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Genius

A genius is an individual who successfully applies a previously unknown technique in the production of a work of art, science, or calculation, or who masters and personalizes a known technique. A genius possesses great intelligence and remarkable abilities in a specific subject or shows an exceptional natural capacity of intellect and/or ability, especially in the production of creative and original work, something that has never been seen or evaluated previously. Traits often associated with genius include strong individuality, imagination, uniqueness, and innovative drive. The term may be applied to someone who is considered gifted in many subjects Cox, Catharine, M. (1926). Early Mental Traits of Two Hundred Geniuses (Genetic Studies of Genius Series), Stanford University Press. or in one subject. Although the term "genius" is sometimes used to denote the possession of a superior talent in any field, e.g. a particular sport or statesmanship, it has traditionally been understood to denote an exceptional natural capacity of intellect and creative originality in areas of art, literature, philosophy, music, language, science and mathematics. Overview Genius comes in a variety of forms, such as mathematical genius, literary genius, poetic genius and philosophical genius amongst others. Genius may show itself in early childhood as a prodigy or later in life; either way, geniuses eventually differentiate themselves from the others through great originality. Intellectual geniuses often have crisp, clear-eyed visions of given situations, in which interpretation is unnecessary, and they build or act on the basis of those facts, usually with tremendous energy. Accomplished geniuses in intellectual fields start out in many cases as child prodigies, gifted with superior memory or understanding. The multiple intelligences hypothesis put forth by Harvard University professor Howard Gardner in his 1983 book Frames of Mind states there are at least seven types of intelligences, each with its own type of genius. To be classed as a genius in music, you must be within the top three percent of your country's population. The most popular way of determining one's intelligence is with an intelligence quotient (better known as IQ) test. Two among the most influential psychologists studying intelligence, Lewis M. Terman and Leta Hollingworth, suggested two different numbers when considering the cut-off for genius in psychometric terms. Dr. Terman considered it to be an IQ of 140, while Dr. Hollingworth put it at an IQ of 180. Moreover, both these numbers are ratio IQs, which in deviation values used currently put the genius IQ cut-off at 136 (98.77th percentile) and 162 (99.994th percentile) respectively. There are also several examples of people with IQ levels in the genius range who have a disability or very low level in one of the subcategories, such as music. In addition to the fundamental criticism that intelligence measured in this way is an example of reification and ranking fallacies, See S.J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (2d ed. 1996) at 56. the IQ test has also been criticized as having a "cultural bias" in its interpretation despite claims that these tests are designed to eliminate race/gender for example by predicting numerical sequences, etc. Accordingly, the definition of genius embraces those who do not necessarily have an IQ test score of this stature, or who have not even taken such a test. Popular assessment of genius often relies not only on a vast intellect, but also upon a combination of an incredible ability to understand complex issues and problems, a profound creativity and imagination, and the ability to channel such skills into productive outlets. Etymology Marble head of a roman genius, 2nd century CE, found by Vindobona In Ancient Rome, the genius was the guiding or "tutelary" spirit of a person, or even of an entire gens, the plural of which was 'genii' genius. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved May 17, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/genius . A related term is genius loci, the spirit of a specific locale. A specific spirit, or dæmon, may inhabit an image or icon, giving it supernatural powers. A comparable term from Arabic lore is a jinn, often Anglicized as "genie". Note, however, that this term is considered a false friend, not a cognate by most Anglo-American anthropologists. Recent work by Russian, Romanian, Italian and a few American linguists may return the word to cognate status. For more information on these etymological roots, see Genius (mythology). Philosophy Various philosophers have proposed definitions of what genius is and what that implies in the context of their philosophical theories. In the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, a genius is a person in whom intellect predominates over "will" much more than within the average person. In Schopenhauer's aesthetics, this predominance of the intellect over the will allows the genius to create artistic or academic works that are objects of pure, disinterested contemplation, the chief criterion of the aesthetic experience for Schopenhauer. Their remoteness from mundane concerns means that Schopenhauer's geniuses often display maladaptive traits in more mundane concerns; in Schopenhauer's words, they fall into the mire while gazing at the stars. In the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, genius is the ability to independently arrive at and understand concepts that would normally have to be taught by another person. In the Kant Dictionary (ISBN 0-631-17535-0), Howard Caygill talks of the essential character of "genius" for Kant being originality. This genius is a talent for producing ideas which can be described as non-imitative. Kant's discussion of the characteristics of genius is largely contained within the Critique of Judgement and was well received by the romantics of the early 19th century. In the philosophy of David Hume, the way society perceives genius is similar to the way society perceives the ignorant. Hume states that a person with the characteristics of a genius is looked at as a person disconnected from society, as well as a person who works remotely, at a distance, away from the rest of the world. "On the other hand, the mere ignorant is still more despised; nor is any thing deemed a surer sign of an illiberal genius in an age and nation where the sciences flourish, than to be entirely destitute of all relish for those noble entertainments. The most perfect character is supposed to lie between those extremes; retaining an equal ability and taste for books, company, and business; preserving in conversation that discernment and delicacy which arise from polite letters; and in business, that probity and accuracy which are the natural result of a just philosophy." See also Leonardo da Vinci is acknowledged as having been a genius and a polymath Albert Einstein Child prodigy Flash of genius High IQ society Intelligence quotient (IQ) List of Nobel laureates MacArthur Fellows Program Mega Society Multipotentiality Nobel Prize Polymath Psychometrics Personality test Psychological testing Stupidity The heroic theory of invention and scientific development References Further reading External links Genius Hall - information on geniuses through time. Tests & Questionnaires by Members of the Cerebrals Society How Geniuses Work, from HowStuffWorks.com. Estimated IQs of famous geniuses. Quotations on genius. Wiktionary entry for 'genius'. Brainteaser: Scientists Dissect Mystery of Genius, an online article from CNN. Emory University 'ScienceNet' about 'genius.'

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Oasis

Ein-Kelt, an oasis in the Judean Desert, Israel In geography, an oasis (plural: oases) or cienega (southwestern United States) is an isolated area of vegetation in a desert, typically surrounding a spring or similar water source. Oases also provide habitat for animals and even humans if the area is big enough. The location of oases has been of critical importance for trade and transportation routes in desert areas. Caravans must travel via oases so that supplies of water and food can be replenished. Thus, political or military control of an oasis has in many cases meant control of trade on a particular route. For example, the oases of Awjila, Ghadames and Kufra, situated in modern-day Libya, have at various times been vital to both North-South and East-West trade in the Sahara. The word oasis came into English via Greek ὄασις oasis, borrowed directly from Egyptian wḥ3t or Demotic wḥỉ. It was not borrowed from Coptic ouaḥe (*/waħe/), as is sometimes suggested; the Greek word is attested several centuries before Coptic existed as a written language. The Huacachina oasis in Ica, Peru Oases are formed from underground rivers or aquifers such as an artesian aquifer, where water can reach the surface naturally by pressure or by man made wells. Occasional brief thunderstorms provide subterranean water to sustain natural oases, such as the Tuat. Substrata of impermeable rock and stone can trap water and retain it in pockets; or on long faulting subsurface ridges or volcanic dikes water can collect and percolate to the surface. Any incidence of water is then used by migrating birds who also pass seeds with their droppings which will grow at the water's edge forming an oasis. Growing plants Oasis in the Libyan part of the Sahara People who live in an oasis use every bit of land. Water has to be used carefully; the fields must be irrigated to grow plants like dates, figs, olives, and apricots. The most important plant in an oasis is the date palm which forms the upper layer. These palm trees provide shade for smaller trees like peach trees, which form the middle layer. By growing plants in different layers, the farmers make best use of the soil and water. Many vegetables are also grown and some cereals, such as wheat, barley and millet are grown where there is more moisture. http://library.eb.co.uk/eb/article-9056610 Notable Oases Nile River valley and delta, Egypt, is claimed as the world's biggest oasis by the 2007 edition of The Guinness Book of World Records with a stated area of 22,000 square kilometres. Al-Hasa, Saudi Arabia Al-Qatif, Saudi Arabia, large oasis on the coast of the Persian Gulf. Bahariya Oasis, Egypt Ein Gedi, Israel El Tour, Sinai peninsula, Farafra Oasis, Egypt Gaberoun, Libya Herðubreiðarlindir, a so-called oasis-like area in the frozen Highlands of Iceland Huacachina, Peru Kufra Oasis, Libya Ein Gedi, Israel La Cienega, New Mexico, a paraje on El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Las Vegas Valley, United States, what was once an oasis in the vast Mojave desert has over the years grown into a vibrant metropolitan area of over 2 million people, location of the famed Las Vegas Strip. Loulan, China M'Zab Valley, Algeria Marin, China Niya, China Ouargla, Algeria MS Oasis of the seas Safsaf Oasis, Egypt San Pedro de Atacama, Chile Siwa Oasis, Egypt Tabas, Iran Timimoun, Algeria Tozeur, Tunisia Tuat, Algeria Turfan, China Yarkand, China Zerzura, a mythical oasis in Egypt or Libya Palm Valley, Central Australia See also Oasification Qanat Guelta Bibliography Battesti (Vincent), Jardins au désert, Evolution des pratiques et savoirs oasiens, Jérid tunisien, Paris, Éditions IRD, coll. À travers champs, 2005, 440 p. ISBN 2-7099-1564-2 Open Archives: book in free access / in French References External links

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Kirlian_photography

Kirlian photograph of two coins Kirlian photography refers to a form of photogram made with a high voltage. It is named after Semyon Kirlian, who in 1939 accidentally discovered that if an object on a photographic plate is connected to a source of high voltage, small corona discharges (created by the strong electric field at the edges of the object) create an image on the photographic plate. Julie McCarron-Benson in Skeptical - a Handbook of Pseudoscience and the Paranormal, ed Donald Laycock, David Vernon, Colin Groves, Simon Brown, Imagecraft, Canberra, 1989, ISBN 0-7316-5794-2, p11 Kirlian's work, from 1939 onward, involved an independent rediscovery of a phenomenon and technique variously called "electrography," "electrophotography," and "corona discharge photography." The Kirlian technique is contact photography, in which the subject is in direct contact with a film placed upon a metal plate charged with high voltage, high frequency electricity. The underlying physics (which makes xerographic copying possible) was explored as early as 1777 by Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (see Lichtenberg figures). Later workers in the field included Nikola Tesla; various other individuals explored the effect in the later 19th and early 20th centuries. Kirlian made controversial claims that the image he was studying might be compared with the human aura. An experiment advanced as evidence of energy fields generated by living entities involves taking Kirlian contact photographs of a picked leaf at set periods, its gradual withering being said to correspond with a decline in the strength of the aura. However it may simply be that the leaf loses moisture and becomes less electrically conductive, causing a gradual weakening of the electric field at the drier edges of the leaf. In some experiments, if a section of a leaf was torn away after the first photograph, a faint image of the missing section would remain when a second photograph was taken. The Archives of American Art Journal of the Smithsonian Institution published a leading article with reproductions of images of this phenomenon. It has been suggested that this effect was due to contamination of the glass plates, which were reused for both the "before" and "after" photographs. , derived from:* The effect was not reproduced in better-controlled experiments. Research In addition to living material, inanimate objects such as coins will also produce images on the film in a Kirlian photograph setup. In the United States, Dr. Thelma Moss of UCLA devoted much time and energy to the study of Kirlian photography when she led the parapsychology laboratory there in the 1970s. Much of her time was devoted to efforts to avoid factors proposed by skeptical peer-review. Thelma Moss, The Body Electric, New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher Inc., 1979. Also, in the 1970s psychologist Joe H. Slate Ph.D. led research at Athens State University under the United States Army Aviation and Missile Command as project, "Kirlian Photography" (Featured in the History Channel's Vampire Secrets). Current research continues by Dr. Konstantin Korotkov http://www.korotkov.org/ in the Russian University, St. Petersburg State Technical University of Informational Technologies, Mechanics and Optics. Dr. Korotkov has published several books. Including "Human Energy Field: study with GDV bioelectrography" 2002, NY, Backbone Publishing Co. and "Light After Life: Experiments and Ideas on After-Death Changes of Kirlian Pictures" 1998, NY, Backbone Publishing Co. He uses GDV (Gas Discharge Visualization) based on the Kirlian Effect. GDV instruments use glass electrodes to create a pulsed electrical field excitation (called "perturbation technique") to measure electro-photonic glow. http://kirlianresearch.com/ The Korotkov methods are used in some hospitals and athletic training programs in Russia and elsewhere as preventative measurements for detecting stress. The Russian Academy of Science has approved the GDV techniques and equipment in 1999 for general clinical use, though it should be noted that the "approval", according to the certificates Dr. Korotkov himself is showing in his various web sites, only covers conformity with general electrical safety (standards 61010 and 61326). See Russian certificates , and European certificate . (The European certificate may be purchased at Berlin CERT with no formal requirements of actual testing. There has been some published research in peer-reviewed scientific journals regarding GDV and related material, including several articles in the Journal of Applied Physics and in IEEE articles. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1467731&isnumber=31475 Kirlian photo of a leaf Kirlian photo of a fingertip Kirlian photo of two fingertips Kirlian photo of a leaf Kirlian photo of two coins Explanations The accepted physical explanation is that the images produced are those typically caused by a high voltage corona effect, similar to those seen from other high voltage sources such as the Van de Graaff generator or Tesla coil. In a darkened room, this is visible as a faint glow but, because of the high voltages, the film is affected in a slightly different way from the usual. Color photographic film is calibrated to faithfully produce colors when exposed to normal light. The corona discharge has a somewhat different effect on the different layers of dye used to accomplish this result, resulting in various colors depending on the local intensity of the discharge. Comparison with aura photography Kirlian photography is completely different from aura photography, in which a colorful image is produced of a person's face and upper torso by interpreting galvanic skin responses and adding color to the photograph using a printer. The images made with an Aura camera do not result from coronal discharge. In aura photography, no high voltage is involved as with the Kirlian technique, and no direct contact with the film is made. In popular culture A picture showing a hand with an ancient Indian medal is the cover of George Harrison's album Living in the Material World. The King Crimson album Red has a Kirlian image as the back cover art. A picture resembling a hand-print in the title sequence of the U.S. science fiction TV series The X-Files. The concert programme from David Bowie's 1976 Station to Station tour featured some results of the technique, and in 1975 Bowie claimed to have achieved markedly different results, using his fingertip and his crucifix, before and after he took cocaine. Science fiction author Piers Anthony wrote a series of five books (Cluster, Chaining the Lady, Kirlian Quest, Thousandstar and Viscous Circle) based around the premise of Kirlian transfer, the idea that a person's identity resides in his or her Kirlian aura and can be transferred to a host, in effect transferring the individual into another body. The host must be a sapient being (not a beast) but may be of the same or different species and may be many light-years away, thus allowing the main character to traverse galaxies and "be" a variety of aliens during the course of a single book. The first track of the album MIX-UP (1979) by the British band Cabaret Voltaire is named "Kirlian Photograph". In the movie Omen IV: The Awakening, Delia's babysitter, Jo, takes Delia to a psychic carnival where she and Delia had their picture taken with a Kirlian camera. The picture came out with Delia's dark and evil aura overtaking Jo's lighter, greenish aura. Benn Jordan's eighth album is titled Kirlian Selections, in reference to his electric-influenced music style. In the comic book The Authority, team member Apollo is said to have a "Kirlian aura." Kirlia, a species of psychic-type Pokémon, is named after Semyon Kirlian. In the World of Darkness book Project Twilight, Kirlian photography is one of the methods available to government vampire hunters to detect ghosts, spirits and auras. The electronic darkwave band Kirlian Camera take their name from this phenomenon. In the 1989 film Ghostbusters II, Drs. Stantz and Spengler note multi-planar "Kirlian emanations" on pictures of a haunted painting in the Manhattan Museum of Art. In the X-Files episode "Leonard Betts" from Season 4, Kirlian photography of a slice of a head is used to make an image of the "aura" of the head's missing body. In Michael Scott's bestselling novel The Alchemyst, the protagonist, Nicholas Flamel, notes that the aura has been photographed by "the Kirlians". In Margaret Atwood's speculative dystopian novel, Oryx and Crake (2002), scientists engineer "Kirilian energy-sensing algae" that is capable of detecting human emotions. Atwood, Margaret. Oryx and Crake. 1st. New York: Anchor Books, 2004 p. 201 See also L-field Vitalism Walter Kilner References External links Kirlian photography article from the MYSTICA.ORG

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Acre

The acre is a unit of area in a number of different systems, including the imperial and U.S. customary systems. The most commonly used acres today are the international acre and, in the United States, the survey acre. One international acre is equal to 4,046.8564224 m2. One U.S. survey acre is equal to  m2 = 4,046.8726098 m2. The area of one acre (red) overlaid on an American football field One acre comprises 4,840 square yards or 43,560 square feet National Institute of Standards and Technology General Tables of Units of Measurement (which can be easily remembered as 44,000 square feet, less 1%). Because of alternative definitions of a yard or a foot, the exact size of an acre also varies slightly. Originally, an acre was a selion of land one furlong (660 ft) long and one chain (66 ft) wide; the measure appears to have begun as an approximation of the amount of land an ox could plow in one day. However, an acre is a measure of area, and has no particular width, length or shape. The acre is often used to express areas of land. In the metric system, the hectare is commonly used for the same purpose. An acre is approximately 40% of a hectare. One acre is 90.75 yards of a 53.33-yard-wide American football field. The full field, including the end zones, covers approximately 1.32 acres. International acre In 1958, the United States and countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the length of the international yard to be 0.9144 meters. National Bureau of Standards. Refinement of Values for the Yard and the Pound. Consequently, the international acre is exactly 4,046.8564224 square meters. United States survey acre The United States survey acre is approximately 4,046.873 square meters; its exact value ( m²) is based on an inch defined by 1 meter = 39.37 inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order. Equivalence to other units of area 1 international acre is equal to the following metric units: 4,046.8564224 square meters 0.40468564224 hectare 1 United States survey acre is equal to: 4046.87261 square meters 0.404687261 hectare 1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units: 66 feet × 660 feet (43,560 square feet) 1 chain × 10 chains (1 chain = 66 feet = 22 yards = 4 rods = 100 links) 100 links × 1,000 links = 100,000 square links 1 acre is approximately 208.71 feet × 208.71 feet (a square) 4,840 square yards 160 perches. A perch is equal to a square rod (1 square rod is 0.00625 acre) 10 square chains 4 roods A chain by a furlong (chain 22 yards, furlong 220 yards) 0.0015625 square mile (1 square mile is equal to 640 acres) 1 international acre is equal to the following Indian unit: 100 Indian cents (1 cent is equal to 0.01 acre) Historical origin The word "acre" is derived from Old English æcer (originally meaning "open field", cognate to west coast Norwegian language "ækre" and Swedish "åker", German Acker, Latin ager and Greek αγρος (agros). The acre was approximately the amount of land tillable by one man behind an ox in one day. This explains one definition as the area of a rectangle with sides of length one chain and one furlong. A long narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. The word "furlong" itself derives from the fact that it is one furrow long. Before the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres. These were differently sized in different countries, for instance, the historical French acre was 4,221 square metres, whereas in Germany as many variants of "acre" existed as there were German states. Statutory values for the acre were enacted in England by acts of: Edward I, Edward III, Henry VIII, George IV and Victoria – the British Weights and Measures Act of 1878 defined it as containing 4,840 square yards. Historically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles. For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land. Customary acre The customary acre was a measure of roughly similar size to the acre described above, but it was subject to considerable local variation similar to the variation found in carucates, virgates, bovates, nooks, and farundells. However, there were more ancient measures that were also farthingales. These may have been multiples of the customary acre, rather than the statute acre. Other acres Scottish acre, one of a number of obsolete Scottish units of measurement Irish acre Roman acre = 1,260 square meters God's Acre - a synonym for a churchyard The Collaborative International Dictionary of English . References See also Anthropic units Conversion of units Acre-foot Obsolete Spanish and Portuguese units of measurement Quarter Acre External links The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 (United Kingdom) Cockeyed.com presents "How much is inside an acre?" Agricultural Measurements and Conversions be-x-old:Акр

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Musical_film

The musical film is a film genre in which several songs sung by the characters are interwoven into the narrative. The songs are usually used to advance the plot or develop the film's characters, but some musical films (i.e.Down Argentine Way) simply plop the songs in as unrelated "specialties" - as with Carmen Miranda's numbers. A subgenre of the musical film is the musical comedy, which includes a strong element of humour as well as the usual music, dancing and storyline. The musical film was a natural development of the stage musical. Typically, the biggest difference between film and stage musicals is the use of lavish background scenery which would be impractical in a theater. Musical films characteristically contain elements reminiscent of theater; performers often treat their song and dance numbers as if there is a live audience watching. In a sense, the viewer becomes the deictic audience, as the performer looks directly into the camera and performs to it. Western musical films Musical films of the classical sound era The 1930s, 1940s, and 1950s are considered to be the golden age of the musical film, when the genre's popularity was at its height in the Western world. The first musicals Musical short films were made by Lee De Forest in 1923-24, followed by thousands of Vitaphone shorts (1926-30), many featuring bands, vocalists and dancers. The Jazz Singer, released in 1927 by Warner Brothers, was not only the first movie with synchronized dialogue, but the first feature film that was also a musical, featuring Al Jolson singing "Dirty Hands,Dirty Face;" "Toot, Toot, Tootsie," and "My Mammy." In 1928, Warner Brothers followed this up with the first all-talking feature, Lights of New York which included a musical sequence in a night club. The enthusiasm of audiences was so great that in less than a year all the major studios were making sound pictures exclusively. "The Broadway Melody" (1929)was a smash hit and won the Academy Award for Best Picture for 1929. There was a rush by the studios to hire talent from the stage to star in lavishly filmed versions of Broadway hits. Warner Brothers produced the first screen operetta, The Desert Song in 1929. They spared no expense and photographed a large percentage of the film in Technicolor. This was followed by the first all color all talking musical feature which was entitled On with the Show (1929). The most popular film of 1929 was in fact the second all-color all-talking feature which was entitled Gold Diggers of Broadway (1929). This film broke all box office records and remained the highest grossing film ever produced until 1939. Suddenly the market became saturated with musicals, revues and operettas. The following all-color musicals were produced in 1929 and 1930 alone: The Show of Shows (1929), Sally (1929),The Vagabond King (1930), Follow Thru (1930), Bright Lights (1930), Golden Dawn (1930), Hold Everything (1930), The Rogue Song (1930), Song of the Flame (1930), Song of the West (1930), Sweet Kitty Bellairs (1930), Under A Texas Moon (1930), Bride of the Regiment (1930), Whoopee! (1930), The King of Jazz (1930), Viennese Nights (1930), Kiss Me Again (1930). In addition, there were scores of musical features released with color sequences. By late 1930, audiences had been oversaturated with musicals and studios were forced to cut the music from films that were then being released. For example, Life of the Party (1930) was originally produced as an all-color all-talking musical comedy. Before it was released, however, the songs were cut out. The same thing happened to Fifty Million Frenchmen (1931) and Manhattan Parade (1932) both of which had been filmed entirely in Technicolor. The public had quickly come to associate color with musicals and thus the decline in their popularity also resulted in a decline in the use of color. Busby Berkeley The taste in musicals revived again in 1933 when director Busby Berkeley began to enhance the traditional dance number with ideas drawn from the drill precision he had experienced as a soldier during the First World War. In films such as , 42nd Street and Gold Diggers of 1933 (1933), Berkeley choreographed a number of films in his unique style. Berkeley's numbers typically begin on a stage but gradually transcend the limitations of theatrical space: his ingenious routines, involving human bodies forming patterns like a kaleidoscope, could never fit onto a real stage and the intended perspective is viewing from straight above. Musical stars Musical stars such as Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers were among the most popular and highly respected personalities in Hollywood during the classical era; the Fred and Ginger pairing was particularly successful, resulting in a number of classic films, such as Top Hat (1935), Swing Time (1936) and Shall We Dance (1937 film). Many dramatic actors gladly participated in musicals as a way to break away from their typical typecasting. For instance, the multi-talented James Cagney had originally risen to fame as a stage singer and dancer, but his repeated casting in "tough guy" roles and gangster movies gave him few chances to display these talents. Cagney's Oscar-winning role in Yankee Doodle Dandy (1942) allowed him to sing and dance, and he considered it to be one of his finest moments. Many comedies (and a few dramas) included their own musical numbers. The Marx Brothers' movies included a musical number in nearly every film, allowing the Brothers to highlight their musical talents. Their final film, entitled Love Happy (1949), featured Vera Ellen, considered to be the best dancer among her colleagues and professionals in the half century. The Freed Unit During the late 1940s and into the 1950s, a production unit at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer headed by Arthur Freed made the transition from old-fashioned musical films, whose formula had become repetitive, to something new. In 1939, Freed was hired as associate prodlents as director Vincente Minnelli to the world of film. Starting in 1944 with Meet Me in St. Louis, the Freed Unit worked independently of its own studio to produce some of the most popular and well-known examples of the genre. The products of this unit include Easter Parade (1948), On the Town (1949), An American in Paris (1951), Singin' in the Rain (1952) and The Band Wagon (1953). This era allowed the greatest talents in movie musical history to flourish, including Judy Garland, Gene Kelly, Ann Miller, Donald O'Connor, Cyd Charisse, Mickey Rooney, Vera Ellen, Jane Powell, Howard Keel, and Kathryn Grayson. Fred Astaire was also coaxed out of retirement for Easter Parade and made a permanent comeback. The post-classical musical films The 1950s musical Since the 1950s, the musical film has declined in popularity. One reason was the change in culture to rock n' roll and the freedom and youth associated with it. Elvis Presley made a few movies that have been equated with the old musicals in terms of form. Most of the musical films of the 50s and 60s, for example Oklahoma! and The Sound of Music, were straightforward adaptations or restagings of successful stage productions. The musical film today After the 1960s, filmmakers tended to avoid "musical films" in favor of using music by popular rock or pop bands as background music, in the hope of selling a soundtrack album to fans. However, there are exceptions to this rule. Films about actors, dancers or singers have been made as successful modern-style musical films, with the music as a diegetic part of the storyline. Many animated movies also include traditional musical numbers; some of these movies later became live stage productions, such as Beauty and the Beast and The Lion King. In the early 2000s, the musical film began to rise in popularity once more, with new works such as Moulin Rouge!, Across the Universe, High School Musical, and Enchanted; film remakes of stage shows, such as Chicago, The Phantom of the Opera, Rent, Dreamgirls, Sweeney Todd and Mamma Mia!; and even film versions of stage shows that were themselves based on non-musical films, such as The Producers, Hairspray and Reefer Madness. Under the mainstream radar, there have been acclaimed independent musical films, such as Hedwig and the Angry Inch and Dancer in the Dark; and foreign musical films, such as 8 femmes, The Other Side of the Bed, Yes Nurse, No Nurse and Clear Blue Tuesday. In 2004, the New York Musical Theatre Festival presented a week-long festival of modern movie musicals that included 10 independent features made since 1996, as well as several programs of short movie musicals. In 2009, Hannah Montana: The Movie as a new musical film based on Comedy sitcom of the same title has been released. A new wave of teen musicals have come with the success of The Cheetah Girls franchise. After the first was a big success in ratings and album sales, Disney released High School Musical franchise, and subsequently Camp Rock. Flight of the Concords is an HBO show gone musical. Indian musical films Bollywood dances usually follow filmi songs. An exception to the decline of the musical film is Indian cinema, especially the Bollywood film industry based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), where the majority of films have been and still are musicals. Thanks to the incumbent Bollywood formula of the often garish and unrealistic "song and dance" routine, and the lack of an independent Indian popular music scene until the late nineties, the Indian film and popular music industries have been intertwined since virtually the beginning of film production in the country. Some top playback singers are celebrities in India due to the demand for so-called filmi singles and albums. This trend continues even to date, although there has always been a Parallel Cinema movement where Indian art films often have no songs, such as Matrubhoomi, 15, Park Avenue, and Bengali films by Satyajit Ray, Ritwik Ghatak and Mrinal Sen for example. Many of the newer mainstream Bollywood films are also breaking the mold by not including any songs, such as Company, Black and Chak De India for example. Influence In the 2000s, Bollywood musicals played an instrumental role in the revival of the Western musical genre. Baz Luhrmann stated that his successful musical film Moulin Rouge! (2001) was directly inspired by Bollywood musicals. The film thus pays homage to India, incorporating an Indian-themed play based on the ancient Sanskrit drama The Little Clay Cart and a Bollywood-style dance sequence with a song from the film China Gate. The Guru and The 40-Year-Old Virgin also feature Indian-style song-and-dance sequences; A. R. Rahman, an Indian film composer, was recruited for Andrew Lloyd Webber's Bombay Dreams; a musical version of Hum Aapke Hain Koun has played in London's West End; the Bollywood musical Lagaan (2001) was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film; two other Bollywood films Devdas (2002) and Rang De Basanti (2006) were nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film; and Danny Boyle's Academy Award winning Slumdog Millionaire'' (2008) also features a Bollywood-style song-and-dance number during the film's end credits. Lists of musical films See List of musicals: A to L and List of musicals: M to Z for a list of musicals in alphabetical order; note that not all of these have been made into films. See List of musical films by year for a list of musical films in chronological order. See List of Bollywood films for a list of Bollywood musical films. References See also List of movies based on stage plays or musicals

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Economy_of_Gabon

Gabon enjoys a per capita income four times that of most nations of sub-Saharan Africa. This has supported a sharp decline in extreme poverty; yet because of high income inequality a large proportion of the population remains poor. Resources Gabon depended on timber and manganese until oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of GDP and 80% of exports. Oil production is now declining from its peak of in 1997. The 1998 fall-off in oil prices had a negative impact on government revenues and the economy. Gabon public expenditures from the years of significant oil revenues have not been spent well Financial Problems Overspending on the Trans-Gabon (Transgabonais) Railway, the oil price shock of 1986, and the franc CFA devaluation of 1994 have caused debt problems. Gabon has earned a poor reputation with the Paris Club and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for poor management of its debt and revenues. IMF missions (related to the now lapsed EFF program) have criticized the government for over-spending on off-budget items (in good years and bad), over-borrowing from the Central Bank, and slipping on the schedule for privatization and administrative reform. Gabon's oil revenues have given it a strong per capita GDP of more than $4,000, extremely high for the region. On the other hand, a skewed income distribution and poor social indicators are evident. The economy is highly dependent on extraction of abundant primary materials. After oil, timber and manganese mining are the other major sectors. Gabon continues to face fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and uranium exports. Foreign and Gabonese observers have consistently lamented the lack of transformation of primary materials in the Gabonese economy. Various factors have so far stymied more diversification (a small market of 1 million people, dependence on French imports, inability to capitalize on regional markets, lack of entrepreneurial zeal among the Gabonese, and the fairly regular stream of oil "rent"). The small processing and service sectors are largely dominated by just a few prominent local investors. In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle arrears on its bilateral debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. Devaluation of its CFA franc by 50% on 12 January 1994 sparked a one-time inflationary surge, to 35%; the rate dropped to 6% in 1996. The IMF provided a one-year standby arrangement in 1994-1995 and a three-year Enhanced Financing Facility (EFF) at near commercial rates beginning in late 1995. Those agreements mandate progress in privatization and fiscal discipline. France provided additional financial support in January 1997 after Gabon had met IMF targets for mid-1996. In 1997, an IMF mission to Gabon criticized the government for overspending on off-budget items, over-borrowing from the central bank, and slipping on its schedule for privatization and administrative reform. The rebound of oil prices in 1999 helped growth, but drops in production hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains. Statistics GDP: purchasing power parity - $7.9 billion (7.9 G$) (1999 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 1.7% (1999 est.) GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $6,500 (1999 est.) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 10% industry: 60% services: 30% (1999 est.) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 2.9% (1999 est.) Labour force: 600,000 Labour force - by occupation: agriculture 60%, services and government 25%, industry and commerce 15% Unemployment rate: 21% (1997 est.) Budget: revenues: $1.5 billion expenditures: $1.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $302 million (1996 est.) Industries: food and beverage; textile; lumbering and plywood; cement; petroleum extraction and refining; manganese, uranium, and gold mining; chemical production; ship repair Industrial production growth rate: 2.3% (1995) Electricity - production: 1.025 TWh (1998) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 27.8% hydro: 72.2% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 953 GWh (1998) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (1998) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (1998) Agriculture - products: cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber; cattle; okoume (a tropical softwood); fish Exports: $2.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) Exports - commodities: crude oil 75%, timber, manganese, uranium (1998) Exports - partners: United States 68%, the People's Republic of China 9%, France 8%, Japan 3% (1998) Imports: $1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, chemicals, petroleum products, construction materials Imports - partners: France 39%, United States 6%, Cameroon 5%, Netherlands 5%, Côte d'Ivoire, Japan (1998) Debt - external: $4.6 billion (1999 est.) Economic aid - recipient: $331 million (1995) Currency: 1 Communauté financière africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes Exchange rates: Communauté financière africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995) note: since 1 January 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro Fiscal year: calendar year See also Economy of Africa Gabon References External links MBendi Gabon overview Legabon.org Gaboneco.com

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GURPS

The Generic Universal RolePlaying System, or GURPS, is a role-playing game system designed to adapt to any imaginary gaming environment. It was created by Steve Jackson Games in 1986. GURPS won the Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Rules of 1988, and in 2000 it was inducted into the Origins Hall of Fame. Many of its expansions have also won awards. History Prior RPG history Prior to GURPS, roleplaying games (RPGs) of the 1970s and early 1980s were developed especially for certain gaming environments, and they were largely incompatible with one another. For example, TSR published its Dungeons & Dragons game specifically for a fantasy environment. Another game from the same company, Star Frontiers, was developed for science fiction-based role-playing. TSR produced other games for other environments, such as Gamma World (post-apocalyptic adventures), Top Secret (spies and secret agents), Gangbusters (Roaring Twenties adventures), and Boot Hill (American Old West). Each of these games was set with its own self-contained rules system, and the rules for playing each game differed greatly from one game to the next. Attempts were made in Advanced Dungeons and Dragons to allow cross-genre games using Gamma World and Boot Hill rules, but the obscure rules went largely unused. Though it was preceded by the lesser-known Supergame (DAG Productions, 1980), GURPS was the first commercially successful attempt to create an all-encompassing, "universal" role-playing system that allows players to role-play in any environment they please while still using the same set of "core" rules. The GURPS concept Role-playing games of the 1970s and 1980s, such as Dungeons & Dragons, used random numbers generated by dice rolls to assign statistics to player characters. GURPS, in contrast, assigned players a specified number of points with which to build their characters. Together with the HERO System, GURPS was one of the first role-playing games in which characters were created by spending points to get attributes, skills, and advantages (such as the ability to cast magic spells) . Additional points can be obtained by accepting lower-than-average attributes, disadvantages, and other limitations. This approach remains popular in role-playing games, in part due to the success of GURPS. GURPS' emphasis on its "generic" aspect has proven to be a successful marketing tactic, as many game series have source engines which can be retrofitted to many styles. GURPS' approach to versatility includes using real world measurements wherever possible ("reality-checking" is an important part of any GURPS book). This allows players to fairly trivially convert things from the real world, other games or their imagination to GURPS statistics. GURPS also benefits from the many dozens of worldbooks describing settings or additional rules in all genres including science fiction, fantasy, and historical. Many popular game designers began their professional careers as GURPS writers, including C.J. Carella , Robin Laws , S. John Ross , and Fudge creator Steffan O'Sullivan . It is sometimes stated that a large contingent of people who do not play GURPS purchase GURPS supplements because of the talented and creative writers. GURPS worldbooks set in historical periods can often be used as reference books as they usually include a bibliography suggesting additional sources. GURPS history The immediate mechanical antecedent of GURPS was The Fantasy Trip (TFT), an early role-playing game written by Steve Jackson for the company Metagaming Concepts. Several of the core concepts of GURPS first appeared in TFT, including the inclusion of Strength, Dexterity and Intelligence as the core abilities scores of each character. In 1990 GURPS intersected part of the hacker subculture when the company's Austin, Texas, offices were raided by the Secret Service. The target was the author of GURPS Cyberpunk in relation to E911 Emergency Response system documents stolen from Bell South. The incident was a direct contributor to the founding of the Electronic Frontier Foundation. A common misconception holds that this raid was part of Operation Sundevil and carried out by the FBI. Operation: Sundevil was in action at the same time, but it was completely separate. See Steve Jackson Games, Inc. v. United States Secret Service. A free PDF version of the GURPS rules was released as GURPS Lite. This limited ruleset was also included with various books such as GURPS Discworld and Transhuman Space. Steve Jackson Games released GURPS Fourth Edition at the first day of Gen Con on August 19, 2004. It promised to simplify and streamline most areas of play and character creation. The changes include an edited and rationalized skill list, clarification of the difference between ability from experience and from inborn talent, more detailed language rules, and revised technology levels. Designed by Sean Punch, the Fourth Edition was sold as two full-color hardcover books. Mechanics of the game Character points A character in GURPS is built with character points. For a beginning character in an average power game, the 4th edition suggests 100–150 points to modify attribute stats, select advantages and disadvantages, and purchase levels in skills. Normal NPCs are built on 25-50 points. Full-fledged heroes usually have 200–250 points, while superheroes are commonly built with 400–800 points. The highest point value recorded for a character in a GURPS sourcebook is 10,452 for the Harvester (p. 88) in GURPS Monsters. In principle, a Game Master can balance the power of foes to the abilities of the player characters by comparing their relative point values. Attributes Characters in GURPS have four basic attributes: Strength (ST) — A measure of the character's physical power and bulk, ability to lift, carry, and do damage Dexterity (DX) — A measure of the character's physical agility, coordination, and manual dexterity Intelligence (IQ) — A measure of the character's mental capacity, acuity and sense of the world Health (HT) — A measure of the character's physical stamina, energy and vitality, ability to resist disease Having only four attributes is arguably much simpler compared to other role-playing games which can have several main stats that cover more defined abilities. Each attribute has a number rating assigned to it. Normally they begin at 10, representing typical human ability, but can go as low as 1 for nearly useless, to 20 (or higher) for superhuman power. Anything in the 8 to 12 range is considered to be in the "normal" (more or less average) area for humans. Basic attribute scores of 6 or less are considered crippling — they are so far below the human norm that they are only used for severely handicapped characters. Scores of 15 or more are described as amazing — they are immediately apparent and draw constant comment. Players assign these ratings spending character points. The higher the rating the more points it will cost the player, however, assigning a score below the average 10 gives the player points back to assign elsewhere. Since almost all skills are based on Dexterity or Intelligence, those attributes are twice as expensive (or yield twice the points, if purchased below 10). In earlier editions (pre 4th Edition) all attributes followed the same cost-progression, where higher attributes cost more per increase than attributes close to the average of 10. Attribute scores also determine several secondary characteristics. The four major ones are each directly based on a single attribute: Hit Points (HP) — how much damage and injury can be sustained, based on ST Will (Will) — mental focus and strength, withstanding stress, based on IQ Perception (Per) — general sensory alertness, based on IQ Fatigue Points (FP) — a measure of exertion, tiredness, and hunger, based on HT In earlier GURPS editions (that is, prior to the 4th Edition) Hit Points were based on HT and Fatigue Points were based on ST. The other secondary characteristics (Damage, Basic Lift, Basic Speed, Dodge, Move) are calculated from one or more attribute values using individual tables or formulae. Advantages and Disadvantages GURPS has a profusion of advantages and disadvantages which enable players or Game Masters to customize their characters. The myriad options available, and rewards the system provides players for carefully creating their characters, is attractive to gamers who enjoy a high degree of complexity in games. A player can select numerous Advantages and Disadvantages to differentiate the character; the system supports both mundane traits (such as above-average or below-average Wealth, Status and Reputation) as well as more exotic special abilities and weaknesses. These are categorized as physical, mental or social, and as exotic, supernatural, or mundane. Advantages benefit the character and cost points to purchase. Selecting Disadvantages returns character points and allows players to limit their characters in one way in exchange for being more powerful or gifted in other areas. Disadvantages include such positive attributes as honesty and truthfulness which limit the way a character is played. There are also many Perks and Quirks to choose from which give a character some personality. Perks (minor Advantages) and Quirks (minor Disadvantages) benefit or hinder the character a bit, but they mostly add role-playing flavor. Enhancements and limitations can tailor an advantage or disadvantage to suit creative players. These modify the effects and point cost of advantages and disadvantages. For example, to create a "dragon's breath" attack, a player would select the Innate Attack ability (the ability that allows a player to perform an attack most humans could not), and select burning attack 4D (normally 20 points). Then, the player would modify it as follows: cone, 5 yards (+100%); limited use, 3/day (-20%); reduced range, x1/5 (-20%). The final percentage modifier would be +60%, making the final cost 32 points. This addition to the system greatly increases its flexibility while decreasing the number of specific advantages and disadvantages that must be listed. Finally, mitigators can themselves tailor advantages and disadvantages (see GURPS Bio-Tech for such an example). Skills GURPS has a wide variety of skills intended to enable it to support any conceivable genre (such as Acrobatics and Vehicle Piloting). Each skill is tied to at least one attribute, and the characters' abilities in that skill is a function of their base attributes + or - a certain amount. The availability of skills depends on the particular genre the GURPS game is played. For instance, in a generic medieval fantasy setting, skills for operating a computer, or flying a fighter jet would not normally be available. Skills are rated by level, and the more levels purchased with character points, the better the characters are at that particular skill relative to their base attribute. Skills are categorized by difficulty: Easy, Average, Hard, and Very Hard. Easy skills cost fewer points to purchase levels in, while Hard skills cost more. A player can generally purchase a skill for his character at any level he or she can afford. The lower you choose the fewer points it costs to buy the skill, and the higher you go, the more points it costs. Some skills have default levels, which indicate the level rating a character has when using that skill untrained (i.e. not purchased). For example, a character with a Dexterity of 12, is using the Climbing skill untrained. Climbing has a default of DX-5 or ST-5, which means that using the skill untrained gives him a Climbing skill level of 7 (12-5) if he tied it to the Dexterity stat. If the character had a higher Strength stat, he could have a better chance of success if they tied the Climbing skill there instead. Some skills also have a Tech Level (TL) rating attached to them, to differentiate between Skills that concern similar concepts, but whose tasks are accomplished in different ways when used with differing levels of technology. This helps during time traveling scenarios, or when characters are forced to deal with particularly outdated or advanced equipment. For instance, a modern boat builder's skills will be of less use if he is stuck on a desert island and forced to work with primitive tools and techniques. Thus, the skills he uses are different when in his shop (Shipbuilding/TL8) and when he is on the island (Shipbuilding/TL0). Success rolls GURPS uses six-sided dice for all game mechanics using standard dice notation. An "average roll" of three six sided dice generates a total of 10.5; this makes an "average" skill check (a skill of 10, based on an unmodified attribute) equally likely to succeed or fail. Making stat and skill checks in GURPS is the reverse of the mechanics of most other RPGs, where the higher the total of the die roll, the better. GURPS players hope to roll as low as possible under the tested statistic's rating or skill's level. If the roll is less than or equal to that number, the check succeeds. There is no "target number" or "difficulty rating" set by the Game Master, as would be the case in many other RPG systems. Instead the GM will apply various modifiers to add or subtract to the skill level. In this way, positive modifiers increase the chance for success by adding to the stat or skill level you must roll under while negative modifiers deduct from it, making things more difficult. For example: a player makes a pick pocketing test for her character. The character has a Pickpocket skill with a level of 11. Under normal circumstances - i.e., under an average stressful situation, according to the manual - the player must roll an 11 or less for the character to succeed. If the player rolls above 11, then the character has failed the attempt at pick pocketing. There are some exceptions for very high or low rolls, deemed criticals. No matter the level of the skill, a die roll of 18 is always a critical failure, and a roll of 3 or 4 is always a critical success (a roll of 17 is a critical failure as well, unless the character relevant skill level is 16 or more). The Game Master may decide in such cases that, in first case (a roll of 18, or 10+ over the modified skill level), the character has failed miserably and caused something disastrous to happen or, in the other case, that he or she succeeds incredibly well and gains some benefit as a result. Combat Combat in GURPS is organized in personal turns: i.e., every character gets a turn each second - a relatively short period of time - and during his or her character's turn he or she may take an action, such as attack or move. After all characters have taken their action, one second has elapsed. Free actions are simple actions that can be done at any time. Characters in a party have a set initiative that is entirely based upon their Basic Speed characteristic. There are two kinds of attacks: Melee (possibly with hand-to-hand weapons, or unarmed combat) and Ranged (bows, guns, thrown weapons, some Innate Attacks, etc.). Attacks made by a character are checked against their skill with the particular weapon they carry. For instance, if a character is using a pistol, as with any other skill, it is beneficial to have a high level in the Guns skill. Like any other skill check, a player must roll equal to or less than the level of the skill to succeed. Failure means a miss, success scores a hit. Similarly, critical hits mean that the blow might inflict significantly more damage to its target; critical misses may lead to a rather unpleasant and unexpected event (such as dropping the weapon or hitting the wrong target). Attack modifiers are set by the GM when factoring in things like body armor and cover that make a successful strike more difficult. After a successful attack, except in the case of a critical hit, the defender usually gets a chance to avoid the blow. This is called an Active Defense, and takes the form of a Dodge (deliberate movement out of the perceived path of the attack), Parry (attempt to deflect or intercept the attack with a limb or weapon), or Block (effort to interpose a shield or similar object between the attack and the defender's body). Unlike many RPG systems, an Active Defense is an unopposed check, meaning that in most cases, the success of an attack has no effect on the difficulty of the defense. Dodge is based on the Basic Speed characteristic, while Parry and Block are each based on individual combat skills, such as Fencing, Karate, or Staff for Parry, and Shield or Cloak for Block. Certain skills, attributes and equipment, when strung together, can be used to great effect. Let us say a gunslinger from the Old West is facing a foe; he can use the Combat Reflexes ability to react before his enemy, the Fast-Draw(Pistol) skill to get his two guns out, the Gunslinger ability to allow him to skip the aiming step, and the Dual-Weapon Attack(Pistol) skill to fire both his guns at once. This would have taken around 6 turns, if he had none of these skills. Damage and defenses Damage from muscle-powered weapons, (clubs, swords, bows, etc.) are calculated based on the character's ST rating. The weaker a character is physically, the less damage he or she is capable of inflicting with such a weapon. Purely mechanical weapons (guns, beam sabers, bombs, etc.) have a set damage value. When damage is inflicted upon characters, it is deducted from their Hit Points, which are calculated with the Strength stat (prior to GURPS 4th Edition, Hit Points were derived from the Health stat). Like most other RPGs, a loss of hit points indicates physical harm being inflicted upon a character, which can potentially lead to death. GURPS calculates shock penalties when someone is hit, representing the impact it causes and the rush of pain that interferes with concentration. Different weapons can cause different 'types' of damage, ranging from crushing (a club or mace), impaling (a spear or arrow), cutting (most swords and axes), piercing (bullets), and so on. One peculiarity about loss of Hit Points is that in GURPS, death is not certain. While a very high amount of total HP loss will cause certain death, there are also several points at which a player must successfully roll HT, with different grades of failure indicating character death or a mortal injury. Depending on the nature of the attack, there will sometimes be additional effects. Advancement Character advancement follows the same system as character creation. Characters are awarded character points to improve themselves at regular intervals (usually at the end of a game session or story). GMs are free to distribute experience as they see fit. This contrasts with some traditional RPGs where players receive a predictable amount of experience for defeating foes. The book recommends providing 1-3 points for completing objectives and 1-3 points for good role-playing per game session. Advancement can also come through study, work, or other activities, either during game play or between sessions. In general, 200 hours of study equals one character point which can be applied for the area being studied. Self-study and on the job experience take more time per character point while high tech teaching aids can reduce the time required. Some intensive situations let a character advance quickly, as most waking hours are considered study. For instance, characters travelling through the Amazon may count every waking moment as study of jungle survival, while living in a foreign country could count as eight hours per day of language study or more. GURPS in other media The computer game publisher Interplay licensed GURPS as the basis for a post-nuclear war computer role-playing game in 1995. Late in development and after disagreements between the two companies, the GURPS character-building system was replaced with the SPECIAL System, the GURPS name was dropped, and the game was released under the name Fallout. GURPS For Dummies (ISBN 0-471-78329-3), a guidebook by Stuart J. Stuple, Bjoern-Erik Hartsfvang, and Adam Griffith, was published in 2006. GURPS references are a running joke in the webcomic Something Positive. Characters often wear GURPS shirts, soda machines dispense "GURPS cola" and the local gaming store carries fictitious games such as "GURPS Sixteenth Century French Drama". References Review of the French translation See also List of GURPS books, especially GURPS 4e Basic Set GURPS 4e Lite Pyramid, a monthly online magazine with GURPS support External links Official website: GURPS Basic Set GURPS Lite, free rules summary Steve Jackson Games' list of GURPS books GURPS Character Assistant, the official character generator GURPS Wiki, an independent GURPS Wiki GURPS Webring, containing over 75 fansites GURPS Character Sheet GURPS a PAMPA - resources and articles for GURPS in Portuguese. GURPS Online Character Sheet GURPS NPC Generator

