plural is formed by attaching -w to words. Bambara uses postpositions in much the same manner than languages like English and French use prepositions. These postpositions are found after the verb and are used to express direction, location, and in some cases, possession. In urban areas, many Bambara conjunctions have been replaced in everyday use by French borrowings that often mark code-switches. The Bamako dialect makes use of sentences like: N taara Kita mais il n'y avait personne là-bas. : I went to Kita [Bambara] but there was no one there [French]. The sentence in Bambara alone would be N taara Kita nka mgsi tunt yen. The French proposition "est-ce-que" is also used in Bambara, however it is pronounced more slowly and as three syllables; "ess uh kuh". Bambara uses many French loan words. For example, some people might say: I ka kulosi ye jauni ye: "Your skirt is yellow" (using a derivation of the French word for yellow, jaune.) However, one could also say: I ka kulosi ye neremuguman ye, also meaning "your skirt is yellow." The original Bambara word for yellow comes from "neremugu," mugu being flour made from nere, a seed from a long seed pod. Neremugu is often used in sauces in Southern Mali. Most French loan words are suffixed with the sound 'i'; this is particularly common when using French words which have a meaning not traditionally found in Mali. For example, the Bambara word for snow is niegei, based on the French word for snow neige. As there has never been snow in Mali, there has not been a traditional meaning for the word and thus no unique word in Bambara to describe it. Examples N b bamanankan mn dni-dni I understand/hear a little bit of Bambara (lit: I aux positive Bambara hear small-small) I tna dumuni ke wa? Aren't you going to eat? (lit: you aux negative future eating do question particle) Music Malian artists such as Oumou Sangaré, Rokia Traore, Ali Farka Toure, Salif Keita, Habib Koité, and the blind couple Amadou & Mariam often sing in Bambara. Alpha Blondy often sings in Dioula, as does Aïda of the band, Métisse. Lyrics in Bambara occur on Stevie Wonder's soundtrack Journey through the Secret Life of Plants. Tiken Jah Fakoly (reggae) often sings in Dioula and French. Bibliography Bird, Charles & Kanté, Mamadou (1977) Bambara-English, English-Bambara student lexicon. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Linguistics Club. Kastenholz, Raimund (1998) Grundkurs Bambara (Manding) mit Texten (second revised edition) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol. 1). Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. Konaré, Demba (1998) Je parle bien bamanan. Bamako: Jamana. Touré, Mohamed & Leucht, Melanie (1996) Bambara Lesebuch: Originaltexte mit deutscher und französischer Übersetzung = Chrestomathie Bambara: textes originaux Bambara avec traductions allemandes et françaises (with illustrations by Melanie Leucht) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol. 11) . Köln: Rüdiger Köppe. External links Descriptions Bambara page from Ethnologue site Mali - History - Language Dictionaries Bambara-French-English lexicon online and downloadable lexicons for language learners Bambara entries (>1000) in the French Wiktionary Bambara tree names (scientific name -> common name) Learning materials Online Bambara Course from the University of Indiana- Beginner Level Online Bambara Course from the University of Indiana- Intermediate Level Bambara phrasebook at Wikitravel Other The Rosetta Project Bambara at French Wikibooks contains more material Mandenkan Journal PanAfriL10n page on Manding (includes information on Bambara) Maneno in Bambara (a blogging platform with a full Bambara interface) See also Bambara

Bambara_language |@lemmatized historic:1 heartland:1 bambara:45 people:6 also:7 know:1 bamanankan:2 language:23 literally:1 bamanan:2 speak:3 mali:9 many:6 six:1 million:1 include:2 second:3 user:1 difference:1 dioula:5 minimal:1 understand:2 less:1 number:2 burkina:1 faso:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 gambia:1 mother:1 tongue:1 ethnic:1 group:5 serve:1 lingua:1 franca:1 estimate:1 population:1 first:2 belong:2 closely:3 related:2 call:2 manding:5 within:1 large:1 mandé:1 sov:2 two:2 tone:2 use:16 seven:1 vowel:2 e:3 u:2 letter:1 approximate:1 ipa:1 equivalent:1 writing:3 introduce:1 french:15 occupation:1 alphabetisation:1 major:1 issue:1 especially:1 rural:1 area:2 although:2 write:4 literature:3 slowly:2 evolve:1 due:1 predominance:1 educate:1 exist:1 wealth:1 oral:2 often:6 tale:1 king:1 hero:1 mainly:1 tradited:1 griot:1 jɛliw:1 mixture:1 storyteller:1 praise:1 singer:2 human:1 history:2 book:1 study:1 trade:2 singing:1 recite:1 year:1 song:1 old:2 say:4 date:1 back:1 kingdom:1 national:1 widely:2 understood:1 local:1 dialect:4 variant:1 somono:1 segou:1 san:1 beledugu:1 ganadugu:1 wasulu:1 sikasso:1 jula:2 linguistic:1 continuum:1 relate:2 west:3 africa:3 since:2 seventy:1 mostly:1 latin:2 alphabet:4 additional:1 phonetic:1 character:1 formerly:2 è:1 ò:1 accent:1 indicate:1 tonality:1 former:1 digraph:2 ny:1 ñ:1 senegal:1 ambiguous:1 ng:1 represent:1 sound:3 english:5 finger:1 bamako:3 spell:1 convention:1 render:1 latter:1 ŋ:1 n:9 ko:5 script:2 devise:1 solomana:1 kante:2 system:2 mande:4 mean:2 create:1 response:1 felt:1 belief:1 african:2 cultureless:1 prior:1 time:1 indigenous:1 come:2 kankan:1 guinea:1 maninka:1 disseminate:1 speaking:1 part:1 arabic:1 still:1 much:2 common:3 grammar:1 mandinka:1 mid:1 standard:1 high:1 g:1 sa:1 death:1 v:1 sá:1 snake:1 typical:1 argument:1 structure:1 consist:1 subject:1 follow:2 aspectival:1 auxiliary:1 direct:2 object:2 finally:1 transitive:1 verb:3 naturally:1 intransitive:1 find:3 inflect:1 gender:2 noun:1 specify:1 add:1 suffix:2 ce:2 ke:2 male:1 muso:1 female:1 plural:1 form:1 attach:1 w:1 word:10 postposition:2 manner:1 like:2 preposition:1 express:1 direction:1 location:1 case:1 possession:1 urban:1 conjunction:1 replace:1 everyday:1 borrowing:1 mark:1 code:1 switch:1 make:2 sentence:2 taara:2 kita:3 mais:1 il:1 avait:1 personne:1 là:1 ba:1 go:2 one:2 alone:1 would:1 nka:1 mgsi:1 tunt:1 yen:1 proposition:1 est:1 que:1 however:2 pronounce:1 three:1 syllable:1 es:1 uh:1 kuh:1 loan:2 example:2 might:1 ka:2 kulosi:2 ye:4 jauni:1 skirt:2 yellow:4 derivation:1 jaune:1 could:1 neremuguman:1 original:1 neremugu:2 mugu:1 flour:1 nere:1 seed:2 long:1 pod:1 sauce:1 southern:1 particularly:1 meaning:2 traditionally:1 snow:3 niegei:1 base:1 neige:1 never:1 traditional:1 thus:1 unique:1 describe:1 examples:1 b:1 mn:1 dni:2 hear:2 little:1 bit:1 lit:2 aux:2 positive:1 small:2 tna:1 dumuni:1 wa:1 eat:2 negative:1 future:1 question:1 particle:1 music:1 malian:1 artist:1 oumou:1 sangaré:1 rokia:1 traore:1 ali:1 farka:1 toure:1 salif:1 keita:1 habib:1 koité:1 blind:1 couple:1 amadou:1 mariam:1 sing:3 alpha:1 blondy:1 aïda:1 band:1 métisse:1 lyric:1 occur:1 stevie:1 wonder:1 soundtrack:1 journey:1 secret:1 life:1 plant:1 tiken:1 jah:1 fakoly:1 reggae:1 bibliography:1 bird:1 charles:1 kanté:1 mamadou:1 student:1 lexicon:3 bloomington:1 indiana:3 univ:1 linguistics:1 club:1 kastenholz:1 raimund:1 grundkurs:1 mit:2 texten:1 revise:1 edition:1 afrikawissenschaftliche:2 lehrbücher:2 vol:2 köln:2 rüdiger:2 köppe:2 konaré:1 demba:1 je:1 parle:1 bien:1 jamana:1 touré:1 mohamed:1 leucht:2 melanie:2 lesebuch:1 originaltexte:1 deutscher:1 und:1 französischer:1 übersetzung:1 chrestomathie:1 textes:1 originaux:1 avec:1 traductions:1 allemande:1 et:1 françaises:1 illustration:1 external:1 link:1 description:1 page:2 ethnologue:1 site:1 dictionary:1 online:3 downloadable:1 learner:1 entry:1 wiktionary:1 tree:1 name:3 scientific:1 learning:1 material:2 course:2 university:2 beginner:1 level:2 intermediate:1 phrasebook:1 wikitravel:1 rosetta:1 project:1 wikibooks:1 contain:1 mandenkan:1 journal:1 information:1 maneno:1 blogging:1 platform:1 full:1 interface:1 see:1 |@bigram burkina_faso:1 faso_côte:1 côte_ivoire:1 lingua_franca:1 closely_related:2 closely_relate:1 transitive_verb:1 inflect_gender:1 ce_que:1 seed_pod:1 stevie_wonder:1 bloomington_indiana:1 köln_rüdiger:2 rüdiger_köppe:2 external_link:1

Decca_Navigator_System

Decca Navigator Mk 12 The Decca Navigator System was a hyperbolic low frequency radio navigation system (also known as multilateration) that was first deployed during World War II when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case with Loran C, its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. Fishing vessels were major post-war users, but it was also used on aircraft, including a very early (1949) application of moving-map displays. The system was deployed extensively in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to oil platforms. After being shut down in the spring of 2000, it has been superseded by systems such as the American GPS and the planned European GALILEO positioning system. It was deployed in the United Kingdom after World War II and later used in many areas around the world. Decca employees used to joke that DECCA was an acronym for Dedicated Englishmen Causing Chaos Abroad. Principles of Operation Overview The Decca Navigator principle. The phase difference between the signals received from stations A (Master) and B (Slave) is constant along each hyperbolic curve. The foci of the hyperbola are at the transmitting stations, A and B. The Decca Navigator System consisted of a number of land-based stations organised into chains. Each chain consisted of a Master station and three (occasionally two) Slave stations, termed Red, Green and Purple. Ideally, the Slaves would be positioned at the vertices of an equilateral triangle with the Master at the centre. The baseline length, i.e. the Master-Slave distance, was typically 60~120 nautical miles. Each station transmitted a continuous wave signal that, by comparing the phase difference of the signals from the Master and one of the Slaves, resulted in a set of hyperbolic lines of position called a pattern. As there were three Slaves there were three patterns, termed Red, Green and Purple. The patterns were drawn on nautical charts as a set of hyperbolic lines in the appropriate colour. Receivers identified which hyperbola they were on and a position could be plotted at the intersection of the hyperbola from different patterns, usually by using the pair with the angle of cut closest to orthogonal as possible. Detailed Principles of Operation When two stations transmit at the same phase-locked frequency, the difference in phase between the two signals is constant along a hyperbolic path. Of course, if two stations transmit on the same frequency, it is practically impossible for the receiver to separate them; so instead of all stations transmitting at the same frequency, each chain was allocated a nominal frequency, 1f, and each station in the chain transmitted at a harmonic of this base frequency, as follows: Station Harmonic Frequency (kHz) Master 6f 85.000 Purple Slave 5f 70.833 Red Slave 8f 113.333 Green Slave 9f 127.500 The frequencies given are those for Chain 5B, known as the English Chain, but all chains used similar frequencies between 70 kHz and 129 kHz. Decca receivers multiplied the signals received from the Master and each Slave by different values to arrive at a common frequency (least common multiple, LCM) for each Master/Slave pair, as follows: Pattern Slave Harmonic Slave Multiplier Master Harmonic Master Multiplier Common Frequency Purple 5f ×6 6f ×5 30f Red 8f ×3 6f ×4 24f Green 9f ×2 6f ×3 18f It was phase comparison at this common frequency that resulted in the hyperbolic lines of position. The interval between two adjacent hyperbolas on which the signals are in phase was called a lane. Since the wavelength of the common frequency was small compared with the distance between the Master and Slave stations there were many possible lines of position for a given phase difference, and so a unique position could not be arrived at by this method. Other receivers, typically for aeronautical applications, divided the transmitted frequencies down to the basic frequency (1f) for phase comparison, rather than multiplying them up to the LCM frequency. Lanes and Zones Early Decca receivers were fitted with three rotating Decometers that indicated the phase difference for each pattern. Each Decometer drove a second indicator that counted the number of lanes traversed – each 360 degrees of phase difference was one lane traversed. In this way, assuming the point of departure was known, a more or less distinct location could be identified. The lanes were grouped into zones, with 18 green, 24 red, or 30 purple lanes in each zone. This meant that on the baseline (the straight line between the Master and its Slave) the zone width was the same for all three patterns of a given chain. Typical lane and zone widths on the baseline are shown in the table below (for chain 5B): Lane or Zone Width on Baseline Purple lane 352.1 m Red lane 440.1 m Green lane 586.8 m Zones (all patterns) 10563 m The lanes were numbered 0 to 23 for red, 30 to 47 for green and 50 to 79 for purple. The zones were labelled A to J, repeating after J. A Decca position coordinate could thus be written: Red I 16.30; Green D 35.80. Later receivers incorporated a microprocessor and displayed a position in latitude and longitude. Multipulse Multipulse provided an automatic method of lane and zone identification by using the same phase comparison techniques described above on lower frequency signals. The nominally continuous wave transmissions were in fact divided into a 20 second cycle, with each station in turn simultaneously transmitting all four Decca frequencies (5f, 6f, 8f and 9f) in a phase-coherent relationship for a brief period of 0.45 seconds each cycle. This transmission, known as Multipulse, allowed the receiver to extract the 1f frequency and so to identify which lane the receiver was in (to a resolution of a zone). As well as transmitting the Decca frequencies of 5f, 6f, 8f and 9f, an 8.2f signal, known as Orange, was also transmitted. The beat frequency between the 8.0f (Red) and 8.2f (Orange) signals allowed a 0.2f signal to be derived and so resulted in a hyperbolic pattern in which one cycle (360°) of phase difference equates to 5 zones. Assuming that one’s position was known to this accuracy, this gave an effectively unique position. Range and Accuracy During daylight ranges of around could be obtained, reducing at night to 200 to , depending on propagation conditions. The accuracy depended on: Width of the lanes Angle of cut of the hyperbolic lines of position Instrumental errors Propagation errors (e.g. Skywave) By day these errors could range from a few meters on the baseline up to a nautical mile at the edge of coverage. At night, skywave errors were greater and on receivers without multipulse capabilities it was not unusual for the position to jump a lane, sometimes without the navigator knowing. Although in the days of differential GPS this range and accuracy may appear poor, in its day the Decca system was one of the few, if not the only, position fixing system available to many mariners. Since the need for an accurate position is less when the vessel is further from land, the reduced accuracy at long ranges was not a great problem. History Origins In 1936 William J. O'Brien, an American engineer, contracted tuberculosis which put his career on hold for a period of two years. During this period he had the idea of position fixing by means of phase comparison of continuous wave transmissions. The initial market envisaged was for aircraft and some experiments were carried out in California in 1938. However both the American Army and Navy considered the idea too complicated. O’Brien had a friend, Harvey F. Schwarz, who was chief engineer of the Decca Record company in England, and in 1939 sent him details of the system so it could be put forward to the British military. Initially Robert Watson-Watt reviewed the system but he did not follow it up. However, in October 1941 the British Admiralty Signal Establishment (ASE) became interested in the system, which was then classified as Admiralty Outfit QM. O’Brien came over to the UK and conducted the first marine trials between Anglesey and the Isle of Man, at frequencies of 305/610 kHz, on 16 September 1942. These were successful and further trials were conducted in the northern Irish Sea in April 1943 at 70/130 kHz. A three-station trial was held in conjunction with a large-scale assault and landing exercise in the Moray Firth in February/March 1944. The success of the trials and the relative ease of use and accuracy of the system resulted in Decca receiving an order for 27 Admiralty Outfit QM receivers. The receiver consisted of an electronics unit with two dials and was known to its operators as the "Blue Gasmeter Job". A Decca chain was set up, consisting of a master station at Chichester and slaves at Swanage and Beachy Head. A fourth, decoy, transmitter was located in the Thames Estuary as part of the deception that the invasion would be focussed on the Calais area. Twenty-one minesweepers and other vessels were fitted with Admiralty Outfit QM and on 5 June 1944 they used it to accurately navigate across the English Channel and to sweep the minefields in the planned areas. The swept areas were marked with buoys in preparation for the Normandy Landings. After the initial ship tests, Decca conducted tests in cars, driving in the Kingston By-Pass area to verify receiver accuracy. In the car installation, it was found possible to navigate within an individual traffic lane. The company entertained high hopes that the system could be used in aircraft, to permit much more precise navigation in the critical airspace around airports and urban centers where traffic density was highest. Deployment After the end of World War II the Decca Navigator Co. Ltd. was formed (1945) and the system expanded rapidly, particularly in areas of British influence; at its peak it was deployed in many of the world's major shipping areas. More than 15,000 receiving sets were in use aboard ships in 1970. There were 4 chains around England, 1 in Ireland and 2 in Scotland, 12 in Scandinavia (5 each in Norway and Sweden and 1 each in Denmark and Finland), a further 4 elsewhere in northern Europe and 2 in Spain. In the late 1950s an experimental Decca chain was set up in the United States, in the New York area, to be used for navigating the Vertol 107 helicopters of New York Airways. These helicopters were operating from the principal local airports--John F. Kennedy Airport on Long Island, Newark Airport in New Jersey, LaGuardia Airport in the Borough of Queens, nearer to Manhattan, and a site on the top of the (then) PanAm Building on Park Avenue. Use of Decca was essential because its signals could be received down to sea level, were not subject to the line-of-sight limitations of VOR/DME and did not suffer the slant-range errors that create problems with VOR/DME close to the transmitters. The Decca installations in the New York Airways helicopters included the unique Decca 'roller map' displays that enabled the pilot to see his or her position at a glance, a concept unfeasible with VOR/DME. This chain installation was considered highly controversial at the time, for political reasons. This led to the U.S. Coast Guard, under instructions from the Treasury Department to which it reported, banning the use of Decca receivers in ships entering New York harbor for fear that the system might create a de facto standard (as it had become in other areas of the world). Other chains were established in Japan (6 chains); Namibia and South Africa (5 chains); India and Bangladesh (4 chains); Canada (4 chains around Newfoundland and Nova Scotia); North-West Australia (2 chains); the Persian Gulf (1 chain with stations in Qatar and the United Arab Emirates and a second chain in the north of the Gulf with stations in Iran) and the Bahamas (1 chain). Four chains were planned for Nigeria but only 2 chains were built and these did not enter into public service. There were also two chains in Vietnam which were used during the Vietnam War for helicopter navigation, with limited success. Decca, Racal, and the closedown Decca Navigator was headquartered at New Malden, Surrey, just off the Kingston by-pass. There was a Decca School, at Brixham, Devon, where employees were sent on courses from time to time. Racal, the UK weapons and communications company, acquired Decca in 1980. Claiming the acquisition was to acquire Decca's radar company, rather than the avionics side of the business, it sold off parts including Decca Navigator. The monopoly on leased, not purchased, receivers by Decca generated great wealth for the company. This monopoly was later broken in the early 1980s when receivers could be purchased by users, thereby reducing the cost following the lapse of the patent on the basic system technology. A Danish company started manufacturing receivers for fishing boats which employed Decca's navigation charts, but users didn't pay rental for using the system. In the ensuing court battle Decca lost the monopoly, and that signalled the beginning of the end. Income dwindled and eventually, the UK Ministry of Transport stepped in, having the lighthouse authorities take responsibility for operating the system in the early 1990s. A ruling from the European Union forced the UK government to withdraw funding - for fishermen users - and started the process which eventually resulted in the system being closed down and the installations scrapped. The Decca Navigator System provided by the General Lighthouse Authorities ceased to operate at midnight on 31 March 2000. The Irish chain provided by Bórd Iascaigh Mhara continued transmitting until 19 May 2000. Japan holds the distinction of being the last bastion of Decca having closed down the Hokkaidō chain (9C) in March 2001. This was one year later than the UK closure. Hokkaidō was also the first Decca chain to open in Japan in the year 1967. Other Applications A more accurate system named Hi-Fix was developed using signalling in the 1.6 MHz range. It was used for specialised applications such as precision measurements involved with oil-drilling, etc. Other systems were used in the Middle East. An interesting characteristic discovered on BOAC, later British Airways, test flights to Moscow, was that the carrier switching could not be detected even though the carrier could be received with sufficient strength to provide navigation. Such testing, involving civilian aircraft, is quite common and may well not be in the knowledge of a pilot. The 'low frequency' signalling of the Decca system also permitted its use on submarines. One 'enhancement' of the Decca system was to offer the potential of keying the signal, using Morse code, to signal the onset of nuclear war. This was never optioned by the UK government. Messages were clandestinely sent, however, between Decca stations thereby bypassing international telephone calls, especially in non-UK chains. A long range trans North Atlantic system was in operation from the mid nineteen fifties. It was called DECTRA. It utilised two stations in Newfoundland and two in Scotland. The transmissions used normal "pattern" transmitters of a much higher power than on standard DECCA frequencies. It was intended as an air navigational aid. Special DECCA towers Puckeridge DECCA tower Zeven DECCA-transmitter References The Decca Navigator - Principles and Performance of the System, The Decca Navigator Company Limited, July 1976 Night Passage to Normandy, Lieutenant-Commander Oliver Dawkins, R.N.V.R, Decca, 1969 The Decca Navigator System on D-Day, 6 June 1944, An Acid Test, Commander Hugh St. A. Malleson, R.N. (Ret.) Hyperbolic Radionavigation Systems, Compiled by Jerry Proc VE3FAB, 2007 Navigation Systems: A Survey of Modern Electronic Aids, ed. G.E. Beck, van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971 External links Decca Navigator System by Jerry Proc A virtual tour of a Decca Main Chain Decca Navigator Spain by Santiago Insua (in spanish) Decca Navigator Station Zeven (Germany)

Decca_Navigator_System |@lemmatized decca:49 navigator:15 mk:1 system:31 hyperbolic:9 low:3 frequency:24 radio:1 navigation:7 also:6 know:8 multilateration:1 first:3 deploy:4 world:6 war:6 ii:3 allied:1 force:2 need:2 could:13 use:24 achieve:1 accurate:3 landing:2 case:1 loran:1 c:1 primary:1 ship:5 coastal:1 water:1 fishing:1 vessel:3 major:2 post:1 user:4 aircraft:4 include:3 early:4 application:4 move:1 map:2 display:3 extensively:1 north:4 sea:3 helicopter:5 operate:4 oil:2 platform:1 shut:1 spring:1 supersede:1 american:3 gps:2 plan:2 european:2 galileo:1 position:17 united:3 kingdom:1 later:4 many:4 area:9 around:5 employee:2 joke:1 acronym:1 dedicated:1 englishman:1 cause:1 chaos:1 abroad:1 principle:4 operation:3 overview:1 phase:14 difference:7 signal:16 receive:6 station:20 master:13 b:2 slave:16 constant:2 along:2 curve:1 focus:2 hyperbola:4 transmitting:1 consist:4 number:2 land:3 base:2 organise:1 chain:30 three:6 occasionally:1 two:10 term:2 red:9 green:8 purple:7 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civilian:1 quite:1 knowledge:1 signalling:1 submarine:1 enhancement:1 offer:1 potential:1 key:1 morse:1 code:1 onset:1 nuclear:1 never:1 optioned:1 message:1 clandestinely:1 bypass:1 international:1 telephone:1 especially:1 non:1 trans:1 atlantic:1 mid:1 nineteen:1 fifty:1 dectra:1 utilise:1 normal:1 power:1 intend:1 air:1 navigational:1 aid:2 special:1 tower:2 puckeridge:1 zeven:2 reference:1 performance:1 limit:1 july:1 passage:1 lieutenant:1 commander:2 oliver:1 dawkins:1 r:3 n:2 v:1 acid:1 hugh:1 st:1 malleson:1 ret:1 radionavigation:1 compile:1 jerry:2 proc:2 survey:1 modern:1 electronic:1 ed:1 beck:1 van:1 nostrand:1 reinhold:1 external:1 link:1 virtual:1 tour:1 main:1 santiago:1 insua:1 spanish:1 germany:1 |@bigram decca_navigator:14 equilateral_triangle:1 nautical_mile:2 nautical_chart:1 practically_impossible:1 latitude_longitude:1 moray_firth:1 thames_estuary:1 normandy_landing:1 laguardia_airport:1 de_facto:1 nova_scotia:1 persian_gulf:1 arab_emirate:1 oil_drilling:1 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Hengist_and_Horsa

Imaginary depiction of Hengest from John Speed's Saxon Heptarchy, 1611 Hengest or Hengist (d. 488? John Morby, Dynasties of the World: a chronological and genealogical handbook (Oxford University Press, 1989), page 64. ) was the semi-legendary founding ruler of the kingdom of Kent in southeast England. His name is common Germanic for "stallion". He is paired in the early sources with his brother Horsa ("horse"). Accounts of Hengest There are several early sources that refer to a "Hengest". The earliest clear source is Bede, whose Ecclesiastical History of the English People (written about 730) states that Hengest was brought to Britain by Vortigern as a mercenary, to fight the Picts. ; Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, ch. XV Though Bede's dating, placed at some point between 449 and 455, cannot be treated as definite, it is generally believed that Hengest established the Kingdom of Kent around 455 AD. John Morby, Dynasties of the World: a chronological and genealogical handbook (Oxford, Oxfordshire, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1989), page 64. As many auxiliary garrisons near Hadrian's wall were Frisian Examples are Cuneus Frisiorum Vinoviensium (3rd century), Cuneus Frisiorum Vercoviciensium (early 3rd century), Cohors I Frisiavonum (Frixagorum) (3rd-4th century). Hengist has been identified as of Frisian stock W. F. Skene (2002). "On the Early Frisian Settlements in Scotland", PSAS 4, 169-181 . However, Bede also says that Hengest was a Jute, and that the Jutes settled in Kent and the Isle of Wight; Saxons and Angles settled the south and east of England, respectively. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives a similar version of Hengest's arrival, apparently using Bede as a source; this part of the Chronicle probably dates from the late ninth century. The Historia Britonum (ca 830) gives a full genealogy of Hengest and identifies him as a descendant of Finn, king of the Frisians Historia Britonum III, 31. . There is also a character named Hengest who appears in two Old English poems: "The Fight at Finnsburg" and Beowulf. Taking the two poems together, it is apparent that Hengest is a member of King Hnaef the Dane's company, who on Hnaef's death leads his men against King Finn of Frisia. There is no particular reason to assume that because Hengest is part of Hnaef's force he must be a Dane: also among Hnaef's followers is Sigeferth a prince of the Secgan. Hengest comes across as an important character in his own right. He is described as an exile, and that he is a Jutish mercenary in Hnaef's service is a very plausible hypothesis. Alan Bliss suggests he might even be seen best as an Angle. Bliss, editing J. R. R. Tolkien, "Finn and Hengest". The Beowulf and Finnesburg references are by no means necessarily to the same person as the mercenary described by Bede, but it has been conjectured that they are. P. Hunter Blair has suggested that in Hengist we may have a history of a Danish chieftain's progression from Denmark, to Frisia, to southern England, in about the first half of the fifth century. It has also been suggested that Hengest is a purely mythical figure, though it is clear from archaeological evidence that Germanic settlements in Kent had definitely begun by the time Hengest is supposed to have come to Britain. The distinction Bede draws betweens Jutes, Angles and Saxons is also supported by fact that artefacts from Kent are distinctively different from those found elsewhere in the country, implying a different cultural origin for Kentish settlers. Following his victories over the Picts, Hengest invited more immigrants from Germania to settle in Britannia and then rebelled against Vortigern because the Britons refused to make an agreed payment, establishing himself as king in Kent. Both Hengest and Horsa are described as being Jutes, and sons of a Jutish chief named Wihtgils. Nevertheless, all that Bede’s Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People), completed in 731, says of Hengest’s descent is: “Their first leaders (duces) were two brothers Hengist and Horsa; ... They were the sons of Uictgils, his father Uitta, his father Uecta, his father Uoden, from his stock is drawn the royal race of many provinces.” Bede, Book I, chapter 15: Duces fuisse perhibentur eorum primi duo fratres Hengist et Horsa; ... Erant autem filii Uictgilsi, cuius pater Uitta, cuius pater Uecta, cuius pater Uoden, de cuius stirpe multarum prouinciarum regium genus originem duxit. (on-line text at "The Latin Library"). Uoden, West Saxon Wōden, is the same as the Odin of Scandinavian tradition. In the foreword section 4 of the Prose Edda Snorri Sturluson gives another pedigree for Hengest, Heingest,from “Odin” : </blockquote> “Then set Odin his three sons to guard the land. The first was named Vegdeg, he was a mighty king and ruled over East Saxony (‘Austr-Saxalandi’), his sons were Vitrgils (=Uictgils) and Vitta (=Uitta), father of Hengest (‘Heingest’), and Sigarr, father of Svegdeg, who we (i.e. the Icelanders) call Svipdag.” Þar setr Óðinn til landgæzlu þrjá sonu sína. Er einn nefndr Vegdeg, var hann ríkr konungr ok réð fyrir Austr-Saxalandi, hans synir váru þeir Vitrgils ok Vitta, faðir Heingests, ok Sigarr, faðir Svegdeg, er vér köllum Svipdag. ( on-line text at Texti Trektarbókar) </blockquote> Doubted historicity The historical existence of Hengest and Horsa has been called into question many times, with many historians labelling these two as legendary 'divine twins' or culture heroes along the order of Romulus and Remus. It is perhaps likelier that: Hengest, meaning 'Stallion' in Anglo-Saxon (in modern German and Dutch Hengst and in the Scandinavian languages Hingst is still the word for a stallion), was an honorific name or nickname for an officer (cf. colloquial English "stud" for a strong, virile male, originally denoting a stallion used for breeding. The German equivalent of "stud" for a human male is actually Hengst). Horsa was a later accretion to the story: see Horsa. Hengest and Horsa Horsa, according to tradition, was the brother of Hengest. His name Horsa (genitive Horsan) looks like a hypocoristic form for a compound word name whose first component is Hors-. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for 455 says that "Here Hengest and Horsa fought against King Vortigern in the place that is called Aylesford, and his brother Horsa was killed, and after that Hengest and his son Æsc took the kingdom." "Her Hengest ⁊ Horsa fuhton wiþ Wyrtgeorne þam cyninge, in þære stowe þe is gecueden Agælesþrep, ⁊ his broþur Horsan man ofslog; ⁊ æfter þam Hengest feng to rice ⁊ Æsc his sunu." See Battle of Aylesford, Kent. It is said that a monument was raised in his memory, White Horse Stone near Maidstone being the traditional site, but twin warriors are a common theme in folklore, and because Bede, our earliest witness to Horsa's existence, mentions a stone that recorded his name, recent scholars have speculated that perhaps: His name came from a Roman inscription which was illegible except for part of the Latin word cohors (genitive cohortis). That stone may have been Horsa's supposed gravestone. In the later medieval tradition Later accounts in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Historia Britonum, Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, and Wace's Roman de Brut add further details from tradition and legend about Hengest's career. The most famous of these include the tale of his beautiful daughter Rowena who seduces Vortigern. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle dates his death to 488, but does not provide a cause. Geoffrey of Monmouth states Hengest was captured in battle by Eldol, Duke of Gloucester and subsequently beheaded by Eldol's brother, Eldadus, the Bishop of Gloucester. The Anonymous Short English Metrical Chronicle of the Auchinleck Manuscript dated to the 1330s NLS Adv. MS 19.2.1, ff.304ra-317rb; Auchinleck Manuscript , has a lengthy section on 'Hengist', Auchinleck Manuscript f.307vb-f.308vb, lines 655 to 876. who is wrongly considered by the author as an ancient king of the Britons who reigned a hundred and fifty years Auchinleck Manuscript. . The foundation of the towns of Lincoln, Hereford, Worcester,Shrewsbury, Stafford, Chester,Oxford, Reading, Wallingford,Cambridge, Huntingdon, Bedford, Northampton, Gloucester, Threckingham, Dudley, Evesham, Durham, Newcastle and Carlisle are therein attributed to him. Also the establishment of the institution of parliament; the establishment of the institutions of shire and hundred; the measurement of furlong and mile; the building of Stonehenge, which is there derived from his name; the re-naming of London 'Hengisthon'; the conjuring of three hundred fiends to build a stone bridge twenty miles over the sea to France; the conquest of many lands beyond the sea; the begetting of thirty-five children (twenty-seven sons and eight daughters) by seven wives! In the Anonymous Short English Metrical Chronicle Hengest’s proper place in the accepted chronology is taken by ‘maiden Inge’ (lines 1263 to 1344) who is obviously a confusion of Hengest and the originally unnamed ‘filia Hencgisti’ who first turns up in capitulus 37 of the Historia Britonum. In culture Hengest is a character in the Fight at Finnsburg narrated in the Finnsburg Fragment and the Beowulf poem. In these texts, Hengest is a Danish warrior who takes control of the Danish forces after the prince Hnæf is killed, and succeeds in killing the Frisian lord Finn in revenge for his lord's death. The events in these accounts had a historical basis, and have been supposed by historians to occur in approximately AD 450. This makes these events contemporary with the Anglo-Saxon invasion of England, though what connection (if any) exists between the two Hengests is unknown. Nevertheless, some have speculated that the two Hengests are one and the same. A point against this theory is the fact that one Hengest is described as a Jute and the other a Dane, though this does not serve as a conclusive disproof, as distinctions between adjacent groups (both Jutes and Danes lived in Denmark) were sometimes vague. Hengest is the subject of the 1620 play Hengist, King of Kent, or The Mayor of Quinborough by Thomas Middleton. Hengest appears in the Rosemary Sutcliff novel The Lantern Bearers. In the 2008 film Merlin and the War of the Dragons, Hengist is shown to be a knight serving under King Vortigern. The Reputed Arms of Hengest Edward Hasted The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent: Volume 1, 1797C.E. p.62, citing Verstegan informs us that the arms of Hengest were a white horse (see White horse of Kent) on a red field. 'General history: Kings of Kent (Hengist to Baldred)', The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent: Volume 1 (1797), pp. 62-80. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=53757 Date accessed: 27 November 2008. The German city of Bünde in Westphalia has on its arms two knights who are shaking hands. Legends say that the knights are Hengist and Horsa who met where the city stands today to make a pact with each other to take over Britain. So today, in Bünde there are two streets named Hengistweg and Horsastraße. It is interesting that the two States of Germany North Rhine-Westphalia (for the westphalian part) and Lower Saxony have the white horse on red ground in their arms, which is there called the Horse of Saxony (Sachsenross). Bünde lays in the northeastern part of Westphalia at the border to Lower Saxony. See also List of monarchs of Kent Hengistbury Head Notes References The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum The Historia Britonum, attributed to Nennius Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae Wace's Roman de Brut External links The Song of the Shield Wall, with lyrics and links to recorded excerpts.

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Iberian_Peninsula

Iberian Peninsula within Europe, delineating the two main countries found within it, Spain and Portugal. Major rivers of the Iberian Peninsula: Miño/Minho, Duero/Douro, Tajo/Tejo, Guadiana, Guadalquivir, Segura, Júcar/Xúquer, Ebro/Ebre. Positions of the different countries and territories of the Iberian Peninsula. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes modern-day Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar and a very small area of France. It is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas. It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees form the northeast edge of the peninsula, separating it from the rest of Europe. In the south, it approaches the northern coast of Africa. It is the second-largest peninsula in Europe, with an area of . Name Greek name The English word Iberia was adapted from the use of the Ancient Greek word Ἱβηρία (Ibēría) by the Greek geographers under the Roman Empire to mean what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. First known use in that sense dates to 1618. The name was not then used to mean a single political country or a population speaking a single language. Strabo's Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass south (he mistakenly said west) of there. The Ancient Greeks discovered Iberia by voyaging westward. Hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term around 500 BC. Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that "it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with ... Iberia." I.163. According to Strabo III.4.19. prior historians used Iberia to mean the country "this side of the Ἶβηρος (Ibēros)" as far north as the Rhone river in France but currently they set the Pyrenees as the limit. Polybius respects that limit III.37. but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, with the Atlantic side having no name. Elsewhere III.17. he says that Saguntum is "on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia." Strabo III.4.11. refers to the Carretanians as people "of the Iberian stock" living in the Pyrenees, who are to be distinguished from either Celts or Celtiberians. Roman names When the Romans encountered the Greek geographers they used Iberia poetically and spoke of the Iberi, the population of Iberia. First mention was in 200 BC by the poet Quintus Ennius. The Romans had already had independent experience with the peoples on the peninsula during the long conflict with Carthage. The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania. As they became politically interested in the former territories of Carthage the Romans came to use Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior for "near" and "far Spain". Even at that time large sections of it were Lusitania (Portugal), Celtiberia (central Spain), Baetica (Andalusia), Cantabria (northwest Spain) and the Vascones (Basques). Strabo says III.4.19. that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, and distance them as near and far. He was living in a time when the peninsula was divided into Roman provinces, some belonging "to the people and the Senate" and some to "the Roman emperor." Baetia was distinguished by being the only one belonging "to the people." Whatever language may have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for Basque, protected by the Pyrenees. Etymology Northeast Iberian script from Huesca. "Iberia" has always been associated with the Ebro river, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ibēria was the country "this side of the Ibērus" in Strabo. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called "the whole of Spain" Hiberia because of the river Hiberus. III.3.21. The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian, uses Ibērus. With reference to this border, Polybius states that the "native name" is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination. The early range of these natives, stated by the geographers and historians to be from southern Spain to southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed "Iberian." Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence on the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must remain unknown also. Geography Overall characteristics An 18th century map of the peninsula depicting various topographical features of the land, as published in Robert Wilkinson's General Atlas, circa 1794 The Iberian peninsula extends from the southernmost extremity at Punta de Tarifa () to the northernmost extremity at Estaca de Bares Point () over a distance between lines of latitude of about based on a degree length of 111 km per degree, and from the westernmost extremity at Cabo da Roca () to the easternmost extremity at Cap de Creus () over a distance between lines of longitude at 40° N latitude of about based on an estimated degree length of about 90 km for that latitude. The irregular, roughly octagonal shape of the peninsula contained within this spherical quadrangle was compared to an ox-hide by the geographer, Strabo. III.1.3. Approximately 3/4 of the octagon is the Meseta Central, a low and rolling plateau of up to several hundred meters in altitude. Downloadable Google Books It is located roughly in the center, staggered slightly to the east and tilted slightly toward the west. (The conventional center of the Iberian Peninsula has long been considered to be Getafe just south of Madrid.) It is ringed by mountains and contains the sources of most of the rivers, which find their way through gaps in the mountain barriers on all sides. Coastline The coastline of the Iberian Peninsula is , on the Mediterranean side and on the Atlantic side. These figures sum the figures given in the Wikipedia articles on the geography of Spain and Portugal. Most figures from Internet sources on Spain and Portugal include the coastlines of the islands owned by each country and thus are not a reliable guide to the coastline of the peninsula. Moreover, the length of a coastline may vary significantly depending on where and how it is measured. The coast is a drowned one, with sea levels having risen from a minimum of to lower than today at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) to its current level at 4000 years BP. The coastal shelf created by sedimentation during that time remains below the surface; however, it was never very extensive on the Atlantic side, as the continental shelf drops rather steeply into the depths. An estimated length of Atlantic shelf is only to wide. At the isobath, on the edge, the shelf drops off to . The submarine topography of the coastal waters of the Iberian Peninsula has been studied extensively in the process of drilling for oil. Ultimately the shelf drops into the Bay of Biscay on the north (an abyss), the Iberia abyssal plain at on the west and Tagus abyssal plain to the south. In the north between the continental shelf and the abyss is an extension, the Galicia Bank, a plateau containing also the Porto, Vigo and Vasco da Gama seamounts, creating the Galicia interior basin. The southern border of these features is marked by Nazare Canyon, splitting the continental shelf and leading directly into the abyss. Mountains Mountains consist mainly of serrated ridges aligned in an east-west direction, due to the orogenic factors of the region's geologic history. Rivers generally flow through the valleys between the ridges. In a counterclockwise direction, the major mountain ranges are: the Pyrenees crossing the isthmus of the peninsula so completely as to allow no passage except by mountain road or trail or coastal road, the Cantabrian Mountains perched on the northern coastline, a series of ridges straddling Portugal and Spain: the Sierra de Guadarrama, the Sierra de Gredos, the Sierra de Gata, and the Serra da Estrela; across the south: the Sierra Morena and the Sierra Nevada. Rivers Modern countries and territories Political divisions of the Iberian Peninsula sorted by area: Country/Territory Peninsular area Share Description Spain 85% occupies most of the peninsula Portugal 15% occupies most of the west of the peninsula France <1% French Cerdagne is a small territory in the Pyrenees technically located in the Iberian peninsula Andorra <1% a northern edge of the peninsula in the Pyrenees between Spain and France Gibraltar <1% a tiny British overseas territory near the southernmost tip of the peninsula Major cities The principal urban centers are: Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao, Lisbon and Porto. Various other notable cities with smaller populations are also present on the peninsula. Ecology Forests East Atlantic flyway The Iberian Peninsula in an important stopover on the East Atlantic flyway for birds migrating from northern Europe to Africa. For example, Calidis ferruginea rests in the region of Cadiz Bay. In addition to the birds migrating through, some seven million wading birds from the north spend the winter in the estuaries and wetlands of the Iberian Peninsula, mainly at locations on the Atlantic coast. In Galicia are the Ria de Arousa (a home of Pluvialis squatarola), Ria de Ortigueira, Ria de Corme and Ria de Laxe. In Portugal the Aveiro Lagoon hosts Recurvirostra avosetta, Charadrius hiaticula, Pluvialis squatarola and Calidris minuta. Ribatejo on the Tagus River supports Recurvirostra arosetta, Pluvialis squatarola, Culidris alpina, Limosa lapponica and Tringa totanus. In the Estuário do Sado are Calidris alpina, Numenius arquata, Pluvialis squatarola and Tringa totanus. The Algarve hosts Calidris canutus, Tringa nebularia and Arenaria interpres. The Marismas de Guadalquivir region of Andalusia and the Salinas de Cadiz are especially rich in wintering wading birds: Charadrius alexandrinus, Charadrius hiaticula, Calidris alba, and Limosa limosa in addition to the others. And finally, the Ebro delta is home to all the species mentioned above. Geology Prehistory Palaeolithic Schematic rock art of the Iberian peninsula. The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited for at least 1,000,000 years as remains found in the sites at Atapuerca demonstrate. Among these sites is the cave of Gran Dolina, where six hominin skeletons, dated between 780,000 and one million years ago, were found in 1994. Experts have debated whether these skeletons belong to the species Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, or a new species called Homo antecessor. Around 200,000 BC, during the Lower Paleolithic period, Neanderthals first entered the Iberian Peninsula. Around 70,000 BC, during the Middle Paleolithic period, the last ice age began and the Neanderthal Mousterian culture was established. Around 35,000 BC, during the Upper Paleolithic, the Neanderthal Châtelperronian cultural period began. Emanating from Southern France this culture extended into Northern Iberia. It continued to exist until around 28,000 BC when Neanderthal man faced extinction, their final refuge being present-day Portugal. At about the 40th millennium BC Modern Humans entered the Iberian peninsula, coming from Southern France. Here, this genetically homogeneous population (characterized by the M173 mutation in the Y chromosome), developed the M343 mutation, giving rise to the R1b Haplogroup, still the most common in modern Portuguese and Spanish males. In Iberia, Modern Humans developed a series of different cultures, such as the Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures, some of them characterized by complex forms of Paleolithic art. Neolithic During the Neolithic expansion, various megalithic cultures developed in Iberia. An open seas navigation culture from the east Mediterranean, called the Cardium culture, also extended its influence to the eastern coasts of Iberia, possibly as early as the 5th millennium BC These people may have had some relation to the subsequent development of the Iberian civilization. Chalcolithic In the Chalcolithic or Copper Age (c. 3000 BC in Iberia) a series of complex cultures developed, which would give rise to the first civilizations in Iberia and to extensive exchange networks reaching to the Baltic, the Middle East and North Africa. At about 2150 BC the Bell Beaker culture intruded into Chalcolithic Iberia, being of Central European origin. Bronze Age Iberian Late Bronze Age since c. 1300 BC Main language areas in Iberia circa 200 BC Bronze Age cultures developed beginning c.1800 BC, when the civilization of Los Millares was followed by that of El Argar. From this center, bronze technology spread to other areas, such as those of the Bronze of Levante, South-Western Iberian Bronze and Cogotas I. In the Late Bronze Age the urban civilization of Tartessos developed in the area of modern western Andalusia, characterized by Phoenician influence and using the Tartessian script for its Tartessian language, a language isolate not related to the Iberian language. Early in the first millennium BC, several waves of Pre-Celts and Celts migrated from central Europe, thus partially changing the ethnic landscape of Iberia into Indo-European space in its northern and western regions. Proto-history By the Iron Age, starting in the 7th century BC, the global panorama in Iberia was one of complex agrarian and urban civilizations, either Pre-Celtic or Celtic (such as the Lusitanians, the Celtiberians, the Gallaeci, the Astur, or the Celtici, amongst others), the cultures of the Iberians in the eastern and southern zones of Iberia and the cultures of the Aquitanian in the western portion of the Pyrenees. The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries. Around 1100 BC Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of Gadir or Gades (modern day Cádiz) near Tartessos. In the 8th century BC the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern Empúries), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the East, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians. The Greeks are responsible for the name Iberia, after the river Iber (Ebro). In the 6th century BC the Carthaginians arrived in Iberia while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was Carthago Nova (Latin name of modern day Cartagena). History Roman Iberia Roman conquest of Hispania In 219 BC, the first Roman troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula, during the Second Punic war against the Carthaginians, and annexed it under Augustus after two centuries of war with the Celtic and Iberian tribes and the Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian colonies, resulting in the creation of the province of Hispania. It was divided into Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior during the late Roman Republic, and during the Roman Empire, it was divided into Hispania Taraconensis in the northeast, Hispania Baetica in the south and Lusitania in the southwest. Hispania supplied the Roman Empire with food, olive oil, wine and metal. The emperors Trajan, Hadrian and Theodosius I, the philosopher Seneca and the poets Martial and Lucan were born from families living in Iberia. Germanic Iberia Iberia in 560 In the early 5th century, Germanic tribes invaded the peninsula, namely the Suevi, the Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) and their allies, the Sarmatian Alans. Only the kingdom of the Suevi (Quadi and Marcomanni) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the Visigoths, who conquered all of the Iberian peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suevi kingdom and its capital city Bracara (modern day Braga) in 584-585. They would also conquer the province of the Byzantine Empire (552-624) of Spania in the south of the peninsula and the Balearic Islands. Islamic Iberia In 711 CE, a North African Moorish Umayyad army invaded Visigothic Christian Hispania. Under their leader Tariq ibn-Ziyad, they landed at Gibraltar and brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under Islamic rule in an eight-year campaign. Al-ʾAndalūs (Arabic الإندلس : Land of the Vandals) is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors and its subsesquent inhabitants. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, parts of the Iberian peninsula were ruled by the Moors (mainly Berber and Arab) who had crossed over from North Africa. Reconquest The Reconquista, 790-1300 Map of Spain and Portugal, Atlas historique, dated approximately 1705-1739, of H.A. Chatelain. Many of the ousted Gothic nobles took refuge in the unconquered north Asturian highlands. From there they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors: this war of reconquest is known as the Reconquista. Christian and Muslim kingdoms fought and allied among themselves. The Muslim taifa kings competed in patronage of the arts, the Way of Saint James attracted pilgrims from all Western Europe and the Jewish population of Iberia set the basis of Sephardic culture. In medieval times the peninsula housed many small states including Castile, Aragon, Navarre, León and Portugal. The peninsula was part of the Islamic Almohad empire until they were finally uprooted. The last major Muslim stronghold was Granada which was eliminated by a combined Castilian and Aragonese force in 1492. Post reconquest The small states gradually amalgamated over time, with the exception of Portugal, even if for a brief period (1580-1640) the whole peninsula was united politically under the Iberian Union. After that point the modern position was reached and the peninsula now consists of the countries of Spain and Portugal (excluding their islands - the Portuguese Azores and Madeira Islands and the Spanish Canary Islands and Balearic Islands; and the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta and Melilla), Andorra, French Cerdagne and Gibraltar. See also Celtiberians Continental Mediterranean climate De rebus Hispaniae Forests of the Iberian Peninsula Hispanic Iberian and Celtic architecture Iberian Federalism Iberian Pact Languages of Iberia List of Celtic tribes Mainland Portugal Moors Nationalities in Spain Portuguese people Sephardi Jews Spanish and Portuguese Jews Spanish people UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Spain References External links be-x-old:Пірэнэйская паўвыспа

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Digimon

English version logo for Digimon. , short for , is a popular Japanese series of media and merchandise, including anime, manga, toys, video games, trading card games and other media. Digimon are monsters of various forms living in a "Digital World", a parallel universe that originated from Earth's various communication networks. Digimon Digimon hatch from eggs called Digi-Eggs/Digitamas (In the English language iterations of the franchise there is another type of Digi-Egg that can be used to Digivolve, or transform, Digimon. This second type of Digi-Egg is called a "Digimental" in Japanese. They age via a process called "Digivolution" which changes their appearance and increases their powers. The effect of Digivolution, however, is not permanent, and Digimon who have digivolved will most of the time revert back to their previous form after a battle or if they are too weak to continue. Some Digimon act feral. Most, however, possess large amounts of intelligence and human speech. They are able to digivolve by the use of Digivices that their human partners have. In some cases, as in the first season, the DigiDestined had to find some special items such as crests and tags so the Digimon could digivolve in another stage called ultimate then mega. The first Digimon anime introduces the Digimon life cycle: They age in a similar fashion to real organisms, but do not die under normal circumstances because they are made of reconfigurable data. Any Digimon that receives a fatal wound will dissolve into infinitesimal bits of data. The data then recomposes itself as a Digi-Egg, which will hatch when rubbed gently, and the Digimon goes through its life cycle again. Digimon who are reincarnated in this way will sometimes retain some or all their memories of their previous life. However, if a Digimon's data is completely destroyed, they will die. Virtual pet toy Digimon started out as a digital pet called "Digital Monster," similar in style and concept to the Tamagotchi. It was planned by Wiz and released by Bandai on June 26, 1997. The toy began as the simple concept of a Tamagotchi for boys (as Bandai was also the creator of the Tamagotchi). The v-pet is similar to its predecessors, with the exceptions of being much harder and being able to connect to fight other Digimon v-pets. Every owner would start with a Baby Digimon, train it, evolve it, take care of it, and then have battles with other Digimon owners to see who was stronger. The Digimon pet had several evolution capabilities and abilities too, so many owners had many different Digimon. In December, the second generation of Digital Monster was released, followed by a third edition in 1998. Now the new Tamagotchi Digimon is Pendulum that has a total of 9 in the series. Bandai also has released a Non Related Digimon Tamagotchi. TV series On March 6, 1999, the franchise was given an anime as the first of the Digimon movies aired in theaters in Japan. Originally, the Digimon Adventure movie was supposed to be a short film, but after the storyboard was finished, a request for Digimon becoming a children's television show was made. On March 7, 1999, they began airing a television counterpart titled Digimon Adventure. Four further series would follow, each with their own tie-in movies, and the series was dubbed for release in western markets in the fall of the same year. The show spawned card games, with Hyper Colosseum in Japan and later Digi-Battle in America, and more video games. The animated series is easily the best-known segment of the Digimon universe and responsible for the majority of its popularity. "Digimon" are "Digital Monsters". According to the stories, they are inhabitants of the "Digital World", a manifestation of Earth's communication network. The stories tell of a group of mostly pre-teens, the "Chosen Children" (DigiDestined in the English version), who accompany special Digimon born to defend their world (and ours) from various evil forces. To help them surmount the most difficult obstacles found within both realms, the Digimon have the ability to evolve (Digivolve). In this process, the Digimon change appearance and become much stronger, often changing in personality as well. The group of children who come in contact with the Digital World changes from season to season. As of 2006, there have been five series — Digimon Adventure, Digimon Adventure 02, Digimon Tamers, Digimon Frontier, and Digimon Savers. The first two seasons take place in the same fictional universe, but the third, fourth, and fifth each occupy their own unique world (in the case of Digimon Tamers, the Adventure universe is referred to as a television and commercial enterprise). In addition, each series has spawned assorted feature films. Digimon still shows popularity, as new card series, video games, and movies are still being produced and released: new card series include Eternal Courage, Hybrid Warriors, Generations, and Operation X; the video game, Digimon Rumble Arena 2; and the previously unreleased movies Revenge of Diaboromon, Runaway Locomon, Battle of Adventurers, and Island of Lost Digimon. In Japan, Digital Monster X-Evolution, the eighth TV movie, was recently released, and on December 23, 2005 at Jump Festa 2006, the fifth series, Digimon Savers was announced for Japan to begin airing after a three year hiatus of the show. Digimon was produced by Toei Animation and Bandai of Japan. The series were broadcast in Japan by Fuji Television. Digimon Adventure (Season One) The first Digimon television series, which began airing on March 7, 1999 in Japan on Fuji TV and Kids Station and on August 14, 1999 in the United States on Fox Kids dubbed by Saban Entertainment for the North American English version. Its premise is a group of seven kids who, while at summer camp, travel to the Digital World, inhabited by creatures known as Digimon, where they become the DigiDestined and are forced to save both the Digital and Real World from evil. Each Kid was given a Digivice which selected them to be transported to the Digital World and was destined to be paired up with a Digimon Partner, such as Tai being paired up with Agumon and Matt with Gabumon. The children are helped by a mysterious man/digimon named Gennai, who helps them via hologram. The Digivices help their Digimon allies to Digivolve into stronger creatures in times of peril. The Digimon usually reached higher forms when their human partners are placed in dangerous situations, such as fighting the evil forces of Devimon, Etemon and Myotismon. The group consisted of seven original characters: Taichi "Tai" Kamiya, Yamato "Matt" Ishida, Sora Takenouchi, Koushiro "Izzy" Izumi, Mimi Tachikawa, Joe Kido, and Takeru "T.K." Takaishi. Later on in the season, an eighth character was introduced: Hikari "Kari" Kamiya (who is Taichi's younger sister). Digimon Adventure 02 (Season Two) The second Digimon series is direct continuation of the first one, and began airing on April 2, 2000. Three years later, with most of the original DigiDestined now in high school at age fourteen, the Digital World was supposedly secure and peaceful. However, a new evil has appeared in the form of the Digimon Emperor (Digimon Kaiser) who as opposed to previous enemies is a human just like the DigiDestined. The Digimon Emperor has been enslaving Digimon with Black Rings and Control Spires and has somehow made regular Digivolution impossible. However, five set Digi-Eggs with engraved emblems had been appointed to three new DigiDestined along with T. K and Kari, two of the DigiDestined from the previous season. This new evolutionary process, dubbed Armor Digivolution, helps the new DigiDestined to defeat evil lurking in the Digital World. Eventually, the DigiDestined defeat the Digimon Emperor, more commonly known as Ken Ichijouji on Earth, (who is more or less a rival to Davis) only with the great sacrifice of Ken's own Digimon, Wormmon. Just when things were thought to be settled, new Digimon enemies made from the deactivated Control Spires start to appear and cause trouble in the Digital World. To atone for his past mistakes, Ken joins the DigiDestined, being a DigiDestined himself, with his Partner Wormmon revived to fight against them. They soon save countries including France and Australia from control spires and defeat MaloMyotismon, the evolved form of Myotismon from the previous season Digimon Tamers (Season Three) The third Digimon series, which began airing on April 1, 2001, is set largely in a "real world" where the Adventure and Adventure 02 series are television shows, and where Digimon game merchandise (based on actual items) become key to provide power boosts to real Digimon which appeared in that world. The plot revolves around three Tamers, Takato Matsuki, Rika Nonaka, and Henry Wong. It began with Takato making his very own Digimon by sliding a mysterious blue card on his card reader, which then became a D-Arc. Guilmon took form from Takato’s sketchings of a new Digimon. (Tamers’ only human connection to the Adventure series is Ryo Akiyama, a character featured in some of the Digimon video games and who made an appearance in some occasions of the Adventure story-line.) Some of the changes in this season include the way the Digimon digivolve, and the way their "Digivices" work. In this season, the Tamers can slide cards through their "Digivices", which give their digimon certain advantages, such as in a card game. This act is called "Digi-modify" (Card Slash in the Japanese version). The same process was often used to Digivolve the Digimon, but as usual feelings plays a big part in the digivolving process. Unlike most Digimon series where the tone is set mostly in a way to appeal to young children, Tamers took a darker tone in nature. Digimon Frontier (Season Four) The fourth Digimon series, which began airing on April 7, 2002, radically departs from the previous three by focusing on a new and very different kind of evolution, Spirit Evolution, in which the human characters use their Digivices to transform themselves into special Digimon called Legendary Warriors. After receiving unusual phone messages, the five main characters go to a subway station and take a train to the Digital World. They end up fighting Cherubimon and his group of Legendary Warrior servants, hoping to foil his effort to dominate the Digital World. Later on, they face an even greater challenge as they try to stop the Royal Knights—Dynasmon and Crusadermon—from destroying the Digital World and using its data to revive the original ruler of the Digital World: the tyrannical Lucemon. In general, Frontier has a much lighter tone than that of Tamers, reverting back to the style of Adventure and Adventure 02. Digimon Data Squad / Savers (Season Five) After a three year hiatus, a fifth Digimon series began airing on April 2, 2006. Like Frontier, Savers has no connection with the previous installments, and also marks a new start for the Digimon franchise, with a drastic change in character designs and story-line, in order to reach a broader audience. The story focus on the challenges faced by the members of D.A.T.S. ("Digital Accident Tactics Squad"), an organization created to conceal the existence of the Digital World and Digimon from the rest of mankind, and solve any Digimon related incidents occurred on Earth in secret. Later the D.A.T.S. team is dragged between a massive conflict between Earth and the Digital World triggered by an ambitious human scientist determined to make use of the Digimon to his own personal gains. The English version was dubbed by Studiopolis and it premiered on the Jetix block of Toon Disney at October 1, 2007 at 8:30 PM. Digivolution in Data Squad requires the human partner's DNA ("Digisoul" in the Japanese version) to activate, a strong empathy with their Digimon and a will to succeed. Movies There have been nine Digimon movies released in Japan. The first seven were directly connected to their respective anime series; Digital Monster X-Evolution originated from the Digimon Chronicle merchandise line. All movies except X-Evolution and Ultimate Power! Activate Burst Mode have been released and distributed internationally. Foreign versions In the United States, the series premiered in August 1999 on the Fox Television Network. It was dubbed by Saban (later Sensation Animation), and was initially broadcasted through Fox Network's Fox Kids and Fox Family. The first four series were collectively retitled Digimon: Digital Monsters. Some scenes from the original version were omitted from the Fox dub, or were modified, in order to comply with Fox's Standards and practices which considered several scenes to be inappropriate for the target age group. Another noticeable change in the dub is using different voice actors for different forms of a certain Digimon, whereas in Japan, the voice actor merely changes the tone of his/her voice, sometimes being altered for effect. The latter often results in a high-pitched childish voice for an otherwise monstrous or masculine form. After Disney acquired Saban during the third series, the first three series moved to the cable network ABC Family, while the fourth (Frontier) premiered on UPN and PAX Network in other areas. This was due to a deal between Disney and UPN which concluded with Digimon Frontier. Frontier was syndicated on ABC Family shortly after that. Digimon continues to run in syndication on the new channel after Toon Disney, Disney XD. Digimon Data Squad has now started to air on Disney XD. The show also premiered in other parts of North America. In Canada, the Saban version was broadcast on YTV. In the U.S. insular area of Puerto Rico, the show was redubbed in Spanish, and in Quebec (where Digimon Adventure aired on TQS, and Digimon Adventure 02 on TÉLÉTOON), the show was redubbed in French. A French version of Digimon Tamers was aired in France, but not in North America. It aired internationally as well. In the United Kingdom, Digimon aired on the UK Fox Kids (now JETIX) cable/satellite channel and also on CiTV. It also aired in countries such as Ireland, South Africa, Malaysia, Australia, Mexico, Argentina, Chile and others. However, due to poor ratings and licensing mistakes in the change from Fox Kids to Jetix, Digimon Frontier (the fourth season) has not been shown in any shape or form in the UK, and has been absent from the schedules of Jetix's UK incarnation since the beginning of 2005. The Latin American, Brazilian, Spanish and German versions of Digimon are completely uncensored and uncut from the original Japanese edition. This show also aired in the Philippines in early 2000 on ABS-CBN. It would air Friday nights at 7:30PM. ABS-CBN hired Filipino voice actors to dub the show in English. This dubbing is mostly true to the original. Though they used the original Japanese show as the medium for the dub, some of the voices seem to sound like the U.S. version (e.g., Taichi having an adolescent's voice instead of a kid's) or completely original to the dubbing crew (e.g., Gabumon's deep, grumbly voice). The entire first season of Digimon Adventure was dubbed in English (in order to compete with the 4Kids version of Pokémon which aired on the rival network GMA 7 on the same day and time), along with Digimon Adventure 02. The second season aired on a new Saturday morning block at 10 A.M. two weeks after the first season finale. This season was dubbed in both English and Tagalog, so that it would be compatible with the other shows in the block. In 2003, Cartoon Network Philippines began airing Digimon Tamers around 2003, then Digimon Frontier late 2004. This time they, along with some of the other anime that aired with it, were dubbed by Singaporean voice actors. Tamers and Frontier were dubbed in Filipino when both series aired on ABS-CBN this year on its weekday morning line-up of animated shows (Tamers first followed by Frontier after a few months). Digimon Savers began airing in the country on September 8, 2008 but it is currently end.But, since January 2008, ABS-CBN's sister channel Hero, the first and only all-Tagalog dub anime channel start to broadcast the Digimon series with Digimon Adventure.Today, the season that currently aired in Hero is Digimon Frontier. Cast Comics Digimon first appeared in narrative form in the one-shot manga “C'mon Digimon”, released in the summer of 1997. C'mon Digimon spawned the popular Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01 manga, written by Hiroshi Izawa, which began serialization on November 21, 1998. C'mon Digimon Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01 Digimon Chronicle Digimon Next Yuen Wong Yu manhua A Chinese manhua was written and drawn by Yuen Wong Yu (余 遠鍠 Yu Yuen-wong), who based its storyline on the television series. This adaptation covers Digimon Adventure in five volumes, Digimon Adventure 02 in two, Digimon Tamers in four, and Digimon Frontier in three. The original stories are heavily abridged, though on rare occasions events play out differently than the anime. The Cantonese language version was published by Rightman Publishing Ltd. in Hong Kong. Two English versions were also released. The first one was published by Chuang Yi in Singapore. The second one, which was written by Lianne Sentar Lianne Sentar's Other Published Works/Works List , was released by TOKYOPOP in North America.The three volumes for Digimon Frontier have been released by Chuang Yi in English. These have not been released by TOKYOPOP in North America or Europe. However the Chuang Yi releases of Digimon Frontier were distributed by Madman Entertainment in Australia. D-Cyber Dark Horse Dark Horse Comics published American-style Digimon comic books, adapting the first thirteen episodes of the English dub of Digimon Adventure in 2001. The story was written by Daniel Horn and Ryan Hill, and illustrated by Daniel Horn and Cara L. Niece. Panini The European publishing company, Panini, approached Digimon in different ways in different countries. While Germany created their own adaptations of episodes, the United Kingdom (UK) reprinted the Dark Horse titles, then translated some of the German adaptations of Adventure 02 episodes. Eventually the UK comics were given their own original stories, which appeared in both the UK's official Digimon Magazine and the official UK Fox Kids companion magazine, Wickid. These original stories only roughly followed the continuity of Adventure 02. When the comic switched to the Tamers series the storylines adhered to continuity more strictly; sometimes it would expand on subject matter not covered by the original Japanese anime (such as Mitsuo Yamaki's past) or the English adaptations of the television shows and movies (such as Ryo's story or the movies that remained undubbed until 2005). In a money saving venture, the original stories were later removed from Digimon Magazine, which returned to printing translated German adaptations of Tamers episodes. Eventually, both magazines were cancelled. Video games In the United States, there are fifteen digimon games. (See Digimon World, Digimon World 2, Digimon World 3, Digimon World 4, Digimon Digital Card Battle, Digimon Rumble Arena, Digimon Rumble Arena 2, Digimon Battle Spirit, Digimon Battle Spirit 2, Digimon Racing, Digimon World DS, Digimon World Data Squad, Digimon World: Dawn and Dusk, and Digimon World Championship.) Card game The Digimon Collectible Card Game is a collectible card game based on Digimon, first introduced in Japan in 1997 and published by Bandai. The card game is also put into games. Digital Card Battle is one of them and it's also featured in Digimon World 3. Notable contributors Akiyoshi Hongo: Maker of the original Digimon concept. Hiroyuki Kakudo: Director of Digimon Adventure and Digimon Adventure 02. Yukio Kaizawa: Director of Digimon Tamers and Digimon Frontier. Naozumi Itō: Director of Digimon Savers. Jeff Nimoy: U.S. Director of Digimon Adventure, Digimon Adventure 02, and Digimon Data Squad (Savers). Mary Elizabeth McGlynn: U.S. Director/Writer/Editor of Digimon Tamers and Digimon Frontier. Chiaki J. Konaka: Head writer of Digimon Tamers. Hiroshi Izawa: Author of the Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01 manga. Tenya Yabuno: Illustrator of the Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01 manga. Yuen Wong Wu: Writer and illustrator for the Digimon manhua series. Takanori Arisawa: Composer of the Japanese versions of Digimon Adventure, Digimon Adventure 02, Digimon Tamers and Digimon Frontier. Keiichi Oku: Composer of Digimon Savers. Shuki Levy: Composer for the English language releases of Digimon Adventure, Digimon Adventure 02 and Digimon Tamers. Deddy Tzur: Composer for the English language release of Digimon Frontier. Paul Gordon: Co-Composer for the English language theme song. Kouji Wada: Performer of the opening themes of Digimon Adventure, Digimon Adventure 02, Digimon Tamers, Digimon Frontier and the second opening theme of Digimon Savers. See also List of Digimon Digimon virtual pet List of characters in the Digimon World series List of chosen Digimon Digimon card game Digimon: The Movie References External links English Bandai of America's Digimon Site JETIX U.S. Digimon Data Squad website Wikimon, the Digimon Wiki With the Will Forums Megchan's Digimon Encyclopedia, archived at The Shining Evolution Japanese Toei Animation's Digimon Adventure website Toei Animation's Digimon Adventure 02 website Toei Animation's Digimon Tamers website Toei Animation's Digimon Frontier website Toei Animation's Digital Monster X-Evolution website Toei Animation's Digimon Savers website Bandai of Japan's Digimon website

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Macedonian_language

Macedonian (, ) is the official language of Macedonia and is a part of the Eastern group of South Slavic languages. Macedonian is closely related to and shares a high degree of mutual intelligibility with the Bulgarian and Serbian languages. Language profile Macedonian, UCLA International Institute The Macedonian language is a subject of controversy with Macedonia's neighbouring countries: Greeks challenge the legitimacy of its name, while many Bulgarians deny its separateness from Bulgarian. ; . __TOC__ Classification and related languages The modern Macedonian language belongs to the eastern sub-branch of the South Slavic branch of the Slavic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The closest relative of Macedonian is Bulgarian, with which it is mutually intelligible. Following that, the next closest languages are Serbian, Bosnian and Croatian. Macedonian and its neighbours form a dialect continuum, with the Bulgarian standard (see Bulgarian dialects) based on the more eastern dialects and Macedonian based on the more western ones. It also includes the Torlakian dialect group that is intermediate between Bulgarian, Macedonian and Serbian, comprising some of the northernmost dialects of Macedonian as well as varieties spoken in southern Serbia. Together with its immediate Slavic neighbours, Macedonian also forms a constituent language of the Balkan Sprachbund, a group of languages which share typological, grammatical and lexical features based on geographical convergence, rather than genetic proximity. Its other principal members are Romanian, Greek and Albanian, all of which belong to different genetic branches of the Indo-European family of languages (Romanian is a Romance language, while Greek and Albanian each comprise their own separate branches). Macedonian and Bulgarian are the only Slavic languages that don't use noun cases (except for the vocative, and apart from some traces of once living inflections still found scattered throughout the languages). They are also the only Slavic languages with any definite articles (there are three: unspecified, proximate and distal). This last feature is shared with Romanian, Greek, and Albanian. Geographical distribution The population of the Republic of Macedonia was 2,022,547 in 2002, with 1,644,815 speaking Macedonian as the native language. Popis na Naselenie, Domaćinstva i Stanovi vo Republika Makedonija, 2002 - Vkupno naselenie na Republika Makedonija spored majčin jazik. Outside of the Republic, there are Macedonians living in other parts of the geographical area of Macedonia. There are ethnic Macedonian minorities in neighbouring Albania, in Bulgaria in Greece and in Serbia. According to the official Albanian census of 1989, 4,697 ethnic Macedonians reside in Albania. A large number of Macedonians live outside the traditional Balkan Macedonian region, with Australia, Canada and the United States having the largest emigrant communities. According to a 1964 estimate, approximately 580,000 Macedonians live outside of the Macedonian Republic , nearly 30% of the total population. The Macedonian spoken by communities outside the republic dates back to before the standardisation of the language and retains many dialectic though, overall, mutually intelligible variations. The Macedonian language has the status of official language only within Macedonia, and is a recognised minority language in parts of Albania. There are provisions for learning the Macedonian language in Romania as Macedonians are an oficially recognised minority group. The language is taught in some universities in Australia, Canada, Croatia, Italy, Russia, Serbia, the United States and the United Kingdom among other countries. Macedonian Slavic in Greece Today the varieties spoken by the Slavophone minority in parts of northern Greece, especially those in western and central Macedonia are usually classified as part of the Macedonian language and in Eastern Macedonia, as for example Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect, as transitional dialects between Macedonian and Bulgarian language, though this identification is disputed by Bulgarian linguistics, which consider them to be a part of the Bulgarian diasystem. Шклифов, Благой. Проблеми на българската диалектна и историческа фонетика с оглед на македонските говори, София 1995, с. 14.; Шклифов, Благой. Речник на костурския говор, Българска диалектология, София 1977, с. кн. VІІІ, с. 201-205, The codification of standard Macedonian has been in effect only in the Republic of Macedonia, and the varieties spoken in Greece are thus practically "roofless", Trudgill P. (2000), "Greece and European Turkey: From Religious to Linguistic Identity". In: Stephen Barbour and Cathie Carmichael (eds.), Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford : Oxford University Press, p.259. with their speakers having little access to standard or written Macedonian. Estimates vary but it is thought that there are between 20,000 and 250,000 speakers in Greece. , See Page 90, (Full Document) ethnologue The largest group of speakers are concentrated in the Florina, Kastoria, Edessa, Giannitsa, Ptolemaida and Naousa regions. During the Greek Civil War, the codified Macedonian language was taught in 87 schools with 10,000 students in areas of northern Greece under the control of Communist-led forces, until their defeat by the National Army in 1949. In recent years, there have been attempts to have the language recognised as a minority language. In Greece, although groups may be considered to be speaking dialects heteronomous with the standard Macedonian language, most do not identify their language with their national identity. Unlike in the Republic of Macedonia, many speakers of the language in Greece choose not to identify ethnically as "Macedonians", but as ethnic Greeks (Slavophone Greeks) or dopii (locals). The simple term "Macedonian" as a name for the Slavic language is often avoided in the Greek context, and vehemently rejected by most Greeks, for whom Macedonian has very different connotations. Instead, the language is often called simply Slavic or Slavomacedonian, with Macedonian Slavic often being used in English to distinguish the language from the Macedonian dialect of Greek. Speakers themselves variously refer to their language as makedonski, makedoniski ("Macedonian"), slaviká (, "Slavic"), dópia or entópia (, "local/indigenous [language]"), Greek Helsinki Monitor - Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities , bălgarski, balgàrtzki, bolgàrtski or bulgàrtski ("Bulgarian"), naši ("our own [language]"), or stariski ("the old [language]"). The exact numbers of speakers in Greece is hard to ascertain. Jacques Bacid estimates in his 1983 book that "over 200,000 Macedonian speakers remained in Greece" Jacques Bacid, Ph.D. Macedonia Through the Ages. Columbia University, 1983. . Other sources put the numbers of speakers at 180,000 GeoNative - Macedonia L. M. Danforth, The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World 1995, Princeton University Press , 220,000 Hill, P. (1999) "Macedonians in Greece and Albania: A Comparative study of recent developments". Nationalities Papers Volume 27, 1 March 1999, page 44(14) 250,000 while Yugoslav sources vary, some putting the estimated number of "Macedonians in Greek Macedonia" at 150,000 - 200,000 and others at 300,000 Poulton, H.(2000), "Who are the Macedonians?",C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, page 167, As often occurs with Yugoslav sources, there appears to be confusion about the number of Macedonians in Greek Macedonia at present: some Yugoslav sources put the latter figure at 300,000, while more sober estimates put the number at 150,000 - 200,000 . The Encyclopedia Brittanica http://www.britannica.com/new-multimedia/pdf/wordat077.pdf and the Reader's Digest World Guide both put the figure of Ethnic Macedonians in Greece at 1.8% or c.200,000 people, with the native language roughly corresponding with the figures. The UCLA also states that there is 200,000 Macedonian speakers in Greece. UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile UCLA Language Materials Project: Language Profile . A 2008 article in the Greek newspaper Eleftherotipia put the estimate at 20,000. Eletherotipia article Usage The total number of Macedonian speakers is a highly disputed topic. Of Macedonia's neighbors, Serbia and Albania recognize the Macedonian language whereas Greece and Bulgaria do not. Although the precise number of speakers is unknown, figures of between 1.6 million (from ethnologue) and 2-2.5 million have been cited, see and . The general academic consensus is that there are approximately 2 million speakers of the Macedonian language, accepting that "it is difficult to determine the total number of speakers of Macedonian due to the official policies of the neighbouring Balkan states and the fluid nature of emigration" . According to the latest censuses and figures, the number of Macedonian-speakers is: StateNumber Lower Range Higher Range Republic of Macedonia 1,700,000 Macedonian census 2,022,547 2002 census Albania4,697 1989 census 30,000 Albania : 4.2.2 Language issues and policies : Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe Bulgaria This people speak predominantly Bulgarian. See 2001 census data by mother tongue: 5,071 2001 census by ethnos. 10,000 EFA and OMO Ilinden – Pirin at a Press Conference in Brussels, 29 November 2006, Focus News Agency. Greece35,000 , See Page 90, (Full Document) Greek Helsinki Monitor March 18, 2002 Report NATIONAL CONFLICT IN A TRANSNATIONAL WORLD: GREEKS AND MACEDONIANS AT THE CONFERENCE FOR SECURITY AND COOPERATION IN EUROPE by Loring Danforth , >, abstract from page 125 2001 Country Report on Human Rights Practices published by the United States Department of State 200,000 Serbia14,355 Serbian census 30,000Rest of the Balkans15,939 A combination of Balkan Censuses: , ,2005 census, 2003 Census and [http://www.stat.si/popis2002/si/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=7 25,000Canada37,050150,000 Estimate from the MFA Australia71,994 Australian government statistics 200,000Germany62,295 2006 figures 85,000Italy50,000 Estimate from the Macedonian MFA 74,162 Italian government statistics United States of America45,000 American FactFinder 200,000Switzerland6,415 Swiss government statistics 60,362 Swiss government statistics Rest of World101,600110,000 2001 census, 2001 census, 2001 census , Population Estimate from the MFA, OECD Statistics, 2002 census, 2002 census, 2006 census, 2008 census, 2008 census, 2003 census, 2005 census, 2006 census, 2003 Census and 2002 census Total2,289,9043,200,000 Dialects Based on a large group of features, Macedonian dialects can be divided into Eastern and Western groups (the boundary runs approximately from Skopje and Skopska Crna Gora along the rivers Vardar and Crna). In addition, a more detailed classification can be based on the modern reflexes of the Proto-Slavic reduced vowels (yers), vocalic sonorants, and the back nasal *. That classification distinguishes between the following 5 groups: Western Dialects: Ohrid-Prespa Group Ohrid dialect Struga dialect Vevčani-Radοžda dialect Upper Prespa dialect Lower Prespa dialect. Debar Group Debar dialect Reka Dialect Drimkol-Golo Brdo dialect Galičnik dialect Skopska Crna Gora dialect Gora dialect Polog Group Upper Polog Dialect Lower Polog Dialect Prilep-Bitola dialect Kičevo-Poreče dialect Skopje-Veles dialect Kostur-Korča Group Korča dialect Kostur dialect Nestram-Kostenar dialect Eastern Dialects: Northern Group Kumanovo dialect Kratovo dialect Kriva Palanka dialect Ovče Pole dialect Eastern Group Štip-Strumica dialect Tikveš-Mariovo dialect Maleševo-Pirin dialect Solun-Voden dialect Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect. The Ser-Drama-Lagadin-Nevrokop dialect and Maleševo-Pirin dialect are considered to also be Bulgarian dialects or transitional dialects between Macedonian and Bulgarian. Phonology +Vowels of Macedonian FrontCentralBackCloseи у Midе о Openа In addition, the schwa may appear in certain dialects or loanwords. +Consonants of Macedonian Bilabial Labio-Dental Dental Alveolar Post-Alveolar Palatal Velar Nasal Plosive Affricate Fricative Approximant Trill Lateral Macedonian exhibits final obstruent devoicing and syllabic Other than recent loanwords, word stress in Macedonian is antepenultimate, meaning it falls on the third from last syllable in words with three or more syllables, and on the first or only syllable in other words. By comparison, in standard Bulgarian, the stress can fall anywhere within a word. Grammar Macedonian grammar is markedly analytic in comparison with other Slavic languages, having lost the common Slavic case system. The Macedonian language shows some special and, in some cases, unique characteristics due to its central position in the Balkans. Literary Macedonian is the only South Slavic literary language that has three forms of the definite article, based on the degree of proximity to the speaker, and a past tense formed by means of an auxiliary verb "to have", followed by a past passive participle in the neuter. Both double object and mediative (sometimes referred to as renarrative or admirative) mood are also found in the Bulgarian language, although the use of double object is much more restricted in the Bulgarian standard (see also Bulgarian syntax). Vocabulary As a result of the close relatedness with Bulgarian and Serbian, Macedonian shares a considerable amount of its lexicon with these languages. Other languages which have been in positions of power, such as Ottoman Turkish and increasingly English also provide a significant proportion of the loan words. Prestige languages, such as Old Church Slavonic, which occupies a relationship to modern Macedonian comparable to the relationship of medieval Latin to modern Romance languages, and Russian also provided a source for lexical borrowings. During the standardization process, there was deliberate care taken to try and purify the lexicon of the language. "Serbisms" and "Bulgarisms", which had become common due to the influence of these languages in the region were rejected in favor of words from native dialects and archaisms. One example being the word for "event", настан , which was found in certain examples of folk poetry collected by the Miladinov Brothers in the 19th century, while the Macedonian writer Krste Misirkov had previously used the word собитие . In his most famous work "On the Macedonian Matters" (available online), Misirkov uses the word собитие (a Russian loan taken from Bulgarian) where настан is used today. This is not to say that there are no Serbisms, Bulgarisms or even Russianisms in the language, but rather that they were discouraged on a principle of "seeking native material first". The language of the writers at the turn of 19th century abounded with Russian and, more specifically, Old Church Slavonic lexical and morphological elements which in the contemporary norm are substituted with more current models. Т. Димитровски. Литературната лексика на македонскиот писмен јазик во XIX в. и нашиот однос кон неа: Реферати на македонските слависти за VI Меѓународен славистички конгрес во Прага, Скопје, 1968 (T. Dimitrovski. The literary vocabulary of the Macedonian written language in the 19th century and our attitude to it. Abstracts of Macedonian slavists for the 6th International Slavistic Congress in Prague. Skopje, 1968) Thus, the now slightly archaized forms with suffixes –ние and –тел, adjectives with the suffixes –телен and others, are now constructed following patterns more typical of Macedonian morphology. For example, дејствие corresponds to дејство, лицемерие → лицемерство, развитие → развиток, определение → определба, движение → движење, продолжител → продолжувач, победител → победник, убедителен → убедлив, etc. Many of these words are now synonymous or have taken on a slightly different nuance in meaning. Many words and expressions were borrowed from the Serbian language to replace those taken from Old Church Slavonic, but also present in the Bulgarian language, which include известие → извештај, количество → количина, согласие → слога, etc. This change was aimed at bringing written Macedonian closer to spoken language and distancing it from the Bulgarian language which has kept its numerous Russian loans, and represents a successful puristic attempt at abolishing a lexicogenic tradition once common in written literature. Writing system Alphabet The modern Macedonian alphabet was developed by linguists in the period after the Second World War, who based their alphabet on the phonetic alphabet of Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, though a similar writing system was used by Krste Misirkov in the late 19th century. The Macedonian language had previously been written using the Early Cyrillic alphabet, or later using the Cyrillic alphabet with local adaptations from either the Serbian or Bulgarian alphabets. The following table provides the upper and lower case forms of the Macedonian alphabet, along with the IPA value for each letter: CyrillicIPAА аБ бВ вГ гД дЃ ѓЕ еЖ жЗ зЅ ѕИ иCyrillicIPAЈ јК кЛ лЉ љМ мН нЊ њО оП пР рС сCyrillicIPAТ тЌ ќУ уФ фХ хЦ цЧ чЏ џШ ш Orthography Macedonian orthography is consistent and phonemic in practice, an approximation of the principle of one grapheme per phoneme. A principle represented by Adelung's saying, "write as you speak and read as it is written" („пишувај како што зборуваш и читај како што е напишано“). Though as with most, if not all, living languages it has its share of inconsistencies and exceptions. Examples Lord's Prayer Оче наш Оче наш, кој си на небото, да се свети името Твое, да биде царството Твое, да биде волјата Твоја, како на небото, така и на Земјата! Лебот наш насушен дај нѝ го денес и прости нѝ ги долговите наши како што им ги проштеваме и ние на нашите должници. И не воведи нè во искушение, но избави нè од лукавиот. Амин!Oče našOče naš, koj si na nebotoda se sveti imeto Tvoe,da bide carstvoto Tvoe,da bide voljata Tvoja,kako na neboto, taka i na Zemjata!Lebot naš nasušen daj nì go denesi prosti nì gi dolgovite našikako što im gi proštevame i niena našite dolžnici.I ne vovedi nè vo iskušenie,no izbavi nè od lukaviot.Amin!History The region of Macedonia and the Republic of Macedonia are located on the Balkan peninsula. The Slavs first came to the Balkan Peninsula in the sixth and seventh centuries AD. In the ninth century, the Byzantine Greek monks Saints Cyril and Methodius developed the first writing system for the Slavonic languages. At this time, the Slavic dialects were so close as to make it practical to develop the written language on the dialect of a single region. There is dispute as to the precise region, but it is likely that they were developed in the region around Thessalonika. In the fourteenth century, the Ottoman Turks invaded and conquered most of the Balkans, incorporating Macedonia into the Ottoman Empire. While the written language, now called Old Church Slavonic, remained static as a result of Turkish domination, the spoken dialects moved further apart. During the increase of national consciousness in the Balkans, standards for the languages of Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian and Bulgarian were created. As Turkish influence in Macedonia waned, schools were opened up that taught the Bulgarian standard language in areas with significant Bulgarian population. However the label "Bulgarian language" for various Macedonian dialects can be seen from early vernacular texts such as the four-language dictionary of Daniel Mоscopolites, the early works of Kiril Peichinovich and Yoakim Karchovski and some vernacular gospels written in the Greek alphabet. These written works influenced by or completely written in the local Slavic vernacular appeared in Macedonia in the 18th and beginning of the 19th century and their authors referred to their language as Bulgarian. F. A. K. Yasamee "NATIONALITY IN THE BALKANS: THE CASE OF THE MACEDONIANS" in Balkans: A Mirror of the New World Order, Istanbul: EREN, 1995; pp. 121-132. In 1845 the Russian scholar Viktor Grigorovich travelled in the Balkans in order to study the south Slavic dialects of Macedonia. His work articulated for the first time a distinct pair of two groups of Bulgarian dialects: Eastern and Western. According to his findings, the Western Bulgarian variety, spoken in Macedonia, was characterized by traces of Old Slavic nasal vowels. It wasn't until the works of Krste Misirkov that parts of what had been regarded as West Bulgarian dialects were defined as a separate 'Macedonian' language. Misirkov was born in a village near Pella in Greek Macedonia. Although literature had been written in the Slavic dialects of Macedonia before, arguably the most important book published in relation to the Macedonian language was Misirkov's On Macedonian Matters, published in 1903. In that book, he argued for the creation of a standard literary Macedonian language from the central dialects of Macedonia which would use a phonemic orthography. After the first two Balkan wars, the region of Macedonia was split among Greece, Bulgaria, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia occupied the area that is currently the Republic of Macedonia incorporating it into the Kingdom as "Southern Serbia." During this time, Yugoslav Macedonia became known as Vardar Banovina (Vardar province) and the language of public life, education and the church was Serbo-Croatian. In the other two parts of Macedonia, the respective national languages, Greek and Bulgarian, were made official. In Bulgarian (Pirin) Macedonia, the local dialects were described as dialects of Bulgarian. During the second World War, a part of Yugoslav Macedonia was occupied by the Bulgarian army, who were allied with the Axis. The Bulgarian language was reintroduced in schools and liturgies. The Bulgarians were initially welcomed as liberators from Serbian domination until connections were made between the imposition of the Bulgarian language and unpopular Serbian assimilation policies; the Bulgarians were quickly seen as conquerors by communist movement. There were a number of groups fighting the Bulgarian occupying force, some advocating independence and others union with Bulgaria. The eventual outcome was that almost all of Vardar Banovina (i.e. the areas which geographically became known as Vardar Macedonia) was incorporated into the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a constituent Socialist Republic with the Macedonian language holding official status within both the Federation and Republic. The Macedonian language was proclaimed the official language of the Republic of Macedonia at the First Session of the Assembly for the National Liberation of Macedonia, held on August 2, 1944. The first official Macedonian grammar was developed by Krume Kepeski. One of the most important contributors in the standardisation of the Macedonian literary language was Blaže Koneski. The first document written in the literary standard Macedonian language is the first issue of the Nova Makedonija newspaper in 1944. Makedonska Iskra (Macedonian Spark) was the first Macedonian newspaper to be published in Australia, from 1946 to 1957. A monthly with national distribution, it commenced in Perth and later moved to Melbourne and Sydney. Political views on the language As with the issue of Macedonian ethnicity, the politicians, linguists and common people from Macedonia and neighbouring countries have opposing views about the existence and distinctiveness of the Macedonian language. In the ninth century AD, saints Cyril and Methodius introduced Old Church Slavonic, the first Slavic language of literacy. Written with their newly invented Glagolitic script, this language was based largely on the dialect of Slavs spoken in Thessaloniki; this dialect is closest to present day Bulgarian and Macedonian. Although described as being dialects of Bulgarian prior to the establishment of the standard, the current academic consensus (outside the Balkans) is that Macedonian is an autonomous language within the South Slavic dialect continuum . Bulgaria view In most sources in and out of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the southern Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today's Republic of Macedonia and Northern Greece was referred to as group of Bulgarian dialects. The local variants of the name of the language were also balgàrtzki, bùgarski or bugàrski; i.e. Bulgarian. Шклифов, Благой and Екатерина Шклифова, Български деалектни текстове от Егейска Македония, София 2003, с. 28-33 (Shklifov, Blagoy and Ekaterina Shklifova. Bulgarian dialect texts from Aegean Macedonia Sofia 2003, p. 28-36) Although Bulgaria was the first country to recognize the independence of the Republic of Macedonia, most of its academics, as well as the general public, regard the language spoken there as a form of Bulgarian. However after years of diplomatic impasse caused by an academic dispute, in 1999 the government in Sofia solved the problem with the Macedonian Language under the euphemistic formula: "the official language of the country (Republic of Macedonia) in accordance with its constitution". 1999/02/22 23:50 Bulgaria Recognises Macedonian Language Greece view The use of the name Macedonian'' for the language is considered offensive by Greeks, who use "Macedonian" to refer to the dialect of modern Greek spoken in northern Greece. Furthermore Greece asserts that the ancient Macedonian language is the only "Macedonian language" and it considers it a dialect of ancient Greek. Greeks object to the use of the "Macedonian" name in reference to the modern Slavic language, calling it "Slavomacedonian" (Macedonian: славомакедонски јазик, ), a term coined by some members of the Slavic-speaking community of northern Greece itself. Although acceptable in the past, current use of this name in reference to both the ethnic group and the language can be considered pejorative and offensive by ethnic Macedonians. In the past, the Macedonian Slavs in Greece seemed relieved to be acknowledged as "Slavomacedonians". Pavlos Koufis, a native of Greek Macedonia, pioneer of ethnic Macedonian schools in the region and local historian, says in Laografika Florinas kai Kastorias (Folklore of Florina and Kastoria), Athens 1996: "[During its Panhellenic Meeting in September 1942, the KKE mentioned that it recognises the equality of the ethnic minorities in Greece] the KKE recognised that the Slavophone population was ethnic minority of Slavomacedonians]. This was a term, which the inhabitants of the region accepted with relief. [Because] Slavomacedonians = Slavs+Macedonians. The first section of the term determined their origin and classified them in the great family of the Slav peoples." The Greek Helsinki Monitor reports: "... the term Slavomacedonian was introduced and was accepted by the community itself, which at the time had a much more widespread non-Greek Macedonian ethnic consciousness. Unfortunately, according to members of the community, this term was later used by the Greek authorities in a pejorative, discriminatory way; hence the reluctance if not hostility of modern-day Macedonians of Greece (i.e. people with a Macedonian national identity) to accept it." See also Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache Balkan linguistic union Macedonian alphabet Macedonian language naming dispute Political views on the Macedonian language Romanisation of Macedonian Slavic dialects of Greece Sociolinguistics Torlakian dialect References Bibliography Further reading External links Documents A grammar of Macedonian by Victor Friedman Dictionary of three languages, Gjorgjija Pulevski - 1875 Zur Sprachlichen Beurtellung der Macedonischen slaven,Leonhard Masing - 1890, on German Zur Laut und Akzentlehre der Macedonischen dialekte,Leonhard Masing - 1891, on German MACEDONISCHEN STUDIEN, Vatroslav Oblak - 1896, on German For the Macedonian matters, Krste Petkov Misirkov - 1903 Abecedar - 1925, Greece Dwie gwary macedońskie(Suhe i Wysoka w Soluńskiem) – Teksty , Mieczysław Małecki - 1934, on Polish Dwie gwary macedońskie(Suhe i Wysoka w Soluńskiem) – Teksty, Mieczysław Małecki - 1936, on Polish Documents, Contes et Chansons Slaves de l'Albanie du Sud, Andre Mazon - 1936, on French L'Evangeliaire de Kulakia Un parler Slave du Bas-Vardar, Andre Mazon et Andre Vaillant - 1938, on French Macedonian grammar, Krume Kepeski - 1946, on Macedonian Macedonian orthography and dictionary, Blaže Koneski and Krum Tošev - 1950, on Macedonian Grammar of the Macedonian Literary Language, Horace Lunt - 1952 Macedonian language BBC Education - Languages: Macedonian, Makedonski Macedonian - English Dictionary Otto Kronsteiner. The Collapse of Yugoslavia and the Future Prospects of the Macedonian Literary Language UCLA Language materials project: Macedonian profile Nature of Standard Macedonian language by Mladen Srbinovski The Macedonian nationality 1920 US Census, Instructions to Enumerators, where Macedonian is listed as a principal foreign language Digital Dictionary of the Macedonian Language Macedonian - English, Greek, Albanian, German, French, Italian translator The Macedonian Language be-x-old:Македонская мова

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Dodecahedron

A dodecahedron (Greek δωδεκάεδρον, from δώδεκα 'twelve' + εδρον 'base', 'seat' or 'face') is any polyhedron with twelve faces, but usually a regular dodecahedron is meant: a Platonic solid composed of twelve regular pentagonal faces, with three meeting at each vertex. It has twenty (20) vertices and thirty (30) edges. Its dual polyhedron is the icosahedron. If one were to make every one of the Platonic solids with edges of the same length, the dodecahedron would be the largest. Area and volume The surface area A and the volume V of a regular dodecahedron of edge length a are: Cartesian coordinates The following Cartesian coordinates define the vertices of a dodecahedron centered at the origin: (±1, ±1, ±1) (0, ±1/φ, ±φ) (±1/φ, ±φ, 0) (±φ, 0, ±1/φ) where φ = (1+√5)/2 is the golden ratio (also written τ). The edge length is 2/φ = √5−1. The containing sphere has a radius of √3. The dihedral angle of a dodecahedron is 2arctan(φ) or approximately 116.565 degrees. Geometric relations The regular dodecahedron is the third in an infinite set of truncated trapezohedra which can be constructed by truncating the two axial vertices of a pentagonal trapezohedron. The stellations of the dodecahedron make up three of the four Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. A rectified dodecahedron forms an icosidodecahedron. The regular dodecahedron has 120 symmetries, forming the group . Vertex arrangement The dodecahedron shares its vertex arrangement with four nonconvex uniform polyhedrons and three uniform compounds. Five cubes fit within, with their edges as diagonals of the dodecahedron's faces, and together these make up the regular polyhedral compound of five cubes. Since two tetrahedra can fit on alternate cube vertices, five and ten tetrahedra can also fit in a dodecahedron. Great stellated dodecahedron Small ditrigonal icosidodecahedron Ditrigonal dodecadodecahedron Great ditrigonal icosidodecahedron Compound of five cubes Compound of five tetrahedra Compound of ten tetrahedra Icosahedron vs dodecahedron When a dodecahedron is inscribed in a sphere, it occupies more of the sphere's volume (66.49%) than an icosahedron inscribed in the same sphere (60.54%). A regular dodecahedron with edge length 1 has more than three and a half times the volume of an icosahedron with the same length edges (7.663... compared with 2.181...). Also, as these are duals, it is possible to transform one into the other.(See below) DodecahedronTruncated dodecahedronIcosidodecahedronTruncated icosahedronIcosahedron Stellations The 3 stellations of the dodecahedron are all regular (nonconvex) polyhedra: (Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra) 0123Stellation Dodecahedron Small stellated dodecahedron Great dodecahedron Great stellated dodecahedronFacet diagram Other dodecahedra The term dodecahedron is also used for other polyhedra with twelve faces, most notably the rhombic dodecahedron which is dual to the cuboctahedron (an Archimedean solid) and occurs in nature as a crystal form. The Platonic solid dodecahedron can be called a pentagonal dodecahedron or a regular dodecahedron to distinguish it. The pyritohedron is an irregular pentagonal dodecahedron. Other dodecahedra include: Uniform polyhedra: Pentagonal antiprism - 10 equilateral triangles, 2 pentagons Decagonal prism - 10 squares, 2 decagons Johnson solids (regular faced): Pentagonal cupola - 5 triangles, 5 squares, 1 pentagon, 1 decagon Snub disphenoid - 12 triangles Elongated square dipyramid - 8 triangles and 4 squares Metabidiminished icosahedron - 10 triangles and 2 pentagons Congruent nonregular faced: (face-transitive) Hexagonal bipyramid - 12 isosceles triangles, dual of hexagonal prism Hexagonal trapezohedron - 12 kites, dual of hexagonal antiprism Triakis tetrahedron - 12 isosceles triangles, dual of truncated tetrahedron Rhombic dodecahedron (mentioned above) - 12 rhombi, dual of cuboctahedron Other nonregular faced: Hendecagonal pyramid - 11 isosceles triangles and 1 hendecagon Trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron - 6 rhombi, 6 trapezoids - dual of Triangular orthobicupola Rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron or Elongated Dodecahedron - 8 rhombi and 4 equilateral hexagons. In all there are 6,384,634 topologically distinct dodecahedra. Counting Polyhedra – Numericana History and uses Roman dodecahedronDodecahedral objects have found some practical applications, and have also played a role in the visual arts and in philosophy. Plato's dialogue Timaeus (c. 360 B.C.) associates the other four platonic solids with the four classical elements; Aristotle postulated that the heavens were made of a fifth element, aithêr (aether in Latin, ether in American English), but he had no interest in matching it with Plato's fifth solid. A few centuries later, small, hollow bronze Roman dodecahedra were made and have been found in various Roman ruins in Europe. Their purpose is not certain. In twentieth century art, dodecahedra appear in the work of M. C. Escher, such as his lithograph Reptiles (1943), and in his Gravitation. In Salvador Dalí's painting The Sacrament of the Last Supper (1955), the room is a hollow dodecahedron. In modern role-playing games, the dodecahedron is often used as a twelve-sided die, one of the more common polyhedral dice. See also Spinning dodecahedron Truncated dodecahedron Snub dodecahedron Pentakis dodecahedron Hamiltonian path 120-cell: a regular polychoron (4D polytope) whose surface consists of 120 dodecahedral cells. References External links The Uniform Polyhedra Origami Polyhedra - Models made with Modular Origami Dodecahedron - 3-d model that works in your browser Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra VRML models Regular dodecahedron regular Rhombic dodecahedron quasiregular Decagonal prism vertex-transitive Pentagonal antiprism vertex-transitive Hexagonal dipyramid face-transitive Triakis tetrahedron face-transitive hexagonal trapezohedron face-transitive Pentagonal cupola regular faces K.J.M. MacLean, A Geometric Analysis of the Five Platonic Solids and Other Semi-Regular Polyhedra

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New_Zealand_Defence_Force

The New Zealand Defence Force consists of three services: the New Zealand Army; the Royal New Zealand Navy; and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The Commander-in-Chief of the NZDF is New Zealand's Governor-General Hon. Sir Anand Satyanand who exercises his power on the advice of the Minister of Defence, Hon. Dr Wayne Mapp, under the Defence Act 1990. The commander and head of the NZDF is the Chief of Defence Force (CDF), Lieutenant-General Jerry Mateparae, who also acts as the primary military advisor to the Minister of Defence. New Zealand's armed forces have three defence policy objectives; to defend New Zealand against low-level threats, to contribute to regional security; and to play a part in global security efforts. New Zealand considers its own national defence needs to be modest, due to its geographical isolation and benign relationships with neighbours.<ref>Background Note: New Zealand US Department of State</ref> As of September 2008, approximately 600 NZDF personnel served overseas in the South Pacific, Asia and Middle East areas. Jerry Mateparae: Can't fight? In fact we still punch above our weight - The New Zealand Herald, Monday 08 September 2008 History New Zealand's military developed from the United Kingdom, which provided security for the European settlers in New Zealand, and later when the colony achieved dominion status. An independent New Zealand military only developed in the early twentieth century, and later served with Australians alongside the British in both World War I and II. As New Zealand grew more independent of the British, closer military ties were developed with Australia and the United States. New Zealand is a signatory of the ANZUS treaty, a defence pact between it, Australia and the United States. Since the United States suspended its obligations to New Zealand in 1986, due to the latter's anti-nuclear policy that refused certain US ships access to ports, New Zealand co-operates only with Australia under the treaty. Before entering New Zealand, US ships must declare whether they are nuclear propelled or carrying nuclear weapons. Since the US has a policy of "neither confirm nor deny", they have not visited New Zealand. The NZDF came into existence under the Defence Act 1990. Branches Army New Zealand's Army consists of around 4,500 full-time and 2,500 part-time troops. Most troops are infantry. New Zealand does not operate tanks, although it does have 105 operating Light Armoured Vehicles, known as the NZLAV. The New Zealand Special Air Service, an Army unit, is the NZDF's special forces capability. Other NZ Army branches include: Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals Royal New Zealand Army Logistic Regiment Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps Royal New Zealand Army Nursing Corps Royal New Zealand Army Dental Corps Corps of Royal New Zealand Military Police New Zealand Intelligence Corps Navy HMNZS Te Mana The Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) includes two Anzac class frigates, developed in conjunction with Australia. Eight other vessels are in use, consisting of patrol vessels and logistics. Over the next few years the RNZN will acquire seven new vessels: one large Multi-Role Vessel, two Offshore Patrol Vessels, and four Inshore Patrol Vessels. All of these new vessels will be part of Project Protector and will be built to commercial standards. Air Force One of the RNZAF's two Boeing 757 transport aircraft The Royal New Zealand Air Force consists of 50 aircraft, consisting of P-3 Orion maritime patrol aircraft and Lockheed C-130 Hercules and other transport aircraft. The RNZAF does not have a strike force following the retirement of its A-4 Skyhawk and Aermacchi MB-339 squadrons. A plan to acquire 28 F-16 Fighting Falcon aircraft was cancelled in 2000. The NH90 helicopter has recently been ordered to replace Bell UH-1 Iroquois. The PAC CT/4 Airtrainer is locally produced. Headquarters Administrative A new HQNZDF facility was opened by Prime Minister Helen Clark in March 2007. The new facility on Aitken St in the Wellington CBD replaced the premises on Stout St that had been the headquarters of NZDF for nearly 75 years. The Aitken St facility is home to around 900 employees of the NZDF, the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service and the New Zealand Ministry of Defence. HQNZDF operates as the administrative and support headquarters for the New Zealand Defence Force, with operational forces under the separate administrative command and control of HQJFNZ. Joint Forces The operational forces of the three services are directed from Headquarters Joint Forces New Zealand near Trentham Military Camp in Upper Hutt. From this building the Air Component Commander, Maritime Component Commander, and Land Component Commander exercise command over their forces. Commander Joint Forces New Zealand (COMJFNZ), currently Major General Rhys Jones, controls all overseas operational deployments and most overseas exercises. Foreign Defence Relations New Zealand and Australian military personnel boarding a United States Navy helicopter during a humanitarian aid mission to the Solomon Islands in 2007 New Zealand states it maintains a "credible minimum force," although critics (including the New Zealand National Party while in opposition) maintain that the country's defence forces have fallen below this standard http://www.national.org.nz/Article.aspx?ArticleId=4873 . With a claimed area of direct strategic concern that extends from Australia to Southeast Asia to the South Pacific, and with defence expenditures that total around 1% of GDP, New Zealand necessarily places substantial reliance on co-operating with other countries, in particular Australia. Acknowledging the need to improve its defence capabilities, the government in 2005 announced the Defence Sustainability Initiative allocating an additional NZ$4.6 billion over 10 years to modernize the country's defence equipment and infrastructure and increase its military personnel. The funding represented a 51% increase in defence spending since the Labour government took office in 1999. New Zealand is an active participant in multilateral peacekeeping. It has taken a leading role in trying to bring peace, reconciliation, and reconstruction to the Solomon Islands and the neighboring island of Bougainville. New Zealand maintains a contingent in the Multinational Force and Observers and has contributed to UN peacekeeping operations in Angola, Cambodia, Somalia, and the former Yugoslavia. It also participated in the Multilateral Interception Force in the Persian Gulf. New Zealand's most recent peacekeeping experience has been in East Timor, where it initially dispatched almost 10% of its entire defence force and continues to be the second-largest force contributor. New Zealand participates in sharing training facilities, personnel exchanges, and joint exercises with the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Brunei, Tonga, and South Pacific states. It also exercises with its Five Power Defence Arrangement partners - Australia, the United Kingdom, Malaysia, and Singapore. Due to New Zealand's antinuclear policy, defence cooperation with the U.S., including training exercises, has been significantly restricted since 1986, when the ANZUS treaty defence obligations to NZ were suspended by the USA. However, New Zealand and the USA remain 'very, very good friends' and the NZDF has served alongside the US Military in Afghanistan and Iraq in recent times - in 2004 the NZSAS were awarded a Presidential Unit Citation by US President George W Bush for "extraordinary heroism" in action. Previous ChiefsChief of Defence StaffRear-Admiral Sir Peter Phipps (1963-66) (first, from 1 July 1963) Lieutenant-General Sir Leonard Thornton (1965-1971) Lieutenant-General Sir Richard Webb (1971-1976) Air Marshal Sir Richard Bolt (1976-1980) Vice-Admiral Sir Neil Anderson (1980-1983) Air Marshal Sir Ewan Jamieson (1983-1986) Air Marshal David Crooks (1986-1987) Lieutenant-General Sir John Mace (1987-1991)Chief of Defence Force'' Vice-Admiral Sir Somerford Teagle (1991-1995) (first, from 29 March 1991) Lieutenant-General Anthony Birks (1995-1999) Air Marshal Carey Adamson (1999-2001) Air Marshal Bruce Ferguson (2001-2006) Lieutenant-General Jerry Mateparae from 2006 See also List of New Zealand military bases List of individual weapons of the New Zealand armed forces New Zealand Defence College Current Royal New Zealand Navy ships List of ships of the Royal New Zealand Navy Royal New Zealand Navy Future Plans List of aircraft of the RNZAF and RNZN List of squadrons of the RNZAF New Zealand Cadet Forces Notes References New Zealand Defence Force

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Crew

A crew comprises a body or a class of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or hierarchical organization. A location in which a crew works is called a crewyard or a workyard. The word has particular nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a ship, particularly a sailing ship, providing numerous specialities within a ship's crew, often organised with a chain of command. Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes officers from crew, though the two groups combined form the ship's company. Members of a crew are often referred to by the title "Crewman". "Crew" is also used colloquially to refer to a small, tight-knit group of friends or associates engaged in criminal activity. Also used in reference to the traditional "unit" of criminals under the supervision of a caporegime in the American Mafia. However, the term is not specific to (Mafia-affiliated) organized crime. Crew can also refer simply to a group of friends, unrelated to crime or violence. Many of these "crews" exist through MySpace, and the crew's initials were often placed in square brackets in a person's MySpace name. This was a common trend around 2007-early 2008. Sport "Crew" also refers to the sport of rowing, where teams row competitively in racing shells . References See also For a specific sporting usage, see Rowing (sport). For filmmaking usage, see Film crew. For live music usage, see Road crew. For stagecraft usage, see Stage crew. For the comic strip, see Motley's Crew. For the sports team, see Columbus Crew.

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Intellectual_property

Intellectual property (IP) are legal property rights over creations of the mind, both artistic and commercial, and the corresponding fields of law. Intellectual Property Licensing: Forms and Analysis, by Richard Raysman, Edward A. Pisacreta and Kenneth A. Adler. Law Journal Press, 1999-2008. ISBN 973-58852-086-9 Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works; ideas, discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Common types of intellectual property include copyrights, trademarks, patents, industrial design rights and trade secrets. The majority of intellectual property rights provide creators of original works economic incentive to develop and share ideas through a form of temporary monopoly. Although many of the legal principles governing intellectual property have evolved over centuries, it was not until the late 20th century that the term intellectual property began to be used as a unifying concept. "The modern use of the term intellectual property as a common descriptor of the field probably traces to the foundation of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by the United Nations." in Mark A. Lemley, Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding, Texas Law Review, 2005, Vol. 83:1031, page 1033, footnote 4. Overview Intellectual property rights are a bundle of exclusive rights over creations of the mind, both artistic and commercial. The former is covered by copyright laws, which protect creative works, such as books, movies, music, paintings, photographs, and software, and give the copyright holder exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time. What is Intellectual Property?, World Intellectual Property Organization. The second category is collectively known as "industrial properties", as they are typically created and used for industrial or commercial purposes. A patent may be granted for a new, useful, and non-obvious invention and gives the patent holder a right to prevent others from practicing the invention without a license from the inventor for a certain period of time. A trademark is a distinctive sign which is used to prevent confusion among products in the marketplace. An industrial design right protects the form of appearance, style or design of an industrial object from infringement. A trade secret is an item of non-public information concerning the commercial practices or proprietary knowledge of a business. Public disclosure of trade secrets may sometimes be illegal. The term intellectual property denotes the specific legal rights described above, and not the intellectual work itself. Objectives Financial incentive Intellectual property rights grant exclusive rights to intellectual creations; they grant ownership over creations of the mind. These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to reap monopoly profits. These monopoly profits provide a financial incentive for the creation of intellectual property, and pay associated research and development costs. Some commentators, such as David Levine and Michele Boldrin, dispute this justification. Technology diffusion Technology diffusion occurs if intellectual property is licensed or sold, conversely technology can equally be prevented from being shared, should the owner wish not to sell or license. Economic growth The legal monopoly granted by IP laws are credited with significant contributions toward economic growth. Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the U.S. can be traced to intangible assets. Industries which rely on IP protections are estimated to produce 72 percent more value per added employee than non-IP industries. Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States, Robert Shapiro and Nam Pham, July 2007. A joint research project of the WIPO and the United Nations University measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth." Measuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems, WIPO, 2007. However, correlation does not necessarily mean causation: given that the patent holders can freely relocate, the Nash equilibrium predicts they will obviously prefer operating in countries with strong IP laws. In some of the cases, the economic growth that comes with a stronger IP system is due to increase in stock capital from direct foreign investment, as was shown for Taiwan after the 1986 reform. Economics Intellectual property rights are considered by economists to be a form of temporary monopoly enforced by the state (or enforced using the legal mechanisms for redress supported by the state). Intellectual property rights are usually limited to non-rival goods, that is, goods which can be used or enjoyed by many people simultaneously—the use by one person does not exclude use by another. This is compared to rival goods, such as clothing, which may only be used by one person at a time. For example, any number of people may make use of a mathematical formula simultaneously. Some objections to the term intellectual property are based on the argument that property can only properly be applied to rival goods (or that one cannot "own" property of this sort). Since a non-rival good may be used (copied, for example) by many simultaneously (produced with minimal marginal cost), producers would need incentives other than money to create such works. Monopolies, by contrast, also have inefficiencies (producers will charge more and produce less than would be socially desirable). The establishment of intellectual property rights, therefore, represents a trade-off, to balance the interest of society in the creation of non-rival goods (by encouraging their production) with the problems of monopoly power. Since the trade-off and the relevant benefits and costs to society will depend on many factors that may be specific to each product and society, the optimum period of time during which the temporary monopoly rights should exist is unclear. Padraig Dixon and Christine Greenhalgh, The Economics of Intellectual Property: A Review to Identify Themes for Future Research, Oxford Intellectual Property Research Centre, Oxford, United Kingdom, November 2002. History Modern usage of the term intellectual property began with the 1967 establishment of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). It did not enter popular usage however until passage of the Bayh-Dole Act in 1980. Mark A. Lemley, "Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding" (Abstract); see Table 1: 4-5. The concept appears to have made its first appearance after the French revolution. In an 1818 collection of his writings, the French liberal theorist, Benjamin Constant, argued against the recently-introduced idea of "property which has been called intellectual." Benjamin de Constant de Rebecque, Collection complète des ouvrages publiés sur le gouvernement représentatif et la constitution actuelle de la France: formant une espèce de cours de politique constitutionnelle, P. Plancher, 1818, p. 296. The term intellectual property can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown., in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears." (1 Woodb. & M. 53, 3 West.L.J. 151, 7 F.Cas. 197, No. 3662, 2 Robb.Pat.Cas. 303, Merw.Pat.Inv. 414). The statement that "discoveries are...property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years." A Brief History of the Patent Law of the United States In Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. The concept's origins can potentially be traced back further. Jewish law includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century. Jewish Law and Copyright The Talmud contains the prohibitions against certain mental crimes (further elaborated in the Shulchan Aruch), notably Geneivat da'at (גניבת דעת, literally "mind theft"), which some have interpreted The New York Sun Fighting for Intellectual Property Rights. as prohibiting theft of ideas, though the doctrine is principally concerned with fraud and deception, not property. Criticism Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the free culture movement, characterize it as intellectual protectionism or intellectual monopoly and argue that the public interest is harmed by protectionist legislation such as copyright extension, software patents and business method patents. Although the term is in wide use, some critics reject the term intellectual property altogether. Richard Stallman argues that it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion." He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues." These critics advocate referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warn against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the tendency of the protections of intellectual property to expand, both in duration and in scope. The trend has been toward longer copyright protection E.g., the U.S. Copyright Term Extension Act, Pub.L. 105-298. (raising fears that it may some day be eternal Mark Helprin, Op-ed: A Great Idea Lives Forever. Shouldn’t Its Copyright? The New York Times, May 20, 2007. ). In addition, the developers and controllers of items of intellectual property have sought to bring more items under the protection. Patents have been granted for living organisms, Council for Responsible Genetics, DNA Patents Create Monopolies on Living Organisms. Accessed 2008.12.18. and colors have been trademarked For example, AstraZeneca holds a registered trademark to the color purple, as used in pill capsules. AstraZeneca, Nexium: Legal. Accessed 2008.12.18. . See also List of intellectual property-related topics References Further reading Krattiger et al 2007 "Intellectual Property Management in Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of Best Practices", Managing Innovation for a Better World Arai, Hisamitsu. "Intellectual Property Policies for the Twenty-First Century: The Japanese Experience in Wealth Creation", WIPO Publication Number 834 (E). 2000. Boldrin, Michele and David K. Levine. "Against Intellectual Monopoly", 2008. Hahn, Robert W. Intellectual Property Rights in Frontier Industries: Software and Biotechnology, AEI Press, March 2005. Branstetter, Lee, Raymond Fishman and C. Fritz Foley. "Do Stronger Intellectual Property Rights Increase International Technology Transfer? Empirical Evidence from US Firm-Level Data". NBER Working Paper 11516. July 2005. Connell, Shaun. "Intellectual Ownership". October 2007. Gowers, Andrew. "Gowers Review of Intellectual Property". Her Majesty's Treasury, November 2006. ISBN-13: 9-780118-4083-9. Kinsella, Stephan. "Against Intellectual Property". Journal of Libertarian Studies 15.2 (Spring 2001): 1-53. Lai, Edwin. "The Economics of Intellectual Property Protection in the Global Economy". Princeton University. April 2001. Lee, Richmond. Scope and Interplay of IP Rights ACCRALAW offices. Lessig, Lawrence. "Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity". New York: Penguin Press, 2004. . Lindberg, Van. Intellectual Property and Open Source: A Practical Guide to Protecting Code. O'Reilly Books, 2008. ISBN 10: 0-596-51796-3 | ISBN 13: 9780596517960 Maskus, Keith E. "Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development". Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, Vol. 32, 471. journals/jil/32-3/maskusarticle.pdf Mazzone, Jason. "Copyfraud". Brooklyn Law School, Legal Studies Paper No. 40. New York University Law Review 81 (2006): 1026. (Abstract.) Miller, Arthur Raphael, and Michael H. Davis. Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright. 3rd ed. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2000. ISBN 0-314-23519-1. Rozanski, Felix. "Developing Countries and Pharmaceutical Intellectual Property Rights: Myths and Reality" Schechter, Roger E., and John R. Thomas. Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks. New York: West/Wadsworth, 2003, ISBN 0-314-06599-7. Schneider, Patricia H. "International Trade, Economic Growth and Intellectual Property Rights: A Panel Data Study of Developed and Developing Countries". July 2004. Shapiro, Robert and Nam Pham. "Economic Effects of Intellectual Property-Intensive Manufacturing in the United States". July 2007. Vaidhyanathan, Siva. The Anarchist in the Library: How the Clash Between Freedom and Control Is Hacking the Real World and Crashing the System. New York: Basic Books, 2004.