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Lucifer

The fall of Satan/Lucifer, The poem uses the name "Lucifer" only three times, as against 72 mentions of "Satan" Gustave Doré's illustration for Paradise Lost by John Milton. Lucifer is a name frequently given to Satan in Christian belief. This usage as a reference to a fallen angel stems from a particular interpretation of , a passage that speaks of someone who is given the name of "Day Star" or "Morning Star" (in Latin, Lucifer) as fallen from heaven. The Hebrew word שמימ (heaven) means "sky, heaven(s)" (Strong's Numbers Online Bible Dictionary). and elsewhere, the same Latin word lucifer is used of the morning star with no relation to Satan. However, in writings later than those in the Bible, the Latin word has often been used instead as a proper name for Satan. In Latin, the word "Lucifer", meaning "Light-Bringer" (from lux, lucis, "light", and ferre, "to bear, bring"), is a name for the "Morning Star" (the planet Venus in its dawn appearances). The Romanian word Luceafăr, though derived from the Latin word, is applied also to the evening appearance of Venus and, in addition, to the fixed stars Aldebaran, Sirius, and Vega. The Latin Vulgate version of the Bible used this word twice to refer to the Morning Star: once in to translate the Greek word Φωσφόρος (Phosphoros), The Greek word here, Φωσφόρος - from φῶς, meaning light - has exactly the same meaning of Light-Bringer that the Latin word has. and once in to translate the Hebrew word הילל (Hêlēl). In the Greek translation of this passage the word used is Ἑωσφόρος - from ἔως, meaning dawn - which literally means Dawn-Bringer. In the latter passage the title of "Morning Star" is given to the tyrannous Babylonian king, who the prophet says is destined to fall. This passage was later applied to the prince of the demons, and so the name "Lucifer" came to be used for Satan, and was popularized in works such as Dante Alighieri's Inferno and John Milton's Paradise Lost, but for English speakers the greatest influence has been its use in the King James Version of to translate the Hebrew word הילל, which more modern English versions render as "Morning Star" or "Day Star". A similar passage in regarding the "king of Tyre" was also applied to Satan, contributing to the traditional picture of Satan and his fall. Latin name for the Morning Star A 2nd-century sculpture of the moon goddess Selene accompanied by Hesperus and Phosphorus: the corresponding Latin names are Luna, Vesper and Lucifer. Lucifer is the Latin name The word has taken the form "Luceafăr" in modern Romanian; and "Luzbel" in Spanish, "Lusbel" in Portuguese, may be a folk evolution of Latin lucĭfer (Luz in the Diccionario Crítico Etimológico Castellano e Hispánico, volume III, Joan Corominas, José A. Pascual, 1989, Editorial Gredos, ISBN 84-249-1365-5). for the "Morning Star", both in prose and poetry, as seen in works by Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC), Cicero (106-43 BC) and other early Latin writers Lewis and Short Cicero wrote: Stella Veneris, quae Φωσφόρος Graece, Latine dicitur Lucifer, cum antegreditur solem, cum subsequitur autem Hesperos De Natura Deorum 2, 20, 53 The star of Venus, called Φωσφόρος in Greek and Lucifer in Latin when it precedes, Hesperos when it follows the sun. And Pliny the Elder: sidus appellatum Veneris … ante matutinum exoriens Luciferi nomen accipit … contra ab occasu refulgens nuncupatur Vesper Natural History 2, 36 The star called Venus … when it rises in the morning is given the name Lucifer … but when it shines at sunset it is called Vesper. Poets also used the word "Lucifer". Ovid uses this name at least 11 times, as when he wrote: ... vigil nitido patefecit ab ortupurpureas Aurora fores et plena rosarum atria: diffugiunt stellae, quarum agmina cogitLucifer et caeli statione novissimus exit. Metamorphoses 2.114–115 Aurora, awake in the glowing east, opens wide her bright doors, and her rose-filled courts. The stars, whose ranks are shepherded by Lucifer the morning star, vanish, and he, last of all, leaves his station in the sky. A. S. Kline's Version Virgil wrote: Luciferi primo cum sidere frigida rura carpamus, dum mane novum, dum gramina canent Georgics 3:324-325. Let us hasten, when first the Morning Star appears, To the cool pastures, while the day is new, while the grass is dewy. Lucan:Lucifer a Casia prospexit rupe diemque misit in Aegypton primo quoque sole calentem<ref>Lucan, Pharsalia, 10:434-435]</ref> The morning-star looked forth from Mount Casius and sent the daylight over Egypt, where even sunrise is hot. English translation by J.D.Duff (Loeb Classical Library) The Morning Star in Isaiah 14:12 The Book of Isaiah has the following passage: When the Lord has given you rest from your pain and turmoil and the hard service with which you were made to serve, you will take up this taunt against the king of Babylon: How the oppressor has ceased! How his insolence has ceased! … How you are fallen from heaven, O Day Star, son of Dawn! How you are cut down to the ground, you who laid the nations low! You said in your heart, "I will ascend to heaven; I will raise my throne above the stars of God; I will sit on the mount of assembly on the heights of Zaphon; I will ascend to the tops of the clouds, I will make myself like the Most High." But you are brought down to Sheol, to the depths of the Pit. Those who see you will stare at you, and ponder over you: "Is this the man who made the earth tremble, who shook kingdoms, who made the world like a desert and overthrew its cities, who would not let his prisoners go home?" , The passage expressly refers to a "king of Babylon", a "man" who seemed all-powerful, but who has been brought low. Isaiah promises that the Israelites will be freed and will then be able to use in a taunting song against their oppressor the image of the Morning Star, which rises at dawn as the brightest of the stars, outshining Jupiter and Saturn, but lasting only until the sun appears. This image was used in an old popular Canaanite story that the Morning Star tried to rise high above the clouds and establish himself on the mountain where the gods assembled, in the far north, but was cast down into the underworld. Tyndale Bible Dictionary (Carol Stream, Illinois 2001 ISBN 978-1-4143-1945-2), article Lucifer (p. 829) Jewish Encyclopedia: article Lucifer The phrase "O Day Star, son of Dawn" in the New Revised Standard Version translation given above corresponds to the Hebrew phrase "הילל בן־שׁחר" (Helel Ben-Shachar) in verse 12, meaning "morning star, son of dawn". As the Latin poets personified the Morning Star and the Dawn (Aurora), as well as the Sun and the Moon and other heavenly bodies, so in Canaanite mythology Morning Star and Dawn were pictured as two deities, the former being the son of the latter. "Verses 12-15 seem to be based on a Phoenician model. At all events, they display several points of contact with the Ras-Shamra poems: Daystar and Dawn were two divinities; the "mount of Assembly" was where the gods used to meet, like Mount Olympus in Greek mythology. The Fathers identified the fall of the Morning Star (Vulgate, Lucifer) with that of the prince of the demons" (note in the New Jerusalem Bible). In the Vulgate, Jerome translated "הילל בן־שׁחר" (morning star, son of dawn) as "lucifer qui mane oriebaris" (morning star that used to rise early). The Septuagint Greek translation of the phrase uses the same interpretation of "son of dawn": ὁ ἑωσφόρος ὁ πρωὶ ἀνατέλλων. Already, as early as the Christian writers Tertullian and Origen, Tyndale Bible Dictionary (Carol Stream, Illinois 2001 ISBN 978-1-4143-1945-2), article Lucifer (p. 829) the whole passage had come to be applied to Satan. Satan began to be referred to as "Lucifer" (Morning Star), and finally the word "Lucifer" was treated as a proper name. The use of the word "Lucifer" in the 1611 King James Version instead of a word such as "Daystar" ensured its continued popularity among English speakers. Most modern English versions of the Bible (including the NIV, NRSV, NASB, NJB and ESV) render the Hebrew word as "day star", "morning star" or something similar, and never as "Lucifer", a word that in English is now very rarely used in the sense of the original word in Hebrew, though in Latin "Lucifer" was a literal translation. Satan as Lucifer Satan/Lucifer, another of Gustave Doré's illustrations for Paradise Lost by John Milton. The Jewish Encyclopedia states that the Lucifer myth was transferred to Satan already in the pre-Christian century, citing in support of this view the Life of Adam and Eve and the Slavonic Book of Enoch Verses 29:4, 31:4 of the longer recension manuscript R , where Satan-Sataniel (sometimes identified with Samael) is described as having been one of the archangels. Because he contrived "to make his throne higher than the clouds over the earth and resemble 'My power' on high", Satan-Sataniel was hurled down, with his hosts of angels, and since then he has been flying in the air continually above the abyss. However, it was among Christian writers that the identification of "Lucifer" with Satan was most widely adopted. Tertullian ("Contra Marrionem," v. 11, 17), Origen ("Ezekiel Opera," iii. 356), and others, identify Lucifer with Satan, who also is represented as being "cast down from heaven" (; cf. ). The Tyndale Bible Dictionary states that there are many who believe the expression "Lucifer" and the surrounding context in Isaiah 14 refer to Satan: they believe the similarities among , , and warrant this conclusion. But it points out that the context of the Isaiah passage is about the accomplished defeat of the king of Babylon, while the New Testament passages speak of Satan. A passage quite similar to that in Isaiah is found in , which is expressly directed against the king of Tyre, a city on an island that had grown rich by trade, factors alluded to in the text. Your heart is proud and you have said, "I am a god; I sit in the seat of the gods, in the heart of the seas" … By your great wisdom in trade you have increased your wealth, and your heart has become proud in your wealth (verses 2 and 5) It too has been applied to Lucifer/Satan, because of some of the expressions contained in it. With an anointed cherub as guardian I placed you; you were on the holy mountain of God; you walked among the stones of fire. You were blameless in your ways from the day that you were created, until iniquity was found in you. In the abundance of your trade you were filled with violence, and you sinned; so I cast you as a profane thing from the mountain of God, and the guardian cherub drove you out from among the stones of fire (verses 14-16). But, since it does not contain the image of the morning star, discussion of it belongs rather to the article on Satan than to that on Lucifer. Lucifer (Le génie du mal) by Guillaume Geefs (Cathedral of St. Paul, Liège, Belgium) The same holds for the picture of Satan in other books of the Old Testament as, for instance, in the book of Job, where Satan, who has been wandering the earth, has a discussion with God and makes a deal with him to test Job. Joseph Campbell (1972: p.148-149) illustrates an unorthodox Islamic reading of Lucifer's fall from Heaven, which champions Lucifer's eclipsing love for God: "One of the most amazing images of love that I know is in Persian – a mystical Persian representation as Satan as the most loyal lover of God. You will have heard the old legend of how, when God created the angels, he commanded them to pay worship to no one but himself; but then, creating man, he commanded them to bow in reverence to this most noble of his works, and Lucifer refused – because, we are told, of his pride. However, according to this Muslim reading of his case, it was rather because he loved and adored God so deeply and intensely that he could not bring himself to bow before anything else, and because he refused to bow down to something inferior to him (since he was made of fire, and man from clay). And it was for that that he was flung into Hell, condemned to exist there forever, apart from his love." This interpretation of the satanic rebellion described in the Quran is seen by some Sufi teachers such as Mansur Al-Hallaj (in his 'Tawasin') as a predestined scenario in which Iblis-Shaitan plays the role of tragic and jealous lover who, unable to perceive the Divine Image in Adam and capable only of seeing the exterior, disobeyed the divine mandate to bow down. His refusal (according to the Tawasin) was due to a misconceived idea of God's uniqueness and because of his refusal to abandon himself to God in love. Hallaj criticized the staleness of Iblis' adoration. Excerpts from Sufi texts expounding this interpretation have been included along with many other viewpoints on Shaitan (by no means all of them apologetic) in an important anthology of Sufi texts edited by Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh, head of the Nimatullahi Sufi Order. Nurbakhsh, Javad. The Great Satan 'Eblis'. KNP, 1999. ISBN 0933546238. The Sufi teacher Pir Vilayat Inayat Khan taught that 'Luciferian Light' is Light which has become dislocated from the Divine Source and is thus associated with the seductive false light of the lower ego which lures humankind into self-centered delusion. http://www.universel.net/Gateway.cfm?Selected=Media&SelectedID=114 Here Lucifer represents what the Sufis term the 'Nafs', the ego. Liberal Christian scholars often deny altogether the existence of a personal being called "Satan", rendering the Lucifer story irrelevant. They argue that the name Satan itself (Hebrew: שָׂטָן) merely means "adversary" or "accuser", which may be a personification. Mentions of the Morning Star in the Bible In the Latin Vulgate the word "Lucifer" was used twice to refer to the Morning Star: once for "הילל" (hêlēl) in and once for the Greek word "φωσφόρος" (phosphoros) in . "Lucifer" (Morning Star) also appears twice in the Vulgate translation of the Book of Job, once to represent the word "בקר" Hebrew text (which instead means "morning") in , and once for the word "מזרות" (usually taken to mean "the constellations") in ; and it appears also in for "שׁחר" (dawn, the same word as in ). Two references to the Morning Star in the Book of Revelation are not represented in the Vulgate by "lucifer". In both cases a circumlocution is used in the original Greek text, instead of the simple term "φωσφόρος", and a corresponding circumlocution is used in the Latin. Thus "stella matutina" is used for "ὁ ἀστὴρ ὁ πρωϊνός" in , which promises the morning star to those who persevere. The Vulgate uses "stella matutina" to translated "ὁ ἀστὴρ ὁ πρωϊνός" (or, according to some manuscripts, "ὁ ἀστὴρ ὁ ὀρθρινός") in , where it is Jesus who is described as the morning star. An echo of this Biblical use is found in the Roman Rite liturgy, in which the Exultet chant in praise of the paschal candle refers to Christ as the morning star (in Latin lucifer): May the Morning Star which never sets find this flame still burning: Christ, that Morning Star, who came back from the dead, and shed his peaceful light on all mankind, your Son, who lives and reigns for ever and ever.Flammas eius lucifer matutinus inveniat: ille, inquam, lucifer, qui nescit occasum, Christus Filius tuus qui, regressus ab inferis, humano generi serenus illuxit, et vivit et regnat in saecula saeculorum. Astronomical significance Because the planet Venus (Lucifer) is an inferior planet, meaning that its orbit lies between the orbit of the Earth and the Sun, it can never rise high in the sky at night as seen from Earth. It can be seen in the eastern morning sky for an hour or so before the Sun rises, and in the western evening sky for an hour or so after the Sun sets, but never during the dark of midnight. It is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun and the Moon. As bright and as brilliant as it is, ancient people did not understand why they could not see it at midnight like the outer planets, or during midday, like the Sun and Moon. It outshines the planets Saturn and Jupiter, which do last all night, but it soon disappears. Canaanite mythology has a story of an unsuccessful attempt by Athtar, the Morning Star pictured as a god, to take over the throne of Baal. John Day, Yahweh and the gods and goddesses of Canaan (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2002 ISBN 0826468306, 9780826468307), pp. 172-173 Gregory A. Boyd, God at War: The Bible & Spiritual Conflict (InterVarsity Press, 1997 ISBN 0830818855, 9780830818853), pp. 159-160 Non-Biblical use of "Morning Star" as a title "Morning Star" appears to have been used as a poetic description of Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros II in 968. Liutprand, bishop of Cremona, reported the greeting sung to the emperor arriving at Hagia Sophia: "Behold the morning star approaches Eos rises; he reflects in his glances the rays of the sun – he the pale death of the Saracens, Nicephorus the ruler." Alleged connection with Freemasonry Léo Taxil (1854-1907) originated a perception that Freemasonry was associated with worshipping Lucifer. In what is known as the Taxil hoax, he claimed that leading Freemason Albert Pike had addressed "The 23 Supreme Confederated Councils of the world" (Taxil's invention), instructing them that Lucifer was God, and was in opposition to the evil god Adonai. When Albert Pike and other Masonic scholars spoke over a century ago about the "Luciferian path," or the "energies of Lucifer," they were referring to the morning star, the light bearer, ""Lucifer, the Son of the Morning! Is it he who bears the Light, and with its splendors intolerable blinds feeble, sensual, or selfish Souls? Doubt it not!" (Albert Pike, Morals and Dogma, p. 321) Much has been made of this quote (Masonic information: Lucifer). the search for light; the very antithesis of dark, satanic evil. Taxil also promoted a book by Diana Vaughan (actually written by him) that purported to reveal a highly secret ruling body called the Palladium which controlled the organization and had a Satanic agenda. As described by Freemasonry Disclosed in 1897:With frightening cynicism, the miserable person we shall not name here [Taxil declared before an assembly especially convened for him that for twelve years he had prepared and carried out to the end the most sacrilegious of hoaxes. We have always been careful to publish special articles concerning Palladism and Diana Vaughan. We are now giving in this issue a complete list of these articles, which can now be considered as not having existed. Freemasonry Disclosed April 1897 Despite the fraud having been revealed for over a century, Pike's spurious address and other details of the hoax continue to be quoted by anti-masonic groups. Arthur Edward Waite wrote an exposé of this hoax, titled Devil-Worship in France, producing evidence that it was what today we would call a tabloid story, replete with logical and factual inconsistencies. See also "Lucifer and Satan" at the Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon website. Occult beliefs The Sigil of Lucifer ("Seal of Satan") a magical sigil Alternative Religions used occasionally as an emblem by Satanists In the modern occultism of Madeline Montalban (died 1982) Madeline Montalban and the Order of the Morning Star Lucifer's identification as the Morning Star (Venus) equates him with Lumiel, whom she regarded as the Archangel of Light, not at all related to Satanism, and among Satanists he is seen as the "Torch of Baphomet" and Azazel. In this modern occult teaching, an obvious appropriation of Christian soteriology, it is stated that it is Lucifer's destiny to incarnate in human form at certain key times in world history as a savior and redeemer for humanity. A symbol for this process is the Tudor Rose. The Tudor Rose can be red, representing Lucifer, or white, representing Lilith. In the Satanic Bible of 1969 Lucifer is acknowledged as one of the Four Crown Princes of Hell, particularly that of the East. Lord of the Air, Lucifer has been named "Bringer of Light, the Morning Star, Intellectualism, Enlightenment." Statue of one of twelve lucifers at the Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc The name Lucifer originally denotes the planet Venus, emphasizing its brilliance. The Vulgate employs the word also for "the light of the morning" (Job 11:17), "the signs of the zodiac" (Job 38:32), and "the aurora" (Psalm 109:3). Metaphorically, the word is applied to the King of Babylon (Isaiah 14:12) as preeminent among the princes of his time; to the high priest Simon son of Onias (Ecclesiasticus 50:6), for his surpassing virtue, to the glory of heaven (Apocalypse 2:28), by reason of its excellency; finally to Jesus Christ himself (II Petr. 1:19; Apocalypse 22:16; the "Exultet" of Holy Saturday) the true light of our spiritual life. The Syriac version and the version of Aquila derive the Hebrew noun helel from the verb yalal, "to lament"; St. Jerome agrees with them (In Isaiah 1:14), and makes Lucifer the name of the principal fallen angel who must lament the loss of his original glory bright as the morning star. In Christian tradition this meaning of Lucifer has prevailed; the Fathers maintain that Lucifer is not the proper name of the devil, but denotes only the state from which he has fallen (Petavius, De Angelis, III, iii, 4). Other meanings As well as signifying the archangel cast from heaven for leading a revolt of angels, and the planet Venus in its appearance as the Morning Star, the word "lucifer" has been used in English with reference to a friction match. Use of the term "Lucifer" in reference to a morning star is hinted at in Arthur C. Clarke's 2010: Odyssey Two and 2061: Odyssey Three. The word Lucifer in this context refers to the mini-sun of Jupiter. In William Nicholson's 'Jango' novel, "Morning Star" is a name given to one of the main characters. See also Luciferianism Devil Satan Christianity War in Heaven Luceafarul Lucifer in popular culture References Further reading Campbell, Joseph (1972). Myths To Live By''. A Condor Book: Souvenir Press (Educational & Academic) Ltd. ISBN 0-285-64731-8 External links Jewish Encyclopedia: Lucifer

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Geography_of_Hungary

Satellite image showing the seven main geographical regions of Hungary (in parenthesis: major region): 1., Great Alföld (Great Alföld)2., Northern Medium Mountains (Northern Hills)3., Transdanubian Medium Mountains (Transdanubia)4., Transdanubian Hills (Transdanubia)5., Mecsek Mountains (Transdanubia)6., Little Alföld (Transdanubia)7., Alpokalja (Transdanubia) With a land area of 93,030 square kilometers, Hungary is a country in Central Europe. It measures about 250 kilometers from north to south and 524 kilometers from east to west. It has 2,258 kilometers of boundaries, shared with Austria to the west, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia to the south and southwest, Romania to the southeast, the Ukraine to the northeast, and Slovakia to the north. Hungary's modern borders were first established after World War I when, by the terms of the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, it lost more than 71% of what had formerly been the Kingdom of Hungary, 58.5% of its population, and 32% of the Hungarians. The country secured some boundary revisions from 1938 to 1941: In 1938 the First Vienna Award gave back territory from Czechoslovakia, in 1939 Hungary occupied Carpatho-Ukraine. In 1940 the Second Vienna Award gave back Northern Transylvania and finally Hungary occupied the Bácska and Muraköz regions during the Invasion of Yugoslavia. However, Hungary lost these territories again with its defeat in World War II. After World War II, the Trianon boundaries were restored with a small revision that benefited Czechoslovakia. Topography Topographic map of Hungary Most of the country has an elevation of fewer than 200 meters. Although Hungary has several moderately high ranges of mountains, those reaching heights of 300 meters or more cover less than 2% of the country. The highest point in the country is Kékes (1,014 m) in the Mátra Mountains northeast of Budapest. The lowest spot is 77.6 meters above sea level, located in the south of Hungary, near Szeged. The major rivers in country are the Danube and Tisza. The Danube also flows through parts of Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Serbia, and Romania.It is navigable within Hungary for 418 kilometers. The Tisza River is navigable for 444 kilometers in the country. Less important rivers include the Drava along the Croatian border, the Rába, the Szamos, the Sió, and the Ipoly along the Slovakian border. Hungary has three major lakes. Lake Balaton, the largest, is 78 kilometers long and from 3 to 14 kilometers wide, with an area of 592 square kilometers. Hungarians often refer to it as the Hungarian Sea. It is Central Europe's largest freshwater lake and an important recreation area. Its shallow waters offer good summer swimming, and in winter its frozen surface provides excellent opportunities for winter sports. Smaller bodies of water are Lake Velence (26 square kilometers) in Fejér County and Lake Fertő (Neusiedler See--about 82 square kilometers within Hungary). Hungary has three major geographic regions (which are subdivided to seven smaller ones): the Great Alföld, lying east of the Danube River; the Transdanubia, a hilly region lying west of the Danube and extending to the Austrian foothills of the Alps; and the Northern Hills, which is a mountainous and hilly country beyond the northern boundary of the Great Hungarian Plain. The country's best natural resource is fertile land, although soil quality varies greatly. About 70% of the country's total territory is suitable for agriculture; of this portion, 72% is arable land. Hungary lacks extensive domestic sources of the energy and raw materials needed for industrial development. Rivers and lakes Rivers The springs of the mayor Hungarian rivers are outside the country. The two most important rivers, the Danube and the Tisza are navigable on their whole Hungarian length. They have several tributaries. The county is rich in brooks and hot springs.  NameLength in HungaryDanube417 kmTisza596 kmLajta180 kmRábcaRába211 kmZala139 kmDráva725 kmIpoly143 kmZagyva160 kmSajó125 kmHernád118 kmBodrog118 kmSzamosKörös RiverMaros48 kmLakes Hungary has several bodies of water, including the greatest lake of Central Europe, Lake Balaton, which is a famous tourist destination. Lake Hévíz, the largest thermal lake in the world (47,500 square metres in area) is located in Hungary as well. The Lake Cave (Hungarian: Barlangtó) of Tapolca is also notable as being a sub-surface lake. Major lakes include: NameSurface in HungaryBalaton596 km²Tisza (artificial)127 km²Fertő75 km² Velence26 km² Plains and hills Main articles: Little Hungarian Plain, Transdanubia, Great Alföld. Hortobágy on the Great Hungarian Plain with Racka sheep The Little Alföld or Little Hungarian Plain is a plain (tectonic basin) of approximately 8,000 km² in northwestern Hungary, southwestern Slovakia and eastern Austria, along the lower course of the Rába River, with high quality fertile soils. The Transdanubia region lies in the western part of the country, bounded by the Danube River, the Drava River, and the remainder of the country's border with Slovenia and Croatia. It lies south and west of the course of the Danube. It contains Lake Fertő and Lake Balaton. The region consists mostly of rolling hills. Transdanubia is primarily an agricultural area, with flourishing crops, livestock, and viticulture. Mineral deposits and oil are found in Zala county close to the border of Croatia. The Great Alföld contains the basin of the Tisza River and its branches. It encompasses more than half of the country's territory. Bordered by mountains on all sides, it has a variety of terrains, including regions of fertile soil, sandy areas, wastelands, and swampy areas. Hungarians have inhabited the Great Plain for at least a millennium. Here is found the puszta, a long, and uncultivated expanse (the most famous such area still in existence is the Hortobágy), with which much Hungarian folklore is associated. In earlier centuries, the Great Plain was unsuitable for farming because of frequent flooding. Instead, it was the home of massive herds of cattle and horses. In the last half of the nineteenth century, the government sponsored programs to control the riverways and expedite inland drainage in the Great Plain. With the danger of recurrent flooding largely eliminated, much of the land was placed under cultivation, and herding ceased to be a major contributor to the area's economy. Transdanubia Mountains Main articles: Alpokalja, Transdanubian Medium Mountains, Mecsek, Northern Medium Mountains. Although the majority of the country has an elevation lesser than 300 metres, Hungary has several moderately high ranges of mountains. They can be classified to four geographic regions, from west to east: Alpokalja, Transdanubian Medium Mountains, Mecsek and Northern Medium Mountains. Alpokalja (literally the foothills of the Alps) is located along the Austrian border; its highest point is Írott-kő with an elevation of 882 metres. The Transdanubian Medium Mountains stretch from the west part of Lake Balaton to the Danube Bend near Budapest, where it meets the Northern Medium Mountains (or Northern Hills). Its tallest peak is the 757 m high Pilis. Mecsek is the southernmost Hungarian mountain range, located north from Pécs - Its highest point is the Zengő with 682 metres. The Northern Medium Mountains lie north of Budapest and run in a northeasterly direction south of the border with Slovakia. The higher ridges, which are mostly forested, have rich coal and iron deposits. Minerals are a major resource of the area and have long been the basis of the industrial economies of cities in the region. Viticulture is also important, producing the famous Tokaji wine. The highest peak of it is the Kékes, located in the Mátra mountain range. Highest peaks #NameHeightMountain rangeGeographic region1.Kékes1014 mMátraNorthern Medium Mountains2.Galyatető964 mMátraNorthern Medium Mountains3.Istállós-kő959 mBükkNorthern Medium mountains4.Bálvány956 mBükkNorthern Medium mountains5.Tar-kő950 mBükkNorthern Medium mountains6.Csóványos938 mBörzsönyNorthern Medium mountains7.Nagy-Milic894 mZemplénNorthern Medium mountains8.Írott-kő882 mKőszeg MountainsAlpokalja9.Nagyhideghegy864 mBörzsönyNorthern Medium Mountains10.Tót-hegyes814 mMátraNorthern Medium Mountains Mátra Climate Hungary has a continental climate, with cold winters and warm to hot summers. The average annual temperature is about 10 °C (50 °F), in summer 27 to 35 °C (81 to 95 °F), and in winter 0 to −15 °C (32 to 5 °F), with extremes ranging from about 42 °C (110 °F) in summer to −29 °C (−20 °F) in winter. Average yearly rainfall is about 600 millimetres (24 inches). Distribution and frequency of rainfall are unpredictable. The western part of the country usually receives more rain than the eastern part, where severe droughts may occur in summertime. Weather conditions in the Great Plain can be especially harsh, with hot summers, cold winters, and scant rainfall. By the 1980s, the countryside was beginning to show the effects of pollution, both from herbicides used in agriculture and from industrial pollutants. Most noticeable was the gradual contamination of the country's bodies of water, endangering fish and wildlife. Although concern was mounting over these disturbing threats to the environment, no major steps had yet been taken to arrest them. Extreme points Hungary's westernmost settlement is Felsőszölnök in Vas county, the easternmost is Garbolc in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg county, the northernmost is Hollóháza in Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén county and the southernmost is Kásád in Baranya county. The country's highest point is Mount Kékes (1014 m) while the lowest is River Tisza near Szeged (78 m). Agriculture Wheat field, Hungary Hungary, with its plains and hilly regions, is highly suitable for agriculture. Arable land Doubtless, one of Hungary's most important natural resources is arable land. It covers about 49.58% of the country, which is outstanding in the world (see the related map). The mass majority of the fertile soil has a good quality. The most important agricultural zones are the Little Hungarian Plain (it has the highest quality fertile soil in average), Transdanubia, and the Great Hungarian Plain. The last covers more than half of the county (52,000 km² in number), whereas soil quality varies extremely; the territory even contains a small, grassy semi-desert, the so-called puszta (steppe in English). Puszta is exploited by sheep and cattle raising. The most important Hungarian agricultural products include corn, wheat, barley, oat, sunflower, poppy, potato, millet, sugar-beet, flax, and many other plants. There are also some newly naturalized plants, too, for example, amaranth. Poppy consumption is part of the traditional Hungarian cuisine. A greengrocer's in Hungary The country is well-known for producing high quality green pepper, called paprika. There are numerous fruits reared, including many subspecies of apple, pear, peach, grape, apricot, water melon , cantaloupe, etc. Hungary does not grow any GMO products, thus these products are mainly imported from the United States. They cannot, however, be distributed without a mark on the wrapping. Viticulture Wine production has a long history in Hungary. There are two languages in Europe in which the word for "wine" does not derive from the Latin, being Greek – and Hungarian. The Hungarian word is bor. Viticulture has been recorded in the territory of today's Hungary already in the Roman times, who were responsible for the introduction of the cultivation of wines. The arriving Hungarians took over the practice and maintained it ever since. Today, there are numerous wine regions in Hungary, producing quality and inexpensive wines as well, comparable to Western European ones. The majority of the country's wine regions are located in the mountains or in the hills, such as Transdanubian Medium Mountains, Northern Medium Mountains, Villány Mountains, and so on. Important ones include the regions of Eger, Hajós, Somló, Sopron, Villány, Szekszárd, and Tokaj-Hegyalja. Forestry 19% of the country is covered by forests. These are mainly mountainous areas, such as the Northern and the Transdanubian Medium Mountains, and the Alpokalja. The composition of forests is various, with trees like fir, beech, oak, willow, acacia, plane, etc. Statistics and notes Geography of HungaryGeographic coordinates:Map references:EuropeArea:   total:93,030 km²  land:92,340 km²  water:690 km²Land boundaries, total: 2,009 kmborder countries:Austria (366 km), Croatia (329 km), Romania (443 km), Serbia (151 km), Slovakia (515 km), Slovenia (102 km), Ukraine (103 km)Coastline:0 km (landlocked)Maritime claims:none (landlocked)Climate:temperate; cold, cloudy, humid winters; warm summersTerrain:mostly flat to rolling plains; hills and low mountains on the Slovakian borderElevation extremes:   lowest point: Tisza River 78 m  highest point: Kékes 1,014 mNatural resources:bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable landLand use:   arable land:51%  permanent crops:3.6%  permanent pastures:12.4%  forests and woodland:19%  other:14% (1999)Irrigated land:2,060 km² (1993 est.)Environment - current issues:the approximation of Hungary's standards in waste management, energy efficiency, and air, soil, and water pollution with environmental requirements for EU accession will require large investmentsEnvironment - international agreements:   party to:Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands  signed, but not ratified:Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental ProtocolGeography - note:landlocked; strategic location astride main land routes between Western Europe and Balkan Peninsula as well as between Ukraine and Mediterranean basin Pictures See also Geography of Europe Hungary List of cities and towns in Hungary References

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David_Cronenberg

David Paul Cronenberg, OC, FRSC (born March 15, 1943) David Cronenberg Biography (1943–) is a Canadian filmmaker, screenwriter, and occasional actor. He is one of the principal originators of what is commonly known as the body horror or venereal horror genre. This style of filmmaking explores people's fears of bodily transformation and infection. In his films, the psychological is typically intertwined with the physical. In the first half of his career, he explored these themes mostly through horror and science fiction, although his work has since expanded beyond these genres. Biography Early life Cronenberg was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where he currently lives. He is the son of Esther (née Sumberg), a musician, and Milton Cronenberg, a writer and editor. He was raised in a middle-class secular Jewish family, New York's Premier Alternative Newspaper. Arts, Music, Food, Movies and Opinion The Film Reference Library David Cronenberg Georgia Straight and remained an atheist. Guttsman, Janet, Reuters.com (September 10, 2007). Cronenberg gets down and dirty with Russian mob Cronenberg attended Harbord Collegiate Institute, later graduating from the University of Toronto with a degree in literature, having switched from science. He has cited William S. Burroughs and Vladimir Nabokov as influences. Career After two short sketch films and two short art-house features (the black and white Stereo and the colour Crimes of the Future) Cronenberg went into partnership with Ivan Reitman. The Canadian government provided financing for Cronenberg's films through the 1970s. Cronenberg alternated his signature "body horror" films such as Shivers with projects reflecting his interest in car racing and bike gangs. Rabid exploited the unexpected acting talents of porn queen Marilyn Chambers (Cronenberg's first choice was a young, then-unknown Sissy Spacek). Rabid was a breakthrough with international distributors and his next two horror features gained stronger support. Over the arc of his career, Cronenberg's films follow a definite progression, a movement from the social world to the inner life. In his early films, scientists modify human bodies, which results in the breakdown of social order (e.g. Shivers, Rabid). In his middle period, the chaos wrought by the scientist is more personal, (e.g. The Brood, Scanners, Videodrome). In the later period, the scientist himself is altered by his experiment (e.g. Cronenberg's remake of The Fly). This trajectory culminates in Dead Ringers in which a twin pair of gynecologists spiral into codependency and drug addiction. Cronenberg's later films tend more to the psychological, often contrasting subjective and objective realities (eXistenZ, M. Butterfly, Spider). Perhaps the best example of a film that straddles the line between his works of personal chaos and psychological confusion is Cronenberg's "adaptation" of his literary hero Burroughs' most controversial book, Naked Lunch. The book itself (widely accepted as Burroughs' seminal work) was considered "unfilmable" and Cronenberg acknowledged that a straight translation of the book to film would "cost 100 million dollars and be banned in every country in the world". Instead, Cronenberg—much like in his earlier film, Videodrome—consistently blurred the lines between what appeared to be reality and what appeared to be hallucinations brought on by the main character's drug addiction. Some of the book's "moments" (as well as incidents loosely based upon Burroughs' life) are presented in this manner within the film. Cronenberg stated that while writing the screenplay for Naked Lunch, he felt a moment of synergy with the writing style of William S. Burroughs. He felt the connection between his screenwriting style and Burroughs' prose style was so strong, that he jokingly remarked that should Burroughs pass on, "I'll just write his next book". Cronenberg has said that his films should be seen "from the point of view of the disease", and that, for example, he identifies with the characters in Shivers after they become infected with the anarchic parasites. Disease and disaster, in Cronenberg's work, are less problems to be overcome than agents of personal transformation. Similarly, in Crash (1996), people who have been injured in car crashes attempt to view their ordeal as "a fertilizing rather than a destructive event". In 2006, Cronenberg would say that he was upset that Paul Haggis had chosen the same name for his Academy Award winning film Crash, feeling it was not only ethically wrong, but annoying as hell. Aside from The Dead Zone (1983) and The Fly, Cronenberg has not generally worked within the world of big-budget, mainstream Hollywood filmmaking, although he has had occasional near misses. At one stage he was considered by George Lucas as a possible director for Return of the Jedi but was passed. Cronenberg also worked for nearly a year on a version of Total Recall but experienced "creative differences" with producers Dino De Laurentiis and Ronald Shusett. A different version of the film was eventually made by Paul Verhoeven. A fan of Philip K. Dick, the author of the short story (We Can Remember it For You Wholesale) upon which Total Recall was based, Cronenberg related (in the biography/overview of his work, Cronenberg on Cronenberg) that his dissatisfaction with what he envisioned the film to be and what it ended up being pained him so greatly that for a time, he suffered a migraine just thinking about it, akin to a needle piercing his eye. In the late 1990s, Cronenberg was announced as director of a sequel to another Verhoeven film, Basic Instinct, but this also fell through. His recent work, the thriller A History of Violence (2005), is one of his highest budgeted and most mass audience-accessible to date. He has said that the decision to direct it was influenced by his having had to defer some of his salary on the low-budgeted Spider, but it is one of his most critically acclaimed films to date, along with Eastern Promises (2007) which is about the struggle one man went through to gain power in the Russian Mafia. Cronenberg has hired Howard Shore to compose the soundtrack to nearly all of his films (see List of noted film director and composer collaborations). Other regular collaborators include actor Robert Silverman, art director Carol Spier, sound editor Bryan Day, film editor Ronald Sanders, his sister, costume designer Denise Cronenberg, and, from 1979 until 1988, cinematographer Mark Irwin. In 2008, Cronenberg directed Howard Shore's first opera, The Fly. Since 1988's Dead Ringers, Cronenberg has worked with cinematographer Peter Suschitzky on each of his films (see List of noted film director and cinematographer collaborations). Suschitzky was the director of photography for Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back, and Cronenberg has repeatedly said that Suschitzky's work in that film made it the most beautiful sci-fi film he had ever seen, which was a motivating factor to work with him on Dead Ringers. Having worked with an impressive list of Hollywood stars, Cronenberg says that he didn't get to make a film with an actor he wanted to work with for a long time, Burt Reynolds. Coupled with the loyalty he shows to his key personnel, Cronenberg remains a staunchly Canadian filmmaker, with nearly all of his films (including major studio vehicles The Dead Zone and The Fly) having been filmed in his home province Ontario. Notable exceptions include M. Butterfly and Spider, most of which were shot in China and England, respectively. Also, Rabid and Shivers were shot in and around Montreal. Most of his films have been at least partially financed by Telefilm Canada, and Cronenberg is a vocal supporter of government-backed film projects, saying "Every country needs [a system of government grants] in order to have a national cinema in the face of Hollywood". David Cronenberg | The A.V. Club Cronenberg has also appeared in the films of other directors as an actor. Most of his roles are cameo appearances, as in Into The Night, Jason X, To Die For, and Alias, but on occasion he has played major roles, as in Nightbreed or Last Night. He has not played major roles in any of his own films, but he did put in a brief appearance as a gynecologist in The Fly; he can also be glimpsed among the sex-crazed hordes in Shivers; he can be heard as an unseen car-pound attendant in Crash; his hands can be glimpsed in eXistenZ; and he appeared as a stand-in for James Woods in Videodrome for shots in which Woods' character wore a helmet that covered his head. In the year 2008 Cronenberg realized two extra-cinematographic projects: the exhibition Chromosomes at the Rome Film Fest and the opera "The Fly" at the LaOpera in Los Angeles and Theatre Châtelet in Paris. He is currently set to direct the film version of The Matarese Circle with Tom Cruise. Honors In 1999, Cronenberg was inducted onto Canada's Walk of Fame. Canada's Walk of Fame: David Cronenberg, film director, Cannes Film Festival winner In 2002, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada, and in 2006 he was awarded the Cannes Film Festival's lifetime achievement award, the Carrosse d'Or. Two of his films, Dead Ringers and Spider, were voted for in the 2002 Sight and Sound Poll. BFI | Sight & Sound | Top Ten Poll 2002 — Directors' films Cronenberg has appeared on various "Greatest Director" lists. In 2004, Science Fiction magazine Strange Horizons named him the 2nd greatest director in the history of the genre, ahead of better known directors such as Steven Spielberg, James Cameron, Jean-Luc Godard and Ridley Scott. strangehorizons In the same year, The Guardian listed him 9th on their list of "The world's 40 best directors". guardian In addition, in 2007, Total Film named him as the 17th greatest director of all-time. totalfilm In 2006, he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, the senior national body of distinguished Canadian scientists and scholars. Rsc Src In 2009 Cronenberg received the Légion d'honneur from the government of France. CBC Filmography as director Feature filmsStereo (1969)Crimes of the Future (1970)Shivers (1975)Rabid (1977)Fast Company (1979)The Brood (1979)Scanners (1981)Videodrome (1983)The Dead Zone (1983)The Fly (1986)Dead Ringers (1988)Naked Lunch (1991)M. Butterfly (1993)Crash (1996)eXistenZ (1999)Spider (2002)A History of Violence (2005)Eastern Promises (2007) Short filmsTransfer (1966)From the Drain (1967)Secret Weapons (1972)The Victim (1975)The Lie Chair (1975)The Italian Machine (1976) watch it here (RealMedia)Camera (2000)To Each His Own Cinema (Chacun son cinéma) (2007) segment: At the Suicide of the Last Jew in the World in the Last Cinema in the WorldTelevision seriesFriday the 13th: The Series episode: 1.12 Faith Healer (1987)Scales of Justice episodes: Regina vs Horvath (1990) & Regina vs Logan (1990) Television spotsJim Ritchie Sculptor (1971)Letter from Michelangelo (1971)Tourettes (1971)Don Valley (1972)Fort York (1972)Lakeshore (1972)Winter Garden (1972)Scarborough Bluffs (1972)In the Dirt (1972) CommercialsHydroClient: Ontario Hydro Product: Energy conservation Agency: Burghardt Wolowich Crunkhorn Production company: The Partners' Film Company Ltd. Format: 4 x 30-second commercials Titles: Hot Showers, Laundry, Cleaners, TimersCaramilkClient: William Neilson Ltd. Product: Cadbury Caramilk Agency: Scali McCabe, Sloves (Canada) Ltd. Production company: The Partners' Film Company Ltd. Format: 2 x 30-second commercials Titles: Bistro, SurveillanceNikeClient: Nike International Product: Nike Air 180 Agency: Wieden and Kennedy Production company: The Partners' Film Company Ltd. Format: 1 x 15-second/4 x 30-second commercials Title: TransformationFilmography as producerDead Ringers (1988)Crash (1996)I'm Losing You (1998)Drone (2008) Filmography as actorInto the Night (1985)The Fly (1986, cameo)Nightbreed (1990)To Die For (1995, cameo)Blood and Donuts (1995)The Stupids (1996, cameo)Extreme Measures (1996, cameo)Last Night (1998)Resurrection (1999)Jason X (2002)Alias (TV) (2003) (Episodes "Remnants" and "Conscious") Further reading Mark Browning (2007): David Cronenberg: Author or Filmmaker? (ISBN 9781841501734) Thomas J. Dreibrodt (2000): Lang lebe das neue Fleisch. Die Filme von David Cronenberg — von 'Shivers' bis 'eXistenZ'. (academic; in German) (ISBN 3-932872-05-3) Serge Grünberg, ed. (2006): David Cronenberg (interviews) (ISBN 0-85965-376-5) Piers Handling (1983): The Shape of Rage: The Films of David Cronenberg (ISBN 0-7736-1137-1) Kim Newman (1989): Nightmare Movies: A Critical History of the Horror Film 1968–1988 (ISBN 0-517-57366-0) Drehli Robnik, Michael Palm, eds. (1992): Und das Wort ist Fleisch geworden. Texte über Filme von David Cronenberg. Vienna, PVS: 1992. ISBN 3-901196-02-1 Chris Rodley, ed. (1996): Cronenberg on Cronenberg'' (ISBN 0-571-19137-1) Bibliographies David Cronenberg Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) Red Cars Artist's book David Cronenberg, Volumina (2005) References External links David Cronenberg at Northern Stars Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database An article on Salon.com An interview, circa 1999 Director's statement by David Cronenberg on 'Stereo' and 'Crimes of the Future', 2005 Canadian Film Encyclopedia (A publication of The Film Reference Library/A division of the Toronto International Film Festival Group) BBC interview with Cronenberg (Video, ) Interview with Cronenberg by SBIFF at UCSB regarding his life, work and Eastern Promises