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painting:1 photograph:1 software:3 give:3 holder:3 control:3 reproduction:1 adaptation:1 period:3 time:5 second:1 category:1 collectively:1 know:1 typically:1 create:3 purpose:1 may:8 new:9 useful:1 non:6 obvious:1 prevent:3 others:1 practice:3 without:1 license:3 inventor:2 distinctive:1 sign:1 confusion:2 among:1 product:2 marketplace:1 appearance:2 style:1 object:1 infringement:1 item:3 public:4 information:1 concern:3 proprietary:1 knowledge:1 business:3 disclosure:1 sometimes:1 illegal:1 denote:1 specific:2 describe:1 objectives:1 financial:2 ownership:2 allow:1 reap:1 profit:2 pay:1 associate:1 research:4 development:2 cost:3 commentator:1 david:2 levine:2 michele:2 boldrin:2 dispute:1 justification:1 technology:5 diffusion:2 occur:1 sell:2 conversely:1 equally:1 wish:1 growth:5 credit:1 significant:1 contribution:1 toward:2 economist:2 estimate:2 two:1 third:1 value:2 large:1 u:3 industry:3 rely:1 protection:5 produce:3 percent:1 per:1 add:1 employee:1 effect:3 intensive:2 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expand:1 duration:1 scope:2 trend:1 long:1 e:4 g:1 pub:1 fear:1 day:1 eternal:1 helprin:1 op:1 ed:2 great:1 live:1 forever:1 addition:1 developer:1 controller:1 seek:1 bring:1 living:2 organism:2 council:1 responsible:1 genetics:1 dna:1 accessed:2 color:2 astrazeneca:2 hold:1 registered:1 purple:1 pill:1 capsule:1 nexium:1 list:1 related:1 topic:1 reference:1 read:1 krattiger:1 management:1 health:1 agricultural:1 innovation:2 handbook:1 best:1 manage:1 arai:1 hisamitsu:1 twenty:1 japanese:1 experience:1 wealth:1 publication:1 k:1 hahn:1 w:1 frontier:1 biotechnology:1 aei:1 march:1 branstetter:1 lee:2 raymond:1 fishman:1 c:1 fritz:1 foley:1 international:3 transfer:1 empirical:1 evidence:1 firm:1 level:1 data:2 nber:1 paper:2 connell:1 shaun:1 gowers:2 andrew:1 majesty:1 treasury:1 kinsella:1 stephan:1 libertarian:1 study:3 spring:1 lai:1 edwin:1 global:1 economy:1 princeton:1 april:1 richmond:1 interplay:1 accralaw:1 office:1 lessig:1 lawrence:1 big:1 medium:1 lock:1 creativity:1 penguin:1 lindberg:1 van:1 open:1 source:1 practical:1 guide:1 code:1 reilly:1 maskus:1 keith:1 western:1 reserve:1 jil:1 maskusarticle:1 pdf:1 mazzone:1 jason:1 copyfraud:1 brooklyn:1 school:1 miller:1 arthur:1 raphael:1 michael:1 h:2 davis:1 wadsworth:2 rozanski:1 felix:1 pharmaceutical:1 myth:1 reality:1 schechter:1 roger:1 john:1 r:1 thomas:1 schneider:1 patricia:1 panel:1 developed:1 vaidhyanathan:1 siva:1 anarchist:1 library:1 clash:1 freedom:1 hack:1 real:1 crash:1 basic:1 |@bigram intangible_asset:2 copyright_holder:1 nash_equilibrium:1 sur_le:1 le_gouvernement:1 et_al:2 shulchan_aruch:1 richard_stallman:1 patent_trademark:3 registered_trademark:1

Kolmogorov_complexity

In algorithmic information theory (a subfield of computer science), the Kolmogorov complexity (also known as descriptive complexity, Kolmogorov-Chaitin complexity, stochastic complexity, algorithmic entropy, or program-size complexity) of an object such as a piece of text is a measure of the computational resources needed to specify the object. For example, consider the following two strings of length 64, each containing only lowercase letters, numbers, and spaces: abababababababababababababababababababababababababababababababab 4c1j5b2p0cv4w1 8rx2y39umgw5q85s7ur qbjfdppa0q7nieieqe9noc4cvafzf The first string admits a short English language description, namely "ab 32 times", which consists of 11 characters. The second one has no obvious simple description (using the same character set) other than writing down the string itself, which has 64 characters. This image illustrates part of the Mandelbrot set fractal. Simply storing the 24-bit color of each pixel in this image would require 1.62 million bits; but a small computer program can reproduce these 1.62 million bits using the definition of the Mandelbrot set. Thus, the Kolmogorov complexity of the raw file encoding this bitmap is much less than 1.62 million. More formally, the complexity of a string is the length of the string's shortest description in some fixed universal description language. The sensitivity of complexity relative to the choice of description language is discussed below. It can be shown that the Kolmogorov complexity of any string cannot be too much larger than the length of the string itself. Strings whose Kolmogorov complexity is small relative to the string's size are not considered to be complex. The notion of Kolmogorov complexity is surprisingly deep and can be used to state and prove impossibility results akin to Gödel's incompleteness theorem and Turing's halting problem. Definition To define Kolmogorov complexity, we must first specify a description language for strings. Such a description language can be based on a programming language such as Lisp, Pascal, or Java Virtual Machine bytecode. If P is a program which outputs a string x, then P is a description of x. The length of the description is just the length of P as a character string. In determining the length of P, the lengths of any subroutines used in P must be accounted for. The length of any integer constant n which occurs in the program P is the number of bits required to represent n, that is (roughly) log2n. We could alternatively choose an encoding for Turing machines, where an encoding is a function which associates to each Turing Machine M a bitstring <M>. If M is a Turing Machine which on input w outputs string x, then the concatenated string <M> w is a description of x. For theoretical analysis, this approach is more suited for constructing detailed formal proofs and is generally preferred in the research literature. The binary lambda calculus may provide the simplest definition of complexity yet. In this article we will use an informal approach. Any string s has at least one description, namely the program function GenerateFixedString() return s If a description of s, d(s), is of minimal length—i.e. it uses the fewest number of characters—it is called a minimal description of s. Then the length of d(s)—i.e. the number of characters in the description—is the Kolmogorov complexity of s, written K(s). Symbolically, We now consider how the choice of description language affects the value of K and show that the effect of changing the description language is bounded. Theorem. If K1 and K2 are the complexity functions relative to description languages L1 and L2, then there is a constant c (which depends only on the languages L1 and L2) such that Proof. By symmetry, it suffices to prove that there is some constant c such that for all bitstrings s, To see why this is so, suppose there is a program in the language L1 which acts as an interpreter for L2: function InterpretLanguage(string p) where p is a program in L2. The interpreter is characterized by the following property: Running InterpretLanguage on input p returns the result of running p. Thus if P is a program in L2 which is a minimal description of s, then InterpretLanguage(P) returns the string s. The length of this description of s is the sum of The length of the program InterpretLanguage, which we can take to be the constant c. The length of P which by definition is K2(s). This proves the desired upper bound. See also invariance theorem. History and context Algorithmic information theory is the area of computer science that studies Kolmogorov complexity and other complexity measures on strings (or other data structures). Kolmogorov Complexity was first invented by Ray Solomonoff in 1960, who described it in "A Preliminary Report on a General Theory of Inductive Inference" (see ref) as a side product to his invention of Algorithmic Probability. He gave a more complete description in his 1964 publications, "A Formal Theory of Inductive Inference," Part 1 and Part 2 in Information and Control (see ref). Andrey Kolmogorov independently invented complexity as a measure of information content, first describing it in 1965, Problems Inform. Transmission, 1, (1965), 1-7. Gregory Chaitin also invented it independently, submitting 2 reports on it in 1965, a preliminary investigation published in 1966 (J. ACM, 13(1966) and a more complete discussion in 1969 (J. ACM, 16(1969). When Kolmogorov became aware of Solomonoff's work, he acknowledged Solomonoff's priority (IEEE Trans. Inform Theory, 14:5(1968), 662-664). For several years, Solomonoff's work was better known in the Soviet Union than in the Western World. The general consensus in the scientific community, however, was to associate this type of complexity with Kolmogorov, who was concerned with randomness of a sequence while Algorithmic Probability became associated with Solomonoff, who focused on prediction using his invention of the universal a priori probability distribution. There are several other variants of Kolmogorov complexity or algorithmic information. The most widely used one is based on self-delimiting programs and is mainly due to Leonid Levin (1974). An axiomatic approach to Kolmogorov complexity based on Blum axioms (Blum 1967) was introduced by Mark Burgin in the paper presented for publication by Andrey Kolmogorov (Burgin 1982). This approach was further developed in the book (Burgin 2005) and applied to software metrics (Burgin and Debnath, 2003; Debnath and Burgin, 2003). Naming this concept "Kolmogorov complexity" is an example of the Matthew effect. Basic results In the following, we will fix one definition and simply write K(s) for the complexity of the string s. It is not hard to see that the minimal description of a string cannot be too much larger than the string itself: the program GenerateFixedString above that outputs s is a fixed amount larger than s. Theorem. There is a constant c such that Incomputability of Kolmogorov complexity The first result is that there is no way to effectively compute K. Theorem. K is not a computable function. In other words, there is no program which takes a string s as input and produces the integer K(s) as output. We show this by contradiction by making a program that creates a string that should only be able to be created by a longer program. Suppose there is a program function KolmogorovComplexity(string s) that takes as input a string s and returns K(s). Now consider the program function GenerateComplexString(int n) for i = 1 to infinity: for each string s of length exactly i if KolmogorovComplexity(s) >= n return s quit This program calls KolmogorovComplexity as a subroutine. This program tries every string, starting with the shortest, until it finds a string with complexity at least n, then returns that string. Therefore, given any positive integer n, it produces a string with Kolmogorov complexity at least as great as n. The program itself has a fixed length U. The input to the program GenerateComplexString is an integer n; here, the size of n is measured by the number of bits required to represent n which is log2(n). Now consider the following program: function GenerateParadoxicalString() return GenerateComplexString(n0) This program calls GenerateComplexString as a subroutine and also has a free parameter n0. This program outputs a string s whose complexity is at least n0. By an auspicious choice of the parameter n0 we will arrive at a contradiction. To choose this value, note s is described by the program GenerateParadoxicalString whose length is at most where C is the "overhead" added by the program GenerateParadoxicalString. Since n grows faster than log2(n), there exists a value n0 such that But this contradicts the definition of having a complexity at least n0. That is, by the definition of K(s), the string s returned by GenerateParadoxicalString is only supposed to be able to be generated by a program of length n0 or longer, but GenerateParadoxicalString is shorter than n0. Thus the program named "KolmogorovComplexity" cannot actually computably find the complexity of arbitrary strings. This is proof by contradiction where the contradiction is similar to the Berry paradox: "Let n be the smallest positive integer that cannot be defined in fewer than twenty English words." It is also possible to show the uncomputability of K by reduction from the uncomputability of the halting problem H, since K and H are Turing-equivalent. Chain rule for Kolmogorov complexity The chain rule for Kolmogorov complexity states that It states that the shortest program that reproduces X and Y is no more than a logarithmic term larger than a program to reproduce X and a program to reproduce Y given X. Using this statement one can define an analogue of mutual information for Kolmogorov complexity. Compression It is however straightforward to compute upper bounds for K(s): simply compress the string s with some method, implement the corresponding decompressor in the chosen language, concatenate the decompressor to the compressed string, and measure the resulting string's length. A string s is compressible by a number c if it has a description whose length does not exceed |s| − c. This is equivalent to saying K(s) ≤ |s| − c. Otherwise s is incompressible by c. A string incompressible by 1 is said to be simply incompressible; by the pigeonhole principle, incompressible strings must exist, since there are 2n bit strings of length n but only 2n−2 shorter strings, that is strings of length n − 1 or less. For the same reason, "most" strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be significantly compressed: K(s) is not much smaller than |s|, the length of s in bits. To make this precise, fix a value of n. There are 2n bitstrings of length n. The uniform probability distribution on the space of these bitstrings assigns to each string of length exactly n equal weight 2−n. Theorem. With the uniform probability distribution on the space of bitstrings of length n, the probability that a string is incompressible by c is at least 1 − 2−c+1 + 2−n. To prove the theorem, note that the number of descriptions of length not exceeding n − c is given by the geometric series: There remain at least many bitstrings of length n that are incompressible by c. To determine the probability divide by 2n. This theorem is the justification for various challenges in comp.compression FAQ. Despite this result, it is sometimes claimed by certain individuals (considered cranks) that they have produced algorithms which uniformly compress data without loss. See lossless data compression. Chaitin's incompleteness theorem We know that most strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be described in any significantly "compressed" way. However, it turns out that the fact that a specific string is complex cannot be formally proved, if the string's length is above a certain threshold. The precise formalization is as follows. First fix a particular axiomatic system S for the natural numbers. The axiomatic system has to be powerful enough so that to certain assertions A about complexity of strings one can associate a formula FA in S. This association must have the following property: if FA is provable from the axioms of S, then the corresponding assertion A is true. This "formalization" can be achieved either by an artificial encoding such as a Gödel numbering or by a formalization which more clearly respects the intended interpretation of S. Theorem. There exists a constant L (which only depends on the particular axiomatic system and the choice of description language) such that there does not exist a string s for which the statement (as formalized in S) can be proven within the axiomatic system S. Note that by the abundance of nearly incompressible strings, the vast majority of those statements must be true. The proof of this result is modeled on a self-referential construction used in Berry's paradox. The proof is by contradiction. If the theorem were false, then Assumption (X): For any integer n there exists a string s for which there is a proof in S of the formula "K(s) ≥ n" (which we assume can be formalized in S). We can find an effective enumeration of all the formal proofs in S by some procedure function NthProof(int n) which takes as input n and outputs some proof. This function enumerates all proofs. Some of these are proofs for formulas we do not care about here (examples of proofs which will be listed by the procedure NthProof are the various known proofs of the law of quadratic reciprocity, those of Fermat's little theorem or the proof of Fermat's last theorem all translated into the formal language of S). Some of these are complexity formulas of the form K(s) ≥ n where s and n are constants in the language of S. There is a program function NthProofProvesComplexityFormula(int n) which determines whether the nth proof actually proves a complexity formula K(s) ≥ L. The strings s and the integer L in turn are computable by programs: function StringNthProof(int n) function ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof(int n) Consider the following program function GenerateProvablyComplexString(int n) for i = 1 to infinity: if NthProofProvesComplexityFormula(i) and ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof(i) >= n return StringNthProof(i) quit Given an n, this program tries every proof until it finds a string and a proof in the formal system S of the formula K(s) ≥ L for some L >= n. The program terminates by our Assumption (X). Now this program has a length U. There is an integer n0 such that U + log2(n0) + C < n0, where C is the overhead cost of function GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString() return GenerateProvablyComplexString(n0) quit The program GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString outputs a string s for which there exists an L such that K(s) ≥ L can be formally proved in S with L >= n0. In particular K(s) ≥ n0 is true. However, s is also described by a program of length U+log2(n0)+C so its complexity is less than n0. This contradiction proves Assumption (X) cannot hold. Similar ideas are used to prove the properties of Chaitin's constant. The minimum message length principle of statistical and inductive inference and machine learning was developed by C.S. Wallace and D.M. Boulton in 1968. MML is Bayesian (it incorporates prior beliefs) and information-theoretic. It has the desirable properties of statistical invariance (the inference transforms with a re-parametrisation, such as from polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates), statistical consistency (even for very hard problems, MML will converge to any underlying model) and efficiency (the MML model will converge to any true underlying model about as quickly as is possible). C.S. Wallace and D.L. Dowe showed a formal connection between MML and algorithmic information theory (or Kolmogorov complexity) in 1999. Kolmogorov randomness Kolmogorov randomness (also called algorithmic randomness) defines a string (usually of bits) as being random if and only if it is shorter than any computer program that can produce that string. This definition of randomness is critically dependent on the definition of Kolmogorov complexity. To make this definition complete, a computer has to be specified, usually a Turing machine. According to the above definition of randomness, a random string is also an "incompressible" string, in the sense that it is impossible to give a representation of the string using a program whose length is shorter than the length of the string itself. However, according to this definition, most strings shorter than a certain length end up to be (Chaitin-Kolmogorovically) random because the best one can do with very small strings is to write a program that simply prints these strings. See also Berlekamp-Massey algorithm Data compression Important publications in algorithmic information theory Levenshtein distance Grammar induction References Blum, M. (1967) On the Size of Machines, Information and Control, v. 11, pp. 257-265 Burgin, M. (1982) Generalized Kolmogorov complexity and duality in theory of computations, Notices of the Russian Academy of Sciences, v.25, No. 3, pp.19-23 Mark Burgin (2005), Super-recursive algorithms, Monographs in computer science, Springer. Burgin, M. and Debnath, N. Hardship of Program Utilization and User-Friendly Software, in Proceedings of the International Conference “Computer Applications in Industry and Engineering”, Las Vegas, Nevada, 2003, pp. 314-317 Thomas M. Cover, Joy A. Thomas. Elements of information theory, 1st Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1991. ISBN 0-471-06259-6. 2nd Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2006. ISBN 0-471-24195-4. Debnath, N.C. and Burgin, M., (2003) Software Metrics from the Algorithmic Perspective, in Proceedings of the ISCA 18th International Conference “Computers and their Applications”, Honolulu, Hawaii, pp. 279-282 Rónyai Lajos, Ivanyos Gábor, Szabó Réka, Algoritmusok. TypoTeX, 1999. Solomonoff, Ray, A Preliminary Report on a General Theory of Inductive Inference, Report V-131, Zator Co., Cambridge, Ma. Feb 4, 1960. (pdf version). Solomonoff, Ray, A Formal Theory of Inductive Inference, Information and Control, Part I, Vol 7, No. 1 pp 1-22, March 1964, (pdf version) and Part II, Vol 7, No. 2 pp 224-254, June 1964. (pdf version). Ming Li and Paul Vitányi, An Introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications, Springer, 1997. Introduction chapter full-text. Yu Manin, A Course in Mathematical Logic, Springer-Verlag, 1977. Michael Sipser, Introduction to the Theory of Computation, PWS Publishing Company, 1997. External links The Legacy of Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov Chaitin's online publications Solomonoff's IDSIA page Generalizations of algorithmic information by J. Schmidhuber Ming Li and Paul Vitanyi, An Introduction to Kolmogorov Complexity and Its Applications, 2nd Edition, Springer Verlag, 1997. Tromp's lambda calculus computer model offers a concrete definition of K() Universal AI based on Kolmogorov Complexity ISBN 3-540-22139-5 by M. Hutter: ISBN 3-540-22139-5 Minimum Message Length and Kolmogorov Complexity (by C.S. Wallace and D.L. Dowe, Computer Journal, Vol. 42, No. 4, 1999). David Dowe's Minimum Message Length (MML) and Occam's razor pages. P. Grunwald, M. A. Pitt and I. J. Myung (ed.), Advances in Minimum Description Length: Theory and Applications, M.I.T. Press, April 2005, ISBN 0-262-07262-9.

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Libro_de_los_juegos

__NOTOC__ The game of astronomical tables, from Libro de los juegos The Libro de los Juegos, ("Book of games"), or Libro de acedrex, dados e tablas, ("Book of chess, dice and tables") was commissioned by Alfonso X, king of León, Galicia and Castile, during the 13th century and completed in 1283. Wollesen, Jens T. "Sub specie ludi...: Text and Images in Alfonso El Sabio's Libro de Acedrex, Dados e Tablas", Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 53:3, 1990. pp. 277-308. It consists of 98 pages, many with color illustrations. The games covered include chess (including the earliest known European chess problems), dice, and tables (the family of games that includes backgammon). The book contains the earliest known description of some of these games, including many games imported from the Arab kingdoms. It is one of the most important documents for researching the history of board games. The only known original is held in the library of the monastery of San Lorenzo del Escorial near Madrid in Spain. The book is bound in sheepskin and is 40 cm high and 28 cm wide (16 in × 11 in). A 1334 copy is held in the library of the Historical Academy of Madrid. Background Alfonso was likely influenced by his contact with scholars in the Arab world. Unlike many contemporary texts on the topic, he does not engage the games in the text with moralistic arguments; instead, he portrays them in an astrological context. He conceives of gaming as a dichotomy between the intellect and chance. The book is divided into three parts reflecting this: the first on chess (a game purely of abstract strategy), the second on dice (with outcomes controlled strictly by chance), and the last on tables (combining elements of both). The text may have been influenced by Frederick II's text on falconry. Chess Chess problem #35 The Libro de juegos contains an extensive collection of writings on chess, with over 100 chess problems and variants. Among its more notable entries is a depiction of what Alfonso calls the ajedrex de los quatro tiempos ("chess of the four seasons"). This game is a chess variant for four players, described as representing a conflict between the four elements and the four humors. The chessmen are marked correspondingly in green, red, black, and white, and pieces are moved according to the roll of dice. Alfonso also describes a game entitled "astronomical chess", played on a board of seven concentric circles, divided radially into twelve areas, each associated with a constellation of the Zodiac. Tables Seis, dos, y as The book describes the rules for a number of games in the tables family. One notable entry is todas tablas, which has an identical starting position to modern backgammon and follows the same rules for movement and bearoff. Alfonso also describes a variant played on a board with seven points in each table. Players rolled seven-sided dice to determine the movement of pieces, an example of Alfonso's preference for the number seven. References External links A translation by Sonja Musser Golladay Alphonso X Book of Games at RenGeekCentral

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International_Maritime_Organization

Participation in the International Maritime Organization Headquarters of the International Maritime Organization in Lambeth, adjacent to the east end of Lambeth Bridge Headquarters building taken from the west side of the Thames The International Maritime Organization (IMO), formerly known as the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), is a mid-20th century creation. The Convention which established the IMCO was adopted in Geneva in 1948, Hoffman, Michael L. "Ship Organization Nears Final Form; U.N. Maritime Body Expected to Have 3 Principal Organs -- Panama in Opposition," New York Times. March 4, 1948. but it only came into force ten years later; and the new Organization met for the first time the following year in 1959. The IMCO name was changed to IMO in 1982. IMO: "About IMO" Headquartered in London, in the United Kingdom, the IMO is a specialized agency of the United Nations with 168 Member States and three Associate Members. The IMO's primary purpose is to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping and its remit today includes safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, technical co-operation, maritime security and the efficiency of shipping. IMO is governed by an Assembly of members and is financially administered by a Council of members elected from the Assembly. The work of IMO is conducted through five committees and these are supported by technical subcommittees. Member organizations of the UN organizational family may observe the proceedings of the IMO. Observer status is granted to qualified non-governmental organizations. The IMO is supported by a permanent secretariat of employees who are representative of its members. The secretariat is composed of a Secretary-General who is periodically elected by the Assembly, and various divisions such as those for marine safety, environmental protection, and a conference section. History IMCO was formed to fulfill a desire to bring the regulation of the safety of shipping into an international framework, for which the creation of the United Nations provided an opportunity. Hitherto such international conventions had been initiated piecemeal, notably the Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS), first adopted in 1914 following the Titanic disaster. IMCO's first task was to update that Convention; the resulting 1960 Convention was subsequently recast and updated in 1974 and it is that Convention that has been subsequently modified and updated to adapt to changes in safety requirements and technology. When IMCO began its operations in 1958 certain other pre-existing instruments were brought under its aegis, most notable the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (OILPOL) 1954. Throughout its existence IMCO, renamed the IMO in 1982, has continued to produce new and updated instruments across a wide range of maritime issues covering not only safety of life and marine pollution but also encompassing safe navigation, search and rescue, wreck removal, tonnage measurement, liability and compensation, ship recycling, the training and certification of seafarers, and piracy. More recently SOLAS has been amended to bring an increased focus on maritime security through the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS) and the IMO has increased its focus on air emissions from ships. Legal instruments IMO is the source of approximately 60 legal instruments that guide the regulatory development of its member states to improve safety at sea, facilitate trade among seafaring states and protect the maritime environment. The most well known is the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). IMO regularly enacts regulations, which are broadly enforced by national and local maritime authorities in member countries, such as the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG). The IMO has also enacted a Port State Control (PSC) authority, allowing domestic maritime authorities such as coast guards to inspect foreign-flag ships calling at ports of the many port states. Memoranda of Understanding (protocols) were signed by some countries unifying Port State Control procedures among the signatories. Current issues Recent initiatives at the IMO have included amendments to SOLAS, which upgraded fire protection standards on passenger ships, the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) which establishes basic requirements on training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers and to the Convention on the Prevention of Maritime Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), which required double hulls on all tankers. All these initiatives were instigated by representatives of the United States before the IMO. In December 2002, new amendments to the 1974 SOLAS Convention were enacted. These amendments gave rise to the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code, which went into effect on 1 July 2004. The concept of the code is to provide layered and redundant defenses against smuggling, terrorism, piracy, stowaways, etc. The ISPS Code required most ships and port facilities engaged in international trade to establish and maintain strict security procedures as specified in ship and port specific Ship Security Plans and Port Facility Security Plans. The IMO is also responsible for publishing the International Code of Signals for use between merchant and naval vessels. The First Intersessional Meeting of IMO’s Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships is currently taking place in Oslo, Norway (23-27 June, 2008), tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping, and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves, for further consideration by IMO’s Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC). SustainableShipping: (S) News - IMO targets greenhouse gas emissions (17 Jun 2008) - The forum dedicated to marine transportation and the environment The IMO has also served as a key partner and enabler of U.S. international and interagency efforts to establish Maritime Domain Awareness. Member states The list of member and associate member states is followed by the year of joining the IMO. IMO: Member states + year of joining. CountryYear19931963197719861953195219751995197619761976197019511990198019871993196319841960195119611961194819761972197319742001197520081981196019921966197319931973 Formerly known as Zaire. 1959197919791953195619581981197219931992197519831959195219761979199319591959195819981983197519771980195319541970196019591961195819731951195219571976195819731994197320031960199319661959197019951991196119891971196719661998196119781954200119891996200619621979199419791949196019821962198619581974195819581976199319681964196019761977199319651958200119801981199620021990196919602000197819731966199319931988197819951962196219721974197619591955196319741973200519832000196519631958199320041994198019491950196819861975198419792005 Associate Members CountryYear, China1967, China1990, Denmark2002 See also IMDG code for the carriage of dangerous goods at sea Supply chain security Standard Marine Communication Phrases developed by the IMO, to improve safety at sea Notes References Mankabady, Samir. (1986). The International Maritime Organization. London: Routledge. 10-ISBN 0-709-93591-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-709-93591-9 Nordquist, Myron H. and John Morton Moore. (1999). Current Maritime Issues and the International Maritime Organization. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 10-ISBN 9-041-11293-6; 13-ISBN 978-9-041-11293-4 OCLC: 42652709 External links International Maritime Organization website IMO: What It Is(2001)

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Coyote

The coyote ( coyote - Definitions from Dictionary.com ) (Canis latrans), also known as the prairie wolf, prairie wolf. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07 is a species of canid found throughout North and Central America, ranging from Panama in the south, north through Mexico, the United States and Canada. It occurs as far north as Alaska and all but the northernmost portions of Canada. There are currently 19 recognized subspecies, with 16 in Canada, Mexico and the United States, and 3 in Central America. Unlike its cousin the Gray Wolf, which is Eurasian in origin, the coyote evolved in North America 2 MYA alongside the Dire Wolf. Unlike the wolf, the coyote's range has expanded in the wake of human civilization, and coyotes readily reproduce in metropolitan areas. It is thought by certain experts that the coyote's North American origin may account for its greater adaptability than the wolf, due to North America's greater prehistoric predation pressures. Name The name "coyote" is borrowed from Mexican Spanish, ultimately derived from the Nahuatl word cóyotl. Its scientific name, Canis latrans, means "barking dog." Description Coyote profile The color of the coyote's pelt varies from grayish brown to yellowish gray on the upper parts, while the throat and belly tend to have a buff or white color. The forelegs, sides of the head, muzzle and paws are reddish brown. The back has tawn-colored underfur and long, black-tipped guard hairs that form a black dorsal stripe and a dark cross on the shoulder area. The black-tipped tail has a scent gland located on its dorsal base. Coyotes shed once a year, beginning in May with light hair loss, ending in July after heavy shedding. The ears are proportionately large in relation to the head, while the feet are relatively small in relation to the rest of the body. Mountain dwelling coyotes tend to be dark furred while desert coyotes tend to be more yellowish in color. Coyotes typically grow up to 75–87 centimeters (30–34 inches) in length and on average, weigh from 7–21 kilograms (15–46 pounds). Northern coyotes are typically larger than southern subspecies, with the largest coyotes on record weighing 74¾ pounds (33.7 kg) and measuring over five feet in total length. Coyote The coyote's dental formula is I 3/3, C 1/1, Pm 4/4, M usually 2/2, occasionally 3/3, 3/2, or 2/3 X 2 = 40, 42, or 44. Coyote (Canis latrans) Normal spacing between the upper canine teeth is 1⅛ to 1⅜ inches (29 to 35 mm) and 1 to 1¼ inches (25 to 32 mm) between the lower canine teeth. Certain experts have noted that the shape of a domestic dog's brain case is closer to the coyote's in shape than the wolf's. The upper frequency limit of hearing for coyotes is 80 kHz, compared to the 60 kHz of domestic dogs. Compared to wolves, and similarly to domestic dogs, coyotes have a higher density of sweat glands on their paw pads. This trait is however absent in the large New England coyotes which are thought to have some wolf ancestry. During pursuit, a coyote may reach speeds up to 43 mph (69 km/h), Speed of Animals, Infoplease.com, sourced from Natural History Magazine, March 1974; The American Museum of Natural History and can jump a distance of over 4 meters (13⅛ feet). Behavior Coyote in Yellowstone National Park Though coyotes have been observed to travel in large groups, they primarily hunt in pairs. Typical packs consist of six closely related adults, yearlings and young. Coyote packs are generally smaller than wolf packs and associations between individuals are less stable, thus making their social behaviour more in line with that of the dingo. Domestication: the decline of environmental appreciation by Helmut Hemmer, translated by Neil Beckhaus, Edition: 2, illustrated. Published by Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521341787, 9780521341783. 208 pages It has been theorized that this is due to an earlier expression of aggression, and the fact that coyotes reach their full growth in their first year, unlike wolves who reach it in their second. Common names of coyote groups are a band, a pack, or a rout Collective Nouns: Java Glossary . Coyotes are primarily nocturnal but can often be seen during daylight hours. Coyotes were once essentially diurnal, but have adapted to more nocturnal behavior with pressure from humans (McClennen et al., 2001). Coyotes are capable of digging their own burrows, though they often appropriate the burrows of Groundhogs or American badgers. Coyote territorial ranges can be as much as 19 kilometers in diameter around the den and travel occurs along fixed trails. In areas where wolves have been exterminated, coyotes usually flourish. For example, as New England became increasingly settled and the resident wolves were eliminated, the coyote population increased, filling the empty biological niche. Coyotes appear better able than wolves to live among people. Coyotes have been known to live a maximum of 10 years in the wild and 18 years in captivity. They seem to be better than dogs at observational learning. Reproduction Female coyotes are monoestrus and remain in heat for 2–5 days between late January and late March, during which mating occurs. Once the female chooses a partner, the mated pair may remain temporarily monogamous for a number of years. Depending on geographic location, spermatogenesis in males takes around 54 days and occurs between January and February. The gestation period lasts from 60 to 63 days. Litter size ranges from 1 to 19 pups; the average is 6. These large litters act as compensatory measures against the high juvenile mortality rate, with approximately 50-70% of pups not surviving to adulthood. The pups weigh approximately 250 grams at birth and are initially blind and limp-eared. Coyote growth rate is faster than that of wolves, being similar in length to that of the dhole. The eyes open and ears erect after 10 days. Around 21–28 days after birth, the young begin to emerge from the den and by 35 days they are fully weaned. Both parents feed the weaned pups with regurgitated food. Male pups will disperse from their dens between months 6 and 9, while females usually remain with the parents and form the basis of the pack. The pups attain full growth between 9 and 12 months. Sexual maturity is reached by 12 months. Unlike wolves, mother coyotes will tolerate other lactating females in their pack. Interspecific hybridization Coyotes will sometimes mate with domestic dogs, usually in areas like Texas and Oklahoma where the coyotes are plentiful and the breeding season is extended because of the warm weather. The resulting hybrids, called coydogs, maintain the coyote's predatory nature, along with the dog's lack of timidity toward humans, making them a more serious threat to livestock than pure-blooded animals. This cross-breeding has the added effect of confusing the breeding cycle. Coyotes usually breed only once a year, while coydogs will breed year-round, producing many more pups than a wild coyote. Differences in the ears and tail are generally what can be used to distinguish coydogs from domestic/feral dogs or pure coyotes. CoyoteClub.org: Photos of deceased coydogs Breeding experiments in Germany with poodles, coyotes, and later on with the resulting dog-coyote hybrids showed that unlike wolfdogs, coydogs show a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems as well as an increase of genetic diseases after three generations of interbreeding. Doris Feddersen-Petersen, Hundepsychologie, 4. Auflage, 2004, Franck-Kosmos-Verlag 2004 Coyotes have also been known on occasion to mate with wolves, though this is less common than with dogs due to the wolf's hostility to the coyote. The offspring, known as a coywolf, is generally intermediate in size to both parents, being larger than a pure coyote, but smaller than a pure wolf. A study showed that of 100 coyotes collected in Maine, 22 had half or more wolf ancestry, and one was 89 percent wolf. A theory has been proposed that the large eastern coyotes in Canada are actually hybrids of the smaller western coyotes and wolves that met and mated decades ago as the coyotes moved toward New England from their earlier western ranges. The Red Wolf is thought by certain scientists to be in fact a wolf/coyote hybrid rather than a unique species. Strong evidence for hybridization was found through genetic testing which showed that red wolves have only 5% of their alleles unique from either Gray Wolves or coyotes. Genetic distance calculations have indicated that red wolves are intermediate between coyotes and Gray Wolves, and that they bear great similarity to wolf/coyote hybrids in southern Quebec and Minnesota. Analyses of mitochondrial DNA showed that existing Red Wolf populations are predominantly coyote in origin. Communication Hearing a coyote is much more common than seeing one. The calls a coyote makes are high-pitched and variously described as howls, yips, yelps and barks. These calls may be a long rising and falling note (a howl) or a series of short notes (yips). These calls are most often heard at dusk or night, but may be heard in the day. Although these calls are made throughout the year, they are most common during the spring mating season and in the fall when the pups leave their families to establish new territories. Ecology Diet and hunting Coyotes are versatile carnivores with a 90% mammalian diet, depending on the season. They primarily eat small mammals, such as voles, prairie dogs, eastern cottontails, ground squirrels, and mice, though they will eat birds, snakes, lizards, deer, javelina, and livestock as well as large insects and other large invertebrates. Though they will consume large amounts of carrion, they tend to prefer fresh meat. Part of the coyote's success as a species is its dietary adaptability. As such, coyotes have been known to eat human rubbish and domestic pets. Fruits and vegetables are a significant part of the coyote's diet in the autumn and winter months. Coyotes shift their hunting techniques in accordance to their prey. When hunting small animals such as mice, they slowly stalk through the grass and use their acute sense of smell to track down the prey. When the prey is located, the coyotes stiffen and pounce on the prey in a cat-like manner. Coyotes will commonly work in teams when hunting large ungulates such as deer. Coyotes may take turns in baiting and pursuing the deer to exhaustion, or they may drive it towards a hidden member of the pack. When attacking large prey, coyotes attack from the rear and the flanks of their prey. Occasionally they also grab the neck and head, pulling the animal down to the ground. Coyotes are persistent hunters, with successful attacks sometimes lasting from 14 minutes to about 21 hours; even unsuccessful ones can vary from 2 minutes to more than 8 hours before the coyotes give up. Depth of snow can affect the likelihood of a successful kill. Packs of coyotes can bring down prey as large as adult elk, which usually weigh over 250 kg (550 lbs). http://www.nps.gov/yell/naturescience/coyotes.htm The average distance covered in a night's hunting is 4 km (2½ mi). Interspecific predatory relationships The gray wolf is a significant predator of coyotes wherever their ranges overlap. Since the Yellowstone Gray Wolf Reintroduction in 1995 and 1996, the local coyote population went through a dramatic restructuring. Until the wolves returned, Yellowstone National Park had one of the densest and most stable coyote populations in America due to a lack of human impacts. Two years after the wolf reintroductions, the pre-wolf population of coyotes had been reduced 50% through both competitive exclusion and intraguild predation. In Grand Teton, coyote densities were 33% lower than normal in the areas where they coexisted with wolves, and 39% lower in the areas of Yellowstone where wolves were reintroduced. In one study, about 16% of radio-collared coyotes were preyed upon by wolves. Yellowstone coyotes have had to shift their territories as a result, moving from open meadows to steep terrain. Carcasses in the open no longer attract coyotes; when a coyote is chased on flat terrain, it is often killed. They feel more secure on steep terrain where they will often lead a pursuing wolf downhill. As the wolf comes after it, the coyote will turn around and run uphill. Wolves, being heavier, cannot stop and the coyote gains a large lead. Though physical confrontations between the two species are usually dominated by the larger wolves, coyotes have been known to attack wolves if they outnumber them. Both species will kill each other's pups given the opportunity. "Weaving A New Web: Wolves Change An Ecosystem", Zoogoer magazine, May/June 1998, Smithsonian National Zoo Wolf urine has been marketed and claimed to be an organic coyote deterrent, such as for deterring attacks on sheep. "Preventing Predation of Your Sheep Flock: Predators and Prey", student project at Purdue University Cougars sometimes kill coyotes. The coyote's instinctive fear of cougars has led to the development of anti-coyote sound systems which repel coyotes from public places by replicating the sounds of a cougar. Bears can also rarely kill coyotes, more likely in competitive rather than predatory attacks. However, both cougars and bears have been displaced from carcasses by coyote packs. http://www.yellowstonenationalpark.com/coyote.htm In sympatric populations of coyotes and red foxes, fox territories tend to be located largely outside of coyote territories. The principal cause of this separation is believed to be active avoidance of coyotes by the foxes. Interactions between the two species vary in nature, ranging from active antagonism to indifference. The majority of aggressive encounters are initiated by coyotes, and there are few reports of red foxes acting aggressively toward coyotes except when attacked or when their pups were approached. Conversely, foxes and coyotes have sometimes been seen feeding together. "Observed Interactions Between Coyotes and Red Foxes", Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, United States Geological Survey Coyotes will sometimes form a symbiotic relationship with American badgers. Because coyotes are not very effective at digging rodents out of their burrows, they will chase the animals while they are above ground. Badgers on the other hand are not fast runners, but are well-adapted to digging. When hunting together, they effectively leave little escape for prey in the area. In some areas, coyotes share their ranges with bobcats. It is rare for these two similarly sized species to physically confront one another, though bobcat populations tend to diminish in areas with high coyote densities. Coyotes (both single individuals and groups) have been known to occasionally kill bobcats, but in all known cases, the victims were relatively small specimens, such as adult females and juveniles. Philip S. Gipson and Jan F. Kamler, "Bobcat Killed by a Coyote" The Southwestern Naturalist, Vol. 47, No. 3 (Sep., 2002), pp. 511-513 Coyotes have also competed with and occasionally eaten Canadian lynxes in areas where both species overlap. "Canada Lynx — Wild cat of the Loomis–and more", Conservation Northwest UNNELL KD, FLINDERS JT, WOLFE ML (2006) Potential Impacts of Coyotes and Snowmobiles on Lynx Conservation in the Intermountain West. Wildlife Society Bulletin: Vol. 34, No. 3 pp. 828–838 Relationship with humans Adaptation to human environment A coyote standing by a road in Arizona Despite being extensively hunted, the coyote is one of the few medium-to-large-sized animals that has enlarged its range since human encroachment began. It originally ranged primarily in the western half of North America, but it has adapted readily to the changes caused by human occupation and, since the early 19th century, has been steadily and dramatically extending its range. Gompper, M. 2002. Top Carnivores in the Suburbs? Ecological and conservation issues raised by colonization of North-eastern North America by coyotes. BioScience 52:185-190. Sightings now commonly occur in California, Oregon, New England, New Jersey, and eastern Canada. Coyotes have been seen in nearly every continental U.S. state, including Alaska. Coyotes have moved into most of the areas of North America formerly occupied by wolves, and are often observed foraging in suburban trashcans. Coyotes also thrive in suburban settings and even some urban ones. A study by wildlife ecologists at Ohio State University yielded some surprising findings in this regard. Researchers studied coyote populations in Chicago over a seven-year period (2000–2007), proposing that coyotes have adapted well to living in densely populated urban environments while avoiding contact with humans. They found, among other things, that urban coyotes tend to live longer than their rural counterparts, kill rodents and small pets, and live anywhere from parks to industrial areas. The researchers estimate that there are up to 2,000 coyotes living in "the greater Chicago area" and that this circumstance may well apply to many other urban landscapes in North America. "Thriving under our noses, stealthily: coyotes" URL accessed on January 9, 2006. In Washington DC's Rock Creek Park, coyotes den and raise their young, scavenge roadkill, and hunt rodents. "I don't see it as a bad thing for a park," the assigned National Park Service biologist told a reporter for Smithsonian Magazine (March 2006). "I see it as good for keeping animal populations in control, like the squirrels and the mice." As a testament to the coyote's habitat adaptability, a coyote (known as "Hal the Central Park Coyote") was even captured in Manhattan's Central Park in March 2006 after being chased by city wildlife officials for two days. Attacks on humans Coyote attacks on humans are uncommon and rarely cause serious injuries, due to the relatively small size of the coyote. However, coyote attacks on humans have increased since 1998 in the state of California. Data from USDA Wildlife Services, the California Department of Fish & Game, and other sources show that while 41 attacks occurred during the period of 1988-1997, 48 attacks were verified from 1998 through 2003. The majority of these incidents occurred in Southern California near the suburban-wildland interface. Due to an absence of harassment by residents, urban coyotes lose their natural fear of humans, which is further worsened by people intentionally feeding coyotes. In such situations, some coyotes begin to act aggressively toward humans, chasing joggers and bicyclists, confronting people walking their dogs, and stalking small children. Like wolves, non-rabid coyotes usually target small children, mostly under the age of 10, though some adults have been bitten. Some attacks are serious enough to warrant 200 stitches. There is currently only one recorded fatal attack on a human. In 1981 in Glendale, California, a coyote attacked toddler Kelly Keen, who despite being rescued by her father, died in surgery due to blood loss and a broken neck. Coyote Attacks on Children Livestock and pet predation Coyotes are presently the most abundant livestock predators in western North America, causing the majority of sheep, goat and cattle losses. For example: according to the National Agricultural Statistics Service, coyotes were responsible for 60.5% of the 224,000 sheep deaths that were attributed to predation in 2004. However the total number of sheep deaths in 2004 comprised only 2.22% of the total sheep and lamb population in the United States. National Agricultural Statistics Service According to the National Agricultural Statistics Service USDA report, "All sheep and lamb inventory in the United States on July 1, 2005, totaled 7.80 million head, 2 percent above July 1, 2004. Breeding sheep inventory at 4.66 million head on July 1, 2005 was 2 percent above July 1, 2004." Sheep and Lamb Inventory, US data. Released July 22, 2005. By virtue of the fact that coyote populations are typically many times greater and more widely distributed than those of wolves, coyotes cause more overall predation losses. Additionally, an Idaho census taken in 2005 showed that individual coyotes were 20 times less likely to attack livestock than individual wolves. Relative risks of predation on livestock posed by individual wolves, black bears, mountain lions and coyotes in Idaho, Mark Collinge, United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, Boise, Idaho Coyotes will typically bite the throat just behind the jaw and below the ear when attacking adult sheep or goats, with death commonly resulting from suffocation. Blood loss is usually a secondary cause of death. Calves and heavily fleeced sheep are killed by attacking the flanks or hind-quarters, causing shock and blood loss. When attacking smaller prey, such as young lambs and kids, the kill is made by biting the skull and spinal regions, causing massive tissue and ossular damage. Small or young prey may be completely carried off, leaving only blood as evidence of a kill. Coyotes will usually leave the hide and most of the skeleton of larger animals relatively intact unless food is scarce, in which case they may leave only the largest bones. Scattered bits of wool, skin and other parts are characteristic where coyotes feed extensively on larger carcasses. Coyote with a typical throat hold on domestic sheep. Coyote predation can usually be distinguished from dog or coydog predation by the fact that coyotes partially consume their victims. Tracks are also an important factor in distinguishing coyote from dog predation. Coyote tracks tend to be more oval-shaped and compact than those of domestic dogs, plus, claw marks are less prominent and the tracks tend to follow a straight line more closely than those of dogs. With the exception of sighthounds, most dogs of similar weight to coyotes have a slightly shorter stride. Coyote kills can be distinguished from wolf kills by the fact that there is less damage to the underlying tissues. Also, coyote scats tend to be smaller than wolf scats. Ranchers' Guide to Wolf Depredation, Montana State University Coyotes are often attracted to dog food and animals that are small enough to appear as prey. Items like garbage, pet food and sometimes even feeding stations for birds and squirrels will attract coyotes into backyards. Approximately 3 to 5 pets attacked by coyotes are brought into the Animal Urgent Care hospital of South Orange County each week, the majority of which are dogs, since cats typically do not survive the attacks. Scat analysis collected near Claremont, California revealed that coyotes relied heavily on pets as a food source in winter and spring. At one location in Southern California, coyotes began relying on a colony of feral cats as a food source. Over time, the coyotes killed most of the cats and then continued to eat the cat food placed daily at the colony site by citizens who were maintaining the cat colony. Coyotes attack smaller or similar sized dogs and they have been known to attack even large, powerful breeds like the Rottweiler in exceptional cases "A coyote attacks in Weymouth and kills a dog", WHDH-TV - New England News . Dogs larger than coyotes are usually able to capably defend themselves, although small breeds are more likely to suffer injury or be killed by such attacks. Pelts In the early days of European settlement in North Dakota, American Beavers were the most valued and sought after furbearers, though other species were also taken, including coyotes. History of the Fur Trade, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, USGS Coyotes are an important furbearer in the region. During the 1983-86 seasons, North Dakota buyers purchased an average of 7,913 pelts annually, for an average annual combined return to takers of $255,458. In 1986-87, South Dakota buyers purchased 8,149 pelts for a total of $349,674 to takers. Dakotas Prairie Basin Wetlands, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, USGS The harvest of coyote pelts in Texas has varied over the past few decades, but has generally followed a downward trend. A study from the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, however, found that there was no indication of population decline, and suggested that, as pelt prices were not increasing, the decrease in harvest was likely due to decreasing demand, and not increasing scarcity (where pelt prices would go up.) It suggested that fashion, and the changing custom of wearing fur garments, may be significant among these factors. Coyotes As Part Of Texas' Fur Trade, Symposium Proceedings, Coyotes in the Southwest: A Compendium of Our Knowledge December 13-14, 1995, San Angelo, Texas Today, coyote fur is still used for full coats and trim and is particularly popular for men’s coats. International Fur Trade Federation Character in mythology Coyote tries to persuade Opossum to let him have some persimmons, in a Caddo story. Traditional stories from many Native American nations include a deity whose name is translated into English as "Coyote". Although especially common in stories told by southwestern Native American nations, such as the Diné and Apache, stories about Coyote appear in dozens of Native American nations from Canada to Mexico. Usually appearing as a trickster, a culture hero or both, Coyote also often appears in creation myths and etiological myths. Although usually appearing in stories as male, Coyote can also be female or even a hermaphrodite, in some traditional Native American stories. Contemporary cultural references The Coyote is a popular figure in folklore and popular culture. References may invoke either the animal or the mythological figure. Traits commonly described in pop culture appearances include inventiveness, mischievousness, and evasiveness. By far the best known representation is the animated Wile E. Coyote, whose popularity has spread the three-syllable Spanish pronunciation of the word "coyote" throughout English-speaking North America. "Coyote" is also a slang term for a person who smuggles illegal immigrants over the border from Mexico to the United States. In the Disney movie "Beverly Hills Chihuahua" a coyote is referred to as a guy who smuggles collarless dogs across the border. The Phoenix Coyotes are a National Hockey League franchise based in Arizona. Genus controversy In 1816 in the third volume of Lorenz Oken's Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte, the author found sufficient similarities in the dentition of coyotes and jackals to place these species into a new separate genus from Canis called Thos after the classical Greek word θώς (jackal). Oken's idiosyncratic nomenclatorial ways, however, aroused the scorn of a number of zoological systematists. Nearly all the descriptive words used to justify the genus division were relative terms without a reference measure, and the argument did not take into account the size differences between the species, which can be considerable. Angel Cabrera, in his 1932 monograph on the mammals of Morocco, briefly touched upon the question of whether or not the presence of a cingulum on the upper molars of the jackals and its corresponding absence in the rest of Canis could justify a subdivision of the genus Canis. In practice, he chose the undivided-genus alternative and referred to the jackals as Canis. A few authors, however, Ernest Thompson Seton being among them, accepted Oken's nomenclature, and went as far as referring to the coyote as American jackal. The Oken/Heller proposal of the new genus Thos did not affect the classification of the coyote. Gerrit S. Miller still had in his 1924 edition of List of North American Recent Mammals in the section “Genus Canis Linnaeas,” the subordinate heading “Subgenus Thos Oken” and backed it up with a reference to Heller. In the reworked version of the book in 1955, Philip Hershkovitz and Hartley Jackson led him to drop Thos both as an available scientific term and as a viable subgenus of Canis. In his definitive study of the taxonomy of the coyote, Jackson had, in response to Miller, queried whether Heller had seriously looked at specimens of coyotes prior to his 1914 article and thought the characters to be “not sufficiently important or stable to warrant subgeneric recognition for the group”. Subspecies There are 19 recognized subspecies of this canid: C. l. cagottis (Hamilton-Smith): Mexican Coyote - states of Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi, Puebla, and Veracruz in Mexico C. l. clepticus (Elliot): San Pedro Martir Coyote - northern Baja California and southwestern California C. l. dickeyi: Salvador Coyote C. l. frustor (Woodhouse): Southeastern Coyote - southeastern and extreme eastern Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Missouri, and Arkansas C. l. goldmani: Belize Coyote C. l. hondurensis: Honduras Coyote C. l. impavidus (Allen): Durango Coyote - southern Sonora, extreme southwestern Chihuahua, western Durango, western Zacatecas, and Sinaloa C. l. incolatus (Hall): Northern Coyote - Yukon, Northwest Territories, northern British Columbia, and northern Alberta, and Alaska C. l. jamesi (Townsend): Tiburón Island Coyote - Tiburón Island C. l. latrans: Plains Coyote - Great Plains from Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan south to New Mexico and the Texas Panhandle C. l. lestes (Merriam): Mountain Coyote - British Columbia and southeastern Alberta south to Utah and Nevada C. l. mearnsi (Merriam): Mearns Coyote - southwestern Colorado and southern Utah south to northern Sonora and Chihuahua C. l. microdon (Merriam): Lower Rio Grande Coyote - southern Texas and northern Tamaulipas C. l. ochropus (Eschscholtz): California Valley Coyote - California west of the Sierra Nevada C. l. peninsulae (Merriam): Peninsula Coyote - Baja California C. l. texensis (Bailey): Texas Plains Coyote - most of Texas, eastern New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico C. l. thamnos (Jackson): Northeastern Coyote - range extends from north-central Saskatchewan east to southern Ontario south to northern Indiana and west to Missouri C. l. umpquensis (Jackson): Northwest Coast Coyote - coast of Washington and Oregon C. l. vigilis (Merriam): Colima Coyote - Pacific coast of Mexico from Jalisco south to Guerrero References Robert M. Timm, Hopland Research & Extension Center, University of California, Hopland, California; Rex O. Baker, California State Polytechnic University-Pomona (retired), Corona, California; Joe R. Bennett, USDA APHIS Wildlife Services, Taft, California; and Craig C. Coolahan, USDA APHIS Wildlife Services, Sacramento, California, "Coyote Attacks: An Increasing Suburban Problem" (March 3, 2004). Hopland Research & Extension Center. Paper timm_baker_P047. http://repositories.cdlib.org/anrrec/hrec/timm_baker_P047 Bekoff, Marc. 1977. Canis Latrans, Species Account. American Society of Mammalogists. McClennen, N., R. Wigglesworth, and S. H. Anderson. 2001. "The effect of suburban and agricultural development on the activity patterns of coyotes (Canis latrans), American Midland Naturalist, vol. 146: 27-36. Moehlman, P., and H. Hofer. 1997. "Cooperative breeding, reproductive suppression, and body mass in canids", chapter in Cooperative Breeding in Canids, ed. N. G. Solomon and J. A. French. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Morey, Paul. 2004. "Landscape use and diet of coyotes, Canis latrans, in the Chicago metropolitan area", Masters Thesis, Utah State University. Parker, Gerry. 1995. "Eastern Coyote: Story of Its Success", Nimbus Publishing, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Voigt, D. R., and W. E. Berg. 1999. "Coyote", chapter 28 in Wild Furbearer Management and Conservation in North America, Section IV: Species Biology, Management, and Conservation. Queen's Printer for Ontario, Ontario, Canada. External links Coyote Facts Information on the Coyote Coyotes in the Southern Rockies Narragansett Bay Coyote Study Eastern Coyote Homepage Pictures of the Coyote Hinterland Who's Who - Sound of the Coyote Notes

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Amphibian

Amphibians (class Amphibia), such as frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and caecilians, are ectothermic or cold-blooded animals that metamorphose from a juvenile, water-breathing form to an adult, air-breathing form. Typically, amphibians have four limbs. Unlike other land animals (amniotes), amphibians lay eggs in water, as their fish ancestors did. Amphibians are superficially similar to reptiles. Amphibians are ecological indicators, and in recent decades there has been a dramatic decline in amphibian populations around the globe. Many species are now threatened or extinct. Scientists do not agree on the cause, but it is widely believed to be a direct result of the amount of water pollution emitted from industrial factories and other similar sources. Amphibians evolved in the Devonian Period and were top predators in the Carboniferous and Permian Periods, but many lineages were wiped out during the Permian-Triassic extinction. One group, the metoposaurs, remained important predators during the Triassic, but as the world became drier during the Early Jurassic they died out, leaving a handful of relict temnospondyls like Koolasuchus and the modern orders of Lissamphibia. Etymology Amphibian is derived from the Ancient Greek term "amphíbios" which means both kinds of life. Amphi referring to "both" and bio referring to life. The term was initially used for all kinds of combined natures. Eventually it was used to refer to animals that live both in the water and on land. Evolutionary history The first major groups of amphibians developed in the Devonian Period from fish similar to the modern coelacanth and lungfish where the fins had evolved into legs. These amphibians were around one to five meters long. The land was safe as the giant fish and sharks in the ocean could not come onto land. However, there were two problems with living out their entire lives on land. Primarily, the food that these amphibians consumed was in the water, but also at this point the skin on most of these amphibians was not water-tight. In the Carboniferous Period, the amphibians moved up in the food chain and began to occupy the ecological position currently occupied by crocodiles. These amphibians were notable for eating the mega insects on land and many types of fishes in the water. During the Triassic Period, the amphibians started competing with proto-crocodiles, which led to their drop in size in the temperate zones, or leaving for the poles. Amphibians were able to hibernate during the winter, whereas crocodiles could not, allowing the amphibians in higher latitudes protection from the reptiles. Taxonomy Traditionally, amphibians have included all tetrapods that are not amniotes. They are divided into three subclasses, of which two are only known as extinct subclasses: Subclass Labyrinthodontia (diverse Paleozoic and early Mesozoic group) Subclass Lepospondyli (small Paleozoic group) Subclass Lissamphibia (frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, etc.) Of these only the last subclass includes recent species. With the phylogenetic revolution, this classification has been modified, or changed, and the Labyrinthodontia discarded as being a paraphyletic group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author, and whether they use a stem-based or node-based classification. Generally amphibians are defined as the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders, etc) and all their descendants. This may also include extinct groups like the temnospondyls (traditionally placed in the disbanded subclass "labyrinthodontia"), and the Lepospondyls. This means that there are a now large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous tetrapod groups, described as "amphibians" in earlier books, that are no longer placed in the formal Amphibia. All recent amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, superorder Salientia, which is usually considered a clade (which means that it is thought that they evolved from a common ancestor apart from other extinct groups), although it has also been suggested also that salamanders arose separately from a temnospondyl-like ancestor Carroll, 2007 . Authorities also disagree on whether Salientia is a Superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. Practical considerations seem to favour using the former arrangement now. The Lissamphibia, superorder Salientia, are traditionally divided into three orders, but an extinct salamander-like family, the Albanerpetontidae, is now considered part of the Lissamphibia, besides the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus a single Triassic proto-frog, Triadobatrachus. Class Amphibia Subclass Lissamphibia Family Albanerpetontidae - Jurassic to Miocene (extinct) Superorder Salientia Genus Triadobatrachus - Triassic (extinct) Order Anura (frogs and toads): Jurassic to recent - 5,602 recent species in 48 families Order Caudata or Urodela (salamanders, newts): Jurassic to recent - 571 recent species in 9 families Order Gymnophiona or Apoda (caecilians): Jurassic to recent - 174 recent species in 3 families The actual number of species partly also depends on the taxonomic classification followed, the two most common classifications being the classification of the website AmphibiaWeb, University of California (Berkeley) and the classification by herpetologist Darrel Frost and The American Museum of Natural History, available as the online reference database Amphibian Species of the World Amphibian Species of the World The online database by Darrel Frost and The American Museum of Natural History . The numbers of species cited above follow Frost. Reproductive system Caecilian from the San Antonio zoo For the purpose of reproduction most amphibians are bound to have fresh water. A few (e.g. Fejervarya raja) can inhabit brackish water and even survive (though not thrive) in seawater, but there are no true marine amphibians. Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., Eleutherodactylus, the Pacific Platymantines, the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water for breeding in the wild. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the tadpole stage within the egg. Several species have also adapted to arid and semi-arid environments, but most of them still need water to lay their eggs. Symbiosis with single celled algae that lives in the jelly-like layer of the eggs has evolved several times. The larvae (tadpoles or polliwogs) breathe with exterior gills. After hatching, they start to transform gradually into the adult's appearance. This process is called metamorphosis. Typically, the animals then leave the water and become terrestrial adults, but there are many interesting exceptions to this general way of reproduction. The most obvious part of the amphibian metamorphosis is the formation of four legs in order to support the body on land. But there are several other changes: The gills are replaced by other respiratory organs, i.e., lungs. The skin changes and develops glands to avoid dehydration. The eyes develop eyelids and adapt to vision outside the water. An eardrum is developed to lock the middle ear. In frogs and toads, the tail disappears. Conservation The Golden Toad of Monteverde, Costa Rica was among the first casualties of amphibian declines. Formerly abundant, it was last seen in 1989. Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized extinction, have been noted in the past two decades from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived as one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including habitat destruction and modification, over-exploitation, pollution, introduced species, climate change, endocrine-disrupting pollutants, destruction of the ozone layer (ultraviolet radiation has shown to be especially damaging to the skin, eyes, and eggs of amphibians), and diseases like chytridiomycosis. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion. A global strategy to stem the crisis has been released in the form of the Amphibian Conservation Action Plan (available at www.amphibians.org). Developed by over 80 leading experts in the field, this call to action details what would be required to curtail amphibian declines and extinctions over the next 5 years - and how much this would cost. The Amphibian Specialist Group of the World Conservation Union (IUCN) is spearheading efforts to implement a comprehensive global strategy for amphibian conservation. On January 21, 2008, Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE), per chief Helen Meredith identified nature's most endangered species: "The EDGE amphibians are amongst the most remarkable and unusual species on the planet and yet an alarming 85% of the top 100 are receiving little or no conservation attention." The top 10 endangered species (in the List of endangered animal species) include: the Chinese giant salamander, a distant relative of the newt, the tiny Gardiner's Seychelles, the limbless Sagalla caecilian, South African ghost frogs, lungless Mexican salamanders, the Malagasy rainbow frog, Chile's Darwin frog (Rhinoderma rufum) and the Betic Midwife Toad. See also Fishapods List of amphibians List of prehistoric amphibians Tetrapod References Further reading Solomon Berg Martin, Biology 776 pages External links Save the Frogs! Amphibian Specialist Group Amphibians photos Brazil Amphibian Ark AmphibiaWeb Global Amphibian Assessment Amphibians of central Europe USGS--Online Guide for the Identification of Amphibians in North America north of Mexico General amphibian biology information - Living UnderWorld Atlanta Botanical Garden Amphibian Conservation Program Amphibian vocalisations on Archival Sound Recordings

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Malaria

Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Each year, there are approximately 350–500 million cases of malaria, Malaria Facts. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. killing between one and three million people, the majority of whom are young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ninety percent of malaria-related deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty, but is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development. Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and an enormous public health problem. The disease is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Five species of the plasmodium parasite can infect humans; the most serious forms of the disease are caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae causes milder disease in humans that is not generally fatal. A fifth species, Plasmodium knowlesi, causes malaria in macaques but can also infect humans. This group of human-pathogenic Plasmodium species is usually referred to as malaria parasites. Usually, people get malaria by being bitten by an infective female Anopheles mosquito. Only Anopheles mosquitoes can transmit malaria, and they must have been infected through a previous blood meal taken on an infected person. When a mosquito bites an infected person, a small amount of blood is taken, which contains microscopic malaria parasites. About one week later, when the mosquito takes its next blood meal, these parasites mix with the mosquito's saliva and are injected into the person being bitten. The parasites multiply within red blood cells, causing symptoms that include symptoms of anemia (light-headedness, shortness of breath, tachycardia, etc.), as well as other general symptoms such as fever, chills, nausea, flu-like illness, and, in severe cases, coma, and death. Malaria transmission can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites with mosquito nets and insect repellents, or by mosquito control measures such as spraying insecticides inside houses and draining standing water where mosquitoes lay their eggs. Work has been done on malaria vaccines with limited success and more exotic controls, such as genetic manipulation of mosquitoes to make them resistant to the parasite have also been considered. Although some are under development, no vaccine is currently available for malaria that provides a high level of protection RTS,S vaccine protection rate ; preventive drugs must be taken continuously to reduce the risk of infection. These prophylactic drug treatments are often too expensive for most people living in endemic areas. Most adults from endemic areas have a degree of long-term infection, which tends to recur, and also possess partial immunity (resistance); the resistance reduces with time, and such adults may become susceptible to severe malaria if they have spent a significant amount of time in non-endemic areas. They are strongly recommended to take full precautions if they return to an endemic area. Malaria infections are treated through the use of antimalarial drugs, such as quinine or artemisinin derivatives. However, parasites have evolved to be resistant to many of these drugs. Therefore, in some areas of the world, only a few drugs remain as effective treatments for malaria. History Malaria has infected humans for over 50,000 years, and malarial protozoa may have been a human pathogen for the entire history of the species. Close relatives of the human malaria parasites remain common in chimpanzees. References to the unique periodic fevers of malaria are found throughout recorded history, beginning in 2700 BC in China. The term malaria originates from Medieval Italian: mala aria — "bad air"; and the disease was formerly called ague or marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marshland. From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age. Paul Reiter. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, San Juan, Puerto Rico. Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America, where it is no longer endemic Vector- and Rodent-Borne Diseases in Europe and North America. Norman G. Gratz. World Health Organization, Geneva. , though imported cases do occur. Scientific studies on malaria made their first significant advance in 1880, when a French army doctor working in the military hospital of Constantine in Algeria named Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran observed parasites for the first time, inside the red blood cells of people suffering from malaria. He, therefore, proposed that malaria is caused by this protozoan, the first time protozoa were identified as causing disease. ] Nobel foundation. Accessed 25 Oct 2006 For this and later discoveries, he was awarded the 1907 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. The protozoan was called Plasmodium by the Italian scientists Ettore Marchiafava and Angelo Celli. A year later, Carlos Finlay, a Cuban doctor treating patients with yellow fever in Havana, provided strong evidence that mosquitoes were transmitting disease to and from humans. This work followed earlier suggestions by Josiah C. Nott, and work by Patrick Manson on the transmission of filariasis. However, it was Britain's Sir Ronald Ross working in the Presidency General Hospital in Calcutta who finally proved in 1898 that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. He did this by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds and isolating malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds. For this work Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine. After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly-established Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius. The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900, and its recommendations implemented by William C. Gorgas in the health measures undertaken during construction of the Panama Canal. This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against this disease. The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of cinchona tree, which contains quinine. This tree grows on the slopes of the Andes, mainly in Peru. A tincture made of this natural product was used by the inhabitants of Peru to control malaria, and the Jesuits introduced this practice to Europe during the 1640s, where it was rapidly accepted. However, it was not until 1820 that the active ingredient, quinine, was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by the French chemists Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou. In the early twentieth century, before antibiotics, patients with syphilis were intentionally infected with malaria to create a fever, following the work of Julius Wagner-Jauregg. By accurately controlling the fever with quinine, the effects of both syphilis and malaria could be minimized. Although some patients died from malaria, this was preferable to the almost-certain death from syphilis. Although the blood stage and mosquito stages of the malaria life cycle were identified in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was not until the 1980s that the latent liver form of the parasite was observed. The discovery of this latent form of the parasite finally explained why people could appear to be cured of malaria but still relapse years after the parasite had disappeared from their bloodstreams. Distribution and impact Countries which have regions where malaria is endemic as of 2003 (coloured yellow). Countries in green are free of indigenous cases of malaria in all areas. Malaria causes about 250 million cases of fever and approximately one million deaths annually. 2005 WHO World Malaria Report 2008 The vast majority of cases occur in children under 5 years old; pregnant women are also especially vulnerable. Despite efforts to reduce transmission and increase treatment, there has been little change in which areas are at risk of this disease since 1992. Indeed, if the prevalence of malaria stays on its present upwards course, the death rate could double in the next twenty years. Precise statistics are unknown because many cases occur in rural areas where people do not have access to hospitals or the means to afford health care. As a consequence, the majority of cases are undocumented. Although co-infection with HIV and malaria does cause increased mortality, this is less of a problem than with HIV/tuberculosis co-infection, due to the two diseases usually attacking different age-ranges, with malaria being most common in the young and active tuberculosis most common in the old. Although HIV/malaria co-infection produces less severe symptoms than the interaction between HIV and TB, HIV and malaria do contribute to each other's spread. This effect comes from malaria increasing viral load and HIV infection increasing a person's susceptibility to malaria infection. Malaria is presently endemic in a broad band around the equator, in areas of the Americas, many parts of Asia, and much of Africa; however, it is in sub-Saharan Africa where 85– 90% of malaria fatalities occur. The geographic distribution of malaria within large regions is complex, and malaria-afflicted and malaria-free areas are often found close to each other. In drier areas, outbreaks of malaria can be predicted with reasonable accuracy by mapping rainfall. Malaria is more common in rural areas than in cities; this is in contrast to dengue fever where urban areas present the greater risk. For example, the cities of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia are essentially malaria-free, but the disease is present in many rural regions. By contrast, in Africa malaria is present in both rural and urban areas, though the risk is lower in the larger cities. The global endemic levels of malaria have not been mapped since the 1960s. However, the Wellcome Trust, UK, has funded the Malaria Atlas Project to rectify this, providing a more contemporary and robust means with which to assess current and future malaria disease burden. Socio-economic effects Malaria is not just a disease commonly associated with poverty but also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development. Tropical regions are affected most, however malaria’s furthest extent reaches into some temperate zones with extreme seasonal changes. The disease has been associated with major negative economic effects on regions where it is widespread. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it was a major factor in the slow economic development of the American southern states. Humphreys, M. 2001. Malaria: Poverty, Race, and Public Health in the United States. John Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6637-5 . A comparison of average per capita GDP in 1995, adjusted for parity of purchasing power, between countries with malaria and countries without malaria gives a fivefold difference ($1,526 USD versus $8,268 USD). In countries where malaria is common, average per capita GDP has risen (between 1965 and 1990) only 0.4% per year, compared to 2.4% per year in other countries. Poverty is both cause and effect, however, since the poor do not have the financial capacities to prevent or treat the disease. The lowest income group in Malawi carries the burden of having 32% of their annual income used on this disease compared with the 4% of household incomes from low-to-high groups. In its entirety, the economic impact of malaria has been estimated to cost Africa $12 billion USD every year. The economic impact includes costs of health care, working days lost due to sickness, days lost in education, decreased productivity due to brain damage from cerebral malaria, and loss of investment and tourism. In some countries with a heavy malaria burden, the disease may account for as much as 40% of public health expenditure, 30-50% of inpatient admissions, and up to 50% of outpatient visits. Symptoms Symptoms of malaria include fever, shivering, arthralgia (joint pain), vomiting, anemia (caused by hemolysis), hemoglobinuria, retinal damage, and convulsions. The classic symptom of malaria is cyclical occurrence of sudden coldness followed by rigor and then fever and sweating lasting four to six hours, occurring every two days in P. vivax and P. ovale infections, while every three for P. malariae. Malaria life cycle & pathogenesis. Malaria in Armenia. Accessed October 31, 2006. P. falciparum can have recurrent fever every 36–48 hours or a less pronounced and almost continuous fever. For reasons that are poorly understood, but that may be related to high intracranial pressure, children with malaria frequently exhibit abnormal posturing, a sign indicating severe brain damage. Malaria has been found to cause cognitive impairments, especially in children. It causes widespread anemia during a period of rapid brain development and also direct brain damage. This neurologic damage results from cerebral malaria to which children are more vulnerable. – Scholar search}} Cerebral malaria is associated with retinal whitening, which may be a useful clinical sign in distinguishing it from other causes of fever. Species Appearance Periodicity Persistent in liver? Plasmodium vivax tertian yes Plasmodium ovale tertian yes Plasmodium falciparum tertian no Plasmodium malariae quartan no Severe malaria is almost exclusively caused by P. falciparum infection and usually arises 6–14 days after infection. Consequences of severe malaria include coma and death if untreated—young children and pregnant women are especially vulnerable. Splenomegaly (enlarged spleen), severe headache, cerebral ischemia, hepatomegaly (enlarged liver), hypoglycemia, and hemoglobinuria with renal failure may occur. Renal failure may cause blackwater fever, where hemoglobin from lysed red blood cells leaks into the urine. Severe malaria can progress extremely rapidly and cause death within hours or days. In the most severe cases of the disease fatality rates can exceed 20%, even with intensive care and treatment. In endemic areas, treatment is often less satisfactory and the overall fatality rate for all cases of malaria can be as high as one in ten. Over the longer term, developmental impairments have been documented in children who have suffered episodes of severe malaria. Chronic malaria is seen in both P. vivax and P. ovale, but not in P. falciparum. Here, the disease can relapse months or years after exposure, due to the presence of latent parasites in the liver. Describing a case of malaria as cured by observing the disappearance of parasites from the bloodstream can, therefore, be deceptive. The longest incubation period reported for a P. vivax infection is 30 years. Approximately one in five of P. vivax malaria cases in temperate areas involve overwintering by hypnozoites (i.e., relapses begin the year after the mosquito bite). Causes A Plasmodium sporozoite traverses the cytoplasm of a mosquito midgut epithelial cell in this false-color electron micrograph. Malaria parasites Malaria is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium (phylum Apicomplexa). In humans malaria is caused by P. falciparum, P. malariae, P. ovale, P. vivax and P. knowlesi. P. falciparum is the most common cause of infection and is responsible for about 80% of all malaria cases, and is also responsible for about 90% of the deaths from malaria. Parasitic Plasmodium species also infect birds, reptiles, monkeys, chimpanzees and rodents. There have been documented human infections with several simian species of malaria, namely P. knowlesi, P. inui, P. cynomolgi, P. simiovale, P. brazilianum, P. schwetzi and P. simium; however, with the exception of P. knowlesi, these are mostly of limited public health importance. Although avian malaria can kill chickens and turkeys, this disease does not cause serious economic losses to poultry farmers. Investing in Animal Health Research to Alleviate Poverty. International Livestock Research Institute. Permin A. and Madsen M. (2001) Appendix 2: review on disease occurrence and impact (smallholder poultry). Accessed 29 Oct 2006 However, since being accidentally introduced by humans it has decimated the endemic birds of Hawaii, which evolved in its absence and lack any resistance to it. Mosquito vectors and the Plasmodium life cycle The parasite's primary (definitive) hosts and transmission vectors are female mosquitoes of the Anopheles genus. Young mosquitoes first ingest the malaria parasite by feeding on an infected human carrier and the infected Anopheles mosquitoes carry Plasmodium sporozoites in their salivary glands. A mosquito becomes infected when it takes a blood meal from an infected human. Once ingested, the parasite gametocytes taken up in the blood will further differentiate into male or female gametes and then fuse in the mosquito gut. This produces an ookinete that penetrates the gut lining and produces an oocyst in the gut wall. When the oocyst ruptures, it releases sporozoites that migrate through the mosquito's body to the salivary glands, where they are then ready to infect a new human host. This type of transmission is occasionally referred to as anterior station transfer. The sporozoites are injected into the skin, alongside saliva, when the mosquito takes a subsequent blood meal. Only female mosquitoes feed on blood, thus males do not transmit the disease. The females of the Anopheles genus of mosquito prefer to feed at night. They usually start searching for a meal at dusk, and will continue throughout the night until taking a meal. Malaria parasites can also be transmitted by blood transfusions, although this is rare. Pathogenesis The life cycle of malaria parasites in the human body. A mosquito infects a person by taking a blood meal. First, sporozoites enter the bloodstream, and migrate to the liver. They infect liver cells (hepatocytes), where they multiply into merozoites, rupture the liver cells, and escape back into the bloodstream. Then, the merozoites infect red blood cells, where they develop into ring forms, then trophozoites (a feeding stage), then schizonts (a reproduction stage), then back into merozoites. Sexual forms called gametocytes are also produced, which, if taken up by a mosquito, will infect the insect and continue the life cycle. Malaria in humans develops via two phases: an exoerythrocytic and an erythrocytic phase. The exoerythrocytic phase involves infection of the hepatic system, or liver, whereas the erythrocytic phase involves infection of the erythrocytes, or red blood cells. When an infected mosquito pierces a person's skin to take a blood meal, sporozoites in the mosquito's saliva enter the bloodstream and migrate to the liver. Within 30 minutes of being introduced into the human host, the sporozoites infect hepatocytes, multiplying asexually and asymptomatically for a period of 6–15 days. Once in the liver, these organisms differentiate to yield thousands of merozoites, which, following rupture of their host cells, escape into the blood and infect red blood cells, thus beginning the erythrocytic stage of the life cycle. Bledsoe, G. H. (December 2005) "Malaria primer for clinicians in the United States" Southern Medical Journal 98(12): pp. 1197–204, (PMID: 16440920); The parasite escapes from the liver undetected by wrapping itself in the cell membrane of the infected host liver cell. Within the red blood cells, the parasites multiply further, again asexually, periodically breaking out of their hosts to invade fresh red blood cells. Several such amplification cycles occur. Thus, classical descriptions of waves of fever arise from simultaneous waves of merozoites escaping and infecting red blood cells. Some P. vivax and P. ovale sporozoites do not immediately develop into exoerythrocytic-phase merozoites, but instead produce hypnozoites that remain dormant for periods ranging from several months (6–12 months is typical) to as long as three years. After a period of dormancy, they reactivate and produce merozoites. Hypnozoites are responsible for long incubation and late relapses in these two species of malaria. The parasite is relatively protected from attack by the body's immune system because for most of its human life cycle it resides within the liver and blood cells and is relatively invisible to immune surveillance. However, circulating infected blood cells are destroyed in the spleen. To avoid this fate, the P. falciparum parasite displays adhesive proteins on the surface of the infected blood cells, causing the blood cells to stick to the walls of small blood vessels, thereby sequestering the parasite from passage through the general circulation and the spleen. This "stickiness" is the main factor giving rise to hemorrhagic complications of malaria. High endothelial venules (the smallest branches of the circulatory system) can be blocked by the attachment of masses of these infected red blood cells. The blockage of these vessels causes symptoms such as in placental and cerebral malaria. In cerebral malaria the sequestrated red blood cells can breach the blood brain barrier possibly leading to coma. Although the red blood cell surface adhesive proteins (called PfEMP1, for Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1) are exposed to the immune system, they do not serve as good immune targets because of their extreme diversity; there are at least 60 variations of the protein within a single parasite and perhaps limitless versions within parasite populations. Like a thief changing disguises or a spy with multiple passports, the parasite switches between a broad repertoire of PfEMP1 surface proteins, thus staying one step ahead of the pursuing immune system. Some merozoites turn into male and female gametocytes. If a mosquito pierces the skin of an infected person, it potentially picks up gametocytes within the blood. Fertilization and sexual recombination of the parasite occurs in the mosquito's gut, thereby defining the mosquito as the definitive host of the disease. New sporozoites develop and travel to the mosquito's salivary gland, completing the cycle. Pregnant women are especially attractive to the mosquitoes, and malaria in pregnant women is an important cause of stillbirths, infant mortality and low birth weight, particularly in P. falciparum infection, but also in other species infection, such as P. vivax. Evolutionary pressure of malaria on human genes Malaria is thought to have been the greatest selective pressure on the human genome in recent history. This is due to the high levels of mortality and morbidity caused by malaria, especially the P. falciparum species. Sickle-cell disease The most-studied influence of the malaria parasite upon the human genome is a hereditary blood disease, sickle-cell disease. The sickle-cell trait causes disease, but even those only partially affected by sickle-cell have substantial protection against malaria. In sickle-cell disease, there is a mutation in the HBB gene, which encodes the beta-globin subunit of haemoglobin. The normal allele encodes a glutamate at position six of the beta-globin protein, whereas the sickle-cell allele encodes a valine. This change from a hydrophilic to a hydrophobic amino acid encourages binding between haemoglobin molecules, with polymerization of haemoglobin deforming red blood cells into a "sickle" shape. Such deformed cells are cleared rapidly from the blood, mainly in the spleen, for destruction and recycling. In the merozoite stage of its life cycle, the malaria parasite lives inside red blood cells, and its metabolism changes the internal chemistry of the red blood cell. Infected cells normally survive until the parasite reproduces, but, if the red cell contains a mixture of sickle and normal haemoglobin, it is likely to become deformed and be destroyed before the daughter parasites emerge. Thus, individuals heterozygous for the mutated allele, known as sickle-cell trait, may have a low and usually-unimportant level of anaemia, but also have a greatly reduced chance of serious malaria infection. This is a classic example of heterozygote advantage. Individuals homozygous for the mutation have full sickle-cell disease and in traditional societies rarely live beyond adolescence. However, in populations where malaria is endemic, the frequency of sickle-cell genes is around 10%. The existence of four haplotypes of sickle-type hemoglobin suggests that this mutation has emerged independently at least four times in malaria-endemic areas, further demonstrating its evolutionary advantage in such affected regions. There are also other mutations of the HBB gene that produce haemoglobin molecules capable of conferring similar resistance to malaria infection. These mutations produce haemoglobin types HbE and HbC, which are common in Southeast Asia and Western Africa, respectively. Thalassaemias Another well-documented set of mutations found in the human genome associated with malaria are those involved in causing blood disorders known as thalassaemias. Studies in Sardinia and Papua New Guinea have found that the gene frequency of β-thalassaemias is related to the level of malarial endemicity in a given population. A study on more than 500 children in Liberia found that those with β-thalassaemia had a 50% decreased chance of getting clinical malaria. Similar studies have found links between gene frequency and malaria endemicity in the α+ form of α-thalassaemia. Presumably these genes have also been selected in the course of human evolution. Duffy antigens The Duffy antigens are antigens expressed on red blood cells and other cells in the body acting as a chemokine receptor. The expression of Duffy antigens on blood cells is encoded by Fy genes (Fya, Fyb, Fyc etc.). Plasmodium vivax malaria uses the Duffy antigen to enter blood cells. However, it is possible to express no Duffy antigen on red blood cells (Fy-/Fy-). This genotype confers complete resistance to P. vivax infection. The genotype is very rare in European, Asian and American populations, but is found in almost all of the indigenous population of West and Central Africa. This is thought to be due to very high exposure to P. vivax in Africa in the last few thousand years. G6PD Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is an enzyme that normally protects from the effects of oxidative stress in red blood cells. However, a genetic deficiency in this enzyme results in increased protection against severe malaria. HLA and interleukin-4 HLA-B53 is associated with low risk of severe malaria. This MHC class I molecule presents liver stage and sporozoite antigens to T-Cells. Interleukin-4, encoded by IL4, is produced by activated T cells and promotes proliferation and differentiation of antibody-producing B cells. A study of the Fulani of Burkina Faso, who have both fewer malaria attacks and higher levels of antimalarial antibodies than do neighboring ethnic groups, found that the IL4-524 T allele was associated with elevated antibody levels against malaria antigens, which raises the possibility that this might be a factor in increased resistance to malaria. Diagnosis Blood smear from a P. falciparum culture (K1 strain). Several red blood cells have ring stages inside them. Close to the center there is a schizont and on the left a trophozoite. Since Charles Laveran first visualised the malaria parasite in blood in 1880, the mainstay of malaria diagnosis has been the microscopic examination of blood. Fever or septic shock commonly misdiagnosed as severe malaria in Africa, leading to a failure to treat other life-threatening illnesses. In malaria-endemic areas, parasitemia does not ensure a diagnosis of severe malaria because parasitemia can be incidental to other concurrent disease. Recent investigations suggest that malarial retinopathy is better (collective sensitivity of 95% and specificity of 90%) than any other clinical or laboratory feature in distinguishing malarial from non-malarial coma. Although blood is the sample most frequently used to make a diagnosis, both saliva and urine have been investigated as alternative, less invasive specimens. Symptomatic diagnosis Areas that cannot afford even simple laboratory diagnostic tests often use only a history of subjective fever as the indication to treat for malaria. Using Giemsa-stained blood smears from children in Malawi, one study showed that unnecessary treatment for malaria was significantly decreased when clinical predictors (rectal temperature, nailbed pallor, and splenomegaly) were used as treatment indications, rather than the current national policy of using only a history of subjective fevers (sensitivity increased from 21% to 41%). . Microscopic examination of blood films The most economic, preferred, and reliable diagnosis of malaria is microscopic examination of blood films because each of the four major parasite species has distinguishing characteristics. Two sorts of blood film are traditionally used. Thin films are similar to usual blood films and allow species identification because the parasite's appearance is best preserved in this preparation. Thick films allow the microscopist to screen a larger volume of blood and are about eleven times more sensitive than the thin film, so picking up low levels of infection is easier on the thick film, but the appearance of the parasite is much more distorted and therefore distinguishing between the different species can be much more difficult. With the pros and cons of both thick and thin smears taken into consideration, it is imperative to utilize both smears while attempting to make a definitive diagnosis. From the thick film, an experienced microscopist can detect parasite levels (or parasitemia) down to as low as 0.0000001% of red blood cells. Diagnosis of species can be difficult because the early trophozoites ("ring form") of all four species look identical and it is never possible to diagnose species on the basis of a single ring form; species identification is always based on several trophozoites. Field tests In areas where microscopy is not available, or where laboratory staff are not experienced at malaria diagnosis, there are antigen detection tests that require only a drop of blood. Immunochromatographic tests (also called: Malaria Rapid Diagnostic Tests, Antigen-Capture Assay or "Dipsticks") have been developed, distributed and fieldtested. These tests use finger-stick or venous blood, the completed test takes a total of 15–20 minutes, and a laboratory is not needed. The threshold of detection by these rapid diagnostic tests is in the range of 100 parasites/µl of blood compared to 5 by thick film microscopy. The first rapid diagnostic tests were using P. falciparum glutamate dehydrogenase as antigen. PGluDH was soon replaced by P.falciparum lactate dehydrogenase, a 33 kDa oxidoreductase [EC 1.1.1.27]. It is the last enzyme of the glycolytic pathway, essential for ATP generation and one of the most abundant enzymes expressed by P.falciparum. PLDH does not persist in the blood but clears about the same time as the parasites following successful treatment. The lack of antigen persistence after treatment makes the pLDH test useful in predicting treatment failure. In this respect, pLDH is similar to pGluDH. The OptiMAL-IT assay can distinguish between P. falciparum and P. vivax because of antigenic differences between their pLDH isoenzymes. OptiMAL-IT will reliably detect falciparum down to 0.01% parasitemia and non-falciparum down to 0.1%. Paracheck-Pf will detect parasitemias down to 0.002% but will not distinguish between falciparum and non-falciparum malaria. Parasite nucleic acids are detected using polymerase chain reaction. This technique is more accurate than microscopy. However, it is expensive, and requires a specialized laboratory. Moreover, levels of parasitemia are not necessarily correlative with the progression of disease, particularly when the parasite is able to adhere to blood vessel walls. Therefore more sensitive, low-tech diagnosis tools need to be developed in order to detect low levels of parasitaemia in the field. Areas that cannot afford even simple laboratory diagnostic tests often use only a history of subjective fever as the indication to treat for malaria. Using Giemsa-stained blood smears from children in Malawi, one study showed that unnecessary treatment for malaria was significantly decreased when clinical predictors (rectal temperature, nailbed pallor, and splenomegaly) were used as treatment indications, rather than the current national policy of using only a history of subjective fevers (sensitivity increased from 21% to 41%). . Molecular methods Molecular methods are available in some clinical laboratories and rapid real-time assays (for example, QT-NASBA based on the polymerase chain reaction) are being developed with the hope of being able to deploy them in endemic areas. Rapid antigen tests OptiMAL-IT will reliably detect falciparum down to 0.01% parasitemia and non-falciparum down to 0.1%. Paracheck-Pf will detect parasitemias down to 0.002% but will not distinguish between falciparum and non-falciparum malaria. Parasite nucleic acids are detected using polymerase chain reaction. This technique is more accurate than microscopy. However, it is expensive, and requires a specialized laboratory. Moreover, levels of parasitemia are not necessarily correlative with the progression of disease, particularly when the parasite is able to adhere to blood vessel walls. Therefore more sensitive, low-tech diagnosis tools need to be developed in order to detect low levels of parasitaemia in the field. . Treatment Active malaria infection with P. falciparum is a medical emergency requiring hospitalization. Infection with P. vivax, P. ovale or P. malariae can often be treated on an outpatient basis. Treatment of malaria involves supportive measures as well as specific antimalarial drugs. When properly treated, someone with malaria can expect a complete recovery. If I get malaria, will I have it for the rest of my life? CDC publication, Accessed 14 Nov 2006 Antimalarial drugs There are several families of drugs used to treat malaria. Chloroquine is very cheap and, until recently, was very effective, which made it the antimalarial drug of choice for many years in most parts of the world. However, resistance of Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine has spread recently from Asia to Africa, making the drug ineffective against the most dangerous Plasmodium strain in many affected regions of the world. In those areas where chloroquine is still effective it remains the first choice. Unfortunately, chloroquine-resistance is associated with reduced sensitivity to other drugs such as quinine and amodiaquine. There are several other substances that are used for treatment and, partially, for prevention (prophylaxis). Many drugs may be used for both purposes; larger doses are used to treat cases of malaria. Their deployment depends mainly on the frequency of resistant parasites in the area where the drug is used. One drug being investigated for possible use as an anti-malarial, especially for treatment of drug-resistant strains, is the beta blocker propranolol. Propranolol has been shown to block both Plasmodiums ability to enter red blood cell and establish an infection, as well as parasite replication. A December 2006 study by Northwestern University researchers suggested that propranolol may reduce the dosages required for existing drugs to be effective against P. falciparum by 5- to 10-fold, suggesting a role in combination therapies. Currently available anti-malarial drugs include: Prescription drugs for malaria Retrieved February 27, 2007. Artemether-lumefantrine (Therapy only, commercial names Coartem and Riamet) Artesunate-amodiaquine (Therapy only) Artesunate-mefloquine (Therapy only) Artesunate-Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine (Therapy only) Atovaquone-proguanil, trade name Malarone (Therapy and prophylaxis) Quinine (Therapy only) Chloroquine (Therapy and prophylaxis; usefulness now reduced due to resistance) Cotrifazid (Therapy and prophylaxis) Doxycycline (Therapy and prophylaxis) Mefloquine, trade name Lariam (Therapy and prophylaxis) Primaquine (Therapy in P. vivax and P. ovale only; not for prophylaxis) Proguanil (Prophylaxis only) Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (Therapy; prophylaxis for semi-immune pregnant women in endemic countries as "Intermittent Preventive Treatment" - IPT) Hydroxychloroquine, trade name Plaquenil (Therapy and prophylaxis) The development of drugs was facilitated when Plasmodium falciparum was successfully cultured. This allowed in vitro testing of new drug candidates. Extracts of the plant Artemisia annua, containing the compound artemisinin or semi-synthetic derivatives (a substance unrelated to quinine), offer over 90% efficacy rates, but their supply is not meeting demand. One study in Rwanda showed that children with uncomplicated P. falciparum malaria demonstrated fewer clinical and parasitological failures on post-treatment day 28 when amodiaquine was combined with artesunate, rather than administered alone (OR = 0.34). However, increased resistance to amodiaquine during this study period was also noted. . Since 2001 the World Health Organization has recommended using artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT) as first-line treatment for uncomplicated malaria in areas experiencing resistance to older medications. The most recent WHO treatment guidelines for malaria recommend four different ACTs. While numerous countries, including most African nations, have adopted the change in their official malaria treatment policies, cost remains a major barrier to ACT implementation. Because ACTs cost up to twenty times as much as older medications, they remain unaffordable in many malaria-endemic countries. The molecular target of artemisinin is controversial, although recent studies suggest that SERCA, a calcium pump in the endoplasmic reticulum may be associated with artemisinin resistance. Malaria parasites can develop resistance to artemisinin and resistance can be produced by mutation of SERCA. However, other studies suggest the mitochondrion is the major target for artemisinin and its analogs. Although effective anti-malarial drugs are on the market, the disease remains a threat to people living in endemic areas who have no proper and prompt access to effective drugs. Access to pharmacies and health facilities, as well as drug costs, are major obstacles. Médecins Sans Frontières estimates that the cost of treating a malaria-infected person in an endemic country was between US$0.25 and $2.40 per dose in 2002. Medecins Sans Frontieres, "What is the Cost and Who Will Pay?" Counterfeit drugs Sophisticated counterfeits have been found in several Asian countries such as Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam and are an important cause of avoidable death in these countries. WHO have said that studies indicate that up to 40% of artesunate based malaria medications are counterfeit, especially in the Greater Mekong region and have established a rapid alert system to enable information about counterfeit drugs to be rapidly reported to the relevant authorities in participating countries. There is no reliable way for doctors or lay people to detect counterfeit drugs without help from a laboratory. Companies are attempting to combat the persistence of counterfeit drugs by using new technology to provide security from source to distribution. Prevention and disease control Anopheles albimanus mosquito feeding on a human arm. This mosquito is a vector of malaria and mosquito control is a very effective way of reducing the incidence of malaria. Methods used to prevent the spread of disease, or to protect individuals in areas where malaria is endemic, include prophylactic drugs, mosquito eradication, and the prevention of mosquito bites. The continued existence of malaria in an area requires a combination of high human population density, high mosquito population density, and high rates of transmission from humans to mosquitoes and from mosquitoes to humans. If any of these is lowered sufficiently, the parasite will sooner or later disappear from that area, as happened in North America, Europe and much of Middle East. However, unless the parasite is eliminated from the whole world, it could become re-established if conditions revert to a combination that favors the parasite's reproduction. Many countries are seeing an increasing number of imported malaria cases due to extensive travel and migration. (See Anopheles.) There is currently no vaccine that will prevent malaria, but this is an active field of research. Many researchers argue that prevention of malaria may be more cost-effective than treatment of the disease in the long run, but the capital costs required are out of reach of many of the world's poorest people. Economic adviser Jeffrey Sachs estimates that malaria can be controlled for US$3 billion in aid per year. It has been argued that, in order to meet the Millennium Development Goals, money should be redirected from HIV/AIDS treatment to malaria prevention, which for the same amount of money would provide greater benefit to African economies. Hull, Kevin. (2006) "Malaria: Fever Wars". PBS Documentary The distribution of funding varies among countries. Countries with large populations do not receive the same amount of support. The 34 countries that received a per capita annual support of less than $1 included some of the poorest countries in Africa. Brazil, Eritrea, India, and Vietnam have, unlike many other developing nations, successfully reduced the malaria burden. Common success factors included conducive country conditions, a targeted technical approach using a package of effective tools, data-driven decision-making, active leadership at all levels of government, involvement of communities, decentralized implementation and control of finances, skilled technical and managerial capacity at national and sub-national levels, hands-on technical and programmatic support from partner agencies, and sufficient and flexible financing. Vector control Efforts to eradicate malaria by eliminating mosquitoes have been successful in some areas. Malaria was once common in the United States and southern Europe, but vector control programs, in conjunction with the monitoring and treatment of infected humans, eliminated it from affluent regions. In some areas, the draining of wetland breeding grounds and better sanitation were adequate. Malaria was eliminated from the northern parts of the USA in the early twentieth century by such methods, and the use of the pesticide DDT eliminated it from the South by 1951. http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/eradication_us.htm Centers for Disease Control. Eradication of Malaria in the United States (1947-1951) 2004. In 2002, there were 1,059 cases of malaria reported in the US, including eight deaths, but in only five of those cases was the disease contracted in the United States. Before DDT, malaria was successfully eradicated or controlled also in several tropical areas by removing or poisoning the breeding grounds of the mosquitoes or the aquatic habitats of the larva stages, for example by filling or applying oil to places with standing water. These methods have seen little application in Africa for more than half a century. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a major public health effort to eradicate malaria worldwide by selectively targeting mosquitoes in areas where malaria was rampant. However, these efforts have so far failed to eradicate malaria in many parts of the developing world - the problem is most prevalent in Africa. Sterile insect technique is emerging as a potential mosquito control method. Progress towards transgenic, or genetically modified, insects suggest that wild mosquito populations could be made malaria-resistant. Researchers at Imperial College London created the world's first transgenic malaria mosquito, Imperial College, London, "Scientists create first transgenic malaria mosquito", 2000-06-22. with the first plasmodium-resistant species announced by a team at Case Western Reserve University in Ohio in 2002. Successful replacement of existent populations with genetically modified populations, relies upon a drive mechanism, such as transposable elements to allow for non-Mendelian inheritance of the gene of interest. However, this approach contains many difficulties and 34% of the malaria research and control community say that such an approach “will never fly” Knols et al., 2007 . Furthermore, such an approach is at least 5 to 10 years away from introduction and the progress which has been made in developing a vaccine could influence further research in genetic modification of malaria mosquitoes negatively Knols et al., 2007 . On December 21, 2007, a study published in PLoS Pathogens found that the hemolytic C-type lectin CEL-III from Cucumaria echinata, a sea cucumber found in the Bay of Bengal, impaired the development of the malaria parasite when produced by transgenic mosquitoes. BBC NEWS, Sea cucumber 'new malaria weapon' This could potentially be used one day to control malaria by using genetically modified mosquitoes refractory to the parasites, although the authors of the study recognize that there are numerous scientific and ethical problems to be overcome before such a control strategy could be implemented. Prophylactic drugs Several drugs, most of which are also used for treatment of malaria, can be taken preventively. Generally, these drugs are taken daily or weekly, at a lower dose than would be used for treatment of a person who had actually contracted the disease. Use of prophylactic drugs is seldom practical for full-time residents of malaria-endemic areas, and their use is usually restricted to short-term visitors and travelers to malarial regions. This is due to the cost of purchasing the drugs, negative side effects from long-term use, and because some effective anti-malarial drugs are difficult to obtain outside of wealthy nations. Quinine was used starting in the seventeenth century as a prophylactic against malaria. The development of more effective alternatives such as quinacrine, chloroquine, and primaquine in the twentieth century reduced the reliance on quinine. Today, quinine is still used to treat chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum, as well as severe and cerebral stages of malaria, but is not generally used for prophylaxis. Samuel Hahnemann in the late 18th century noted that over-dosing of quinine leads to a symptomatic state very similar to that of malaria. This led him to develop the Law of Similars and homeopathy. Modern drugs used preventively include mefloquine (Lariam), doxycycline (available generically), and the combination of atovaquone and proguanil hydrochloride (Malarone). The choice of which drug to use depends on which drugs the parasites in the area are resistant to, as well as side-effects and other considerations. The prophylactic effect does not begin immediately upon starting taking the drugs, so people temporarily visiting malaria-endemic areas usually begin taking the drugs one to two weeks before arriving and must continue taking them for 4 weeks after leaving (with the exception of atovaquone proguanil that only needs be started 2 days prior and continued for 7 days afterwards). Indoor residual spraying Indoor residual spraying (IRS) is the practice of spraying insecticides on the interior walls of homes in malaria affected areas. After feeding, many mosquito species rest on a nearby surface while digesting the bloodmeal, so if the walls of dwellings have been coated with insecticides, the resting mosquitos will be killed before they can bite another victim, transferring the malaria parasite. The first and historically most effective insecticide used for IRS was DDT. While it was initially used exclusively to combat malaria, its use quickly spread to agriculture. In time, pest-control, rather than disease-control, came to dominate DDT use, and this large-scale agricultural use led to the evolution of resistant mosquitoes in many regions. The DDT resistance shown by Anopheles mosquitoes can be compared to antibiotic resistance shown by bacteria. The overuse of anti-bacterial soaps and antibiotics led to antibiotic resistance in bacteria, similar to how overspraying of DDT on crops led to DDT resistance in Anopheles mosquitoes. During the 1960s, awareness of the negative consequences of its indiscriminate use increased, ultimately leading to bans on agricultural applications of DDT in many countries in the 1970s. Since the use of DDT has been limited or banned for agricultural use for some time, DDT may now be more effective as a method of disease-control. Though DDT has never been banned for use in malaria control and there are several other insecticides suitable for IRS, some advocates have claimed that bans are responsible for tens of millions of deaths in tropical countries where DDT had once been effective in controlling malaria. Furthermore, most of the problems associated with DDT use stem specifically from its industrial-scale application in agriculture, rather than its use in public health. The World Health Organization (WHO) currently advises the use of 12 different insecticides in IRS operations. These include DDT and a series of alternative insecticides (such as the pyrethroids permethrin and deltamethrin) to both combat malaria in areas where mosquitoes are DDT-resistant, and to slow the evolution of resistance. Indoor Residual Spraying: Use of Indoor Residual Spraying for Scaling Up Global Malaria Control and Elimination. World Health Organization, 2006. This public health use of small amounts of DDT is permitted under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which prohibits the agricultural use of DDT. 10 Things You Need to Know about DDT Use under The Stockholm Convention However, because of its legacy, many developed countries discourage DDT use even in small quantities. The Stockholm Convention on persistent organic pollutants One problem with all forms of Indoor Residual Spraying is insecticide resistance via evolution of mosquitos. According to a study published on Mosquito Behavior and Vector Control, mosquito breeds that are affected by IRS are endophilic species(Species which tend to rest and live indoors), and due to the irritation caused by spraying, their evolutionary descendants are trending towards becoming exophilic(Species which tend to rest and live out of doors), meaning that they are not as affected—if affected at all—by the IRS, rendering it somewhat useless as a defense mechanism Pates, H & Curtis, C.:"Mosquito behavior and vector control", page 53-70. Annual Review on Entomology, 50, 2005. . Mosquito nets and bedclothes Mosquito nets help keep mosquitoes away from people and greatly reduce the infection and transmission of malaria. The nets are not a perfect barrier and they are often treated with an insecticide designed to kill the mosquito before it has time to search for a way past the net. Insecticide-treated nets (ITN) are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets, and offer greater than 70% protection compared with no net. . Although ITN are proven to be very effective against malaria, less than 2% of children in urban areas in Sub-Saharan Africa are protected by ITNs. Since the Anopheles mosquitoes feed at night, the preferred method is to hang a large "bed net" above the center of a bed such that it drapes down and covers the bed completely. The distribution of mosquito nets impregnated with insecticides such as permethrin or deltamethrin has been shown to be an extremely effective method of malaria prevention, and it is also one of the most cost-effective methods of prevention. These nets can often be obtained for around US$2.50 - $3.50 (2-3 euro) from the United Nations, the World Health Organization (WHO) and others. ITNs have been shown to be the most cost-effective prevention method against malaria and are part of WHO’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). For maximum effectiveness, the nets should be re-impregnated with insecticide every six months. This process poses a significant logistical problem in rural areas. New technologies like Olyset or DawaPlus allow for production of long-lasting insecticidal mosquito nets (LLINs), which release insecticide for approximately 5 years, New Mosquito Nets Could Help Fight Malaria in Africa and cost about US$5.50. ITNs protect people sleeping under the net and simultaneously kill mosquitoes that contact the net. Some protection is also provided to others by this method, including people sleeping in the same room but not under the net. While distributing mosquito nets is a major component of malaria prevention, community education and awareness on the dangers of malaria are associated with distribution campaigns to make sure people who receive a net know how to use it. "Hang Up" campaigns such as the ones conducted by volunteers of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement consist of visiting households that received a net at the end of the campaign or just before the rainy season, ensuring that the net is being used properly and that the people most vulnerable to malaria, such as young children and the elderly, sleep under it. A study conducted by the CDC in Sierra Leone showed a 22 percent increase in net utilization following a personal visit from a volunteer living in the same community promoting net usage. A study in Togo showed similar improvements. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (200) "The winning formula - World Malaria Day Report 2009" The cost of treating malaria is high relative to income and the illness results in lost wages. Mosquito nets are often unaffordable to people in developing countries, especially for those most at risk. Only 1 out of 20 people in Africa own a bed net. Although shipped into Africa mainly from Europe as free development help, the nets quickly become expensive trade goods. They are mainly used for fishing, and by combining hundreds of donated mosquito nets, whole river sections can be completely shut off, catching even the smallest fish. Nets are also often distributed though vaccine campaigns using voucher subsidies, such as the measles campaign for children. A study among Afghan refugees in Pakistan found that treating top-sheets and chaddars (head coverings) with permethrin has similar effectiveness to using a treated net, but is much cheaper. Another alternative approach uses spores of the fungus Beauveria bassiana, sprayed on walls and bed nets, to kill mosquitoes. While some mosquitoes have developed resistance to chemicals, they have not been found to develop a resistance to fungal infections. "Fungus 'may help malaria fight'", BBC News, 2005-06-09 Vaccination Vaccines for malaria are under development, with no completely effective vaccine yet available. The first promising studies demonstrating the potential for a malaria vaccine were performed in 1967 by immunizing mice with live, radiation-attenuated sporozoites, providing protection to about 60% of the mice upon subsequent injection with normal, viable sporozoites. Since the 1970s, there has been a considerable effort to develop similar vaccination strategies within humans. It was determined that an individual can be protected from a P. falciparum infection if they receive over 1000 bites from infected, irradiated mosquitoes. It has been generally accepted that it is impractical to provide at-risk individuals with this vaccination strategy, but that has been recently challenged with work being done by Dr. Stephen Hoffman of Sanaria, one of the key researchers who originally sequenced the genome of Plasmodium falciparum. His work most recently has revolved around solving the logistical problem of isolating and preparing the parasites equivalent to 1000 irradiated mosquitoes for mass storage and inoculation of human beings. The company has recently received several multi-million dollar grants from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the U.S. government to begin early clinical studies in 2007 and 2008. Sanaria Press and Publications The Seattle Biomedical Research Institute (SBRI), funded by the Malaria Vaccine Initiative, assures potential volunteers that "the [2009] clinical trials won't be a life-threatening experience. While many volunteers [in Seattle] will actually contract malaria, the cloned strain used in the experiments can be quickly cured, and does not cause a recurring form of the disease." "Some participants will get experimental drugs or vaccines, while others will get placebo." Health | You can get paid to catch malaria | Seattle Times Newspaper Instead, much work has been performed to try and understand the immunological processes that provide protection after immunization with irradiated sporozoites. After the mouse vaccination study in 1967, it was hypothesized that the injected sporozoites themselves were being recognized by the immune system, which was in turn creating antibodies against the parasite. It was determined that the immune system was creating antibodies against the circumsporozoite protein (CSP) which coated the sporozoite. Moreover, antibodies against CSP prevented the sporozoite from invading hepatocytes. CSP was therefore chosen as the most promising protein on which to develop a vaccine against the malaria sporozoite. It is for these historical reasons that vaccines based on CSP are the most numerous of all malaria vaccines. Presently, there is a huge variety of vaccine candidates on the table. Pre-erythrocytic vaccines (vaccines that target the parasite before it reaches the blood), in particular vaccines based on CSP, make up the largest group of research for the malaria vaccine. Other vaccine candidates include: those that seek to induce immunity to the blood stages of the infection; those that seek to avoid more severe pathologies of malaria by preventing adherence of the parasite to blood venules and placenta; and transmission-blocking vaccines that would stop the development of the parasite in the mosquito right after the mosquito has taken a bloodmeal from an infected person. It is hoped that the sequencing of the P. falciparum genome will provide targets for new drugs or vaccines. The first vaccine developed that has undergone field trials, is the SPf66, developed by Manuel Elkin Patarroyo in 1987. It presents a combination of antigens from the sporozoite (using CS repeats) and merozoite parasites. During phase I trials a 75% efficacy rate was demonstrated and the vaccine appeared to be well tolerated by subjects and immunogenic. The phase IIb and III trials were less promising, with the efficacy falling to between 38.8% and 60.2%. A trial was carried out in Tanzania in 1993 demonstrating the efficacy to be 31% after a years follow up, however the most recent (though controversial) study in The Gambia did not show any effect. Despite the relatively long trial periods and the number of studies carried out, it is still not known how the SPf66 vaccine confers immunity; it therefore remains an unlikely solution to malaria. The CSP was the next vaccine developed that initially appeared promising enough to undergo trials. It is also based on the circumsporoziote protein, but additionally has the recombinant (Asn-Ala-Pro15Asn-Val-Asp-Pro)2-Leu-Arg(R32LR) protein covalently bound to a purified Pseudomonas aeruginosa toxin (A9). However at an early stage a complete lack of protective immunity was demonstrated in those inoculated. The study group used in Kenya had an 82% incidence of parasitaemia whilst the control group only had an 89% incidence. The vaccine intended to cause an increased T-lymphocyte response in those exposed, this was also not observed. The efficacy of Patarroyo's vaccine has been disputed with some US scientists concluding in The Lancet (1997) that "the vaccine was not effective and should be dropped" while the Colombian accused them of "arrogance" putting down their assertions to the fact that he came from a developing country. The RTS,S/AS02A vaccine is the candidate furthest along in vaccine trials. It is being developed by a partnership between the PATH Malaria Vaccine Initiative (a grantee of the Gates Foundation), the pharmaceutical company, GlaxoSmithKline, and the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research In the vaccine, a portion of CSP has been fused to the immunogenic "S antigen" of the hepatitis B virus; this recombinant protein is injected alongside the potent AS02A adjuvant. In October 2004, the RTS,S/AS02A researchers announced results of a Phase IIb trial, indicating the vaccine reduced infection risk by approximately 30% and severity of infection by over 50%. The study looked at over 2,000 Mozambican children. More recent testing of the RTS,S/AS02A vaccine has focused on the safety and efficacy of administering it earlier in infancy: In October 2007, the researchers announced results of a phase I/IIb trial conducted on 214 Mozambican infants between the ages of 10 and 18 months in which the full three-dose course of the vaccine led to a 62% reduction of infection with no serious side-effects save some pain at the point of injection. Further research will delay this vaccine from commercial release until around 2011. Africa: Malaria - Vaccine Expected in 2011. Accra Mail. 9 January 2007. Accessed 15 January 2007. Other methods Education in recognizing the symptoms of malaria has reduced the number of cases in some areas of the developing world by as much as 20%. Recognizing the disease in the early stages can also stop the disease from becoming a killer. Education can also inform people to cover over areas of stagnant, still water e.g. Water Tanks which are ideal breeding grounds for the parasite and mosquito, thus cutting down the risk of the transmission between people. This is most put in practice in urban areas where there are large centers of population in a confined space and transmission would be most likely in these areas. The Malaria Control Project is currently using downtime computing power donated by individual volunteers around the world (see Volunteer computing and BOINC) to simulate models of the health effects and transmission dynamics in order to find the best method or combination of methods for malaria control. This modeling is extremely computer intensive due to the simulations of large human populations with a vast range of parameters related to biological and social factors that influence the spread of the disease. It is expected to take a few months using volunteered computing power compared to the 40 years it would have taken with the current resources available to the scientists who developed the program. An example of the importance of computer modeling in planning malaria eradication programs is shown in the paper by Águas and others. They showed that eradication of malaria is crucially dependent on finding and treating the large number of people in endemic areas with asymptomatic malaria, who act as a reservoir for infection. The malaria parasites do not affect animal species and therefore eradication of the disease from the human population would be expected to be effective. See also The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) Globalization and disease Eradication of infectious diseases Tropical diseases References External linksGeneral information' WHO site on malaria Malaria Atlas Project Medicines for Malaria Venture (MMV) World Malaria Report 2005 Doctors Without Borders/Medecins Sans Frontieres - Malaria information pages Medline Plus - Malaria

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organic_pollutant:2 rainy_season:1 sierra_leone:1 fungal_infection:1 revolve_around:1 bill_melinda:1 melinda_gate:1 clinical_trial:1 pseudomonas_aeruginosa:1 confined_space:1

GSM

The GSM logo is used to identify compatible handsets and equipment GSM (Global System for Mobile communications: originally from Groupe Spécial Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. Its promoter, the GSM Association, estimates that 80% of the global mobile market uses the standard. GSM is used by over 3 billion people across more than 212 countries and territories. Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world. GSM differs from its predecessors in that both signaling and speech channels are digital, and thus is considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone system. This has also meant that data communication was easy to build into the system. The ubiquity of the GSM standard has been an advantage to both consumers (who benefit from the ability to roam and switch carriers without switching phones) and also to network operators (who can choose equipment from any of the many vendors implementing GSM ). GSM also pioneered a low-cost (to the network carrier) alternative to voice calls, the Short message service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now supported on other mobile standards as well. Another advantage is that the standard includes one worldwide Emergency telephone number, 112 Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) . This makes it easier for international travellers to connect to emergency services without knowing the local emergency number. Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original GSM phones. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data capabilities, by means of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99 introduced higher speed data transmission using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). History In 1982, the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) created the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) to develop a standard for a mobile telephone system that could be used across Europe. In 1987, a memorandum of understanding was signed by 13 countries to develop a common cellular telephone system across Europe. Finally the system created by SINTEF lead by Torleiv Maseng was selected. In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990. The first GSM network was launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with joint technical infrastructure maintenance from Ericsson. By the end of 1993, over a million subscribers were using GSM phone networks being operated by 70 carriers across 48 countries. Technical details Cellular Radio Network GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells. Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometres. The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is . There are also several implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance. Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. These are typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for example in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from nearby cell. The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference). Interference with audio devices This is a form of RFI, and could be mitigated or eliminated by use of additional shielding and/or bypass capacitors in these audio devices. However, the increased cost of doing so is difficult for a designer to justify. It is a common occurrence for a nearby GSM handset to induce a "dit, dit di-dit, dit di-dit, dit di-dit" output on PAs, wireless microphones, home stereo systems, televisions, computers, cordless phones, and personal music devices. When these audio devices are in the near field of the GSM handset, the radio signal is strong enough that the solid state amplifiers in the audio chain act as a detector. The clicking noise itself represents the power bursts that carry the TDMA signal. These signals have been known to interfere with other electronic devices, such as car stereos and portable audio players. This also depends on the handset's design, and its conformance to strict rules and regulations allocated by the US body, the FCC in part 15 of its rules and regulations pertaining to interference with electronic devices. GSM Frequencies GSM networks operate in a number of different frequency ranges (separated into GSM frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G). Most 2G GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas (including Canada and the United States) use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated. Most 3G GSM networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz frequency band. The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems. GSM-900 uses 890–915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base station (uplink) and 935–960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 124 RF channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used. In some countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range. This 'extended GSM', E-GSM, uses 880–915 MHz (uplink) and 925–960 MHz (downlink), adding 50 channels (channel numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900 band. Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms. The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900. Voice Codecs GSM has used a variety of voice codecs to squeeze 3.1 kHz audio into between 5.6 and 13 kbit/s. Originally, two codecs, named after the types of data channel they were allocated, were used, called Half Rate (5.6 kbit/s) and Full Rate (13 kbit/s). These used a system based upon linear predictive coding (LPC). In addition to being efficient with bitrates, these codecs also made it easier to identify more important parts of the audio, allowing the air interface layer to prioritize and better protect these parts of the signal. GSM was further enhanced in 1997 with the Enhanced Full Rate (EFR) codec, a 12.2 kbit/s codec that uses a full rate channel. Finally, with the development of UMTS, EFR was refactored into a variable-rate codec called AMR-Narrowband, which is high quality and robust against interference when used on full rate channels, and less robust but still relatively high quality when used in good radio conditions on half-rate channels. Network structure The structure of a GSM network The network behind the GSM seen by the customer is large and complicated in order to provide all of the services which are required. It is divided into a number of sections and these are each covered in separate articles. the Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers). the Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network. the GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet connections). all of the elements in the system combine to produce many GSM services such as voice calls and SMS. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM locking, and is illegal in some countries. In Australia, North America and Europe many operators lock the mobiles they sell. This is done because the price of the mobile phone is typically subsidised with revenue from subscriptions, and operators want to try to avoid subsidising competitor's mobiles. A subscriber can usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee, utilize private services to remove the lock, or make use of ample software and websites available on the Internet to unlock the handset themselves. While most web sites offer the unlocking for a fee, some do it for free. The locking applies to the handset, identified by its International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number, not to the account (which is identified by the SIM card). In some countries such as Bangladesh, Belgium, Costa Rica, Indonesia, Malaysia, Hong Kong and Pakistan, all phones are sold unlocked. However, in Belgium, it is unlawful for operators there to offer any form of subsidy on the phone's price. This was also the case in Finland until April 1 2006, when selling subsidized combinations of handsets and accounts became legal, though operators have to unlock phones free of charge after a certain period (at most 24 months). GSM security GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional USIM, that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user - whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation. GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The A5/1 and A5/2 stream ciphers are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in other countries. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms: it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time with a ciphertext-only attack, and in February 2008, Pico Computing, Inc revealed its ability and plans to commercialize FPGAs that allow A5/1 to be broken with a rainbow table attack. http://blog.washingtonpost.com/securityfix/2008/02/research_may_spell_end_of_mobi.html The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one. Standards information The GSM systems and services are described in a set of standards governed by ETSI, where a full list is maintained. this ETSI site Example specifications GSM 07.07 "AT command set for GSM Mobile Equipment (ME)" describes the Main AT commands to communicate via a serial interface with the GSM subsystem of the phone. TS 100 916 - V07.04.00 - Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); AT command set for GSM Mobile Equipment (ME) (GSM 07.07 version 7.4.0 Release 1998) For more, see Hayes command set. 3GPP TS 27.007 - AT command set for User Equipment (UE). 3GPP specification: 27.007 GSM 07.05 has additional AT commands for SMS and CBS. GTS 07.05 - Version 5.5.0 - Digital cellular telecommunications system (Phase 2+); Use of Data Terminal Equipment - Data Circuit terminating; Equipment (DTE - DCE) interface for Short Message Service ... Short Message Service / SMS Tutorial ''' See also OpenBTS Wireless electronic devices and health Mobile network operator International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) Handoff Visitors Location Register (VLR) Um Interface GSM frequency ranges GSM-R (GSM-Railway) GSM services GSM localization Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) Cell Broadcast Network Identity and Time Zone (NITZ) Standards: Comparison of mobile phone standards GEO-Mobile Radio Interface Intelligent network Parlay RTP audio video profile Literature Siegmund M. Redl, Matthias K. Weber, Malcolm W. Oliphant (March 1995): "An Introduction to GSM", Artech House, ISBN 978-0890067857 Siegmund M. Redl, Matthias K. Weber, Malcolm W. Oliphant (May 1998): "GSM and Personal Communications Handbook", Artech House, ISBN 978-0890069578 Friedhelm Hillebrand, ed. (2002): "GSM and UMTS, The Creation of Global Mobile Communications", John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 0470 84322 5 Michel Mouly, Marie-Bernardette Pautet (June 1992): "The GSM System for Mobile Communications", ISBN 0945592159. References External links GSM Association – the group representing GSM operators (official site) – includes coverage maps for all members 3GPP - The current standardization body for GSM with free standards available. Spectrum Frequency Chart GSM Provider List The Hacker's Choice GSM Software Project GSM Architecture & Working GSM Tutorials be-x-old:GSM

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Evil_Dead_II

Evil Dead II (also known as Evil Dead 2: Dead by Dawn) is a American cult comedy horror film. Standing as a sequel to 1981's The Evil Dead, the film was directed by Sam Raimi, written by Raimi and Scott Spiegel, produced by Rob Tapert and starred Bruce Campbell as Ash Williams. The film was followed by a sequel of its own in 1993 entitled Army of Darkness. Plot The film opens with a very rough re-play of the important events of the first film. Ash Williams and his girlfriend Linda take a romantic vacation to a seemingly abandoned cabin in the woods. While in the cabin, Ash plays a tape of an archeology professor (the cabin's previous inhabitant), reciting passages from the Necronomicon Ex-Mortis (or "Book of the Dead"), which had been discovered during an archaeological dig. The recorded incantation unleashes an evil force which soon takes possession of Linda. Ash is forced to kill and bury her. Something remains and continues to terrorize Ash. It is here that the film picks up where its predecessor left off. The unseen evil spirit lifts Ash off the ground and tosses him into a tree where he is possessed by a demon. However, morning soon approaches and Ash reverts back to his normal self. Ash then tries to escape the woods in his car, but finds the entrance bridge to the area has been destroyed. Suddenly, night falls and Ash senses that a demon is after him, so he gets back into his car and drives back to the cabin where he crashes and flies through the front window. Ash is then chased throughout the cabin, portrayed on-screen from the point of view of the demon. Eventually, Ash manages to hide from the demon. Meanwhile, two archeologists, Annie and Ed, come back with newly discovered pages from the Book of the Dead, but find that the bridge is out, so they enlist the help of Jake and Bobby Joe. Ash notices Linda's dead body coming back to life in a twisted dance, but Linda abandons her gyrations and attacks Ash soon after reviving. Ash seemingly awakens believing he had been dreaming, but then Linda's head falls into his lap and bites his hand. After using a chainsaw to finally eliminate Linda, Ash turns the chainsaw upon himself, severing his possessed hand when it begins to attack him. However, the detached, possessed hand takes on a life of its own, and Ash tries to destroy it with a shotgun. Ash then shoots through the door and nearly hits Bobby Joe. Annie, Ed, Jake, and Bobby Joe begin to think that Ash killed Annie's parents, so they throw Ash into the cellar. The new group begin to play the rest of Professor Knowby's tape recordings and accidentally unleash Henrietta in the cellar. Luckily they manage to save Ash and lock the cellar, but Ed gets injured and later turns into a deadite. Ash eventually kills Ed. The disembodied spirit of the Professor appears before Ash and the others, telling them that the pages Annie and Ed had are the key to dispelling the evil dead. Bobby Jo then discovers Ash's possessed hand holding hers, and runs, screaming, into the forest. She is attacked by the trees. Jake goes hysterical, while Annie and Ash see a drawing in the book of a hero said to have dispelled the evil, appearing as a figure with a chainsaw-like hand and a "boomstick". Then Jake picks up the shotgun and forces them to go after Bobby Jo, throwing the pages into the cellar. They go into the woods only to discover that the trail has disappeared. A demon rushes them, again possessing Ash, and throws Jake into a tree, hitting his head. Ash chases Annie back to the cabin. she grabs the bone dagger from the first movie, and accidentally stabs Jake trying to get back into the cabin. She pulls Jake's body in, then shuts the door. Ash pounds on it, then suddenly stops. She takes the dagger out of Jake, then drags him to the cellar door, where Henrietta attacks and kills him. Ash attacks Annie, accidentally ripping her locket off her neck. As she lays unconscious, Ash looks at the locket, and begins returning to his normal self. After convincing a terrified Annie that he is alright, they agree to vanquish the evil they must venture into the fruit cellar and retrieve the pages of the Necronomicon. Ash and Annie go out to the woodshed, where they modify the chainsaw and attach it with clamps to Ash's severed wrist and fit him with a holster. He then saws off the length of the shotgun. He gives the shotgun a quick whirl, slides it into its holster, then utters his now famous catchphrase, "Groovy". Ash and Annie return to the house, where Ash enters the cellar and finds the pages strewn about the floor, seemingly leading him deeper into the darkness. Annie looks upon the cellar door when Henrietta leaps out and attacks her. Ash emerges from the cellar and begins fighting with Henrietta and gains the upper hand, until Henrietta transforms into a more demonic form. Ash is saved when Annie distracts Henrietta by singing a lullaby. While Henrietta is focused on Annie, Ash uses his chainsaw to decapitate the demon then deals the final blow by delivering a shotgun blast to its head. Annie takes the pages and begins translating the text to manifest the evil, which appears in the form of a large bloody head covered in the faces of those it has possessed. While Ash fends off the creature, Annie recites the incantation to rid the earth of the evil. A large vortex opens up just outside the cabin, gravitating everything around into it, including Ash's car, a large tree, and the evil. Annie is stabbed in the back by Ash's severed hand, she falls to the floor and speaks the last words of the incantation and Ash is sucked into the vortex before it disappears. Ash suddenly falls from the sky and lands on a large block of rock. He looks up and finds himself surrounded by medieval knights. The knights are about to attack Ash when a large Deadite creature swoops down from the sky, terrifying the knights as they scatter. Ash reaches for his shotgun and blows the creature's head off. The knights gather around Ash as he prepares to defend himself. One knight then lifts his face plate and declares, "Hail he who hath fallen from the sky to deliver us from the terror of the Deadites!" The army of medieval warriors then fall to their knees and begin chanting "Hail" as Ash realizes that HE is the prophetical savior from the Necronomicon. The movie closes with Ash shaking his head in disbelief and screaming out loud "NOOO!" as the camera pans out to show the large army that now awaits Ash's command. The prophecy has been fulfilled. Cast Actor Character Bruce Campbell Ash Sarah Berry Annie Danny Hicks Jake Kassie DePaiva Bobby Jo Ted Raimi Possessed Henrietta Denise Bixler Linda Richard Domeier Ed John Peaks Professor Knowby Lou Hancock Henrietta William Preston Robertson Voice History The concept of a sequel to The Evil Dead was discussed during the location shooting on the first film. Sam Raimi wanted to toss his hero, Ash, through a time portal, back into the Middle Ages. That notion eventually led to the third installment, Army of Darkness. After the release of Evil Dead, Raimi moved on to Crimewave, a cross between a crime film and a comedy produced by Raimi and Joel and Ethan Coen. Irvin Shapiro, a publicist who was primarily responsible for the mainstream release of The Evil Dead, suggested that they next work on an Evil Dead sequel. Raimi scoffed at the idea, expecting Crimewave to be a hit, but Shapiro put out ads announcing the sequel regardless. After Crimewave was released to little audience or critical acclaim, Raimi and Tapert, knowing that another flop would further stall their already lagging careers, took Shapiro up on his offer. Around the same time, they met Italian movie producer Dino De Laurentiis, the owner of production and distribution company DEG. He had asked Raimi if he would direct a theatrical adaptation of the Stephen King (written under his Richard Bachman pseudonym) novel Thinner. Raimi turned down the offer, but De Laurentiis continued to be interested in the young filmmaker. The Thinner adaptation was part of a deal between De Laurentiis and King to produce several adaptations of King's successful horror fiction. At the time, King was directing the first such adaptation, Maximum Overdrive, based on his short story "Trucks". He had dinner with a crew member who had been interviewed about the Evil Dead sequel, and told King that the film was having trouble attracting funding. Upon hearing this, King, who had written a glowing review of the first film that helped it become an audience favorite at Cannes, called De Laurentiis and asked him to fund the film. Though initially skeptical, De Laurentiis agreed after being presented with the extremely high Italian grosses for the first film. Although Raimi and Tapert had desired $4 million for the production, they were allotted only $3.6 million. As such, the planned medieval storyline had to be scrapped. Script Though they had only recently received the funding necessary to produce the film, the script had been written for some time, having been composed largely during the production of Crimewave. Raimi contacted his old friend Scott Spiegel, who had collaborated with Campbell and others on the Super-8 films they had produced during their childhood in Michigan. Most of these films had been comedies, and Spiegel felt that Evil Dead II should be less straight horror than the first. Initially, the opening sequence included all five characters from the original film, but, in an effort to save time and money, all but Ash and Linda were cut from the final draft. This argues against the "remake" theory (see above), because it makes clear that the events of the first film are meant to take place within the time frame of the beginning of the sequel, and that everything that happens after Ash is hit by the invisible force is new. Spiegel and Raimi wrote most of the film in their house in Silver Lake, Los Angeles, California, where they were living with the aforementioned Coen brothers, as well as actors Frances McDormand, Kathy Bates and Holly Hunter (Hunter was the primary inspiration for the Bobby Jo character). Due both to the distractions of their house guests and the films they were involved with, Crimewave and Josh Becker's Thou Shalt Not Kill... Except, the script took an inordinately long time to finish. Among the many inspirations for the film include The Three Stooges and other slapstick comedy films; Ash's fights with his disembodied hand come from a film made by Spiegel as a teenager, entitled Attack of the Helping Hand, which was itself inspired by television commercials advertising Hamburger Helper. The "laughing room" scene, where all the objects in the room seemingly come to life and begin to cackle maniacally along with Ash, came about after Spiegel jokingly used a gooseneck lamp to visually demonstrate a Popeye-esque laugh. Scott Spiegel's humorous influence can be seen throughout the film, perhaps most prominently in certain visual jokes; for instance, when Ash traps his rogue hand under a pile of books, on top is A Farewell to Arms. Filming With the script completed, and a production company secured, filming could begin. The production commenced in Wadesboro, North Carolina, not far from De Laurentiis' offices in Wilmington. De Laurentiis had wanted them to film in his elaborate Wilmington studio, but the production team felt uneasy being so close to the producer, so they moved to Wadesboro, approximately three hours away. Steven Spielberg had previously filmed The Color Purple in Wadesboro, and the large white farmhouse used as an exterior location in that film became the production office for Evil Dead II. Most of the film was shot in the woods near that farmhouse, or J.R. Faison Junior High School, which is where the interior cabin set was located. The film's production was not nearly as chaotic or strange as the production of the original, largely because of Raimi, Tapert and Campbell's additional film making experience. However, there are nevertheless numerous stories about the strange happenings on the set. For instance, the rat seen in the cellar was nicknamed "Señor Cojones" by the crew ("cojones" is Spanish slang for "testicles"). Even so, there were hardships, mostly involving Ted Raimi's costume. Ted, director Sam's younger brother, had been involved in the first film briefly, acting as a fake Shemp, but in Evil Dead II he gets the larger role of the historian's demon-possessed wife, Henrietta. Raimi was forced to wear a full-body, latex costume, crouch in a small hole in the floor acting as a "cellar", or on one day, both. Raimi became extremely overheated, to the point that his costume was literally filled with liters of sweat; special effects artist Gregory Nicotero describes pouring the fluid into several Dixie cups so as to get it out of the costume. The sweat is also visible on-screen, dripping out of the costume's ear, in the scene where Henrietta spins around over Annie's head. The crew also sneaked various in-jokes into the film itself, such as the clawed glove of Freddy Krueger, the primary antagonist of the A Nightmare on Elm Street series of slasher films, which hangs in the cabin's basement and toolshed. This was, at least partially, a reference to a scene in the original A Nightmare on Elm Street where the character Nancy Thompson (portrayed by Heather Langenkamp), watches the original Evil Dead on a television set in her room. In turn, that scene was a reference to the torn The Hills Have Eyes poster seen in the original Evil Dead film, which was itself a reference to a torn Jaws poster in The Hills Have Eyes. At the film's wrap party, the crew held a talent contest, where Sam Raimi and Bruce Campbell sang The Byrds' "Eight Miles High", with Nicotero on guitar. Mentioned in Evil Dead II audio commentary Sequel or Remake? Sam Raimi, for legal reasons pertaining to the rights, could not show any footage from the first Evil Dead film. Instead, an extremely simplified recap of The Evil Dead (spanning 7 minutes and 7 seconds of Evil Dead II) was shot and used as the opening to the film. It edited out several of the characters and major events for timing reasons, leading some fans to think that the implication was they "never existed" within the timeline of Evil Dead II, and that it was a remake rather than a sequel. Sam Raimi did clear up the sequel-VS-remake debate in the DVD commentary for the third film, Army of Darkness, in which he states that if the recaps from the second and third films were edited out, all three could be watched back-to-back as one movie, confirming that Evil Dead II is intended to be a sequel. Nevertheless, fans are split, as some prefer to look at Evil Dead II as a remake, while others prefer to view it as a sequel. Reception Evil Dead II received very positive reviews from critics and audience members; it has a 98% fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes. Empire magazine praised the film saying "The gaudily gory, virtuoso, hyper-kinetic horror sequel/remake uses every trick in the cinematic book, and confirms that Bruce Campbell and Raimi are gods" and Caryn James of the New York times called it "Genuine, if bizarre, proof of Sam Raimi's talent and developing skill". Entertainment Weekly ranked the film #19 on their list of "The Top 50 Cult Films". Notes References Warren, Bill. The Evil Dead Companion. ISBN 0-312-27501-3. Raimi, Sam. Spiegel, Scott. Nicotero, Greg. Campbell, Bruce. Evil Dead II DVD, audio commentary. Campbell, Bruce. If Chins Could Kill: Confessions of a B Movie Actor. ISBN 0-312-29145-0 External links