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Metallurgy

Georg Agricola, author of De re metallica, an important early book on metal extraction Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. It is also the technology of metals: the way in which science is applied to their practical use. Metallurgy is commonly used in the craft of metalworking. History Gold headband from Thebes 750-700 BC The earliest recorded metal employed by humans appears to be gold which can be found free or "native". Small amounts of natural gold have been found in Spanish caves used during the late Paleolithic period, c. 40,000 BC. Silver, copper, tin and meteoric iron can also be found native, allowing a limited amount of metalworking in early cultures. Egyptian weapons made from meteoric iron in about 3000 B.C. were highly prized as "Daggers from Heaven" W. Keller (1963) The Bible as History page 156 ISBN 0 340 00312 X . However, by learning to get copper and tin by heating rocks and combining those two metals to make an alloy called bronze, the technology of metallurgy began about 3500 B.C. with the Bronze Age. The extraction of iron from its ore into a workable metal is much more difficult. It appears to have been invented by the Hittites in about 1200 B.C., beginning the Iron Age. The secret of extracting and working iron was a key factor in the success of the Philistines. W. Keller (1963) The Bible as History page 177 ISBN 0 340 00312 X B. W. Anderson (1975) The Living World of the Old Testament page 154 ISBN 0-582-48598-3 Historical developments in ferrous metallurgy can be found in a wide variety of past cultures and civilizations. This includes the ancient and medieval kingdoms and empires of the Middle East and Near East, ancient Egypt and Anatolia (Turkey), Carthage, the Greeks and Romans of ancient Europe, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval China, ancient and medieval India, ancient and medieval Japan, etc. Of interest to note is that many applications, practices, and devices associated or involved in metallurgy were possibly established in ancient China before Europeans mastered these crafts (such as the innovation of the blast furnace, cast iron, steel, hydraulic-powered trip hammers, etc.) R. F. Tylecote (1992) A History of Metallurgy ISBN 0-901462-88-8 . However, modern research suggests that Roman technology was far more sophisticated than hitherto supposed, especially in mining methods, metal extraction and forging. They were, for example, expert in hydraulic mining methods well before the Chinese, or any other civilization of the time. A 16th century book by Georg Agricola called De re metallica describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy" Karl Alfred von Zittel (1901) History of Geology and Palaeontology page 15 Extractive metallurgy An illustration of furnace bellows operated by waterwheels, from the Nong Shu, by Wang Zhen, 1313 AD, during the Chinese Yuan Dynasty. Extractive metallurgy is the practice of removing valuable metals from an ore and refining the extracted raw metals into a purer form. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulfide to a purer metal, the ore must be reduced either physically, chemically, or electrolytically. Extractive metallurgists are interested in three primary streams: feed, concentrate (valuable metal oxide/sulfide), and tailings (waste). After mining, large pieces of the ore feed are broken through crushing and/or grinding in order to obtain particles small enough where each particle is either mostly valuable or mostly waste. Concentrating the particles of value in a form supporting separation enables the desired metal to be removed from waste products. Mining may not be necessary if the ore body and physical environment are conducive to leaching. Leaching dissolves minerals in an ore body and results in an enriched solution. The solution is collected and processed to extract valuable metals. Ore bodies often contain more than one valuable metal. Tailings of a previous process may be used as a feed in another process to extract a secondary product from the original ore. Additionally, a concentrate may contain more than one valuable metal. That concentrate would then be processed to separate the valuable metals into individual constituents. Properties of metals Process of smelting of iron cannons The five most used metals are: Iron Aluminium Copper Zinc Magnesium The general physical properties of metals are: They are strong and hard. They are solids at room temperature (except for Mercury, which is the only metal to be liquid at room temperature) They have a shiny lustre when polished. They make good heat conductors and electrical conductors. They are dense They produce a sonorous sound when struck. They have high melting points They are malleable The properties of metals make them suitable for different uses in daily life. Copper is a good conductor of electricity and is ductile. Therefore, it is used for electrical cables. Gold and silver are very malleable, ductile and very nonreactive. Gold and silver are used to make intricate jewelry. Gold is especially suitable for this purpose since it does not tarnish. Gold can also be used for oxidation-free electrical connections. Iron and steel are both hard and strong. Therefore, they are used to construct bridges and buildings. A disadvantage of using iron is that it tends to rust, whereas most steels rust, but they can be formulated to be rust free. Aluminum is a good conductor of heat and is malleable. It is used to make saucepans and foil, and also aeroplane bodies as it has a low density(compared to other metals). Pure elemental metals are often too soft to be of practical use, which is why much of metallurgy focuses on formulating useful alloys. Important common alloy systems Common engineering metals include aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium and zinc. These are most often used as alloys. Much effort has been placed on understanding the iron-carbon alloy system, which includes steels and cast irons. Plain carbon steels are used in low cost, high strength applications where weight and corrosion are not a problem. Cast irons, including ductile iron are also part of the iron-carbon system. Stainless steel or galvanized steel are used where resistance to corrosion is important. Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are used for applications where strength and lightness are required. Cupro-nickel alloys such as Monel are used in highly corrosive environments and for non-magnetic applications. Nickel-based superalloys like Inconel are used in high temperature applications such as turbochargers, pressure vessels, and heat exchangers. For extremely high temperatures, single crystal alloys are used to minimize creep. Production engineering of metals In production engineering, metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products. This involves the production of alloys, the shaping, the heat treatment and the surface treatment of the product. The task of the metallurgist is to achieve balance between material properties such as cost, weight, strength, toughness, hardness, corrosion and fatigue resistance, and performance in temperature extremes. To achieve this goal, the operating environment must be carefully considered. In a saltwater environment, ferrous metals and some aluminium alloys corrode quickly. Metals exposed to cold or cryogenic conditions may endure a ductile to brittle transition and lose their toughness, becoming more brittle and prone to cracking. Metals under continual cyclic loading can suffer from metal fatigue. Metals under constant stress at elevated temperatures can creep. Metal working processes Metals are shaped by processes such as casting, forging, flow forming, rolling, extrusion, sintering, metalworking, machining and fabrication. With casting, molten metal is poured into a shaped mould. With forging, a red-hot billet is hammered into shape. With rolling, a billet is passed through successively narrower rollers to create a sheet. With extrusion, a hot and malleable metal is forced under pressure through a die, which shapes it before it cools. With sintering, a powdered metal is compressed into a die at high temperature. With machining, lathes, milling machines, and drills cut the cold metal to shape. With fabrication, sheets of metal are cut with guillotines or gas cutters and bent into shape. "Cold working" processes, where the product’s shape is altered by rolling, fabrication or other processes while the product is cold, can increase the strength of the product by a process called work hardening. Work hardening creates microscopic defects in the metal, which resist further changes of shape. Various forms of casting exist in industry and academia. These include sand casting, investment casting (also called the “lost wax process”), die casting and continuous casting. Joining Welding Welding is a technique for joining metal components cohesively by melting the base material, making the parts into a single piece. A filler material of similar composition (welding rod) may also be melted into the joint. Brazing Brazing is a technique for joining metals adhesively at a temperature below their melting point. A filler with a melting point below that of the base metal is used, and is drawn into the joint by capillary action.Two part borex and one part boric acid is also used at the time of joining. Brazing results in a mechanical and metallurgical bond between work pieces. Soldering Soldering is a method of joining metals below their melting points using a filler metal. Soldering, like brazing, results in an adhesive joint and occurs at lower temperatures than brazing, specifically below 450 C (840 F) AWS Welding Handbook, Volume 2: Joining Processes . Heat treatment Metals can be heat treated to alter the properties of strength, ductility, toughness, hardness or resistance to corrosion. Common heat treatment processes include annealing, precipitation strengthening, quenching, and tempering. The annealing process softens the metal by allowing recovery of cold work and grain growth. Quenching can be used to harden alloy steels, or in precipitation hardenable alloys, to trap dissolved solute atoms in solution. Tempering will cause the dissolved alloying elements to precipitate, or in the case of quenched steels, improve impact strength and ductile properties. Surface treatment Plating Electroplating is a common surface-treatment technique. It involves bonding a thin layer of another metal such as gold, silver, chromium or zinc to the surface of the product. It is used to reduce corrosion as well as to improve the product's aesthetic appearance. Thermal spray Thermal spraying techniques are another popular finishing option, and often have better high temperature properties than electroplated coatings. Case hardening Case hardening is a process in which an alloying element, most commonly carbon or nitrogen, diffuses into the surface of a monolithic metal. The resulting interstitial solid solution is harder than the base material, which improves wear resistance without sacrificing toughness. Electrical and electronic engineering Metallurgy is also applied to electrical and electronic materials where metals such as aluminium, copper, tin, silver, and gold are used in power lines, wires, printed circuit boards and integrated circuits. Metallurgical techniques Metallography allows the metallurgist to study the microstructure of metals. Metallurgists study the microscopic and macroscopic properties using metallography, a technique invented by Henry Clifton Sorby. In metallography, an alloy of interest is ground flat and polished to a mirror finish. The sample can then be etched to reveal the microstructure and macrostructure of the metal. A metallurgist can then examine the sample with an optical or electron microscope and learn a great deal about the sample's composition, mechanical properties, and processing history. Crystallography, often using diffraction of x-rays or electrons, is another valuable tool available to the modern metallurgist. Crystallography allow the identification of unknown materials and reveals the crystal structure of the sample. Quantitative crystallography can be used to calculate the amount of phases present as well as the degree of strain to which a sample has been subjected. The physical properties of metals can be quantified by mechanical testing. Typical tests include tensile strength, compressive strength, hardness, impact toughness, fatigue and creep life. Chemical properties of metals The black surface is lead oxide. The white surface is the lead viewed when the lead oxide is scratched. Substances on the Earth's surface will come in contact with air, water or acids. A major concern for the use of metals is their corrosion. The shiny surface of many metals becomes dull in time. This is due to a slow chemical reaction between the surface of the metal and oxygen in the air; this is typically a surface coating of the metal oxide. The general word equation is: metal+oxygen → metal oxide For example: The dull appearance of the metal lead is due to a coating of lead oxide. lead+oxygen → lead oxide If the surface is scratched then the shiny lead metal can be seen underneath. Heating can speed up the reaction with oxygen. If a piece of copper is heated it quickly becomes coated in black copper oxide. The word equation is: copper + oxygen → copper oxide Education United States Collegiate Schools such as The University of Connecticut, Michigan State University, University of Illinois, The Ohio State University, Case Western Reserve University, The University of Florida, Instituto Sabato, University of Nevada, Reno, http://www.unr.edu/cme/academics/BSMSE.html and California Polytechnic State University College of Engineering offer a degree in Materials Sciences and Engineering. Pakistan Pakistan's Universities also offers programs in Metallurgy, Materials Sciences and Metallurgical Engineering. Colleges and Unviersities such as Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology, University of Karachi, NED University of Engineering and Technology, Dawood College of Engineering and Technology, Pakistan Institute of Engineering & Applied Sciences are few to name it. Trade school Schools such as Don Bosco Technical Institute have offered a degree in Metallurgy, though that has been phased out in favor of Materials Science. Career awareness Metals Engineering Merit Badge From 1965 to 1971, the Boy Scouts of America offered a Metallurgy merit badge. From 1972 to 1995 they offered a Metals Engineering Merit Badge. http://www.scouting.org/Media/FactSheets/02-500.aspx See also Archaeometallurgy Fabrication (metal) Georg Agricola Materials science Metallography Metalworking National Institute of Foundry and Forge Technology Pyrometallurgy Timeline of materials technology CALPHAD (method) History of metallurgy in China Roman metallurgy References External links Wikiversity:Topic:Metallurgical engineering

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Libya

Libya ( ; Libyan vernacular: Lībya ; Amazigh: ⵍⵉⴱⵢⴰ), officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (  ), is a country located in North Africa. Bordering the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Libya lies between Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west. With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres (700,000 sq mi), 90% of which is desert, Libya is the fourth largest country in Africa by area, and the 17th largest in the world. U.N. Demographic Yearbook, (2003), <u>"Demographic Yearbook (3) Pop., Rate of Pop. Increase, Surface Area & Density"<u>, United Nations Statistics Division, Accessed July 15, 2006 The capital, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 5.7 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, the Fezzan, and Cyrenaica. Libya has the second highest GDP (PPP) per capita of Africa, behind Equatorial Guinea. This is largely due to its large petroleum reserves and low population. Annual Statistical Bulletin, (2004), <u>"World proven crude oil reserves by country, 1980–2004"<u>, O.P.E.C., Accessed July 20, 2006 World Economic Outlook Database, (April, 2006), <u>"Report for Selected Countries and Subjects"<u>, International Monetary Fund, Accessed July 15, 2006 The flag of Libya consists of a green field with no other characteristics. It is the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details. Name The name "Libya" is an indigenous (i.e. Berber) one, which is attested in ancient Egyptian texts as r:Z1 D58 G43 T14 A56:Z2, R'bw (= Libu). The latter refers to one of the tribes of Berber peoples living west of the Nile. In Greek, the tribesmen were called Libues, Latinised to Libyes (with Greek u transcribed as y in Latin). Their country became Libuā (or in Classical Attic Libuē with the standard Attic sound change ā > ē), Latinised Libya. But in ancient Greece the term had a broader meaning, encompassing all of North Africa west of Egypt (see Ancient Libya). Later on, at the time of Ibn Khaldun, the same big tribe was known as Lawata. See e. g., the chapter "Les Loouatah" in René Basset, Le dialecte de Syouah, Paris, Leroux, 1890 (pdf text online)(p. 1-14). P. 3: "On voit que les Lebou figurent au premier rang des barbares qui menaçaient l'Egypte du côté de l'ouest ; c'est aussi dans les régions qu'ils occupaient que les auteurs arabes placent les Loouata dont le nom correspond aux Lebou des Egyptiens, aux Loubim de la Bible, aux Levathae (Λευαθαι) de Procope et aux Ilaguaten de Corripus" ("We see that the Lebu are recorded in the first line among the barbarians who threatened Egypt on the western side; in the very regions where they dwelled, the Arab authors place the Lawata, whose name corresponds to the Egyptian Lebu, to the Lubim of the Bible, to the Levathae of Procopius and to the Ilaguaten of Corippus") History Ancient Libya Archaeological evidence indicates that from as early as the 8,000 BC, the coastal plain of Ancient Libya was inhabited by a Neolithic people, the Berbers, who were skilled in the domestication of cattle and the cultivation of crops. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), <u>"Early History of Libya"<u>, U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed July 11, 2006 Later, the area known in modern times as Libya also was occupied by a series of other peoples, with the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Greeks, Persian empire, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines ruling all or part of the area. Although the Greeks and Romans left ruins at Cyrene, Leptis Magna, and Sabratha, little other evidence remains of these ancient cultures. Some cultural and religious exchanges occurred with the Ancient Egyptians, especially in the northern portion containing the delta of the Nile, that is called Lower Egypt. The prehistoric evidence is fragmentary, but historical records later document continued influences. Pockets of Berber population remain in modern Libya, but dispersal of Berbers north as far as Ireland and Scandinavia is documented in genetic markers studied by physical anthropologists and dispersal in Africa from the Atlantic coast to the Siwa oasis in Egypt, seems to have followed climatic changes causing increasing desertification. Now the greatest number of Berbers in Africa is in Morocco (about 42% of the population) and in Algeria (about 27% of the population), as well as Tunisia and Libya, but exact statistics are not available; http://www.ethnologue.com/ see Berber languages. Phoenicians The Phoenicians were the first to establish trading posts in Libya, when the merchants of Tyre (in present-day Lebanon) developed commercial relations with the Berber tribes and made treaties with them to ensure their cooperation in the exploitation of raw materials. Herodotus, (c.430 BC), <u>"'The Histories', Book IV.42–43"<u> Fordham University, New York, Accessed July 18, 2006 Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), <u>"Tripolitania and the Phoenicians"<u>, U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed July 11, 2006 By the fifth century BC the greatest of the Phoenician colonies, Carthage, had extended its hegemony across much of North Africa, where a distinctive civilization, known as Punic, came into being. Punic settlements on the Libyan coast included Oea (Tripoli), Libdah (Leptis Magna) and Sabratha. All these were in an area that later was called, Tripolis, or "Three Cities". Libya's current-day capital Tripoli takes its name from this. Greeks The Greeks conquered Eastern Libya when, according to tradition, emigrants from the crowded island of Thera were commanded by the oracle at Delphi to seek a new home in North Africa. In 630 BC, they founded the city of Cyrene. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), <u>"Cyrenaica and the Greeks"<u>, U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed July 11, 2006 Within 200 years, four more important Greek cities were established in the area: Barce (Al Marj); Euhesperides (later Berenice, present-day Benghazi); Teuchira (later Arsinoe, present-day Tukrah); and Apollonia (Susah), the port of Cyrene. Together with Cyrene, they were known as the Pentapolis (Five Cities). Romans Arch of Roman emperor Lucius Septimius Severus (AD 146-211) in Leptis Magna. The Romans unified all three regions of Libya. Tripolitania and Cyrenaica became prosperous Roman provinces and remained so for more than six hundred years. Heuser, Stephen, (July 24, 2005), <u>"When Romans lived in Libya"<u>, The Boston Globe Accessed July 18, 2006 Roman ruins, such as those of Leptis Magna, which is seen in the photograph displayed to the right, attest to the vitality of the region during the Roman occupation. At the time, populous cities and even small towns enjoyed the amenities of urban life consistent with those in Rome. Merchants and artisans from many parts of the Roman world established themselves in North Africa, but the character of the cities of Tripolitania remained decidedly Punic and, in Cyrenaica, Greek. Under Islam Libya was conquered by Uqba ibn Nafi in 644 and fully conquered in 655, forming part of the Ummayad Caliphate. This was superseded by the Abbasids in 750, but in practice Libya enjoyed considerable local autonomy under the Aghlabid dynasty. Arab soldiers, spreading their new religion of Islam, entered Cyrenaica in 642 and occupied Tripoli in 643. A succession of Arab and Berber dynasties then controlled what is now Libya. The culture of northwestern Libya developed along with the political units just west of it, while development in the east was strongly influenced by neighboring Egypt. World Book 2005 Ottoman Turks 16th Century Women's dress in Tripoli, when Libya was part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Turks conquered the country in the mid-16th century, and the three States or "Wilayat" of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan (which make up Libya) remained part of their empire with the exception of the virtual autonomy of the Karamanlis. The Karamanlis ruled from 1711 until 1835 mainly in Tripolitania, but had influence in Cyrenaica and Fezzan as well by the mid 18th century. This constituted a first glimpse in recent history of the united and independent Libya that was to re-emerge two centuries later. Ironically, reunification came about through the unlikely route of an invasion (Italo-Turkish War, 1911-1912) and occupation starting from 1911 when Italy simultaneously turned the three regions into colonies. Country Profiles, (May 16, 2006), <u>"Timeline: Libya, a chronology of key events"<u> BBC News, Accessed July 18, 2006 Italian Colony From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies run by Italian governors, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania. During this Italian colony period, between 20% and 50% of the Libyan population died in the struggle for independence, and mainly in prison camps. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly one-fifth of the total population. Libya, Encyclopædia Britannica In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, except Egypt) as the official name of the colony (made up of the three Provinces of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan). King Idris I, Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two World Wars. Between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through starvation in camps)." Ilan Pappé, The Modern Middle East. Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0415214092, p. 26 From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya. Hagos, Tecola W., (November 20, 2004), <u>"Treaty Of Peace With Italy (1947), Evaluation And Conclusion"<u>, Ethiopia Tecola Hagos, Accessed July 18, 2006 Omar Mukhtar (1858–1931) was the leader of the Libyan uprising against Italian occupation. United Kingdom of Libya On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. On December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris. The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled one of the world's poorest nations to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, popular resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris and the national elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East. Coup of Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by then 27-year-old army officer Muammar Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi staged a coup d’état against King Idris. At the time, Idris was in Turkey for medical treatment. His nephew, Crown Prince Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida al-Mahdi as-Sanussi, became King. It was clear that the revolutionary officers who had announced the deposition of King Idris did not want to appoint him over the instruments of state as King. Sayyid quickly found that he had substantially less power as the new King than he had earlier had as a mere Prince. Before the end of September 1, Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida had been formally deposed by the revolutionary army officers and put under house arrest. Meanwhile, revolutionary officers abolished the monarchy, and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic. Gaddafi was, and is to this day, referred to as the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution" in government statements and the official press. US Department of State's Background Notes, (November 2005) <u>"Libya - History"<u>, U.S. Dept. of State, Accessed July 14, 2006 Politics The General People's Committee building in Benghazi. There are two branches of government in Libya. The "revolutionary sector" comprises Revolutionary Leader Gaddafi, the Revolutionary Committees and the remaining members of the 12-person Revolutionary Command Council, which was established in 1969. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), <u>"Government and Politics of Libya"<u>, U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed July 14, 2006 The historical revolutionary leadership is not elected and cannot be voted out of office; they are in power by virtue of their involvement in the revolution. Constituting the legislative branch of government, this sector comprises Local People's Congresses in each of the 1,500 urban wards, 32 Sha'biyat People's Congresses for the regions, and the National General People's Congress. These legislative bodies are represented by corresponding executive bodies (Local People's Committees, Sha'biyat People's Committees and the National General People's Committee/Cabinet). Every four years, the membership of the Local People's Congresses elects their own leaders and the secretaries for the People's Committees, sometimes after many debates and a critical vote. The leadership of the Local People's Congress represents the local congress at the People's Congress of the next level. The members of the National General People's Congress elect the members of the National General People's Committee (the Cabinet) at their annual meeting. The government controls both state-run and semi-autonomous media. In cases involving a violation of "certain taboos", the private press, like The Tripoli Post, has been censored, Special Report 2006, (May 2, 2006), <u>"North Korea Tops CPJ list of '10 Most Censored Countries'"<u>, Committee to Protect Journalists, Accessed July 19, 2006 although articles that are critical of policies have been requested and intentionally published by the revolutionary leadership itself as a means of initiating reforms. Political parties were banned by the 1972 Prohibition of Party Politics Act Number 71. Case Study: Libya, (2001), <u>"Political Culture"<u>, Educational Module on Chemical & Biological Weapons Nonproliferation, Accessed July 14, 2006 According to the Association Act of 1971, the establishment of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) is allowed. However, because they are required to conform to the goals of the revolution, their numbers are small in comparison with those in neighbouring countries. Trade unions do not exist, Hodder, Kathryn, (2000), <u>"Violations of Trade Union Rights"<u>, Social Watch Africa, Accessed July 14, 2006 but numerous professional associations are integrated into the state structure as a third pillar, along with the People's Congresses and Committees. These associations do not have the right to strike. Professional associations send delegates to the General People's Congress, where they have a representative mandate. Foreign relations U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton with Libyan National Security Adviser Mutassim Qadhafi. Libya is keen to shake off its pariah status and rejoin the international community. Libya's foreign policies have undergone much fluctuation and change since the state was proclaimed on December 24, 1951. As a Kingdom, Libya maintained a definitively pro-Western stance, yet was recognized as belonging to the conservative traditionalist bloc in the League of Arab States (the present-day Arab League), of which it became a member in 1953. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), <u>"Independent Libya"<u>, U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed July 14, 2006 The government was in close alliance with Britain and the United States; both countries maintained military base rights in Libya. Libya also forged close ties with France, Italy, Greece, and established full diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1955. Although the government supported Arab causes, including the Moroccan and Algerian independence movements, it took little active part in the Arab-Israeli dispute or the tumultuous inter-Arab politics of the 1950s and early 1960s. The Kingdom was noted for its close association with the West, while it steered an essentially conservative course at home. Abadi, Jacob (2000), <u>"Pragmatism and Rhetoric in Libya's Policy Toward Israel"<u>, The Journal of Conflict Studies: Volume XX Number 1 Fall 2000, University of New Brunswick, Accessed July 19, 2006 After the 1969 coup, Gaddafi closed American and British bases and partially nationalized foreign oil and commercial interests in Libya. He also played a key role in promoting oil embargoes as a political weapon for challenging the West, hoping that an oil price rise and embargo in 1973 would persuade the West, especially the United States, to end support for Israel. Gaddafi rejected both Eastern (Soviet) communism and Western (United States) capitalism and claimed he was charting a middle course for his government. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, (2001–2005), <u>"Qaddafi, Muammar al-"<u>, Bartleby Books, Accessed July 19, 2006 In the 1980s, Libya increasingly distanced itself from the United States, based on the principle of non-alignment and the adoption of a middle path between capitalism and communism referred to as "the Third Theory". Habib, Henri, (1975), "Politics and Government of Revolutionary Libya, p. 347 The animosity was deepened due to Gaddafi’s support for groups like the Palestine Liberation Organization, who were considered at the time terrorist, and his flirtation with the Soviet Union, which at the time represented the sole challenger to the US. Secretary of State Al Haig considered Libya as “a Soviet satellite” and a “Soviet-run terrorist training network". When Libya intervened in Chad in 1980 it was perceived by the American authorities as the Soviet’s attempt to spread control in Africa. In addition to this, Gaddafi’s opposition to Israel, a United States ally and considered by them to be the only democratic state in the region, were enough reasons to have Libya considered an American enemy. Consequently, Reagan administration began its campaign of assisting Libya’s neighbors militarily to be able to respond to any Libyan attempt to invade them. Tunisia was given some fifty-four M-604 tanks plus $15 million in military credits, while other countries like Egypt and Sudan were given an increase in military credits and training with a full-fledged promise of support in face of Libyan threats. These strategies aimed at isolating Libya and pressure it to reconsider its policies towards the US. El-Warfally, Mahmoud, (1988), "Imagery and Ideaology in U.S. Policy Toward Libya p.155-174 The first confrontation with the United States was when Gaddafi had declared two hundred miles of the Gulf of Sidra to be restricted of any international usage; having defied such declaration Libyan air force fired a missile at a US Boeing EC-135 flight. Even though the attack did not cause any damages to the aircraft, Jimmy Carter, the U.S. President at that time, failed to respond to such an attack, which was seen as yet another demonstration of weakness in his foreign policies. Tyler, Patrick, (2009), A world of Trouble: The White House in the Middle East From the Cold War to War on Terror", p.245 Allegedly, Gaddafi had secretly ordered the burning down of the US embassy in Tripoli as his fight against "The Great Satan", the United States. In response U.S. President Ronald Reagan had the "Libyan People's Bureau" closed, and oil imports banned from North African States. Reagan also contested the restricted area defined by Gaddafi based on a 1958 convention that stated that countries were allowed to claim twenty four miles of width from their coasts. St Jhon, Ronlad Bruce, (2002), "Libya and The United States: Two Centuries of Strife" p.135 On August 19, 1981 El-Warfally, Mahmoud, (1988), "Imagery and Ideaology in U.S. Policy Toward Libya p.173 the navy was sent close to Libya's coast which resulted in a confrontation where two of the SU-22 fighters supplied to Libya by the Soviet were shot down. Oren, Michael B. "Power, Fantasy and Faith: America in the Middle East from 1776 to the present", p.551 Following this, Libya was implicated in committing mass acts of state-sponsored terrorism. When CIA allegedly intercepted two messages implying Libyan complicity in the Berlin discothèque terrorist bombing that killed two American servicemen, the United States found a good enough reason to launch an aerial bombing attack against targets near Tripoli and Benghazi in April 1986. Boyne, Walter J., (March, 1999), <u>"El Dorado Canyon"<u>, Air Force Association Journal, Vol. 82, No. 3, Accessed July 19, 2006 The Attack, Operation El Dorado Canyon, was not solicited by France and Spain, who refused to allow US F-111 bombers to fly over their territories, and resulted in death of several civilians, including Gaddafi's two-year old adopted daughter. Oren, Michael B. "Power, Fantasy and Faith: America in the Middle East from 1776 to the present", p.557 In 1991, two Libyan intelligence agents were indicted by federal prosecutors in the United States and the United Kingdom for their involvement in the December 1988 bombing of Pan Am flight 103. Six other Libyans were put on trial in absentia for the 1989 bombing of UTA Flight 772. The UN Security Council demanded that Libya surrender the suspects, cooperate with the Pan Am 103 and UTA 772 investigations, pay compensation to the victims' families, and cease all support for terrorism. Libya's refusal to comply led to the approval of UNSC Resolution 748 on March 31, 1992, imposing sanctions on the state designed to bring about Libyan compliance. Continued Libyan defiance led to further sanctions by the UN against Libya in November 1993. (2003), <u>"Libya"<u>, Global Policy Forum, Accessed July 19, 2006 In 1999, less than a decade after the sanctions were put in place, Libya began to make dramatic policy changes in regard to the Western world, including turning over the Lockerbie suspects for trial. This diplomatic breakthrough followed years of negotiation, including a visit by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan to Libya in December 1998, and personal appeals by Nelson Mandela. Eventually UK Foreign Secretary Robin Cook persuaded the Americans to accept a trial of the suspects in the Netherlands under Scottish law, with the UN Security Council agreeing to suspend sanctions as soon as the suspects arrived in the Netherlands for trial. In response to 9/11 attacks Gaddafi condemned the attacks as an act of terrorism and urged Libyans to donate blood for the US victims. However, the United States were still not willing to remove the sanctions of Libya yet. After the invasion of Iraq based on allegations that it had WMD programs violating non-proliferation treaty, and the fall of Saddam Hussein in 2003, the Libyan government announced its decision to abandon its weapons of mass destruction programs and pay almost 3 billion US dollars in compensation to the families of Pan Am flight 103 as well as UTA Flight 772. Marcus, Jonathan, (May 15, 2006), <u>"Washington's Libyan fairy tale"<u>, BBC News, Accessed July 15, 2006 According to some sources Gaddafi had privately phoned Italian Premier Silvio Berlusconi expressing his fear that his regime will meet the same fate if he did not take such steps. Leverett, Flynt (2004). "Why Libya Gave Up on the Bomb". New York Times. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/bush/libya.htm. Retrieved on 2006-03-05. The decision was welcomed by many western nations and was seen as an important step for Libya toward rejoining the international community. U.K. Politics, (March 25, 2004), <u>"Blair hails new Libyan relations"<u>, BBC news, Accessed July 15, 2006 Since 2003 the country has made efforts to normalize its ties with the European Union and the United States and has even coined the catchphrase, 'The Libya Model', an example intended to show the world what can be achieved through negotiation rather than force when there is goodwill on both sides. By 2004 Bush had lifted the economic sanctions on Libya and official relations resumed between Libya and the United States. Libya then opened a Liaison office in Washington, DC and the United States opened an office in Tripoli. In January 2004, Congressman Tom Lantos led the first official Congressional delegation visit to Libya. Information obtaned from Libyan Embassy in Washington, D.C. (Feb., 2009) An event considered pivotal by many in Libyan-Western relations is the HIV trials (1999–2007) of five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor. Their release is seen as marking a new stage in Libyan-Western relations. On May 15, 2006 the United States State Department announced it would fully restore diplomatic relations with Libya if it dismantled its weapons programs. The State Department also removed Libya from their state sponsored terrorism list which it had been on for 27 years. This move has also been attributed to the pressures of oil companies lobbying the Congress. In addition to that the fall of the Soviet power, the prominent role that Libya plays in the African Continent, and the assistance it could provide to the US in its war on terror are among the other considerations that were factored in. Lipton, Eric, (April 2008, "Libya Seeks Exemption for Its Debt to Victims" New York Times. In August 2008 a motion was introduced in the 110th Congress known as S 3370 or the “Libyan Claims Resolution Act” to exempt Libya from the infamous section 1083 clause of the National Defense Authorization Act. The motion passed both the House of Representatives and the Senate by unanimous consent, and is signed into law by President George W. Bush on 4 August. After Libya payed a final portion of $1.8 billion global settlement fund for American victims it became formally exempted from section 1083. Following that Libyan families received $300 million for casualties suffered due to the 1986 airstrikes led by the United States. In November the same year, the United States Senate confirmed Gene A. Cretz as the first US Ambassador to Libya in over 35 years. The final step in the process of rebuilding the relations between the two countries came in January 2009 when Ali Suleiman Aujali presented his letters of credentials to President George W. Bush as Ambassador Extraordinaire and Plenipotentiary of Libya to the United States of America, and Gene A. Cretz presents his letter of credentials before the General People’s Congress; currently both are serving as Ambassadors to their respective countries. Information obtaned from Libyan Embassy (Feb., 2009) On October 16, 2007, Libya was voted to serve on the United Nations Security Council for two years starting January 2008. In February 2009, Gaddafi was selected to be chairman of the African Union for one year. Human rights According to the U.S. Department of State’s annual human rights report for 2007, Libya’s authoritarian regime continued to have a poor record in the area of human rights. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100601.htm United States. Cong. US Dept. Of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 2007 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. 23 November 2008. Some of the numerous and serious abuses on the part of the government include poor prison conditions, arbitrary arrest and prisoners held incommunicado, and political prisoners held for many years without charge or trial. The judiciary is controlled by the government, and there is no right to a fair public trial. Libyans do not have the right to change their government. Freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and religion are restricted. Independent human rights organizations are prohibited. Ethnic and tribal minorities suffer discrimination, and the state continues to restrict the labor rights of foreign jobs. In 2005, the Freedom House rated political rights in Libya as "7" (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating), civil liberties as "7" and gave it the freedom rating of "Not Free". See also Freedom in the World 2006, List of indices of freedom Administrative divisions Historically the area of Libya was considered three provinces (or states), Tripolitania in the northwest, Barka (Cyrenaica) in the east, and Fezzan in the southwest. It was the conquest by Italy in the Italo-Turkish War that unitied them in a single political unit. Under the Italians Libya, in 1934, was divided into four provinces and one territory (in the south): Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi, Derna, and the Territory of the Libyan Sahara. Pan, Chia-Lin (1949) "The Population of Libya" Population Studies, 3(1): pp. 100-125, p. 104 After independence, Libya was divided into three governorates (muhafazat) Zeidan, Shawky S. (1988) "Chapter 4 - Government and Politics: Internal Politics: Subnational Government and Administration" A Country Study: Libya from Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, accessed 14 February 2009 and then in 1963 into ten governorates. "Map of Libya 1976" WHKMLA: Historical Atlas, Libya Nyrop, Richard F. (1973) "Table 10: Governorates and Districts of Libya 1972" "Area Handbook for Libya" (2nd ed.) United States Department of the Army, Washington, DC, p. 159 OCLC 713653 The governorates were legally abolished in February 1975, and nine "control bureaus" were set up to deal directly with the nine areas, respectively: education, health, housing, social services, labor, agricultural services, communications, financial services, and economy, each under their own ministry. Zeidan, Shawky S. (1988) "Chapter 4 - Government and Politics: Internal Politics: Subnational Government and Administration: The Cultural Revolution and People's Committees" A Country Study: Libya from Federal Research Division, Library of Congress However, the courts and some other agencies continued to operate as if the governorate structure were still in place. In 1983 Libya was split into forty-six districts (baladiyat), then in 1987 into twenty-five. See map of 25 baladiyat in Districts of Libya 1993 CIA Political Map of Libya from Perry-Castañeda Library, University of Texas at Austin, accessed 14 February 2009 Lahmeyer, Jan, (November 26, 2004), "Historical demographical data of the administrative division", University Library, Universiteit Utrecht, from WebArchive, dated 27 June 2003 In 1995, Libya was divided into thirteen districts (shabiyah), "Municipalities of Libya" in 1998 into twenty-six districts, and in 2001 into thirty-two districts. Jamahiriya News Agency, (July 19, 2004), <u>"Masses of the Basic People's Congresses select their Secretariats and People's Committees"<u> Mathaba News, accessed July 19, 2006 These were then further rearranged into twenty two districts in 2007. For the current list see Districts of Libya: Shabiyat. Libyan districts are further subdivided into Basic People's Congresses which act as townships or boroughs. Geography Map of Libya The Jabal Al Akdhar near Benghazi is Libya's wettest region. Annual rainfall averages at between 400 and 600 millimetres (15-24 inches). Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), <u>"Climate & Hydrology of Libya"<u>, U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed July 15, 2006 Libya extends over 1,759,540 square kilometres (679,182 sq. mi), making it the 17th largest nation in the world by size. Libya is somewhat smaller than Indonesia, and roughly the size of the US state of Alaska. It is bound to the north by the Mediterranean Sea, the west by Tunisia and Algeria, the southwest by Niger, the south by Chad and Sudan and to the east by Egypt. At 1770 kilometres (1100 miles), Libya's coastline is the longest of any African country bordering the Mediterranean. (2005), <u>"Demographics of Libya"<u>, Education Libya, Accessed June 29, 2006 (July 20, 2006), <u>"Field Listings - Coastlines"<u>, CIA World Factbook, Accessed July 23, 2006 The portion of the Mediterranean Sea north of Libya is often called the Libyan Sea. The climate is mostly dry and desertlike in nature. However, the northern regions enjoy a milder Mediterranean climate. Natural hazards come in the form of hot, dry, dust-laden sirocco (known in Libya as the gibli). This is a southern wind blowing from one to four days in spring and autumn. There are also dust storms and sandstorms. Oases can also be found scattered throughout Libya, the most important of which are Ghadames and Kufra. Libyan Desert Moving sand dunes in Tadrart Acacus The Libyan Desert, which covers much of Libya, is one of the most arid places on earth. In places, decades may pass without rain, and even in the highlands rainfall happens erratically, once every 5–10 years. At Uweinat, the last recorded rainfall was in September 1998. Zboray, András, <u>"Flora and Fauna of the Libyan Desert"<u>, Fliegel Jezerniczky Expeditions, Accessed July 14, 2006 There is a large depression, the Qattara Depression, just to the south of the northernmost scarp, with Siwa oasis at its western extremity. The depression continues in a shallower form west, to the oases of Jaghbub and Jalo. Likewise, the temperature in the Libyan desert can be extreme; in 1922, the town of Al 'Aziziyah, which is located Southwest of Tripoli, recorded an air temperature of 57.8 °C (136.0 °F), generally accepted as the highest recorded naturally occurring air temperature reached on Earth. Hottest Place, <u>"El Azizia Libya, 'How Hot is Hot?'"<u>, Extreme Science, Accessed July 14, 2006 There are a few scattered uninhabited small oases, usually linked to the major depressions, where water can be found by digging to a few feet in depth. In the west there is a widely dispersed group of oases in unconnected shallow depressions, the Kufra group, consisting of Tazerbo, Rebianae and Kufra. Aside from the scarps, the general flatness is only interrupted by a series of plateaus and massifs near the centre of the Libyan Desert, around the convergence of the Egyptian-Sudanese-Libyan Borders. Slightly further to the south are the massifs of Arkenu, Uweinat and Kissu. These granite mountains are very ancient, having formed long before the sandstones surrounding them. Arkenu and Western Uweinat are ring complexes very similar to those in the Aïr Mountains. Eastern Uweinat (the highest point in the Libyan Desert) is a raised sandstone plateau adjacent to the granite part further west. The plain to the north of Uweinat is dotted with eroded volcanic features. With the discovery of oil in the 1950s also came the discovery of a massive aquifer underneath much of the country. The water in this aquifer pre-dates the last ice ages and the Sahara desert itself. <u>""Fossil Water" in Libya", NASA, Accessed March 24, 2007 The country is also home to the Arkenu craters, double impact craters found in the desert. Economy The infrastructure of Libya's capital Tripoli has benefited from the country's oil wealth. The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which constitute practically all export earnings and about one-quarter of gross domestic product (GDP). In the early 1980s, Libya was one of the wealthiest countries in the world; its GNP per capita was higher than that of countries such as Italy, Singapore, South Korea, Spain and New Zealand. Philips' Modern School Atlas, 1987, 1983 GNP per capita figures are quoted in a list. Today, high oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest GDPs per person in Africa and have allowed the Libyan state to provide an extensive level of social security, particularly in the fields of housing and education. United Nations Economic & Social Council, (February 16 1996), "Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Report", Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Accessed July 14, 2006. Many problems still beset Libya's economy however; unemployment is the highest in the region at 21% according to the latest census figures. (March 2, 2009), Libya's Jobless Rate at 20.7 Percent, Reuters Africa. Accessed March 2, 2009. Tripoli's Old City (El-Madina El-Kadima), situated in the city centre, is one of the classical sites of the Mediterranean and an important tourist attraction. Compared to its neighbours, Libya enjoys a low level of both absolute and relative poverty. Libyan officials in the past three years have carried out economic reforms as part of a broader campaign to reintegrate the country into the global capitalist economy. The World Factbook, (2006), "Economy - Libya", CIA World Factbook. Accessed July 14, 2006. This effort picked up steam after UN sanctions were lifted in September 2003, and as Libya announced in December 2003 that it would abandon programs to build weapons of mass destruction. W.M.D., (2003), "Libya Special Weapons News", Global Security Report. Accessed July 14, 2006. Libya has begun some market-oriented reforms. Initial steps have included applying for membership of the World Trade Organization, reducing subsidies, and announcing plans for privatisation. Reuters, (July 28, 2004), "Libya to start WTO membership talks", Trade Law Centre for Southern Africa. Accessed July 16, 2006. The non-oil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for about 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include the production of petrochemicals, iron, steel and aluminium. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit agricultural output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food. Water is also a problem, with some 28% of the population not having access to safe drinking water in 2000. (2001), "Safe Drinking Water", WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme. Accessed October 8, 2006. The Great Manmade River project is tapping into vast underground aquifers of fresh water discovered during the quest for oil, and is intended to improve the country's agricultural output. Under the previous Prime Minister, Shukri Ghanem, and current prime minister Baghdadi Mahmudi, Libya is undergoing a business boom. Many government-run industries are being privatised. Many international oil companies have returned to the country, including oil giants Shell and ExxonMobil. Volume: 23, No. 27, (2006), "Shell returns to Libya with gas exploration pact", Oil & Gas Worldwide News. Accessed July 14, 2006. Tourism is on the rise, bringing increased demand for hotel accommodation and for capacity at airports such as Tripoli International. A multi-million dollar renovation of Libyan airports has recently been approved by the government to help meet such demands. Jawad, Rana, (May 31, 2006), "Libyan aviation ready for take-off", BBC News. Accessed July 22, 2006. At present 130,000 people visit the country annually; the Libyan government hopes to increase this figure to 10,000,000 tourists. Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi, the oldest son of Muammar al-Gaddafi, is involved in a green development project called the Green Mountain Sustainable Development Area, which seeks to bring tourism to Cyrene and to preserve Greek ruins in the area. A Green Resort Is Planned to Preserve Ruins and Coastal Waters, The New York Times. Demographics A map indicating the ethnic composition of Libya. Libya has a small population residing in a large land area. Population density is about 50 persons per km² (80/sq. mi.) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than one person per km² (1.6/sq. mi.) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi. 50% of the population is estimated to be under age 15. Native Libyans are primarily a mixture of Arabs (mainly arabized Berbers), Berbers,Tuareg. Small Hausa, and Tebu tribal groups in southern Libya are nomadic or seminomadic. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians), and Sub-Saharan Africans. Libya has a small Italian minority. Previously, there was a visible presence of Italian settlers, but many left after independence in 1947 and much more left after the rule of Muammar al-Gaddafi in 1970. The main language spoken in Libya is Arabic by 80% of the Libyans, and which is also the official language. Tamazight by 20%(i.e. Berber and Tuareg languages), which do not have official status, are spoken by Libyan Berbers and Tuaregs in the south beside Arabic language. Anderson, Lisa, (2006), <u>"'Libya', III. People, B. Religion & Language"<u>, MSN Encarta, Accessed July 17, 2006 Berber speakers live above all in the Jebel Nafusa region (Tripolitania), the town of Zuwarah on the coast, and the city-oases of Ghadames, Ghat and Awjila. In addition, Tuaregs speak Tamahaq, the only known Northern Tamasheq language, also (Toubou language) are spoken by Toubou in some pockets in (qatroun village) and (koffra city) . Italian and English are sometimes spoken in the big cities, although Italian speakers are mainly among the older generation. Family life is important for Libyan families, the majority of which live in apartment blocks and other independent housing units, with precise modes of housing depending on their income and wealth. Although the Libyan Arabs traditionally lived nomadic lifestyles in tents, they have now settled in various towns and cities. Al-Hawaat, Dr. Ali, (1994), <u>"The Family and the work of women, A study in the Libyan Society"<u> National Center for Research and Scientific Studies of Libya, Accessed July 19, 2006 Because of this, their old ways of life are gradually fading out. An unknown small number of Libyans still live in the desert as their families have done for centuries. Most of the population has occupations in industry and services, and a small percentage is in agriculture. According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Libya hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 16,000 in 2007. Of this group, approximately 9,000 persons were from the Former Palestine, 3,200 from Sudan, 2,500 from Somalia and 1,100 from Iraq. Libya reportedly deported thousands of illegal entrants in 2007 without giving them the opportunity to apply for asylum. Refugees faced discrimination from Libyan officials when moving in the country and seeking employment. Education The Benghazi campus of the former University of Libya (Al-Jami'a al-Libiya), Libya's first university. Libya's population includes 1.7 million students, over 270,000 of whom study at the tertiary level. Clark, Nick, (July 2004), <u>"Education in Libya"<u>, World Education News and Reviews, Volume 17, Issue 4, Accessed July 22, 2006 Education in Libya is free for all citizens, Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1987), <u>"Education of Libya"<u>, U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed July 22, 2006 and compulsory up until secondary level. The literacy rate is the highest in North Africa; over 82% of the population can read and write. After Libya's independence in 1951, its first university, the University of Libya, was established in Benghazi.<ref name="Libedu2">El-Hawat, Ali, (2000), <u>"Country Higher Education Profiles - Libya"<u>, International Network for Higher Education in Africa", Accessed July 22, 2006</ref> In academic year 1975/76 the number of university students was estimated to be 13,418. As of 2004, this number has increased to more than 200,000, with an extra 70,000 enrolled in the higher technical and vocational sector. The rapid increase in the number of students in the higher education sector has been mirrored by an increase in the number of institutions of higher education. Since 1975 the number of universities has grown from two to nine and after their introduction in 1980, the number of higher technical and vocational institutes currently stands at 84 (with 12 public universities). Libya's higher education is financed by the public budget. In 1998 the budget allocated for education represented 38.2% of the national budget. The main universities in Libya are: Al Fateh University (Tripoli) Garyounis University (Benghazi) Religion By far the predominant religion in Libya is Islam with 97% of the population associating with the faith. Religious adherents by location, <u>"'42,000 religious geography and religion statistics', Libya"<u> Adherents.com, Accessed July 15, 2006 The vast majority of Libyan Muslims adhere to Sunni Islam, which provides both a spiritual guide for individuals and a keystone for government policy, but a minority (between 5 and 10%) adhere to Ibadism (a branch of Kharijism), above all in the Jebel Nefusa and the town of Zuwarah. Mosque in Ghadames, close to the Tunisian and Algerian border. About 97% of Libyans are followers of Islam. Before the 1930s, the Sanusi Movement was the primary Islamic movement in Libya. This was a religious revival adapted to desert life. Its zawaayaa (lodges) were found in Tripolitania and Fezzan, but Sanusi influence was strongest in Cyrenaica. Rescuing the region from unrest and anarchy, the Sanusi movement gave the Cyrenaican tribal people a religious attachment and feelings of unity and purpose. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1989), <u>"The Sanusis"<u>, U.S. Library of Congress, Accessed July 22, 2006 This Islamic movement, which was eventually destroyed by both Italian invasion and later the Gaddafi government, was very conservative and somewhat different from the Islam that exists in Libya today. Gaddafi asserts that he is a devout Muslim, and his government is taking a role in supporting Islamic institutions and in worldwide proselytizing on behalf of Islam. Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress, (1989), <u>"Islam in Revolutionary Libya"<u>, US Library of Congress, Accessed July 19, 2006 A Libyan form of Sufism is also common in parts of the country. Libya - Religion, (July 8, 2006), <u>"Sufi Movement to be involved in Libya"<u> Arabic News, Accessed July 19, 2006 Other than the overwhelming majority of Sunni Muslims, there are also small foreign communities of Christians. Coptic Orthodox Christianity, which is the Christian Church of Egypt, is the largest and most historical Christian denomination in Libya. There are over 60,000 Egyptian Copts in Libya, as they comprise over 1% of the population. Looklex Encyclopedia: 1% of Libya's population (6.1 million) adhere to the Coptic Orthodox faith There is also a small Anglican community, made up mostly of African immigrant workers in Tripoli; it is part of the Anglican Diocese of Egypt. (2004), <u>"International Religious Freedom Report: Libya"<u> Jewish Virtual Library, Accessed July 19, 2006 There is also an estimated 40,000 Roman Catholics in Libya who are served by two Bishops, one in Tripoli (serving the Italian community) and one in Benghazi (serving the Maltese community). Libya was until recent times the home of one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world, dating back to at least 300 BC. The World Jewish Congress, <u>"History of the Jewish Community in Libya"<u>, University of California at Berkeley, Accessed July 16, 2006 A series of pogroms beginning in November 1945 lasted for almost three years, drastically reducing Libya's Jewish population. Harris, David A. (2001), <u>"In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist"<u>, 1979–1999, pp. 149–150 In 1948, about 38,000 Jews remained in the country. Upon Libya's independence in 1951, most of the Jewish community emigrated. After the Suez Crisis in 1956, all but about 100 Jews were forced to flee. (See History of the Jews in Libya.) CIA The World Fact Book Culture The Libyan flag decorates a street in the Tripoli Medina; September 1st (Revolution Day) sees an increase in Libyan flags and ceremonial lights to celebrate the national holiday Coastline of Benghazi, Libya's second largest city. With the longest Mediterranean coastline among African nations, Libya's mostly unspoilt beaches are a social gathering place. Libya is culturally similar to its neighboring Maghrebian states. Libyans consider themselves very much a part of a wider Arab community. The Libyan state tends to strengthen this feeling by considering Arabic as the only official language, and forbidding the teaching and even the use of the Berber language. Libyan Arabs have a heritage in the traditions of the nomadic Bedouin and associate themselves with a particular Bedouin tribe. As with some other countries in the Arab world, Libya boasts few theatres or art galleries. News and Trends: Africa, (September 17, 1999), <u>"Libya looking at economic diversification"<u> Alexander's Gas & Oil Connections, Accessed July 19, 2006. About Libya, <u>"Libya Today"<u>, Discover Libya Travel, Accessed July 14, 2006. Conversely, for many years there have been no public theatres, and only a few cinemas showing foreign films. The tradition of folk culture is still alive and well, with troupes performing music and dance at frequent festivals, both in Libya and abroad. The main output of Libyan television is devoted to showing various styles of traditional Libyan music. Tuareg music and dance are popular in Ghadames and the south. Libyan television programmes are mostly in Arabic with a 30-minute news broadcast each evening in English and French. The government maintains strict control over all media outlets. A new analysis by the Committee to Protect Journalists has found Libya’s media the most tightly controlled in the Arab world. To combat this, the government plans to introduce private media, an initiative intended to bring the country's media in from the cold. (January 30, 2006), <u>"Libya to allow independent media"<u>, Middle East Times, Accessed July 21, 2006 Many Libyans frequent the country's beaches. They also visit Libya's beautifully-preserved archaeological sites—especially Leptis Magna, which is widely considered to be one of the best preserved Roman archaeological sites in the world. Donkin, Mike, (July 23, 2005), <u>"Libya's tourist treasures"<u>, BBC News, Accessed July 19, 2006 The nation's capital, Tripoli, boasts many good museums and archives; these include the Government Library, the Ethnographic Museum, the Archaeological Museum, the National Archives, the Epigraphy Museum and the Islamic Museum. The Jamahiriya Museum, built in consultation with UNESCO, may be the country's most famous. It houses one of the finest collections of classical art in the Mediterranean. Bouchenaki, Mounir, (1989), <u>"The Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Museum: a first in the Arab world"<u>, UNESCO, Museum Architecture: beyond the <<temple>> and ... beyond, Accessed July 19, 2006 Contemporary travel The most common form of public transport between cities is bus, but many people do travel by automobile. Looklex.com. Libya - Getting there. Retrieved on August 26, 2008. There is no train service in Libya. Libyan cuisine is generally simple, and is very similar to Sahara cuisine. Looklex.com. "Libya - Eat and Sleep" Retrieved on August 26, 2008. In many undeveloped areas and small towns, restaurants may be nonexistent, and food stores may be the only source to obtain food products. Some common Libyan foods include couscous, bazeen, which is a type of unsweetened cake, and shurpa, which is soup. Libyan restaurants may serve international cuisine, or may serve simpler fare such as lamb, chicken, vegetable stew, potatoes and macaroni. Alcohol consumption is illegal in the entire country, and this law is enforced in Libya. Looklex.com. "Libya Facts" Retrieved on August 26, 2008. International rankings Organization Survey Ranking Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom 154 out of 157 The Economist Quality-of-Life Index 70 out of 111 Energy Information Administration Greatest Oil Reserves by Country, 2006 9 out of 20 Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index 160 out of 173 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 131 out of 179 United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 52 out of 179 See also Idris I of Libya Colonel Gadaffi List of Prime Ministers of Libya Transport in Libya Great Manmade River References Libya, Anthony Ham, Lonely Planet Publications, 2002, ISBN 0-86442-699-2 Libya Handbook, Jamez Azema, Footprint Handbooks, 2001, ISBN 1-900949-77-6 Harris, David A. (2001). In the Trenches: Selected Speeches and Writings of an American Jewish Activist, 1979–1999. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. ISBN 0-88125-693-5 Wright, Muhannad B. Nations of the Modern World: Libya, Ernest Benn Ltd, 1969 External links Government Libyan Embassy Washington D.C. General People's Committee (The Cabinet) The People's Committee of Foreign Affairs Libyan People's Bureau (Libyan Embassy), London - UK Libyan People's Bureau (Libyan Embassy), Ottawa Chief of State and Cabinet Members General Libya from UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Libya Directory Other Libyan Cultural Affairs, London (Arabic only) Libyan American Chamber of Commerce A Window to Libya by Tarek Alwan Worldstatesmen.org's History and list of rulers of Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, Fezzan and Libya (before and after unification). Limes Tripolitanus be-x-old:Лібія

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Copula_(linguistics)

In linguistics, a copula (plural: copulae) is a word used to link the subject of a sentence with a predicate (a subject complement or an adverbial). The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a link or tie that connects two different things. See the appendix to Moro 1997 and the references cited there for a short history of the copula. A copula is sometimes a verb or a verb-like part of speech. A verb that is a copula is sometimes called a copulative or copular verb. In English primary education grammar courses, a copula is often called a linking verb. The term copula is generally used to refer to the main copular verb in a language. In the case of English, this is the verb to be. The term can also be used to refer to all such verbs in the language. Other English copulae include to become, to get, to feel, and to seem. Other verbs can have secondary uses as copulative verbs. In the following example, the past tense of the verb to fall is used as a copula: "The zebra fell victim to the lion." See List of English copulae. English Copulae have multiple uses. One example would be former United States President Bill Clinton's statement "it depends on what the meaning of the word 'is' is." Use Several uses of the copula can be categorized: Identity: "I only want to be myself." "When the area behind the dam fills, it will be a lake." "The Morning Star is the Evening Star." "Boys will be boys." Class membership. To belong to a set or class: "She could be married." "Dogs are canines." "Moscow is a large city." Depending on one's point of view, all other uses can be considered derivatives of this use, including the following non-copular uses in English, as they all express a subset relationship. Predication (property and relation attribution): "It hurts to be blue." "Will that house be big enough?" "The hen is next to the cockerel." "I am confused." Such attributes may also relate to temporary conditions as well as inherent qualities: "I will be tired after running." "Will you be going to the play tomorrow?" but please note that a linking verb has nothing to do with these so called "Be"- verbs.(see below) Non-copular uses As an auxiliary verb: To form the passive voice: "I was told that you wanted to see me" To add progressive aspect to tenses: "It is raining" Meaning "to exist": "I want only to be, and that is enough." "There's no sense in making a scientific inquiry about what species the Loch Ness Monster is, without first establishing that the Loch Ness Monster indeed is." "To be or not to be, that is the question." "I think therefore I am." Note that the auxiliary verb function derives from the copular function; and, depending on one's point of view, one can still interpret the verb as a copula and the following verbal form as being adjectival. Abelard in his Dialectica made an argument against the idea that the copula can express existence based on a reductio ad absurdum (Kneale - Kneale 1962 and Moro 1997). Unified theory of copular sentences Along with copular sentences where the canonical order of predication is displayed - that is, the subject precedes the predicate - as in "a picture of the wall is the cause of the riot" there can also be "inverse copular sentences" where this order is mirrored as in "the cause of the riot is a picture of the wall" (cf. Everaert et al. 2006). Although these two sentences are superficially very similar it can be shown that they embody very different properties. So, for example it is possible to form a sentence like "which riot do you think that a picture of the wall is the cause of" but not "which wall do you think that the cause of the riot was a picture of". The distinction between these two types of sentences, technically referred to as "canonical" vs. inverse copular sentences, respectively - and the unified theory of copular sentences associated to it - has been proven to be valid across-languages and has led to some refinement of the theory of clause structure. In particular it challenges one of the major dogmas of the theory of clause structure, i.e. that the two basic constituents of a sentence Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase are associated to the logical/grammatical functions of subject and predicate (cf. phrase structure rules and sentence (linguistics)). In fact, copular sentences show that this axiom is not adequate on empirical grounds since the Noun Phrase that cooccurs with the Verb Phrase in a copular sentence can be the predicate and the subject be contained in the Verb Phrase. Interestingly, it has been suggested that inverse copular sentences appear to play a sharp role in setting the pro-drop parameter. In Italian, for example in sentences of the type Noun Phrase verb Noun Phrase, the verb generally agrees with the Noun Phrase on the left with one exception: inverse copular sentences. One can construe minimal pairs like the cause of the riot is/*are these pictures of the wall vs. la causa della rivolta sono/*è queste foto del muro: the two sentences are one the gloss of the other with only one difference: the copula is singular in Italian and plural in English. If one does not want to give up the idea that agreement is on the left, then the only option is to assume that pro occurs between the copula and the Noun Phrase on the left. That pro can occur as a predicate must be in fact independently assumed to assign a proper structure to sentences like sono io (am I: "it's me") which can by no means be considered a transformation of *io sono, which has no meaning. Copula deletion In informal speech, the copula may be dropped. This is a feature of African American Vernacular English but is also used by a variety of English speakers in informal contexts. Ex. "Where you at?" "We at the store." E-Prime is a variant of the English language that prohibits the use of the copula in all its forms. Double copula The double copula is the use of two successive copulae when only one is necessary. Use of the double copula is one of the disputes in English grammar. Conjugation As in most Indo-European languages, the English copula is the most irregular verb, due to constant use. Most English verbs (traditionally known as "weak verbs") have just four separate forms, e.g. "start", "starts", "starting", "started". A large minority (traditionally known as "strong verbs") have five separate forms, e.g. "begin", "begins", "beginning", "began", "begun". "To be" is a very special case in having eight forms: "be", "am", "is", "are", "being", "was", "were", "been". Historically it had even more, including "art", "wast", "wert", and, occasionally, "beest" as a subjunctive. Subset relator From one perspective, the copula always relates two things as subsets. Take the following examples: John is a doctor. John and Mary are doctors. Doctors are educated. Mary is running. Running is fun. Example 1 includes John in the set of all doctors. Example 2 includes John and Mary both in the set of all doctors. Example 3 includes the set of doctors in the set of those who are educated. Example 4 is different. Example 4 includes Mary's state at the time of utterance in the set of states consistent with running. Example 5 then includes the set of states consistent with running in the set of states consistent with fun. Distinguishing between a copula and an action verb A copula and an action verb can generally be differentiated by trying to substitute the verb with a form of "to seem" or "to be". Example of an Action Verb: Sam looks at lettuce. Sam seems at lettuce? Sam is at lettuce? The latter two don't make sense, so "looks" in this case is being used as an action verb. Example of a Copula: Sam looks happy. Sam seems happy? Sam is happy? The latter two make sense; "looks" is used as a copula in this case. With certain writing styles, authors and editors often consider an action verb to be a stronger device than a copula. Bram 1995, pp. 48–49. "Whenever we require a verb for a sentence, we prefer an action verb ..." Smith & O'Connell 2003, p. 68. "Editors prefer active verbs. They give sentences energy and make stories more readable." Example: "Mistakes were made," vs. "I messed up." Copulae in other languages In Indo-European languages, the words meaning "to be" often sound similar to each other. Due to the high frequency of their use, their inflection retains a considerable degree of similarity in some cases. Thus, for example, the English form is is an apparent cognate of German ist, Latin est and Russian jest', even though the Germanic, Italic, and Slavic language groups split at least three thousand years ago. The origins of the Indo-European copulae can be traced back to four different stems *es- (*h1es-), *sta- (*steh2-), *wes- and *bhu- (*bhuH-) in most Indo-European languages. Georgian and German Just like in English, the verb "to be" (qopna) is irregular in Georgian (a Kartvelian language); different verb roots are employed in different tenses. The roots -ar-, -kn-, -qav-, and -qop- (past participle) are used in the present tense, future tense, past tense and the perfective tenses respectively. Examples: {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | Masc'avlebeli var. | "I am a teacher." |- | Masc'avlebeli viknebi. | "I will be a teacher." |- | Masc'avlebeli viqavi. | "I was a teacher." |- | Masc'avlebeli vqopilvar. | "I have been a teacher." |- | Masc'avlebeli vqopiliqavi. | "I had been a teacher." |} Note that in the last two examples (perfect and pluperfect) two roots are used in one verb compound. In the perfective tense, the root qop (which is the expected root for the perfective tense) is followed by the root ar, which is the root for the present tense. In the pluperfective tense, again, the root qop is followed by the past tense root qav. This formation is very similar to German (an Indo-European language), where the perfective and the pluperfective are expressed in the following way: {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | Ich bin Lehrer gewesen. | "I have been a teacher", literally "I am teacher been." |- | Ich war Lehrer gewesen. | "I had been a teacher", literally "I was teacher been." |} Here, gewesen is the past participle of sein ("to be") in German. In both examples, just like in Georgian, this participle is used together with the present and the past forms of the verb in order to conjugate for the perfect and the pluperfect aspects. Zero copula While copula deletion commonly occurs in various languages within a particular grammatical context, there are some languages where such usage is formalized. In Russian, Hungarian, Hebrew, and Arabic language the copula in present tense is implied rather than spoken: Russian: я — человек, ya — chelovek "I (am) a human"; Hungarian: ő ember, "he (is) a human"; Hebrew: אני בן-אדם "I (am a) human", Arabic: أنا إنسان ana insān "I am human". This usage is known generically as the zero copula. Note that in other tenses (sometimes in other persons besides third singular) the copula usually reappears. In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in 3rd person singular and plural: Ő ember/Ők emberek — "s/he is a human"/"they are humans"; but: (én) ember vagyok "I am a human", (te) ember vagy "you are a human", mi emberek vagyunk "we are humans", (ti) emberek vagytok "you (all) are humans". The copula also reappears for stating locations: az emberek a házban vannak, "the people are in the house," and for stating time: hat óra van, "it is six o'clock." However, the copula may optionally get omitted in colloquial language: hat óra (van), "it is six o'clock." Hungarian uses a copula to say Itt van Róbert "Bob is here" (and this not only with regard to third person singular/plural), but not to say Róbert öreg "Bob is old". This is to relate a subject to a more temporary condition/state taking place in space (very often in the sense of Lojban zvati: la rabyrt. zvati ne'i le zdani "Robert is in the house"). Further restrictions may apply before omission is permitted. For example in the Irish language, is, the present tense of the copula, may be omitted when the predicate is a noun. Ba the past/conditional cannot be deleted. If the present copula is omitted, the following pronoun é, í, iad preceding the noun is omitted as well. Essence versus state Romance copulae usually consist of two different verbs meaning "to be", the main one from the Latin esse (derived from *es-), and a secondary one from stare (derived from *sta-) . The difference is that the first usually refers to essential characteristics, whilst the second refers to states and situations, e.g. "Bob is old" versus "Bob is well". (Note that the English words just used, "essential" and "state", are also cognate with the Latin infinitives esse and stare.) In Spanish, the high degree of verbal inflection, plus the existence of two copulae (ser and estar), means that there are 105 separate forms to express the eight in English, and the one in Chinese. Copula Language Italian Spanish English Sum-derived Bob è vecchio. Bob es viejo. "Bob is old." Sto-derived Bob sta bene. Bob está bien. "Bob is well." In some cases, the verb itself changes the meaning of the adjective/sentence. The following examples are from Portuguese: Copula Example 1 Example 2 Portuguese English Portuguese English Sum-derived O Bob é bom. "Bob is good." O Bob é parvo. "Bob is foolish." Sto-derived O Bob está bom. "Bob is feeling good." O Bob está parvo. "Bob is acting/being silly." In certain languages there are not only two copulae but the syntax is also changed when one is distinguishing between states or situation and essential characteristics. For example, in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, describing the subject's state or situation typically uses the normal VSO ordering with the verb bí. The copula is, which is used to state essential characteristics or equivalences, requires a change in word order so that the subject does not immediately follow the copula (see Irish syntax). In Slavic languages, a similar distinction is made by putting a state in the instrumental case, while characteristics are in the nominative. This is used with all the copulae (e.g. "become" is normally used with the instrumental). It also allows the distinction to be made when the copula is omitted (zero copula) in East Slavic languages (in other Slavic languages the copula is not omitted). Haitian Creole Haitian Creole, a French-based creole language, has a reputation as being rather exotic linguistically when compared to French and the other Romance languages; and it lives up to this reputation with its copula system. It has three forms of the copula: se, ye, and the zero copula, no word at all (whose position we will indicate with "Ø", just for purposes of illustration). Although no textual record exists of Haitian at its earliest stages of development from French, se is obviously derived from French c'est (), which is the normal French contraction of ce (that) and the copula est (third-person singular of the present indicative of the verb être, ultimately from Latin sum). There appears to be no trace of Latin sto. The derivation of ye is less obvious; but we can assume that the French source was il est ("he/it is"), which, in rapidly spoken French, is very commonly pronounced as y est (IPA ). The use of a zero copula is unknown in French, and it is thought to be an innovation from the early days when Haitian was first developing as a Romance-based pidgin. Coincidentally, Latin also sometimes used a zero copula. Which of se/ye/Ø is used in any given copula clause depends on complex syntactic factors that we can superficially summarize in the following four rules: 1. Use Ø (i.e., no word at all) in declarative sentences where the complement is an adjective phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverb phrase: {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | Li te Ø an Ayiti. | "She was in Haiti." || (she past-tense in Haiti) |- | Liv-la Ø jon. | "The book is yellow." || (book-the yellow) |- | Timoun-yo Ø lakay. | "The kids are [at] home." || (kids-the home) |} 2. Use se when the complement is a noun phrase. But note that whereas other verbs come after any tense/mood/aspect particles (like pa to mark negation, or te to explicitly mark past tense, or ap to mark progressive aspect), se comes before any such particles: {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | Chal se ekriven. | "Charles is writer." |- | Chal se pa ekriven. | "Charles is not writer." cf. with the verb kouri ("run"): Chal pa kouri, not Chal kouri pa. |- | Chal, ki se ekriven, pa vini. | "Charles, who is writer, not come." |} 3. Use se where French and English have a dummy "it" subject: {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | Se mwen! | "It's me!", French C'est moi! |- | Se pa fasil. | "It's not easy", colloquial French C'est pas facile. |} 4. Finally, use the other copula form, ye, in situations where the sentence's syntax leaves the copula at the end of a phrase: {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | Kijan ou ye? | "How you are?" |- | Pou kimoun liv-la te ye? | "Whose book was it?" || (of who book-the past-tense is?) |- | M pa konnen kimoun li ye. | "I don't know who he is." || (I not know who he is) |- | Se yon ekriven Chal ye. | "Charles is a writer!" || (it's a writer Charles is; cf. French C'est un écrivain qu'il est.) |} The above is, however, only a simplified analysis. Howe 1990. Source for most of the Haitian data in this article; for more details on syntactic conditions as well as Haitian-specific copula constructions, such as se kouri m ap kouri (It's run I progressive run; "I'm really running!"), see the grammar sketch in this publication. Valdman & Rosemond 1988. Japanese Japanese has copulae which would most often be translated as one of the so-called be-verbs of English. The Japanese copula has many forms. The words da and desu are used to predicate sentences, while na and de are particles used within sentences to modify or connect. Japanese sentences with copulae most often equate one thing with another, that is, they are of the form "A is B." Examples: {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | 私は学生だ。 | Watashi wa gakusei da. || "I'm a student." || (lit., I TOPIC student COPULA) |- | これはペンです。 | Kore wa pen desu. || "This is a pen." || (lit., this TOPIC pen COPULA-POLITE) |} The difference between da and desu appears simple. For instance desu is more formal and polite than da. Thus, many sentences such as the ones below are almost identical in meaning and differ in the speaker's politeness to the addressee and in nuance of how assured the person is of their statement. However, desu may never come before the end of a sentence, and da is used exclusively to delineate subordinate clauses. Additionally, da is always declarative, never interrogative. {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | あれはホテルだ。 | Are wa hoteru da. || "That's a hotel." || (lit., that TOPIC hotel COPULA) |- | あれはホテルです。 | Are wa hoteru desu. || "That is a hotel." || (lit., that TOPIC hotel COPULA-POLITE) |} Japanese sentences may be predicated with copulae or with verbs. However, desu may not always be a predicate. In some cases, its only function is to make a sentence predicated with a stative verb more polite. However, da always functions as a predicate, so it cannot be combined with a stative verb, because sentences need only one predicate. See the examples below. {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | このビールはうまい。 | Kono bīru wa umai. || "This beer is delicious." || (lit., this beer TOPIC be-tasty) (Chris Beaudoin) |- | このビールはうまいです。 | Kono bīru wa umai desu. || "This beer is good." || (lit., this beer TOPIC be-tasty POLITE) |- | *このビールはうまいだ。 | *Kono bīru wa umai da. || colspan=2 | This is unacceptable because da may only serve as a predicate. |} There are several theories as to the origin of desu; one is that it is a shortened form of であります de arimasu, which is a polite form of である de aru. Both forms are generally used only in writing and more formal situations. Another form, でございます de gozaimasu, which is the more formal version of de arimasu, etymologically a conjugation of でござる de gozaru and an honorific suffix -ます -masu, is also used in some situations and is very polite. Note that de aru and de gozaru are considered to be compounds of a particle で de, and existential verbs aru and gozaru. です desu may be pronounced っす ssu in colloquial speech. The copula is subject to dialectal variation throughout Japan, resulting in forms such as や ya (in Kansai) and じゃ ja (in Hiroshima). Japanese also has two verbs corresponding to English "to be": aru and iru. They are not copulae but existential verbs. Aru is used for inanimate objects, including plants, while iru is used for people and animals, though there are exceptions to this generalization. {| border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" | align=left | || align=right | || align=left | |- | 本はテーブルにある。 | Hon wa tēburu ni aru. || "The book is on a table." |- | キムさんはここにいる。 | Kimu-san wa koko ni iru. || "Kim is here." |} Japanese people, when learning English, usually drop the auxiliary verbs "be" and "do" due to believing incorrectly that "be" is a semantically empty copula equivalent to "desu" and "da". Chinese N.B. The characters used are simplified ones, and the transcriptions given in italics reflect standard Mandarin pronunciation, using the Pinyin system. In Chinese languages, both states and qualities are generally expressed with stative verbs (SV) with no need for a copula, e.g. in Mandarin, "to be tired" (累 lèi), "to be hungry" (饿 è), "to be located at" (在 zài), "to be stupid" (笨 bèn) and so forth. These verbs are usually preceded by an adverb such as 很 hěn ("very") or 不 bù ("not"). It could also simply be the pronoun and verb. e.g. 我饿。 wǒ è. "I am hungry." Only sentences with a noun as the complement (e.g. "this is my sister") use the verb "to be": 是 shì. This is used frequently: for example, instead of having a verb meaning "to be Chinese", the usual expression is "to be a Chinese person", using 是 shì. Some scholars call this verb form an equative verb (EV), as published in some Yale Chinese textbooks. The history of the Chinese copula 是 is a controversial subject. Before the Han Dynasty, the character served as a demonstrative pronoun meaning "this" (this usage survives in some idioms and proverbs, as well as in Japanese). Some linguists argue that 是 developed into a copula because it often appeared, as a repetitive subject, after the subject of a sentence (in classical Chinese we can say, for example: "George W. Bush, this president of the United States" meaning "George W. Bush is the president of the United States). Other scholars do not completely accept the explanation, proposing that 是 served as a demonstrative pronoun and a copula at the same time in ancient Chinese. Etymologically, 是 developed from the meaning of "straight"; in modern Chinese, however, it can be combined with the modifier 的 de to mean "yes" or to show agreement. e.g. Question: 你的汽车是不是红色的？ nǐ de qìchē shì bù shì hóngsè de? "Is your car red?" Response: 是的。 shì de. "Yes." (Shows positive agreement towards the question, in the sense that the responder is saying "It is.") It is important to note, however, that a more common way of showing that the person asking the question is correct is by simply saying "right" or "correct", which would be 对 duì which would drop the modifer 的 de. Cantonese uses 係 (Jyutping: hai6) instead of 是. Siouan languages In Siouan languages like Lakota, in principle almost all words—according to their structure—are verbs. So, not very unlike in Lojban (see below), not only (transitive, intransitive and so-called 'stative') verbs but even nouns often behave like verbs and do not need to have copulae. For example, the word wicasa [wicha's^a] refers to a man, and the verb "to-be-a-man" is expressed as wimacasa/winicasa/he wicasa (I am/you are/he is a man). Yet there also is a copula heca [he'cha] (to be a ...) that in most cases is used: wicasa hemaca/henica/heca (I am/you are/he is a man). In order to express the statement "I am a doctor of profession," one has to say pezuta wicasa hemaca [phez^u'ta wicha's^a hema'cha]. But in order to express that that person is THE doctor (say, that had been phoned to help), one would have to use another copula (i)ye (to be the one): pezuta wicasa (kin) miye lo (medicine-man DEF ART I-am-the-one MALE ASSERT). In order to refer to space (e.g. Robert is in the house), various verbs are used, e.g. yankA [yaNka'] (lit.: to sit) for humans, or han/he [haN'/he'] (to stand upright) for inanimate objects of a certain shape. "Robert is in the house" could be translated as Robert timahel yanke (yelo), whereas "there's one restaurant next to the gas station" translates as "owotetipi wigli-oinazin kin hel isakib wanzi he". Constructed languages The constructed language Lojban has copulae, but they are rarely used, and are sometimes viewed with distaste in the Lojban community, because all words that express a predicate can be used as verbs. The three sentences "Bob runs", "Bob is old", and "Bob is a fireman", for instance, would all have the same form in Lojban: la bob. bajra, la bob. tolcitno, and la bob. fagdirpre. There are several different copulae: me turns whatever follows the word me into a verb that means to be what it follows. For example, me la bob. means to be Bob. Another copula is du, which is a verb that means all its arguments are the same thing (equal). Lojban For Beginners The E-Prime language, based on English, simply avoids the issue by not having a generic copula. It requires instead a specific form such as "remains", "becomes", "lies", or "equals". Esperanto uses the copula much as English. The infinitive is esti, and the whole conjugation is regular (as with all Esperanto verbs). Additionally, adjectival roots can be turned into stative verbs: La ĉielo bluas. "The sky is blue." Similarly, Ido has a copula that works as English "to be". Its infinitive is esar, and, as is the case in Esperanto, all of its forms are regular: the simple present is esas for all persons; the simple past is esis, the simple future is esos, and the imperative is esez, among a few more forms. However, Ido also has an alternative irregular form for the simple present ("es"), which some Idists frown upon. The possibility to turn adjectives and even nouns into verbs also exist, although this is mostly done by means of an affix, on top of the verbal endings. The affix is "-es-". So, "The sky is blue." can be said as "La cielo bluesas". As can be seen, the suffix "-es-" plus the verbal desinence "-as" are simply the verb "to be" annexed to the adjectival or nominal root. Interlingua speakers use copulae with the same freedom as speakers of Slavic, Germanic, and Romance languages. In addition to combinations with esser ('to be'), expressions such as cader prede ('to fall prey') are common. Esser is stated, rather than omitted as in Russian. Existential usage The existential usage of "to be" is distinct from and yet, in some languages, intimately related to its copulative usage. In language as opposed to formal logic, existence is a predicate rather than a quantifier, and the passage from copulative to existential usage can be subtle. In modern linguistics one commonly speaks of existential constructions - prototypically involving an expletive like there - rather than existential use of the verb itself. So for example in English a sentence like "there is a problem" would be considered an instance of existential construction. Relying on unified theory of copular sentences, it has been proposed that there-sentences are subtypes of inverse copular sentences (see Moro 1997 and "existential sentences and expletive there" in Everaert et al. 2006 for a detailed discussion of this issue and a historical survery of the major proposals). For example: Arabic: يمكنه أن يكون ذكياً Yumkinuhu ʼan yakūna ḏakiyyan. He can appear (to be) smart. Japanese: 吾輩は猫である。名前はまだない。 Wagahai wa neko de aru. Namae wa mada nai – I am a cat. As yet, I have no name. — Natsume Sōseki English: To be or not to be, that is the question. — William Shakespeare English: [Why climb Mount Everest?] Because it is there. — George Mallory Hebrew: אהיה אשר אהיה Ehyeh asher ehyeh — I am that I am. — Exodus 3:14. Russian: Страна, которую ищут дети, есть — Strana, kotoruju ishchut djeti, jest' – The land children yearn for exists. — Mikhail Prishvin French: Je pense, donc je suis. – I think; therefore, I am. — Descartes Latin: Cogito ergo sum. — I think; therefore, I am. — Descartes Hungarian: Gondolkodom, tehát vagyok. – I think; therefore, I am. — Descartes Turkish: Düşünüyorum, öyleyse varım. – I think; therefore, I am. — Descartes Finnish: Ajattelen, siis olen. – I think; therefore, I am. — Descartes Filipino/Tagalog: Ang kahalagahan ng pagiging seryoso. A translation-transplantation of The importance of being Earnest, by Oscar Wilde, in Filipino. Other languages prefer to keep the existential usage entirely separate from the copula. Swedish, for example, reserves vara (to be) for the copula, keeping bli (to become) and finnas (to exist, lit. to be found) for becoming and existing, respectively. Swedish: Vem vill bli miljonär? — Who wants to be a millionaire?. (Literally "Who wants become millionaire?") — Bengt Magnusson Swedish: Varför bestiga Mt. Everest? Därför att det finns där. — Why climb Mt. Everest? Because it is there. (Literally " Why climb Mt. Everest? Because it is found there") — George Mallory In ontology, philosophical discussions of the word "be" and its conjugations takes place over the meaning of the word is, the third person singular form of 'be', and whether the other senses can be reduced to one sense. For example, it is sometimes suggested that the "is" of existence is reducible to the "is" of property attribution or class membership; to be, Aristotle held, is to be something. Of course, the gerund form of "be", being, is its own (vexed) topic: see being and existence. See also Predicate (grammar) Stative verb To be, or not to be Verb Notes References (See "copular sentences" and "existential sentences and expletive there" in Volume II.) Tüting, A. W. (December 2003). Essay on Lakota syntax.