Evil_Dead_II |@lemmatized evil:31 dead:28 ii:11 also:3 know:2 dawn:1 american:1 cult:2 comedy:4 horror:4 film:43 standing:1 sequel:13 direct:3 sam:8 raimi:23 write:5 scott:4 spiegel:8 produce:5 rob:1 tapert:4 star:1 bruce:6 campbell:8 ash:54 williams:2 follow:1 entitled:1 army:5 darkness:4 plot:1 open:2 rough:1 play:3 important:1 event:3 first:10 girlfriend:1 linda:8 take:8 romantic:1 vacation:1 seemingly:4 abandon:2 cabin:10 wood:4 tape:2 archeology:1 professor:4 previous:1 inhabitant:1 recite:2 passage:1 necronomicon:3 ex:1 mortis:1 book:5 discover:4 archaeological:1 dig:1 recorded:1 incantation:3 unleash:2 force:5 soon:3 possession:1 kill:6 bury:1 something:1 remain:1 continue:2 terrorize:1 pick:2 predecessor:1 leave:1 unseen:1 spirit:2 lift:2 ground:1 toss:2 tree:4 possess:5 demon:7 however:3 morning:1 approach:1 reverts:1 back:11 normal:2 self:2 try:3 escape:1 car:3 find:4 entrance:1 bridge:2 area:1 destroy:2 suddenly:3 night:1 fall:6 sens:1 get:5 drive:1 crash:1 fly:1 front:1 window:1 chase:2 throughout:2 portray:2 screen:2 point:2 view:2 eventually:3 manages:1 hide:1 meanwhile:1 two:1 archeologist:1 annie:18 ed:6 come:5 newly:1 page:6 enlist:1 help:3 jake:9 bobby:7 joe:3 notice:1 body:3 life:3 twisted:1 dance:1 gyration:1 attack:8 revive:1 awaken:1 believing:1 dream:1 head:7 lap:1 bite:1 hand:10 use:6 chainsaw:5 finally:1 eliminate:1 turn:4 upon:3 sever:3 possessed:3 begin:9 detach:1 shotgun:6 shoot:4 door:4 nearly:2 hit:4 think:2 parent:1 throw:3 cellar:11 new:3 group:1 rest:1 knowby:2 recording:1 accidentally:3 henrietta:11 luckily:1 manage:1 save:3 lock:1 injure:1 later:1 deadite:2 disembodied:2 appear:3 others:3 tell:2 key:1 dispel:2 jo:4 hold:2 run:1 scream:2 forest:1 go:4 hysterical:1 see:5 drawing:1 hero:2 say:2 figure:1 like:1 boomstick:1 trail:1 disappear:2 rush:1 grab:1 bone:1 dagger:2 movie:5 stabs:1 pull:1 shut:1 pound:1 stop:1 drag:1 rip:1 locket:2 neck:1 lay:1 unconscious:1 look:4 return:2 convince:1 terrified:1 alright:1 agree:2 vanquish:1 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depaiva:1 ted:3 denise:1 bixler:1 richard:2 domeier:1 john:1 peak:1 lou:1 hancock:1 william:1 preston:1 robertson:1 voice:1 history:1 concept:1 discuss:1 location:2 want:2 time:9 portal:1 middle:1 age:1 notion:1 third:3 installment:1 release:3 move:2 crimewave:5 cross:1 crime:1 joel:1 ethan:1 coen:2 irvin:1 shapiro:3 publicist:1 primarily:1 responsible:1 mainstream:1 suggest:1 next:1 work:1 scoffed:1 idea:1 expect:1 put:1 ad:1 announce:1 regardless:1 little:1 audience:3 critical:1 acclaim:1 another:1 flop:1 would:2 far:2 stall:1 already:1 lag:1 career:1 offer:2 meet:1 italian:2 producer:2 dino:1 de:7 laurentiis:7 owner:1 production:9 distribution:1 company:2 deg:1 ask:2 theatrical:1 adaptation:4 stephen:1 king:6 bachman:1 pseudonym:1 novel:1 thinner:2 interested:1 young:2 filmmaker:1 part:1 several:3 successful:1 fiction:1 maximum:1 overdrive:1 base:1 short:1 story:2 truck:1 dinner:1 crew:4 member:2 interview:1 trouble:1 attract:1 funding:2 hear:1 glow:1 review:2 become:3 favorite:1 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Multiple_inheritance

Multiple inheritance refers to a feature of some object-oriented programming languages in which a class can inherit behaviors and features from more than one superclass. This contrasts with single inheritance, where a class may inherit from at most one superclass. Languages that support multiple inheritance include: Eiffel, C++, Dylan, Python, Perl, Curl, Common Lisp (via CLOS), OCaml, and Tcl (via Incremental TCL) Tcl Advocacy . Overview Multiple inheritance allows a class to take on functionality from multiple other classes, such as allowing a class named StudentMusician to inherit from a class named Person, a class named Musician, and a class named Worker. This can be abbreviated StudentMusician : Person, Musician, Worker. Ambiguities arise in multiple inheritance, as in the example above, if for instance the class Musician inherited from Person and Worker and the class Worker inherited from Person. This is referred to as the Diamond problem. There would then be the following rules: Worker : Person Musician : Person, Worker StudentMusician : Person, Musician, Worker If a compiler is looking at the class StudentMusician it needs to know whether it should join identical features together, or whether they should be separate features. For instance, it would make sense to join the "Age" features of Person together for StudentMusician. A person's age doesn't change if you consider them a Person, a Worker, or a Musician. It would, however, make sense to separate the feature "Name" in Person and Musician if they use a different stage name than their given name. The options of joining and separating are both valid in their own context and only the programmer knows which option is correct for the class they are designing. Languages have different ways of dealing with these problems of repeated inheritance. Eiffel allows the programmer to explicitly join or separate features that are being inherited from superclasses. Eiffel will automatically join features together if they have the same name and implementation. The class writer has the option to rename the inherited features to separate them. Eiffel also allows explicit repeated inheritance such as A: B, B. C++ requires that the programmer state which parent class the feature to use should come from i.e. "Worker::Person.Age". C++ does not support explicit repeated inheritance since there would be no way to qualify which superclass to use (see criticisms). C++ also allows a single instance of the multiple class to be created via the virtual inheritance mechanism (i.e. "Worker::Person" and "Musician::Person" will reference the same object). Perl uses the list of classes to inherit from as an ordered list. The compiler uses the first method it finds by depth-first searching of the superclass list or using the C3 linearization of the class hierarchy. Various extensions provide alternative class composition schemes. Python has the same structure, but unlike Perl includes it in the syntax of the language. In Perl and Python, the order of inheritance affects the class semantics (see criticisms). The Common Lisp Object System allows full programmer control of method combination, and if this is not enough, the Metaobject Protocol gives the programmer a means to modify the inheritance, method dispatch, class instantiation, and other internal mechanisms without affecting the stability of the system. Logtalk supports both interface and implementation multi-inheritance, allowing the declaration of method aliases that provide both renaming and access to methods that would be masked out by the default conflict resolution mechanism. Curl allows only classes that are explicitly marked as shared to be inherited repeatedly. Shared classes must define a secondary constructor for each regular constructor in the class. The regular constructor is called the first time the state for the shared class is initialized through a subclass constructor, and the secondary constructor will be invoked for all other subclasses. Ocaml chooses the last matching definition of a class inheritance list to resolve which method implementation to use under ambiguities. To override the default behavior one simply qualifies a method call with the desired class definition. Tcl allows multiple parent classes- their serial affects the name resolution for class members. TCL Manual:class C#, Objective-C, Object Pascal / Delphi, Java, Nemerle, and PHP do not allow multiple inheritance, and this avoids any ambiguity. However, these six languages allow classes to inherit from multiple interfaces, recreating some of the problems mentioned while avoiding others. Criticisms Multiple inheritance has been criticised for the following problems that it causes in certain languages, in particular C++: Increased complexity Semantic ambiguity often summarized as the diamond problem. Traits: Composable Units of Behavior Not being able to explicitly inherit multiple times from a single class Order of inheritance changing class semantics. Multiple inheritance in languages with C++/Java style constructors exacerbates the inheritance problem of constructors and constructor chaining, thereby creating maintenance and extensibility problems in these languages. Objects in inheritance relationships with greatly varying construction methods are hard to implement under the constructor chaining paradigm. There are languages that address these technical issues, however. See also Implementation inheritance Virtual inheritance Mixin C3 linearization References Further reading Stroustrup, Bjarne (1999). Multiple Inheritance for C++. Proceedings of the Spring 1987 European Unix Users Group Conference. Object-Oriented Software Construction'', Second Edition, by Bertrand Meyer, Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0-13-629155-4 External links Article by Jonathan Lurie of Builder.Com on instances in .NET languages Tutorial on inheritance usage in Eiffel An overview of inheritance in Ocaml be-x-old:Множнае спадкаваньне

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Guantanamo_Bay_Naval_Base

Guantanamo Bay Naval Base is located on the shore of Guantánamo Bay at the southeastern end of Cuba and has been used by the United States Navy for more than a century. It is the oldest overseas U.S. Navy Base, and the only one in a country with which the United States does not have diplomatic relations. The Cuban government opposes the presence of the naval base, claiming that the lease is invalid under international law. The U.S. government claims that the lease is valid. Since 2002, the naval base has contained a military prison, the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, for persons alleged to be enemy combatants captured in Afghanistan and later in Iraq. These are combatants who are considered "unlawful combatants" and who were formerly not being afforded protection under the Geneva Conventions for various reasons. History Map of Cuba with location of Guantánamo Bay indicated See also Timeline of Guantánamo Bay See also List of commanders of Guantanamo Bay Naval Base The bay was originally called Guantánamo by Christopher Columbus, who landed at the location known as Fisherman's Point in 1494. The bay was briefly renamed Cumberland Bay when the British took it in the first part of the 18th century during the War of Jenkins' Ear. In 1790, the British garrison at Cumberland died of fever as had a previous British force, before they could attack Santiago by land. During the Spanish-American War, the U.S. fleet attacking Santiago retreated to Guantánamo's excellent harbor to ride out the summer hurricane season of 1898. The Marines landed with naval support, requiring Cuban scouts to push off Spanish resistance that increased as they moved inland. This area became the location of U.S. Naval Station Guantanamo Bay, which covers about 45 square miles (116 km²) and is sometimes abbreviated as "GTMO" or "Gitmo". The base in 1916 Satellite view of Guantánamo Bay Map of Guantánamo Bay showing approximate U.S. Naval Boundaries By the war's end, the U.S. government had obtained control of all of Cuba from Spain. A perpetual lease for the area around Guantánamo Bay was offered February 23, 1903, from Tomás Estrada Palma, an American citizen, who became the first President of Cuba. The Cuban-American Treaty gave, among other things, the Republic of Cuba ultimate sovereignty over Guantánamo Bay while granting the United States "complete jurisdiction and control" of the area for coaling and naval stations. A 1934 treaty reaffirming the lease granted Cuba and her trading partners free access through the bay, modified the lease payment from $2,000 in U.S. gold coins per year, to the 1934 equivalent value of $4,085 in U.S. dollars, and made the lease permanent unless both governments agreed to break it or the U.S. abandoned the base property. Since the Cuban Revolution, the government under Fidel Castro has cashed only one of the rent checks from the US government. The Cuban government maintains this was only done because of "confusion" in the heady early days of the revolution, while the US government maintains that the cashing constitutes an official validation of the treaty. The remaining uncashed checks made out to "Treasurer General of the Republic" (a position that has ceased to exist after the revolution) are kept in Castro's office stuffed into a desk drawer. Until the 1953-59 revolution, thousands of Cubans commuted daily from outside the base to jobs within. In mid-1958, vehicular traffic was stopped; workers were required to walk through the base's several gates. Public Works Center buses were pressed into service almost overnight to carry the tides of workers to and from the gate. By 2006, only two elderly Cubans still crossed the base's North East Gate daily to work on the base; this is because the Cuban government prohibits new recruitment. During the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, the families of military personnel were evacuated from the base. Notified of the evacuation on October 22, evacuees were told to pack one suitcase per family member, to bring evacuation and immunization cards, to tie pets in the yard, to leave the keys to the house on the dining table, and to wait in front of the house for buses. Dependents traveled to the airfield for flights to the United States, or to ports for passage aboard evacuation ships. After the crisis was resolved, family members were allowed to return to the base in December 1964. An aerial view of the naval base with the Navy Exchange and McDonalds at left and an outdoor movie theater at bottom right Two of the wind turbines installed by the Navy in 2005 Since 1939, the base's water had been supplied by pipelines that drew water from the Yateras River about 4.5 miles (7.2 km) northeast of the base. The U.S. government paid a fee for this; in 1964, it was about $14,000 a month for about two and a half million U.S. gallons (10 million L) per day. In 1964, the Cuban government stopped the flow. The base had about 14 million gallons water in storage, and strict water conservation was put into effect immediately. The U.S. first imported water from Jamaica via barges, then relocated a desalination plant from San Diego, California (Point Loma). When the Cuban government accused the United States of stealing water, base commander John D. Bulkeley ordered that the pipelines be cut and a section removed. A 38-inch (964 mm) length of the 14-inch (355 mm) diameter pipe and a 20-inch (508 mm) length of the 10-inch (254 mm) diameter pipe were lifted from the ground and the openings sealed. With over 9,500 U.S. sailors and Marines, Guantanamo Bay is the only U.S. base in operation in a Communist led country. "Gitmo" has a U.S. amateur radio call sign series, KG4 followed by two letters. This is completely distinct from Cuban radio callsigns, which typically begin with CL, CM, CO, or T4. . For "ham" purposes it is considered to be a separate "entity." This position is not recognized by Cuba's amateur radio society. Notable persons born at the naval base include actor Peter Bergman and American-British guitarist Isaac Guillory. In 2005, the Navy completed a $12 million wind project, erecting four wind turbines capable of supplying about a quarter of the base's peak power needs, reducing diesel fuel usage and pollution from the existing diesel generators. United States Navy. The Department of Navy Debuts Largest Wind Energy Project To Date. April 25, 2005. On January 22, 2009, President Obama signed executive orders directing the Central Intelligence Agency to shut what remains of its network of secret prisons and ordering the closing of the Guantánamo detention camp within a year. However, as he reversed the most disputed counterterrorism policies of the Bush years, Mr. Obama postponed for at least six months difficult decisions on the details. The political argument has been made that the U.S. should not only close the detention camp, but return Guantánamo Bay to Cuban sovereignty as a highly symbolic step for the new approach in Washington's relations with Latin America and the Caribbean promised by the Obama administration. Bert Hoffmann: Turning the Symbol Around: Returning Guantánamo Bay to Cuba; in: Lowenthal, Piccone, Whitehead (eds.): The Obama Administration and the Americas. An Agenda for Change; The Brookings Institution, April 2009, p. 136-144 Cuban opposition Cuban workers return home through the North East Gate, circa 1983 The long-term lease of Guantanamo Bay by the United States has been unpopular with the Cuban government since 1959. The present sovereigns of the territory covering Guantanamo Bay, the Republic of Cuba, led by the Communist Party of Cuba, claim that as sovereign land owners they may evict the people who live and work there, pointing to article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties which declares a treaty void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force — in this case by the inclusion, in 1901, of the Platt Amendment in the first Cuban Constitution. The United States warned the Cuban Constitutional Convention not to remove the Amendment, and stated U.S. troops would not leave Cuba until its terms had been adopted as a condition for the U.S. to grant independence. However, the United States has argued that Article 4 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties prohibits retroactive application of said Convention to already existing treaties, http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/1_1_1969.pdf pdf such as the ones concluded between the US and Cuba in 1903 and 1934. The Platt Amendment was dissolved in 1934, and the treaty re-affirming the lease to the base was signed after Franklin D. Roosevelt dispatched 29 U.S. warships to Cuba and Key West to protect U.S. interests following a military coup. Cuba and the United States: A Chronological History Jane Franklin 1997 After coming to power in 1959, Cuban ruler Fidel Castro refused to cash all but the very first rent check in protest. But the United States argues that its cashing signifies Havana's ratification of the lease—and that ratification by the new government renders moot any questions about violations of sovereignty and illegal military occupation. The San Francisco Chronicle published an article, on April 22, 2007, about the base, and the conditions under which the treaty would be rendered void. The article states the treaty allows the USA to use the base for "coaling and naval purposes only." It states it does not allow the USA to use it for detaining "enemy combatants", or trying them for war crimes. It further states that the treaty explicitly proscribes "commercial, industrial or other enterprise within said areas." However, the base sports half a dozen fast-food concessions and a Navy Exchange store, for the sailors and not for commercial relations among the native Cubans. According to the article, American business, political and cultural figures with regular contact with Cuban leaders say they have the impression that the Cuban government wants the U.S. military off the island but that the issue isn't a priority now. Cactus Curtain Minefield maintenance Marines stack mines for disposal, 1997 Cactus Curtain is the name of the line separating Guantánamo Bay from Cuba proper. After the Cuban Revolution, some Cubans sought refuge on the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. In the fall of 1961, Cuba had its troops plant an barrier of Opuntia cactus along the northeastern section of the fence surrounding the base to stop Cubans from escaping Cuba to take refuge in the United States. This was dubbed the "Cactus Curtain", an allusion to Europe's Iron Curtain and the Bamboo Curtain in East Asia. U.S. and Cuban troops placed some 55,000 land mines across the "no man's land" between the U.S. and Cuban border, creating the second-largest minefield in the world, and the largest in the Western Hemisphere. On May 16 1996, U.S. President Bill Clinton ordered their removal. They have since been replaced with motion and sound sensors to detect intruders. The Cuban government has not removed the corresponding minefield on its side of the border. Detention camp Detainees upon arrival at Camp X-Ray, January 2002 In the last quarter of the 20th century, the base was used to house Cuban and Haitian refugees intercepted on the high seas. In the early 1990s, it held refugees who fled Haiti after military forces overthrew democratically elected President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. These refugees were held in a detainment area called Camp Bulkeley until United States district court Judge Sterling Johnson Jr. declared the camp unconstitutional on June 8, 1993. This decision was later vacated. The last Haitian migrants departed Guantánamo on November 1, 1995. The Migrant Operations Center on Guantánamo typically keeps fewer than 30 people interdicted at sea in the Caribbean region. Beginning in 2002, a small portion of the base was used to imprison several hundred individuals — some of whom were captured by US forces in Afghanistan, though the majority were "bought" for a substantial bounty (generally around $5,000) from various warlords and mercenaries both in Afghanistan and elsewhere — at Camp Delta, Camp Echo, Camp Iguana, and the now-closed Camp X-Ray. The US military has asserted that some, but not all, of these detainees are linked to Al-Qaeda or the Taliban. The military has withheld the evidence against detainees asserted to be linked to terrorist organizations or enemy states. In litigation regarding the availability of fundamental rights to those imprisoned at the base, the U.S. Supreme Court has recognized that the detainees "have been imprisoned in territory over which the United States exercises exclusive jurisdiction and control." Rasul v. Bush, 542 U.S. 466 (2004). Therefore, the detainees have the fundamental right to due process of law under the Fifth Amendment. A district court has since held that the "Geneva Conventions applied to the Taliban detainees, but not to members of Al-Qaeda terrorist organization." In re Guantánamo detainee Cases, 355 F.Supp.2d 443 (D.D.C. 2005). One of the guard towers at Guantanamo Bay, 1991 On June 10, 2006, the Department of Defense reported that three Guantánamo Bay detainees committed suicide. The military reported the men hanged themselves with nooses made of sheets and clothes. Guantanamo suicide attempts The closing-down of the Guantánamo Prison has been requested by Amnesty International (May 2005), the United Nations (February 2006) and the European Union (May 2006). On September 6, 2006, President George W. Bush announced that enemy combatants held by the CIA will be transferred to the custody of Department of Defense, and held at Guantánamo Prison. Among approximately 500 prisoners in Guantánamo Bay, only 10 have been tried by the Guantanamo military commission, but all cases have been stayed pending the adjustments being made to comply with the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld. President Barack Obama has stated that he intends to close down the detention camp and is planning on bringing detainees to the United States to stand trial by the end of his first term in office. On January 22, 2009, he signed an executive order which mandated the closure of the Guantanamo Bay detention camp within a year. While mandating the closure of the detention facility, the naval base as a whole was not subject to the order and will remain operational indefinitely. This plan was thwarted for the time being on May 20, 2009, when the senate voted to keep the prison at Guantanamo Bay open for the foreseeable future and forbid the transfer of any detainees to facilities in the United States. Senator Daniel Inouye, a Democrat from Hawaii and chairman of the appropriations committee, said he initially had favoured keeping Guantanamo open until Obama produced a "coherent plan for closing the prison." "Senate Nixes Obama's Guantanamo Plan" http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2009/05/20/obama-guantanamo.html As of May 22, 2009, policy is currently being drafted with an aim toward compromise. Represented businesses Guantánamo's McDonald's In 1986, Guantanamo became host to Cuba's first and only McDonald's restaurant, as well as a Subway. These fast food restaurants are on base, and not accessible to Cubans. It has been reported that prisoners cooperating with interrogations have been rewarded with Happy Meals from the McDonald's located on the mainside of the base. In 2004, Guantanamo opened a combined KFC & A&W restaurant at the bowling alley and a Pizza Hut Express at the Windjammer Restaurant. There is also a Taco Bell, and an ice cream shop that sells Starbucks coffee. All the restaurants on the installation are franchises owned and operated by the Department of the Navy. mirror All proceeds from these restaurants are used to support morale, welfare and recreation (MWR) activities for service personnel and their families . See also Cuba-United States relations Platt Amendment The Road to Guantanamo - A docu-drama directed by Michael Winterbottom about the incarceration of three British detainees at Guantánamo Bay Naval Base. Compare with other foreign establishments: Historical: U.S.: Subic Bay, Panama Canal Zone UK: Hong Kong, Chinese treaty ports, Irish treaty ports, Singapore Portugal: Macau, Goa Netherlands: Jaffna, Galle, Trincomalee Current: UK: Akrotiri and Dhekelia (Cyprus) References External links Official U.S. military website NSGtmo.navy.mil — "U.S. Naval Station Guantanamo Bay Cuba: The United States' oldest overseas Naval Base" Reprocessed Combatant Status Review Tribunal (CSRT) and Administrative Review Board (ARB) Documents White House Statement Read the Sept. 6 2006 statement about Military Commissions, covering Guantanamo Bay Maps and photos Cuba-Pictures.com — Guantánamo Province photos with the view from Mirador de Malones Google Maps Virtual 3D Walkthrough of Camp Delta (from the Art project Zone*Interdite - requires Windows download) Movies Road to Guantanamo Gitmo-The new rules of war A Few Good Men Human rights affairs Reporting on life behind the wire: The Sudanese journalist Sami al Hajj held in Guantanamo Bay, in The Independent, June 7, 2007

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Jane_Austen

A watercolour and pencil sketch of Jane Austen, believed to be drawn from life by her sister Cassandra (c. 1810)[A] Jane Austen (16 December 1775 – 18 July 1817) was an English novelist whose realism, biting social commentary and masterful use of free indirect speech, burlesque, and irony have earned her a place as one of the most widely read and most beloved writers in English literature. Southam, "Criticism, 1870-1940", The Jane Austen Companion, 102. Austen lived her entire life as part of a small and close-knit family located on the lower fringes of English gentry. Lascelles, 2; for detail on "lower fringes", see Collins, ix-x. She was educated primarily by her father and older brothers as well as through her own reading. The steadfast support of her family was critical to Austen's development as a professional writer. Lascelles, 4-5; MacDonagh, 110-28; Honan, 79, 183-85; Tomalin, 66-68. Austen's artistic apprenticeship lasted from her teenage years until she was about thirty-five years old. During this period, she experimented with various literary forms, including the epistolary novel which she tried and then abandoned, and wrote and extensively revised three major novels and began a fourth.[B] From 1811 until 1816, with the release of Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814) and Emma (1816), she achieved success as a published writer. She wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began a third, which was eventually titled Sanditon, but died before completing it. Austen's works critique the novels of sensibility of the second half of the eighteenth century and are part of the transition to nineteenth-century realism. Litz, 3-14; Grundy, "Jane Austen and Literary Traditions", The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, 192-93; Waldron, "Critical Responses, Early", Jane Austen in Context, p. 83, 89-90; Duffy, "Criticism, 1814-1870", The Jane Austen Companion, 93-94. [C] Austen's plots, though fundamentally comic, Litz, 142. highlight the dependence of women on marriage to secure social standing and economic security. MacDonagh, 66-75; Collins, 160-161. Like those of Samuel Johnson, one of the strongest influences on her writing, her works are concerned with moral issues. Honan, 124-27; Trott, "Critical Responses, 1830-1970", Jane Austen in Context, 92. During Austen's lifetime, because she chose to publish anonymously, her works brought her little personal fame and only a few positive reviews. Through the mid-nineteenth century, her novels were admired only by members of the literary elite. However, the publication of her nephew's A Memoir of Jane Austen in 1869 introduced her to a wider public as an appealing personality and kindled popular interest in her works. By the 1940s, Austen was widely accepted in academia as a "great English writer". The second half of the twentieth century saw a proliferation of Austen scholarship, which explored many aspects of her novels: artistic, ideological, and historical. In popular culture, a Janeite fan culture has developed, centred on Austen's life, her works, and the various film and television adaptations of them. Biography Biographical information concerning Jane Austen is "famously scarce", according to one biographer. Fergus, "Biography", Jane Austen in Context, 3-4. Only some personal and family letters remain (by one estimate only 160 out of Austen's 3,000 letters are extant), Le Faye, "Letters", Jane Austen in Context, 33. and her sister Cassandra (to whom most of the letters were originally addressed) burned "the greater part" of the ones she kept and censored those she did not destroy. Le Faye, A Family Record, 270; Nokes, 1. Other letters were destroyed by the heirs of Admiral Francis Austen, Jane's brother. Le Faye, A Family Record, 279. Most of the biographical material produced for fifty years after Austen's death was written by her relatives and reflects the family's biases in favour of "good quiet Aunt Jane". Scholars have unearthed little information since. Fergus, "Biography", Jane Austen in Context, 3-4. Family Silhouette of Cassandra Austen, Jane's sister and closest friend Jane Austen's father, William George Austen (1731–1805), and his wife, Cassandra (1739–1827), were members of substantial gentry families. Honan, 29-30. George was descended from a family of woollen manufacturers which had risen through the professions to the lower ranks of the landed gentry. Honan, 11-14; Tucker, "Jane Austen's Family", The Jane Austen Companion, 143. Cassandra was a member of the prominent Leigh family. Tomalin, 6, 13-16, 147-51, 170-71; Greene, "Jane Austen and the Peerage", Jane Austen: A Collection of Critical Essays, 156-57; Fergus, "Biography", Jane Austen in Context, 5-6; Collins, 10-11. From 1765 until 1801, that is, for much of Jane's life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, Hampshire Irene Collins estimates that when George Austen took up his duties as rector in 1764, Steventon comprised no more than about thirty families. Collins, 86. and a nearby village. From 1773 until 1796, he supplemented this income by farming and by teaching three or four boys at a time who boarded at his home. Honan, 14, 17-18; Collins, 54. Austen's immediate family was large: six brothers—James (1765-1819), George (1766-1838), Edward (1767–1852), Henry Thomas (1771–1850), Francis William (Frank) (1774-1865), Charles John (1779–1852)—and one sister, Elizabeth Cassandra (1773–1845), who, like Jane, died unmarried. Elizabeth Cassandra was Austen's closest friend and confidante throughout her life. Fergus, "Biography", 3; Tomalin, 142; Honan, 23, 119. Of her brothers, Austen felt closest to Henry, who became a banker and, after his bank failed, an Anglican clergyman. Henry was also his sister's literary agent. His large circle of friends and acquaintances in London included bankers, merchants, publishers, painters, and actors: he provided Austen with a view of social worlds not normally visible from a small parish in rural Hampshire. MacDonagh, 50-51; Honan, 24, 246; Collins, 17. George was sent to live with a local family at a young age because, as Austen biographer Le Faye describes it, he was "mentally abnormal and subject to fits". Le Faye, Family Record, 22. He may also have been deaf and mute. Charles and Frank served in the navy, both rising to the rank of admiral. Edward was adopted by his fourth cousin, Thomas Knight, inheriting Knight's estate and taking his name in 1812. Tucker, "Jane Austen's Family", 147; Le Faye, Family Record, 43-44. Early life and education Steventon rectory, as depicted in A Memoir of Jane Austen, was in a valley and surrounded by meadows. Le Faye, Family Record, 20. Austen was born on 16 December 1775 at Steventon rectory and publicly christened on 5 April 1776. Le Faye, Family Record, 27. After a few months at home, her mother placed Austen with Elizabeth Littlewood, a woman living nearby, who nursed and raised Austen for a year or eighteen months. Tomalin, 7-9; Honan, 21-22; Collins, 86; Le Faye, Family Record, 19. Le Faye and Collins add that the Austens followed this custom for all of their children. In 1783, according to family tradition, Jane and Cassandra were sent to Oxford to be educated by Mrs. Ann Cawley and they moved with her to Southampton later in the year. Both girls caught typhus and Jane nearly died. Le Faye, Family Record, 47-49; Collins, 35, 133. Austen was subsequently educated at home, until leaving for boarding school with her sister Cassandra early in 1785. The school curriculum probably included some French, spelling, needlework, dancing and music and, perhaps, drama. By December 1786, Jane and Cassandra had returned home because the Austens could not afford to send both of their daughters to school. Tomalin, 9-10, 26, 33-38, 42-43; Le Faye, Family Record, 52; Collins, 133-134. Austen acquired the remainder of her education by reading books, guided by her father and her brothers James and Henry. Le Faye, "Chronology", 2-3; Grundy, "Jane Austen and Literary Traditions", 190-91; Tomalin, 28-29, 33-43, 66-67; Honan, 31-34; Lascelles, 7-8. Irene Collins believes that Austen "used some of the same school books as the boys" her father tutored. Collins, 42. George Austen apparently gave his daughters unfettered access to his large and varied library, was tolerant of Austen's sometimes risqué experiments in writing, and provided both sisters with expensive paper and other materials for their writing and drawing. Honan, 66-68; Collins, 43. According to Park Honan, a biographer of Austen, life in the Austen home was lived in "an open, amused, easy intellectual atmosphere" where the ideas of those with whom the Austens might disagree politically or socially were considered and discussed. Honan, 211-12. After returning from school in 1786, Austen "never again lived anywhere beyond the bounds of her immediate family environment". Le Faye, Family Record, 52. Private theatricals were also a part of Austen's education. From when she was seven until she was thirteen, the family and close friends staged a series of plays, including Richard Sheridan's The Rivals (1775) and David Garrick's Bon Ton. While the details are unknown, Austen would certainly have joined in these activities, as a spectator at first and as a participant when she was older. Le Faye, "Chronology", 2-3; Tucker, "Amateur Theatricals at Steventon", The Jane Austen Companion, 1-2; Gay, ix, 1; Tomalin, 31-32, 40-42, 55-57, 62-63; Honan, 35, 47-52, 423-24, n. 20. Most of the plays were comedies, which suggests one way in which Austen's comedic and satirical gifts were cultivated. Honan, 53-54; Lascelles, 106-07; Litz, 14-17. Juvenilia Portrait of Henry IV. Declaredly written by "a partial, prejudiced, & ignorant Historian", The History of England was illustrated by Austen's sister Cassandra (c. 1790). Perhaps as early as 1787, Austen began to write poems, stories, and plays for her own and her family's amusement. Le Faye, Family Record, 66; Litz, "Chronology of Composition", The Jane Austen Companion, 48; Honan, 61-62, 70; Lascelles, 4. Austen later compiled "fair copies" of 29 of these early works into three bound notebooks, now referred to as the Juvenilia, containing pieces originally written between 1787 and 1793. Honan, 62-76; Le Faye, A Family Record, 270. There is manuscript evidence that Austen continued to work on these pieces as late as the period 1809–11, and that her niece and nephew, Anna and James Edward Austen, made further additions as late as 1814. Sutherland, 14; Doody, "The Short Fiction", The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, 85-86. Among these works are a satirical novel in letters entitled Love and Freindship [sic], in which she mocked popular novels of sensibility, Litz, 21; Tomalin, 47; Honan, 73-74; Southam, "Juvenilia", The Jane Austen Companion, 248-49. and The History of England, a manuscript of 34 pages accompanied by 13 watercolour miniatures by her sister Cassandra. Austen's History parodied popular historical writing, particularly Oliver Goldsmith's History of England (1764). Honan, 75. Austen wrote, for example: "Henry the 4th ascended the throne of England much to his own satisfaction in the year 1399, after having prevailed on his cousin & predecessor Richard the 2nd, to resign it to him, & to retire for the rest of his Life to Pomfret Castle, where he happened to be murdered." Austen, The History of England, Catharine and Other Writings, 134. Austen's Juvenilia are often, according to scholar Richard Jenkyns, "boisterous" and "anarchic"; he compares them to the work of eighteenth-century novelist Laurence Sterne and the twentieth-century comedy group Monty Python. Jenkyns, 31. Adulthood As Austen grew into adulthood, she continued to live at her parents' home, carrying out those activities normal for women of her age and social standing: she practiced the pianoforte, assisted her sister and mother with supervising servants, and attended female relatives during childbirth and older relatives on their deathbeds. Gary Kelly, "Education and accomplishments," Jane Austen in Context, 256-57; Tomalin, 101-03, 120-23, 144. She sent short pieces of writing to her newborn nieces Fanny Catherine and Jane Anna Elizabeth. Le Faye, Family Record, 84. Austen was particularly proud of her accomplishments as a seamstress. Honan, 265. She also attended church regularly, socialized frequently with friends and neighbours, For social conventions among the gentry generally, see Collins, 105. and read novels—often of her own composition—aloud with her family in the evenings. Socializing with the neighbours often meant dancing, either impromptu in someone's home after supper or at the balls held regularly at the assembly rooms in the town hall. Tomalin, 101-03, 120-23, 144; Honan, 119. Her brother Henry later said that "Jane was fond of dancing, and excelled in it". Quoted in Tomalin, 102; see also Honan, 84. In 1793, Austen began and then abandoned a short play, later entitled Sir Charles Grandison or the happy Man, a comedy in 6 acts, which she returned to and completed around 1800. This was a short parody of various school textbook abridgments of Austen's favourite contemporary novel, The History of Sir Charles Grandison (1753), by Samuel Richardson. Southam, "Grandison", The Jane Austen Companion, 187-89. Honan speculates that at some point not long after writing Love and Freindship [sic] in 1789, Austen decided to "write for profit, to make stories her central effort", that is, to become a professional writer. Honan, 93. Whenever she made that decision, beginning in about 1793, Austen began to write longer, more sophisticated works. During the period between 1793 and 1795, Austen wrote Lady Susan, a short epistolary novel, usually described as her most ambitious and sophisticated early work. Honan, 101-102; Tomalin, 82-83 It is unlike any of Austen's other works. Austen biographer Claire Tomalin describes the heroine of the novella as a sexual predator who uses her intelligence and charm to manipulate, betray, and abuse her victims, whether lovers, friends or family. Tomalin writes: "Told in letters, it is as neatly plotted as a play, and as cynical in tone as any of the most outrageous of the Restoration dramatists who may have provided some of her inspiration....It stands alone in Austen's work as a study of an adult woman whose intelligence and force of character are greater than those of anyone she encounters." Tomalin, 83-84; see also Sutherland, 15. Early novels After finishing Lady Susan, Austen attempted her first full-length novel—Elinor and Marianne. Her sister Cassandra later remembered that it was read to the family "before 1796" and was told through a series of letters. Without surviving original manuscripts, there is no way to know how much of the original draft survived in the novel published in 1811 as Sense and Sensibility. Sutherland, 16-18; LeFaye, "Chronology", 4; Tomalin, 107, 120, 154, 208. Thomas Langlois Lefroy, Lord Chief Justice of Ireland, by W. H. Mote (1855); in old age, Lefroy admitted to a nephew that he had been in love with Jane Austen: "It was boyish love." Tomalin, 118. When Austen was twenty, Tom Lefroy, a nephew of neighbours, visited Steventon from December 1795 to January 1796. He had just finished a university degree and was moving to London to train as a barrister. Lefroy and Austen would have been introduced at a ball or other neighbourhood social gathering, and it is clear from Austen's letters to Cassandra that they spent considerable time together: "I am almost afraid to tell you how my Irish friend and I behaved. Imagine to yourself everything most profligate and shocking in the way of dancing and sitting down together." Qtd. in Le Faye, Family Record, 92. The Lefroy family intervened and sent him away at the end of January. Marriage was impractical, as both Lefroy and Austen must have known. Neither had any money, and he was dependent on a great-uncle in Ireland to finance his education and establish his legal career. If Tom Lefroy later visited Hampshire, he was carefully kept away from the Austens, and Jane Austen never saw him again. Le Faye, "Chronology", 4; Fergus, "Biography", 7-8; Tomalin, 112-20, 159; Honan, 105-11. Austen began work on a second novel, First Impressions, in 1796 and completed the initial draft in August 1797 when she was only 21. (it would later become Pride and Prejudice); as with all of her novels, Austen read the work aloud to her family as she was working on it and it became an "established favourite". Le Faye, Family Record, 100, 114. At this time, her father made the first attempt to publish one of her novels. In November 1797, George Austen wrote to Thomas Cadell, an established publisher in London, to ask if he would consider publishing "a Manuscript Novel, comprised in three Vols. about the length of Miss Burney's Evelina" (First Impressions) at the author's financial risk. Cadell quickly returned Mr. Austen's letter, marked "Declined by Return of Post". Austen may not have known of her father's efforts. Le Fay, Family Record, 104; Sutherland, 17, 21; quotations from Tomalin, 120-22. Following the completion of First Impressions, Austen returned to Elinor and Marianne and from November 1797 until mid-1798, revised it heavily; she eliminated the epistolary format in favour of third-person narration and produced something close to Sense and Sensibility. Le Faye, "Chronology", 5, 7; Fergus, "Biography", 7; Sutherland, 16-18, 21; Tomalin, 120-21; Honan, 122-24. During the middle of 1798, after finishing revisions of Elinor and Marianne, Austen began writing a third novel with the working title Susan—later Northanger Abbey—a satire on the popular Gothic novel. Litz, 59-60. Austen completed her work about a year later. In early 1803, Henry Austen offered Susan to Benjamin Crosby, a London publisher, who paid £10 for the copyright. Crosby promised early publication and went so far as to advertise the book publicly as being "in the press", but did nothing more. The manuscript remained in Crosby's hands, unpublished, until Austen repurchased the copyright from him in 1816. Le Faye, "Chronology", 5, 6, 10; Fergus, "Biography", 8-9; Sutherland, 16, 18-19, 20-22; Tomalin, 182, 199, 254. Bath and Southampton In December 1800, Rev. Austen unexpectedly announced his decision to retire from the ministry, leave Steventon, and move the family to Bath. While retirement and travel were good for the elder Austens, Jane Austen was shocked to be told she was moving from the only home she had ever known. Collins, 8-9. An indication of Austen's state of mind is her lack of productivity as a writer during the time she lived at Bath. She was able to make some revisions to Susan, and she began and then abandoned a new novel, The Watsons, but there was nothing like the productivity of the years 1795-1799. Sutherland, 21. Tomalin suggests this reflected a deep depression disabling her as a writer, but Honan disagrees, arguing Austen wrote or revised her manuscripts throughout her creative life, except for a few months after her father died. Le Faye, "Chronology", 6-8; Fergus, "Biography", 8; Sutherland, 15, 20-22; Tomalin, 168-75; Honan, 215. Doody agrees with Tomalin. Margaret Anne Doody, "Jane Austen, that disconcerting child" in Alexander and McMaster, The Child Writer, 105. In December 1802, Austen received her only proposal of marriage. She and her sister visited Alethea and Catherine Bigg, old friends who lived near Basingstoke. Their younger brother, Harris Bigg-Wither, had recently finished his education at Oxford and was also at home. Bigg-Wither proposed and Austen accepted. As described by Caroline Austen, Jane's niece, and Reginald Bigg-Wither, a descendant, Harris was not attractive—he was a large, plain-looking man who spoke little, stuttered when he did speak, was aggressive in conversation, and almost completely tactless. However, Austen had known him since both were young and the marriage offered many practical advantages to Austen and her family. He was the heir to extensive family estates located in the area where the sisters had grown up. With these resources, Austen could provide her parents a comfortable old age, give Cassandra a permanent home and, perhaps, assist her brothers in their careers. By the next morning, Austen realised she had made a mistake and withdrew her acceptance. Le Faye, "Chronology" 6; Fergus, "Biography", p. 7-8; Tomalin, 178-81; Honan, 189-98. No contemporary letters or diaries describe how Austen felt about this proposal. Le Faye, "Memoirs and Biographies", Jane Austen in Context, 51. In 1814, Austen wrote a letter to her niece, Fanny Knight, who had asked for advice about a serious relationship, telling her that "having written so much on one side of the question, I shall now turn around & entreat you not to commit yourself farther, & not to think of accepting him unless you really do like him. Anything is to be preferred or endured rather than marrying without Affection". Letter dated 18 November-20, 1814, Jane Austen's Letters, 278-82. In 1804, while living in Bath, Austen started but did not complete a new novel, The Watsons. The story centres on an invalid clergyman with little money and his four unmarried daughters. Sutherland describes the novel as "a study in the harsh economic realities of dependent women's lives". Sutherland, 15, 21. Honan suggests, and Tomalin agrees, that Austen chose to stop work on the novel after her father died on 21 January 1805 and her personal circumstances resembled those of her characters too closely for her comfort. Le Faye, "Chronology", 7; Tomalin, 182-84; Honan, 203-05. Rev. Austen's final illness had struck suddenly, leaving him, as Austen reported to her brother Francis, "quite insensible of his own state", and he died quickly. MacDonagh, 111; Honan, 212; Tomalin, 186. Jane, Cassandra, and their mother were left in a precarious financial situation. Edward, James, Henry, and Francis Austen pledged to make annual contributions to support their mother and sisters. Honan, 213-14. For the next four years, the family's living arrangements reflected their financial insecurity. They lived part of the time in rented quarters in Bath and then, beginning in 1806, in Southampton, where they shared a house with Frank Austen and his new wife. A large part of this time they spent visiting various branches of the family. Tomalin, 194-206. On 5 April 1809, about three months before the family's move to Chawton, Austen wrote an angry letter to Richard Crosby, offering him a new manuscript of Susan if that was needed to secure immediate publication of the novel, and otherwise requesting the return of the original so she could find another publisher. Crosby replied he had not agreed to publish the book by any particular time, or at all, and that Austen could repurchase the manuscript for the £10 he had paid her and find another publisher. However, Austen did not have the resources to repurchase the book. Tomalin, 207. Chawton The "cottage" in Chawton where Jane Austen lived during the last eight years of her life, now Jane Austen's House Museum Around early 1809, Austen's brother Edward offered his mother and sisters a more settled life—the use of a large "cottage" in Chawton village Chawton had a population of 417 at the census of 1811. Collins, 89. that was part of Edward's nearby estate, Chawton House. Jane, Cassandra, and their mother moved into Chawton cottage on 7 July 1809. Le Faye, "Chronology", 8; Tomalin, 194-206; Honan, 237-45; MacDonagh, 49. In Chawton, life was quieter than it had been since the family's move to Bath in 1800. The Austens did not socialise with the neighbouring gentry and entertained only when family visited. Austen's niece Anna described the Austen family's life in Chawton: "It was a very quiet life, according to our ideas, but they were great readers, and besides the housekeeping our aunts occupied themselves in working with the poor and in teaching some girl or boy to read or write." Grey, "Chawton", in The Jane Austen Companion, 38 Austen wrote almost daily, but privately, and seems to have been relieved of some household responsibilities to give her more opportunity to write. Grey, "Chawton", 37-38; Tomalin, 208, 211-12; Honan, 265-66, 351-52. In this setting, she was able to be productive as a writer once more. Doody, "The Shorter Fiction", The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, 87. Published author First edition title page from Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austen's first published novel (1811) During her time at Chawton, Jane Austen successfully published four novels, which were generally well-received. Through her brother Henry, the publisher Thomas Egerton agreed to publish Sense and Sensibility,[E] which appeared in October 1811. Reviews were favourable and the novel became fashionable among opinion-makers; Honan, 289-290. the edition sold out by mid-1813.[F] Austen's earnings from Sense and Sensibility provided her with some financial and psychological independence. Honan, 290, Tomalin, 218. Egerton then published Pride and Prejudice, a revision of First Impressions, in January 1813. He advertised the book widely and it was an immediate success, garnering three favourable reviews and selling well. By October 1813, Egerton was able to begin selling a second edition. Sutherland, 16-17, 21; Le Faye, "Chronology" 8-9; Fergus, "The Professional Woman Writer", 19-23; Tomalin, 210-12, 216-20; Honan, 287. Mansfield Park was published by Egerton in May 1814. While Mansfield Park was ignored by reviewers, it was a great success with the public. All copies were sold within six months, and Austen's earnings on this novel were larger than for any of her other novels. Le Faye, "Chronology", 9; Fergus, "The Professional Woman Writer", 22-24; Sutherland, 18-19; Tomalin, 236, 240-41, 315, n. 5. Austen learned that the Prince Regent admired her novels and kept a set at each of his residences.[G] In November 1815, the Prince Regent's librarian invited Austen to visit the Prince's London residence and hinted Austen should dedicate the forthcoming Emma to the Prince. Though Austen disliked the Prince, she could scarcely refuse the request. Austen letter to James Stannier Clarke, 15 November 1815; Clarke letter to Austen, 16 November 1815; Austen letter to John Murray, 23 November 1815, Le Faye, Jane Austen's Letters, 296-98. She later wrote Plan of a Novel, according to hints from various quarters, a satiric outline of the "perfect novel" based on the librarian's many suggestions for a future Austen novel. Note on the relationship; Correspondence; Litz, 164-165; Honan, 367-69, describes the episode in detail. In mid-1815, Austen moved her work from Egerton to John Murray, a better known London publisher,[H] who published Emma in December 1815 and a second edition of Mansfield Park in February 1816. Emma sold well but the new edition of Mansfield Park did not, and this failure offset most of the profits Austen earned on Emma. These were the last of Austen's novels to be published during her lifetime. Le Faye, "Chronology", 8-9; Sutherland, 16-21; Fergus, "The Professional Woman Writer", 23-27, 30, n.29, 31, n.33; Fergus, "Biography", 10; Tomalin, 256. While Murray prepared Emma for publication, Austen began to write a new novel she titled The Elliots, later published as Persuasion. She completed her first draft in July 1816. In addition, shortly after the publication of Emma, Henry Austen repurchased the copyright for Susan from Crosby. Austen was forced to postpone publishing either of these completed novels by family financial troubles. Henry Austen's bank failed in March 1816, depriving him of all of his assets, leaving him deeply in debt and losing Edward, James, and Frank Austen large sums. Henry and Frank could no longer afford the contributions they had made to support their mother and sisters. Le Faye, "Chronology", 6, 10; Fergus, "The Professional Woman Writer", 26-27; Tomalin, 252-54. Illness and death Jane Austen is buried in Winchester Cathedral. Early in 1816, Jane Austen began to feel unwell. She ignored her illness at first and continued to work and to participate in the usual round of family activities. By the middle of that year, her decline was unmistakable to Austen and to her family, and Austen's physical condition began a long, slow, and irregular deterioration culminating in her death the following year. Honan, 378-79, 385-95 The majority of Austen biographers rely on Dr. Vincent Cope's tentative 1964 retrospective diagnosis and list her cause of death as Addison's disease. However, her final illness has also been described as Hodgkin's lymphoma.[I] Austen continued to work in spite of her illness. She became dissatisfied with the ending of The Elliots and rewrote the final two chapters, finishing them on 6 August 1816.[J] In January 1817, Austen began work on a new novel she called The Brothers, later titled Sanditon upon its first publication in 1925, and completed twelve chapters before stopping work in mid-March 1817, probably because her illness prevented her from continuing. Tomalin, 261. Austen made light of her condition to others, describing it as "Bile" and rheumatism, but as her disease progressed she experienced increasing difficulty walking or finding the energy for other activities. By mid-April, Austen was confined to her bed. In May, their brother Henry escorted Jane and Cassandra to Winchester for medical treatment. Austen died in Winchester on 18 July 1817, at the age of 41. Through his clerical connections, Henry arranged for his sister to be buried in the north aisle of the nave of Winchester Cathedral. The epitaph composed by her brother James praises Austen's personal qualities, expresses hope for her salvation, mentions the "extraordinary endowments of her mind", but does not explicitly mention her achievements as a writer. Le Faye, "Chronology", 10-11; Fergus, "The Professional Woman Writer", 26-27; Tomalin, 254-71; Honan, 385-405. Posthumous publication After Austen's death, Cassandra and Henry Austen arranged with Murray for the publication of Persuasion and Northanger Abbey as a set in December 1817.[K] Henry Austen contributed a Biographical Note which for the first time identified his sister as the author of the novels. Tomalin describes it as "a loving and polished eulogy". Tomalin, 272. Sales were good for a year—only 321 copies remained unsold at the end of 1818—and then declined. Murray disposed of the remaining copies in 1820, and Austen's novels remained out of print for twelve years. Tomalin, 321, n.1 and 3; Gilson, "Editions and Publishing History", in The Jane Austen Companion, 136-37. In 1832, publisher Richard Bentley purchased the remaining copyrights to all of Austen's novels and, beginning in either December 1832 or January 1833, published them in five illustrated volumes as part of his Standard Novels series. In October 1833, Bentley published the first collected edition of Austen's works. Since then, Austen's novels have been continuously in print. Gilson, "Editions and Publishing History", p. 137; Gilson, "Later publishing history, with illustrations," Jane Austen in Context, p. 127; Southam, "Criticism, 1870-1940", 102. Reception Contemporary responses In 1816, the editors of The New Monthly Magazine noted Emma's publication but chose not to review it.[L] Austen's works brought her little personal renown because they were published anonymously. Although her novels quickly became fashionable among opinion-makers, such as Princess Charlotte Augusta, daughter of the Prince Regent, they received only a few published reviews. Honan, Jane Austen, 289–90. Most of the reviews were short and on balance favourable, although superficial and cautious. Fergus, 18–19; Honan, Jane Austen, 287–89, 316–17, 372–73; Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 1, 1. They most often focused on the moral lessons of the novels. Waldron, 83–91. Sir Walter Scott, a leading novelist of the day, contributed one of them, anonymously. Using the review as a platform from which to defend the then disreputable genre of the novel, he praised Austen's realism. Southam, "Scott in the Quarterly Review", Vol. 1, 58; Waldron, "Critical Responses, Early", Jane Austen in Context, 86; Duffy, "Criticism, 1814-1870", The Jane Austen Companion, 94-96. The other important early review of Austen's works was published by Richard Whately in 1821. He drew favourable comparisons between Austen and such acknowledged greats as Homer and Shakespeare, praising the dramatic qualities of her narrative. Whately and Scott set the tone for almost all subsequent nineteenth-century Austen criticism. Waldron, "Critical Responses, Early", Jane Austen in Context, 89-90; Duffy, "Criticism, 1814-1870", The Jane Austen Companion, 97; Watt, "Introduction", 4-5. Nineteenth century Because Austen's novels failed to conform to Romantic and Victorian expectations that "powerful emotion [be] authenticated by an egregious display of sound and colour in the writing", Duffy, "Criticism, 1814-1870", The Jane Austen Companion, 98-99; MacDonagh, 146; Watt, "Introduction", 3-4. nineteenth-century critics and audiences generally preferred the works of Charles Dickens and George Eliot. Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 1, 2; Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 1. Though Austen's novels were republished in Britain beginning in the 1830s and remained steady sellers, they were not bestsellers. Johnson, "Austen cults and cultures", The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, 211; Gilson, "Later publishing history, with illustrations," p. 127. George Henry Lewes compared Austen's works to Shakespeare's. Austen had many admiring readers in the nineteenth century who considered themselves part of a literary elite: they viewed their appreciation of Austen's works as a mark of their cultural taste. Philosopher and literary critic George Henry Lewes expressed this viewpoint in a series of enthusiastic articles published in the 1840s and 1850s. Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 1, 152; Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 20-21. This theme continued later in the century with novelist Henry James, who referred to Austen several times with approval and on one occasion ranked her with Shakespeare, Cervantes, and Henry Fielding as among "the fine painters of life". Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 70. The publication of James Edward Austen-Leigh's A Memoir of Jane Austen in 1869 introduced Austen to a wider public as "dear aunt Jane", the respectable maiden aunt. Publication of the Memoir spurred the reissue of Austen's novels—the first popular editions were released in 1883 and fancy illustrated editions and collectors' sets quickly followed. Southam, “Introduction”, Vol. 2, 58-62. Author and critic Leslie Stephen described the popular mania that started to develop for Austen in the 1880s as "Austenolatry". Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 47. Around the turn of the century, members of the literary elite reacted against the popularization of Austen. They referred to themselves as Janeites in order to distinguish themselves from the masses who did not properly understand her works. Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 46; Johnson, "Austen cults and cultures", The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen, 213. For example, James responded negatively to what he described as "a beguiled infatuation" with Austen, a rising tide of public interest that exceeded Austen's "intrinsic merit and interest". Southam, "Henry James on Jane Austen", Vol. 2, 230. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the first books of criticism on Austen were published. In fact, after the publication of the Memoir, more criticism was published on Austen in two years than had appeared in the previous fifty. Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 1, 1. Twentieth century Several important works paved the way for Austen's novels to become a focus of academic study. The first important milestone was a 1911 essay by Oxford Shakespearean scholar A. C. Bradley, which is "generally regarded as the starting-point for the serious academic approach to Jane Austen". Brian Southam, quoted in Trott, "Critical Responses, 1830-1970", 92; Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 79. In it, he established the groupings of Austen's "early" and "late" novels, which are still used by scholars today. Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 79. The second was R. W. Chapman's 1923 edition of Austen's collected works. Not only was it the first scholarly edition of Austen's works, it was also the first scholarly edition of any English novelist. The Chapman text has remained the basis for all subsequent published editions of Austen's works. Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 99-100; see also Watt, "Introduction", 10-11; Gilson, "Later Publishing History, with Illustrations", 149-50; Johnson, “Austen cults and cultures”, 218. With the publication in 1939 of Mary Lascelles's Jane Austen and Her Art, the academic study of Austen took hold. Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 107-109, 124. Lascelles's innovative work included an analysis of the books Jane Austen read and the effect of her reading on her work, an extended analysis of Austen's style, and her "narrative art". At the time, concern arose over the fact that academics were taking over Austen criticism and it was becoming increasingly esoteric—a debate that has continued to the beginning of the twenty-first century. Southam, "Criticism 1870-1940", 108; Watt, "Introduction", 10-11; Stovel, "Further Reading", 233; Southam, "Introduction", Vol. 2, 127; Todd, 20. In a spurt of revisionist views in the 1940s, scholars approached Austen more sceptically and argued that she was a subversive writer. These revisionist views, together with F. R. Leavis's and Ian Watt's pronouncement that Austen was one of the great writers of English fiction, did much to cement Austen's reputation amongst academics. Johnson, "Austen cults and cultures", 219; Todd, 20. They agreed that she "combined [Henry Fielding's and Samuel Richardson's] qualities of interiority and irony, realism and satire to form an author superior to both". Todd, 20. The period since World War II has seen more scholarship on Austen using a diversity of critical approaches, including feminist theory, and perhaps most controversially, postcolonial theory. However, the continuing disconnection between the popular appreciation of Austen, particularly by modern Janeites, and the academic appreciation of Austen has widened considerably. Sequels, prequels, and adaptations of almost every sort have been based on the novels of Jane Austen, from soft-core pornography to fantasy. Lynch, "Sequels", Jane Austen in Context, 160. Beginning in the middle of the nineteenth century, Austen family members published conclusions to her incomplete novels, and by 2000 there were over 100 printed adaptations. Lynch, "Sequels", Jane Austen in Context, 160-62. The first film adaptation was the [[Pride and Prejudice (1940 film)|1940 MGM production of Pride and Prejudice]] starring Laurence Olivier and Greer Garson. Brownstein, 13. BBC television dramatisations, which were first produced in the 1970s, attempted to adhere meticulously to Austen's plots, characterisations, and settings. Troost, "The Nineteenth-Century Novel on Film", 79. Starting with Emma Thompson's film of Sense and Sensibility and the BBC's immensely popular TV mini-series Pride and Prejudice, a great wave of Austen adaptations began to appear around 1995. Troost, "The Nineteenth-Century Novel on Film", 82–84. Books and scripts that use the general storyline of Austen's novels but change or otherwise modernise the story also became popular at the end of the twentieth century. For example, Clueless (1995), Amy Heckerling's updated version of Emma, which takes place in Beverly Hills, became a cultural phenomenon and spawned its own television series. Pucci and Thompson, 1. List of works Novels Sense and Sensibility (1811) Pride and Prejudice (1813) Mansfield Park (1814) Emma (1815) Northanger Abbey (1817) (posthumous) Persuasion (1817) (posthumous) Unfinished fiction Lady Susan (1794, 1805) The Watsons (1804) Sanditon (1817) Other works Sir Charles Grandison (1793, 1800) The full title of this short play is Sir Charles Grandison or The happy Man, a Comedy in 6 acts. For more information see Southam, "Grandison", The Jane Austen Companion, 187-189. Plan of a Novel (1815) Poems Prayers Letters Juvenilia – Volume the First This list of the juvenilia is taken from The Works of Jane Austen. Vol VI. 1954. Ed. R. W. Chapman and B. C. Southam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988, as supplemented by additional research reflected in Margaret Anne Doody and Douglas Murray, eds. Catharine and Other Writings Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Frederic & Elfrida Jack & Alice Edgar & Emma Henry and Eliza The Adventures of Mr. Harley Sir William Mountague Memoirs of Mr. Clifford The Beautifull Cassandra Amelia Webster The Visit The Mystery The Three Sisters A beautiful description The generous Curate Ode to Pity Juvenilia – Volume the Second Love and Freindship Lesley Castle The History of England A Collection of Letters The female philosopher The first Act of a Comedy A Letter from a Young Lady A Tour through Wales A Tale Juvenilia – Volume the Third Evelyn Catharine, or the Bower See also Family tree showing Jane Austen, her parents and her siblings Family tree showing Jane Austen's siblings and her nephews and nieces Timeline of Jane Austen Notes ^ The original is unsigned but was believed by the family to have been made by Cassandra and remained in the family with the one signed sketch by Cassandra until 1920. The original sketch, according to relatives who knew Jane Austen well, was not a good likeness. Kirkham, "Portraits", Jane Austen in Context, 69-72. ^ These included the original versions of and revisions to the novels later published as Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice and Northanger Abbey, and a novel fragment, The Watsons. Sutherland, "Chronology of Composition and Publication", Jane Austen in Context, 13. ^ Oliver MacDonagh says that Sense and Sensibility "may well be the first English realistic novel" based on its detailed and accurate portrayal of what he calls "getting and spending" in an English gentry family. MacDonagh, 65, 136-37. <li id="noted">^ As reported by Austen's niece, Anna, the family crest appeared on George Austen's carriage at the time of Henry Austen's 1797 marriage to Eliza de Feuillide. Le Faye, Family Record, 106. ^ All of Jane Austen's novels except Pride and Prejudice were published "on commission", that is, at the author's financial risk. When publishing on commission, publishers would advance the costs of publication, repay themselves as books were sold and then charge a commission for each book sold, paying the rest to the author. If a novel did not recover its costs through sales, the author was responsible for them. Fergus, "The Professional Woman Writer", 15-17; Raven, "Book Production", in Jane Austen in Context, 198; Honan, 285-86. ^ Jane Austen's novels were published in larger editions than was normal for this period. The small size of the novel-reading public and the large costs associated with hand production (particularly the cost of hand-made paper) meant that most novels were published in editions of 500 copies or less, in order to reduce the risks to the publisher and the novelist. Even some of the most successful titles during this period were issued in editions of not more than 750 or 800 copies and later reprinted if demand continued. Austen's novels were published in larger editions, ranging from about 750 copies of Sense and Sensibility to about 2,000 copies of Emma. It is not clear whether the decision to print more copies than usual of Jane Austen's novels was driven by the publishers or the author. Since all but one of Jane Austen's books were originally published "on commission", the risks of overproduction were largely hers (or Cassandra's after her death) and publishers may have been more willing to produce larger editions than was normal practice when their own funds were at risk. Editions of popular works of non-fiction were often much larger. For more information and a discussion of the economics of book publishing during this period, see Fergus, "The Professional Woman Writer", 18, and Raven, "Book Production", 196-203. ^ The Prince Regent's admiration was by no means reciprocated, however. In a letter of 16 February 1813 to her friend Martha Lloyd, Austen says (referring to the Prince's wife, whom he treated notoriously badly) "I hate her Husband". passage online; Le Faye, Jane Austen's Letters, 207-08. ^ John Murray also published the work of Walter Scott and Lord Byron. In a letter to Cassandra dated 17/18 October 1816, Austen comments that "Mr. Murray's Letter is come; he is a Rogue of course, but a civil one." Honan, 364-65; Le Faye, Jane Austen's Letters, 291 ^ Addison's disease was often a secondary effect of tuberculosis or cancer. For detailed information concerning the retrospective diagnosis, its uncertainties and related controversies, see Honan, 391-92; Le Faye, A Family Record, 236; Grey, "Life of Jane Austen," The Jane Austen Companion, 282; and Wiltshire, Jane Austen and the Body, 221. Claire Tomalin prefers a diagnosis of a lymphoma such as Hodgkin's disease, arguing that Austen's known symptoms are more consistent with a lymphoma than with Addison's disease. Tomalin, Appendix I, 283-84; see also ^ The manuscript of the revised final chapters of Persuasion is the only surviving manuscript in Austen's own handwriting for any of her published novels. Tomalin, 255. ^ Cassandra and Henry Austen chose the final titles and the title page is dated 1818. ^ Honan points to "the odd fact that most of [Austen's] reviewers sound like Mr. Collins" as evidence that contemporary critics felt that works oriented toward the interests and concerns of women were intrinsically less important and less worthy of critical notice than works (mostly non-fiction) oriented towards men. Honan, 317. References Bibliography Primary works Austen, Jane. Catharine and Other Writings. Ed. Margaret Anne Doody and Douglas Murray. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-19-282823-1. Austen, Jane. The History of England. Ed. David Starkey. Icon Books, HarperCollins Publishers, 2006. ISBN 0-06-135195-4. Biographies Austen, Henry Thomas. "Biographical Notice of the Author". Northanger Abbey and Persuasion. London: John Murray, 1817. Austen-Leigh, James Edward. A Memoir of Jane Austen. 1926. Ed. R. W. Chapman. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967. Austen-Leigh, William and Richard Arthur Austen-Leigh. Jane Austen: Her Life and Letters, A Family Record. London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1913. Fergus, Jan. Jane Austen: A Literary Life. London: Macmillan, 1991. ISBN 0-333-44701-8. Honan, Park. Jane Austen: A Life. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. ISBN 0-312-01451-1. Le Faye, Deirdre, ed. Jane Austen's Letters. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 0-19-283297-2. Le Faye, Deirdre. Jane Austen: A Family Record. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-53417-8. Nokes, David. Jane Austen: A Life. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. ISBN 0520216067. Tomalin, Claire. Jane Austen: A Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997. ISBN 0-679-44628-1. Literary criticism Essay collections Alexander, Christine and Juliet McMaster, eds. The Child Writer from Austen to Woolf. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-81293-3. Copeland, Edward and Juliet McMaster, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Jane Austen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-521-49867-8. Grey, J. David, ed. The Jane Austen Companion. New York: Macmillan, 1986. ISBN 0-52-545540-0. Lynch, Deidre, ed. Janeites: Austen's Disciples and Devotees. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-691-05005-8. Southam, B. C., ed. Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1812-1870. Vol. 1. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1968. ISBN 0-7100-2942-X. Southam, B. C., ed. Jane Austen: The Critical Heritage, 1870-1940. Vol. 2. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987. ISBN 0-7102-0189-3. Todd, Janet, ed. Jane Austen In Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-521-82644-6. Watt, Ian, ed. Jane Austen: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1963. ISBN 0-130-53769-0. Monographs and articles Armstrong, Nancy. Desire and Domestic Fiction. London: Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-19-506160-8 Butler, Marilyn. Jane Austen and the War of Ideas. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975. ISBN 0-19-812968-8 Collins, Irene. Jane Austen and the Clergy. London: The Hambledon Press, 1994. ISBN 1-85285-114-7. Devlin, D. D. Jane Austen and Education. London: Macmillan, 1975. ISBN 0-333-14431-2. Duckworth, Alistair M. The Improvement of the Estate: A Study of Jane Austen's Novels. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971. ISBN 0-8018-1269-0. Fergus, Jan. Jane Austen and the Didactic Novel. Totowa: Barnes & Noble, 1983. ISBN 0-389-20228-2. Ferguson, Moira. "Mansfield Park, Slavery, Colonialism, and Gender". Oxford Literary Review 13 (1991): 118-39. Galperin, William. The Historical Austen. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003. ISBN 0-812-23687-4. Gay, Penny. Jane Austen and the Theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-65213-8. Gubar, Susan and Sandra Gilbert. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth Century Literary Imagination. 1979. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-300-02596-3. Harding, D. W., "Regulated Hatred: An Aspect of the Work of Jane Austen". Jane Austen: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. Ian Watt. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963. Jenkyns, Richard. A Fine Brush on Ivory: An Appreciation of Jane Austen. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-927761-7. Johnson, Claudia L. Jane Austen: Women, Politics and the Novel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. ISBN 0-226-40139-1. Kirkham, Margaret. Jane Austen, Feminism and Fiction. Brighton: Harvester, 1983. ISBN 0-710-80468-7. Koppel, Gene. The Religious Dimension in Jane Austen's Novels. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1988. Lascelles, Mary. Jane Austen and Her Art. Original publication 1939. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966. Leavis, F. R. The Great Tradition: George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad. London: Chatto & Windus, 1960. Litz, A. Walton. Jane Austen: A Study of Her Development. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965. Lynch, Deidre. The Economy of Character. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998. ISBN 0-226-49820-4. MacDonagh, Oliver. Jane Austen: Real and Imagined Worlds. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-300-05084-4. Miller, D. A. Jane Austen, or The Secret of Style. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-691-12387-X. Mudrick, Marvin. Jane Austen: Irony as Defense and Discovery. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1952. Page, Norman. The Language of Jane Austen. Oxford: Blackwell, 1972. ISBN 0-631-08280-8. Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. ISBN 0-226-67528-9. Raven, James. The Business of Books: Booksellers and the English Book Trade. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007. ISBN 0-300-12261-6. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage Books, 1993. ISBN 0-679-75054-1. Todd, Janet. The Cambridge Introduction to Jane Austen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-67469-7. Waldron, Mary. Jane Austen and the Fiction of Her Time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-00388-1. Wiltshire, John. Recreating Jane Austen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-521-00282-6. Wiltshire, John. Jane Austen and the Body: The Picture of Health. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-521-41476-8. External links Online works Works by Jane Austen - etexts by Electronic Literature Foundation Works by Jane Austen - e-books in HTML Works by Jane Austen - printable PDF ebooks Works by Jane Austen - for cell phones A Memoir of Jane Austen by James Edward Austen-Leigh Museums Jane Austen's House Museum in Chawton The Jane Austen Centre in Bath Fan sites and societies The Republic of Pemberley: the largest Jane Austen site on the web. The Jane Austen Society of Australia The Jane Austen Society of North America The Jane Austen Society of the United Kingdom be-x-old:Джэйн Остын