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Hebrew_language

Hebrew (, ) is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Hebrew in its modern form is spoken by more than seven million people in Israel while Classical Hebrew has been used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world for over two millennia. It is one of the official languages of Israel, along with Arabic. Ancient Hebrew is also the liturgical tongue of the Samaritans, while modern Hebrew or Palestinian Arabic is their vernacular, though today about 700 Samaritans remain. As a foreign language it is studied mostly by Jews and students of Judaism and Israel, archaeologists and linguists specializing in the Middle East and its civilizations, by theologians, and in Christian seminaries. The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "ivri" which in turn may be based upon the root "`avar" (עבר) meaning "to cross over". The related name Ever occurs in Genesis 10:21 and possibly means "the one who traverses". In the Bible "Hebrew" is called () because Judah () was the surviving kingdom at the time of the quotation, late 8th century BCE (Is 36, 2 Kings 18). In Isaiah 19:18, it is also called the "Language of Canaan" (שְׂפַת כְּנַעַן). The core of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) is written in Classical Hebrew, and much of its present form is specifically the dialect of Biblical Hebrew that scholars believe flourished around the 6th century BCE, around the time of the Babylonian exile. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as (), "The Holy Language", since ancient times. History As a language, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. Hebrew (Israel) and Moabite (Jordan) are Southern Canaanite while Phoenician (Lebanon) is Northern Canaanite. Canaanite is closely related to Aramaic and to a lesser extent South-Central Arabic. Whereas other Canaanite languages and dialects have become extinct, Hebrew has survived. Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in Canaan from the 10th century BCE until the Babylonian exile. Around the 6th century BCE, the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the ancient Kingdom of Judah, destroying much of Jerusalem and exiling its population far to the East in Babylon. During the Babylonian captivity, many Israelites were enslaved within the Babylonian Empire and learned the Aramaic language of their captors. The Babylonians had taken mainly the governing classes of Israel while leaving behind in Israel presumably more-compliant farmers and laborers to work the land. Thus for a significant period, the Jewish elite became influenced by Aramaic. Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word:A Language History of the World, Harper Perennial, London, New York, Toronto, Sydney 2006 p80 (see below, Aramaic spoken among Israelites). After Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon, he released the Jewish people from captivity. The King of Kings or Great King of Persia, later gave the Israelites permission to return. Hebrew came to be spoken alongside new dialects of Hebrew and a local version of Aramaic. Yet, Aramaic represented the hated language of slavery, conquest, and occupation; while Hebrew remained the language of Israel's history and national pride. Preserved largely by the remant in Israel proper, Hebrew continued to be a thriving language until shortly before the Byzantine era. From the beginning of the 1st millennium Hebrew continued in use as a religious and literary language until the 19th century, when it was revived as a spoken language. Languages of the World (Hebrew) After the 2nd century CE when the Roman Empire exiled most of the Jewish population of Jerusalem following the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Israelites adapted to the societies in which they found themselves, yet letters, contracts, commerce, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry, and laws continued to be written in Hebrew, which adapted by borrowing and inventing terms. Hebrew persevered along the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses (poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts, in addition to liturgy). This meant not only that well-educated Jews in all parts of the world could correspond in a mutually intelligible language, and that books and legal documents published or written in any part of the world could be read by Jews in all other parts, but that an educated Jew could travel and converse with Jews in distant places, just as priests and other educated Christians could once converse in Latin. It has been 'revived' several times as a literary language, and most significantly by the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th century. Near the end of that century the Jewish activist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, owing to the ideology of the national revival (Hibbat Tziyon, later Zionism), began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of the Second Aliyah, it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time. Those languages were Jewish dialects such as Ladino (also called Judezmo), Yiddish and Judeo-Arabic, or local languages spoken in the Jewish diaspora such as Russian, Persian, and Arabic. The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as neologisms from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda) and Aramaic. Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French. Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of the newly declared State of Israel. Hebrew is the most widely spoken language in Israel today. Origins Hebrew is a Semitic language and as such a member of the larger Afro-Asiatic phylum. Within Semitic, the Northwest Semitic languages formed around the 3rd millennium BCE, grouped with the Arabic languages as Central Semitic. The Canaanite languages are a group within Northwest Semitic, emerging in the 2nd millennium BCE in the Levant, gradually separating from Aramaic and Ugaritic. Within the Canaanite group, Hebrew belongs to the sub-group also containing Edomite, Ammonite and Moabite. Another Canaanite sub-group contains Phoenician and its descendant Punic. Gezer calendar and other archaic inscriptions The first written evidence of distinctive Hebrew, the Gezer calendar, dates back to the 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, the traditional time of the reign of David and Solomon. Classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks and Etruscans later became the Roman script. The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it. In July 2008 Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered what he says is the oldest known Hebrew inscription. A 3,000-year-old pottery shard bearing five lines of faded characters were found in the ruins of an ancient town south of Jerusalem. Garfinkel noted that the find suggests Biblical accounts of the ancient Israelite kingdom of David could have been based on written texts. Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example Protosinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam Inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraka found near Lachish which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian captivity of 586 BC. Classical Hebrew In its widest sense, Classical Hebrew means the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between the 10th century BCE and the turn of the 4th century . It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects. The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them. Archaic Biblical Hebrew from the 10th to the 6th century BCE, corresponding to the Monarchic Period until the Babylonian Exile and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible (Tanach), notably the Song of Moses (Exodus 15) and the Song of Deborah (Judges 5). Also called Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew. It was written in a form of the Canaanite script. (A script descended from this is still used by the Samaritans, see Samaritan Hebrew language.) Biblical Hebrew around the 6th century BCE, corresponding to the Babylonian Exile and represented by the bulk of the Hebrew Bible that attains much of its present form around this time. Also called Classical Biblical Hebrew (or Classical Hebrew in the narrowest sense). Late Biblical Hebrew, from the 6th to the 4th century BCE, that corresponds to the Persian Period and is represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible, notably the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Basically similar to Classical Biblical Hebrew, apart from a few foreign words adopted for mainly governmental terms, and some syntactical innovations such as the use of the particle shel (of, belonging to). It adopted the Imperial Aramaic script. Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE, corresponding to the Hellenistic and Roman Periods before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the Qumran Scrolls that form most (but not all) of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Commonly abbreviated as DSS Hebrew, also called Qumran Hebrew. The Imperial Aramaic script of the earlier scrolls in the 3rd century BCE evolved into the Hebrew square script of the later scrolls in the 1st century CE, also known as ketav Ashuri (Assyrian script), still in use today. Mishnaic Hebrew from the 1st to the 3rd or 4th century CE, corresponding to the Roman Period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the bulk of the Mishnah and Tosefta within the Talmud and by the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the Bar Kokhba Letters and the Copper Scroll. Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew. Sometimes the above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into "Biblical Hebrew" (including several dialects from the tenth century BCE to 2nd century BCE and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and "Mishnaic Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE and extant in certain other Dead Sea Scrolls). M. Segal, A Grammar of Mishnaic Hebrew (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927). However today, most Hebrew linguists classify Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew as a set of dialects evolving out of Late Biblical Hebrew and into Mishnaic Hebrew, thus including elements from both but remaining distinct from either. Elisha Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harvard Semitic Studies 29 (Atlanta: Scholars Press 1986). By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century CE, Classical Hebrew ceases as a regularly spoken language, roughly a century after the publication of the Mishnah, apparently declining since the aftermath of the catastrophic Bar Kokhba War around 135 CE. Mishnah and Talmud The term generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud , excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnaic Hebrew I), which was a spoken language, and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a literary language. The earlier section of the Talmud is the Mishnah that was published around 200 CE and was written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect. The dialect is also found in certain Dead Sea Scrolls. Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of the dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel. A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the halachic Midrashim (Sifra, Sifre, Mechilta etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the Tosefta . The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere; the generic term for these passages is Baraitot. The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew. About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language. The later section of the Talmud, the Gemara , generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amoraic Hebrew, which sometimes occurs in the text of the Gemara. Medieval Hebrew After the Talmud, various regional literary dialects of Medieval Hebrew evolved. The most important is Tiberian Hebrew or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of Tiberias in Galilee that became the standard for vocalizing the Hebrew Bible and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew. This Tiberian Hebrew from the 7th to 10th century CE is sometimes called "Biblical Hebrew" because it is used to pronounce the Hebrew Bible; however properly it should be distinguished from the historical Biblical Hebrew of the 6th century BCE, whose original pronunciation must be reconstructed. Tiberian Hebrew incorporates the remarkable scholarship of the Masoretes (from masoret meaning "tradition"), who added vowel points and grammar points to the Hebrew letters to preserve much earlier features of Hebrew, for use in chanting the Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes inherited a biblical text whose letters were considered too sacred to be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The Syriac script, precursor to the Arabic script, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The Aleppo Codex, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century likely in Tiberias and survives to this day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence. In the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic. Important Hebrew grammarians were Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah and later (in Provence) David Kimhi. A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as Dunash ben Labrat, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi and the two Ibn Ezras, in a "purified" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative or strophic metres. This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets. The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Classical Greek and Medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. This is used in the translations made by the Ibn Tibbon family. (Original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic.) Another important influence was Maimonides, who developed a simple style based on Mishnaic Hebrew for use in his law code, the Mishneh Torah. Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud. Liturgical use Hebrew has always been used as the language of prayer and study, and the following pronunciation systems are found. Ashkenazi Hebrew, originating in Central and Eastern Europe, is still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad, particularly in the Haredi and other Orthodox communities. It was influenced by the Yiddish language. Sephardi Hebrew is the traditional pronunciation of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews and Sephardi Jews in the countries of the former Ottoman Empire. This pronunciation, in the form used by the Jerusalem Sephardic community, is the basis of the Hebrew phonology of Israeli native speakers. It was influenced by the Ladino language. Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew is actually a collection of dialects spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the Arab and Islamic world. It was possibly influenced by the Aramaic and Arabic languages, and in some cases by Sephardi Hebrew, although some linguists maintain that it is the direct heir of Biblical Hebrew and thus represents the true dialect of Hebrew. The same claim is sometimes made for Yemenite Hebrew or Temanit, which differs from other Mizrahi dialects by having a radically different vowel system, and distinguishing between different diacritically marked consonants that are pronounced identically in other dialects (for example gimel and "ghimel".) These pronunciations are still used in synagogue ritual and religious study, in Israel and elsewhere, mostly by people who are not native speakers of Hebrew, though some traditionalist Israelis are bi-dialectal. Many synagogues in the diaspora, even though Ashkenazi by rite and by ethnic composition, have adopted the "Sephardic" pronunciation in deference to Israeli Hebrew. However, in many British and American schools and synagogues, this pronunciation retains several elements of its Ashkenazi substrate, especially the distinction between tsere and segol. Modern Hebrew Development In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition as pronounced in Jerusalem revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously Israeli Hebrew, Modern Israeli Hebrew, Modern Hebrew, New Hebrew, Israeli Standard Hebrew, Standard Hebrew, and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits many features of Sephardic Hebrew from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic. The literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, Hameassef (The Gatherer), was published by Maskilim literati in Königsberg from 1783 onwards Shalom Spiegel,Hebrew Reborn,(1930) Meridian Books reprint 1962, New York p.56 . In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g. HaMagid, founded in Lyck, Prussia, in 1856) multiplied. Prominent poets were Chaim Nachman Bialik and Shaul Tchernichovsky; there were also novels written in the language. The revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue was initiated by the efforts of Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858-1922) (). He joined the Jewish national movement and in 1881 immigrated to Palestine, then a part of the Ottoman Empire. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora "shtetl" lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the literary and liturgical language into everyday spoken language. However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in Eastern Europe by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like Achad Ha-Am and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the vernacularization activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904-1914 Second Aliyah that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the British Mandate of Palestine recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. A constructed modern language with a truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in phonology, was to take its place among the current languages of the nations. Reactions While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Resurgence of the Hebrew Language by Libby Kantorwitz (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss common everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the Palestine Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. Later it became the Academy of the Hebrew Language, an organization that still exists today. The results of his and the Committee's work were published in a dictionary (The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew). The seeds of Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine. At the time, members of the Old Yishuv and a very few Chasidic sects, most notably those under the auspices of Satmar, refused to speak Hebrew and only spoke Yiddish. However, while this ideological stance persists in certain quarters, almost all members of these groups have learned modern Hebrew in order to interact with outsiders. Russia and the Soviet Union Russian has separate terms for Ancient Hebrew (Древнееврейский язык, "ancient Jewish language") and Modern Hebrew (Иврит (Ivrit), directly borrowed from the Hebrew name). The Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew "reactionary" since it was associated with both Judaism and Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the Narkompros (Commissariat of Education) as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to secularize education (the language itself didn't cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes The Transformation of Jewish Culture in the USSR from 1930 to the Present (in Russian) ). The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being the spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language. Nosonovski, Michael (in Russian) Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests in the West, Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931 signed by Albert Einstein, among others. a policy of suppression of the teaching of Hebrew operated from the 1930s on. Later in the 1980s in the USSR, Hebrew studies reappeared due to people struggling for permission to go to Israel (refuseniks). Several of the teachers were imprisoned, for example, Ephraim Kholmyansky,Yevgeny Korostyshevsky and others responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many cities of USSR. Birobidzhan Birobidzhan Jewish National University works in cooperation with the local Jewish community of Birobidzhan. The university is unique in the Russian Far East. The basis of the training course is study of the Hebrew language, history and classic Jewish texts. In recent years, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast has grown interested in its Jewish roots. Students study Hebrew and Yiddish at a Jewish school and Birobidzhan Jewish National University. In 1989, the Jewish center founded its Sunday school, where children study Yiddish, learn folk Jewish dance, and learn about the history of Israel. The Israeli government helps fund the program. Chief Rabbi Mordechai Scheiner has commended the progress at School No. 2, Birobidjan's Jewish public school with 670 students, 30 percent of whom are Jewish. Pupils learn about Jewish history, and the Hebrew and Yiddish languages. Modern Israeli Hebrew Standard Hebrew, as developed by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, was based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation. However, the earliest speakers of Modern Hebrew had Yiddish as their native tongue and often brought into Hebrew idioms and literal translations from Yiddish. Similarly, the language as spoken in Israel has adapted to Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in the following respects: the elimination of pharyngeal articulation in the letters chet and ayin the conversion of from an alveolar flap () to a voiced uvular fricative () or trill () (see Guttural R) the pronunciation (by many speakers) of tzere as in some contexts (sifrey and teysha instead of Sephardic sifré and tésha ) the gradual elimination of vocal schwa (zman instead of Sephardic zĕman) in popular speech, penultimate stress in proper names (Dvóra instead of Dĕvorá; Yehúda instead of Yĕhudá) similarly in popular speech, penultimate stress in nouns or verbs with a second or third person plural suffix (katávtem "you wrote" instead of kĕtavtém). These pronunciations may have originated in learners' mistakes formed on the analogy of other suffixed forms (katávta, alénu), rather than being examples of residual Ashkenazi influence. Classification Although the vast majority of scholars see Modern Hebrew as a direct continuation of Biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew, while conceding that it has acquired some European vocabulary and syntactical features, in much the same way as Modern Standard Arabic Blau, Joshua, Tehiyyát ha'ivrít ut'hiyyát ha'aravít hasifrutít: kavím makbilím umafridím (The Renaissance of Hebrew in the Light of the Renaissance of Standard Arabic) (=Texts and Studies, vol. ix), Jerusalem: The Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1976; Blau, Joshua, The Renaissance of Modern Hebrew and Modern Standard Arabic: Parallels and Differences in the Revival of Two Semitic Languages (=Near Eastern Studies, vol. xviii), Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981. (or even more so, dialects such as Moroccan Arabic), two dissenting views are as follows: Paul Wexler Wexler, Paul, The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: A Slavic Language in Search of a Semitic Past: 1990. claims that modern Hebrew is not a Semitic language at all, but a dialect of "Judaeo-Sorbian". He argues that the underlying structure of the language is Slavic, but "re-lexified" to absorb much of the vocabulary and inflexional system of Hebrew in much the same way as a creole. This view forms part of a larger complex of theories, such as that Ashkenazi Jews are predominantly descended from Slavic and Turkic tribes rather than from the ancient Israelites, none of which are accepted by mainstream scholarship. Ghil'ad Zuckermann Zuckermann, Mosaic or mosaic? – The Genesis of the Israeli Language Zuckermann, Abba, Why Was Professor Higgins Trying to Teach Eliza to Speak Like Our Cleaning Lady?: Mizrahim, Ashkenazim, Prescriptivism and the Real Sounds of the Israeli Language compromises between Wexler and the majority view: according to him, "Israeli" (his term for Israeli Hebrew) is a Semito-European hybrid language, which is the continuation not only of literary Hebrew but also of Yiddish, as well as Polish, Russian, German, English, Ladino, Arabic and other languages spoken by Hebrew revivalists. Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "Complement Clause Types in Israeli", Complementation: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, edited by R. M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 72-92. See p. 62 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71. Thus, "Yiddish is a primary contributor to Israeli Hebrew because it was the mother tongue of the vast majority of revivalists and first pioneers in Eretz Yisrael at the crucial period of the beginning of Israeli Hebrew". Ibid., p. 63. According to Zuckermann, although the revivalists wished to speak Hebrew, with Semitic grammar and pronunciation, they could not avoid the Ashkenazi mindset arising from their European background. He argues that their attempt to deny their European roots, negate diasporism and avoid hybridity (as reflected in Yiddish) failed. "Had the revivalists been Arabic-speaking or Berber-speaking Jews (e.g. from Morocco), Israeli Hebrew would have been a totally different language – both genetically and typologically, much more Semitic. The impact of the founder population on Israeli Hebrew is incomparable with that of later immigrants." ibid. So far, neither view has gained significant acceptance among mainstream linguists, and has been criticized by some as being based less on linguistic evidence than post- or anti-Zionist political motivations . However, some linguists, for example American Yiddish scholar Dovid Katz, have employed Zuckermann's glottonym "Israeli" and accept his notion of hybridity. Few would dispute that Hebrew has acquired some European features as a result of having been learned by immigrants as a second language at a crucial formative stage. The identity of the European substrate/adstrate has varied: in the time of the Mandate and the early State, the principal contributor was Yiddish, while today it is American English. There has also been some influence, on vocabulary rather than structure, from Arabic, both in the form of Palestinian Arabic and, during the large scale immigrations of Mizrahi Jews during the 1950-60s, the Yemenite and North African dialects. Some Russian influence may also be observed, both during the founding period and as a result of recent immigration. Regional dialects According to Ethnologues, the currently spoken dialects of Hebrew are "Standard Hebrew (Modern Israeli Hebrew)", Sephardi Hebrew, Oriental Hebrew or Mizrahi Hebrew and Yemenite Hebrew". These refer to two varieties used for actual communication by native speakers in Israel; they differ mainly in pronunciation, and hardly in any other way. Immigrants to Israel are encouraged to adopt "Standard Hebrew" as their daily language. Phonologically, this "dialect" may most accurately be described as an amalgam of pronunciations preserving Sephardic vowel sounds and some Ashkenazic consonant sounds with Yiddish-style influence, its recurring feature being simplification of differences among a wide array of pronunciations. This simplifying tendency also accounts for the collapse of the Ashkenazic and allophones of () into the single phone . Most Sephardic and Mizrahi dialects share this feature, though some (such as those of Iraq and Yemen) differentiate between these two pronunciations as and . Within Israel, however, the pronunciation of Hebrew more often reflects the diasporic origin of the individual speaker, rather than the specific recommendations of the Academy. For this reason, over half the population pronounces as (a uvular trill, as in Yiddish and French) or as (a voiced uvular fricative, as in Standard German), rather than as , an alveolar trill, as in Spanish and Italian. The pronunciation of this phoneme is often used among Israelis as a shibboleth or determinant when ascertaining the national origin of perceived foreigners. There are mixed views on the status of the two dialects. On the one hand, prominent Israelis of Sephardic or Oriental origin are admired for the purity of their speech and Yemenite Jews are often employed as newsreaders. On the other hand, the speech of middle-class Ashkenazim is regarded as having a certain Central European sophistication, and many speakers of Mizrahi origin have moved nearer to this version of Standard Hebrew, in some cases even adopting the uvular resh. It was formerly the case that the inhabitants of the north of Israel pronounced beth rafe (, bet without dagesh, literally loose beth: ) as instead of , in accordance with the conservative Sephardic pronunciation . This was regarded as rustic and has since disappeared. It is said that one can tell an inhabitant of Jerusalem by the pronunciation of the word for two hundred as "ma'atayim" (מאתיים, as distinct from "matayim", as heard elsewhere in the country). Today, Israeli Hebrew is virtually uniform, the only noticeable variation being along ethnic lines. It is widely felt that these differences, too, have been disappearing among the younger generation. Aramaic Aramaic is a North-West Semitic language, like Canaanite. Its name derives either from "" in Upper Mesopotamia or from "Aram", an ancient name for Syria. Various dialects of Aramaic coevolved with Hebrew throughout much of its history, as major languages in the region. The words in Greek and Hebrew at the time corresponding to the word "Hebrew" (Εβραις, Εβραιστι, עברית יהודית) are distinguished from Aramaic συριστι συριακη. A Pocket Lexicon to the Greek New Testament by Alexander Souter (1916), Wycliffe Bible Dictionary (1975), New Dictionary by Avraham Even-Shoshan (1988, in Hebrew). Notice that in the Gospel of John some place names are said to be "in Hebrew", when they are etymologically from Aramaic. John correctly calls the word rabbounei Hebrew. The Persian Empire that captured Babylonia a few decades later adopted Imperial Aramaic as the official international language of the Persian Empire. The Israelite population, who had been exiled to Babylon from Jerusalem and its surrounding region of Judah, were allowed to return to Jerusalem to establish a Persian province, usually called Judea. Thus under occupation and enslavement, Aramaic became the administrative language for Judea when dealing with the rest of the Persian Empire. The Aramaic script also evolved from the Paleo-Semitic script, but they diverged significantly. By the 1st century CE, the Aramaic script developed into the distinctive Hebrew square script (also known as Assyrian Script, Ktav Ashuri), extant in the Dead Sea Scrolls and similar to the script still in use today. One of several languages known to Jesus was a dialect of Aramaic. Those in the North of Israel, in Galilee, interacted with Aramaic-speaking societies to the North and East, including for trade. Under Roman occupation, they also spoke some Greek or Latin. In the South around Jerusalem, and in Tiberias, the Jews spoke Hebrew. Displacement By the early half of the 20th century, most scholars followed Geiger and Dalman in thinking that Aramaic became a spoken language in the land of Israel by the start of Israel's Hellenistic Period in the 4th century BCE, and that as a corollary Hebrew ceased to function as a spoken language around the same time. Segal, Klausner, and Ben Yehuda are notable exceptions to this view. During the latter half of the 20th century, accumulating archaeological evidence and especially linguistic analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls has disproven that view. The Dead Sea Scrolls, uncovered in 1946-1948 near Qumran revealed ancient Jewish texts overwhelmingly in Hebrew, not Aramaic. The Qumran scrolls indicate that Hebrew texts were readily understandable to the average Israelite, and that the language had evolved since Biblical times as spoken languages do. Recent scholarship recognizes that reports of Jews speaking in Aramaic indicates a multi-lingual society, not necessarily the primary language spoken. Alongside Aramaic, Hebrew co-existed within Israel as a spoken language. Some further evidence for this contention has been found in the Christian Bible, in which rare occasions of a person speaking in Aramaic are given special attention as being unusual. Rather than dialogue being primarily in Aramaic with the exceptional Hebrew, the New Testament presupposes dialogue in Hebrew and points out Aramaic discussions as being exceptions to normal speech. Similarly, Paul is portrayed as speaking to a crowd of Jews têi hebraïdi dialéktôi Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14 lit.'in the Hebrew dialect'. A commonly proposed translation for this Greek passage is 'in the Aramaic vernacular of Palestine' Geoffrey W.Bromley (ed.)The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, W.B.Eeerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan 1979, 4 vols. vol.1 (sub.'Aramaic' p.233 . Such a translation ignores, of course, the fact that Aramaic has a standard word in Greek συριστι/συριακη (cf. LXX Job 42:17ff, and Dan 2:4.), it is really only based on place names that are called Hebrew and that had an Aramaizing etymology. In a groundbreaking article Grintz suggested that Hebrew, rather than Aramaic, lay behind the composition of the Gospel of Matthew J.M.Griatz, ‘Hebrew in the Days of the Second Temple’ QBI, 79 (1960) pp.32-47 . Grintz dates the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language to the end of the Roman Period. Hebrew nonetheless continued on as a literary language down through Byzantine Period from the 4th century CE. The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew remain hotly debated. A trilingual scenario has been proposed for the land of Israel. Hebrew functioned as the local mother tongue with powerful ties to Israel's history, origins, and golden age and as the language of Israel's religion; Aramaic functioned as the international language with the rest of the Mideast; and eventually Greek functioned as another international language with the eastern areas of the Roman Empire. Communities of Jews (and non-Jews) are known, who immigrated to Judea from these other lands and continued to speak Aramaic or Greek. Many Hebrew linguists postulate the survival of Hebrew as a spoken language until the Byzantine Period, but some historians do not accept this. The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls distinguishes the Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the various dialects of Biblical Hebrew out of which it evolved: "This book presents the specific features of DSS Hebrew, emphasizing deviations from classical BH." Elisha Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1986), p. 15. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church which once said, in 1958 in its first edition, that Hebrew "ceased to be a spoken language around the fourth century BCE", now says, in its 1997 (third) edition, that Hebrew "continued to be used as a spoken and written language in the New Testament period". "Hebrew" in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, edit. F.L. Cross, first edition (Oxford, 1958), 3rd edition (Oxford 1997). An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew says, "It is generally believed that the Dead Sea Scrolls, specifically the Copper Scroll and also the Bar Kokhba letters, have furnished clear evidence of the popular character of MH [Mishnaic Hebrew]." Miguel Perez Fernandez, An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew (Leiden, Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill 1997). And so on. It is widespread among Israeli scholars to treat Hebrew as a spoken language as a feature of Judea's Roman Period. Dialects The international language of Aramaic radiated into various regional dialects. In and around Judea, various dialects of Old Western Aramaic emerged, including the Jewish dialect of Old Judean Aramaic during the Roman Period. Josephus Flavius initially drafted his account of The Jewish War in Old Judean Aramaic but later recast it into Koine Greek to publish it for the Roman imperial court. Unfortunately Josephus's Aramaic version has not survived. Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE, the Jews gradually began to disperse from Jerusalem to foreign countries, especially after the Bar Kokhba War in 135 CE when the Romans turned Jerusalem into a pagan city named Aelia Capitolina. After the Bar Kokhba War in the 2nd century CE, the Jewish Palestinian Aramaic dialect emerged from obscurity out of the vicinity of Galilee to form one of the main dialects in the Western branch of Middle Aramaic. The Jerusalem Talmud (by the 5th century) used this Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, as did the Midrash Rabba (6th to 12th century). This dialect probably influenced the pronunciation of the 8th-century Tiberian Hebrew that vocalizes the Hebrew Bible. Meanwhile over in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud (by the 7th century) used Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, a Jewish dialect in the Eastern branch of Middle Aramaic. For centuries Jewish Babylonian remained the spoken language of Mesopotamian Jews and the Lishana Deni. In the area of Kurdistan, there is a modern Aramaic dialect descending from it that is still spoken by a few thousand Jews (and non-Jews), though it has largely given way to Arabic. Hebrew continues to strongly influence all these various Jewish dialects of Aramaic. Other coexisting languages Besides Jewish dialects of Aramaic, other languages are highly influenced by Hebrew, such as Yiddish, Ladino, Karaite and Judeo-Arabic. Although none is completely derived from Hebrew, they all make extensive use of Hebrew loanwords. The revival of Hebrew is often cited by proponents of international auxiliary languages as the best proof that languages long dead, with small communities, or modified or created artificially can become living languages used by a large number of people. Phonology Vowels The Hebrew word for vowels is (תְּנוּעוֹת). The orthographic representations for these vowels are called Niqqud. Israeli Hebrew has 5 vowel phonemes, represented by the following Niqqud-signs: phonemepronunciation inModern Hebrewapproximate pronunciationin Englishothographic representation"long" *"short" *"very short" / "interrupted" *(as in "spa") ( ָ ) ( ַ ) ( ֲ )(as in "bet") ( ֵי ) or ( ֵ ) ( ֶ ) ( ֱ ), sometimes ( ְ )(as in "ski") ( ִי ) ( ִ ) (as in "gore") ( וֹ ) or ( ֹ ) ( ָ ) ( ֳ )(as in "flu" but with no diphthongization) () ( ֻ ) * The severalfold orthographic representation of each phoneme attests to the broader phonemic range of vowels in earlier forms of Hebrew. Some linguists still regard the Hebrew grammatical entity of Shva na—marked as Shva (ְ)—as representing a sixth phoneme, . In Biblical Hebrew, each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (). However, there is no audible distinction between the three in modern Israeli Hebrew, except that is often pronounced as in Ashkenazi Hebrew. Shva The Niqqud sign "Shva" represents four grammatical entities: resting (nakh / נָח), moving (na''' / נָע), floating (merahef / מְרַחֵף) and "bleating" or "bellowing" ('ga'ya' / גַּעְיָּה). In earlier forms of Hebrew, these entities were phonologically and phonetically distinguishable. However, in Modern Hebrew these distinctions are not observed. For example, the (first) Shva Nach in the word קִמַּטְתְ (fem. you crumpled) is pronounced () even though it should be mute, whereas the Shva Na in זְמַן (time), which theoretically should be pronounced, is usually mute (). Sometimes the shva is pronounced like a tsere when accented, as in the prefix "ve" meaning "and". One-letter prefixes Hebrew uses a number of one-letter prefixes that are added to words for various purposes. These are called "Letters of Use" (Hebrew: אותיות השימוש, Otiyot HaShimush). Such items include: the definite article ha- () (="the"); prepositions be- () (="in"), le- () (="to"), mi- () (="from"; a shortened version of the preposition min'); conjunctions ve- () (="and"), she- () (="that"), ke- () (="as", "like"). The vowel accompanying each of these letters may differ from those listed above, depending on the first letter or vowel following it. The rules governing these changes are hardly observed in colloquial speech, as most speakers tend to employ the regular form. The correct form may be heard in more formal circumstances. For example, if a preposition is put before a word which begins with a moving Shva, then the preposition takes the vowel (and the initial consonant may be weakened): colloquial be-kfar (="in a village") corresponds to the more formal bi-khfar. The definite article may be inserted between a preposition or a conjunction and the word it refers to, creating composite words like mé-ha-kfar (="from the village"). The latter also demonstrates the change in the vowel of mi-. With be and le, the definite article is assimilated into the prefix, which then becomes ba or la. Thus *be-ha-matos becomes ba-matos (="in the plane"). Note that this does not happen to mé (the form of "min" or "mi-" used before the letter "he"), therefore mé-ha-matos is a valid form, which means "from the airplane". * indicates that the given example is grammatically non standard Consonants The Hebrew word for consonants is (). The following table lists the Hebrew consonants and their pronunciation in IPA transcription: {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;" |- ! ! colspan="2" | Bilabial ! colspan="2" | Labiodental ! colspan="2" | Alveolar ! colspan="2" | Post-alveolar Postalveolar sounds (with the exception of ) are not native to Hebrew, and only found in borrowings. !Palatal ! colspan="2" | Velar ! colspan="2" | Uvular ! colspan="2" | Glottal |- align=center |Nasals | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | |- align=center |Stops | | | colspan="2" | | | | colspan="2" | | | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | |- align=center |Affricates | colspan="2" | | | | | |colspan="2" | | |colspan="2" | |colspan="2" | |colspan="2" | |- align=center |Fricatives | colspan="2" | | | | | | | | | | | | | colspan="2" | |- align=center |Trills | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | |- align=center |Approximants | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | |- align=center |Laterals | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | | colspan="2" | |} The pairs , and have historically been allophonic. In Modern Hebrew, however, all six sounds are phonemic, due to mergers involving formerly distinct sounds ( merging with , merging with , merging with ), loss of consonant gemination (which formerly distinguished the stop members of the pairs from the fricatives when intervocalic), and the introduction of syllable-initial through foreign borrowings. was once pronounced as a voiced pharyngeal fricative. Most modern Ashkenazi Jews do not differentiate between and ; however, Mizrahi Jews and Arabs pronounce these phonemes. Georgian Jews pronounce it as a glottalized q. Western European Sephardim and Dutch Ashkenazim traditionally pronounce it (like ng in sing) a pronunciation which can also be found in the Italian tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany. (The remnants of this pronunciation are found throughout the Ashkenazi world, in the name "Yankl" and "Yanki", diminutive forms of Jacob, Heb. .) Hebrew also has dagesh, a phonological process of consonant strengthening that is indicated in fully-pointed texts by a dot placed in the center of a consonant. There are two kinds of strengthenings: light (kal, known also as dagesh lene) and heavy (hazak or dagesh forte). The light version applies to the phonemes (historically, also , and ), causing them to be pronounced as stops rather than fricatives, and operates when the dagesh occurs in the beginning of a word or after a consonant (i.e. a silent shva). The heavy dagesh occurs after vowels and applies to all consonants except gutturals and , originally causing them to be pronounced as geminate (doubled) consonants; it also selects the stop allophone of , , , etc. (In Modern Hebrew, gemination has disappeared, and the hence the heavy dagesh has a phonological effect only on , affecting them the same as the light dagesh.) Traditional Hebrew grammar distinguishes two sub-categories of the heavy dagesh according to their historical origin: structural heavy (hazak tavniti) and complementing heavy (hazak mashlim). . Structural heavy dagesh corresponds to consonant doubling that was inherited from Proto-Semitic, and occurs in certain verb conjugations and noun patterns (mishkalim and binyanim; see the section on grammar below). Complementing heavy dagesh corresponds to consonant doubling that arose within Hebrew as a result of consonant assimilation, most commonly of an to a following consonant (e.g. Biblical Hebrew "you (m. sg.)" vs. Classical Arabic ). Historical sound changes Standard (non-Oriental) Israeli Hebrew (SIH) has undergone a number of splits and mergers in its development from Biblical Hebrew. Robert Hetzron. (1987). Hebrew. In The World's Major Languages, ed. Bernard Comrie, 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520521-9. BH had two allophones, and ; the allophone has merged with into SIH BH had two allophones, and ; the allophone has merged with into SIH , while the allophone has merged with into SIH BH and have merged into SIH BH and have usually merged into SIH , but this distinction may also be upheld in educated speech of many Sephardim and some Ashkenazim BH had two allophones, and ; the incorporation of loanwords into Modern Hebrew has probably resulted in a split, so that and are separate phonemes. Stress Hebrew has two frequent kinds of lexical stress, on the last syllable (; מלרע) and on the penultimate syllable (the one preceding the last, ; מלעיל), of which the first is more frequent. Unofficially, some words exhibit a stress on the antepenultimate syllable or even further back; this occurs often in loanwords, e.g. פּוֹלִיטִיקָה , "politics", and sometimes in native Hebrew words, e.g. אֵיכְשֶׁהוּ , "somehow"; אֵיפֹשֶׁהוּ , "somewhere". Specific rules connect the location or absence of stress in a syllable with the written representation of vowel length and whether or not the syllable ends with a vowel or a consonant (theses rules are sometimes slightly different for verbs and nouns; thus the stress in the noun דָּבָר (, "thing") and the verb גָּבַר ( "to overpower") are both on the last syllable, even though this syllable is pointed with the sign for a long vowel for the noun and for a short vowel for the verb). Since spoken Israeli Hebrew does not distinguish between long and short vowels, these rules are not evident in speech. They usually cannot be inferred from written text either, since usually vowel diacritics are omitted. The result is that nowadays stress has phonemic value, as the following table illustrates: acoustically, the following word pairs differ only in the location of the stress; orthographically they differ also in the written representation of the length of the vowels, however if vowel diacritics are omitted (as is usually the case in Modern Israeli Hebrew) they are written identically: common spelling(Ktiv Hasar Niqqud)-stressed-stressedspelling with vowel diacriticspronunciationtranslationspelling with vowel diacriticspronunciationtranslationילדיֶלֶדboyיֵלֵדwill give birthאוכלאֹכֶלfoodאוֹכֵלeats (masculine singular)בוקרבֹּקֶרmorningבּוֹקֵרcowboy Little ambiguity exists, however, due to context and syntactic features; compare e.g. the English word "conduct" in its nominal and verbal forms. Grammar Hebrew grammar''' is partly analytic, expressing such forms as dative, ablative, and accusative using prepositional particles rather than grammatical cases. However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of the verbs and nouns. E.g. nouns have a construct state, called "smikhut", to denote the relationship of "belonging to": this is the converse of the genitive case of more inflected languages. Words in smikhut are often combined with hyphens. In modern speech, the use of the construct is sometimes interchangeable with the preposition "shel", meaning "of". There are many cases, however, where older declined forms are retained (especially in idiomatic expressions and the like), and "person"-enclitics are widely used to "decline" prepositions. Writing system Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet. Modern scripts are based on the "square" letter form, known as Ashurit (Assyrian), which was developed from the Aramaic script. A cursive Hebrew script is used in handwriting, but the letters tend to be more circular in form when written in cursive, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents. The medieval version of the cursive script forms the basis of another font, known as Rashi script, equivalent to italics, which is used for commentaries and marginal notes in religious texts. Vowel signs Original Biblical Hebrew text contained nothing but consonants and spaces and this is still the case with Torah scrolls that are used in synagogues. A system of writing vowels called niqqud (lit. "dotting") (from the root word meaning "points" or "dots") developed around the 5th Century CE. It is used today in printed Bibles and some other religious books and also in poetry, children's literature, and texts for beginning students of Hebrew. Most modern Hebrew texts contain only consonant letters, spaces and western-style punctuation and to facilitate reading without vowels matres lectionis (see below) are often inserted into words which would be written without them in a text with full niqqud. The niqqud system is sometimes used when it is necessary to avoid certain ambiguities of meaning (such as when context is insufficient to distinguish between two identically spelled words) and in the transliteration of foreign names. Consonant letters All Hebrew consonant phonemes are represented by a single letter (with some exceptions in Modern Hebrew). Although a single letter might represent two phonemes the letter "bet," for example, represents both and the two sounds are always related "hard" (plosive) and "soft" (fricative) forms, their pronunciation being very often determined by context. In fully pointed texts, the hard form normally has a dot, known as a dagesh, in its center. There are twenty-seven symbols, representing twenty-two letters, in the Hebrew alphabet, which is called the "aleph bet" because of its first two letters. The letters are as follows: Aleph, Bet/Vet, Gimel, Dalet, He, Vav, Zayin, Chet, Tet, Yod (pronounced Yud by Israelis), Kaf/Chaf, Lamed, Mem, Nun, Samekh, Ayin, Pe/Fe, Tzadi, Qof (pronounced Koof by Israelis), Resh, Shin/Sin, Tav. The letters Bet, Kaf and Pay (historically, also the letters Gimel, Dalet and Tav) are softened to fricatives when following a vowel (except when doubled). In a fully pointed text, this distinction is indicated by the use of dagesh to denote the hard sound. (Occasionally, a horizontal line called rafe, written above the letter, is used to indicate the softened sound.) This has led to the misconception that there are separate letters "Vet", "Chaf" and "Fay". The letter Shin/Sin is usually pronounced Sh, but occasionally S. In fully pointed texts, this distinction is indicated by a dot at the top left hand corner (for Sin) or the top right hand corner (for Shin). This may indicate that the pronunciation prevailing when the consonantal spelling of Hebrew was fixed was different from that prevailing when the system of pointing was devised, so that the Sin dot is a permanent reminder saying "this letter is spelled Shin but pronounced Samech". (In Samaritan Hebrew Shin is pronounced Sh wherever it occurs, and there is no "Sin".) Others regard Sin as a genuine phoneme separate from both Shin and Samech and believe that it must once have had a distinct pronunciation. There are two written forms of the letters Kaf/Chaf, Mem, Nun, Pe and Tzadi. Each of these is written differently when appearing at the end of a word than when appearing at the beginning or in the middle of the word. The version used at the end of a word is referred to as Final Kaf, Final Mem, etc. Except in the case of Mem, the difference is that the final form has a tail pointing straight down, whereas in the normal form it bends to the left to point to the next letter. Mater lectionis The letters he, vav and yod can represent consonantal sounds (, and , respectively) or serve as a markers for vowels. In the latter case, these letters are called "" ("" in Latin, "mothers of reading" in English). The letter he at the end of a word usually indicates a final , which usually indicates feminine gender, or , which usually indicates masculine gender. In rare cases it may also indicate , such as in (Shlomo, Solomon). It may also indicate a possessive suffix for 3rd person feminine singular (, her book), but in that case the he is not a mater lectionis but the consonant , although in spoken Hebrew the distinction is rarely made. In texts with niqqud the he is written with a mappiq in the latter case. Correct pronunciation must be guessed according to context and niqqud may be used for disambiguation. Vav may represent or , and yod may represent or . Sometimes a double yud is used for or (this convention is derived from Yiddish). In some modern Israeli texts, the letter alef is used to indicate long sounds in foreign names, particularly those of Arabic origin. In some words there is a choice of whether to use a mater lectionis or not, and in modern printed texts matres lectionis are sometimes used even for short vowels (see Ktiv male), which is considered to be grammatically incorrect though instances are found as far back as Talmudic times. Spelling with matres lectionis is called male (full), while spelling without matres lectionis is called haser (deficient, sparse). In Talmudic times texts from Palestine were noticeably more inclined to male spellings than texts from Babylonia: this may reflect the influence of Greek, which had full alphabetic spelling. Similarly in the Middle Ages Ashkenazim tended to use male spellings under the influence of European languages, while Sephardim tended to use haser spellings under the influence of Arabic. Indicating stress There is no one universally accepted sign for indicating stress in Hebrew texts. Usually stress is unmarked. In some vocalized texts, such as prayer books, when the stress is not on the last syllable it is marked with a small stroke placed underneath the first consonant of the stressed syllable to the left of the vowel mark (occasionally, as in Davidson's grammar, a different sign is used, to avoid confusion with meteg, see next paragraph). In vocalized Biblical texts stress is shown by the appropriate cantillation mark. A secondary stress in a word may be marked with a vertical stroke, called a meteg (מתג), placed to the left of the vowel: this symbol is available in Unicode. Meteg is most usually found two syllables before the main stress: thus, when the following consonant carries a shva, it follows that that shva is a sounded one. (For example, the word ochlah, her food, is written in the same way as āchěla, she ate, but meteg on the first syllable shows that āchěla is intended.) These signs are used, if at all, only in texts with niqqud. See also Cantillation Cursive Hebrew Hebraization of English Hebrew alphabet Hebrew literature Hebrew phonology International Phonetic Alphabet for Hebrew List of Hebrew acronyms Niqqud (vowel pointing) Romanization of Hebrew Study of the Hebrew language Notes References Hoffman, Joel M, In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 0-8147-3654-8. Izre'el, Shlomo, "The emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew", in: Benjamin Hary (ed.), The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew (CoSIH): Working Papers I (2001) Kuzar, Ron, Hebrew and Zionism: A Discourse Analytic Cultural Study. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter 2001. ISBN 3-11-016993-2, ISBN 3-11-016992-4. Laufer, Asher. "Hebrew", in: Handbook of the International Phonetic Association. Cambridge University Press 1999. ISBN 0-521-65236-7, ISBN 0-521-63751-1. Sáenz-Badillos, Angel, A History of the Hebrew Language'' (trans. John Elwolde). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55634-1 External links General TorahAndIsrael's Hebrew Page A small but great selection of resources for learning Hebrew Modern Hebrew resources On-line resources for modern Hebrew Ancient Hebrew Research Center Research and Learning Hebrew Resources Hebrew language learning material Hebrew Alef Bet for Children Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar - written by Wilhelm Gesenius; 1910 edition, edited and enlarged by Emil Kautzsch; translated by Arthur Ernest Cowley; scanned public domain book Dictionaries Hebrew-English (Webster's Rosetta Edition) Collection of Hebrew bilingual dictionaries Morfix online dictionary Complete texts in Hebrew Mechon Mamre - The Bible, Mishnah, Talmud (Babylonian and Palestinian), Tosefta, and Mishneh Torah Early Hebrew Newspapers Thousands of pages of mid- to late-19th-century and early 20th-century newspapers written in Hebrew and readable on line. Including contemporary accounts of the Battle of Gettysburg, the assassination of Czar Alexander II, the Dreyfus affair, etc. Alba Bible - see also Alba Bible Barcelona Haggadah Kennicott Bible - see also Benjamin Kennicott Me'ah Berachot Megillat Esther North French Miscellany Parma Psalter Perek Shirah Rothschild Miscellany be-x-old:Іўрыт

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Ann_Druyan

Ann Druyan (born June 13, 1949) is an American author and media producer known for her involvement in many projects aiming to popularize and explain science. She is probably best-known as the last wife of Carl Sagan, and co-author of the Cosmos series and book, along with Sagan and Steven Soter. In her writings, Druyan has stressed the idea that people can have a sense of awe and wonder about the unity of the cosmos without introducing the concept of a god. Before she met Sagan, her interest in science stemmed in part, according to one author, from her interest in the philosophy of Karl Marx. One author characterized it this way: "Her interest in science came primarily from her interest in the philosophy of Karl Marx. . . . Druyan herself had, at the time, rather vaporous standards of evidence for her many sundry beliefs (as she later acknowledged). She believed . . . that Immanuel Velikovsky in the 1950s had correctly deduced the truth about the solar system. . . . She believed in the ancient astronauts of Erich von Daniken." Achenbach, Joel (1999). Captured by Aliens: the search for life and truth in a very large universe. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684848562. pp. 95-6. Writings and projects Druyan wrote the books Comet and Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, as well as sections of The Demon-Haunted World, with her late husband Carl Sagan. In addition, she wrote an introduction to The Cosmic Connection and the epilogue to Billions and Billions, both by Sagan. Alone, she wrote the novel A Famous Broken Heart. In the areas of film and television, she was one of the writers for the television series Cosmos, and a producer of the film Contact. Most recently, she is the CEO and a co-founder of Cosmos Studios. In 2007 she was said to be working on an IMAX film on global warming as well as a sequel to Cosmos. She has served on the Board of Directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws NORML for over 10 years , and is also the current president of the NORML Foundation Board of Directors. Other projects that she has been involved in include the selection of the music on the Voyager Golden Record mounted on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 space probes, and the Cosmos 1 spacecraft, which intended to demonstrate solar sail propulsion. The Cosmos 1 used a former Soviet submarine missile as a launch vehicle (in keeping with the "swords into plowshares" philosophy) but due to a malfunction in separation, the Cosmos 1 never reached stable orbit. In January 2007, she was a juror at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival in the jury responsible for selecting the winner of the Alfred P. Sloan Prize, given to films that focus on science and technology. She attended and was a speaker at the Beyond Belief symposium in November 2006. Quotes Awards 2004 Richard Dawkins Award References External links A Speech given by Ann Druyan at the 1997 annual convention of the Freedom From Religion Foundation Cosmos Studios A TV news report on Ann Druyan's comments at the dedication of SETI's Carl Sagan Center for the Study of Life in the Universe, October 17, 2006. A response to Darren Schreiber at Beyond Belief 2006. BusinessWeek Online interview with Ann Druyan from 2001