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Afonso_III_of_Portugal

Afonso III (; rare English alternatives: Alphonzo or Alphonse), or Affonso (Archaic Portuguese), Alfonso or Alphonso (Portuguese-Galician) or Alphonsus (Latin), the Bolognian (Port. o Bolonhês) or the Brave (Port. o Bravo), the fifth King of Portugal (May 5, 1210 in Coimbra – February 16, 1279 in Alcobaça, Coimbra or Lisbon) and the first to use the title King of Portugal and the Algarve, since 1249. He was the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal and his wife, Urraca, princess of Castile; he succeeded his brother, King Sancho II of Portugal on 4 January 1248. As the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal, Afonso was not expected to inherit the throne, which was destined to go to his elder brother Sancho. He lived mostly in France, where he married Matilda, the heiress of Boulogne, in 1238, thereby becoming Count of Boulogne. In 1246, conflicts between his brother, the king, and the church became unbearable. Pope Innocent IV then ordered Sancho II to be removed from the throne and be replaced by the Count of Boulogne. Afonso, of course, did not refuse the papal order and marched to Portugal. Since Sancho was not a popular king, the order was not hard to enforce; he was exiled to Castile and Afonso III became king in 1248 after his brother's death. To ascend the throne, he abdicated from the county of Boulogne and later (1253) divorced Matilda. Determined not to commit the same mistakes as his brother, Afonso III paid special attention to what the middle class, composed of merchants and small land owners, had to say. In 1254, in the city of Leiria, he held the first session of the Cortes, a general assembly comprising the nobility, the middle class and representatives of all municipalities. He also made laws intended to restrain the upper classes from abusing the least favoured part of the population. Remembered as a notable administrator, Afonso III founded several towns, granted the title of city to many others and reorganized public administration. This King showed extraordinay vision for that time. Humanists and Progessists measures taken during his kingship includes: The representatives of the people were for the first time included in the governance, besides the nobility and clergy; The end of preventive arrests, all arrests by the police had to be first presented to a judge to determine the detention measure, monetary economy measures, such as the negotiation with the mercators a extraordinary taxation instead of the typical devalorization of money. The first measures of a state towards laicity, including taxation of the catolic church wealth. This leads to his excomunication by the holy see. This precipitated his death and his son Dom Dinis prematurelly rise to the throne with only 18 years old. Secure on the throne, Afonso III then proceeded to make war with the Muslim communities that still thrived in the south. In his reign the Algarve became part of the kingdom, following the capture of Faro—Portugal thus becoming the first Iberian kingdom to complete its Reconquista. Following his success against the Moors, Afonso III had to deal with a political situation arising from the borders with Castile. The neighbouring kingdom considered that the newly acquired lands of the Algarve should be Castilian, not Portuguese, which led to a series of wars between the two kingdoms. Finally, in 1267, a treaty was signed in Badajoz, determining that the southern border between Castile and Portugal should be the River Guadiana, as it is today. Ancestors +Afonso's ancestors in three generations Afonso III of Portugal Father: Afonso II of Portugal Father's father: Sancho I of Portugal Father's father's father: Afonso I of Portugal Father's father's mother: Maud of Savoy Father's mother: Dulce Berenguer of Aragon Father's mother's father: Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona Father's mother's mother: Petronila of Aragon Mother: Urraca of Castile Mother's father: Alfonso VIII of Castile Mother's father's father: Sancho III of Castile Mother's father's mother: Blanca of Navarre Mother's mother: Leonora of England Mother's mother's father: Henry II of England Mother's mother's mother: Eleanor of Aquitaine Marriages and descendants Afonso's first wife was Matilda II of Boulogne, daughter of Renaud, Count of Dammartin, and Ida of Boulogne. She had two sons (Roberto and an unnamed one), but both died young. He divorced Matilda in 1253 and, in the same year, married Beatrice of Castile, illegitimate daughter of Alfonso X, King of Castile, and Maria de Guzman. NameBirthDeathNotesBy Matilda II of Boulogne (c. 1202–1262; married in 1216)Infante Roberto (Robert)12391239  By Beatrice of Castile (1242–1303; married in 1253)Infanta Branca (Blanche)February 25, 1259April 17, 1321Abbess of the Convent of HuelgasInfante Fernando (Ferdinand)12601262 Infante Dinis (Denis)October 9, 1261January 7, 1325Succeeded him as Denis, 6th King of Portugal. Married Infanta Isabel of Aragon.Infante AfonsoFebruary 8, 1263November 2, 1312Lord of Portalegre. Married to Violante Manuel of Castile (daughter of Juan Manuel of Castile).Infanta SanchaFebruary 2, 1264c. 1302 Infanta MariaNovember 21, 1264June 6, 1304Nun in the Convent of Saint John in Coimbra.Infanta Constança (Constance)12661271 Infante Vicente (Vincent)12681271 By Madragana (Mor Afonso) (c. 1230-?)Martim Afonso Chichorroc. 1250a. 1313Natural son; Married Inês Lourenço de Valadres.Urraca Afonsoc. 1260?Natural daughter; Married twice: 1st to D. Pedro Anes de Riba Vizela, 2nd to João Mendes de BriteirosBy Maria Peres de Enxara (?-?)Afonso Dinisc. 1260a. 1310Natural son; Married to D. Maria Pais Ribeira, Lady of the House of Sousa.Other natural offspringLeonor Afonsoc. 12501291Natural daughter. Married twice: 1st to D. Estevão Anes de Sousa (without issue), 2nd to D. Gonçalo Garcia de Sousa, Count of Neiva (without issue).Gil Afonso1250December 31, 1346Natural son; Knight of the Order of the Hospital. Fernando Afonso??Natural son; Knight of the Order of the Hospital.Rodrigo Afonso1258about May 12, 1272Natural son; Prior of the city of Santarem.Leonor Afonso (nun)?1259Natural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Santa Clara of Santarem.Urraca Afonso1250November 4, 1281Natural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Lorvão.Henrique Afonso??Natural son; Married to Inês (last name unknown). References

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Lord_Peter_Wimsey

Lord Peter Death Bredon Wimsey (fictional character) is a bon vivant sleuth in a series of detective novels and short stories by Dorothy L. Sayers, in which he solves mysteries—usually but not always murders. Wimsey is an archetype for the British gentleman detective. Born in 1890 and aging in real-time, Wimsey is described as having at best average height with straw-coloured hair, a beaked nose, and a vaguely foolish face. (Reputedly his looks were patterned after academic Roy Ridley.) He also possessed considerable intelligence and athletic ability, evidenced by his playing cricket for Oxford University while earning a First and by creating a spectacularly successful publicity campaign for Whifflet cigarettes while working for Pym's Publicity, Ltd. and still, at 40, being able to turn three cartwheels in the office corridor, stopping just short of the boss's open office door (Murder Must Advertise). In How I Came to Invent the Character of Lord Peter Wimsey, quoted by Barbara Reynolds in Dorothy L. Sayers: Her Life and Soul with the parenthetical "not entirely accurate, but why should it be?", page 230. Sayers wrote: Janet Hitchman, in the preface to "Striding Folly", remarks that "Wimsey may have been the sad ghost of wartime lover(...). Oxford, as everywhere in the country, was filled with bereaved women, but it may have been more noticeable in university towns where a whole year's intake could be wiped out in France in less than an hour." There is, however, no verifyable evidence of any such WWI lover of Sayers on whom the character of Wimsey might be based. The novels are set in Britain contemporaneously with when they were written, from the early 1920s to the late 1930s; the story "Talboys" (and Jill Paton Walsh's recent continuations Thrones, Dominations and A Presumption of Death) continue this into the early 1940s. Biography Lord Peter Wimsey's first known ancestor is the 12th Century knight Gerald de Wimsey, who went with King Richard The Lion Heart on the Third Crusade and took part in the Siege of Acre. Strong Poison, Ch. XXI . This makes the Wimseys an unusually ancient family since "Very few English noble families go that far in the first creation; rebellions and monarchial head choppings had seen to that" (as reviewer Janet Hitchman noted in the introduction to "Striding Folly"). The family motto, displayed under its coat of arms, is "As My Wimsey Takes Me". Lord Peter's extended family appears frequently in the novels. He is the second of the three children of Mortimer Wimsey, 15th Duke of Denver, and Honoria Lucasta Delagardie, who lives on throughout the novels as the Dowager Duchess of Denver. The Dowager Duchess is affable, intelligent, and strongly supports her younger son, whom she may prefer over his less intelligent and more conventional older brother, Gerald, the 16th Duke. Gerald's snobbish wife, Helen, (who detests Wimsey) and their devil-may-care heir, Viscount St. George (Wimsey's nephew, who likes him), also make appearances in the novels, as does Lady Mary, the younger sister of the Duke and Lord Peter. Lord Peter was educated at Eton College and Balliol College, Oxford, where he received a first-class degree in history. He served in the British Army from 1914–1918 (World War I) including a stint in the trenches, attaining the rank of Major in the Rifle Brigade. In the army he met Sergeant Mervyn Bunter, who had previously been in service. After sharing what the Dowager Duchess referred to as "a jam," the two arranged that if they were both to survive the war, Bunter would become Wimsey's valet. Throughout the books Bunter always takes care to address Wimsey as "Your Lordship"—nevertheless, he is obviously a friend as well as (or more than) a servant, and Wimsey again and again expresses amazement at Bunter's high efficiency and competence at virtually every sphere of life. Wimsey suffered a breakdown due to shell shock / post-traumatic stress disorder, and was eventually sent home. After the war he was ill for many months, recovering at the family's ancestral home in Denver (fictional, like the dukedom it gives its name to) which lies some fifteen miles beyond the original Denver on the A10 near Downham Market and is not to be confused with the major city by that name in Colorado. Bunter arrived and, with the approval of the Dowager Duchess, took up his post. Bunter moved Wimsey to a London flat at 110A Piccadilly, W1 while Wimsey recovered. Lord Peter begins his hobby of investigation by recovering the Attenbury Emeralds. He also becomes good friends with Scotland Yard Chief Inspector Charles Parker. Bunter, being a man of many talents himself—not least photography—often proves instrumental in Peter's investigations. However, Wimsey is not entirely well. At the end of the investigation in Whose Body? (1923) he hallucinates that he is back in the trenches. He soon recovers his senses and goes on a long holiday. The next year he returns to the fictional Riddlesdale in North Yorkshire to assist his older brother Gerald, who has been accused of murdering their sister's fiancé. As Gerald is the current Duke of Denver, the resulting trial takes place in the House of Lords. Their sister, Lady Mary, also falls under suspicion. Lord Peter clears the Duke and Lady Mary, to whom Charles Parker is attracted. Wimsey sometimes affects a slightly silly behavior, so that people underestimate him. It is not exactly known when Wimsey recruited Miss Climpson to run an undercover employment agency for women, in order to be able to garner information from the world of spinsters and widows which neither master nor man would be able to access, but it is prior to Unnatural Death (1927), in which Miss Climpson assists Wimsey's investigation of the suspicious death of an elderly cancer patient. As recounted in "The Adventurous Exploit of the Cave of Ali Baba," in December 1927 Wimsey faked his own death, supposedly while hunting big game in Tanganyka, in order to penetrate and break up a particularly dangerous and well-organised criminal gang. Only Wimsey's mother and sister, the loyal Bunter and Inspector Parker knew he was still alive. Emerging victorious after more than a year masquerading as "the disgruntled sacked servant Rogers", Wimsey remarked that "We shall have an awful time with the lawyers, proving that I am me." In fact, however, he got smoothly back to his old life, and the interlude is never referred to in later books. In Strong Poison Lord Peter meets Harriet Deborah Vane and falls in love with her at first sight, while she thinks he's a bit crazy. Harriet is a cerebral, Oxford-educated mystery writer on trial for the murder of her former lover. Needless to say, Wimsey saves her from the gallows, but based on the principle that gratitude is not a good foundation for marriage, she politely but firmly declines his frequent proposals. Lord Peter does encourage his friend and foil, Chief Inspector Charles Parker, to propose to his sister, Lady Mary Wimsey, despite the great difference in their rank and wealth. They marry and have a son, named Charles Peter ("Peterkin"), and a daughter, Mary Lucasta. Wimsey continues to pursue Miss Vane, but does not get much satisfaction. He investigates a murder while on holiday in Scotland (Five Red Herrings). On his return he finds Miss Vane is not at home; he learns her location when reporter Salcombe Hardy asks Wimsey to comment on the murder victim Vane discovered on her walking tour of England's coast (Have His Carcase). Hardy does not have to point out that Vane might have committed the murder herself—one who was once tried for murder does not have the best reputation. The next morning Wimsey is at her hotel, not only to investigate the death and once more offer proposals of marriage, but also to act as her patron and protector with press and police. Despite a prickly relationship, they do work together to identify the murderer. Then, back in London, Wimsey goes undercover as "Death Bredon" at an advertising firm, working as a copywriter (Murder Must Advertise). Bredon is framed for murder, leading Charles Parker to "arrest" Bredon for murder in front of the press. To distinguish Death Bredon from Lord Peter Wimsey, Parker smuggles Wimsey out of the station and urges him to get into the papers. Accordingly Wimsey accompanies "a Royal personage" to a public event, leading the press to carry pictures of both "Bredon" and Wimsey. By 1935 Lord Peter is in continental Europe, acting as an unofficial attaché for the British Foreign Office. Harriet Vane contacts him about a problem she has been asked to investigate in her college at Oxford (Gaudy Night). At the end of their investigation, Vane finally accepts Peter's proposal of marriage. The couple marry, on October 8 1935, at St. Cross Church, Holywell, Oxford (depicted in the opening collection of letters and diary entries in Busman's Honeymoon). The Wimseys go off on honeymoon to Talboys, a house in east Hertfordshire near where the young Harriet's father was a country doctor, which she has loved from childhood and which Peter has bought for her as a wedding present. There, they find the body of the previous owner, and spend their honeymoon solving the case, thus having the eponymous Busman's Honeymoon. The Wimseys have three children: Bredon Delagardie Peter Wimsey (born in October 1936 in the story "The Haunted Policeman"); Roger Wimsey (born 1938), and Paul Wimsey (born 1940). Note that in A Presumption of Death the second son is called Paul, because in the wartime publications of The Wimsey Papers Dorothy Sayers called him that. All three boys are featured in the 1942 story "Talboys," and it may be presumed that Paul is named after Lord Peter's Uncle Paul Delagardie. "Roger" is an ancestral Wimsey name. Other recurring characters include solicitor Murbles, newshound Salcombe Hardy, and city whizz The Honourable Freddy Arbuthnot, who finds himself entangled in the case in the first of the Wimsey books, 1923's Whose Body?. Among Lord Peter's hobbies, apart from criminology, is collecting incunabula (books printed in the 15th century). He is an expert on matters of food (especially wine) and male fashion, as well as on classical music. He is quite good at playing Bach's works for keyboard instruments on a piano he babies even more than his books, wines, and cars. One of Lord Peter's cars is a 12-cylinder ("double-six") 1927 Daimler four-seater, which he calls "Mrs. Merdle" after a character in Little Dorrit (by Charles Dickens). Sayers wrote no more Wimsey murder mysteries after the outbreak of the Second World War. In one of the Wimsey Papers (a series of fictionalised commentaries in the form of mock letters between members of the Wimsey family), there is a reference to Harriet's difficulty in continuing to write murder mysteries at a time when European dictators were openly committing mass murders with impunity; this seems to have reflected Sayers' own wartime feeling. The Wimsey Papers included a reference to Wimsey and Bunter setting out on a secret mission of espionage in Europe, pointing to the possibility of a spy thriller featuring them; but, most unfortunately, such was never written. The only occasion when Sayers returned to Wimsey was the 1942 short story "Talboys", where Peter and Harriet enjoy a rural domestic bliss with their three sons and there happens no crime worse than the theft of peaches from the neighbor's tree (of which Wimsey successfully vindicates his wrongly-accused first born). The war at that time devastating Europe got only a single oblique reference. Sayers told friends orally that Harriet and Peter were to eventually have five children in all. Though Sayers lived until 1957, she never took up again the Wimsey books. In effect, rather than killing off her detective, as Conan Doyle unsuccessfully tried with his, Sayers pensioned Wimsey off to a happy, satisfying old age. Thus, Peter Wimsey remained forever fixed on the background of inter-war England, and the books are nowadays often read for their evocation of that period as much as for the intrinsic detective mysteries (as Sherlock Holmes is often read for the distinctive late Victorian atmosphere of his background). Social Satire Many episodes in the Wimsey books express a mild satire of the British class system —in particular in depicting the relationship between Wimsey and Bunter, the two of them clearly being the best and closest of friends, yet Bunter invariably punctilious in using "My Lord" and "Your Lordship" even when they are alone. Wimsey and Bunter even mock the Jeeves and Wooster relationship. In the beginning of "The Nine Tailors", the Rector Venables encounters what he at first considers to be two gentlemen trapped by inclement weather, and offers them his help. Upon being informed that Wimsey is a lord and Bunter his servant, the Rector immediately starts addressing Bunter rather condescendingly as "my man." When they reach the rectory, Wimsey is entertained by the rector and his wife, while Bunter is sent off to the servants' quarters. Conversely, in "The Vindictive Story of the Footsteps That Run," the staunchly democratic Doctor Hartman invites Bunter to sit down to eat together with himself and Wimsey, at the doctor's modest apartment. Wimsey does not object, but Bunter strongly does: "If I may state my own preference, sir, it would be to wait upon you and his lordship in the usual manner". Whereupon Wimsey remarks: "Bunter likes me to know my place". At the conclusion of Strong Poison, Inspector Parker asks "What would one naturally do if one found one's water-bottle empty?" (a point of crucial importance in solving the book's mystery). Wimsey promptly answers "Ring the bell." Whereupon Miss Murchison—the indefatigable investigator employed by Wimsey for much of this book—comments "Or, if one wasn't accustomed to be waited on, one might use the water from the bedroom jug." Bibliography Novels With year of first publication Whose Body?, (1923) Clouds of Witness, (1926) Unnatural Death, (1927) The Unpleasantness at the Bellona Club, (1928) Strong Poison, (1931) Five Red Herrings, (1931) Have His Carcase, (1932) Murder Must Advertise, (1933) The Nine Tailors, (1934) Gaudy Night, (1935) Busman's Honeymoon, (1937) Thrones, Dominations, (1998) (unfinished manuscript completed by Jill Paton Walsh) Short story collections Lord Peter Views the Body, (1928) Hangman's Holiday, (1933) (also contains non-Wimsey stories) In the Teeth of the Evidence, (1939) (also contains non-Wimsey stories) Striding Folly, (1972) Lord Peter, (1972) [See this article for complete list of stories.] In addition there are The Wimsey Papers, published between Nov. 1939 and Jan. 1940 in the The Spectator Magazine - a series of mock letters by members of the Wimsey family, being in effect fictionalised commentaries on life in England at the inception of the war. Unpublished work Various Dramatic adaptations The cover of Gaudy Night, from the BBC series. Featuring Edward Petherbridge as Lord Peter Wimsey The novel Busman's Honeymoon was originally a stage play by Sayers and her friend Muriel St. Clare Byrne. Some of the Lord Peter Wimsey novels were made into two very successful television series by the BBC. Lord Peter Wimsey was played by Ian Carmichael in a series that ran from 1972 to 1975 and adapted five novels, and by Edward Petherbridge in 1987, wherein the three major Wimsey/Vane novels were dramatized. Harriet was played by Harriet Walter. The BBC was unable to secure the rights to turn Busman's Honeymoon into the fourth part of the series. Both series are now available on videotape and DVD. Edward Petherbridge also played Wimsey in the UK production of the Busman's Honeymoon play staged at the Lyric Hammersmith in 1988 (it also toured in the North of England), with the role of Harriet being taken by his real life spouse, Emily Richard. Ian Carmichael also starred as Wimsey in radio adaptations of the novels made by the BBC, all of which have been available on cassette and CD from the BBC Radio Collection. In the original series, which ran on Radio 4 from 1973–1983, no adaptation was made of the seminal Gaudy Night, perhaps because the leading character in this novel is Harriet and not Peter; this was corrected in 2005 when a version specially recorded for the BBC Radio Collection was released starring Carmichael and Joanna David. The CD also includes a panel discussion on the novel, the major participants in which are P. D. James and Jill Paton Walsh. It should be noted, however, that Gaudy Night was released as an unabridged audiobook read by Ian Carmichael in 1993. There was a 1935 British movie of The Silent Passenger in which Lord Peter solved a mystery on the boat train crossing the English Channel, but the film does not seem to be available on videotape, at least in the United States. Sayers disliked the film; James Brabazon describes it as an "oddity, in which Dorothy's contribution was altered out of all recognition." The 1940 film The Haunted Honeymoon (US title) or Busman's Honeymoon (UK title), starring Robert Montgomery and Constance Cummings as Lord and Lady Peter, is available on videotape in generic boxes on the secondary market. Any resemblance of its characters and events to those in Busman's Honeymoon is more than coincidental but less than satisfactory to Sayers's fans; the film script simplifies the novel's plot a great deal. (In the TV adaptation of Murder Must Advertise, a movie poster of Robert Montgomery is prominently visible on the wall in the secretaries' office). Sayers refused even to see this movie. Books about Lord Peter by other authors The Wimsey Family (1977) by C. W. Scott-Giles ISBN 0-06-013998-6 Lord Peter Wimsey Cookbook (1981) by Elizabeth Ryan ISBN 0-89919-032-4 The Lord Peter Wimsey Companion (2002) by Stephan P. Clarke ISBN 0-89296-850-8 published by The Dorothy L. Sayers Society. Conundrums for the Long Week-End : England, Dorothy L. Sayers, and Lord Peter Wimsey (2000) by Robert Kuhn McGregor, Ethan Lewis ISBN 0-87338-665-5 A Presumption of Death, (2002) (novel by Jill Paton Walsh, based loosely on The Wimsey Papers) As a footnote, Lord Peter Wimsey has also been included by the science fiction writer Philip José Farmer as a member of the Wold Newton family; and Laurie R. King's detective character Mary Russell meets Lord Peter at a party in the novel A Letter of Mary. See also Eric Whelpton References Lord Peter Wimsey's Who's Who or Debrett-like entry is located in most books. Depending on the printing it is in the front or the rear of each book. The same Who's Who article is consulted by Miss Meteyard in Murder Must Advertise when she begins to suspect that new copywriter Mr. Bredon is not just the adverstising copy-writer he pretends to be. A short biographical essay, said to be the work of Peter's uncle Paul Austin Delagardie, the brother of the Dowager Duchess, appears in many editions. External links Lord Peter Wimsey chronology Lord Peter Wimsey portrait at Balliol, Oxford

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Drop_kick

A drop kick is a type of kick in various codes of football. It involves someone dropping a ball and then kicking it when it bounces off the ground. It contrasts to a punt wherein the dropper kicks the ball without letting it hit the ground first. The simplest version of a drop kick exists in association football where it is used optionally by the goalkeeper to perform a long-range clearance after receiving possession of the ball from open play. The goalkeeper drops the ball so that it bounces, after which point he kicks the ball in midair. Kicking the ball after, rather than before, a bounce helps it to fly farther. Other football codes have particular ways of using drop kicks as outlined below. Rugby football Drop kick technique The drop kick technique in both rugby codes is to hold the ball with one end pointing downwards in two hands above the kicking leg, and the fingers pointing to the ground. The ball is dropped onto the ground in front of the kicking foot, which makes contact at the moment or fractionally after the ball touches the ground, called the half-volley. The kicking foot usually makes contact with the ball slightly on the instep. "Kicking: The Drop Kick" at www.coachingrugby.com. Retrieved 11 October 2007. In a rugby union kick-off or drop out, the kicker usually aims to kick the ball very high but not a great distance, and so usually strikes the ball after it has started to bounce upwards off the ground, so the contact is made close to the bottom of the ball. For the tactics of the drop goal in open play (field goal), see drop goal. Rugby union In rugby union, a drop kick is used for the kick-off and restarts and to score a field or drop goal. Originally it was one of only two ways to score points, along with the place kick. Drop kicks are mandatory: from the centre spot to start a half (a kick-off) from the centre spot to restart the game after points have been scored to restart play from the 22-metre line (called a drop-out) after the ball is touched down or made dead in the in-goal area by the defending team when the attacking team kicked or took the ball into the in-goal area to score a field goal or drop goal (or dropped goal) in open play, which is worth three points. Drop kicks are optional: for a conversion kick after a try has been scored, but this is rare, as place kicks are generally used for the conversion for a penalty kick to score a penalty goal, but this is rare, as place kicks are generally used when kicking for touch (the sideline) from a penalty, although the option of a punt kick is usually taken instead. Additionally, in rugby sevens, the drop kick is used for all conversion attempts which must be taken within 40 seconds of the try being scored. Rugby league In rugby league, drop kicks are mandatory: to restart play from the goal line (called a goal line drop-out) after: the defending team forces the ball in the in-goal area the defending team is tackled or knocks on in the in-goal area the defending team causes the ball to go dead or into touch-in-goal to restart play from the 20 metre line after an unsuccessful penalty goal attempt goes dead or into touch-in-goal to score a field goal or drop goal (or dropped goal) in open play, which is worth one point. Drop kicks are optional: for a penalty kick to score a penalty goal, but this is rare, as place kicks are generally used when kicking for touch (the sideline) from a penalty, although the option of a punt kick is usually taken instead. In rugby league nines as with rugby union sevens, the drop kick is used for all conversion attempts after a try has been scored. American and Canadian football In both American football and Canadian football, one method of scoring a field goal or extra point is by drop-kicking the football through the goal. The drop kick was often used in early football as a surprise tactic: The ball would be snapped or lateraled to a back, who would perhaps fake a run or pass, but then would kick the field goal instead. This method of scoring worked well in the 1920s and 1930s, when the football was rounder at the ends (similar to a modern rugby ball). Early football stars such as Jim Thorpe, Paddy Driscoll and Al Bloodgood were skilled drop-kickers; Driscoll in 1925 and Bloodgood in 1926 hold a tied NFL record of four drop-kicked field goals in a single game http://www.profootballhof.com/hof/release.jsp?release_id=1481 Pro Football Hall of Fame . In 1934, the ball was made more pointed at the ends. This made passing the ball easier, as was its intent, but made the drop kick obsolete, as the more pointed ball did not bounce up from the ground reliably. The drop kick was supplanted by the place kick, which cannot be attempted out of a formation generally used as a running or passing set. The drop kick remains in the rules, but is seldom seen, and rarely effective when attempted. Because it is a relatively obscure and obsolete maneuver in American and Canadian football today, sport laymen often confuse the term "drop-kick" for a punt. In popular media, a drop kick was successfully attempted in the Burt Reynolds film The Longest Yard, complete with Reynolds' character explaining its proper name and point value to a player (Ray Nitschke's character) on the opposing team. American football The only successful drop kick in the last sixty-plus years in the NFL was by Doug Flutie, the backup quarterback of the New England Patriots, against the Miami Dolphins on January 1, 2006, for an extra point after a touchdown pass by then third-string quarterback Matt Cassel. Flutie estimated "an 80 percent chance" of making a drop kick, Dolphins Win Sixth Straight Despite Flutie's Drop Kick | theledger.com | The Ledger | Lakeland, FL and given that place-kicked point-after attempts have a much higher probability of being good, the kick was less strategic than ordered as a favor to Flutie, who was 43 at the time and was playing in his final NFL game. (In fact, the drop kick was his last play in an NFL uniform.) After the game, New England coach Bill Belichick said, "I think Doug deserves it," ABC News: ABC News and Flutie said "I just thanked him for the opportunity." The last successful drop kick in the NFL before that was executed by Ray "Scooter" McLean of the Chicago Bears in their 37-9 victory over the New York Giants on December 21, 1941 in the NFL championship game at Chicago's Wrigley Field. Though it wasn't part of the NFL at the time, the All-America Football Conference saw its last drop kick November 28, 1948 when Joe Vetrano of the San Francisco 49ers drop kicked an extra point after a muffed snap against the Cleveland Browns. A get-rich kick scheme fails - The Boston Globe Before Flutie's historic drop-kick, the only recent vocal proponent of the drop-kick in the NFL had been Jim McMahon, quarterback for several NFL teams. During the 1980s, while playing in Chicago, McMahon regularly practiced the drop kick, and was known to frequently petition Bears head coach Mike Ditka for an opportunity to use the maneuver. Ditka, who regarded the play as an anachronism, never allowed it. The last successful drop kick extra point in the NCAA was by Aaron Fitzgerald of the University of LaVerne on November 10, 1990 against Claremont-Mudd-Scripps. http://www.sportsfilter.com/comments.cfm/5807 The drop kick has a much longer range than regular field goals, and has been mentioned by color commentator John Madden in Sunday Night football games as a possible play as recently as 2008, however, Flutie's drop kick was the last recorded one. Canadian football In the Canadian game, the drop kick can be attempted at any time by either team. Any player on the kicking team behind the kicker, and including the kicker, can recover the kick. A drop kick that goes out of bounds is considered a change of possession. On September 8, 1974, Tom Wilkinson, quarterback for the Edmonton Eskimos, attempted a drop-kick field goal in the final seconds of a 24-2 romp over the Winnipeg Blue Bombers. He missed. This may have been the last time the play was deliberately attempted in the CFL. During one game in the 1980s, Hamilton Tiger-Cats wide receiver Earl Winfield was unable to field a punt properly; in frustration, he kicked the ball out of bounds. The kick was considered a drop kick and led to a change of possession, with the punting team regaining possession of the ball. Arena football In Arena football, a drop-kicked extra point counts for two points rather than one; a drop-kicked field goal counts for four points rather than three. The game's inventors seemingly hoped that a team trailing by four points on an apparent final play might attempt a very dramatic drop kick in order to tie the game. However, the additional incentive has not been enough of an enticement to produce many drop kicks after the first few years of Arena play. The absence of drop-kicking with any degree of frequency from any other level or variety of gridiron football in the present day (see above), along with the decreased accuracy of a drop kick as well as the much narrower goal posts in arena football, means that there is no pool of experienced and capable drop kickers for the Arena league to draw from, and the play would in any event occur too seldom to seem to be worth the amount of practice time that would have to be devoted to it for it to be executed at any real level of proficiency. In practice, a pass off the rebound nets above the endlines (which, if completed, would result in six points and a win for the team down by four points, rather than a tie and overtime) probably has at least an equal and possibly a superior chance of success. In 1994, Cleveland's Brian Mitchell kicked 6 four point drop kicks and 18 two point drop kicks. Australian rules football In Australian rules football, a similarly named and executed kick was used in general play, particularly after a free kick was awarded. It was popular as players could kick the ball long distances, and the ball's backwards rotation was reasonably easy for teammates to mark (catch) the ball (a major feature of the game). A variation known as the stab pass or more poetically, the daisy cutter, involved an abbreviated follow-through and travelled on a notably low trajectory, which made it very useful for short-range passing. The drop kick and stab pass gradually disappeared from the game by the 1980s, as it was unreliable given the game's fast pace, particularly on wet grounds, and players were coached to use either the drop punt or torpedo punt (ball rolls sideways on its axis rather than rotating backwards like the punt) kicking style for reliability. See also Drop goal Punt kick Grubber kick Bomb kick Glossary of American football References

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Minestrone

Minestrone in a bowl Minestrone ( (soup) + -one (augmentative suffix) hence "the big soup", the one with many ingedients) is the name for a variety of thick Italian soups made with vegetables, often with the addition of pasta or rice. Common ingredients include beans, onions, celery, carrots, stock, and tomatoes. There is no set recipe for minestrone, since it is usually made out of whatever vegetables are in season. It can be vegetarian, contain meat, or contain a meat-based broth (such as chicken stock). Minestrone is one of the cornerstones of Italian cuisine, and is just about as common as pasta on Italian tables. History Minestrone originally was a very humble dish and was intended for everyday consumption, being filling and cheap, and would likely have been the main course of a meal. Minestrone is part of what is known in Italy as cucina povera (literally "poor kitchen") meaning poorer people's cuisine. Due to its unique origins and the absence of a fixed recipe, minestrone is not particularly similar across Italy: it varies depending on traditional cooking times, ingredients, and season. Minestrone ranges from a thick and dense texture with very boiled-down vegetables, to a more brothy soup with large quantities of diced and lightly-cooked vegetables that may include meats. Like many Italian dishes, minestrone was probably originally not a dish made for its own sake, though this point is argued. In other words, whereas one might set about killing a cow, with the intention of then eating cooked cow, one did not gather the ingredients of minestrone with the intention of making minestrone. The ingredients were pooled from ingredients of other dishes, often side dishes or "contorni" plus whatever was left over. As eating habits and ingredients changed in Italy, so did minestrone. The Roman army is said to have marched on minestrone and pasta ceci (or a European kind of beans and pasta), the former making use of local and seasonal ingredients, the latter due to the longevity of dried goods.. The introduction of tomatoes and potatoes from the Americas in the Mid 16th Century changed the soup by making available two ingredients which have since become staples. There are two schools of thought on when the recipe for minestrone became more formalized. One argues that in the 1600s and 1700s minestrone emerged as a soup using exclusively fresh vegetables and was made for its own sake (meaning it no longer relied on left-overs), while the other school of thought argues that the dish had always been prepared exclusively with fresh vegetables for its own sake since pre-Roman times, but the name minestrone lost its meaning of being made with left-overs. Etymology There are three Italian words corresponding to the English word 'soup': zuppa, which is used in the sense of tomato soup, or fish soup; minestra, which is used in the sense of a more substantial soup such as a vegetable soup, and also for 'dry' soups, namely pasta dishes; and minestrone, which means a very substantial or large soup, though the meaning has now come to be associated with this particular dish. References External links How to cook authentic Italian Minestrone - article in English with step-by-step pictures

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Capsid

Schematic of a Cytomegalovirus Icosahedral capsid of an Adenovirus For the leaf bug, see Miridae. A capsid is the protein shell of a virus. It consists of several oligomeric structural subunits made of protein called protomers. The 3-dimensional morphological subunits that can be observed, which may or may not correspond to individual proteins, are called capsomeres. The capsid encloses the genetic material of the virus. Capsids are broadly classified according to their structure. The majority of viruses have capsids with either helical or icosahedral structure. Some viruses, such as bacteriophages, have developed more complicated structures. The icosahedral shape, which has 20 equilateral triangular faces, approximates a sphere, while the helical shape is cylindrical. The capsid faces may consist of one or more proteins. For example, the foot-and-mouth disease virus capsid has faces consisting of three proteins named VP1-3. Some viruses are enveloped, meaning that the capsid is coated with a lipid membrane known as the viral envelope. The envelope is acquired by the capsid from an intracellular membrane in the virus' host; some examples would include the inner nuclear membrane, the golgi membrane, or the cell's outer membrane. Once the virus has infected the cell, it will start replicating itself, using the mechanisms of the infected host cell. During this process, new capsid subunits are synthesized according to the genetic material of the virus, using the protein biosynthesis mechanism of the cell. During the assembly process, a portal subunit is assembled at one vertex of the capsid. Through this portal, viral DNA or RNA is transported into the capsid. The structure and assembly of the herpes virus capsid portal protein has been imaged via cryo-electron microscopy. It is this capsid or protein shell which makes protective vaccines a possibility. Structural analyses of major capsid protein (MCP) architectures have been used to categorise viruses into families. For example, the bacteriophage PRD1, Paramecium bursaria Chlorella algal virus, and mammalian adenovirus have been placed in the same family. Khayat et al. classified Sulfolobus turreted icosahedral virus (STIV) and Laurinmäki et al. classified bacteriophage Bam35 - Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 3669 (2006); 102, 18944 (2005); Structure 13, 1819 (2005) References

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Joseph_Weizenbaum

Joseph Weizenbaum in Berlin, 2005 Joseph Weizenbaum (Berlin, January 8, 1923 – March 5, 2008) was a German-American author and professor emeritus of computer science at MIT. Born in Berlin, Germany to Jewish parents, he escaped Nazi Germany in 1935, emigrating with his family to the United States. He started studying mathematics in 1941 in the US, but his studies were interrupted by the war, during which he served in the military. Around 1952 he worked on analog computers, and helped create a digital computer for Wayne State University. In 1956 he worked for General Electric on ERMA, a computer system that introduced the use of the magnetically-encoded fonts imprinted on the bottom border of checks. This allowed automated check processing via Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, and in 1964 took a position at MIT. In 1966, he published a comparatively simple program called ELIZA, named after the ingenue in George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, which performed natural language processing. Driven by a script named DOCTOR, it was capable of engaging humans in a conversation which bore a striking resemblance to one with an empathic psychologist. Weizenbaum modeled its conversational style after Carl Rogers, who introduced the use of open-ended questions to encourage patients to communicate more effectively with therapists. The program applied pattern matching rules to the human's statements to figure out its replies. (Programs like this are now called chatterbots.) It is considered the forerunner of thinking machines. Remembering Joe Weizenbaum, ELIZA Creator - Artificial Intelligence - InformationWeek Weizenbaum was shocked that his program was taken seriously by many users, who would open their hearts to it. He started to think philosophically about the implications of Artificial Intelligence and later became one of its leading critics. Miller, Stephen, MIT Professor's Work Led Him to Preach the Evils of Computers, Wall Street Journal March15-16, 2008, p. A6 His influential 1976 book Computer Power and Human Reason displays his ambivalence towards computer technology and lays out his case: while Artificial Intelligence may be possible, we should never allow computers to make important decisions because computers will always lack human qualities such as compassion and wisdom. This he saw as a consequence of their not having been raised in the emotional environment of a human family. Weizenbaum was the creator of the SLIP programming language. In 1996, Weizenbaum moved to Berlin and lived in the vicinity of his childhood neighborhood. Weizenbaum. Rebel at Work. Documentary film by Peter Haas and Silvia Holzinger. Joseph Weizenbaum – a biography (German) Wolfgang Löw, Leibniz-Institut für Neurobiologie, Magdeburg, Germany A German documentary film on Weizenbaum was released in 2007 and later dubbed in English. Until his death he was Chairman of the Scientific Council at the Institute of Electronic Business in Berlin. In addition to working at MIT, Weizenbaum held academic appointments at Harvard, Stanford and the University of Bremen, and other universities. Weizenbaum was reportedly buried at the Jewish Cemetery in Berlin. A memorial service was held in Berlin on March 18, 2008. Works "ELIZA - A Computer Program for the Study of Natural Language Communication between Man and Machine," Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery 9 (1966): 36-45. The Article on ELIZA at www.harvard.com Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment To Calculation, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1976 ISBN 0-7167-0464-1 See also Ethics of artificial intelligence under The threat to human dignity References External links Joseph Weizenbaum: 1988 Winner of CPSR's Norbert Wiener Award for Professional and Social Responsibility A Java applet faithfully recreating the original ELIZA Institute of Electronic Business Interview in which Joseph Weizenbaum discusses Eliza (German-language audio with English transcription) Documentary film with and about Joseph Weizenbaum ( "WEIZENBAUM. Rebel at Work." ) Essay by Noah Wardrip-Fruin on the ELIZA effect Obituary, The Independent, 18 March 2008 Obituary, The Times, 24 March 2008