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Hinayana

Hīnayāna (हीनयान) is a Sanskrit and Pāli term literally meaning: "the low vehicle", "the inferior vehicle", or "the deficient vehicle". According to the MacMillan Library Reference Encyclopedia of Buddhism, it is a polemical term coined by Mahāyāna Buddhists to denigrate their opponents Hinayana (literally, “inferior way”) is a polemical term, which self-described Mahayana (literally, “great way”) Buddhist literature uses to denigrate its opponents. - p. 840, MacMillan Library Reference Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004 . The term appeared around the 1st or 2nd century CE. Its use in scholarly publications is controversial The supposed Mahayana-Hinayana dichotomy is so prevalent in Buddhist literature that it has yet fully to loosen its hold over scholarly representations of the religion. - p. 840, MacMillan Library Reference Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004 . There are differing views on the use and meaning of the term, both among scholars and within Buddhism. The legitimacy of using the term Hinayana to refer to the early Buddhist schools is disputed while use of Hinayana to refer to the contemporary Theravada is seen as pejorative. Hinayana is a designation that has no clearly identifiable external referent - p. 840, MacMillan Library Reference Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004. The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, however, unequivocally equates the term Hinayana with "Theravada" (Oxford, 1993, Vol. 1, p. 1,235) . In the Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and Japanese languages, the term means small vehicle (小 meaning "small", 乘 meaning "vehicle"), and in the Tibetan language (theg chung) the word means "small" or "lesser" vehicle. It is also certain that Buddhist groups and individuals in China (including Tibet), Korea, Vietnam, and Japan have in the past, as in the very recent present, identified themselves as Mahayana Buddhists, even if the polemical or value claim embedded in that term was only dimly felt, if at all., Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 492 . Etymology The word Hīnayāna is formed of hīna (हीन) : "low", "inferior", "deficient", "defective", and yāna (यान) : "vehicle", where "vehicle" means "a way of going to enlightenment". In brief Hīnayāna is used by Mahayanists as a name to refer variously to one or more doctrines, traditions, practitioners or thoughts that are generally concerned with the achievement of Nirvana as an Arahant or a Pratyeka-Buddha, as opposed to the achievement of liberation as a Samyaksambuddha, wherein the Samyaksambuddha (according to Mahayana lore) is deemed to operate from a basis of vowing to effect the spiritual liberation of all beings and creatures from the suffering of samsara (not just himself or a small number of others). Hīnayāna is sometimes said to be corresponding solely to the Early Buddhist Schools, and not to the current Theravada school, while sometimes it is held to be also cognate with the modern Theravada tradition. Many hold that the term was coined to be purposely pejorative, while others do not. Hīnayāna as doctrine would (from a Mahayana perspective) include the Sutras taught by Buddha that admonish the practitioner to follow the Sravaka path or strive for Paccekabuddhahood. In such teachings there is no emphasis on pledging to emancipate the totality of sentient beings from the pain and bondage of samsara - the focus is more on practice for individual liberation. However, the Buddha did not teach in this manner according to the Pali Canon. In the Pali Canon the Buddha never admonishes his disciples to strive to become a Paccekabuddha, and 'sravaka' just translates as follower or disciple: any disciple of Buddha would be a savaka The Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary . There is thus no mention of a 'Savakapath' as 'savaka' refers to all disciples, not to a limited class of disciples. Hīnayāna as a tradition in general would include those schools who solely follow the sutras of the Pali Canon or the Agamas (being, Pre-sectarian Buddhism and the Early Buddhist Schools). Some recent Mahayanist scholars have also used the name Nikaya Buddhism to refer to these schools. Some of these schools actively rejected the Mahayana sutras during the time of the rise of the Mahayana, around 2,000 years ago. Hīnayāna as practitioner would be an individual of any school (including Mahayana) who practices to eliminate suffering according to basic Buddhist teachings; if successful, he is called an Arahant. (Similarly, a follower of a bodhisattva path in any school would be Mahayana in this sense.) As a follower of what Mahayana terms "Hinayana", he or she will not strive to become a Buddha, nor will he or she take the Mahayana Bodhisattva-vow of pledging to come back into samsara countless times in the future in order to liberate all other sentient beings from suffering. Also, the 'Pratyeka-Buddha' is regarded by Mahayana as being Hinayanist. Mahayana only considers the ideal of a Samyaksambuddha 'Great'; the other enlightened ideals are considered by Mahayana orthodoxy to be (depending on the translation) either 'inferior', 'degrading', 'base' or 'low'. Within Buddhism the differing interpretations of Hīnayāna have consequences that are sometimes quite far-reaching. It is primarily the interpretation of Hīnayāna as a tradition that has led to the most concern, especially as many people have seen the term as a slur against Pre-sectarian Buddhism, Theravada and the other Early Buddhist schools (the Nikaya Buddhism–schools). These schools solely follow the sutras that are included in the Pali Canon, and which are aimed at helping to achieve the extinction of suffering, as attained by the Arahants. Jonathan Silk has argued that the term "Hinayana" was used to refer to whomever one wanted to criticize on any given occasion, and did not refer to any definite grouping of Buddhists. Jonathan A Silk. What, if anything, is Mahayana Buddhism? Numen 49:4 (2002):335-405. Article reprinted in Williams, Buddhism, Vol III, Routledge, 2005 In the Vajrayana practice tradition of Buddhism the Hinayana is seen as one of the three major yanas (or 'vehicles') of Buddhism, alongside the Mahayana and Vajrayana. According to this view, there were three 'turnings of the wheel of dharma' The Three Vehicles of the Teachings of the Buddha - at the Karmapa website . In the first turning, Shakyamuni Buddha taught the dharma as the Four Noble Truths at Varanasi which led to the Hinayana schools, of which only the Theravada remain today (although they object to the term 'Hinayana'). In the second turning, the 'Perfection of Wisdom' sutras were taught at Vulture's Peak and led to the Mahayana schools. The teachings which constituted the third turning of the wheel of dharma were taught at Shravasti and expounded that all beings have Buddha Nature. This third turning is described as having led to the Vajrayana. Origins of Hīnayāna: Vehicles and Paths It appears that the distinction between vehicles and paths arises in early Mahayana sutras, such as the Lotus Sutra, where it is stated that there is one path - the path to Nirvana -, but there are different vehicles. The vehicles are described (by Mahayana) as representing the fruit of the two types of Buddha found in the Pali Canon, plus the path of the Arahants. For instance, in Chapter three of the Lotus Sutra, there is a parable of a father promising three carts to lure sons out of a burning building, where the goat-cart represents the Sravaka-vehicle; the deer-cart, Pratyeka-Buddhahood; and the bullock-cart, Samyaksambuddha-hood. According to early Mahayana (as found in the Lotus sutra), it is the vehicles that are taught as a method for journeying on the path to enlightenment. It is here that we can see the basis for term being used to indicate differences of doctrine. The Lotus Sutra declares that the bullock-cart is "supremely restful", implying that the goat-cart and the deer-cart are inferior to the bullock-cart. This is where we begin to see the terminological origins for the term Hīnayāna: The Sravakayana and the Pratyekabuddhayana as vehicles inferior to the superior bullock-cart of the Mahayana. The Dharmakshema Mahaparinirvana Sutra also speaks of the inferior nature of the Hinayana when compared to the higher level of the Mahayana. In that sutra the Buddha states: "Noble son, there are also two groups of people within this great congregation: those who seek the Inferior Way (hīnayāna) and those who seek the Great Way (mahāyāna). In past days I turned the lesser Wheel of the Dharma for the Śrāvakas, but now here in Kuśinagara I turn the great Wheel of the Dharma for Bodhisattvas." The term first appeared in the Mahayana Prajñāpāramitā literature. Possibly the earliest instance appears in the Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines (Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra), believed by scholars to have been composed some time between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. Chapter 11 ("Mara's Deeds") depicts a conversation between Buddha and the Bodhisattva Subhuti, where in Buddha admonishes those Bodhisattvas who disavow this sutra in favor of certain unnamed Buddhist sutras. In the following passage, the term hinayana is translated as "inferior vehicle" (emphasis added). "Subhuti, do these Bodhisattvas appear to be very intelligent who, having obtained and met with the irreversible, the great vehicle, and then again abandon this, turn away from this, and prefer an inferior vehicle [...] this is seen as being done to these Bodhisattvas by Mara." Substitute terms for Hinayana Mahāyāna Buddhists sometimes refer to all forms of non-Mahāyāna Buddhism, past and present, including the Theravāda school, as members of the Hīnayāna grouping. This term, which literally means "the inferior vehicle", tends to relate to those Buddhists who were deemed by Mahayanists to have rather narrow aspirations: instead of vowing (as the Mahayanists ideally did) to strive for the liberation both of themselves and all other sentient beings from samsara, the "Hinayanists" were viewed as being excessively concerned with their own individual release into Nirvana. The term, "Hinayana", is now widely regarded as derogatory and inaccurate (at least in reference to the Theravada, but also to the other, already non-existent, schools). In the Mahayana tradition, the label Hinayana is attributed to the Buddha himself (e.g. in the Lotus Sutra). As it is a polemical term and represents a specifically Mahayana point of view, other terms have been suggested to describe the Buddhist schools which chose not to adopted the Mahayana sutras. Among the terms that have been used as substitutes for "Hīnayāna" are the following: Early Buddhism - refers to the variations within Buddhism (both Pre-sectarian Buddhism as the Early Buddhist schools) that were current before the Mahayana movement emerged. Early Buddhist schools – This term properly covers all the schools that existed before the emergence of the Mahāyāna. The arising of the Mahayana school of Buddhism (1st / 2nd century CE) went together with the adoption of new (previously not-existing The Mahayana movement claims to have been founded by the Buddha himself. The consensus of the evidence, however, is that it originated in South India in the 1st century CE – Indian Buddhism, AK Warder, 3rd edition, 1999, p. 335. ) sutras, and introduced new (or emphasized old but not very central) philosophies such as the Bodhisattva and having the intention of liberating all sentient beings. Since this constituted a serious break with the previous traditions and customs that the earlier schools had in common, the Mahayana is seen as a 'reformist' or revolutionary movement, and not included in any lists of the early schools. Thus, there is a large correlation between the earlier schools and the label 'Hinayana'. Also the Mahayana itself never groups itself with the previously existing schools. Some of the later 'early schools' might have arisen (meaning: split off) from another, older, early school, and might have come into existence at about the same time as the Mahayana. However, these schools kept to the larger framework and attitude of the earlier schools. Eighteen Schools (or Twenty Schools) – This term is historically oriented, based on the lists of the various Early Buddhist schools. However, the list itself is numerically inexact since the exact number and the names of the schools differ between the various lists. These were the schools that the emerging Mahayana-movement was familiar with because they were existing at that time. Subsequently, these eighteen schools split up further into a larger number, and the Hinayana label could have also been applied to those later split-offs. Also, the Mahayana writer Bhavya (Bhavaviveka) says in the Tarkajvala that Mahayana is oncluded in the eighteen schools. Southern Buddhism – This frequently used geographical designation is appropriately applied to the Theravāda, whose centers in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia are located south of the centers of Mahayana (China, Tibet, Japan). In its early period, however, there was significant overlap between the geographical regions of Mahayana and the early schools. Pāli Buddhism – This term only applies to the Theravāda, whose scriptures (the Pāli canon) are in the Pāli language. The other "Hīnayāna" schools wrote either in Sanskrit, in other Prakrits (notably Gāndhārī) or in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, a mixed language with both Sanskrit and Prakrit elements. Śrāvakayāna Buddhism – This term, referring to the "śrāvakas" meaning disciples, followers or hearers. They who followed the Buddha and sought solely to eliminate suffering, thus culminating in Arahantship. This term originates (like the term Hinayana) from within Mahāyāna Buddhism, and thus faces some of the same objections as "Hīnayāna", though it is less obviously derogatory. Savakayana is a bit different in that it does not refer to any actual school but purely to a tendency or intention to be found in the individual; one might be a member of a Mahāyāna school, but be personally following a Śrāvakayāna path. Furthermore, it contrasts with "Bodhisattvayāna". Nikāya Buddhism – This recently invented term was intended to cover the same ground as Hīnayāna, referring to the nikāyas or "schools" into which Buddhism was split by the beginning of the Common Era. It may be interpreted as "Buddhism as taught in the Nikāyas", the five primary divisions of the . However, this term is only used among the Theravāda—other schools used the term Āgamas— so "Nikaya Buddhism" is a misnomer when applied to non-Theravāda early schools such as the Sarvastivada and Sammitiya. "Sutta Pitaka" Encyclopedia Britannica "What the Buddha really taught:The Pali Nikāyas and Chinese Āgamas" by Bhikkhu Sujato Theravāda – This term properly refers to only one school among many non-Mahāyāna schools that once existed, many of which espoused philosophical notions contrary to those of the Theravādins. It would be altogether inaccurate to refer to such Buddhists as the Sarvāstivādins as Theravādins. Some scholars, such as Dr. Walpola Rahula, have pointed out that there was small contact between early Mahāyānists and Theravādins, and have suggested that the term "Hīnayāna" was never intended to include the Theravāda. Judging by the content of Mahāyāna polemic, it seems certain that other sects of northern India were the primary targets of the "Hīnayāna" critique. Conservative Buddhism See, for example: Mainstream Buddhism: this term might be considered derogatory by Mahayanists, as it seems to suggest they are fringe (when in fact they are the majority) Sectarian Buddhism See, for example: Non-Mahayana Buddhism Hīnayāna as a pejorative There remains an open and active debate regarding the issue of whether Hīnayāna was coined to be pejorative or merely classificatory. The arguments for the term as being pejorative largely depends upon the etymological roots of the prefix 'Hīna': Hīna- is defined as such: "inferior, less, low, base, mean, incomplete, deficient, wanting and so on." Since the meaning of 'hina' covers both a pejorative and non-pejorative meaning, it is difficult to come to a definite conclusion. The term could have been chosen because it provided both meanings. Those who assert the idea of Hinayana as a pejorative logically also are among those who subscribe the idea of an early (historical) Mahayana schism, and who believe that there was a history of polemics (see also the book of kathavatthu) between the early Mahayana and other early Buddhist schools. An argument used by those who consider Hinayana to be pejorative is based on the fact that if the term was to mean only 'Small or Lesser vehicle', then the term chosen would have been, "Culla" or in Sanskrit "Ksulla-ksudra" giving us Ksudrayana - though 'ksudra' has also had a history of being used in a somewhat pejorative manner. Those who assert that the term was coined in a merely classificatory manner (denying the historical Mahayana schism and a history of polemics) believe that the usage of 'hīna-' as a prefix represents those "inferior": inferior because they do not lead to the attainment of full Buddhahood (samyaksambuddha). We can find Mahayana Sutras and traditions which repeatedly admonish the trainee Bodhisattva not to criticise any of the Buddhist schools. The mere fact that there is such a strong admonishment against criticising the Hinayana indicates that it was either a common attitude, or that there was a degree of defensiveness within Mahayana regarding this issue. By the 3rd Century CE, in the ethics chapter of Asanga's Bodhisattvabhumi, we find an explicit injunction not to criticise or reject the Hīnayāna texts or traditions, where Trainee Bodhisattvas are instructed not to "disparage the Hīnayāna, or over-encourage others to learn Mahayana". Candragomin wrote a very influential twenty verse summary of Asanga's Ethics, written or summarised as a set of vows to be taken by a trainee Bodhisattve. The 15th Verse (derived from Asanga's chapter on ethics) cites "rejecting the Sravakayana" as a root downfall. Candragomin's vows were adopted by the Indo-Tibetan Mahayana tradition via Atisha, and are still used today by the Gelugpa and Kagyupa schools. Quotes from Mahayana Sutras In the early centuries CE, the Mahayana tradition was making efforts not to criticize or condemn the Hīnayāna vehicles: Lotus Sutra (Ch.14): A bodhisattva [...] does not hold other Buddhists in contempt, not even those who follow the Hinayana path, nor does he cause them to have doubts or regrets by criticizing their way of practice or making discouraging remarks. However, the Buddha also emphasises that the Bodhisattva should only preach the Mahayana in response to queries, not the Hinayana: "If there are objections or queries, one is not to answer them by resort to the Dharma of the Lesser Vehicle [Hinayana], but one is to explain only in terms of the Greater Vehicle [Mahayana], causing persons to gain knowledge of all modes" (Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, tr. by Leon Hurvitz, Columbia UP, 1976, pp. 213-214). The 18,000 verse perfection of wisdom sutra (an early Madhyamaka Mahayana sutra) indicates a progression of training and an all-embracing approach: Bodhisattvas should practice all paths - whatever is a path of a sravaka, a pratyeka or a Buddha - and should know all paths. in the opening verses of the Vimalakirti Sutra: Reverence to all Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Aryasravakas, and Pratyekabuddhas, in the past, the present, and the future, and [...] Of bhikshus there were eight thousand, all arhats. They were free from impurities and afflictions, and all had attained self-mastery. Their minds were entirely liberated by perfect knowledge [...] However, it should be noted that the form given in the recently published Sanskrit edition of the Vimalakirti Sutra (Institute for Compreghensive Studies of Buddhism Taisho University 2004) is different. It merely has , with no reference to anybody else. The salutation, as given above, derives from the Tibetan translation. Furthermore, it is not found in any of the three Chinese translations. Hīnayāna and Theravāda Most western scholars regard the Theravada school to be one of the Hinayana schools referred to in Mahayana literature, or regard Hinayana as a synonym for Theravada. Gombrich, Richard Francis. 1988. Theravāda Buddhism. P.83 Collins, Steven. 1990. Selfless Persons: Imagery and Thought in Theravāda Buddhism. P.21 Gellner, David N. 2005. Rebuilding Buddhism. P.14 Swearer, Donald. 2006. Theravada Buddhist Societies. In: Mark Juergensmeyer (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. P.83 These scholars understand the term to refer to schools of Buddhism that did not accept the teachings of the Mahayana Sutras as authentic teachings of the Buddha. At the same time, scholars have objected to the prejorative connotation of the term Hinayana and some scholars do not use it for any school MacMillan Reference Library of Buddhism, 2004, page 328 . Some Theravada Buddhists have opposed the identification of Theravada with Hinayana. As Walpola Rahula noted in his Gems of Buddhist Wisdom: We must not confuse Hīnayāna with Theravāda because the terms are not synonymous. Theravāda Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd Century B.C. when there was no Mahāyāna at all. Hīnayāna sects developed in India and had an existence independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today there is no Hīnayāna sect in existence anywhere in the world. Therefore, in 1950 the World Fellowship of Buddhists inaugurated in Colombo unanimously decided that the term Hīnayana should be dropped when referring to Buddhism existing today in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, etc. This is the brief history of Theravāda, Mahayāna and Hīnayāna. The argument that the Theravada should not be considered a "Hinayana" school from the Mahayana perspective is based on a different understanding of the concept "Hinayana". The proponents of this view argue that unlike the now-extinct Sarvastivada school, the primary object of Mahayana criticism, the Theravada school does not claim the existence of independent dharmas; in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism. Frank J. Hoffman and Deegalle Mahinda, Pāli Buddhism. Routledge Press 1996, page 192. Richard King, Indian Philosophy: An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought. Edinburgh University Press, 1999, page 86. Nyanaponika, Nyaponika Thera, Nyanaponika, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Abhidhamma Studies: Buddhist Explorations of Consciousness and Time. Wisdom Publications, 1998, page 42. Some contemporary Theravadin figures have thus indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahayana philosophy found in the Heart Sutra and the Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way. Donald S. Lopez and , The Madman's Middle Way: Reflections on Reality of the Tibetan Monk Gendun Chopel. University of Chicago Press 2006, page 24. Gil Fronsdal, in Tricycle, posted online on November 8, 2007. The Mahayanists were bothered by the substantialist thought of the Sarvastivadins and Sautrantikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine of emptiness, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching. David Kalupahana, Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidass, 2006, page 6. The Theravadins too refuted the Sarvastivadins and Sautrantikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravada arguments are preserved in the Kathavatthu. David Kalupahana, Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidass, 2006, page 24. Etymology The Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary The Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1899), gives a translation of 'Hīnayāna' as: Proper Noun: "simpler or lesser vehicle. Name of the earliest system of Buddhist doctrine (opposite to Mahayana; see Yana)." Hīna is defined in the same dictionary as follows: hīná mfn. left, abandoned, forsaken RV. left behind, excluded or shut out from, lower or weaker than, inferior to (abl.) Mn. MBh. &c. left out, wanting, omitted MBh. defeated or worsted (in a lawsuit) Yājñ. deficient, defective, faulty, insufficient, short, incomplete, poor, little, low, vile, bad, base, mean ŚBr. &c. &c bereft or deprived of, free from, devoid or destitute of, without (instr., abl., loc., acc., or comp , 'bereft of breath or life' mantrād or mantrato h○, 'devoid of sacred knowledge') KātyŚr. Mn. MBh. &c lost or strayed from (a caravan) i, 4, 23 Kāś. brought low, broken down in circumstances ŚrS. m. a faulty or defective witness (of five kinds, viz. anya-vādin, , nôpasthāyin, nir-uttara, āhūsa-prapalâyin) Yājñ. Sch. subtraction (= = vyavakalana) MW. Mesua Ferrea L. (ā), f. a female mouse ( for dīna) L. (am), n. deficiency, want, absence (velā-hīne 'before the right time', unseasonably') Yājñ. Monier-Williams, Monier (1899, 1964), A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, (Oxford U. Press), p. 1296, "Hīna" entry, retrieved 2008-06-22 from "Cologne University" at http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgi-bin/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw1296-hastIkR.jpg. Pali Text Society Dictionary According to Pali Text Society's Pali-English Dictionary (1921-25), the word 'hīna is defined thus: Hīna: inferior, low; poor, miserable; vile, base, abject, contemptible, despicable deprived of, wanting, lacking Rhys Davids, T.W. & Stede (1921-25), Pali-English Dictionary (PTS), p. 732, "Hīna" entry, retrieved 06-22-2008 from "U. Chicago" at http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.4:1:683.pali. See also Early Buddhist Schools Buddhist schools Nikaya Buddhism Mahayana Yana Theravada Notes Bibliography Romila Thapar, Early India from the Origins to AD 1300 Penguin, 2001 Tsongkhapa, The great treatise on the stages of the path to enlightenment, Snowlion, 2000 Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge, 1989 Andrew Skilton, Concise history of Buddhism. Windhorse, 1999 Donald Lopez, "The H Word", Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, Fall 1995, pp84-85 R. S. Cohen, "Discontented Categories: Hinayana and Mahayana in Indian History", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 63(1):1-25, 1995 Ryukan Kimura, A Historical Study of the Terms Hinayana and Mahayana and the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism'', Indological Book Corp., 1978 External links Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines translated by Richard Babcock "Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism" Dr. W. Rahula's article "The myth of Hinayana" Kåre A. Lie

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Habakkuk

An 18th century Russian icon of the prophet Habakkuk (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhimonastery, Karelia, Russia). Statue of Habakkuk by Donatello, in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo of Florence. Habakkuk or Havakuk (Hebrew: חֲבַקּוּק, Standard Tiberian ) was a prophet in the Hebrew Bible. The etymology of the name of Habakkuk is not clear. Habakkuk article from JewishEncyclopedia.com The name is possibly related to the Akkadian khabbaququ, the name of a fragrant plant, or the Hebrew root חבק, meaning "embrace". He is the eighth of the twelve minor prophets and likely the author of the Book of Habakkuk, which bears his name. Practically nothing is known about Habakkuk's personal history, except for what can be inferred from the text of his book, which consists of five oracles about the Chaldeans (Babylonians) and a song of praise to God. Since the Chaldean rise to power is dated c. 612 BC, it is assumed he was active about that time, making him an early contemporary of Jeremiah and Zephaniah. Jewish sources, however, do not group him with those two prophets, who are often placed together, so it is possible that he was slightly earlier than they. Because the final chapter of his book is a song, it is sometimes assumed in Jewish tradition that he was a member of the tribe of Levi, which served as musicians in Solomon's Temple. According to the Zohar (Volume 1, page 8b) Habakkuk is the boy born to the Shunamite woman through Elisha's blessing. Habakkuk is unique among the prophets in that he openly questions the wisdom of God (1:3a, 1:13b). In the first part of the first chapter, the Prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action: "1:2 Yahweh, how long will I cry, and you will not hear? I cry out to you 'Violence!' and will you not save?" - (World English Bible). Shrine of Habakkuk in Toyserkan, Iran. A mausoleum in the city of Toyserkan in the west of Iran is believed to be Habakkuk's burial place. آلبوم عکسهای تویسرکان It is protected by Iran's Cultural Heritage Organization. The Organization's guide to the Hamedan Province states that Habakkuk was believed to be a guardian to the Temple of Solomon, and that he was captured by the Babylonians and remained in their prison for some years. After being freed by Cyrus the Great, he went to Ecbatana and remained there until he died, and was buried somewhere nearby, in what is today Toyserkan. Habakkuk is called both Habaghugh and Hayaghugh by the locals. On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, his feast day is December 2. He is commemorated with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. See also Persian Jews Notes

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DARPA

DARPA headquarters in the Virginia Square neighborhood of Arlington. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military. DARPA has been responsible for funding the development of many technologies which have had a major impact on the world, including computer networking, as well as NLS, which was both the first hypertext system, and an important precursor to the contemporary ubiquitous graphical user interface. Its original name was simply Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), but it was renamed DARPA (for Defense) on March 23, 1972, then back to ARPA on February 22, 1993, and then back to DARPA again on March 11, 1996. DARPA was established in 1958 (as ARPA) in response to the Soviet launching of Sputnik in 1957, with the mission of keeping U.S. military technology ahead of the nation's enemies. From DARPA's own introduction: "50 years of Bridging the Gap" DARPA’s original mission, established in 1958, was to prevent technological surprise like the launch of Sputnik, which signaled that the Soviets had beaten the U.S. into space. The mission statement has evolved over time. Today, DARPA’s mission is still to prevent technological surprise to the US, but also to create technological surprise for our enemies. DARPA is independent from other more conventional military R&D and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has around 240 personnel (about 140 technical) directly managing a $3.2 billion budget. These figures are "on average" since DARPA focuses on short-term (two to four-year) projects run by small, purpose-built teams. DARPA's mission DARPA's own introduction: DARPA is a Defense Agency with a unique role within DoD. DARPA is not tied to a specific operational mission: DARPA supplies technological options for the entire Department, and is designed to be the “technological engine” for transforming DoD. Near-term needs and requirements generally drive the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force to focus on those needs at the expense of major change. Consequently, a large organization like DoD needs a place like DARPA whose only charter is radical innovation. DARPA looks beyond today’s known needs and requirements. As military historian John Chambers noted, “None of the most important weapons transforming warfare in the 20th century – the airplane, tank, radar, jet engine, helicopter, electronic computer, not even the atomic bomb – owed its initial development to a doctrinal requirement or request of the military.” John Chambers, ed., The Oxford Companion to American Military History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) p. 791. None of them. And to this list, DARPA would add unmanned systems, Global Positioning System (GPS) and Internet technologies. DARPA’s approach is to imagine what capabilities a military commander might want in the future and accelerate those capabilities into being through technology demonstrations. These not only provide options to the commander, but also change minds about what is technologically possible today. DARPA as a model According to former DARPA Director Tony Tether and W. B. Bonvillian (“Power Play,” W. B. Bonvillian, The American Interest, Volume II, p 39, November-December 2006), DARPA's key characteristics to be replicated to reproduce DARPA's success are: Statement by Dr. Tony Tether (Director of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) to Subcommittee on Terrorism, Unconventional Threats and Capabilities (House Armed Services Committee - United States House of Representatives) on March 13, 2008 section DARPA as a model in which he says this is content he agrees with that he is repeating from “Power Play,” W. B. Bonvillian, The American Interest, Volume II, p 39 (November-December 2006). Small and flexible: DARPA has only about 140 technical professionals; some have referred to DARPA as “100 geniuses connected by a travel agent.” Flat organization: DARPA avoids hierarchy, essentially operating at only two management levels to ensure the free and rapid flow of information and ideas, and rapid decision-making. Autonomy and freedom from bureaucratic impediments: DARPA has an exemption from Title V civilian personnel specifications, which provides for a direct hiring authority to hire talent with the expediency not allowed by the standard civil service process. Eclectic, world-class technical staff and performers: DARPA seeks great talent and ideas from industry, universities, government laboratories, and individuals, mixing disciplines and theoretical and experimental strengths. DARPA neither owns nor operates any laboratories or facilities, and the overwhelming majority of the research it sponsors is done in industry and universities. Very little of DARPA’s research is performed at government labs. Teams and networks: At its very best, DARPA creates and sustains great teams of researchers from different disciplines that collaborate and share in the teams’ advances. Hiring continuity and change: DARPA’s technical staff is hired or assigned for four to six years. Like any strong organization, DARPA mixes experience and change. It retains a base of experienced experts – its Office Directors and support staff – who are knowledgeable about DoD. The staff is rotated to ensure fresh thinking and perspectives, and to have room to bring technical staff from new areas into DARPA. It also allows the program managers to be bold and not fear failure. Project-based assignments organized around a challenge model: DARPA organizes a significant part of its portfolio around specific technology challenges. It foresees new innovation-based capabilities and then works back to the fundamental breakthroughs required to make them possible. Although individual projects typically last three to five years, major technological challenges may be addressed over longer time periods, ensuring patient investment on a series of focused steps and keeping teams together for ongoing collaboration. Continued funding for DARPA projects is based on passing specific milestones, sometimes called “go/no-go’s.” Outsourced support personnel: DARPA extensively leverages technical, contracting, and administrative services from other DoD agencies and branches of the military. This provides DARPA the flexibility to get into and out of an area without the burden of sustaining staff, while building cooperative alliances with its “agents.” These outside agents help create a constituency in their respective organizations for adopting the technology. Outstanding program managers: The best DARPA program managers have always been freewheeling zealots in pursuit of their goals. The Director’s most important task is to recruit and hire very creative people with big ideas, and empower them. Acceptance of failure: DARPA pursues breakthrough opportunities and is very tolerant of technical failure if the payoff from success will be great enough. Orientation to revolutionary breakthroughs in a connected approach: DARPA historically has focused not on incremental but radical innovation. It emphasizes high-risk investment, moves from fundamental technological advances to prototyping, and then hands off the system development and production to the military services or the commercial sector. Mix of connected collaborators: DARPA typically builds strong teams and networks of collaborators, bringing in a range of technical expertise and applicable disciplines, and involving university researchers and technology firms that are often not significant defense contractors or beltway consultants. History DARPA was created as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), by Public Law 85-325 and Department of Defense Directive 5105.41, in February 1958. Its creation was directly attributed to the launching of Sputnik and to U.S. realization that the Soviet Union had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology. Additionally, the political and defense communities recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense organization to formulate and execute R&D projects that would expand the frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories. In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a wide range of scientific disciplines which address the full spectrum of national security needs. From 1958-1965, ARPA's emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense, and nuclear test detection. In 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the military space programs to the individual Services. This allowed DARPA to concentrate its efforts on the DEFENDER (defense against ballistic missiles), Project Vela (nuclear test detection), and AGILE (counterinsurgency R&D) Programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences, and materials sciences. The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&D, particularly in the study of radars, infrared sensing, and x-ray/gamma ray detection. In the late 1960s, with the transfer of these mature programs to the Services, ARPA redefined its role and concentrated on a diverse set of relatively small, essentially exploratory research programs. The Agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972, and in the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, and tactical technologies. In the area of information processing, DARPA made great strides, initially through its support of the development of time-sharing (all modern operating systems rely on concepts invented for the Multics system, developed by a cooperation between Bell Labs, General Electric and MIT, which DARPA supported by funding Project MAC at MIT with an initial two-million-dollar grant), and later through the evolution of the ARPANET (the first wide-area packet switching network), Packet Radio Network, Packet Satellite Network and ultimately, the Internet and research in the artificial intelligence (AI) fields of speech recognition and signal processing. DARPA also funded the development of the Douglas Engelbart's NLS computer system and the Aspen Movie Map, which was probably the first hypermedia system and an important precursor of virtual reality. The controversial Mansfield Amendment of 1973 expressly limited appropriations for defense research (through ARPA/DARPA) to projects with direct military application. Some contend that the amendment devastated American science, since ARPA/DARPA was a major funding source for basic science projects at the time; the National Science Foundation never took up the slack as expected. But the resulting brain drain is also credited with boosting the development of the fledgling personal computer industry. Many young computer scientists fled from the universities to startups and private research labs like Xerox PARC. From 1976-1981, DARPA's major thrusts were dominated by air, land, sea, and space technology, such as follow-on forces attack with standoff weapons and associated Command, Control, and Communications; tactical armor and anti-armor programs; infrared sensing for space-based surveillance; high-energy laser technology for space-based missile defense; antisubmarine warfare; advanced cruise missiles; advanced aircraft; and defense applications of advanced computing. These large-scale technological program demonstrations were joined by integrated circuit research, which resulted in submicrometre electronic technology and electron devices that evolved into the Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Program and the Congressionally mandated charged particle beam program. Many of the successful programs were transitioned to the Services, such as the foundation technologies in automatic target recognition, space based sensing, propulsion, and materials that were transferred to the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO), later known as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO), now titled the Missile Defense Agency (MDA). During the 1980s, the attention of the Agency was centered on information processing and aircraft-related programs, including the National Aerospace Plane (NASP) or Hypersonic Research Program. The Strategic Computing Program enabled DARPA to exploit advanced processing and networking technologies and to rebuild and strengthen relationships with universities after the Vietnam War. In addition, DARPA began to pursue new concepts for small, lightweight satellites (LIGHTSAT) and directed new programs regarding defense manufacturing, submarine technology, and armor/anti-armor. Organization Current program offices DARPA has five program offices, all of which report to the DARPA director. The Defense Sciences Office (DSO) vigorously pursues the most promising technologies within a broad spectrum of the science and engineering research communities and develops those technologies into important, radically new military capabilities. DSO Official homepage The Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) focuses on inventing the networking, computing, and software technologies vital to ensuring DOD military superiority. The Microsystems Technology Office (MTO) mission focuses on the heterogeneous microchip-scale integration of electronics, photonics, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Their high risk/high payoff technology is aimed at solving the national level problems of protection from biological, chemical and information attack and to provide operational dominance for mobile distributed command and control, combined manned/unmanned warfare, and dynamic, adaptive military planning and execution. The Strategic Technology Office (STO) - In July 2006, the SPO and ATO were merged into a single Strategic Technology Office (STO) that complements the Tactical Technology Office (TTO) as one of the two "systems" offices. The Tactical Technology Office (TTO) engages in high-risk, high-payoff advanced military research, emphasizing the "system" and "subsystem" approach to the development of aeronautic, space, and land systems as well as embedded processors and control systems. This research includes an effort within the TTO to develop a small satellite launch vehicle. This vehicle is under development by AirLaunch LLC. This is part of the Force Application and Launch from Continental United States (FALCON) effort. Former offices Information Awareness Office - 2002-2003 The Advanced Technology Office (ATO) researches, demonstrates, and develops high payoff projects in maritime, communications, special operations, command and control, and information assurance and survivability mission areas. The Special Projects Office (SPO) researches, develops, demonstrates, and transitions technologies focused on addressing present and emerging national challenges. SPO investments range from the development of enabling technologies to the demonstration of large prototype systems. SPO is developing technologies to counter the emerging threat of underground facilities used for purposes ranging from command-and-control, to weapons storage and staging, to the manufacture of weapons of mass destruction. SPO is also developing significantly more cost-effective ways to counter proliferated, inexpensive cruise missiles, UAVs, and other platforms used for weapon delivery, jamming, and surveillance. SPO is investing in novel space technologies across the spectrum of space control applications including rapid access, space situational awareness, counterspace, and persistent tactical grade sensing approaches including extremely large space apertures and structures. Projects Active Projects Boeing X-37 Boomerang (mobile shooter detection system) CALO or "Cognitive Assistant that Learns and Organizes" - software Combat Zones That See DARPA XG FALCON High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System High Productivity Computing Systems Northrop Grumman Switchblade System F6 - Fractionated Spacecraft demonstrator WolfPack XOS Protein Design Processes Past Projects Project AGILE ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet Aspen Movie Map Boeing X-45 CPOF DAML DARPA Grand Challenge - driverless car competition DEFENDER High Performance Knowledge Bases Hypersonic Research Program I3 (Intelligent Integration of Information) http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/project/theo-6/web-agent/www/i3.html , supported the Digital Library research effort through NSF Project MAC MQ-1 Predator Multics NLS Computer System Onion routing Passive radar Policy Analysis Market POSSE Rapid Knowledge Formation Sea Shadow Strategic Computing Program SURAN Project Vela Notable fiction ARPA/DARPA is well known as a high-tech government agency, and as such has many appearances in popular fiction. Appearances can be classed into three forms. The first are more or less realistic references. Second are references that incorrectly attribute to ARPA an operational or political role, in addition to its high-tech responsibilities. Finally are those that want a realistic government reference, but are not DARPA specific - any other agency would do as well. These are numerous and not particularly notable. Some realistic references to ARPA in fiction are in Tom Swift and the Visitor from Planet X (DARPA consults on a technical threat) Victor Appleton II, 1961. Tom Swift and the Visitor from Planet X, originally published by Grosset & Dunlap of New York, now re-published by Project Gutenberg. ARPA is referred to on page 68 published 1961 , in episodes of television program The West Wing (the ARPA-DARPA distinction), and in the motion picture Executive Decision (use of a one-of-a-kind experimental prototype in an emergency). Non-realistic references often attribute to DARPA an operational or political role, in addition to its real high-tech responsibilities. Examples are the Matthew Reilly books Temple and Hell Island, the James Rollins' books Sandstorm and Black Order, and the video game Metal Gear Solid. See also ARPA-E - a similar organization within the Department of Energy, still nascent as of 5-11-09 HSARPA - a similar organization within the Department of Homeland Security History of the Internet Intelligence Advanced Research Projects Activity (IARPA) People: Barry Boehm, Vint Cerf, Douglas Engelbart, Robert Fano, Anup K. Ghosh, James Hendler, Bob Kahn, JCR Licklider, John Poindexter, Robert Sproull, Bob Taylor, Larry Roberts, Gio Wiederhold. References Castell, Manuel The Network Society: A Cross-cultural Perspective Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham UK 2004 "The Men from Darpa" by John Sedgwick, Playboy magazine, August 1991 External links DARPA Home Page DARPA TransTac speech-to-speech translation project ONGOING RESEARCH PROGRAMS Defence Sciences Office Information Processing Techniques Office Microsystems Technology Office Strategic Technology Office Tactical Technology Office Hybrid Insect MEMS Surveillance Dust, DARPA website Surveillance Dust, Conversation with C. Keers and N. Marano, U.S. Marine Corps. Background information provided by Dr. Bill Howard, Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office.

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First_Lady_of_the_United_States

First Lady of the United States is the title of the hostess of the White House. Because this position is traditionally filled by the wife of the President of the United States, the title is sometimes taken to apply only to the wife of a sitting President. However, several women who were not Presidents' wives have served as First Lady, as when the President was a bachelor or widower, or when the wife of the President was unable to fulfill the duties of the First Lady herself. In these cases, the position has been filled by a female relative or friend of the President. The current first lady is Michelle Obama, wife of Barack Obama. At present, there are six living former first ladies: Betty Ford, widow of Gerald Ford; Rosalynn Carter, wife of Jimmy Carter; Nancy Reagan, widow of Ronald Reagan; Barbara Bush, wife of George H. W. Bush; Hillary Rodham Clinton, wife of Bill Clinton; and Laura Bush, wife of George W. Bush. Origins of the title The use of the title first lady to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive began in the United States. In the early days of the republic, there was not a generally accepted title for the wife of the president. Many early first ladies expressed their own preference for how they were addressed, including the use of such titles as "Lady", "Mrs. President", and "Mrs. Presidentress;" Martha Washington was often referred to as "Lady Washington." Former first ladies (from left to right) Rosalynn Carter, Hillary Clinton, Barbara Bush and Laura Bush at the dedication of the William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in 2004. According to legend, Dolley Madison was referred to as "first lady" in 1849 at her funeral in a eulogy delivered by President Zachary Taylor. However, no written record of this eulogy exists. http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=4 Firstladies.org Sometime after 1849, the title began being used in Washington, D.C. social circles. The earliest known written evidence of the title is from the November 3, 1863 diary entry of William Howard Russell, in which he referred to gossip about "the First Lady in the Land." The title first gained nationwide recognition in 1877, when newspaper journalist Mary C. Ames referred to Lucy Webb Hayes as "the First Lady of the Land" while reporting on the inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes. The frequent reporting on Lucy Hayes' activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington. A popular 1911 comedic play by playwright Charles Nirdlinger titled The First Lady in the Land popularized the title further. By the 1930s it was in wide use. Use of the title later spread from the United States to other nations. The wife of the Vice President of the United States is sometimes referred to as the Second Lady of the United States, but this title is much less common. The term "first lady" is also used to describe the wife of other government chief executives or a woman who has acted as a leading symbol for some activity, for example, Aretha Franklin has been called "the First Lady of Soul." Role of the First Lady First Ladies Nancy Reagan, Barbara Bush (standing, left to right), Lady Bird Johnson, Pat Nixon, Rosalynn Carter, and Betty Ford (seated, left to right) at the dedication of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, November 1991 The position of the First Lady is not an elected one, carries no official duties, and receives no salary. Nonetheless, first ladies have held a highly visable position in U.S. government. The role of the first lady has evolved over the centuries. She is, first and foremost, the hostess of the White House, but she is also a role model for American women. She organizes and attends official ceremonies and functions of state either along with, or in place of, the president. Both Martha Washington and Abigail Adams gained fame from the Revolutionary War and were treated as if they were "ladies" of the British royal court. Dolley Madison popularized the first ladyship by engaging in efforts to assist orphans and women, by dressing in elegant fashions and attracting newspaper coverage, and by risking her life to save iconic treasures during the War of 1812. Madison set the standard for the ladyship and her actions were the model for nearly every first lady until Eleanor Roosevelt in the 1930s. Plagued by polio, President Franklin D. Roosevelt was not free to travel around the country, so Mrs. Roosevelt assumed this role. She authored a weekly newspaper column and hosted a radio show. Jacqueline Kennedy added the role of decorator of the White House when she was first lady, enaging in an expansive campaign to restore the White House. Over the course of the 20th century it became increasingly common for first ladies to select specific causes to promote, usually ones that are not politically divisive. It is common for the first lady to hire a staff to support these activities. Lady Bird Johnson pioneered enviromental protection and beautification; Pat Nixon encouraged volunteerism and traveled extensively abroad; Betty Ford supported womens' rights; Rosalynn Carter aided those with mental disabilities; Nancy Reagan founded the Just Say No drug awareness campaign; Barbara Bush promoted literacy; Hillary Rodham Clinton sought to reform the healthcare system in the U.S.; and Laura Bush supported womens' rights groups and encouraged childhood literacy. Clinton was, for a time, given a formal job in the administration. She became a U.S. Senator from New York in 2000 and is currently the Secretary of State in the Obama administration. Many first ladies, including Jacqueline Kennedy, Nancy Reagan, and Michelle Obama have been significant fashion trendsetters. There is a strong tradition against the First Lady holding outside employment while serving as White House hostess. However, some first ladies have exercised a degree of political influence by virtue of being an important adviser to the president. Office of the First Lady Former First Ladies Nancy Reagan, Lady Bird Johnson, Rosalynn Carter, Betty Ford, Barbara Bush, and First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton at the National Garden Gala, A Tribute to America's First Ladies, May 11, 1994. Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis was unable to attend due to illness, and died a week after this photograph was taken. The Office of the First Lady of the United States is accountable to the First Lady for her to carry out her duties as hostess of the White House, and is also in charge of all social and ceremonial events of the White House. The First Lady has her own staff that includes a Chief of Staff, press secretary, White House Social Secretary, Chief Floral Designer, etc. The Office of the First Lady is an entity of the White House Office, a branch of the Executive Office of the President. http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/ First Ladies of the United States For a complete list of the first ladies, see List of First Ladies of the United States See also First Lady — Use of the title outside the United States. Wife of the Vice President of the United States, or Second Lady First Ladies National Historic Site — In Canton, Ohio. List of First Ladies of the United States by longevity External links http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/058_flal.html Paper on the role of the first lady and the influence she holds over the President References

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Wikipedia:Nupedia_and_Wikipedia

Nupedia was a low activity open content, international, peer reviewed encyclopedia project formerly run by Larry Sanger. Sanger also started Wikipedia alongside Jimmy Wales when he got the idea of supplementing Nupedia with a less formal "wiki" encyclopedia project. So there is a historical connection between the projects. Both Nupedia and Wikipedia are originated by Bomis, a web portal company, so a wider management connection exists. There is no editorial connection between the projects, however. The participants in Nupedia do not necessarily condone the contents or methods of Wikipedia - and vice-versa. Note that Nupedia is currently offline. There are no current plans to resurrect it. A mirror can be found here. Adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia To add a Nupedia article to Wikipedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate). Nupedia content is released under the GNU Free Documentation Licence (GFDL). You should note that Nupedia is the source of the article and provide a link to the original. For example: An [http://www.nupedia.com/article/133/ earlier version] of the above article was posted on [[8 August]] [[2000]] on [[Nupedia]]; reviewed and approved by the Classics group; editor, Robert Dyer ; lead reviewer, James Allan Evans ; lead copyeditors, Charles Peyser and Jeri Bates. You may not add articles from the Nupedia chalkboard to Wikipedia, unless you have permission from the original author. Content on the Nupedia chalkboard is not covered by the GFDL. However, content in the Nupedia articles-in-progress (see http://www.nupedia.com/aip.phtml ) do appear to qualify under the GFDL (see talk and ) so they can be ported to Wikipedia. An example citation might be: An [http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/ordiscuss_1.phtml?arean=biology&id=700 earlier version] of the above article was in review as of [[6 June]] [[2001]] on [[Nupedia]]. It was written by Claus Wilke. It was not officially approved in Nupedia, but was at the "open review" step by the Biology group: lead reviewer, Gaytha Langlois ; with the assistance of other area(s): Computers. Articles copied to Wikipedia Bacterium -- BASIC programming language -- Case-based reasoning -- Charles S. Peirce -- Computation -- Donegal fiddle tradition -- Foot-and-mouth disease -- Functional programming (needs merging) -- Genotype and phenotype -- Herodotus of Halicarnassus -- Hydatius -- Imperative programming -- Irish traditional music -- Karl Raimund Popper (needs merging) -- Plasmid -- Polymerase chain reaction -- Procopius of Caesarea -- Pylos -- Quasispecies model -- SNOBOL4 -- Virgil Articles copied but effectively completely rewritten Atonality Articles not (yet) copied to Wikipedia Classical Era (Music) -- source code Articles that Wikipedia has not copied New Zealand - The CIA World Factbook provided a better base for improvement Articles from articles in progress copied to Wikipedia Fitness landscape Articles from articles in progress not (yet) copied to Wikipedia See: http://www.nupedia.com/aip.phtml

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Open_Source_Initiative

OSI logo The Open Source Initiative (OSI) is an organization dedicated to promoting open source software. The organization was founded in February 1998, by Bruce Perens and Eric S. Raymond, prompted by Netscape Communications Corporation publishing the source code for its flagship Netscape Communicator product. Later, in August 1998 the organization added a board of directors. Raymond was president from its founding until February 2005. The current president is Michael Tiemann. Relations with the free software movement Although born from the same history of Unix, Internet free software, and the hacker culture as the free software movement launched by Richard Stallman and his Free Software Foundation, the Open Source Initiative was formed and chose the term open source, in Michael Tiemann's words, to "dump the moralizing and confrontational attitude that had been associated with 'free software' in the past and sell the idea strictly on the same pragmatic, business-case grounds that had motivated Netscape." Stallman counter-charges that OSI's pragmatic focus on a model for software development and marketing ignores what he considers to be the central "ethical imperative" and the focus on "freedom" that underlies free software, as he defines it, and blurs the distinction with semi-free or wholly proprietary software. To Stallman, the important, fundamental difference is philosphical. Nevertheless, he describes his free software movement and the Open Source Initiative as separate camps within the same free software community. According to Stallman, "We disagree with the open source camp on the basic goals and values, but their views and ours lead in many cases to the same practical behavior—such as developing free software. As a result, people from the free software movement and the open source camp often work together on practical projects such as software development." History The movement was launched in 1998 by Jon "maddog" Hall, Larry Augustin, Eric S. Raymond, Bruce Perens, and others History of the OSI A Look Back at 10 Years of OSI . Raymond is probably the single person most identified with the OSI and the "open source" movement; he was and remains its self-described principal theorist, but does not claim to lead it in any exclusive sense. The open source movement is steered by a loose collegium of elders that includes Raymond, its other co-founders, and such notables as Linus Torvalds, Larry Wall, and Guido van Rossum. The founders were dissatisfied with what they saw as the confrontational attitude of the free software movement, and favored advocating free software exclusively on the grounds of technical superiority (a claim previously made by Raymond in his essay The Cathedral and the Bazaar). It was hoped that open source and the associated propaganda would become a more persuasive argument to businesses. Raymond's comment was "If you want to change the world, you have to co-opt the people who write the big checks." (Cygnus Support had been pursuing exactly this approach for a number of years already, but not advertising it widely.) The group adopted the Open Source Definition for open-source software, based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines, which in turn was based on The Free Software Definition. They also established the Open Source Initiative (OSI) as a steward organization for the movement. However, they were unsuccessful in their attempt to secure a trademark for 'open source', to act as an imprimatur and to prevent misuse of the term. Despite this, the OSI developed considerable influence in the corporate sphere and has been able to hold abuse of the term to a tolerable minimum. With the Free Software Foundation (FSF), it has become one of the hacker community's two principal advocacy organizations. The early period of the open-source movement coincided with and partly drove the dot-com boom of 1998─2000, and saw a large growth in the popularity of Linux and the formation of many open-source-friendly companies. The movement also caught the attention of the mainstream software industry, leading to open-source software offerings by established software companies such as Corel (Corel Linux), Sun Microsystems (OpenOffice.org), and IBM (OpenAFS). By the time the dot-com boom busted in 2001, many of the early hopes of open-source advocates had already borne fruit, and the movement continued from strength to strength in the cost-cutting climate of the 2001─2003 recession. Board members The current Open Source Initiative board is: Ken Coar Danese Cooper Rishab Aiyer Ghosh Harshad Gune Martin Michlmayr Russ Nelson Andrew C. Oliver [http://www.opensource.org/node/431 2009 OSI Board Elections held in April ] Nnenna Nwakanma Alolita Sharma Michael Tiemann Past board members include: Matt Asay L. Peter Deutsch Brian Behlendorf Guido van Rossum Bruce Perens Raj Mathur Ian Murdock Chip Salzenberg Tim Sailer Eric S. Raymond Chris DiBona Bruno Souza [http://www.opensource.org/node/431 2009 OSI Board Elections held in April ] Sanjiva Weerawarana Joi Ito Open-source-related movements USA DEF CON (convention) Indonesia IGOS Malaysia MyOSS See also Digital freedom Open Source Definition Commons-based peer production - economic model for organizing projects without leaders or financial compensation Comparison of open source and closed source Democratic transhumanism - social movement associated with transhumanism Open source governance - use of open source principles to transform human social governance Techno-progressivism - a stance of active support for the convergence of technological change and social progress References External links Official Website ObjectWeb ESB initiative EU report in favor of adopting open source software

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Demand-pull_inflation

Aggregate Demand increasing faster than production. Demand-pull inflation arises when aggregate demand in an economy outpaces aggregate supply. It involves inflation rising as real gross domestic product rises and unemployment falls, as the economy moves along the Phillips curve. This is commonly described as "too much money chasing too few goods". More accurately, it should be described as involving "too much money spent chasing too few goods", since only money that is spent on goods and services can cause inflation. This would not be expected to persist over time due to increases in supply, unless the economy is already at a full employment level. The term demand-pull inflation is mostly associated with Keynesian economics. How it happens According to Keynesian theory, the more firms will employ people, the more people are employed, and the higher aggregate demand will become. This greater demand will make firms employ more people in order to output more. Due to capacity constraints, this increase in output will eventually become so small that the price of the good will rise. At first, unemployment will go down, shifting AD1 to AD2, which increases Y by (Y2 - Y1). This increase in demand means more workers are needed, and then AD will be shifted from AD2 to AD3, but this time much less is produced than in the previous shift, but the price level has risen from P2 to P3, a much higher increase in price than in the previous shift. This increase in price is called inflation See also Inflation Cost push inflation Built-in inflation External Links Theory 1 - Demand-pull inflation - is inflation demanding?, Bank of Biz/ed

Demand-pull_inflation |@lemmatized aggregate:4 demand:9 increase:7 fast:1 production:1 pull:3 inflation:10 arises:1 economy:3 outpace:1 supply:2 involve:2 rise:4 real:1 gross:1 domestic:1 product:1 unemployment:2 fall:1 move:1 along:1 phillips:1 curve:1 commonly:1 describe:2 much:4 money:3 chase:2 good:4 accurately:1 spend:2 since:1 service:1 cause:1 would:1 expect:1 persist:1 time:2 due:2 unless:1 already:1 full:1 employment:1 level:2 term:1 mostly:1 associate:1 keynesian:2 economics:1 happen:1 accord:1 theory:2 firm:2 employ:3 people:3 high:2 become:2 great:1 make:1 order:1 output:2 capacity:1 constraint:1 eventually:1 small:1 price:4 first:1 go:1 shift:4 mean:1 worker:1 need:1 ad:1 less:1 produce:1 previous:2 call:1 see:1 also:1 cost:1 push:1 build:1 external:1 link:1 bank:1 biz:1 ed:1 |@bigram gross_domestic:1 keynesian_economics:1 external_link:1

Functional_analysis

For functional analysis as used in psychology, see the functional analysis (psychology) article. Functional analysis is the branch of mathematics, and specifically of analysis, concerned with the study of vector spaces and operators acting upon them. It has its historical roots in the study of functional spaces, in particular transformations of functions, such as the Fourier transform, as well as in the study of differential and integral equations. This usage of the word functional goes back to the calculus of variations, implying a function whose argument is a function. Its use in general has been attributed to Italian mathematician and physicist Vito Volterra and its founding is largely attributed to Polish mathematician Stefan Banach. Normed vector spaces In the modern view, functional analysis is seen as the study of complete normed vector spaces over the real or complex numbers. Such spaces are called Banach spaces. An important example is a Hilbert space, where the norm arises from an inner product. These spaces are of fundamental importance in many areas, including the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. More generally, functional analysis includes the study of Fréchet spaces and other topological vector spaces not endowed with a norm. An important object of study in functional analysis are the continuous linear operators defined on Banach and Hilbert spaces. These lead naturally to the definition of C*-algebras and other operator algebras. Hilbert spaces Hilbert spaces can be completely classified: there is a unique Hilbert space up to isomorphism for every cardinality of the base. Since finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are fully understood in linear algebra, and since morphisms of Hilbert spaces can always be divided into morphisms of spaces with Aleph-null (ℵ0) dimensionality, functional analysis of Hilbert spaces mostly deals with the unique Hilbert space of dimensionality Aleph-null, and its morphisms. One of the open problems in functional analysis is to prove that every bounded linear operator on a Hilbert space has a proper invariant subspace. Many special cases of this invariant subspace problem have already been proven. Banach spaces General Banach spaces are more complicated. There is no clear definition of what would constitute a base, for example. For any real number p ≥ 1, an example of a Banach space is given by "all Lebesgue-measurable functions whose absolute value's p-th power has finite integral" (see Lp spaces). In Banach spaces, a large part of the study involves the dual space: the space of all continuous linear functionals. The dual of the dual is not always isomorphic to the original space, but there is always a natural monomorphism from a space into its dual's dual. This is explained in the dual space article. Also, the notion of derivative can be extended to arbitrary functions between Banach spaces. See, for instance, the Fréchet derivative article. Major and foundational results Important results of functional analysis include: The uniform boundedness principle (also known as Banach-Steinhaus theorem) applies to sets of operators with uniform bounds. One of the spectral theorems (there are indeed more than one) gives an integral formula for the normal operators on a Hilbert space. This theorem is of central importance for the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. The Hahn-Banach theorem extends functionals from a subspace to the full space, in a norm-preserving fashion. An implication is the non-triviality of dual spaces. The open mapping theorem and closed graph theorem. See also: List of functional analysis topics. Foundations of mathematics considerations Most spaces considered in functional analysis have infinite dimension. To show the existence of a vector space basis for such spaces may require Zorn's lemma. Many very important theorems require the Hahn-Banach theorem, usually proved using axiom of choice, although the strictly weaker Boolean prime ideal theorem suffices. Points of view Functional analysis in its includes the following tendencies: Soft analysis. An approach to analysis based on topological groups, topological rings, and topological vector spaces; Geometry of Banach spaces. A combinatorial approach primarily due to Jean Bourgain; Noncommutative geometry. Developed by Alain Connes, partly building on earlier notions, such as George Mackey's approach to ergodic theory; Connection with quantum mechanics. Either narrowly defined as in mathematical physics, or broadly interpreted by, e.g. Israel Gelfand, to include most types of representation theory. References Brezis, H.: Analyse Fonctionnelle, Dunod ISBN 978-2100043149 or ISBN 978-2100493364 Conway, John B.: A Course in Functional Analysis, 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, 1994, ISBN 0-387-97245-5 Dunford, N. and Schwartz, J.T. : Linear Operators, General Theory, and other 3 volumes, includes visualization charts Eidelman, Yuli, Vitali Milman, and Antonis Tsolomitis: Functional Analysis: An Introduction, American Mathematical Society, 2004. Giles,J.R.: Introduction to the Analysis of Normed Linear Spaces,Cambridge University Press,2000 Hirsch F., Lacombe G. - "Elements of Functional Analysis", Springer 1999. Hutson, V., Pym, J.S., Cloud M.J.: Applications of Functional Analysis and Operator Theory, 2nd edition, Elsevier Science, 2005, ISBN 0-444-51790-1 Kolmogorov, A.N and Fomin, S.V.: Elements of the Theory of Functions and Functional Analysis, Dover Publications, 1999 Kreyszig, Erwin: Introductory Functional Analysis with Applications, Wiley, 1989. Lax, P.: Functional Analysis, Wiley-Interscience, 2002 Lebedev, L.P. and Vorovich, I.I.: Functional Analysis in Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, 2002 Michel, Anthony N. and Charles J. Herget: Applied Algebra and Functional Analysis, Dover, 1993. Reed M., Simon B. - "Functional Analysis", Academic Press 1980. Riesz, F. and Sz.-Nagy, B.: Functional Analysis, Dover Publications, 1990 Rudin, W.: Functional Analysis, McGraw-Hill Science, 1991 Schechter, M.: Principles of Functional Analysis, AMS, 2nd edition, 2001 Shilov, Georgi E.: Elementary Functional Analysis, Dover, 1996. Sobolev, S.L.: Applications of Functional Analysis in Mathematical Physics, AMS, 1963 Yosida, K.: Functional Analysis, Springer-Verlag, 6th edition, 1980 External links Functional Analysis by Gerald Teschl, University of Vienna. Lecture Notes on Functional Analysis by Yevgeny Vilensky, New York University. Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: Calculus & Analysis by John Aldrich University of Southampton.

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Alessandro_Allori

Portrait of a Woman (Bianca Cappello?) Oil on copper, 37 x 27 cm Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence Christ with Mary and Martha, oil on wood, 125 x 118 cmKunsthistorisches Museum Alessandro di Cristofano di Lorenzo del Bronzino Allori (3 May 1535 - 22 September 1607) was an Italian portrait painter of the late Mannerist Florentine school. Born in Florence, in 1540, after the death of his father, he was brought up and trained in art by a close friend, often referred to as his 'uncle', the mannerist painter Agnolo Bronzino, whose name he sometimes assumed in his pictures. In some ways, Allori is the last of the line of prominent Florentine painters, of generally undiluted Tuscan artistic heritage: Andrea del Sarto worked with Fra Bartolomeo (as well as Leonardo Da Vinci), Pontormo briefly worked under Andrea, and trained Bronzino, who trained Allori. Subsequent generations in the city would be strongly influenced by the tide of Baroque styles pre-eminent in other parts of Italy. Freedburg derides Allori as derivative, claiming he illustrates "the ideal of Maniera by which art (and style) are generated out of pre-existing art." The polish of figures has an unnatural marble-like form as if he aimed for cold statuary. It can be said of late phase mannerist painting in Florence, that the city that had early breathed life into statuary with the works of masters like Donatello and Michelangelo, was still so awed by them that it petrified the poses of figures in painting. While by 1600 the Baroque elsewhere was beginning to give life to painted figures, Florence was painting two-dimensional statues. Furthermore, in general, with the exception of the Contra Maniera artists, it dared not stray from high themes or stray into high emotion. Among his collaborators was Giovanni Maria Butteri and his main pupil was Giovanni Bizzelli. Cristoforo del Altissimo, Cesare Dandini, Aurelio Lomi, John Mosnier, Giovanni Battista Vanni, and Monanni also were his pupils Hobbes J.R. page 5 . Allori was one of the artists, working under Vasari, included in the decoration of the Studiolo of Francesco I. He is the father of Cristofano Allori (1577-1621). Main works Christ and the Samaritan Woman, (Altarpiece, 1575, Santa Maria Novella, now Prato) Road to Calvary, (1604, Rome) Dead Christ and Angels, (Museum Fine Arts, Budapest) Web Gallery of Art, image collection, virtual museum, searchable database of European fine arts (1100-1850) Portrait of Piero de Médici, (São Paulo Art Museum, São Paulo) Pearl Fishing, (1570-72, Studiolo of Francesco I, Palazzo Vecchio, Florence)image Sussana and the Elders Allegory of Human Life The Miracle of St. Peter Walking on Water Venus and Cupid, (Musée Fabre, Montpellier) In 2006 the BBC foreign correspondent Sir Charles Wheeler returned an original Alessandro Allori painting to the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. He had been given it in Germany in 1952, but only recently realized its origin and that it must have been looted in the wake of World War II. The work is possibly a portrait of Eleonora (Dianora) di Toledo de' Medici, niece of Eleonora di Toledo, and measures 12 cm x 16 cm. References The article is available here: Alessandro Allori - LoveToKnow 1911 Alessandro Allori in the "History of Art" Painting in Italy 1500-1600, S.J. Freedberg, (Penguin History of Art, 2nd Edition, 1983). External links

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Marx_Brothers

The Marx Brothers was a Jewish-American family comedy act, originally from New York City, that enjoyed success in vaudeville, Broadway, and motion pictures from the early 1900s to around 1950. Five of the Marx Brothers’ thirteen feature films were selected by the American Film Institute as among the top 100 comedy films, with two of them (Duck Soup and A Night at the Opera) in the top twelve. The core of the act was the three elder brothers, Chico, Harpo, and Groucho; each developed a highly distinctive stage persona. The two younger brothers, Gummo and Zeppo, did not develop their stage characters to the same extent, and eventually left the act to pursue other careers. Groucho, Gummo, Minnie (mother), Zeppo, Frenchy (father), Chico and Harpo, at about the time of their act "Fun in Hi Skule" of 1913. Early life Born in New York City, the Marx Brothers were the sons of Jewish immigrants from Germany and France. Their mother, Minnie Schönberg, was from Dornum in East Frisia; and their father, Simon Marrix (whose name was changed to Sam Marx, and who was nicknamed "Frenchy") was a native of Alsace and worked as a tailor. The family lived in the then-poor Yorkville section of New York City's Upper East Side, between the Irish, German, and Italian quarters. Brothers The brothers were: Stage nameActual nameBornDiedAgeChicoLeonardMarch 22, 1887October 11, 1961 74HarpoAdolph (after 1911: Arthur)November 23, 1888September 28, 1964 75GrouchoJulius HenryOctober 2, 1890August 19, 1977 86GummoMiltonOctober 23, 1893 The census of 1900 gives 1892 as Gummo's birth year, on his death certificate and his grave the year 1893 is given. April 21, 1977 83ZeppoHerbertFebruary 25, 1901November 30, 1979 78 A sixth brother, Manfred, was actually the first child of Sam and Minnie to be born, in 1886. "Family lore told privately of the firstborn son, Manny, born in 1886 but surviving for only three months, and carried off by tuberculosis. Even some members of the Marx family wondered if he were pure myth. But Manfred can be verified. A death certificate of the Borough of Manhattan reveals the he died, aged seven months, on 17 July 1886, of 'entero-colitis,' with 'asthenia' contributing, i.e. probably a victim of influenza. He is buried at New York's Washington Cemetery, beside his grandmother, Fanny Schoenberg, who died on 10 April, 1901." Manfred died in infancy before any of the performing Marx Brothers were born. Stage beginnings 1911 newspaper advertisement for a Marx Brothers appearance. The brothers were from a family of artists, and their musical talent was encouraged from an early age. Harpo was hopelessly untalented on the guitar and piano (he boasts in his autobiography that he only knew two songs, and that he could only play them with one finger); however, he became a dedicated harpist, which gave him his nickname. Marx and Barber Chico was an excellent pianist, Groucho a guitarist and singer and Zeppo a vocalist. They got their start in vaudeville, where their uncle Albert Schönberg performed as Al Shean of Gallagher and Shean. Groucho's debut was in 1905, mainly as a singer. By 1907, he and Gummo were singing together as "The Three Nightingales" with Mabel O'Donnell. The next year, Harpo became the fourth Nightingale and by 1910, the group was expanded to include their mother Minnie and their Aunt Hannah. The troupe was renamed "The Six Mascots". A cousin of the Marx brothers was Mary Livingstone {b.Sadye Marks 1905-d.1983} married comedian Jack Benny. Comedy One evening in 1912, a performance at the Opera House in Nacogdoches, Texas was interrupted by shouts from outside about a runaway mule. The audience hurried outside to see what was happening. When they returned, Groucho, angered by the interruption, made snide comments about the audience, including "Nacogdoches is full of roaches" and "The jackass is the flower of Tex-ass". Instead of becoming angry, the audience laughed. The family then realized they had potential as a comic troupe. Kanfer, pp. 35-36 The act slowly evolved from singing with comedy to comedy with music. Their sketch "Fun in Hi Skule" featured Groucho as a German-accented teacher presiding over a classroom that included students Harpo, Gummo, and Chico. The last version of the school act, titled Home Again, was written by Al Shean. At about this time, Gummo left to serve in World War I, reasoning that "anything is better than being an actor!" Chandler, p. ??? Zeppo replaced him in their final vaudeville years and in the jump to Broadway, and then to Paramount films. During World War I, anti-German sentiments were common, and the family tried to conceal their German origin. To avoid the draft the brothers started a farm near Countryside, Illinois, but soon found it not to their liking. During this time, Groucho discontinued his "German" stage personality. By this time, "The Four Marx Brothers" had begun to incorporate their unique style of comedy into their act and to develop their characters. Both Groucho and Harpo's memoirs say their now famous on-stage personas were created by Al Shean. Groucho began to wear his trademark greasepaint moustache and to use a stooped walk. Harpo stopped speaking onstage and began to wear a red fright wig and carry a taxi-cab horn. Chico spoke with a fake Italian accent, developed off-stage to deal with neighborhood toughs, while Zeppo adopted the role of the romantic (and "peerlessly cheesy", according to James Agee Adamson ) straight man. The on-stage personalities of Groucho, Chico, and Harpo were said to have been based on their actual traits. Zeppo, on the other hand, was considered the funniest brother offstage, despite his straight stage roles. As the youngest, and having grown up watching his brothers, he could fill in for and imitate any of the others when illness kept them from performing. "He was so good as Captain Spaulding [in Animal Crackers] that I would have let him play the part indefinitely, if they had allowed me to smoke in the audience", Groucho recalled. (Zeppo did impersonate Groucho in the film version of Animal Crackers. Groucho was unavailable to film the scene in which the Beaugard painting is stolen, so the script was contrived to include a power failure which allowed Zeppo to play the Spaulding part in near-darkness.) Kanfer, pp. 139-140 By the 1920s, the Marx Brothers had become one of America's favorite theatrical acts. With their sharp and bizarre sense of humor, they satirized institutions such as high society, and human hypocrisy. They also became famous for their improvisational comedy in free-form scenarios. A famous early instance was when Harpo arranged to chase a fleeing chorus girl across the stage during the middle of a Groucho monologue to see if Groucho would be thrown off. However, to the audience's delight, Groucho merely reacted by calmly checking his watch and commenting, "First time I ever saw a taxi hail a passenger". When Harpo chased the girl back the other direction, Groucho ad-libbed, "You can always set your watch by the 9:20". Under Chico's management, and with Groucho's creative direction, the brothers' vaudeville act had led to them becoming stars on Broadway, first with a musical revue, I'll Say She Is (1924–1925) and then with two musical comedies, The Cocoanuts (1925–1926) and Animal Crackers (1928–1929). Playwright George S. Kaufman worked on the last two and helped sharpen the Brothers' characterizations. Out of their distinctive costumes the brothers looked alike, even down to their receding hairlines. Zeppo could pass for a younger Groucho, and played the role of his son in Horse Feathers. A scene in Duck Soup finds Groucho, Harpo, and Chico all appearing in the famous greasepaint eyebrows, mustache, and round glasses, while wearing nightcaps. The three are indistinguishable, enabling them to carry off the "mirror scene" perfectly. Origin of the stage names The stage names for four of the five brothers were coined by monologist Art Fisher Joe Adamson, Groucho, Harpo, Chico and Sometimes Zeppo: A Celebration of the Marx Brothers New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973. during a poker game in Galesburg, Illinois, based both on the brothers' personalities and Gus Mager's Sherlocko the Monk, a popular comic strip of the day which included a supporting character named "Groucho". The reasons behind Chico's and Harpo's stage names are undisputed, and Gummo's is fairly well established. Groucho's and Zeppo's are far less clear. Arthur was named Harpo because he played the harp, and Leonard became Chico (pronounced, and originally spelled, "Chick-o") because of his affinity for the ladies ("chicks", as in "My brother Leonard was a chicken-chaser" Groucho Live At Carnegie Hall ). In his autobiography, Harpo explains that Milton became Gummo because he crept about the theater like a gumshoe detective. Marx and Barber, p. ?? Other sources report that Gummo was the family's hypochondriac, having been the sickliest of the brothers in childhood, and therefore wore rubber overshoes, also called gumshoes, in all kinds of weather. Groucho stated that the source of the name was Gummo wearing galoshes. Either way, the name relates to rubber-soled shoes. The reason Julius was named Groucho is perhaps the most disputed. There are three explanations: Julius' temperament. Maxine, Chico's daughter and Groucho's niece, said in the documentary The Unknown Marx Brothers that Julius was named "Groucho" simply because he was grouchy most or all of the time. Robert B. Weide, a director known for his knowledge of Marx Brothers history, said in Remarks On Marx, a documentary short included with the DVD of A Night at the Opera, that among the competing explanations he found this one the most believable. Steve Allen, in Funny People, said that the name made no sense; Groucho might have been impudent and impertinent, but not grouchy — at least not around Allen. However, at the very end of his life, Groucho finally admitted that Fisher had named him Groucho because he was the "moody one" Marx, G. (1976). The Groucho Phile. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, p. 30. The grouch bag. This explanation appears in Harpo's biography, was voiced by Chico in a TV appearance included on The Unknown Marx Brothers, and was also offered by George Fenneman, Groucho's sidekick on his TV game show, You Bet Your Life. A grouch bag was a small drawstring bag worn around the neck in which a traveler could keep money and other valuables so that it would be very difficult for anyone to steal them. Most of Groucho's friends and associates stated that Groucho was extremely stingy, especially after losing all his money in the 1929 stock market crash, so naming him for the grouch bag may have been a comment on this trait. Groucho, in chapter six of his first autobiography, insisted that this was not the case: I kept my money in a 'grouch bag.' This was a small chamois bag that actors used to wear around their neck to keep other hungry actors from pinching their dough. Naturally, you're going to think that's where I got my name from. But that's not so. Grouch bags were worn on many chests long before there was a Groucho. Marx, Groucho and Me. Groucho's explanation. Groucho himself insisted that he was named for a character in the comic strip, Knocko the Monk, which had inspired the craze for nicknames ending in O. In fact, there was a character in that strip named "Groucho." However, he is the only Marx or Marx associate who ever defended this theory, and as he is not an unbiased witness, few biographers take the claim seriously. Groucho himself was no help on this point; during his Carnegie Hall concert, when he was discussing the Brothers' names and when it came to his own, he said, "My name, of course, I never did understand." Herbert was not nicknamed by Art Fisher, since he did not join the act until Gummo had departed. As with Groucho, three explanations exist for Herbert's name, "Zeppo": Harpo's explanation. Harpo said in Harpo Speaks! the brothers had named Herbert for Mr. Zippo, a chimpanzee that was part of another performer's act. Herbert disliked the nickname, and when it came time for him to join the act, he put his foot down and refused to be called "Zippo." The brothers compromised on Zeppo. Chico's explanation. Chico never wrote an autobiography, and gave fewer interviews than his brothers, but his daughter, Maxine, in The Unknown Marx Brothers said that when the Marx Brothers lived in Chicago, a popular style of humor was the "Zeke and Zeb" joke, which made fun of slow-witted Midwesterners in much the same way Boudreaux and Thibodeaux jokes mock Cajuns and Ole and Lena jokes mock Minnesotans. One day, as Chico returned home, he found Herbert sitting on the fence. Herbert greeted him by saying "Hi, Zeke!" Chico responded with "Hi, Zeb!" and the name stuck. The brothers thereafter called him "Zeb," and when he joined the act, they floated the idea of "Zebbo," eventually preferring "Zeppo." Groucho's explanation. In a tape-recorded interview excerpted on The Unknown Marx Brothers, Groucho said Zeppo was so named because he was born when the first zeppelins started crossing the ocean. He also stated this in his Carnegie Hall concert, ca.1972. The first zeppelin flew in July 1900, and Herbert was born seven months later in February 1901. However, the first transatlantic zeppelin flight was not until 1924, long after Herbert's birth. Maxine Marx reported in The Unknown Marx Brothers that the brothers listed their real names (Julius, Leonard, Adolph, Milton, and Herbert) on playbills and in programs, and only used the nicknames behind the scenes, until Alexander Woollcott overheard them calling one another by the nicknames; he asked them why they used their own rather real names publicly when they had such wonderful nicknames. They replied, "That wouldn't be dignified." Woollcott answered with a belly laugh. Since Woollcott did not meet the Marx Brothers until the premiere of I'll Say She Is, which was their first Broadway show, this would mean they used their real names throughout their vaudeville days, and that the name "Gummo" never appeared in print during his time in the act. Other sources report that the Marx Brothers did go by their nicknames during their vaudeville era, but briefly listed themselves by their given names when I'll Say She Is opened because they were worried that a Broadway audience would reject a vaudeville act if they were perceived as low class. Kanfer Hollywood Paramount Top to bottom: Chico, Harpo, Groucho, and Zeppo (1931)The Marx Brothers' stage shows became popular just as Hollywood was changing to "talkies". They signed a contract with Paramount and embarked on their film career. Their first two released films (they had previously made — but not released — one short silent film titled Humor Risk) were adaptations of Broadway shows: The Cocoanuts (1929) and Animal Crackers (1930). Both were written by George S. Kaufman and Morrie Ryskind. Following these two feature-length films, they made a short film that was included in Paramount's twentieth anniversary documentary, The House That Shadows Built (1931), in which they adapted a scene from I'll Say She Is. Their third feature-length film, Monkey Business (1931), was their first that was not based on a stage production. Horse Feathers (1932), in which the brothers satirized the American college system and Prohibition, was their most popular film yet, and won them the cover of Time. It included a running gag from their stage work, where Harpo revealed having nearly everything in his coat. At various points in Horse Feathers Harpo pulls out of his coat: a wooden mallet, a fish, a coiled rope, a tie, a poster of a woman in her underwear, a cup of hot coffee, a sword; and, just after Groucho warns him that he "can't burn the candle at both ends," a candle burning at both ends. In another famous sketch, shown in Animal Crackers, Harpo drops a full banquet's worth of silverware out of his sleeve, followed by a coffeepot. During this time, Chico and Groucho Marx starred in a radio comedy series, Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel. Although the series was short lived, much of the story material developed for it was used for subsequent films starring the Brothers. Furthermore, the scripts and recordings were believed lost for decades until copies of the scripts were found in the 1980s in the Library of Congress and both published in a book and performed with Marx Brother impersonators for BBC Radio. Their last Paramount film, Duck Soup (1933) — directed by the most highly regarded director they ever worked with, Leo McCarey — is the higher rated of two Marx Brothers films to make the American Film Institute's "100 years ... 100 Movies" list (the other film being A Night at the Opera). It did not do as well as Horse Feathers, but was the sixth-highest grosser of 1933. The film also led to a feud between the Marxes and the village of Fredonia, New York. Freedonia, of course, was the name of the fictional country in Duck Soup, and the city fathers wrote to Paramount and asked the studio to remove all references in the film to Freedonia because "it is hurting our town's image". Groucho fired back a sarcastic reply asking them to change the name of their town because "it's hurting our picture". The Marx Brothers left Paramount because of disagreements over creative decisions and financial issues. MGM, RKO, and United Artists Zeppo left the act to become an agent and went on to build with his brother Gummo one of the biggest talent agencies in Hollywood, helping the likes of Jack Benny and Lana Turner get their starts. Groucho and Chico did radio, and there was talk of returning to Broadway. At a bridge game with Chico, Irving Thalberg began discussing the possibility of the Marxes coming to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, and they signed, now known as "The Three Marx Brothers," or simply "The Marx Bros." Unlike the free-for-all scripts at Paramount, Thalberg insisted on a strong story structure, making them into more sympathetic characters, interweaving their comedy with romantic plots and non-comic musical numbers, while the targets of their mischief were largely confined to clear villains. Thalberg was adamant that these scripts had to include a "low point" where all seems lost for both the Marxes and the romantic leads. In a June 13, 1969, interview with Dick Cavett, Groucho said that the two movies made with Thalberg (A Night at the Opera and A Day at the Races) were the best that they ever produced. Another idea of Thalberg's was that before filming would commence on an upcoming picture, the Marx Brothers would try out its material on the vaudeville stage, working on comic timing and learning what earned a laugh and what didn't. The first film that the brothers shot with Thalberg was A Night at the Opera (1935), a satire on the world of opera, where the brothers help two young singers in love by throwing a production of Il Trovatore into chaos. The film (which includes a scene where they cram an absurd number of people into a tiny stateroom on a ship) was a great success, and was followed two years later by the even bigger hit A Day at the Races (1937), where the brothers cause mayhem in a sanitarium and at a horse race (this sequence includes Groucho and Chico's famous "Tootsie Frootsie Ice Cream" sketch). However, during shooting in 1936, Thalberg died suddenly, and without him, the brothers did not have an advocate at MGM. Marx Brothers by Yousuf Karsh, 1948 After a short experience at RKO (Room Service, 1938), the Marx Brothers made three more films before leaving MGM, At the Circus (1939), Go West (1940), and The Big Store (1941). Prior to the release of The Big Store, the team announced their retirement from the screen, but Chico was in dire financial straits; to help settle his gambling debts, the Marx Brothers made another two films together, A Night in Casablanca (1946) and Love Happy (1949), both of them released by United Artists. Later years Groucho and Chico briefly appeared together promoting the Saturday Evening Post in a 1957 short film entitled "Showdown at Ulcer Gulch," directed by animator Shamus Culhane, Chico's son-in-law. Then they worked together, but in different scenes, in The Story of Mankind (1957). In 1959, all three acted in a TV pilot, Deputy Seraph, to star Harpo and Chico as blundering angels; Groucho would appear in every third episode as their boss, the "Deputy Seraph." The pilot was never finished, as it was discovered that Chico was seriously ill with arteriosclerosis; he could not remember his lines at all, and was uninsurable. Chico and Harpo did appear together in a half-hour film shot later that year for the General Electric Theater on CBS, The Incredible Jewel Robbery, a pantomime show with the pair as would-be jewel thieves. Groucho made a brief appearance in the last scene. From the 1940s onward, Chico and Harpo made nightclub and casino appearances, sometimes together. Chico also fronted a big band, the Chico Marx Orchestra. Groucho began a career as a radio and television entertainer. From 1947 to 1961, he was the host of the quiz show You Bet Your Life (along with a money-bearing artificial duck) on NBC. He was also an author -- his writings include the autobiographical Groucho and Me (1959), Memoirs of a Mangy Lover (1964), and The Groucho Letters (1967). According to a September 1947 article in Newsweek, Groucho, Harpo, Chico, and Zeppo all signed to appear as themselves in a biopic entitled The Life and Times of the Marx Brothers. In addition to being a non-fiction biography of the Marxes, the film would have also featured the brothers reenacting much of their previously unfilmed material from both their vaudeville and Broadway eras. Had the film come into fruition, it would have been the first time the Brothers had appeared as a quartet since 1933. The 1957 talk show Tonight! America After Dark, hosted by Jack Lescoulie, may supply the only public footage in which all five brothers appeared. On October 1, 1962, Groucho introduced Johnny Carson to the audience of The Tonight Show as the new host. Around 1960, the acclaimed director Billy Wilder considered writing and directing a new Marx Brothers film. Tentatively titled "A Day at the U.N.," it was to be a comedy of international intrigue set around the United Nations building in New York. Wilder had discussions with Groucho and Gummo, but the project was put on hold because of Harpo's ill-health and abandoned when Chico died in 1961. Gore, Chris (1999). The Fifty Greatest Movies Never Made, New York: St. Martin's Griffin In 1970, the Four Marx Brothers had a brief reunion (of sorts) in the animated ABC television special The Mad, Mad, Mad Comedians, produced by Rankin-Bass animation (of Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer fame). The special featured animated reworkings of various famous comedians' acts, including W.C. Fields, Jack Benny, George Burns, Henny Youngman, The Smothers Brothers, Flip Wilson, Phyllis Diller, Jack E. Leonard, George Jessel, and the Marx Brothers. Most of the comedians provided their own voices for their animated counterparts, except for Fields and Chico Marx (both had died), and Zeppo Marx (who left show business in 1933). Voice actor Paul Frees filled in for all three (no voice was needed for Harpo, who was also deceased). The Marx Brothers' segment was a reworking of a scene from their Broadway play I'll Say She Is, a parody of Napoleon which Groucho considered among the Brothers' funniest routines. The sketch featured animated representations, if not the voices, of all four brothers. Romeo Muller is credited as having written special material for the show, but the script for the classic "Napoleon Scene" was probably supplied by Groucho. On January 16 1977, The Marx Brothers were inducted into the Motion Picture Hall of Fame. Many TV shows and movies have used Marx Brothers references. Animaniacs and Tiny Toons, for example, have featured Marx Brothers jokes and skits. Hawkeye Pierce (Alan Alda) on M*A*S*H occasionally put on a fake nose and glasses, and, holding a cigar, did a Groucho impersonation to amuse patients recovering from surgery. Also noteworthy is the fact that Harpo Marx appeared as himself in a sketch on I Love Lucy in which he and Lucille Ball reprised the mirror routine from Duck Soup, with Lucy dressed up as Harpo. Chico once appeared on "I've Got a Secret" dressed up as Harpo; his secret was shown in a caption reading "I'm actually Chico Marx." Filmography Films with the Four Marx Brothers: Humor Risk (1921), previewed once and never released; thought to be lost The Cocoanuts (1929), released by Paramount Pictures Animal Crackers (1930), released by Paramount The House That Shadows Built (1931), released by Paramount (short subject) Monkey Business (1931), released by Paramount Horse Feathers (1932), released by Paramount Duck Soup (1933), released by Paramount Films with the three Marx Brothers (post-Zeppo): A Night at the Opera (1935), released by MGM A Day at the Races (1937), released by MGM Room Service (1938), released by RKO Radio Pictures At the Circus (1939), released by MGM Go West (1940), released by MGM The Big Store (1941), released by MGM A Night in Casablanca (1946), released by United Artists Love Happy (1949), released by United Artists The Story of Mankind (1957), released by Warner Brothers Solo endeavors: Groucho: Copacabana (1947), released by United Artists Mr. Music (1951), released by Paramount Double Dynamite (1951), released by RKO A Girl in Every Port (1952), released by RKO Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? (1957), released by 20th Century Fox (uncredited) The Mikado (1960), made for television Skidoo (1968), released by Paramount. Harpo: Too Many Kisses (1925), released by Paramount Stage Door Canteen (1943), released by United Artists (cameo) Chico: Papa Romani (1950), television pilot Zeppo: A Kiss in the Dark (1925), released by Paramount (cameo) Characters Film Year Groucho Chico Harpo Zeppo Humor Risk 1921 The Villain The Italian Watson, Detective The Love Interest The Cocoanuts 1929 Mr. Hammer Chico Harpo Jamison Animal Crackers 1930 Captain Geoffrey T. Spaulding Signor Immanuel Ravelli The Professor Horatio Jamison The House That Shadows Built 1931 Caesar's Ghost Tomalio The Merchant of Weiners Sammy Brown Monkey Business 1931 Groucho Chico Harpo Zeppo Horse Feathers 1932 Professor Quincy Adams Wagstaff Baravelli Pinky Frank Wagstaff Duck Soup 1933 Rufus T. Firefly Chicolini Pinky Lt. Bob Roland A Night at the Opera 1935 Otis B. Driftwood Fiorello Tomasso A Day at the Races 1937 Dr. Hugo Z. Hackenbush* Tony Stuffy Room Service 1938 Gordon Miller Harry Binelli Faker Englund At the Circus 1939 J. Cheever Loophole Antonio Pirelli Punchy Go West 1940 S. Quentin Quale Joe Panello Rusty Panello The Big Store 1941 Wolf J. Flywheel Ravelli Wacky A Night in Casablanca 1946 Ronald Kornblow Corbaccio Rusty Love Happy 1949 Sam Grunion Faustino the Great Harpo The Story of Mankind 1957 Peter Minuit Monk Sir Isaac Newton * (To avoid a possible lawsuit, this name was chosen instead of the intended "Quackenbush" after it was discovered that there was a real doctor by this name.) Ownership status of films All the films that were released still exist, though not always in the form they were originally released, Horse Feathers being the most obvious example. However, due to certain studios selling many of their films from the Golden Age of Hollywood, the rights to many of the Marx Brothers' films have changed hands over the years. Paramount films In 1957, Paramount sold many of its pre-1950 sound features to EMKA, Ltd. - a subsidiary of the Music Corporation of America. After MCA merged with Universal Pictures in 1962, the rights to these films went to Universal (now a part of NBC Universal). MGM films MGM held on to their Marx Brothers films longer than Paramount did. In 1986, media mogul Ted Turner bought MGM outright. But after amassing huge debts, Turner sold the studio, but kept the pre-1986 MGM library for his own company, Turner Entertainment. Today, Turner Entertainment is a subsidiary of Time Warner, with Warner Bros. handling sales and distribution. Room Service Due to being an RKO film, the transfer of this film's rights has been more complicated than most other Marx Brothers films. In 1955, RKO sold television rights to many of their films to C&C Television for most markets, and General Tire for markets in which they owned TV stations. General's rights ended up being auctioned as successor RKO General was in the midst of a licensing scandal. Meanwhile, C&C sold its rights to United Artists in 1971. UA was in turn sold to MGM in 1981. Turner inherited UA's rights as part of his acquisition of MGM's library. Turner then acquired television rights in the markets where RKO had owned stations. All US and Canadian and Region 4 rights are now with WB/Turner. On the other hand, distribution rights in the rest of the world have been sold on a country-by-country basis. For example, PolyGram Filmed Entertainment purchased the underlying UK rights in later years, and passed on to Universal following the sale of PolyGram to Universal. A Night in Casablanca Warners now owns this film as part of the Castle Hill Productions library. Love Happy This and many other UA films released before 1952 were sold to National Telefilm Associates in 1955. In 1984, NTA changed its name to Republic Pictures, which itself became part of the Spelling Entertainment Group in the mid-1990s. Spelling was sold to Paramount's current parent Viacom in 1999. In the mid-1990s, Republic licensed US video rights to Artisan Entertainment. Artisan was sold to Lions Gate Entertainment in 2003. Then, in 2006, US video rights to certain Republic properties - including Love Happy - reverted to Paramount, who also owns video rights in Region 4 and in France. Television distribution is now in the hands of CBS Television Distribution (formerly known as CBS Paramount Domestic Television), having inherited them from Republic, Worldvision Enterprises, and Paramount Domestic Television. Video rights in much of the world are also divided by country, with Universal owning the UK video rights. Miscellanea Comedic relations of the Marx brothers were Al Shean aka Albert Schönberg {1868-1949} {brother to Minnie Marx} and Mary Livingstone {aka Sadye Marks} {1906-1983} {cousin of the Marx brothers and wife of Jack Benny}. In 1925, Harpo was the first brother to appear on screen in a widely released film, having been cast in Too Many Kisses as "The Village Peter Pan." It was in this role that Harpo spoke the only line he would ever speak in front of a movie or TV camera: "You sure you can't move?" But as it was a silent movie, audiences didn't hear his voice. The British rock group Queen released in 1975 an album called A Night at the Opera, a name which they chose after watching the Marx Brothers' movie. Their next album was called A Day at the Races, also inspired by the Marx Brothers' 1937 movie. The Marman clamp was first produced by Herbert (Zeppo) Marx, after the inventor approached him with the device Chandler, p. 182. . It was manufactured by his company Marman Products. At the time it was designed to secure cargo during transport. The U.S. Military used it to transport the atomic bombs used at the end of the Second World War. The Cluster mission consists of 4 identical scientific satellites, flying in formation, to explore the Earth's magnetosphere. The original 4 satellites were unofficially christened Groucho, Chico, Harpo and Zeppo; the 5th (spare) satellite was christened Gummo. The movies House of 1000 Corpses "House of 1000 Corpses" at imdb and The Devil's Rejects "The Devil's Rejects" at imdb , directed by Rob Zombie, contain characters that assume the names of Marx Brothers characters, including Capt. Spaulding, Rufus Firefly, and Otis Driftwood. Gummo, directed by Harmony Korine, is named after the Marx brother who never made it to the screen. SPEBSQSA barbershop quartet The New Tradition, gold medalists in 1985, based their act on the Marx Brothers. The tenor was Zeppo, the lead Chico, the baritone Harpo (who sang but never spoke), and the bass Groucho. In Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Prof. Henry Jones, Sr., upon realizing his son Indiana has brought his Grail diary right back to the Nazis he was trying to keep it from, he sarcasticly says that it would have been better off if he sent it to the Marx Brothers. In 2002, Billy Van Zandt and Jane Milmore wrote and produced A Night at the Nutcracker. The play, inspired by the Marx Bros., was called "the movie the Marx Brothers never made, but should have." The book and lyrics were by Van Zandt and Milmore, and the music by Ed Alton (and, of course Tchaikovsky). Published worldwide with Samuel French, Inc. In 2007, the Swedish production company Eva Rydberg Nöjesproduktion made a stage play, called Den stora premiären (The Grand Premiere), dedicated to the Marx Brothers where actors played the Marx Brothers playing other characters. "Groucho" played Captain Spoling (a take on Captain Spalding in Animal Crackers), "Chico" played Ravelli, lawyer from the company Ravelli, Ravelli and Ravelli (and Ravelli) (a take on the Italian-named characters Chico often played and also a nod to a well-known Swedish soccer goal keeper by that name) and "Harpo" played Charlie, another lawyer. Like the real Harpo, he did not speak, except for one scene in the middle of the play, where he explained to another cast member, that he could speak, but often found it better to keep quiet, since people said too much anyway. The other cast member was to keep this a secret and later in the play, the Harpo character Charlie would confuse one of the villains, by hiding behind a piano and speak a few words, the villain not knowing where they came from. In the comic book series Cerebus the Aardvark, both Groucho, as Lord Julius, and Chico make appearances as powerful rulers of nations as part of Dave Sims critique on political bureaucracy. The 2006 album Do This! by experimental jazz group Reptet features four tracks named after the Marx Brothers: Zeppo, Harpo, Chico, and Groucho, respectively. There is no mention of Gummo. In an episode of Married with Children, the father of the Bundy family, after a series of incidents where nobody cares about his opinion, comments "Am I the forgotten Marx Brother? Am I Zeppo Bundy?". In the movie "Twelve Monkeys" by Terry Gilliam, there is a show playing on tv in the insane asylum: "The Four Marx Brothers, Monkey Buisness" See also Margaret Dumont Thelma Todd Brotherhood of St. Mark the 16th century German brotherhood. Notes References Adamson, Joe. Groucho, Harpo, Chico and Sometimes Zeppo: A Celebration of the Marx Brothers New York: Simon and Schuster, 1973. Chandler, Charlotte. Hello, I Must Be Going: Groucho And His Friends. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-1847391049. Kanfer, Stefan. Groucho: The Life and Times of Julius Henry Marx. New York: Knopf, 2000. Marx, Arthur. My Life with Groucho New Jersey: Barricade Books, 1992. Marx, Bill. Son of Harpo Speaks. Albany: BearManor Media, 2007. ISBN 1593930623. Marx, Groucho. Groucho and Me. New York: B. Geis Associates, 1959. Marx, Harpo, and Rowland Barber. Harpo Speaks! New York: B. Geis Associates, 1961. External links www.marx-brothers.org List of Radio Appearances by the Marx Brothers Marxology The Marx Brothers Museum Marx Brothers Night at the Opera Treasury Marx Brothers Forum Marx Brothers tribute page be-x-old:Браты Маркс