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Labor_theory_of_value

The labour theories of value (LTV) are economic theories of value according to which the values of commodities are related to the labour needed to produce them. There are many different accounts of labour value, with the common element that the "value" of an exchangeable good or service is, or tends to be, or can be considered as, or "is to be measured as" Marx writes: "A use-value, or useful article, therefore, has value only because human labour in the abstract has been embodied or materialised in it. How, then, is the magnitude of value to be measured? Plainly, by the quantity of the value-creating substance, the labour, contained in the article." (Das Kapital, volume 1, part 1, chapter 1) equal or proportional to the amount of labour required to produce it (including the labour required to produce the raw materials and machinery used in production). Different labour theories of value prevailed amongst classical economists through to the mid-19th century. It is especially associated with Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Since that time, it is most often associated with Marxian economics; while modern mainstream economics replaces it by the marginal utility approach. Campos, Antonietta (1987). "marginalist economics", The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, p. 320 Definitions of value and labour When speaking in terms of a labour theory of value, value without any qualifying adjective should theoretically refer to the amount of labour "embodied" in a commodity. e.g. see - Junankar, P. N., Marx's economics, Oxford : Philip Allan, 1982, ISBN 0-86003-125-X or Peach, Terry "Interpreting Ricardo", Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1993, ISBN 0-521-26086-8 As explained by Adam Smith: The real price of every thing, what every thing really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. What every thing is really worth to the man who has acquired it, and who wants to dispose of it or exchange it for something else, is the toil and trouble which it can save to himself, and which it can impose upon other people.(Wealth of Nations Book 1, chapter V) However even a person drinking water from a good stream at his doorstep must "spend" labour to gain this value, at least if this action is relevant to economics. In terms of modern orthodox terminology it is important to note that "labour", at least in Smith's approach, is defined as the opposite of utility - "disutility", pain, toil etc. Labour which is pleasant in itself is only therefore partly labour, or perhaps not labour at all (however, see opportunity cost). Labour which is highly skilled on the other hand owes part of its produce to an "investment" made in training and is almost like capital (hence the modern concept of human capital). So many types of pleasant labour can be described as a result of an earlier and more painful investment. In the example of a person going to a stream at his doorstep, if this is a pleasant activity, it is not labour. If it is not pleasant it could be relevant to economics because, for example, the house could be built closer to the stream, plumbing could be installed, a person could be employed to fetch water, or investment in a better path to the water might be worth considering. This way of defining value [can or can't or "came to be", which is it?] reconciled with the normal uses of the term: Value "in use" is the usefulness of this commodity, its utility. There is a classical paradox which is often expressed when considering this type of value. Here, once again in the words of Adam Smith: The word VALUE, it is to be observed, has two different meanings, and sometimes expresses the utility of some particular object, and sometimes the power of purchasing other goods which the possession of that object conveys. The one may be called 'value in use ;' the other, 'value in exchange.' The things which have the greatest value in use have frequently little or no value in exchange; and on the contrary, those which have the greatest value in exchange have frequently little or no value in use. Nothing is more useful than water: but it will purchase scarce any thing; scarce any thing can be had in exchange for it. A diamond, on the contrary, has scarce any value in use; but a very great quantity of other goods may frequently be had in exchange for it. (Wealth of Nations Book 1, chapter IV) Value "in exchange" is the relative proportion with which this commodity exchanges for another commodity (in other words, its price in the case of money). It is relative to labour as explained by Adam Smith: The value of any commodity, ... to the person who possesses it, and who means not to use or consume it himself, but to exchange it for other commodities, is equal to the quantity of labour which it enables him to purchase or command. Labour, therefore, is the real measure of the exchangeable value of all commodities (Wealth of Nations Book 1, chapter V; emphasis added). Value (without qualification) as an intrinsic worth which stands without the process of exchange. Marx defined the value of the commodity by the third definition. In his terms, value is the 'socially necessary abstract labour' embodied in a commodity. In Ricardo and other classical economists, this definition serves as a measure of "real cost", "absolute value", or a "measure of value" invariable under changes in distribution and technology Ricardo, David (1823), 'Absolute Value and Exchange Value', in "The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo", Volume 4, Cambridge University Press, 1951 and Sraffa, Piero and Maurice Dobb (1951), 'Introduction', in "The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo", Volume 1, Cambridge University Press, 1951. . Ricardo, other classical economists, and Marx began their expositions with the assumption that value in exchange was equal to or proportional to this labour value. They thought this was a good assumption from which to explore the dynamics of development in capitalist societies. Other supporters of the labour theory of value used the word "value" in the second sense, to represent "exchange value". Proudhon, Pierre J., 1851, General Idea of the Revolution in the 19th Century, study 6. Conceptual model A simple model illustrating the concepts and workings of LTV could go as follows: In a village in Somewhereia, everyone shares a set of skills and their produce is derived from local natural resources. Through custom or inclination each person pursues a particular trade, but is capable of pursuing any other in the village. These people exchange their products on a regular basis. Each would know how long it took their fellow to produce their good, and how long it would take them to make it themself. They would also know how much of their own product they would produce in the same amount of time and how much they would be able to exchange for that product. If anyone tried to overcharge for a good, people would stop buying and make it themselves (or a competitor could enter the market and undercut them). Each person would thus be able to calculate whether it would be better for them to buy a good or make it themselves. In this scenario prices and values would be equal. Friedrich Engels advances such a conceptual model in his Appendix to Marx' Capital v. III LTV and the labour process Since the term value is understood in the LTV as denoting something created by labour, and its "magnitude" as something proportional to the quantity of labour performed, it is important to explain how the labor process both preserves value and adds new value in the commodities it creates. Unless otherwise noted, the description of the labor process and the role of the value of means of production in this section are drawn from chapter 7 of Capital vol1 . The value of a commodity increases in proportion to the duration and intensity of labor performed on average for its production. Part of what the LTV means by "socially necessary" is that the value only increases in proportion to this labor as it's performed with average skill and average productivity. So though workers may labor with greater skill or more productivity than others, these more skillful and more productive workers will thus produce more value through the production of greater quantities of the finished commodity: each unit still bearing the same value as all the others of the same class of commodity. By working sloppily, the unskilled workers may drag down the average skill of labor, thus increasing the average labor time necessary for the production of each unit commodity. But these unskillful workers cannot hope to sell the result of their labor process at a higher price (as opposed to value) simply because they have spent more time than other workers producing the same kind of commodities. However, production not only involves labor, but also certain means of labor: tools, materials, power plants and so on. These means of labor — also known as means of production — are often the product of another labor process as well. So the labor process inevitably involves these means of production that already enter the process with a certain amount of value. Labor also requires other means of production that are not produced with labor and therefore bear no value: such as sunlight, air, uncultivated land, un-extracted minerals, etc. While useful, even crucial to the production process, these bring no value to that process. In terms of means of production resulting from another labor process, LTV treats the magnitude of value of these produced means of production as constant throughout the labor process. Due to the constancy of their value, these means of production are referred to, in this light, as constant capital. Consider for example workers who take coffee beans, use a roaster to roast them, and then use a brewer to brew and dispense a fresh cup of coffee. In performing this labor, these workers add value to the coffee beans and water that comprise the material ingredients of a cup of coffee. The worker also transfers the value of constant capital — the value of the beans; some specific depreciated value of the roaster and the brewer; and the value of the cup — to the value of the final cup of coffee. Again, on average the worker can transfer no more than the value of these means of labor previously possessed to the finished cup of coffee In the case of instruments of labor, such as the roaster and the brewer (or even a ceramic cup) the value transferred to the cup of coffee is only a depreciated value calculated over the life of those instruments of labor according to some accounting convention. So the value of coffee produced in a day equals the sum of both the value of the means of labor — this constant capital — and the value newly added by the worker in proportion to the duration and intensity of their work. Often this is expressed mathematically as: , where is the constant capital of materials used in a period plus the depreciated portion of tools and plant used in the process. (a period is typically a day, week year or a single turnover: meaning the time required to complete one batch of coffee, for example) is the quantity of labor time (average skill and productivity) performed in producing the finished commodities during the period is the value of the product of the period ( comes from the German word for value: wert) Note: if the product resulting from the labor process is homogenous (all similar in quality and traits, for example, all cups of coffee) then the value of the period’s product can be divided by the total number of items (use-values) produced to derive the unit value of each item. where is the total items produced. The LTV further divides the value added during the period of production, , into two parts. The first part is the portion of the process when the workers add value equivalent to the wages they are paid. For example, if the period in question is one week and these workers collectively are paid $1,000, then the time necessary to add $1,000 to — while preserving the value of — constant capital is considered the necessary labor portion of the period (or week): denoted . The remaining period is considered the surplus labor portion of the week: or . The value used to purchase labor-power, for example the $1,000 paid in wages to these workers for the week, is called variable capital (). This is because in contrast to the constant capital expended on means of production, variable capital can add value in the labor process. The amount it adds depends on the duration, intensity, productivity and skill of the labor-power purchased: in this sense the buyer of labor-power has purchased a commodity of variable use. Finally, the value added during the portion of the period when surplus labor is performed is called surplus value (). From the variables defined above, we find two other common expression for the value produced during a given period as: and The first form of the equation expresses the value resulting from production, focussing on the costs and the surplus value appropriated in the process of production, . The second form of the equation focusses on the value of production in terms of the valued added by the labor performed during the process . The relation between values and prices One issue facing the LTV is the relationship between value quantities on one hand and prices on the other. If a commodity's value is not the same as its price, and therefore the magnitudes of each likely differ, then what is the relation between the two, if any? Various LTV schools of thought provide different answers to this question. For example, some argue that value in the sense of the amount of labor embodied in a good acts as a center of gravity for price. As counter-intuitive as this may seem to those accustomed to neoclassical price theory, some empirical evidence suggests labor values are a better predictor of empirically recorded prices than prediction by any other means. see for example The Empirical Strength of the Labour Theory of Value However, most economists would say that cases where pricing is even approximately equal to the value of the labor embodied are only special cases, and not the general case. In the standard formulation, prices also normally include a level of income for "capital" and "land". These incomes are known as "profit" and "rent" respectively. (It should be kept in mind that like the terms "labor" and "value", the terms "price, "capital", "land", "profit" and "rent" here are being used in a theoretical way which will not always correspond to everyday use, even by accountants.) In Book 1, chapter VI, Smith explains: As soon as stock has accumulated in the hands of particular persons, some of them will naturally employ it in setting to work industrious people, whom they will supply with materials and subsistence, in order to make a profit by the sale of their work, or by what their labour adds to the value of the materials. [...] The profits of stock, it may perhaps be thought, are only a different name for the wages of a particular sort of labour, the labour of inspection and direction. They are, however, altogether different, are regulated by quite different principles, and bear no proportion to the quantity, the hardship, or the ingenuity of this supposed labour of inspection and direction. [...] In this state of things, the whole produce of labour does not always belong to the labourer. He must in most cases share it with the owner of the stock which employs him. Neither is the quantity of labour commonly employed in acquiring or producing any commodity, the only circumstance which can regulate the quantity which it ought commonly to purchase, command, or exchange for. An additional quantity, it is evident, must be due for the profits of the stock which advanced the wages and furnished the materials of that labour. As soon as the land of any country has all become private property, the landlords, like all other men, love to reap where they never sowed, and demand a rent even for its natural produce. [...] The real value of all the different component parts of price, it must be observed, is measured by the quantity of labour which they can, each of them, purchase or command. Labour measures the value not only of that part of price which resolves itself into labour, but of that which resolves itself into rent, and of that which resolves itself into profit. The final sentence shows us how Smith sees value of a product as relative to labor of buyer or consumer, as opposite to Marx who sees the value of a product being proportional to labor of labourer or producer. And we value things, price them, based on how much labor we can avoid or command, and we can command labor not only in a simple way but also by trading things for a profit. The demonstration of the relation between commodities' unit values and their respective prices is known in Marxian terminology as the transformation problem or the transformation of values into prices of production. The transformation problem has probably generated the greatest bulk of debate about the LTV. The problem with transformation is to find an algorithm where the magnitude of value added by labor, in proportion to its duration and intensity, is sufficiently accounted for after this value is distributed through prices that reflect an equal rate of return on capital advanced. If there is an additional magnitude of value or a loss of value after transformation compared with before then the relation between values (proportional to labor) and prices (proportional to total capital advanced) is incomplete. Various solutions and impossibility theorems have been offered for the transformation, but the debate has not reached any clear resolution. LTV does not deny the role of supply and demand influencing price since the price of a commodity is something other than its value. In Value, Price and Profit (1865), Karl Marx quotes Adam Smith and sums up: It suffices to say that if supply and demand equilibrate each other, the market prices of commodities will correspond with their natural prices, that is to say, with their values as determined by the respective quantities of labor required for their production. Marx, Karl (1865). Value, Price and Profit. It is the level of this equilibrium which the LTV seeks to explain. This could be explained by a "cost of production" argument, pointing out that all costs are ultimately labor costs, but this does not account for profit, and it is vulnerable to the charge of tautology in that it explains prices by prices. Piero Sraffa and Maurice H. Dobb (1951). "General Preface", The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo, Vol. 1, Cambridge University Press Marx later called this "Smith's adding up theory of value". Smith argues that labor values are the natural measure of exchange for direct producers like hunters and fishermen. Smith On Labour Value Marx, on the other hand, uses a measurement analogy, arguing that for commodities to be comparable they must have a common element or substance by which to measure them, Marx, Karl Value Price and Profit and that labor is a common substance of what Marx eventually calls commodity-values. Some statistical evidence for the theory has also been advanced by Shaikh. see for example The Empirical Strength of the Labour Theory of Value The theory’s development The birth of the LTV Benjamin Franklin in his 1729 essay entitled "A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency" is sometimes credited (including by Karl Marx) with originating the concept. However, the theory has been traced back to Treatise of Taxes, written in 1662 by Sir William Petty Parrington vol 1 ch 3 and to John Locke's notion, set out in the Second Treatise on Government (1689), that property derives from labor through the act of "mixing" one's labor with items in the common store of goods, though this has alternatively been seen as a labor theory of property. Other writers (including Joseph Schumpeter) have traced back the concept even further to Ibn Khaldun, who in his Muqaddimah (1377), described labor as the source of value, necessary for all earnings and capital accumulation, obvious in the case of craft. He argued that even if earning “results from something other than a craft, the value of the resulting profit and acquired (capital) must (also) include the value of the labor by which it was obtained. Without labor, it would not have been acquired.” I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, ISBN 0887066984 Scottish economist Adam Smith accepted the LTV for pre-capitalist societies but saw a flaw in its application to capitalism. He pointed out that if the "labor embodied" in a product equalled the "labor commanded" (i.e. the amount of labor that could be purchased by selling it), then profit was impossible. David Ricardo (seconded by Marx) responded to this paradox by arguing that Smith had confused labor with wages. "Labor commanded", he argued, would always be more than the labor needed to sustain itself (wages). The value of labor, in this view, covered not just the value of wages (what Marx called the value of labor power), but the value of the entire product created by labor. Smith on Labor Value Ricardo's theory was a predecessor of the modern theory that equilibrium prices are determined solely by production costs associated with "neo-Ricardianism". Based on the discrepancy between the wages of labor and the value of the product, the "Ricardian socialists" — Charles Hall, Thomas Hodgskin, John Gray, and John Francis Bray see Utopians and Socialists: Ricardian Socialists  — applied Ricardo's theory to develop theories of exploitation. Marx expanded on these ideas, arguing that workers work for a part of each day adding the value required to cover their wages, while the remainder of their labor is performed for the enrichment of the capitalist. The LTV and the accompanying theory of exploitation became central to his economic thought. 19th century American individualist anarchists based their economics on the LTV, with their particular interpretation of it being called "Cost the limit of price." They, as well as contemporary individualist anarchists in that tradition, hold that it is unethical to charge a higher price for a commodity than the amount of labor required to produce it. Hence, they propose that trade should be facilitated by using notes backed by labor. Adam Smith and David Ricardo Adam Smith held that in a primitive society, the amount of labor put into producing a good determined its exchange value, with exchange value meaning in this case the amount of labor a good can purchase. However, according to Smith, in a more advanced society the market price is no longer proportional to labor cost since the value of the good now includes compensation for the owner of the means of production: "The whole produce of labour does not always belong to the labourer. He must in most cases share it with the owner of the stock which employs him." Smith quoted in Whitaker, Albert C. History and Criticism of the Labor Theory of Value, pp. 15-16 "Nevertheless, the 'real value' of such a commodity produced in advanced society is measured by the labor which that commodity will command in exchange....But [Smith] disowns what is naturally thought of as the genuine classical labor theory of value, that labor-cost regulates market-value. This theory was Ricardo’s, and really his alone." Whitaker, Albert C. History and Criticism of the Labor Theory of Value, pp. 15-16 Classical economist David Ricardo's labor theory of value holds that the value of a good (how much of another good or service it exchanges for in the market) is proportional to how much labor was required to produce it, including the labor required to produce the raw materials and machinery used in the process. David Ricardo stated it as, "The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production, and not as the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour" (Ricardo 1817). In this heading Ricardo seeks to differentiate the quantity of labor necessary to produce a commodity from the wages paid to the laborers for its production. However, Ricardo was troubled with some deviations in prices from proportionality with the labor required to produce them. For example, he said "I cannot get over the difficulty of the wine which is kept in the cellar for three or four years [i.e., while constantly increasing in exchange value], or that of the oak tree, which perhaps originally had not 2 s. expended on it in the way of labour, and yet comes to be worth £100."(Quoted in Whitaker) Of course, a capitalist economy will stabilize this discrepancy until the value added to aged wine is equal to the cost of storage - if anyone can hold onto a bottle for four years and become rich, that will be done so much it is hard to find freshly-corked wine. There is also the theory that adding to the price of a luxury product increases its exchange-value by mere prestige. The labor theory as an explanation for value contrasts with the subjective theory of value, which says that value of a good is not determined by how much labor was put into it but by its usefulness in satisfying a want and its scarcity. Ricardo's labor theory of value is not a normative theory, as are some later forms of the labor theory, such as claims that it is immoral for an individual to be paid less for his labor than the total revenue that comes from the sales of all the goods he produces. It must be noted that it is arguable to what extent these classical theorists held the labor theory of value as it is commonly defined. 1. Whitaker, Albert C. Albert C. Whitaker, History and Criticism of the Labor Theory of Value,http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/whitaker/labortheory.pdf 2.Gordon, Donald, F. What Was the Labor Theory of Value? American Economic Review, Vol. 49, No. 2, Papers and Proceedings of the Seventy-first Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association (May, 1959) , pp. 462-472 3. King, Peter and Ripstein Arthur. Did Marx Hold a Labor Theory of Value? For instance, David Ricardo theorized that prices are determined by the amount of labor but found exceptions for which the labor theory could not account. In a letter, he wrote: "I am not satisfied with the explanation I have given of the principles which regulate value." Adam Smith theorized that the labor theory of value holds true only in the "early and rude state of society" but not in a modern economy where owners of capital are compensated by profit. As a result, "Smith ends up making little use of a labor theory of value."<ref>Canterbery, E. Ray, A Brief History of Economics: Artful Approaches to the Dismal Science, World Scientific (2001), pp. 52-53</ref> Marx's contribution Contrary to popular belief, Marx does not base his LTV on what he dismisses as "ascribing a supernatural creative power to labor", arguing in the Critique of the Gotha Program that: Labor is not the source of all wealth. Nature is just as much a source of use values (and it is surely of such that material wealth consists!) as labor which is itself only the manifestation of a force of nature, human labor power. Critique of the Gotha Program ch 1 Here Marx is drawing a distinction between exchange value (which is the subject of the LTV) and use value. Marx uses the concept of "socially necessary abstract labor-time" to introduce a social perspective distinct from his predecessors and neoclassical economics. Whereas most economists start with the individual's perspective, Marx starts with the perspective of society as a whole. "Social production" involves a complicated and interconnected division of labor of a wide variety of people who depend on each other for their survival and prosperity. "Abstract" labor refers to a characteristic of commodity-producing labor that is shared by all different kinds of heterogeneous (concrete) types of labor. That is, the concept abstracts from the particular characteristics of all of the labor and is akin to average labor. "Socially necessary" labor refers to the quantity required to produce a commodity "in a given state of society, under certain social average conditions or production, with a given social average intensity, and average skill of the labour employed. "Value, Price and Profit ch 6 That is, the value of a product is determined more by societal standards than by individual conditions. This explains why technological breakthroughs lower the price of commodities and put less advanced producers out of business. Finally, it is not labor per se, which creates value, but labor power sold by free wage workers to capitalists. Another distinction to be made is that between productive and unproductive labour. Only wage workers of productive sectors of the economy produce value. Exploitation Marx uses his LTV to derive his theory of "exploitation" under capitalism. Unlike Ricardo or the Ricardian socialists, Marx distinguishes between labor power and labor. "Labor-power" is the potential or ability of workers to work, given their muscles, brains, skills, and capacities. It is the promise of creating value possessed by human labour that has not yet been expended. "Labor" is the actual activity of producing value. The profit or surplus-value arises when workers do more labor than is necessary to pay the cost of hiring their labor-power. To explain the normality of exploitation, Marx describes Capitalism as having an institutional framework in which a small minority (the capitalists) monopolize the means of production. The workers cannot survive except by working for capitalists, and the state preserves this inequality of power. In normal role of force is structural, part of the usual workings of the system. The reserve army of unemployed workers continually threatens employed workers, pushing them to work hard to produce for the capitalists. Modern criticisms Microeconomic Theory Adherents of neoclassical economics, the currently predominant school, employ the theory of marginalism, which holds that the value of any good or service is determined by its marginal utility, the utility of the "last" bought consumption good measured by its price, in satisfying a specific consumer's wants. The utility of individuals or whole societies Whether the aggregation of utility functions of individuals to utility functions of whole societies is possible, is in dispute. is to be maximized, this is in neoclassical economics the driving force of the economy; not profit maximization, as with Marx. Proponents of the LTV would reply that as capitalism only recognises demand backed by money - then the price of a good is not simply measured by its usefulness but by the amount of money consumers own - it depends on a pre-existing set of relations of distribution. These relations of distribution in turn rest on a set of relations of production, which determine how consumers "earn" their money, capitalists "earn" profits, workers wages, landlords rent and so on. Consequently the price of an object depends not only on its usefulness but on the amount of money different consumers have - their different effective demands. As marginal utility theory does not take account of the effect of these influences on price, it remains an abstract theory. In microeconomics, this utility maximization takes place under certain constraints, these are the available amounts of factors of production, for instance, labor (as with Marx profit maximization takes place under the constraint of available production techniques and the wage rate). Details are explained by microeconomics, for a text book see Henderson, Quandt 1971. In fact, the ultimate restriction is time. Gary S. Becker (1965) “A Theory of the Allocation of Time,” Economic]ournal 75 (299), pp. 493-517. Households divide their time (24 hours a day) into leisure time and time for work. Time for work is to make money to buy goods for consumption. The household chooses that amount of leisure time and (via working time) that amount of consumption goods which maximizes its utility level. With Marx, working time is not based on a free decision of households, but the outcome of a class struggle between workers and capitalists, the former trying to decrease, the latter to increase working time. Further, all this does not take account of effects of the accumulation process. With Marx, there is a tendency of equalisation of rates of profit in the accumulation process, which leads to prices of production. If the price of a commodity is above its price of production, then capitalists in that sector will earn a super profit (a rate of profit above the average rate of profit of the economy as a whole). As a result capital will be attracted to that sector, production will increase, prices fall until the super profit has been competed away. The resulting prices of production are via transformation from labor values into prices based on labor times. According to marginalism, value is subjective (since the same item - leisure time, consumption goods - will have a different marginal utility to different consumers, or even to the same consumer under different circumstances) and therefore cannot be determined simply by measuring how much labor went into the production of an item. In the Pareto optimum, on the other hand, the exchange relations between commodities are not only determined by their marginal utility, but also by the marginal productivity of the factors of production available. This means that, in marginalism, commodities exchange at the marginal amount of labor necessary to produce them. In this sense, an LTV, or, more precisely, a value theory of marginal labor inputs, holds. However, this applies to all factors of production and also to marginal utility. Labor is nothing special. That these several value theories can hold all at the same time is made possible by marginal analysis And whether the underlying mathematical functions are “well-behaved”, as the term is. Otherwise no optimum solution exists. . The Pareto optimum is defined as a situation where utility is maximized and at the same time all factors of production are employed most efficiently, leading to a situation, where all commodities exchange at their marginal utilities and at their - marginal - amounts of the different factors of production necessary to produce them. In other words, if empirically it was found out, that commodities exchange according to their marginally necessary labor inputs, this would confirm marginal theory. It would contradict Marx’s theory, because according to Marx these exchange ratios are determined by prices of production, which are generally different from the necessary labour inputs, the labor values. Implicitly, Marx is thus denying, that capitalism is in a state of Pareto optimality. Jevons A close reading of Jevons' chapter on "Labor" in his "Theory of Political Economy" reveals that he considered his marginal analysis quite consistent with the labor theory of value as he established that in equilibrium marginal utility equals marginal labor value. It is indeed Jevons' revolutionary discovery that labor must be measured in terms of marginal labor value (δL/δX). Menger's Critique Opponents of Marxist economics argue that the Labor Theory of Value is disproven as commodities may diverge from the average price of production. In his 1871 work Principles of Economics, Austrian Economist Carl Menger writes: There is no necessary and direct connection between the value of a good and whether, or in what quantities, labor and other goods of higher order were applied to its production. A non-economic good (a quantity of timber in a virgin forest, for example) does not attain value for men if large quantities of labor or other economic goods were applied to its production. Whether a diamond was found accidentally or was obtained from a diamond pit with the employment of a thousand days of labor is completely irrelevant for its value. In general, no one in practical life asks for the history of the origin of a good in estimating its value, but considers solely the services that the good will render him and which he would have to forgo if he did not have it at his command...The quantities of labor or of other means of production applied to its production cannot, therefore, be the determining factor in the value of a good. Comparison of the value of a good with the value of the means of production employed in its production does, of course, show whether and to what extent its production, an act of past human activity, was appropriate or economic. But the quantities of goods employed in the production of a good have neither a necessary nor a directly determining influence on its value. LTV proponents would argue that Menger's critique rests on a confusion between production in general and capitalist production. In the capitalist mode of production, a diamond found under a rock or produced in ancient times, is worth as much as a similar diamond mined at great expense from the earth as the price of the diamond will be the average cost of production, i.e. the socially necessary labour time a diamond normally costs to produce; this average includes whatever diamonds are discovered with negligible labor cost, but such cases being rare, the average is hardly altered by them. As Marx states in Capital: "Diamonds are of very rare occurrence on the earth's surface, and hence their discovery costs, on an average, a great deal of labour-time.....If we could succeed at a small expenditure of labour, in converting carbon into diamonds, their value might fall below that of bricks." Capital Volume 1 Part 1 Chapter 1 Böhm-Bawerk’s criticism The Austrian economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk argued against both the Ricardian labor theory of price and Marx's theory of exploitation. On the former, he contended that return on capital arises from the roundabout nature of production which necessarily involves the passage of time. A steel ladder, for example, will be produced and brought to market only if the demand supports the digging of iron ore, the smelting of steel, the machines that press that steel into ladder shape, the machines that make and help maintain those machines, etc. Roundabout processes, Böhm-Bawerk maintained, lead to a price that pays for more than labor value and this makes it unnecessary to postulate exploitation in order to understand the return on capital. However, as Marx explains in Capital, it is not demand that creates, but labour that preserves the value of the commodities obtained prior to the actual process of production - in this case, the iron, steel and machines necessary to make the ladder: The worker is unable to add new labour, to create new value, without at the same time preserving old values, because the labour he adds must be of a specific useful kind, and he cannot do work of a useful kind without employing products as the means of production of a new product, and thereby transferring their value to the new product. [This] is a gift of nature which costs the worker nothing, but is very advantageous to the capitalist since it preserves the existing value of his capital. Captial,volume 1, chapter 8. Thus, without the necessary addition of human labour-power, the ore, steel and machines would not create any new value on their own, but would in fact gradually depreciate what value they originally possessed through the ravages of time and neglect. Once these materials are activated in the labour process, their values are simply transferred from one commodity to another with no increase. As the LTV contends, it is not the materials, but the labour-time present in a commodity that represents its mark-up in value over the course of its production. Böhm-Bawerk's positive theory of interest also argued that workers trade in their share of the end price for the more certain wages paid by the entrepreneur. Entrepreneurs, he claimed, have given up a safer wage-earning job to take on the role of entrepreneur. In other words, he claimed that profits compensated the entrepreneur for the willingness to bear risk and to wait to receive income. Böhm-Bawerk's essential argument that employers are compensated for shouldering some risk in paying their employees ahead of time, however, appears unable to explain how profit can be accumulated in cases where workers are reliant on commissions, tips, etc. for their income, which are received only after they sell their services. However, Böhm-Bawerk's does provide such an explanation. In the context of a waiter earning tips, the waiter himself is not a wage-earner. The restaurant owner does not make of profit from the tips earned by the waiter. The waiter is essentially an entrepreneur, taking the risk that customers will sufficiently compensate him for the labor he provides while the customers are under no legal obligation to do so. The waiter is making an investment of services in anticipation of future return from the customers. The waiter is compensated by an aggregate amount of earnings from tips that exceeds that labor value provided to the customers, thereby including a return on the waiter's investment. If the tips were not sufficient to provide this return on investment, then the waiter would rationally seek other employment, such as a wage-earning job with similar compensation that does not include the risk element or an entrepreneurial job with similar risk that provides a better return. Regarding other situations where the employer-entrepreneur does receive a profit from after the labor has been rendered (e.g., a salesperson who works on commission), the employer-entrepreneur may take risks other than paying a wage to the salesman, including: providing a salesperson with an office, cell phone and/or computer; paying for product training and marketing materials; paying for travel and lodging expenses; producing inventory in reliance upon future sales that may or may not be made by the salesperson. All of this comprises a potential for loss that accounts for the return on investment realized by the employer-entrepreneur. This theory directly contradicts the observed fact that in 'every country where the capitalist mode of production prevails, it is the custom not to pay for labour-power until it has been exercised for the period fixed by the contract, for example, at the end of each week.' Captial,volume 1, chapter 6. It is therefore the rule, and not the exception, that the worker advances her labour-power to the capitalist on credit - an investment of significant risk - for which she earns no compensatory interest or profits. If this is the case, then there can be no necessary link between risk taken and profits made. Nikolai Bukharin argued that Böhm-Bawerk's concept of roundaboutness was untenable in the context of the continuous, simultaneous production of a modern economy. Nikolai Bukharin, (1927) The Economic Theory of the Leisure Classes , ch. 4, part 3. Methodological Individualism The Austrian school, led by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, argues against the whole tradition of the LTV (see above). Neoclassical economics also follows this lead  — and that of Jevons, Menger, and Walras — from the 1870s and discards the LTV in favor of general equilibrium theory, which determines prices based on the interaction of preferences, technology and endowments through supply and demand. Some Marxists (see analytical Marxism) have adapted to this neoclassical general equilibrium theory with a new emphasis on individual exchange and markets through what they call methodological individualism. What is "socially necessary"? Marx argues in Capital: Some people might think that if the value of a commodity is determined by the quantity of labour spent on it, the more idle and unskilful the labourer, the more valuable would his commodity be, because more time would be required in its production. The labour, however, that forms the substance of value, is homogeneous human labour, expenditure of one uniform labour power. The total labour power of society, which is embodied in the sum total of the values of all commodities produced by that society, counts here as one homogeneous mass of human labour power, composed though it be of innumerable individual units...The labour time socially necessary is that required to produce an article under the normal conditions of production, and with the average degree of skill and intensity prevalent at the time. Captial, Volume 1, section 1 Thus, according to Marx, any labor power squandered during the production of a commodity, i.e. labor which is socially unnecessary, will not add value, as value is determined by the average social labor. Robert Nozick has criticized the qualifier "socially necessary" in the labor theory of value as not well-defined and concealing a subjective judgment of necessity. The LTV in a socialist society It is often assumed that the LTV would apply in a socialist (or post-capitalist) society, though (purportedly at least) without the corresponding exploitation. However, Marx argued in his Critique of the Gotha Program: Within the co-operative society based on common ownership of the means of production, the producers do not exchange their products; just as little does the labor employed on the products appear here as the value of these products, as a material quality possessed by them, since now, in contrast to capitalist society, individual labor no longer exists in an indrect fashion but directly as a component part of the social labor. David Ramsay Steele expands on this: Numerous Marxist writers, from Marx and Engels down to Charles Bettelheim, have favored employing units of labor-time for planning production under socialism. This proposal is often referred to as an application of the labor theory of value, though that usage is not in conformity with Marx's. The Marxian labor theory of value (LTV) is intended to explain the determination of prices under commodity production (this is occasionally denied, but see Steele 1986). In Marxian terminology, there can be no 'value' in post-capitalist society. Both the LTV and communist planning conceive of resource allocation being guided by quantities of labor-time. Yet the LTV as an explanation of market prices and the labor-time planning proposal are two distinct theories, which may stand or fall independently. If the LTV were the correct explanation of market prices, this in itself would not show that units of labor-time could be of any practical use in administration of communist industry. And if units of labor-time could effectively be employed for communist planning, this would not require that the LTV be the correct explanation of market prices... According to Marx's theory, actual prices will virtually always diverge from 'values' defined as units of labor-time. In Marx's thinking, after 1860, the relationship between 'value' and observed market prices is somewhat analogous to the relationship between 'mass' and 'heaviness', or between 'heat' and everyday awareness of temperature. Marx's 'value' is purportedly necessary to explain price, but it does not correspond to price or equilibrium price (often not even roughly) and therefore obvious disparities between value and price are not seen by Marx as refutations of his theory, though they are seen as contradicting the simple models employed in the early stages of expounding his theory in Volumes I and II of "Capital". David Ramsay Steele, "From Marx to Mises: Post-Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation", La Salle: Open Court, 1992 The inapplicability of the LTV The LTV is a theory of capitalist production, or generalized commodity production. There are however, commodities bought and sold under capitalism which have a price even though they do not have a value. "Objects that in themselves are no commodities, such as conscience, honour, &c., are capable of being offered for sale by their holders, and of thus acquiring, through their price, the form of commodities. Hence an object may have a price without having value. The price in that case is imaginary, like certain quantities in mathematics. On the other hand, the imaginary price-form may sometimes conceal either a direct or indirect real value-relation; for instance, the price of uncultivated land, which is without value, because no human labour has been incorporated in it." (Capital Volume 1, section 1) However the socially necessary labour theory of value only becomes inapplicable for uncultivated land when that land can never be productive no matter how much commercial labour is expended on it. Desert sand, gibber plains and icy wastes have very small land values because no commercial labour can be diverted from other uses to be usefully employed. In other cases the price-form will represent the indirect socially necessary labour that could be usefully employed. pieces of art which could be explained as instances of monopoly uncultivated land which has price, even if there is no labor involved. The price of land is explained by the theory of rent. Both Ricardo and Marx developed theories of land-rent based on the LTV. paper money. According to Marx "The function of gold as coin becomes completely independent of the metallic value of that gold. Therefore things that are relatively without value, such as paper notes, can serve as coins in its place." (Capital, Vol 1, Part 1) Section 2 value of shares which is explained similarly like the value of land. The importance of labor Marx stated that only labor could cause an increase in value. Assuming that all labor is equal, this suggests that labor intensive industries ought to have a higher rate of profit than those which use less labor. This would contradict the tendency, accepted by Marx, that rates of profit between industries should become equal. Marx explained this contradiction by the fact that in real economic life prices vary not randomly, but in a systematic way from values. The mathematics applied to the transformation problem - transformation of labor values into production prices - attempt to describe this (albeit with the unwelcome side consequences described above). Critics (following, for instance, studies of Piero Sraffa) respond that this makes the once intuitively appealing theory very complicated; and that there is no justification for asserting that only labor and not for example grain can increase value. Any commodity can be picked instead of labor for being the commodity with the unique power of creating value, and with equal justification one could set out a corn theory of value, identical to the labour theory of value. Karl Marx§ 3 A critic of Marxism, Robert Paul Wolff says "By reproducing for corn [grain] or iron or coal, all the striking results that Marx derived concerning for labor, we have, it seems to me, raised questions about the foundations of Marx's critique of capitalism and classical political economy." Robert Paul Wolff, quoted in Ellerman's Property and Contract in Economics: the case for economic democracy ch 4 However, there may be several problems with this criticism. The starting point for Marx's argument was: "What is the common social substance of all commodities? It is labor." Value, Price and Profit ch 6 It is not possible to view grain, iron etc as common to all commodities, whereas the production of commodities is impossible without labor. Marx identifies the substance of value as labor, which in his view is not a commodity (though "labor power" is). This was a necessary aspect for the substance of value Marx elaborates upon in Capital see ch1 of Capital and Theories of Surplus Value. See Marx's discussion of measures such length and the area of triangles in ch 20 p 312 Some supporters of the LTV, however, accept the thrust of the "corn theory of value" critique, but emphasize the social aspect of what Marx calls the "common social substance", arguing that labor power is unique as it is the only commodity not sold by capitalists but rather sold by the workers themselves, whose income tends to a minimum, because they have nothing else to sell. The surplus product is appropriated by the capitalists. Alan Freeman argues: "This is of course true of other commodities [than labour power] also; but other commodities do not walk around the market disposing of their income on an equal basis with their owners. The cost of labour power is determined independently of its capacity to make money for its purchaser. This, and no other reason, is why profit exists. If labourers were hired directly as slaves, robots, beasts of burden or servants, then whether or not labour time were the measure of value, surplus labour would not be extracted in the form of money profits but directly, like domestic labour." Freeman, Alan: Price, value and profit - a continuous, general treatment. In: Alan Freeman, Guglielmo Carchedi (editors): Marx and non-equilibrium economics. Edward Elgar. Cheltenham, UK, Brookfield, US 1996. Albert Einstein, in his description of the LTV, argues similarly: "It is important to understand that even in theory the payment of the worker is not determined by the value of his product." Albert Einstein: "Why Socialism?". Originally published 1949 in Monthly Review Steve Keen and the machine In his book Debunking Economics, anti-marginalist Steve Keen has attempted to counter Marx's theory (in his view Marx's pre-1857 view, specifically) from a post-Keynesian perspective, by arguing that machines can add more product-value over their operational lifetime than the total value of depreciation charged during those asset lives. For example, the total value of sausages produced by a sausage machine over its useful life might be greater than the value of the machine. Depreciation, he implies, was really the weak point in Marx's social accounting system all along. This raises the question of how we know which part of the new value is due directly to the worker, and which part is due directly to the machine (although indirectly to any worker involved in the production of that machine) - neither of which of course can produce products without the other, unless we suppose full automation. Marx wrestled with the problem of depreciation, but he remained insistent that only human labour could create net new value; machines did not create any new value by themselves; instead human beings conserved the value of machines, and transferred their value to the new products. Therefore, logically, machines could contribute no more value than was implied by the labour it took to make them, or perhaps more precisely, their current value in society. This value should of course be distinguished from that part of the output price charged as depreciation costs, i.e. a distinction should be drawn between depreciation in value terms and depreciation in price terms. That aside, Marxist economists such as Ernest Mandel have argued that owners of new, more productive fixed equipment (which the owners may monopolize with the aid of patents) can obtain extra income from its use, representing effectively an economic rent (so-called "technological rents"). Whatever view one takes, it is clear depreciation raises complex issues, because depreciation write-offs often do not reflect the "real" loss of value of a fixed asset, but rather the maximum value permitted by governments and auditors to be written off for tax purposes (for more discussion, see the OPE-L ("Outline of Political Economy") list and Marx and Surplus Value ( Keen, Steve Marx and Surplus Value ). See also Law of value Abstract labour and concrete labour Surplus value Surplus labour Surplus product Prices of production Transformation problem Productive and unproductive labour Cost the limit of price Producerism Competing Theories Subjective Theory of Value Marginalism Neo-Ricardianism Notes References Bhaduri, Amit. 1969. "On the Significance of Recent Controversies on Capital Theory: A Marxian View." Economic Journal. 79(315) September: 532-9. von Böhm-Bawerk, Eugen Karl Marx and the Close of His System (Classic criticism of Marxist economic theory) —. Capital and Interest: A Critical History of Economical Theory Ellerman, David P. (1992). Property & Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy. Blackwell. Chapters 4,5, and 13 critiques of LTV in favor of the labor theory of property. Engels, F. (1880). Socialism: Utopian and Scientific Freeman, Alan: Price, value and profit - a continuous, general treatment. In: Alan Freeman, Guglielmo Carchedi (editors): Marx and non-equilibrium economics. Edward Elgar. Cheltenham, UK, Brookfield, US 1996. Hagendorf, Klaus: The Labour Theory of Value. A Historical-Logical Analysis. Paris: EURODOS; 2008. Henderson, James M.; Quandt, Richard E. 1971: Microeconomic Theory - A Mathematical Approach. Second Edition/International Student Edition. McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, Ltd. Keen, Steven Use, Value, and Exchange: The Misinterpretation of Marx ([Internet edition: 1999] [1887 English edition]) —Capital, Complete in Three volumes. Frederick Engels, editor, 1867-1894. Definitive Kerr Edition, in English, as re-issued 1906-1909. Capital, Volume 1 1867 Capital, Volume 2 1885 Capital, Volume 3 1894 — (1863) Theories of Surplus Value — Wage Labour and Capital — Critique of the Gotha Program Ormazabal, Kepa M 2004). Smith On Labour Value Bilbo, Biscay, Spain: University of the Basque Country Working Paper. Parrington Title Unavailable Prychitko, David L. Marxism see section 1: "The Labor Theory of Value" Rubin, I.I. Commentary on Marx's form and content of value (accessible read) Shaikh, Anwar (1998). "The Empirical Strength of the Labour Theory of Value" in Conference Proceedings of Marxian Economics: A Centenary Appraisal, Riccardo Bellofiore (ed.), Macmillan, London Wolff, Jonathan (2003). Karl Marx in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Wolff, Richard D., Bruce B. Roberts and Antonio Callari (1982). "Marx's (not Ricardo's) 'Transformation Problem': A Radical Reconceptualization." History of Political Economy'' 14(4): 564-82. Anonymous. Utopians and Socialists: Ricardian Socialists External links The Marxists Internet Archive Robert Vienneau's LTV FAQ Jim Devine's alternative view of Marx's LTV Cotton, Corn, Labor ErnestMandel.org

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Transport_in_Antarctica

Transport in Antarctica has transformed from heroic explorers crossing the isolated remote area of Antarctica by foot to a more open area due to human technologies enabling more convenient and faster transport by land and predominantly air and water. Transportation technologies on a remote area like Antarctica need to be able to deal with extremely low temperatures and continuous winds to ensure the travelers' safety. Due to the fragility of the Antarctic environment, only a limited amount of transport movements can take place and sustainable transportation technologies have to be used to reduce the ecological footprint. The infrastructure of land, water and air transport needs to be safe and sustainable. Currently thousands of tourists and hundreds of scientists a year rely on the Antarctic transportation system. Land transport Antarctica Route 1 Land transport in Antarctica is usually by foot (skis, snowshoes) or vehicles (tracked vehicles like snow mobiles and bulldozers and in the past dog sleds). Mawson station started using classic Volkswagen Beetles, the first production cars to be used in Antarctica. The first of these was named 'Antarctica 1'. However, the scarcity and poor quality of road infrastructure limits land transportation by conventional vehicles. Winds continuously blow snow on the roads. The McMurdo-South Pole highway is a 900-mile (1450 km) road in Antarctica linking the United States McMurdo Station on the coast to the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. In 2005 a team of six people took part in the Ice Challenger Expedition. Travelling in a specially designed six wheel drive vehicle, the team completed the journey from the Antarctic coast at Patriot Hills to the geographic South Pole in an incredible 69 hours. In doing so they easily beat the previous record of 24 days. They arrived at the South Pole on the 12th of December 2005 Ice Challenger 2005 Retrieved on 2008-10-14 . The team members on that expedition were Andrew Regan, Jason De Carteret, Andrew Moon, Richard Griffiths, Gunnar Egilsson and Andrew Miles. The expedition successfully showed that wheeled transport on the continent is not only possible but also often more practical. The expedition also hoped to raise awareness about global warming and climate change. A second expedition lead by Andrew Regan and Andrew Moon is planned to depart in 2009. The Moon-Regan Trans Antarctic Expedition will this time traverse the entire continent, using 2 six wheel drive vehicles and a Concept Ice Vehicle designed by Lotus Trans Antarctic Expedition Retrieved on 2008-10-14 . This time the team intends to use the expedition to raise awareness about the global environmental importance of the Antarctic region and to show that biofuel can be a viable and environmentally friendly option. Water transport Antarctica's only harbour is at McMurdo Station. Most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters. A few stations have a basic wharf facility. All ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty. Offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent, but poses no problem to sailboats designed for the ice, typically with lifting keels and long shorelines. McMurdo Station (), Palmer Station (); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System"). A number of tour boats, ranging from large motorized vessels to small sailing yachts, visit the Antarctic Peninsula during the summer months (January-March). Most are based in Ushuaia, Argentina. Air transport Transport in Antarctica takes place by air, using airplanes and helicopters. Airplane runways and helicopter pads have to be kept snow free to ensure safe take off and landing conditions. Antarctica has 20 airports, but there are no developed public-access airports or landing facilities. Thirty stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the Antarctic Treaty, have landing facilities for either helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities. Helicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length, 3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and data is unavailable for the remaining 4. Antarctic airports are subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; they do not meet ICAO standards, and advance approval from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization is required for landing (1999 est.) References External links Transportation in Antarctica by Matt Hanks Webpage of the Swedish Polar Research Secretariat on transportation

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Geography_of_Guam

This article describes the geography of Guam. Location Oceania, island in the North Pacific Ocean, about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines. Geographic coordinates Map references Oceania Area Total: 541.3 km² Land: 541.3 km² Water: 0 km² Area (comparative) Three times the size of Washington, DC Land boundaries Approximately 30 miles (51 km) long and 9 miles (15 km) wide, narrowing to 4 miles (7 km) at the center. Coastline 125.5 km Maritime claims Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm (370.4 km) Territorial sea: 12 nm (22.224 km) The southern maritime boundary of Guam forms a border with the Federated States of Micronesia, and the northern maritime boundary forms a border with the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands. Climate Tropical marine; generally warm and humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; dry season from January to June, rainy season from July to December; little seasonal temperature variation. Terrain Volcanic origin, surrounded by coral reefs; relatively flat coralline limestone plateau (source of most fresh water), with steep coastal cliffs and narrow coastal plains in north, low-rising hills in center, mountains in south Elevation extremes Lowest point: Pacific Ocean, 0 metres (0 ft) Highest point: Mount Lamlam, 406 metres (1,332 ft) Natural resources Commercial fishing (mostly servicing and unloading of long line fleets and commercial vessels), sport fishing of blue marlin, wahoo, mahi mahi, yellow fin tuna, and deep water reef fish, tourism (especially from Japan but increasingly from China and Korea). Land use Arable land: 11% Permanent crops: 11% Permanent pastures: 15% Forests and woodland: 18% Other: 45% (1993 est.) Irrigated land N/A km² Natural hazards Frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare, but potentially very destructive typhoons (typhoons are possible in any season but most common from August through December) Environment -current issues Extirpation of native bird population by the rapid proliferation of the brown tree snake, an exotic species. Island also supports feral populations of introduced deer, pigs and water buffalo. Geography -note Largest and southernmost island in the Mariana Islands archipelago; strategic location in western North Pacific Ocean. References

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Anglicanism

Anglicanism is a tradition of Christian faith. Churches in this tradition either have historical connections to the Church of England or have similar beliefs, worship and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 meaning the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the international Anglican Communion. There are, however, a number of churches outside of the Anglican Communion which also consider themselves to be in the Anglican tradition, most notably those referred to as Continuing Anglican churches. The faith of Anglicans is founded in the scriptures, the traditions of the apostolic church, the apostolic succession – "historic episcopate" and the early Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity; having definitively declared its independence from the Roman pontiff at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. The earliest Anglican formularies corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed Protestantism; but by the end of the 16th century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles. In the first half of the 17th century the Church of England and associated episcopal churches in Ireland and in England's American colonies were presented by some Anglican divines as comprising a distinct Christian tradition, with theologies, structures and forms of worship representing a middle ground, or via media, between Reformed Protestantism and Roman Catholicism; a perspective that came to be highly influential in later theories of Anglican identity. Following the American Revolution, Anglican congregations in the United States and Canada were each reconstituted into an independent church with their own bishops and self-governing structures; which, through the expansion of the British Empire and the activity of Christian missions, was adopted as the model for many newly formed churches, especially in Africa, Australasia and the regions of the Pacific. In the 19th century the term Anglicanism was coined to describe the common religious tradition of these churches; as also that of the Scottish Episcopal Church, which, though originating earlier within the Church of Scotland, had come to be recognised as sharing this common identity. The degree of distinction between Reformed and western Catholic tendencies within the Anglican tradition is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican churches and throughout the Anglican Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Prayer Book is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together. There is no single Anglican Church with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full autonomy. As the name suggests, the Anglican Communion is an association of those churches in full communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church by F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (Editor) Oxford University Press, USA; 3 edition p.65 (March 13, 1997) With over eighty million members the Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Terminology The word Anglicanism is a neologism from the 19th century; being constructed from the older word Anglican. The word refers to the teachings and rites of Christians throughout the world in communion with the see of Canterbury. It has come to be used to refer to the claim of those Churches to a unique religious and theological tradition apart from all other Christian churches, be they Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, or Protestant; and is entirely distinct from the allegiance of some of these churches to the British Crown. The word Anglican originates in , a Medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 meaning "the English Church". As an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions, and churches as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a Church in the Anglican Communion. The word is also used by followers of dissenting groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, though the Anglican Communion considers this to be misuse. Anglican Journal article "Group drops name"(1 May 2006)Retrieved 23 January 2007 Although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. In British parliamentary legislation referring to the English Established Church, it is described as the Protestant Episcopal Church, thereby distinguishing it from the counterpart established Protestant Presbyterian Church in Scotland. High Churchmen, who objected to the term Protestant, initially promoted the form Reformed Episcopal Church; and it remains the case that word Episcopal is preferred in the title of The Episcopal Church (the province of the Anglican Communion covering the United States) and the Scottish Episcopal Church. Outside of the British Isles, however, the word Anglican Church came to be preferred; as it distinguished these churches from others that claimed an episcopal polity; although the Church of Ireland and the Church in Wales continue to use the term only with reservations. Anglicanism defined Anglicanism, in its structures, theology, and forms of worship, is commonly understood as a distinct Christian tradition representing a middle ground between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism and, as such, is often referred to as being a via media (or middle way) between these traditions. The faith of Anglicans is founded in the Scriptures and the Gospels, the traditions of the apostolic Church, the historic episcopate, the first four Ecumenical Councils, and the early Church Fathers. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as 'containing all things necessary for salvation' and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith. Anglicans understand the Apostles' Creed as the baptismal symbol, and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans believe the catholic and apostolic faith is revealed in Holy Scripture and the catholic creeds, and interpret these in light of the Christian tradition of the historic Church, scholarship, reason, and experience. Anglicans celebrate the traditional sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Holy Eucharist, also called Holy Communion, the Lord's Supper or the Mass. The Eucharist is central to worship for most Anglicans as a communal offering of prayer and praise in which the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ are proclaimed through prayer, reading of the Bible, singing, and the reception of bread and wine as instituted at the Last Supper. Whilst many Anglicans celebrate the Eucharist in similar ways to the predominant western Catholic tradition, a considerable degree of liturgical freedom is permitted, and worship styles range from the simple to elaborate. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer (BCP), the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. It was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world. In 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. Whilst it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Prayer Book is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together. Anglican identity Development By the Elizabethan Settlement, the Churches of England and Ireland had been established through legislation in Parliament; and assumed allegiance and loyalty to the British Crown in all their members. However, from the first, the Elizabethan Church began to develop distinct religious traditions; assimilating some of the theology of Reformed churches with the services in the Book of Common Prayer, under the leadership and organisation of a continuing episcopate; and over the years these traditions themselves came to command adherence and loyalty. Potentially this would create a crisis of identity, were secular and religious loyalties to conflict – and such a crisis indeed occurred in 1776 with the American Declaration of Independence, most of whose signatories were, at least nominally, Anglican. For these American Patriots, even the forms of Anglican services were in doubt, since the Prayer Book rites of Matins, Evensong and Holy Communion, all included specific prayers for the British Royal Family. Consequently, the conclusion of the War of Independence resulted in the creation of two new Anglican churches, The Episcopal Church in the United States of America in those States that had achieved independence; and The Church of England in Canada in those North American colonies remaining under British control and to which many Loyalist churchmen had migrated. Reluctantly, legislation was passed in the British Parliament (the Consecration of Bishops Abroad Act 1786) to allow bishops to be consecrated for an American church outside of allegiance to the British Crown (whereas no bishoprics had ever been established in the former American colonies). Both in the United States and in Canada, the new Anglican churches developed novel models of self-government, collective decision-making, and self-supported financing; that would be consistent with separation of religious and secular identities. In the following century, two further factors acted to accelerate the development of a distinct Anglican identity. From 1828 and 1829, Dissenters and Roman Catholics could be elected to the House of Commons, which consequently ceased to be a purely Anglican body; but which nevertheless, over the following ten years, engaged in extensive reforming legislation affecting the interests of the established churches of both England and Ireland. The propriety of this legislation was bitterly contested by the Tractarians, who in response developed a vision of Anglicanism as religious tradition deriving ultimately from the Ecumenical Councils of the patristic church. Those within the Church of England opposed to the Tractarians, and to their revived ritual practices, introduced a stream of Parliamentary Bills aimed to control innovations in worship; but this only made the dilemma more acute, with consequent continual litigation in the secular and ecclesiastical courts. Over the same period Anglican churches engaged vigorously in Christian missions, resulting in the creation, by the end of the century, of over ninety colonial bishoprics; which gradually coalesced into new self-governing churches on the Canadian and American models. However, the case of John William Colenso Bishop of Natal, reinstated in 1865 by the English Judicial Committee of the Privy Council over the heads of the Church in South Africa, demonstrated acutely that the extension of episcopacy had to be accompanied by a recognised Anglican ecclesiology of ecclesiastical authority, distinct from secular power. Consequently, at the instigation of the bishops of Canada and South Africa, the first Lambeth Conference was called in 1867; to be followed by further conferences in 1878 and 1888, and thereafter at ten year intervals. The various papers and declarations of successive Lambeth Conferences, have served to frame the continued Anglican debate on identity, especially as relating to the possibility of ecumenical discussion with other churches. This ecumenical aspiration became much more of a possibility, as other denominational groups rapidly followed the example of the Anglican Communion in founding their own transnational alliances: the Alliance of Reformed Churches, the Ecumenical Methodist Council, the International Congregational Council, and the Baptist World Alliance. Theories of Anglican identity In their rejection of absolute parliamentary authority, the Tractarians – and in particular John Henry Newman – looked back to the writings of 17th century Anglican divines, finding in these texts the idea of the English church as a via media between the Protestant and Roman Catholic traditions. This view was associated – especially in the writings of Edward Bouverie Pusey – with the theory of Anglicanism as one of three "branches" (alongside the Catholic and Orthodox churches) historically arising out of the common tradition of the earliest Ecumenical Councils. Newman himself subsequently rejected the theory of the via media, as essentially historicist and static; and hence unable to accommodate any dynamic development within the church. Nevertheless, the aspiration to ground Anglican identity in the writings of the 17th century divines, and in faithfulness to the traditions of the Church Fathers reflects a continuing theme of Anglican ecclesiology, most recently in the writings of Henry Robert McAdoo. The Tractarian formulation of the theory of the via media was essentially a party platform, and not acceptable to Anglicans outside the confines of the Oxford Movement. However, the theory of the via media was reworked in the ecclesiological writings of Frederick Denison Maurice, in a more dynamic form that became widely influential. Both Maurice and Newman saw the Church of England of their day as sorely deficient in faith; but whereas Newman had looked back to a distant past when the light of faith might have appeared to burn brighter, Maurice looked forwards to the possibility of a brighter revelation of faith in the future. Maurice saw the Protestant and Catholic strands within the Church of England as contrary but complementary, both maintaining elements of the true church, but incomplete without the other; such that a true catholic and evangelical church might come into being by a union of opposites. Central to Maurice's perspective, is his belief that the collective elements of family, nation and church represent a divine order of structures through which God unfolds his continuing work of creation. Hence, for Maurice, the Protestant tradition has maintained the elements of national distinction which are amongst the marks of the true universal church, but which have been lost within Roman Catholicism in the parasitic internationalism of centralised Papal Authority. Within the coming universal church that Maurice foresaw, national churches would each maintain the six signs of Catholicity: baptism, Eucharist, the creeds, Scripture, an episcopally ordered ministry, and a fixed liturgy; of which the latter would take a variety of forms in accordance with divinely ordained distinctions in national characteristics. Not surprisingly, this vision of a becoming universal church as a congregation of autonomous national churches, proved highly congenial in Anglican circles; and Maurice's six signs were adapted to form the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888. In the latter decades of the 20th century, Maurice's theory, and the various strands of Anglican thought that derived from it, have been criticised by Stephen Sykes; who argues that the terms Protestant and Catholic as used in these approaches are synthetic constructs denoting ecclesiastic identities unacceptable to those to whom the labels are applied. Hence, the Roman Catholic Church does not regard itself as a party or strand within the universal church – but rather identifies itself as the universal church. Moreover, Sykes criticises the proposition, implicit in theories of via media, that there is no distinctive body of Anglican doctrine, other than those of the universal church; accusing this of being an excuse not to undertake systematic doctrine at all. Contrariwise, Sykes notes a high degree of commonality in Anglican liturgical forms, and in the doctrinal understandings expressed within those liturgies. He proposes that Anglican identity might rather be found within a shared consistent pattern of prescriptive liturgies, established and maintained through canon law, and embodying both a historic deposit of formal statements of doctrine, and also framing the regular reading and proclamation of scripture. Sykes nevertheless agrees with those heirs of Maurice who emphasise the incompleteness of Anglicanism as a positive feature, and quotes with qualified approval the words of Michael Ramsay: Doctrine Catholic and Reformed In the time of Henry VIII the nature of Anglicanism was based on questions of jurisdiction – specifically, the belief of the Crown that national churches should be autonomous – rather than theological disagreement. The effort to create a national church in legal continuity with its traditions, but inclusive of certain doctrinal and liturgical beliefs of the Reformers, was joined by a real concern to make the institution as hospitable as possible to people of different theological inclinations, so as to maintain social peace and cohesion. The result has been a movement with a distinctive self-image among Christian movements. The question often arises as to whether the Anglican Communion should be identified as a Protestant or Catholic church, or perhaps as a distinct branch of Christianity altogether. The official position of the Anglican Communion is that, like the Roman Catholic and Orthodox communions, it is a full and distinct branch of the "One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church," created by Christ. The distinction between Reformed and Catholic, and the coherence of the two, is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican Churches and throughout the Anglican Communion by members themselves. Since the Oxford Movement of the mid-19th century, many Churches of the Communion have revived and extended liturgical and pastoral practices similar to Roman Catholic theology. This extends beyond the ceremony of High Church services to even more theologically significant territory, such as sacramental theology (see Anglican sacraments). While Anglo-Catholic practices, particularly liturgical ones, have resurfaced and become more common within the tradition over the last century, there remain many places where practices and beliefs remain on the more Reformed or Evangelical side (see Sydney Anglicanism). Guiding principles For 'High Church' Anglicans, doctrine is neither established by a magisterium, nor derived from the theology of an eponymous founder (such as Lutheranism or Calvinism), nor summed up in a confession of faith (beyond those of the creeds). For them, the earliest Anglican theological documents are its prayer books, which they see as the products of profound theological reflection, compromise, and synthesis. They emphasise the Book of Common Prayer as a key expression of Anglican doctrine. The principle of looking to the prayer books as a guide to the parameters of belief and practice is called by the Latin name lex orandi, lex credendi ("the law of prayer is the law of belief"). Within the prayer books are the so-called fundamentals of Anglican doctrine: The Apostles' and Nicene Creeds, the Athanasian Creed (extremely rarely recited, nowadays), the scriptures (via the lectionary), the sacraments, daily prayer, the catechism, and apostolic succession in the context of the historic threefold ministry. Evangelical Anglicans point more to the more Reformed Thirty Nine Articles, with their insistence on justification by faith alone and predestination, and their hostility to the Roman Catholic Church (see Anti-Catholicism). Following the passing of the 1604 Canons, all Anglican clergy had formally to subscribe to the Articles. Nowadays, however, they are no longer binding, but are seen as a historical document that has played a significant role in the shaping of Anglican identity. The degree to which each of the Articles has remained influential varies. Arguably, the most influential of them has been Article VI on the sufficiency of Scripture, which states that Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation. This article has informed Anglican biblical exegesis and hermeneutics since earliest times. Anglicans look for authority in their so-called "standard divines" (see below). Historically, the most influential of these – apart from Cranmer – has been the sixteenth century cleric and theologian Richard Hooker who after 1660 was increasingly portrayed as the founding father of Anglicanism. Hooker's description of Anglican authority as being derived primarily from Scripture, informed by reason (the intellect and the experience of God) and tradition (the practices and beliefs of the historical church), has influenced Anglican self-identity and doctrinal reflection perhaps more powerfully than any other formula. The analogy of the "three-legged stool" of scripture, reason, and tradition is often incorrectly attributed to Hooker. Rather Hooker's description is a hierarchy of authority, with scripture as foundational, and reason and tradition as vitally important, but secondary, authorities. Finally, the extension of Anglicanism into non-English cultures, the growing diversity of prayer books, and the increasing interest in ecumenical dialogue, has led to further reflection on the parameters of the Anglican identity. Many Anglicans look to the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888 as the "sine qua non" of Communal identity. In brief, the Quadrilateral's four points are the Holy Scriptures, as containing all things necessary to salvation; the Creeds (specifically, the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds), as the sufficient statement of Christian faith; the dominical sacraments of Baptism and Holy Communion; and the historic episcopate. Anglican divines Within the Anglican tradition, there have been certain theological writers whose works have been considered standards for faith, doctrine, worship, and spirituality. While there is no authoritative list of these Anglican divines, there are some whose names would likely be found on most lists – those who are commemorated in lesser feasts of the Church, and those whose works are frequently anthologised. The corpus produced by Anglican divines is diverse. What they have in common is a commitment to the faith as conveyed by Scripture and the Book of Common Prayer, thus regarding prayer and theology in a manner akin to that of the Apostolic Fathers. On the whole, Anglican divines view the via media of Anglicanism, not as a compromise, but "a positive position, witnessing to the universality of God and God's kingdom working through the fallible, earthly ecclesia Anglicana." These theologians regard Scripture as interpreted through tradition and reason as authoritative in matters concerning salvation. Reason and tradition, indeed, is extant in and presupposed by Scripture, thus implying co-operation between God and humanity, God and nature, and between the sacred and secular. Faith is thus regarded as incarnational, and authority as dispersed. Among the early Anglican divines of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the names of Thomas Cranmer, John Jewel, Richard Hooker, Lancelot Andrewes, and Jeremy Taylor predominate. The influential character of Hooker's Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity cannot be overestimated. Published in 1593 and subsequently, Hooker's eight volume work is primarily a treatise on Church-state relations, but it deals comprehensively with issues of biblical interpretation, soteriology, ethics, and sanctification. Throughout the work, Hooker makes clear that theology involves prayer and is concerned with ultimate issues, and that theology is relevant to the social mission of the church. The eighteenth century saw the rise of two important movements in Anglicanism: Cambridge Platonism, with its mystical understanding of reason as the "candle of the Lord," and the Evangelical Revival, with its emphasis on the personal experience of the Holy Spirit. The Cambridge Platonist movement evolved into a school called Latitudinarianism, which emphasised reason as the barometer of discernment and took a stance of indifference towards doctrinal and ecclesiological differences. The Evangelical Revival, influenced by such figures as John Wesley and Charles Simeon, re-emphasised the importance of justification through faith and the consequent importance of personal conversion. Some in this movement, such as Wesley and George Whitefield, took the message to the United States, influencing the First Great Awakening, and created an Anglo-American movement called Methodism that would eventually break away, structurally, from the Anglican churches after the American Revolution. By the nineteenth century, there was a renewed emphasis on the teachings of the earlier Anglican divines: Theologians such as John Keble, Edward Bouverie Pusey, and John Henry Newman had widespread influence in the realm of polemics, homiletics, and theological and devotional works, not least because they largely repudiated the Old High Church tradition and replaced it with a dynamic appeal to antiquity which looked beyond the Reformers and Anglican formularies. Their work is largely credited with the development of the Oxford Movement, which sought to reassert Catholic identity and practice in the Anglican Church. Through such works as The Kingdom of Christ, Frederick Denison Maurice played a pivotal role in inaugurating another movement, Christian socialism. In this, Maurice transformed Hooker's emphasis on the incarnational nature of Anglican spirituality to an imperative for social justice. In the nineteenth century, Anglican biblical scholarship began to assume a distinct character, represented by the so-called "Cambridge triumvirate" of Joseph Lightfoot, F. J. A. Hort, and Brooke Foss Westcott. Their orientation is best summed up by Lightfoot's observation that "Life which Christ is and which Christ communicates, the life which fills our whole beings as we realise its capacities, is active fellowship with God." The twentieth century is marked by figures such as Charles Gore, with his emphasis on natural revelation, William Temple's focus on Christianity and society, J.A.T. Robinson's provocative discussions of deism and theism, Darwell Stone's and E. L. Mascall's thomism and defence of Catholic orthodoxy, and Kenneth Kirk's Moral Theology. Outside England, one sees such figures as William Porcher DuBose, William Meade, and Charles Henry Brent in the United States. More recently, theologians such as Henry Chadwick, John Macquarrie and Don Cupitt, who rejected all the doctrines of historic Christianity in favour of a "Christian Buddhism", Jeffrey John, N.T. Wright, and Rowan Williams have added to the mix. Churchmanship "Churchmanship" can be defined as the manifestation of theology in the realms of liturgy, piety and, to some extent, spirituality. Anglican diversity in this respect has tended to reflect the diversity in the tradition's Reformed and Catholic identity. Different individuals, groups, parishes, dioceses and provinces may identify more closely with one or the other, or some mixture of the two. The range of Anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the 19th century when some clergy were disciplined and even imprisoned on charges of ritual heresy while, at the same time, others were criticised for engaging in public worship services with ministers of Reformed churches. Resistance to the growing acceptance and restoration of traditional Catholic ceremonial by the mainstream of Anglicanism ultimately led to the formation of small breakaway churches such as the Free Church of England in England (1844) and the Reformed Episcopal Church in North America (1873). Anglo-Catholic (and some Broad Church) Anglicans celebrate public liturgy in ways that understand worship to be something very special and of utmost importance. Vestments are worn by the clergy, sung settings are often used and incense may be used. Nowadays, in most Anglican churches, the Eucharist is celebrated in a manner similar to the usage of Roman Catholics and some Lutherans though, in many churches, more traditional, "pre-Vatican II", models of worship are common, (e.g. an "eastward orientation" at the altar). Whilst many Anglo-Catholics derive much of their liturgical practice from that of the pre-Reformation English church, others more closely follow traditional Roman Catholic practices. The Eucharist may be sometimes be celebrated, in the form known as High Mass, with a priest, deacon and subdeacon dressed in traditional vestments, with incense and sanctus bells and with prayers adapted from the Roman missal or other sources by the celebrant. Such churches may also have forms of Eucharistic adoration such as Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. In terms of personal piety some Anglicans may recite the rosary and angelus, be involved in a devotional society dedicated to "Our Lady" (the Blessed Virgin Mary) and seek the intercession of the saints. In recent years the prayer books of several provinces have, out of deference to a greater agreement with Eastern Conciliarism (and a perceived greater respect accorded Anglicanism by Eastern Orthodoxy than by Roman Catholicism), instituted a number of historically Eastern and Oriental Orthodox elements in their liturgies, including introduction of the Trisagion and deletion of the filioque clause from the Nicene Creed. For their part, those Evangelical (and some Broad Church) Anglicans who emphasise the more Protestant aspects of the Church stress the Reformation theme of salvation by grace through faith. They emphasise the two dominical sacraments of Baptism and Eucharist, viewing the other five as "lesser rites". Some Evangelical Anglicans may even tend to take the inerrancy of Scripture literally, adopting the view of Article VI that it contains all things necessary to salvation in an explicit sense. Worship in churches influenced by these principles tends to be significantly less elaborate, with greater emphasis on the Liturgy of the Word (the reading of the scriptures, the sermon and the intercessory prayers). The Order for Holy Communion may be celebrated bi-weekly or monthly (in preference to the daily offices), by priests attired in choir habit, or more regular clothes, rather than Eucharistic vestments. Ceremony may be in keeping with their view of the provisions of the 17th century Puritans – in spite of the nineteenth century Anglo-Catholic interpretation of the Ornaments Rubric – no candles, no incense, no bells and a minimum of manual actions by the presiding celebrant (such as touching the elements at the Words of Institution). In recent decades there has been a growth of charismatic worship among Anglicans. Both Anglo-Catholics and Evangelicals have been affected by this movement such that it is not uncommon to find typically charismatic postures, music, and other themes evident during the services of otherwise Anglo-Catholic or Evangelical parishes. The spectrum of Anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels. Many Anglicans locate themselves somewhere in the spectrum of the Broad Church tradition and consider themselves an amalgam of Evangelical and Catholic. Such Anglicans stress that Anglicanism is the "via media" (middle way) between the two major strains of Western Christianity and that Anglicanism is like a "bridge" between the two strains. Sacramental doctrine and practice As befits its prevailing self-identity as a via media or "middle path" of Western Christianity, Anglican sacramental theology expresses elements in keeping with its status as being both a church in the Catholic tradition as well as a church of the Reformation. With respect to sacramental theology the Catholic heritage is perhaps most strongly asserted in the importance Anglicanism places on the sacraments as a means of grace, sanctification and salvation as expressed in the church's liturgy and doctrine. Of the seven sacraments, Anglicans recognise baptism and the Eucharist as being directly instituted by Christ. The other five sacraments are regarded variously as full sacraments by Anglo-Catholics or as "sacramental rites" by Evangelicals. The seven sacraments are Baptism, Confession and absolution, Holy Matrimony, Holy Eucharist (also called Holy Communion or Mass or The Lord's Supper), Confirmation, Holy Orders (also called Ordination), and Anointing of the Sick (also called Unction.) Whilst infant baptism is the norm in Anglicanism, services of thanksgiving and dedication of children are sometimes celebrated, especially when baptism is being deferred. Anglicans regard baptism as an unrepeatable sacrament. People baptized in other traditions will be confirmed without being baptized again unless there is doubt about the validity of their original baptism. Already confirmed Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians are simply received into the Anglican Church. Eucharistic theology Anglican Eucharistic theology is divergent in practice, reflecting the essential comprehensiveness of the tradition. Some Low Church Anglicans take a strictly memorialist (Zwinglian) view of the sacrament. In other words, they see Holy Communion as a memorial to Christ's suffering, and participation in the Eucharist as both a re-enactment of the Last Supper and a foreshadowing of the heavenly banquet – the fulfilment of the Eucharistic promise. Other Low Church Anglicans believe in the Real Presence but deny that the presence of Christ is carnal or is necessarily localised in the bread and wine. Despite explicit criticism in the Thirty-Nine Articles, many High Church or Anglo-Catholic Anglicans hold, more or less, the Roman Catholic view of the Real Presence, as expressed in the doctrine of transubstantiation, seeing the Eucharist as a liturgical representation of Christ's atoning sacrifice with the elements actually transformed into Christ's Body and Blood. Most Anglicans, however, implicitly or explicitly adopt the Eucharistic theology of consubstantiation, first articulated by the Lollards, or Sacramental Union, first articulated by Martin Luther. Luther's analogy of Christ's presence was that of the heat of a horseshoe thrust into a fire until it is glowing. In the same way, Christ is present in the bread and the wine. The classical Anglican aphorism regarding Christ's presence in the sacrament is found in a poem by John Donne: He was the Word that spake it; He took the bread and brake it; and what that Word did make it; I do believe and take it. Donne, John. Divine Poems – On the Sacrament, (Flesher's Edition) http://www.giga-usa.com/quotes/topics/doctrine_t001.htm An Anglican position on the Eucharistic sacrifice ("Sacrifice of the Mass") was expressed in the response Saepius Officio of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to Pope Leo XIII's Papal Encyclical Apostolicae curae. Anglican and Roman Catholic representatives declared that they had "substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist" in the Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation and the Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement. Despite this agreement, other ecclesiological differences between the two churches prevent full intercommunion. Practices: prayer and worship In Anglicanism there is a distinction between liturgy, which is the formal public and communal worship of the Church, and personal prayer and devotion which may be public or private. Liturgy is regulated by the prayer books and consists of the Holy Eucharist (some call it Holy Communion or Mass), the other six Sacraments, and the Divine Office or Liturgy of the Hours. Book of Common Prayer The Book of Common Prayer (BCP) is the foundational prayer book of Anglicanism. The original was one of the instruments of the English Reformation and was later to be adapted and revised in other countries where Anglicanism became established. The BCP replaced the various 'uses' or rites in Latin that had been used in different parts of the country with a single compact volume in the language of the people so that "now from henceforth all the Realm shall have but one use". With British colonial expansion from the seventeenth century onwards, the Anglican church was planted across the globe. These churches at first used and then revised the use of the Prayer Book, until they, like their parent, produced prayer books which took into account the developments in liturgical study and practice in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, which come under the general heading of the Liturgical Movement. Anglican worship: an overview Anglican worship services are open to all visitors. Anglican worship originates principally in the reforms of Thomas Cranmer, who aimed to create a set order of service like that of the pre-Reformation church but less complex in its seasonal variety and said in English rather than Latin. This use of a set order of service is not unlike the Roman Catholic tradition. Traditionally the pattern was that laid out in the Book of Common Prayer. Although many Anglican churches now use a wide range of modern service books written in the local language, the structures of the Book of Common Prayer are largely retained. Churches which call themselves Anglican will have identified themselves so because they use some form or variant of the Book of Common Prayer in the shaping of their worship. Anglican worship, however, is as diverse as Anglican theology. A contemporary "low church" or Evangelical service may differ little from the worship of many mainstream Protestant churches. The service is constructed around a sermon focused on Biblical exposition and opened with one or more Bible readings and closed by a series of prayers (both set and extemporised) and hymns or songs. A "high church" or Anglo-Catholic service, by contrast, is usually a more formal liturgy celebrated by clergy in distinctive vestments and may be almost indistinguishable from a Roman Catholic service, often resembling the "pre-Vatican II" Tridentine rite. Between these extremes are a variety of styles of worship, often involving a robed choir and the use of the organ to accompany the singing and to provide music before and after the service. Anglican churches tend to have pews or chairs and it is usual for the congregation to kneel for some prayers but to stand for hymns and other parts of the service such as the Gloria, Collect, Gospel reading, Creed and either the Preface or all of the Eucharistic Prayer. High Anglicans may genuflect or cross themselves in the same way as Roman Catholics. Until the mid-twentieth century the main Sunday service was typically morning prayer, but the Eucharist has once again become the standard form of Sunday worship in many Anglican churches; this again is similar to Roman Catholic practice. Other common Sunday services include an early morning Eucharist without music, an abbreviated Eucharist following a service of morning prayer and a service of evening prayer, sometimes in the form of sung Evensong, usually celebrated between 3 and 6 p.m. The late-evening service of Compline was revived in parish use in the early 20th century. Many Anglican churches will also have daily morning and evening prayer and some have midweek or even daily celebration of the Eucharist. An Anglican service (whether or not a Eucharist) will include readings from the Bible that are generally taken from a standardised lectionary, which provides for the entire Bible (and some passages from the Apocrypha) to be read out loud in the church over a three year cycle. The sermon (or homily) is typically about ten to twenty minutes in length, though it may be much longer in Evangelical churches. Even in the most informal Evangelical services it is common for set prayers such as the weekly Collect to be read. There are also set forms for intercessory prayer, though this is now more often extemporaneous. In high and Anglo-Catholic churches there are generally prayers for the dead. Although Anglican public worship is usually ordered according to the canonically approved services, in practice many Anglican churches use forms of service outside these norms. Many Evangelical churches sit lightly to the set forms of morning and evening prayer, though generally respecting the canonical order of Holy Communion. Liberal churches may use freely structured or experimental forms of worship, including patterns borrowed from ecumenical traditions such as those of Taizé Community or the Iona Community. Anglo-Catholic parishes might use the modern Roman Catholic liturgy of the Mass or more traditional forms, such as the Tridentine Mass (which is translated into English in the English Missal), the Anglican Missal, or, less commonly, the Sarum Rite. Traditional Catholic devotions such as the Rosary, Angelus and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament are also common among Anglo-Catholics. Eucharistic discipline Only baptised persons are eligible to receive communion, although in many churches communion is restricted to those who have not only been baptised but also confirmed. In many Anglican provinces, however, all baptised Christians are now often invited to receive communion and some dioceses have regularised a system for admitting baptised young people to communion before they are confirmed. The discipline of fasting before communion is practised by some Anglicans. Most Anglican priests require the presence of at least one other person for the celebration of the Eucharist (referring back to Christ's statement in Math 18:20 "When two or more are gathered in my name, I will be in the midst of them"), though some Anglo-Catholic priests (like Roman Catholic priests) may say private Masses. As in the Roman Catholic Church, it is a canonical requirement to use fermented wine for the Communion; unlike in Roman Catholicism, however, the consecrated bread and wine are always offered together to the congregation in a Eucharistic service ("Communion in Both Kinds"). In some churches the sacrament is reserved in a tabernacle or aumbry with a lighted candle or lamp nearby. Only a priest or a bishop may be the celebrant at the Eucharist, though Sydney Anglicans may soon authorise lay people to celebrate the Mass. Divine office All Anglican prayer books contain offices for Morning Prayer (Matins) and Evening Prayer (Evensong). In the original Book of Common Prayer these were derived from combinations of the ancient monastic offices of Matins and Lauds; and Vespers and Compline respectively. The prayer offices have an important place in Anglican history. Prior to the Catholic revival of the nineteenth century, which eventually restored the Holy Eucharist as the principal Sunday liturgy, and especially during the eighteenth century, a morning service combining Matins, the Litany and ante-Communion comprised the usual expression of common worship; while Matins and Evensong were sung daily in cathedrals and some collegiate chapels. This nurtured a tradition of distinctive Anglican chant applied to the canticles and psalms used at the offices (although plainsong is often used as well). In some official and unofficial Anglican service books these offices are supplemented by other offices such as the Little Hours of Prime and prayer during the day such as (Terce, Sext, None and Compline). Some Anglican monastic communities have a Daily Office based on that of the Book of Common Prayer but with additional antiphons and canticles, etc. for specific days of the week, specific psalms, etc. See, for example, Order of the Holy Cross http://www.holycrossmonastery.com and Order of St Helena, editors, A Monastic Breviary (Wilton, Conn.: Morehouse-Barlow, 1976). The All Saints Sisters of the Poor, http://www.geocities.com/xnomad4/index.html with convents in Catonsville, Maryland and elsewhere use an elaborated version of the Anglican Daily Office. The Society of St. Francis publishes Celebrating Common Prayer which has become especially popular for use among Anglicans. In England, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and some other Anglican provinces the modern prayer books contain four offices: Morning Prayer, corresponding to Matins and Lauds Prayer During the Day, roughly corresponding to the combination of Terce, Sext and None (Noonday Prayer in the USA) Evening Prayer, corresponding to Vespers Compline In addition, most prayer books include a section of prayers and devotions for family use. In the US, these offices are further supplemented by an "Order of Worship for the Evening", a prelude to or an abbreviated form of Evensong, partly derived from Orthodox prayers. In the United Kingdom, the publication of Daily Prayer, the third volume of Common Worship was published in 2005. It retains the services for Morning and Evening Prayer and Compline and includes a section entitled "Prayer during the Day". 'A New Zealand Prayer Book' of 1989 provides different outlines for Matins and Evensong on each day of the week, as well as "Midday Prayer", "Night Prayer" and "Family Prayer". Some Anglicans who pray the office on daily basis use the present Divine Office of the Roman Catholic Church. In many cities, especially in England, Anglican and Roman Catholic priests and lay people often meet several times a week to pray the office in common. A small but enthusiastic minority use the Anglican Breviary, or other translations and adaptations of the Pre-Vatican II Roman Rite and Sarum Rite, along with supplemental material from cognate western sources, to provide such things as a common of Octaves, a common of Holy Women and other additional material. Others may privately use idiosyncratic forms borrowed from a wide range of Christian traditions. "Quires and Places where they sing" In the late medieval period, many English cathedrals and monasteries had established small choirs of trained lay clerks and boy choristers to perform polyphonic settings of the Mass in their Lady Chapels. Although these "Lady Masses" were discontinued at the Reformation, the associated musical tradition was maintained in the Elizabethan Settlement through the establishment of choral foundations for daily singing of the Divine Office by expanded choirs of men and boys. This resulted from an explicit addition by Elizabeth herself to the injunctions accompanying the 1559 Book of Common Prayer (that had itself made no mention of choral worship) by which existing choral foundations and choir schools were instructed to be continued, and their endowments secured. Consequently, some thirty-four cathedrals, collegiate churches and royal chapels maintained paid establishments of lay singing men and choristers in the late 16th century. All save four of these have – with an interruption during the Commonwealth – continued daily choral prayer and praise to this day. In the Offices of Matins and Evensong in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, these choral establishments are specified as "Quires and Places where they sing". For nearly three centuries, this round of daily professional choral worship represented a tradition entirely distinct from that embodied in the intoning of Parish Clerks, and the singing of "west gallery choirs" which commonly accompanied weekly worship in English parish churches. However, in 1841, the rebuilt Leeds Parish Church established a surpliced choir to accompany parish services; drawing explicitly on the musical traditions of the ancient choral foundations; and over the next century, the Leeds example proved immensely popular and influential for choirs in cathedrals, parish churches and schools throughout the Anglican communion. More or less extensively adapted, this choral tradition also became the direct inspiration for robed choirs leading congregational worship in a wide range of Christian denominations. In 1719 the cathedral choirs of Gloucester, Hereford and Worcester combined to establish the annual Three Choirs Festival, the precursor for the multitude of summer music festivals since. By the 20th century, the choral tradition had become for many the most accessible face of worldwide Anglicanism – especially as promoted through the regular broadcasting of choral evensong by the BBC; and also in the annual televising of the festival of Nine lessons and carols from King's College, Cambridge. Composers closely concerned with this tradition include Edward Elgar, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Gustav Holst, Charles Villiers Stanford and Benjamin Britten. A number of important 20th century works by non-Anglican composers were originally commissioned for the Anglican choral tradition – for example the Chichester Psalms of Leonard Bernstein, and the Nunc dimittis of Arvo Pärt. Organisation and mission of the Church Principles of governance Contrary to popular misconception, the British monarch is not the constitutional "Head" but in law "The Supreme Governor" of the Church of England, nor does he or she have any role in provinces outside England. The role of the crown in the Church of England is practically limited to the appointment of bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, and even this role is limited, as the Church presents the government with a short list of candidates to choose from. This process is accomplished through collaboration with and consent of ecclesial representatives (see Ecclesiastical Commissioners). The monarch has no constitutional role in Anglican churches in other parts of the world, although the prayer books of several countries where she is head of state maintain prayers for her as sovereign. A characteristic of Anglicanism is that it has no international juridical authority. All thirty-nine provinces of the Anglican Communion are independent, each with their own primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or South Asia), or geographical regions (such as Vanuatu and Solomon Islands) etc. Within these Communion provinces may exist subdivisions called ecclesiastical provinces, under the jurisdiction of a metropolitan archbishop. All provinces of the Anglican Communion consist of dioceses, each under the jurisdiction of a bishop. In the Anglican tradition, bishops must be consecrated according to the strictures of apostolic succession, which Anglicans consider one of the marks of catholicity. Apart from bishops, there are two other orders of ordained ministry: deacon and priest. No requirement is made for clerical celibacy, though many Anglo-Catholic priests have traditionally been bachelors. Because of innovations that occurred at various points after the latter half of the twentieth century, women may be ordained as deacons in almost all provinces, as priests in some, and as bishops in a few provinces. Anglican religious orders and communities, suppressed in England during the Reformation, have re-emerged, especially since the mid-nineteenth century, and now have an international presence and influence. Government in the Anglican Communion is synodical, consisting of three houses of laity (usually elected parish representatives), clergy, and bishops. National, provincial, and diocesan synods maintain different scopes of authority, depending on their canons and constitutions. Anglicanism is not congregational in its polity: It is the diocese, not the parish church, which is the smallest unit of authority in the church, and diocesan bishops must give their assent to resolutions passed by synods. (See Episcopal polity). Focus of Unity: The Archbishop of Canterbury The Archbishop of Canterbury has a precedence of honour over the other primates of the Anglican Communion, and for a province to be considered a part of the Communion means specifically to be in full communion with the See of Canterbury. The Archbishop is, therefore, recognised as primus inter pares, or first amongst equals even though he does not exercise any direct authority in any province outside England, of which he is chief primate. The current Archbishop of Canterbury as of 2003, Rowan Williams is the first appointed from outside the Church of England since the Reformation: he was formerly the Archbishop of Wales. As "spiritual head" of the Communion, the Archbishop of Canterbury maintains a certain moral authority, and has the right to determine which churches will be in communion with his See. He hosts and chairs the Lambeth Conferences of Anglican Communion bishops, and decides who will be invited to them. He also hosts and chairs the Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting and is responsible for the invitations to it. He acts as president of the secretariat of the Anglican Communion Office, and its deliberative body, the Anglican Consultative Council. Instruments of unity The Anglican Communion has no international juridical organisation. All international bodies are consultative and collaborative, and their resolutions are not legally binding on the independent provinces of the Communion. There are three international bodies of note. The Lambeth Conference is the oldest international consultation. It was first convened by Archbishop Charles Longley in 1867 as a vehicle for bishops of the Communion to "discuss matters of practical interest, and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action." Since then, it has been held roughly every ten years. Invitation is by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Anglican Consultative Council was created by a 1968 Lambeth Conference resolution, and meets biennially. The council consists of representative bishops, clergy, and laity chosen by the thirty-eight provinces. The body has a permanent secretariat, the Anglican Communion Office, of which the Archbishop of Canterbury is president. The Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation, having been first convened by Archbishop Donald Coggan in 1978 as a forum for "leisurely thought, prayer and deep consultation." Ordained ministry Like the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches (but unlike most Protestant churches), the Anglican Communion maintains the threefold ministry of deacons, priests and bishops. Episcopate Bishops, who possess the fullness of Christian priesthood, are the successors of the Apostles. Primates, archbishops and metropolitans are all bishops and members of the historical episcopate who derive their authority through apostolic succession – an unbroken line of bishops that can be traced back to the apostles of Jesus. Priesthood (Presbyterate) Bishops are assisted by priests and deacons. Most ordained ministers in the Anglican Communion are priests, who usually work in parishes within a diocese. Priests in charge of the spiritual life of parishes are usually called the rector or vicar. A curate (or, more correctly, an 'assistant curate') is a term often used for a priest or deacon who assists the parish priest. Non-parochial priests may earn their living by any vocation, though these are usually related to the educational, social service or healing professions. Many other non-stipendiary priests will work in Christian-related fields such as chaplains of hospitals, schools, prisons and the armed forces. An archdeacon is a priest or deacon responsible for administration of an archdeaconry, which is often the name given to the principal subdivisions of a diocese. An archdeacon represents the diocesan bishop in his or her archdeaconry. In the Church of England the position of archdeacon can only be held by someone in priestly orders who has been ordained for at least six years. In some other parts of the Anglican Communion the position can also be held by deacons. In parts of the Anglican Communion where women cannot be ordained as priests or bishops, the position of archdeacon is effectively the most senior office an ordained woman can be appointed to. The Anglican Communion recognises Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox ordinations as valid. Outside the Anglican Communion, Anglican ordinations (at least of male priests) are recognised by the Old Catholics and various Independent Catholic churches. Diaconate In Anglican churches, deacons often work directly in ministry to the marginalised inside and outside the church: the poor, the sick, the hungry, the imprisoned. Unlike Orthodox and Roman Catholic deacons who may be married only before ordination, deacons are permitted to marry freely both before and after ordination, as are priests. Most deacons are preparing for priesthood, and usually only remain as deacons for about a year before being ordained priests. However, there are some deacons who remain deacons. Many provinces of the Anglican Communion ordain both women and men as deacons. Many of those provinces that ordain women to the priesthood previously allowed them to be ordained only to the diaconate. The effect of this was the creation of a large and overwhelmingly female diaconate for a time, as most men proceeded to be ordained priest after a short time as a deacon. Deacons may baptize and in some dioceses are granted licences to solemnize matrimony, usually under the instruction of their parish priest and bishop. They sometimes officiate at Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, in the churches that have this service. Deacons are not permitted to preside at the Eucharist (but can lead worship with the distribution of already-consecrated Communion where this is permitted), absolve sins or pronounce a blessing in the name of the Church, http://www.katapi.org.uk/ChristianFaith/LXIII.htm#IV (however, these last two are sometimes permitted in an indirect form). It is the prohibition against deacons pronouncing a blessing in the Church's name that leads some in the church to believe that a deacon cannot properly solemnize matrimony. In most cases, deacons minister alongside other clergy. Laity All baptised members of the church are called Christian faithful, truly equal in dignity and in the work to build the church. Some non-ordained people also have a formal public ministry, often on a full-time and life-long basis – such as lay readers (also known as readers), churchwardens, vergers and sextons. Religious life A small yet influential aspect of Anglicanism is its religious orders and communities. Shortly after the beginning of the Catholic Revival in the Church of England, there was a renewal of interest in re-establishing religious and monastic orders and communities. One of Henry VIII's earliest acts was their dissolution and seizure of their assets. In 1841 Marion Rebecca Hughes became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the Province of Canterbury since the Reformation. In 1848, Priscilla Lydia Sellon became the superior of the Society of the Most Holy Trinity at Devonport, the first organised religious order. Sellon is called "the restorer, after three centuries, of the religious life in the Church of England." For the next one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated throughout the world, becoming a numerically small but disproportionately influential feature of global Anglicanism. Anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to God under the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience (or in Benedictine communities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practicing a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the Breviary in choir, along with a daily Eucharist, plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combining aspects of the contemplative orders and the active orders remains to this day a hallmark of Anglican religious life. Another distinctive feature of Anglican religious life is the existence of some mixed-gender communities. Since the 1960s there has been a sharp decline in the number of professed religious in most parts of the Anglican Communion, especially in North America, Europe, and Australia. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery with memberships of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are however, still thousands of Anglican religious working today in approximately 200 communities around the world, and religious life in many parts of the Communion – especially in developing nations – flourishes. The most significant growth has been in the Melanesian countries of the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea. The Melanesian Brotherhood, founded at Tabalia, Guadalcanal, in 1925 by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450 brothers in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and the United Kingdom. The Sisters of the Church, started by Mother Emily Ayckbowm in England in 1870, has more sisters in the Solomons than all their other communities. The Community of the Sisters of Melanesia, started in 1980 by Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of women throughout the Solomon Islands. The Society of Saint Francis, founded as a union of various Franciscan orders in the 1920s, has experienced great growth in the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Most Melanesian Anglican religious are in their early to mid 20s – vows may be temporary and it is generally assumed that brothers, at least, will leave and marry in due course – making the average age 40 to 50 years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries. Growth of religious orders, especially for women, is marked in certain parts of Africa. Worldwide distribution Anglicanism represents the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The number of Anglicans in the world is slightly over 77 million. Major Branches of Religions The 11 provinces in Africa saw explosive growth in the last two decades. They now include 36.7 million members, more Anglicans than there are in England. England remains the largest single Anglican province, with 26 million members. In most industrialised countries, church attendance has decreased since the 19th century. Anglicanism's presence in the rest of the world is due to large-scale emigration, the establishment of expatriate communities or the work of missionaries. The Church of England has been a church of missionaries since the seventeenth century when the Church first left English shores with colonists who founded what would become the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa and established Anglican churches. For example, an Anglican chaplain, Robert Wolfall, with Martin Frobisher's Arctic expedition celebrated the Eucharist in 1578 in Frobisher Bay. The first Anglican church in the Americas was built at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. By the eighteenth century, missionaries worked to establish Anglican churches in Asia, Africa and Latin America. The great Church of England missionary societies were founded; for example the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (SPCK) in 1698. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (SPG) in 1701, and the Church Mission Society (CMS) in 1799. The nineteenth century saw the founding and expansion of social oriented evangelism with societies such as the Church Pastoral Aid Society (CPAS) in 1836, Mission to Seafarers in 1856, Mothers' Union in 1876 and Church Army in 1882 all carrying out a personal form of evangelism. The twentieth century saw the Church of England developing new forms of evangelism such as the Alpha course in 1990 which was developed and propagated from Holy Trinity Brompton Church in London. In the twenty-first century, there has been renewed effort to reach children and youth. Fresh expressions is a Church of England missionary initiative to youth begun in 2005, and has ministries at a skate park Legacy XS Youth Centre & Skatepark, St. George's, Benfleet through the efforts of St George's Church, Benfleet, Essex – Diocese of Chelmsford – or youth groups with evocative names, like the C.L.A.W (Christ Little Angels – Whatever!) youth group at Coventry Cathedral. And for the unchurched who do not actually wish to visit a bricks and mortar church there are Internet ministries such as the Diocese of Oxford's online Anglican i-Church which appeared on the web in 2005. Ecumenism Anglican interest in ecumenical dialogue can be traced back to the time of the Reformation and dialogues with both Orthodox and Lutheran churches in the sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century, with the rise of the Oxford Movement, there arose greater concern for reunion of the churches of "Catholic confession." This desire to work towards full communion with other denominations led to the development of the Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral, approved by the Third Lambeth Conference of 1888. The four points (the sufficiency of scripture, the historic creeds, the two dominical sacraments, and the historic episcopate) were proposed as a basis for discussion, although they have frequently been taken as a non-negotiable bottom-line for any form of reunion. Role of the Church in civilisation Anglican concern with broader issues of social justice can be traced to its earliest divines. Richard Hooker, for instance, wrote that "God hath created nothing simply for itself, but each thing in all things, and of every thing each part in other have such interest, that in the whole world nothing is found whereunto any thing created can say, 'I need thee not.'" This, and related statements, reflect the deep thread of incarnational theology running through Anglican social thought – a theology which sees God, nature, and humanity in dynamic interaction, and the interpenetration of the secular and the sacred in the make-up of the cosmos. Such theology is informed by a traditional English spiritual ethos, rooted in Celtic Christianity and reinforced by Anglicanism's origins as an established church, bound up by its structure in the life and interests of civil society. Repeatedly, throughout Anglican history, this principle has reasserted itself in movements of social justice. For instance, in the eighteenth century the influential Evangelical Anglican William Wilberforce, along with others, campaigned against the slave trade. In the nineteenth century, the dominant issues concerned the adverse effects of industrialisation. The usual Anglican response was to focus on education and give support to 'The National Society for the Education of the Children of the Poor in the principles of the Church of England'. Lord Shaftesbury, a devout Evangelical, campaigned to improve the conditions in factories, in mines, for chimney sweeps, and for the education of the very poor. For years he was chairman of the Ragged School Board. Frederick Denison Maurice was a leading figure advocating reform, founding so-called "producer's co-operatives" and the Working Men's College. His work was instrumental in the establishment of the Christian socialist movement, although he himself was not in any real sense a socialist but, "a Tory paternalist with the unusual desire to theories his acceptance of the traditional obligation to help the poor", influenced Anglo-Catholics such as Charles Gore, who wrote that, "the principle of the incarnation is denied unless the Christian spirit can be allowed to concern itself with everything that interests and touches human life." Anglican focus on labour issues culminated in the work of William Temple in the 1930s and 1940s. Pacifism A question of whether or not Christianity is a pacifist religion has remained a matter of debate for Anglicans. In 1937, the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship emerged as a distinct reform organisation, seeking to make pacifism a clearly defined part of Anglican theology. The group rapidly gained popularity amongst Anglican intellectuals, including Vera Brittain, Evelyn Underhill and former British political leader George Lansbury. Furthermore, the Reverend Dick Sheppard, who during the 1930s was one of Britain's most famous Anglican priests due to his landmark sermon broadcasts for BBC radio, founded the Peace Pledge Union a secular pacifist organisation for the non-religious that gained considerable support throughout the 1930s. Whilst never actively endorsed by the Anglican Church, many Anglicans unofficially have adopted the Augustinian "Just War" doctrine. The Anglican Pacifist Fellowship remain highly active throughout the Anglican world. It rejects this doctrine of "just war" and seeks to reform the Church by reintroducing the pacifism inherent in the beliefs of many of the earliest Christians and present in their interpretation of Christ's Sermon on the Mount. Confusing the matter was the fact that the 37th Article of Religion in the Book of Common Prayer states that "it is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the Magistrate, to wear weapons, and serve in the wars." Therefore, the Lambeth Council in the modern era has sought to provide a clearer position by repudiating modern war and developed a statement that has been affirmed at each subsequent meeting of the Council. This statement was strongly reasserted when "the 67th General Convention of the Episcopal Church reaffirms the statement made by the Anglican Bishops assembled at Lambeth in 1978 and adopted by the 66th General Convention of the Episcopal Church in 1979, calling "Christian people everywhere ... to engage themselves in non-violent action for justice and peace and to support others so engaged, recognizing that such action will be controversial and may be personally very costly... this General Convention, in obedience to this call, urges all members of this Church to support by prayer and by such other means as they deem appropriate, those who engaged in such non-violent action, and particularly those who suffer for conscience' sake as a result; and be it further Resolved, that this General Convention calls upon all members of this Church seriously to consider the implications for their own lives of this call to resist war and work for peace for their own lives." After World War II The focus on other social issues became increasingly diffuse after the Second World War. On the one hand, the growing independence and strength of Anglican churches in the global south brought new emphasis to issues of global poverty, the inequitable distribution of resources, and the lingering effects of colonialism. In this regard, figures such as Desmond Tutu and Ted Scott were instrumental in mobilizing Anglicans worldwide against the apartheid policies of South Africa. Rapid social change in the industrialised world during the twentieth century compelled the church to examine issues of gender, sexuality and marriage. These changes led to Lambeth Conference resolutions countenancing contraception and the remarriage of divorced persons. They led to most provinces approving the ordination of women. In more recent years it has led some jurisdictions to permit the ordination of people in same-sex relationships and to authorise rites for the blessing of same-sex unions (see homosexuality and Anglicanism). More conservative elements within Anglicanism (primarily African churches and factions within North American Anglicanism) are opposed to these changes. Some liberal and moderate Anglicans see this opposition as representing a new fundamentalism within Anglicanism. The lack of social consensus among and within provinces of diverse cultural traditions has resulted in considerable conflict and even schism concerning some or all of these developments (see Anglican realignment). Some Anglicans opposed to various liberalising changes, in particular the ordination of women, have converted to Roman Catholicism. These latter trends reflect a countervailing tendency in Anglicanism towards insularity, reinforced perhaps by the "big tent" nature of the movement, which seeks to be comprehensive of various views and tendencies. The insularity and complacency of the early established Church of England has tended to influence Anglican self-identity, and inhibit engagement with the broader society in favour of internal debate and dialogue. Nonetheless, there is significantly greater cohesion among Anglicans when they turn their attention outward. Anglicans worldwide are active in many areas of social and environmental concern. References Further reading Hein, David, ed. (1991). Readings in Anglican Spirituality. Cincinnati: Forward Movement. Hein, David. (2009). "Thoughtful Holiness: The Rudiments of Anglican Identity." Sewanee Theological Review''. External links Anglican Communion official website What it means to be an Anglican article Anglican History website Anglicans Online website ReligionFacts.com – Anglican articles

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Hausdorff_space

In topology and related branches of mathematics, a Hausdorff space, separated space or T2 space is a topological space in which distinct points have disjoint neighbourhoods. Of the many separation axioms that can be imposed on a topological space, the "Hausdorff condition" (T2) is the most frequently used and discussed. It implies the uniqueness of limits of sequences, nets, and filters. Intuitively, the condition is illustrated by the pun that a space is Hausdorff if any two points can be "housed off" from each other by open sets. Hausdorff spaces are named for Felix Hausdorff, one of the founders of topology. Hausdorff's original definition of a topological space (in 1914) included the Hausdorff condition as an axiom. Definitions The points x and y, separated by their respective neighbourhoods U and V. Suppose that X is a topological space. Let x and y be points in X. We say that x and y can be separated by neighbourhoods if there exists a neighbourhood U of x and a neighbourhood V of y such that U and V are disjoint (U ∩ V = ). X is a Hausdorff space if any two distinct points of X can be separated by neighborhoods. This condition is the third separation axiom (after T0 and T1), which is why Hausdorff spaces are also called T2 spaces. The name separated space is also used. A related, but weaker, notion is that of a preregular space. X is a preregular space if any two topologically distinguishable points can be separated by neighbourhoods. Preregular spaces are also called R1 spaces. The relationship between these two conditions is as follows. A topological space is Hausdorff if and only if it is both preregular (i.e. topologically distinguishable points are separated) and Kolmogorov (i.e. distinct points are topologically distinguishable). A topological space is preregular if and only if its Kolmogorov quotient is Hausdorff. Equivalences For a topological space X, the following are equivalent: X is a Hausdorff space. Every singleton set contained in X is equal to the intersection of all closed neighbourhoods containing it. The diagonal Δ = {(x,x) | x ∈ X} is closed as a subset of the product space X × X. Examples and counterexamples Almost all spaces encountered in analysis are Hausdorff; most importantly, the real numbers (under the standard metric topology on real numbers) are a Hausdorff space. More generally, all metric spaces are Hausdorff. In fact, many spaces of use in analysis, such as topological groups and topological manifolds, have the Hausdorff condition explicitly stated in their definitions. A simple example of a topology that is T1 but is not Hausdorff is the cofinite topology defined by an infinite set. Pseudometric spaces typically are not Hausdorff, but they are preregular, and their use in analysis is usually only in the construction of Hausdorff gauge spaces. Indeed, when analysts run across a non-Hausdorff space, it is still probably at least preregular, and then they simply replace it with its Kolmogorov quotient, which is Hausdorff. In contrast, non-preregular spaces are encountered much more frequently in abstract algebra and algebraic geometry, in particular as the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or the spectrum of a ring. They also arise in the model theory of intuitionistic logic: every complete Heyting algebra is the algebra of open sets of some topological space, but this space need not be preregular, much less Hausdorff. While convergent sequences in a Hausdorff space have a unique limit, there are non-Hausdorff T1 spaces in which every convergent sequence has a unique limit. van Douwen, Eric K. An anti-Hausdorff Fréchet space in which convergent sequences have unique limits. Topology and its Applications 51 (1993) 147–158 Properties Subspaces and products of Hausdorff spaces are Hausdorff, but quotient spaces of Hausdorff spaces need not be Hausdorff. In fact, every topological space can be realized as the quotient of some Hausdorff space. Hausdorff spaces are T1, meaning that all singletons are closed. Similarly, preregular spaces are R0. Another nice property of Hausdorff spaces is that compact sets are always closed. This may fail for spaces which are non-Hausdorff (there are examples of T1 spaces where it fails). The definition of a Hausdorff space says that points can be separated by neighborhoods. It turns out that this implies something which is seemingly stronger: in a Hausdorff space every pair of disjoint compact sets can also be separated by neighborhoods , in other words there is a neighborhood of one set and a neighborhood of the other, such that the two neighborhoods are disjoint. This is an example of the general rule that compact sets often behave like points. Compactness conditions together with preregularity often imply stronger separation axioms. For example, any locally compact preregular space is completely regular. Compact preregular spaces are normal, meaning that they satisfy Urysohn's lemma and the Tietze extension theorem and have partitions of unity subordinate to locally finite open covers. The Hausdorff versions of these statements are: every locally compact Hausdorff space is Tychonoff, and every compact Hausdorff space is normal Hausdorff. The following results are some technical properties regarding maps (continuous and otherwise) to and from Hausdorff spaces. Let f : X → Y be a continuous function and suppose Y is Hausdorff. Then the graph of f, , is a closed subset of X × Y. Let f : X → Y be a function and let be its kernel regarded as a subspace of X × X. If f is continuous and Y is Hausdorff then ker(f) is closed. If f is an open surjection and ker(f) is closed then Y is Hausdorff. If f is a continuous, open surjection (i.e. an open quotient map) then Y is Hausdorff if and only if ker(f) is closed. If f,g : X → Y are continuous maps and Y is Hausdorff then the equalizer is closed in X. It follows that if Y is Hausdorff and f and g agree on a dense subset of X then f = g. In other words, continuous functions into Hausdorff spaces are determined by their values on dense subsets. Let f : X → Y be a closed surjection such that f−1(y) is compact for all y ∈ Y. Then if X is Hausdorff so is Y. Let f : X → Y be a quotient map with X a compact Hausdorff space. Then the following are equivalent Y is Hausdorff f is a closed map ker(f) is closed Preregularity versus regularity All regular spaces are preregular, as are all Hausdorff spaces. There are many results for topological spaces that hold for both regular and Hausdorff spaces. Most of the time, these results hold for all preregular spaces; they were listed for regular and Hausdorff spaces separately because the idea of preregular spaces came later. On the other hand, those results that are truly about regularity generally don't also apply to nonregular Hausdorff spaces. There are many situations where another condition of topological spaces (such as paracompactness or local compactness) will imply regularity if preregularity is satisfied. Such conditions often come in two versions: a regular version and a Hausdorff version. Although Hausdorff spaces aren't generally regular, a Hausdorff space that is also (say) locally compact will be regular, because any Hausdorff space is preregular. Thus from a certain point of view, it is really preregularity, rather than regularity, that matters in these situations. However, definitions are usually still phrased in terms of regularity, since this condition is better known than preregularity. See History of the separation axioms for more on this issue. Variants The terms "Hausdorff", "separated", and "preregular" can also be applied to such variants on topological spaces as uniform spaces, Cauchy spaces, and convergence spaces. The characteristic that unites the concept in all of these examples is that limits of nets and filters (when they exist) are unique (for separated spaces) or unique up to topological indistinguishability (for preregular spaces). As it turns out, uniform spaces, and more generally Cauchy spaces, are always preregular, so the Hausdorff condition in these cases reduces to the T0 condition. These are also the spaces in which completeness makes sense, and Hausdorffness is a natural companion to completeness in these cases. Specifically, a space is complete if and only if every Cauchy net has at least one limit, while a space is Hausdorff if and only if every Cauchy net has at most one limit (since only Cauchy nets can have limits in the first place). See also Weak Hausdorff space Notes References Arkhangelskii, A.V., L.S. Pontryagin, General Topology I, (1990) Springer-Verlag, Berlin. ISBN 3-540-18178-4 Bourbaki; Elements of Mathematics: General Topology, Addison-Wesley (1966).

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A._E._Housman

Alfred Edward Housman (; 26 March 1859 – 30 April 1936), usually known as A. E. Housman, was an English classical scholar and poet, best known for his cycle of poems A Shropshire Lad. Lyrical and almost epigrammatic in form, the poems were mostly written before 1900. Their wistful evocation of doomed youth in the English countryside, in spare language and distinctive imagery, appealed strongly to late Victorian, Edwardian and Georgian taste, and to many early twentieth century English composers (beginning with Arthur Somervell) both before and after the First World War. Through its song-setting the poetry became closely associated with that era, and with Shropshire itself. Housman was counted one of the foremost classicists of his age, and has been ranked as one of the greatest scholars of all time. 'a man who turned out to be not only the great English classical scholar of his time but also one of the few real and great scholars anywhere at any time'. Charles Oscar Brink, English Classical Scholarship: Historical reflections on Bentley, Porson and Housman, James Clarke & Co, Oxford, Oxford University Press, New York, 1986 p.149 He established his reputation publishing as a private scholar and, on the strength and quality of his work, was appointed Professor of Latin at UCL and later, at Cambridge. His editions of Juvenal, Manilius and Lucan are still considered authoritative. Life Housman was born in Fockbury, a hamlet on the outskirts of Bromsgrove in Worcestershire, the eldest of seven children of a country solicitor. His mother died on his twelfth birthday, and subsequently her place was taken by his stepmother Lucy, an elder cousin of his father's whom he latter married in 1873. His brother Laurence Housman and sister Clemence Housman also became writers. Housman was educated first at King Edward's School, Birmingham, then Bromsgrove School, where he acquired a strong academic grounding and won prizes for his poetry. In 1877 he won an open scholarship to St John's College, Oxford, where he studied classics. Although by nature rather withdrawn, Housman formed strong friendships with two roommates, Moses Jackson and A. W. Pollard. Jackson became the great love of Housman's life, though the latter's feelings were not reciprocated, as Jackson was heterosexual. Summers 1995, p.371; Page 2004. Housman obtained a first class in classical Moderations in 1879, but his immersion in textual analysis, particularly with Propertius, led him to neglect ancient history and philosophy, which formed part of the Greats curriculum, and thus he failed to obtain even a pass degree. Though some explain Housman's unexpected failure in his final exams as due to Jackson's rejection Cunningham 2000, p.981. , most biographers adduce a variety of reasons, indifference to philosophy, overconfidence in his praeternatural gifts, a contempt for inexact learning, and enjoyment of idling away his time with Jackson, conjoined with news of his father's desperate illness as the more immediate and germane causes. Norman Page, Macmillan, London 1983 pp.A.E. Housman: A Critical Biographypp.43-46 Richard Perceval Graves, A.E. Housman: The Scholar-Poet Charles Scribners, New York, 1979 pp.52-55 . Charles Oscar Brink, English Classical Scholarship, ibid.pp.152f. The failure left him with a deep sense of humiliation, and a determination to vindicate his genius. After Oxford, Jackson got a job as a clerk in the Patent Office in London and arranged a job there for Housman as well. They shared a flat with Jackson's brother Adalbert until 1885 when Housman moved in to lodgings of his own. Moses Jackson moved to India in 1887. When Jackson returned briefly to England in 1889 to marry, Housman not only was not invited to the wedding but knew nothing about it until the couple had left the country. Adalbert Jackson died in 1892. Housman continued pursuing classical studies independently and published scholarly articles on such authors as Horace, Propertius, Ovid, Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles. He gradually acquired such a high reputation that in 1892 he was offered the professorship of Latin at UCL, which he accepted. Many years later, the UCL Academic Staff Common Room was dedicated to his memory as the Housman Room. Although Housman's sphere of responsibilities as professor included both Latin and Greek, he put most of his energy into the study of Latin classics. In 1911 he took the Kennedy Professorship of Latin at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he remained for the rest of his life. It was unusual at the time for an Oxford man such as Housman to be appointed to a post at Cambridge. During 1903–1930, he published his critical edition of Manilius's Astronomicon in five volumes. He also edited works of Juvenal (1905) and Lucan (1926). Many colleagues were unnerved by his scathing critical attacks on those whom he found guilty of shoddy scholarship. To his students he appeared as a severe, reticent, remote authority. However, quite contrary to his usual outward appearance, he allowed himself several hedonistic pleasures: he enjoyed gastronomy and flying in airplanes and frequently visited France, Page 2004. where he read "books which were banned in Britain as pornographic". Graves 1979, 155. A fellow don described him as being "descended from a long line of maiden aunts". Critchley 1988. Housman found his true vocation in classical studies and treated poetry as a secondary activity. He never spoke about his poetry in public until 1933 when he gave a lecture, The Name and Nature of Poetry, in which he argued that poetry should appeal to emotions rather than to the intellect. He died, aged 77, three years later in Cambridge. His ashes are buried near St Laurence's Church, Ludlow, Shropshire. Poetry A Shropshire Lad During his years in London, A E Housman completed his cycle of 63 poems, A Shropshire Lad. After several publishers had turned it down, he published it at his own expense in 1896. The volume surprised both his colleagues and students. At first selling slowly, it rapidly became a lasting success, and its appeal to English musicians (see below) had helped to make it widely known before World War I, when its themes struck a powerful chord with English readers. A Shropshire Lad has been in print continuously since May 1896. The poems are pervaded by deep pessimism and preoccupation with death, without religious consolation. Housman wrote most of them while living in Highgate, London, before ever visiting that part of Shropshire (about thirty miles from his home), which he presented in an idealised pastoral light, as his 'land of lost content'. A.E.Housman, A Shropshire Lad, XL Housman himself acknowledged the influence of the songs of William Shakespeare, the Scottish Border Ballads and Heinrich Heine, but specifically denied any influence of Greek and Latin classics in his poetry. Later collections In the early 1920s, when Moses Jackson was dying in Canada, Housman wanted to assemble his best unpublished poems so that Jackson could read them before his death. These later poems, mostly written before 1910, show a greater variety of subject and form than those in A Shropshire Lad but lack the consistency of his previously published work. He published them as Last Poems (1922) because he felt his inspiration was exhausted and that he should not publish more in his lifetime. This proved true. After his death Housman's brother, Laurence, published further poems which appeared in More Poems (1936) and Collected Poems (1939). Housman also wrote a parodic Fragment of a Greek Tragedy, in English, and humorous poems published posthumously under the title Unkind to Unicorns. John Sparrow Collected Poems (Penguin, Harmondsworth 1956), preface by John Sparrow. found statements in a letter written late in Housman's life which describe how his poems came into existence: Poetry was for him ...'a morbid secretion', as the pearl is for the oyster. The desire, or the need, did not come upon him often, and it came usually when he was feeling ill or depressed; then whole lines and stanzas would present themselves to him without any effort, or any consciousness of composition on his part. Sometimes they wanted a little alteration, sometimes none; sometimes the lines needed in order to make a complete poem would come later, spontaneously or with 'a little coaxing'; sometimes he had to sit down and finish the poem with his head. That .... was a long and laborious process ... Sparrow himself adds, "How difficult it is to achieve a satisfactory analysis may be judged by considering the last poem in A Shropshire Lad. Of its four stanzas, Housman tells us that two were 'given' him ready made; one was coaxed forth from his subconsciousness an hour or two later; the remaining one took months of conscious composition. No one can tell for certain which was which." De Amicitia (about friendship) In 1942 Laurence Housman also deposited an essay entitled "A. E. Housman's 'De Amicitia'" in the British Library, with the proviso that it was not to be published for 25 years. The essay discussed A. E. Housman's homosexuality and his love for Jackson. Summers ed. 1995, 371. Despite the conservative nature of the times, Housman, as distinct from the prudence of his public life, was quite open in his poetry, and especially his A Shropshire Lad, about his deeper sympathies. In poem 30 of that sequence, for instance, we read that Others, I am not the first have willed more mischief than they durst as the voice speaks of how Fear contended with desire. In More Poems, he buries his love for Moses Jackson in the very act of commemorating it, as his feelings of love break his friendship, and must be carried silently to the grave. Summers ed. 1995,372. :- Because I liked you better Than suits a man to say It irked you, and I promised To throw the thought away. To put the world between us We parted, stiff and dry; Goodbye, said you, forget me. I will, no fear, said I If here, where clover whitens The dead man's knoll, you pass, And no tall flower to meet you Starts in the trefoiled grass, Halt by the headstone naming The heart no longer stirred, And say the lad that loved you Was one that kept his word. A.E.Housman, More Poems, Jonathan Cape, London 1936 p.48 His poem, "Oh who is that young sinner with the handcuffs on his wrists?", written after the trial of Oscar Wilde, addressed more general social injustice towards homosexuality. Housman 1937, 213. In the poem the prisoner is suffering "for the colour of his hair", a natural, given attribute which, in a clearly coded reference to homosexuality, is reviled as "nameless and abominable" (recalling the legal phrase peccatum horribile, inter christianos non nominandum, "the horrible sin, not to be named amongst Christians"). Housman in other art forms Music and art song Housman's poetry, especially A Shropshire Lad, provided texts for a significant number of British - and in particular English - composers in the first half of the 20th century. The national, pastoral and traditional elements of his style resonated with similar trends in English music. The first was probably the cycle A Shropshire Lad set by Arthur Somervell in 1904, who had begun to develop the concept of the English song-cycle in his version of Tennyson's Maud a little previously. Ralph Vaughan Williams produced his most famous settings of six songs, the cycle On Wenlock Edge, for string quartet, tenor and piano (dedicated to Gervase Elwes) in 1909, W. and R. Elwes, Gervase Elwes - The Story of his Life (Grayson and Grayson, London 1935), 195-97. and it became very popular after Elwes recorded it with the London String Quartet and Frederick B. Kiddle in 1917. Between 1909 and 1911 George Butterworth produced settings in two collections or cycles, as Six Songs from A Shropshire Lad, and Bredon Hill and other songs. He also wrote an orchestral tone poem on A Shropshire Lad (first performed at Leeds Festival under Arthur Nikisch in 1912). A. Eaglefield-Hull, A Dictionary of Modern Music and Musicians (Dent, London 1924), 73. Butterworth's death on the Somme in 1916 was considered a great loss to English music; Ivor Gurney, another most important setter of Housman (Ludlow and Teme, a work for voice and string quartet, and a song-cycle on Housman works, both of which won the Carnegie Award Eaglefield-Hull 1924, 205. ) experienced emotional breakdowns which were popularly (but wrongly) believed to have arisen from shell-shock. Hence the fatalistic strain of the poems, and the earlier settings, foreshadowed responses to the universal bereavement of the First World War and became assimilated into them. This was reinforced when their foremost interpreter and performer, Gervase Elwes (who had initiated the music festivals at Brigg in Lincolnshire at which Percy Grainger and others had developed their collections of country music W. and R. Elwes 1935, 156-166. ) died in a horrific accident in 1921. Elwes had been closely identified with English wartime morale, having given six benefit performances of The Dream of Gerontius on consecutive nights in 1916, and many concerts in France in 1917 for British soldiers. W. & R. Elwes 1935, 244-55. Among other composers who set Housman songs were John Ireland (song cycle, Land of Lost Content), Michael Head (e.g. 'Ludlow Fair'), Graham Peel (a famous version of 'In Summertime on Bredon'), Ian Venables (Songs of Eternity and Sorrow), and the American Samuel Barber (e.g. 'With rue my heart is laden'). Gerald Finzi repeatedly began settings, though never finished any. Even composers not directly associated with the 'pastoral' tradition, such as Arnold Bax, Lennox Berkeley and Arthur Bliss, were attracted to Housman's poetry. A 1976 catalogue listed 400 musical settings of Housman's poems. Palmer and Banfield 2001. Housman's poetry impacted on British music in a way comparable to that of Walt Whitman in the music of Delius, Vaughan Williams and others: Housman's works provided song texts, Whitman's the texts for larger choral works. The impact in music of Housman's poetry has not been limited in time, place or style. The contemporary New Zealand composer David Downes includes a setting of "March" on his CD The Rusted Wheel of Things. Singer/songwriters (such as Warwick Lobban who melodifies Housman's XIV 'The farms of home lie lost in even..') have also drawn much from the great poet's work. Literature References to and quotations from Housman are frequent in English language literature. Housman is the main character in the 1997 Tom Stoppard play The Invention of Love. A Shropshire Lad is mentioned in E.M. Forster's A Room with a View: one of the characters, Reverend Beebe, picks up the book from a stack whilst visiting the Emerson home, and remarks, "Never heard of it", perhaps lamenting the son's "unconventional" - if not sacrilegious - literary taste. There is a reference to Housman in Ian McEwan's novel Atonement, when Robbie, an English literature graduate from Cambridge, glances at his copy of Poems and A Shropshire Lad. Housman's poetry ("There's this to say for life and breath, it gives a man a taste for death") supplies the title and is quoted in Peter O'Donnell's 1969 Modesty Blaise thriller, A Taste for Death. The same phrase is used by P.D. James in her 1986 crime novel, A Taste for Death, the seventh in her Adam Dalgliesh series. The last words of the poem "On Wenlock Edge" is used by Audrey R. Langer for the title of the 1989 Ashes Under Uricon. The Nobel Prize winning novelist Patrick White named his 1955 novel "The Tree Of Man" after a line in A Shropshire Lad. Housman's poem "From far, from eve and morning" (Shropshire Lad XXXII) is included and heavily referenced in Roger Zelazny's short story "For a breath I tarry" in The Last Defender of Camelot collection. Housman is mentioned and quoted several times by Diana Gabaldon in her popular historical fiction series, starting with Outlander. In The Secret History by Donna Tartt, "With Rue My Heart Is Laden" is recited by Henry during the burial ceremony of Bunny. In Drover's Road by New Zealand writer Joyce West, "With Rue my Heart is Laden" is quoted by the narrator, Gay. In Chinua Achebe's novel No Longer At Ease the main character Obi frequently refers to Housman's poetry, particularly "Easter Hymn". In John Dos Passos' novel Three Soldiers, A Shropshire Lad is quoted by the educated Andrews in part four, chapter one, "mocking" Andrews as it jingles through his head. Patrick O'Brian has a minor character quote from one of Housman's poems (Poem AP IX "When the bells justle in the tower") in his novel The Thirteen Gun Salute. Bells in the Tower On the first chapter of Alan Watts´s Tao of Philosophy (1995), The Myth and I, he quotes one of Housman's poems. There are several references to Housman in Alan Bennett's The History Boys. One character quotes A Shropshire Lad: "The loveliest of trees, the cherry now...."; Hector also laments, "the tree of man was never quiet, then 'twas the Roman, now 'tis I", from the poem "On Wenlock Edge". Denise McCluggage, a noted automotive journalist and pioneer sports car racer in the 1950s and 1960s, used a line from A Shropshire Lad ("With Rue My Heart Is Laden . . .") as the title for a collection of her columns ("By Brooks Too Broad for Leaping") In Wallace Stegner's novel "Crossing to Safety" (1987), Sid reads "Easter Hymn" at a dinner party, and poses the question "Does it satisfy you? Is it good Housman?" Sid eventually remarks "You know what I think? I think (he) printed the stanzas in the wrong order. Wouldn't it be more Housman if they were reversed? If it ended 'Sleep well and see no morning, son of man'?" Visual art A wall hanging of A Shropshire Lad was created and now hangs prominently in the St Laurence Church, Ludlow, England. A plaque honouring the poet is also installed on the church grounds. Film and television Nicolas Roeg's 1971 film Walkabout concludes with lines from A Shropshire Lad, spoken by a narrator. John Irvin's (1981) film The Dogs of War ends with Epitaph for an Army of Mercenaries being sung over the end titles. Meryl Streep, portraying Karen Blixen, quotes "To an Athlete Dying Young" at the gravesite of Denys Finch Hatton in Out of Africa (1985). Toward the end of the film, she accepts a drink from the exclusive all men's club in Nairobi, and toasts "rose-lipped maidens, lightfoot lads" -- an allusion to Housman's "With Rue My Heart Is Laden". A line from Housman's poem XVI "How Clear, How Lovely Bright", was used for the title of the last episode of the television movie series "Inspector Morse" (The Remorseful Day). Morse also quotes the last stanza of the poem 27 minutes into the episode. Blue Remembered Hills, a television play by Dennis Potter, takes its title from A Shropshire Lad and features Potter reading part of the poem. A fragment of his poem is quoted in The History Boys by Hector. In Episode 193, Season 9 of The Simpsons, "The Last Temptation of Krust", Krusty calls a press conference to announce his retirement, and quotes from "To an Athlete Dying Young". The 2002 sci fi film "Firestarter 2: Rekindled" (based on a Steven King novel, the villain Rainbird recites the second and third stanzas of "Others, I'm not the first" as the protagonist, Charlie, destroys a town with her pyrokinetic abilities. The lines "Ice and Fire, fear contended with desire" are used by Rainbird to describe the relationship between him and Charlie. Works Poetry A Shropshire Lad (1896) Last Poems (1922) More Poems (1936) Collected Poems (1939); the poems included in this volume but not the three above are known as Additional Poems. The Penguin Edition of 1956 includes an Introduction by John Sparrow. Manuscript Poems: Eight Hundred Lines of Hitherto Un-collected Verse from the Author's Notebooks, ed. Tom Burns Haber (1955) Is My Team Plowing"Unkind to Unicorns: Selected Comic Verse, ed. J. Roy Birch (1995; 2nd ed. 1999)The Poems of A. E. Housman, ed. Archie Burnett (1997) Classical scholarshipM. Manilii Astronomica (1903-1930; 2nd ed. 1937; 5 vols.)D. Iunii Iuuenalis Saturae: editorum in usum edidit (1905; 2nd ed. 1931)M. Annaei Lucani, Belli Ciuilis, Libri Decem: editorum in usum edidit (1926; 2nd ed. 1927)The Classical Papers of A. E. Housman, ed. J. Diggle and F. R. D. Goodyear (1972; 3 vols.)William White, "Housman's Latin Inscriptions", CJ (1955) 159 - 166, reports also a Latin elegiac poem, dedicating Manilius to M. J. Jackson, a Latin address to the University of Sydney signed by "The President of University College, London", and "Hendecasyllables", a translation of John Dryden's "King Arthur", printed in the Bromsgrovian (1882) over the signature "A. E. H." White's article includes the text of eight Latin inscriptions written by Housman for various memorial brasses. Published lectures These lectures are listed by date of delivery, with date of first publication given separately if different. Introductory Lecture (1892) "Swinburne" (1910; published 1969) Cambridge Inaugural Lecture (1911; published 1969 as "The Confines of Criticism") "The Application of Thought to Textual Criticism" (1921; published 1922) "The Name and Nature of Poetry" (1933) Letters The Letters of A.E. Housman, ed. Henry Maas (1971) The Letters of A.E. Housman, ed. Archie Burnett (2007) Other Information The University of Worcester has acknowledged Housman's local connection by naming a new building after him. Footnotes References Critchley, Julian, 'Homage to a lonely lad', Weekend Telegraph (UK), 23 April 1988. Cunningham, Valentine ed., The Victorians: An Anthology of Poetry and Poetics (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000) Graves, Richard Perceval, A. E. Housman: The Scholar-Poet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), p. 155 Housman, Laurence, A.E.H.: Some Poems, Some Letters and a Personal Memoir by his Brother (London: Jonathan Cape, 1937) Page, Norman, ‘Housman, Alfred Edward (1859–1936)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) Palmer, Christopher and Stephen Banfield, 'A. E. Housman', The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (London: Macmillan, 2001) Summers, Claude J. ed., The Gay and Lesbian Literary Heritage (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1995) Further reading Philip Gardner ed., A. E. Housman: The Critical Heritage, a collection of reviews and essays on Housman’s poetry (London: Routledge 1992) Holden, A. W. and J. R. Birch, A. E Housman - A Reassessment (Palgrave Macmillan, London 1999) Shaw, Robin, "Housman's Places" (The Housman Society, 1995) External links On Housman in general and his life The Housman Society Housman's Grave Star man: An article in the TLS by Robert Douglas Fairhurst, 20 June 2007 glbtq.com An informative page by Joseph Cady of the University of Rochester. Cady wrote the entry in Summers ed. (see References below). Topics Leithauser"A footnote for Housman" by Brad Leithauser in The New Criterion September 1991 Musical Resources: "English Composers and A.E. Housman" by Tim Foxon Texts online Complete serious poems A.E. Housman Poetry and Translations at the Open Translation Project sponsored by Bryant H. McGill Swinburne — Housman discusses Swinburne's poetic virtues and vices Selected Housman Poems The Name and Nature of Poetry A Shropshire Lad A Shropshire Lad Account of the 1996 centenary reading of A Shropshire Lad complete, by The Housman Society, with one audio excerpt

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Long-term_memory

Long-term memory (LTM) is memory that can last as little as a few days or as long as decades. It differs structurally and functionally from working memory or short-term memory, which ostensibly stores items for only around 18 seconds (Peterson and Peterson, 1959). Biologically, short-term memory is a temporary potentiation of neural connections that can become long-term memory through the process of rehearsal and meaningful association. Much is not known about the underlying biological mechanisms of long-term memory, but the process of long-term potentiation, which involves a physical change in the structure of neurons, has been proposed as the mechanism by which short-term memories move into long-term storage. Notably, the time scale involved at each level of memory processing remains under investigation. As long-term memory is subject to fading in the natural forgetting process, several recalls/retrievals of memory may be needed for long-term memories to last for years, dependent also on the depth of processing. Individual retrievals can take place in increasing intervals in accordance with the principle of spaced repetition. This can happen quite naturally through reflection or deliberate recall (a.k.a. recapitulation or recollection), often dependent on the perceived importance of the material. Encoding of information Long term memory encodes information semantically for storage, as researched by Baddeley. However, there is some evidence that proves that long term memory also encodes by sound for storage. An example of this is when one experiences the "tip of the tongue" state in which one cannot remember a particular word, but they know it sounds similar to another word. The target word is said to be on the tip of the tongue. It is almost grasped, but not totally. This has nothing to do with meaning but with what the word sounds like.(Dr. E Schaefer University of Winnipeg Psychology Department) Sleep Some theories consider sleep to be an important factor in establishing well-organized long-term memories. (See also sleep and learning.) According to Tarnow's theory, long term memories are stored in dream format (reminiscent of the Penfield & Rasmussen’s findings that electrical excitations of cortex give rise to experiences similar to dreams). During waking life an executive function interprets long term memory consistent with reality checking (Tarnow, 2003). Tarnow, E. (2003) How Dreams And Memory May Be Related Neuro-Psychoanalysis 5(2), 177-182 and also http://cogprints.org/2068/ Types of memory The brain does not store memories in one unified structure, as might be seen in a computer's hard disk drive. Instead, different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain. LTM is typically divided up into two major headings: declarative memory and implicit memory (or procedural memory). Declarative memory refers to all memories that are consciously available. These are encoded by the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but consolidated and stored elsewhere. The precise location of storage is unknown, but the temporal cortex has been proposed as a likely candidate. Declarative memory also has two major subdivisions: Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events in time Semantic memory refers to knowledge about the external world, such as the function of a pencil. Procedural memory refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded and probably stored by the cerebellum and the striatum. There are various other categorizations of memory and types of memory that have captured research interest. Prospective memory (its complement: retrospective memory) is an example. Emotional memory, the memory for events that evoke a particularly strong emotion, is another. Emotion and memory is a domain that can involve both declarative and procedural memory processes. Emotional memories are consciously available, but elicit a powerful, unconscious physiological reaction. They also have a unique physiological pathway that involves strong connections from the amygdala into the prefrontal cortex, but much weaker connections running back from the prefrontal cortex to the amgydala. Disorders of memory Minor everyday slips and lapses of memory are fairly commonplace, and may increase naturally with age, when ill, or when under stress (Reason J.). Reason, J. (1995) Self-report questionnaires in cognitive psychology: have they delivered the goods? in Attention: Selection, Awareness, and Control (Eds.) Alan Baddeley & Lawrence Weiskrantz Some women may experience more memory lapses following the onset of the menopause. More serious problems with memory generally occur due to traumatic brain injury or neurodegenerative disease: Everyday memory problems The everyday experience of memory problems is the problem of failed recall, forgetting. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is particularly frustrating because the person trying to remember feels that the memory is available. In physical terms your neurons are firing, but your receptors aren't catching. Failing to remember something in the situation in which it would have been useful leads to regret. Traumatic brain injury The majority of findings about memory have been the result of studies that lesioned specific brain regions in rats or primates, but some of the most important work has been the result of accidental or inadvertent brain trauma. The most famous case in recent memory studies is the case study of HM, who had parts of his hippocampus, parahippocampal cortices, and surrounding tissue removed in an attempt to cure his epilepsy. His subsequent total anterograde amnesia and partial retrograde amnesia provided the first evidence for the localization of memory function, and further clarified the differences between declarative and procedural memory. Neurodegenerative diseases Many neurodegenerative diseases can cause memory loss. Some of the most prevalent (and consequently, most intensely researched) include Alzheimer's Disease, Dementia, Huntington's Disease, Multiple Sclerosis, and Parkinson's Disease. None act specifically on memory; instead memory loss is often a casualty of generalized neuronal deterioration. Currently, these illnesses are irreversible, but research into stem cells, psychopharmacology, and genetic engineering hold much promise. Biological underpinnings at the cellular level Long term memory is dependent upon the construction of new proteins within the cellular body, particularly transmitters, receptors, and new synapse pathways that reinforce the communicative strength between neurons. The production of new proteins devoted to synapse reinforcement is triggered after the release of certain signaling substances (such as calcium within hippocampal neurons) in the cell. In the case of hippocampal cells, this release is dependent upon the expulsion of magnesium (a binding molecule) that is expelled after significant and repetitive synaptic signaling. The temporary expulsion of magnesium frees NMDA receptors to release calcium in the cell, a signal that leads to gene transcription and the construction of reinforcing proteins. Neihoff, Debra (2005) "The Language of Life 'How cells Communicate in Health and Disease'" Speak Memory, 210-223. For more information see long-term potentiation (LTP). One of the newly synthesized proteins in LTP is also critical for maintaining long-term memory. This protein is an autonomously active form of the enzyme protein kinase C (PKC), known as PKMζ. PKMζ maintains the activity-dependent enhancement of synaptic strength and inhibiting PKMζ erases established long-term memories, without affecting short-term memory or, once the inhibitor is eliminated, the ability to encode and store new long-term memories is restored. Also BDNF is important for the persistence of long-term memories. References Peterson, L.R, & Peterson, M.J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193-198. Jacobs, J. (1887). Experiments on “Prehension”, Mind, 12(45), 75-79. See also Aging and memory Emotion and memory Long-term potentiation Contrast Short-term memory Neurogenesis

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