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Database

A database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system. The structure is achieved by organizing the data according to a database model. The model in most common use today is the relational model. Other models such as the hierarchical model and the network model use a more explicit representation of relationships. Database topics Architecture Depending on the intended use, there are a number of database architectures in use. Many databases use a combination of strategies. On-line Transaction Processing systems (OLTP) often use a row-oriented datastore architecture, while data-warehouse and other retrieval-focused applications like Google's BigTable, or bibliographic database (library catalogue) systems may use a Column-oriented DBMS architecture. Document-Oriented, XML, knowledgebases, as well as frame databases and RDF-stores (aka triple-stores), may also use a combination of these architectures in their implementation. Finally, it should be noted that not all databases have or need a database 'schema' (so called schema-less databases). Over many years the database industry has been dominated by General Purpose database systems, which offer a wide range of functions that are applicable to many, if not most circumstances in modern data processing. These have been enhanced with extensible datatypes, pioneered in the PostgreSQL project, to allow a very wide range of applications to be developed. There are also other types of database which cannot be classified as relational databases. Database management systems A computer database relies on software to organize the storage of data. This software is known as a database management system (DBMS). Database management systems are categorized according to the database model that they support. The model tends to determine the query languages that are available to access the database. A great deal of the internal engineering of a DBMS, however, is independent of the data model, and is concerned with managing factors such as performance, concurrency, integrity, and recovery from hardware failures. In these areas there are large differences between products. A Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) implements the features of the relational model outlined above. In this context, Date's "Information Principle" states: "the entire information content of the database is represented in one and only one way. Namely as explicit values in column positions (attributes) and rows in relations (tuples). Therefore, there are no explicit pointers between related tables." Database models Post-relational database models Products offering a more general data model than the relational model are sometimes classified as post-relational. The data model in such products incorporates relations but is not constrained by the Information Principle, which requires that all information is represented by data values in relations. Some of these extensions to the relational model actually integrate concepts from technologies that pre-date the relational model. For example, they allow representation of a directed graph with trees on the nodes. Some products implementing such models have been built by extending relational database systems with non-relational features. Others, however, have arrived in much the same place by adding relational features to pre-relational systems. Paradoxically, this allows products that are historically pre-relational, such as PICK and MUMPS, to make a plausible claim to be post-relational in their current architecture. Object database models In recent years, the object-oriented paradigm has been applied to database technology, creating a new programming model known as object databases. These databases attempt to bring the database world and the application programming world closer together, in particular by ensuring that the database uses the same type system as the application program. This aims to avoid the overhead (sometimes referred to as the impedance mismatch) of converting information between its representation in the database (for example as rows in tables) and its representation in the application program (typically as objects). At the same time, object databases attempt to introduce the key ideas of object programming, such as encapsulation and polymorphism, into the world of databases. A variety of these ways have been tried for storing objects in a database. Some products have approached the problem from the application programming end, by making the objects manipulated by the program persistent. This also typically requires the addition of some kind of query language, since conventional programming languages do not have the ability to find objects based on their information content. Others have attacked the problem from the database end, by defining an object-oriented data model for the database, and defining a database programming language that allows full programming capabilities as well as traditional query facilities. Database storage structures Relational database tables/indexes are typically stored in memory or on hard disk in one of many forms, ordered/unordered flat files, ISAM, heaps, hash buckets or B+ trees. These have various advantages and disadvantages discussed further in the main article on this topic. The most commonly used are B+ trees and ISAM. Object databases use a range of storage mechanisms. Some use virtual memory mapped files to make the native language (C++, Java etc.) objects persistent. This can be highly efficient but it can make multi-language access more difficult. Others break the objects down into fixed and varying length components that are then clustered tightly together in fixed sized blocks on disk and reassembled into the appropriate format either for the client or in the client address space. Another popular technique is to store the objects in tuples, much like a relational database, which the database server then reassembles for the client. Other important design choices relate to the clustering of data by category (such as grouping data by month, or location), creating pre-computed views known as materialized views, partitioning data by range or hash. Memory management and storage topology can be important design choices for database designers as well. Just as normalization is used to reduce storage requirements and improve the extensibility of the database, conversely denormalization is often used to reduce join complexity and reduce execution time for queries. Lightstone 2007, p. ?. Indexing All of these databases can take advantage of indexing to increase their speed. This technology has advanced tremendously since its early uses in the 1960s and 1970s. The most common kind of index is a sorted list of the contents of some particular table column, with pointers to the row associated with the value. An index allows a set of table rows matching some criterion to be located quickly. Typically, indexes are also stored in the various forms of data-structure mentioned above (such as B-trees, hashes, and linked lists). Usually, a specific technique is chosen by the database designer to increase efficiency in the particular case of the type of index required. Most relational DBMS's and some object DBMSs have the advantage that indexes can be created or dropped without changing existing applications making use of it. The database chooses between many different strategies based on which one it estimates will run the fastest. In other words, indexes are transparent to the application or end-user querying the database; while they affect performance, any SQL command will run with or without index to compute the result of an SQL statement. The RDBMS will produce a plan of how to execute the query, which is generated by analyzing the run times of the different algorithms and selecting the quickest. Some of the key algorithms that deal with joins are nested loop join, sort-merge join and hash join. Which of these is chosen depends on whether an index exists, what type it is, and its cardinality. An index speeds up access to data, but it has disadvantages as well. First, every index increases the amount of storage on the hard drive necessary for the database file, and second, the index must be updated each time the data are altered, and this costs time. (Thus an index saves time in the reading of data, but it costs time in entering and altering data. It thus depends on the use to which the data are to be put whether an index is on the whole a net plus or minus in the quest for efficiency.) A special case of an index is a primary index, or primary key, which is distinguished in that the primary index must ensure a unique reference to a record. Often, for this purpose one simply uses a running index number (ID number). Primary indexes play a significant role in relational databases, and they can speed up access to data considerably. Transactions and concurrency In addition to their data model, most practical databases ("transactional databases") attempt to enforce a database transaction. Ideally, the database software should enforce the ACID rules, summarized here: Atomicity: Either all the tasks in a transaction must be done, or none of them. The transaction must be completed, or else it must be undone (rolled back). Consistency: Every transaction must preserve the integrity constraints — the declared consistency rules — of the database. It cannot place the data in a contradictory state. Isolation: Two simultaneous transactions cannot interfere with one another. Intermediate results within a transaction are not visible to other transactions. Durability: Completed transactions cannot be aborted later or their results discarded. They must persist through (for instance) restarts of the DBMS after crashes In practice, many DBMSs allow most of these rules to be selectively relaxed for better performance. Concurrency control is a method used to ensure that transactions are executed in a safe manner and follow the ACID rules. The DBMS must be able to ensure that only serializable, recoverable schedules are allowed, and that no actions of committed transactions are lost while undoing aborted transactions. Replication Replication of databases is closely related to transactions. If a database can log its individual actions, it is possible to create a duplicate of the data in real time. The duplicate can be used to improve performance or availability of the whole database system. Common replication concepts include: Master/Slave Replication: All write requests are performed on the master and then replicated to the slaves Quorum: The result of Read and Write requests are calculated by querying a "majority" of replicas. Multimaster: Two or more replicas sync each other via a transaction identifier. Parallel synchronous replication of databases enables transactions to be replicated on multiple servers simultaneously, which provides a method for backup and security as well as data availability. Security Database security denotes the system, processes, and procedures that protect a database from unintended activity. Security is usually enforced through access control, auditing, and encryption. Access control ensures and restricts who can connect and what can be done to the database. Auditing logs what action or change has been performed, when and by whom. Encryption: Since security has become a major issue in recent years, many commercial database vendors provide built-in encryption mechanisms. Data is encoded natively into the tables and deciphered "on the fly" when a query comes in. Connections can also be secured and encrypted if required using DSA, MD5, SSL or legacy encryption standard. Enforcing security is one of the major tasks of the DBA. In the United Kingdom, legislation protecting the public from unauthorized disclosure of personal information held on databases falls under the Office of the Information Commissioner. United Kingdom based organizations holding personal data in electronic format (databases for example) are required to register with the Data Commissioner. Information Commissioner's Office - ICO Locking Locking is how the database handles multiple concurrent operations. This is how concurrency and some form of basic integrity is managed within the database system. Such locks can be applied on a row level, or on other levels like page (a basic data block), extent (multiple array of pages) or even an entire table. This helps maintain the integrity of the data by ensuring that only one process at a time can modify the same data. In basic filesystem files or folders, only one lock at a time can be set, restricting the usage to one process only. Databases, on the other hand, can set and hold mutiple locks at the same time on the different level of the physical data structure. How locks are set, last is determined by the database engine locking scheme based on the submitted SQL or transactions by the users. Generally speaking, no activity on the database should be translated by no or very light locking. For most DBMS systems existing on the market, locks are generally shared or exclusive. Exclusive locks mean that no other lock can acquire the current data object as long as the exclusive lock lasts. Exclusive locks are usually set while the database needs to change data, like during an UPDATE or DELETE operation. Shared locks can take ownership one from the other of the current data structure. Shared locks are usually used while the database is reading data, during a SELECT operation. The number, nature of locks and time the lock holds a data block can have a huge impact on the database performances. Bad locking can lead to disastrous performance response (usually the result of poor SQL requests, or inadequate database physical structure) Default locking behavior is enforced by the isolation level of the data server. Changing the isolation level will affect how shared or exclusive locks must be set on the data for the entire database system. Default isolation is generally 1, where data can not be read while it is modified, forbidding to return "ghost data" to end user. At some point intensive or inappropriate exclusive locking, can lead to the "dead lock" situation between two locks. Where none of the locks can be released because they try to acquire resources mutually from each other. The Database has a fail safe mechanism and will automatically "sacrifice" one of the locks releasing the resource. Doing so processes or transactions involved in the "dead lock" will be rolled back. Databases can also be locked for other reasons, like access restrictions for given levels of user. Some databases are also locked for routine database maintenance, which prevents changes being made during the maintenance. See "Locking tables and databases" (section in some documentation / explanation from IBM) for more detail.) However, many modern databases don't lock the database during routine maintenance. e.g. "Routine Database Maintenance" for PostgreSQL. Applications of databases Databases are used in many applications, spanning virtually the entire range of computer software. Databases are the preferred method of storage for large multiuser applications, where coordination between many users is needed. Even individual users find them convenient, and many electronic mail programs and personal organizers are based on standard database technology. Software database drivers are available for most database platforms so that application software can use a common Application Programming Interface to retrieve the information stored in a database. Two commonly used database APIs are JDBC and ODBC. Examples of use The largest statistical database maintained by the central authority of statistics in Denmark is called StatBank. The very large database in English is available free-of-charge for all users on the internet. It is updated every day 9.30 am (CET) and contains all new statistics in a very detailed form. The statistics can be presented as cross-tables, diagrams or maps. There are about 2 million hits every year (2006). The output can be transferred to other programs for further compilation. See also Comparison of relational database management systems Comparison of database tools Database-centric architecture Database theory Government database Object database Online database Real time database Relational database Data hierarchy References Further reading Connolly, Thomas and Carolyn Begg. Database Systems. New York: Harlow, 2002. Date, C. J. An Introduction to Database Systems, Eighth Edition, Addison Wesley, 2003. Galindo, J.; Urrutia, A.; Piattini, M. Fuzzy Databases: Modeling, Design and Implementation (FSQL guide). Idea Group Publishing Hershey, USA, 2006. Galindo, J., Ed. Handbook on Fuzzy Information Processing in Databases. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.), 2008. Gray, J. and Reuter, A. Transaction Processing: Concepts and Techniques, 1st edition, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 1992. Kroenke, David M. Database Processing: Fundamentals, Design, and Implementation (1997), Prentice-Hall, Inc., pages 130-144. Kroenke, David M. and David J. Auer. Database Concepts. 3rd ed. New York: Prentice, 2007. Lightstone, S.; T. Teorey and T. Nadeau, Physical Database Design: the database professional's guide to exploiting indexes, views, storage, and more, Morgan Kaufmann Press, 2007. ISBN 0-12369-389-6. Shih, J. "Why Synchronous Parallel Transaction Replication is Hard, But Inevitable?", white paper, 2007. Teorey, T.; Lightstone, S. and Nadeau, T. Database Modeling & Design: Logical Design, 4th edition, Morgan Kaufmann Press, 2005. ISBN 0-12-685352-5 Tukey, John W. Exploratory Data Analysis. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley, 1977. External links be-x-old:База дадзеных

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Computer_file

A computer file is a block of arbitrary information, or resource for storing information, which is available to a computer program and is usually based on some kind of durable storage. A file is durable in the sense that it remains available for programs to use after the current program has finished. Computer files can be considered as the modern counterpart of paper documents which traditionally were kept in offices' and libraries' files, which are the source of the term. File contents At the lowest level, many modern operating systems consider files simply as a one-dimensional sequence of bytes. At a higher level, where the content of the file is being considered, these binary digits may represent integer values, text characters, image pixels, audio or anything else. It is up to the program using the file to understand the meaning and internal layout of information in the file and present it to a user as more meaningful information (like text, images, sounds, or executable application programs). At any instant in time, a file might have a size, normally expressed as number of bytes, that indicates how much storage is associated with the file. In most modern operating systems the size can be any non-negative whole number of bytes up to a system limit. However, the general definition of a file does not require that its instant size has any real meaning, unless the data within the file happens to correspond to data within a pool of persistent storage. For example, the file to which the link /bin/ls points in a typical Unix-like system probably has a defined size that seldom changed. Compare this with /dev/null. This is a file, but its size may be open to question. Information in a computer file can consist of smaller packets of information (often called "records" or "lines") that are individually different but share some trait in common. For example, a payroll file might contain information concerning all the employees in a company and their payroll details; each record in the payroll file concerns just one employee, and all the records have the common trait of being related to payroll—this is very similar to placing all payroll information into a specific filing cabinet in an office that does not have a computer. A text file may contain lines of text, corresponding to printed lines on a piece of paper. Alternatively, a file may contain an arbitrary binary image (a BLOB) or it may contain an executable. The way information is grouped into a file is entirely up to the person designing the file. This has led to a plethora of more or less standardized file structures for all imaginable purposes, from the simplest to the most complex. Most computer files are used by computer programs. These programs create, modify and delete files for their own use on an as-needed basis. The programmers who create the programs decide what files are needed, how they are to be used and (often) their names. In some cases, computer programs manipulate files that are made visible to the computer user. For example, in a word-processing program, the user manipulates document files that the user personally names. The content of the document file is arranged in a way that the word-processing program understands, but the user chooses the name and location of the file and provides the bulk of the information (such as words and text) that will be stored in the file. Many applications pack all their data files into a single file, using internal markers to discern the different types of information contained within. The data files used by games such as Doom and Quake are examples of this. Files on a computer can be created, moved, modified, grown, shrunk and deleted. In most cases, computer programs that are executed on the computer handle these operations, but the user of a computer can also manipulate files if necessary. For instance, Microsoft Word files are normally created and modified by the Microsoft Word program in response to user commands, but the user can also move, rename, or delete these files directly by using a file manager program such as Windows Explorer (on Windows computers). In Unix-like systems, user-space processes do not normally deal with files at all; the operating system provides a level of abstraction which means that almost all interaction with files from user-space is through hard links. Hard links allow a name to be associated with a file (or they can be anonymous - and therefore temporary); files do not have names in the OS. For example, a user-space program cannot delete a file; it can delete a link to a file (for example, using the shell commands rm or mv or, in the anonymous case, simply by exiting), and if the kernel determines that there are no more existing links to the file, it may then delete the file. In fact, it really is only the kernel that deals with files, but it serves to handle all user-space interaction with (virtual) files in a manner that is transparent to the user-space programs. Semantics Although the way programs manipulate files varies according to the operating system and file system involved, the following operations are typical: Creating a file with a given name Setting attributes that control operations on the file Opening a file to use its contents Reading or updating the contents Committing updated contents to durable storage Closing the file, thereby losing access until it is opened again Identifying and organizing files Files and folders arranged in a hierarchy In modern computer systems, files are typically accessed using names (filenames). In some operating systems, the name is associated with the file itself. In others, the file is anonymous, and is pointed to by links that have names. In the latter case, a user can identify the name of the link with the file itself, but this is a false analogue, especially where there exists more than one link to the same file. Files (or links to files) can be located in directories. However, more generally, a directory can contain either a list of files or a list of links to files. Within this definition, it is of paramount importance that the term "file" includes directories. This permits the existence of directory hierarchies, i.e., directories containing subdirectories. A name that refers to a file within a directory must be unique. In other words, there must be no identical names within a directory. However, in some operating systems, a name may include a specification of type that means a directory can contain an identical name for more than one type of object such as a directory and a file. In environments in which a file is named, a file's name and the path to the file's directory must uniquely identify it among all other files in the computer system—no two files can have the same name and path. Where a file is anonymous, named references to it will exist within a namespace. In most cases, any name within the namespace will refer to exactly zero or one file. However, any file may be represented within any namespace by zero, one or more names. Any string of characters may or may not be a well-formed name for a file or a link depending upon the context of application. Whether or not a name is well-formed depends on the type of computer system being used. Early computers permitted only a few letters or digits in the name of a file, but modern computers allow long names (some up to 255 characters) containing almost any combination of unicode letters or unicode digits, making it easier to understand the purpose of a file at a glance. Some computer systems allow file names to contain spaces; others do not. Case-sensitivity of file names is determined by the file system. Unix file systems are usually case sensitive and allow user-level applications to create files whose names differ only in the case of characters. Microsoft Windows supports multiple file systems, each with different policies regarding case-sensitivity. The common FAT file system can have multiple files whose names differ only in case if the user uses a disk editor to edit the file names in the directory entries. User applications, however, will usually not allow the user to create multiple files with the same name but differing in case. Most computers organize files into hierarchies using folders, directories, or catalogs. The concept is the same irrespective of the terminology used. Each folder can contain an arbitrary number of files, and it can also contain other folders. These other folders are referred to as subfolders. Subfolders can contain still more files and folders and so on, thus building a tree-like structure in which one "master folder" (or "root folder" — the name varies from one operating system to another) can contain any number of levels of other folders and files. Folders can be named just as files can (except for the root folder, which often does not have a name). The use of folders makes it easier to organize files in a logical way. When a computer allows the use of folders, each file and folder has not only a name of its own, but also a path, which identifies the folder or folders in which a file or folder resides. In the path, some sort of special character—such as a slash—is used to separate the file and folder names. For example, in the illustration shown in this article, the path /Payroll/Salaries/Managers uniquely identifies a file called Managers in a folder called Salaries, which in turn is contained in a file called Payroll. The folder and file names are separated by slashes in this example; the topmost or root folder has no name, and so the path begins with a slash (if the root folder had a name, it would precede this first slash). Many (but not all) computer systems use extensions in file names to help identify what they contain, also known as the file type. On Windows computers, extensions consist of a dot (period) at the end of a file name, followed by a few letters to identify the type of file. An extension of .txt identifies a text file; a .doc extension identifies any type of document or documentation, commonly in the Microsoft Word file format; and so on. Even when extensions are used in a computer system, the degree to which the computer system recognizes and heeds them can vary; in some systems, they are required, while in other systems, they are completely ignored if they are present. Protecting files Many modern computer systems provide methods for protecting files against accidental and deliberate damage. Computers that allow for multiple users implement file permissions to control who may or may not modify, delete, or create files and folders. A given user may be granted only permission to modify a file or folder, but not to delete it; or a user may be given permission to create files or folders, but not to delete them. Permissions may also be used to allow only certain users to see the contents of a file or folder. Permissions protect against unauthorized tampering or destruction of information in files, and keep private information confidential by preventing unauthorized users from seeing certain files. Another protection mechanism implemented in many computers is a read-only flag. When this flag is turned on for a file (which can be accomplished by a computer program or by a human user), the file can be examined, but it cannot be modified. This flag is useful for critical information that must not be modified or erased, such as special files that are used only by internal parts of the computer system. Some systems also include a hidden flag to make certain files invisible; this flag is used by the computer system to hide essential system files that users should not alter. Storing files The discussion above describes a file as a concept presented to a user or a high-level operating system. However, any file that has any useful purpose, outside of a thought experiment, must have some physical manifestation. That is, a file (an abstract concept) in a real computer system must have a real physical analogue if it is to exist at all. In physical terms, most computer files are stored on some type of data storage device. For example, there is a hard disk, from which most operating systems run and on which most store their files. Hard discs are the most ubiquitous form of non-volatile storage at the start of the 21st century. Where files contain only temporary information, they may be stored in RAM. In Unix-like operating systems, many files have no direct association with a physical storage device: /dev/null is a prime example, as are just about all files under /dev, /proc and /sys. These can be accessed as files in user space. They are really virtual files that exist, in reality, as objects within the operating system kernel. Computer files may be stored on magnetic tape. Files can also be stored on other media in some cases, such as writeable compact discs, Digital Versatile Discs, Zip drives, USB flash drives, etc. Backing up files When computer files contain information that is extremely important, a back-up process is used to protect against disasters that might destroy the files. Backing up files simply means making copies of the files in a separate location so that they can be restored if something happens to the computer, or if they are deleted accidentally. There are many ways to back up files. Most computer systems provide utility programs to assist in the back-up process, which can become very time-consuming if there are many files to safeguard. Files are often copied to removable media such as writable CDs or cartridge tapes. Copying files to another hard disk in the same computer protects against failure of one disk, but if it is necessary to protect against failure or destruction of the entire computer, then copies of the files must be made on other media that can be taken away from the computer and stored in a safe, distant location. The grandfather-father-son backup method automatically makes three back ups, the grandfather file is the oldest copy of the file and the son is the current copy. File systems and file managers The way a computer organizes, names, stores and manipulates files is globally referred to as its file system. Most computers have at least one file system. Some computers allow the use of several different file systems. For instance, on newer MS Windows computers, the older FAT-type file systems of MS-DOS and old versions of Windows are supported, in addition to the NTFS file system that is the normal file system for recent versions of Windows. Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Standard FAT allow only eight-character file names (plus a three-character extension) with no spaces, for example, whereas NTFS allows much longer names that can contain spaces. You can call a file Payroll records in NTFS, but in FAT you would be restricted to something like payroll.dat (unless you were using VFAT, a FAT extension allowing long file names). File manager programs are utility programs that allow users to manipulate files directly. They allow you to move, create, delete and rename files and folders, although they do not actually allow you to read the contents of a file or store information in it. Every computer system provides at least one file-manager program for its native file system. Under Windows, the most commonly used file manager program is Windows Explorer. History A punched card file The twin disk files of an IBM 305 system The word "file" appears in the context of computer storage as early as 1952, referring to information stored on punched cards. Robert S. Casey, et al. Punched Cards: Their Applications to Science and Industry, 1952. ISBN. In early usage people regarded the underlying hardware (rather than the contents) as a file. For example, the IBM 350 disk drives were called "disk files." Martin H. Weik. Ballistic Research Laboratories Report #1115. March 1961. pp. 314-331. Systems like the 1962 Compatible Time-Sharing System featured file systems, which gave the appearance of several "files" on one storage device, leading to the modern usage of the term. File names in CTSS had two parts, a user-readable "primary name" and a "secondary name" indicating the file type. Fernando J. Corbató et al. "An Experimental Time-Sharing System." May 3, 1962. Jerome H. Saltzer CTSS Technical Notes. Project MIT-LCS-TR016 This convention remains in use by several operating systems today, including Microsoft Windows. Although the current term "register file" shows the early concept of files, it has largely disappeared. See also Block (data storage) Computer file management File copying File deletion File directory File manager File name File size File system Flat file Soft copy Object composition File Camouflage Data hierarchy Notes External links and references

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Augustus

Augustus (Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS; Fully Imperator Caesar, Divi Filius, Augustus which means Imperator Caesar, Son of the Divus (Divus Julius), Augustus. 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14 These are the contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian after 45 BC. Due to departures from Julius Caesar's intentions, Augustus restored the Julian calendar in 8 BC, and the correspondence between the proleptic Julian calendar and the actual calendar observed in Rome is uncertain before 8 BC.(Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003: 670–1) ), born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was adopted by his great-uncle Julius Caesar in 44 BC, and between then and 27 BC was officially named Gaius Julius Caesar (Latin: CAIVS·IVLIVS·CAESAR). After 27 BC, he was named Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus. Because of the various names he bore, it is common to call him Octavius when referring to events between 63 and 44 BC, Octavian (or Octavianus) when referring to events between 44 and 27 BC, and Augustus when referring to events after 27 BC. He became the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. The young Octavius came into his inheritance after Caesar's assassination in 44 BC. In 43 BC, Octavian joined forces with Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in a military dictatorship known as the Second Triumvirate. As a triumvir, Octavian ruled Rome and many of its provinces Some provinces were governed by the Senate. as an autocrat, seizing consular power after the deaths of the consuls Hirtius and Pansa and having himself perpetually re-elected. The triumvirate was eventually torn apart under the competing ambitions of its rulers: Lepidus was driven into exile, and Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by the fleet of Octavian in 31 BC. After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Octavian restored the outward facade of the Roman Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, but in practice retained his autocratic power. It took several years to work out the exact framework by which a formally republican state could be led by a sole ruler; the result became known as the Roman Empire. The emperorship was never an office like the Roman dictatorship which Caesar and Sulla had held before him; indeed, he declined it when the Roman populace "entreated him to take on the dictatorship". CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 35. By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including those of tribune of the plebs and censor. He was consul until 23 BC. The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus, p.153 His substantive power stemmed from financial success and resources gained in conquest, the building of patronage relationships throughout the Empire, the loyalty of many military soldiers and veterans, the authority of the many honors granted by the Senate, and the respect of the people. Augustus' control over the majority of Rome's legions established an armed threat that could be used against the Senate, allowing him to coerce the Senate's decisions. With his ability to eliminate senatorial opposition by means of arms, the Senate became docile towards his paramount position. His rule through patronage, military power, and accumulation of the offices of the defunct Republic became the model for all later imperial government. The rule of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. Despite continuous frontier wars, and one year-long civil war over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean world remained at peace for more than two centuries. Augustus expanded the Roman Empire, secured its boundaries with client states, and made peace with Parthia through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army (and a small navy), established the Praetorian Guard, and created official police and fire-fighting forces for Rome. Much of the city was rebuilt under Augustus; and he wrote a record of his own accomplishments, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, which has survived. Upon his death in AD 14, Augustus was declared a god by the Senate, to be worshipped by the Romans. His names Augustus and Caesar were adopted by every subsequent emperor, and the month of Sextilis was officially renamed August in his honour. He was succeeded by his stepson and son-in-law, Tiberius. Early life While his paternal family was from the town of Velitrae, about 25 miles from Rome, Augustus was born in the city of Rome on 23 September 63 BC. He was born at Ox Heads, which was a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. An astrologer had given a warning to his father. However, his father decided to keep the child despite the warning (rather than leave the child in the open to be eaten by dogs). He was given the name Gaius Octavius Thurinus, his cognomen possibly commemorating his father's victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves. Suetonius, Augustus 7 5–6 on-line text. Due to the crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his father's home village at Velitrae to be raised. Octavius only mentions his father's equestrian family briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Gaius Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia. Suetonius, Augustus The "Marcus Octavius" vetoing the agrarian law suggested by Tiberius Gracchus in 133 BC was possibly his ancestor. 1–4. Rowell, 14. His mother Atia was the niece of Julius Caesar. Since Octavius' father was a plebeian, Octavius himself was a plebeian, despite the fact that his mother, being Julius Caesar's niece, was a patrician. By Roman custom, one's status passed through one's father, not one's mother. Octavius gained patrician status when he was adopted by Julius Caesar in 44 BC. In 59 BC, when he was four years old, his father died. Chisholm, 23. His mother married a former governor of Syria, Lucius Marcius Philippus. Suetonius, Augustus 4–8; Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 3. Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Great, and was elected consul in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavius. Because of this, Octavius was raised by his grandmother (and Julius Caesar's sister), Julia Caesaris. In 52 or 51 BC, Julia Caesaris died. Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother. Suetonius, Augustus 8.1; Quintilian, 12.6.1. From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the toga virilis four years later, Suetonius, Augustus 8.1 and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC. Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 4. Rowell, 16. The following year he was put in charge of the Greek games that were staged in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Julius Caesar. According to Nicolaus of Damascus, Octavius wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in Africa but gave way when his mother, Atia, protested. Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 6. In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania, where he planned to fight the forces of Pompey, Caesar's late enemy, but Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably. Velleius Paterculus reports that Caesar afterwards allowed the young man to share his carriage. Velleius Paterculus 2.59.3. When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins, naming Octavius as the prime beneficiary. Suetonius, Julius 83. Rise to power Heir to Caesar The Death of Caesar, by Jean-Léon Gérôme (1867). On March 15 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus At the time Caesar was killed on the Ides of March (the 15th) 44 BC, Octavius was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia, Illyria. Rejecting the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia, he sailed to Italia to ascertain if he had any potential political fortunes or security. Eck, 9. After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium, he learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate. Rowell, 16. Appian, Civil Wars 3.9–11. Having no living legitimate children, His daughter Julia had died in 54 BC. Caesar had adopted his great-nephew Octavius as his son and main heir. Rowell, 15. Upon his adoption, Octavius assumed his great-uncle's name, Gaius Julius Caesar. Although Romans who had been adopted into a new family usually retained their old nomen in cognomen form (e.g. Octavianus for one who had been an Octavius, Aemilianus for one who had been an Aemilius, etc.) there is no evidence that he ever bore the name Octavian, as it would have made his modest origins too obvious. Mackay, 160. Southern, Augustus pp.20-21 However, despite the fact that he never officially bore the name Octavianus, to save confusing the dead dictator with his heir, historians often refer to the new Caesar - between his adoption and his assumption, in 27 BC, of the name Augustus - as Octavian. Southern, Augustus pp.21 Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as political slander. Suetonius, Augustus 68, 71. To make a successful entry into the echelons of the Roman political hierarchy, Octavian could not rely on his limited funds. Eck, 9–10. After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium, Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against Parthia in the Middle East. This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east. Rowell, 18. A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds made no action against Octavian, since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy, Mark Antony. Rowell, 19. Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when without official permission he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's Near Eastern province to Italy. Eck, 10. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 18. Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. Appian, Civil Wars 3.11–12. On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly-acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in Campania. By June he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each a salary of 500 denarii. Chisholm, 24. Chisholm, 27. Rowell, 20. Arriving in Rome on May 6, 44 BC, Octavian found the consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins; they had been granted a general amnesty on March 17, yet Antony succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome. This was due to his "inflammatory" eulogy given at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins. Although Mark Antony was amassing political support, Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Mark Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he at first opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status. Eck, 11. Octavian failed to persuade Antony to relinquish Caesar's money to him, but managed to win support from Caesarian sympathizers during the summer. Syme, 114–120. In September, the Optimate orator Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in a series of speeches, seeing Antony as the greatest threat to the order of the Senate. Chisholm, 26. Rowell, 30. With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws which would lend him control over Cisalpine Gaul, which had been assigned as part of his province, from Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins. Eck, 11–12. Rowell, 21. Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans, and on November 28 won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain. Syme, 123–126. Eck, 12. Rowell, 23. In the face of Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome, and to the relief of the Senate he fled to Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on January 1. First conflict with Antony After Decimus Brutus refused to give up Cisalpine Gaul, Antony besieged him at Mutina. Rowell, 24. The resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the violence were rejected by Antony, as the Senate had no army of its own to challenge him; this provided an opportunity for Octavian, who was already known to have armed forces. Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage; he stated "we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth." Chisholm, 29. This was in part a rebuttal to Antony's opinion of Octavian, as Cicero quoted Antony saying to Octavian, "You, boy, owe everything to your name." Chisholm, 30. Rowell, 19–20. In this unlikely alliance orchestrated by the arch anti-Caesarian senator Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on January 1, 43 BC, yet he was also given the power to vote alongside the former consuls. In addition, Octavian was granted imperium (commanding power), which made his command of troops legal, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius and Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC). Syme, 167. In April of 43 BC, Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. However, both consuls were killed, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies. Syme, 173–174 Scullard, 157. After heaping many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than Octavian for defeating Antony, the Senate attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus, yet Octavian decided not to cooperate. Rowell, 26–27. Instead, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony. Rowell, 27. In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded that he receive the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa. Chisholm, 32–33. Octavian also demanded that the decree declaring Antony a public enemy should be rescinded. When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions. He encountered no military opposition in Rome, and on August 19, 43 BC was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul. Eck, 14. Rowell, 28. Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another leading Caesarian. Syme, 176–186. Second Triumvirate The Roman Revolution Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC. Both sides bear the inscription "III VIR R P C", meaning "One of Three Men for the Regulation of the Republic". In a meeting near Bologna in October of 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed a junta called the Second Triumvirate. This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then supported by law passed by the plebs, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate formed by Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, Julius Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Eck, 15. Scullard, 163. The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which 300 senators and 2,000 equites were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives. This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay their troops' salaries for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Scullard, 164. Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs. Eck, 16. This measure by the triumvirs went beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins. Octavian objected to enacting the proscriptions at first because he wanted to spare the life of his newfound ally Marcus Tullius Cicero (who was to be listed on the proscriptions). However, Antony's hatred of Cicero was unyielding, and Cicero fell victim to the occasion. The death of so many republican senators allowed the triumvirs to fill their positions with their own supporters. This has been called the "Roman revolution" by twentieth-century historians; it had far-reaching implications in that it wiped out the old order and established a sturdy political foundation for the Augustan form of leadership to come. Eck, 17. A denarius minted circa 18 BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: DIVVSIVLIV[S] (DIVINE JULIUS) On January 1, 42 BC, the Senate recognised Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, Divus Iulius. Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was Divi filius, "Son of God". Syme, 202. Antony and Octavian then sent 28 legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece. After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October of 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. Mark Antony would later use the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces. Eck, 17–18. In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony also branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead. After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. While Antony would leave Gaul, the provinces of Hispania, and Italia in the hands of Octavian, Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII, the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, Caesarion. Lepidus was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead. Eck, 18. Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius, who could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, also required land. There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland; Octavian chose the former. Eck, 18–19. There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions. Eck, 19. Rebellion and marriage alliances Augusto, the first Roman Emperor Augustus, Istanbul - (İstanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri) Widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over his soldiers' settlements encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius, who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Clodia Pulchra, the daughter of Fulvia and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. Claiming that his marriage with Clodia had never been consummated, he returned her to her mother, Mark Antony's wife. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. However, Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia (modern Perugia), where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC. Lucius and his army were spared due to his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon. Rowell, 32. However, Octavian showed no mercy for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius; on March 15, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius. Eck, 20. Perusia was also pillaged and burned as a warning for others. This bloody event somewhat sullied Octavian's career and was criticized by many, such as the Augustan poet Sextus Propertius. Sextus Pompeius, son of the first Triumvir and still a renegade general following Caesar's victory over Pompey, was established in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC. Scullard, 162 Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius, who was ironically a member of the republican party, not the Caesarian faction. Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance when in 40 BC he married Scribonia, a daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo who was a follower of Pompeius as well as his father-in-law. Scribonia conceived Octavian's only natural child, Julia, who was born the same day that he divorced Scribonia to marry Livia Drusilla, little more than a year after his marriage. While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra that produced three children. Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II and Ptolemy Philadelphus Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium. However, this new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their Caesarian cause, while the legions under their command followed suit. Eck 21. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 19. Meanwhile in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation. In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The Italian peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality, this provision was useless for Antony in the East. To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony, Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC. During their marriage, Octavia gave birth to two daughters (known as Antonia Major and Antonia Minor). War with Pompeius A denarius of Sextus Pompeius, minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. On the obverse the Pharus of Messina, who defeated Octavian. On the reverse, the monster Scylla Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying to the peninsula shipments of grain through the Mediterranean; Pompeius' own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy. Pompeius' control over the sea prompted him to take on the name Neptuni filius, "son of Neptune." Eck, 22. A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 with the treaty of Misenum; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, the Peloponnese, and an ensured future position as consul for the year 35. The territorial agreement amongst the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on January 17, 38 BC. Eck, 23. One of Pompeius' naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian; however, Octavian needed Antony's support to attack Pompeius, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37. Scullard, 163 Eck, 24. Antony in supporting Octavian expected to gain support for his own campaign against Parthia, desiring to avenge Rome's defeat at Carrhae in 53. In an agreement reached at Tarentum, Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Eck, 25. However, Octavian sent only a tenth the number of those promised, an intentional provocation that Antony would not forget six years later when they faced each other in battle. Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36. Eck, 25–26. Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on September 3, 36 BC by general Agrippa at the naval battle of Naulochus. Sextus fled with his remaining forces to the east, where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony's generals the following year. Eck, 26. Both Lepidus and Octavian gathered the surrendered troops of Pompeius, yet Lepidus felt empowered enough to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. However, Lepidus' troops deserted him and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and found Octavian's promises of money to be enticing. Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of pontifex maximus (head of the college of priests), but was ejected from the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, and was effectively exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy. Scullard, 164 The Roman dominions were now divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. To maintain peace and stability in his portion of the Empire, Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property. This time he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy while returning 30,000 slaves to former Roman owners that had previously fled to Pompeius to join his army and navy. Eck, 26–27. To ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome, Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunal immunity, or sacrosanctitas. Eck, 27–28. War with Antony Anthony and Cleopatra, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema Meanwhile, Antony's campaign against Parthia turned disastrous, tarnishing his image as a leader, while the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces. Eck, 29. On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength, and since he was already engaged in a romantic affair with her, he decided to send Octavia back to Rome. Eck, 29–30. Although Antony had the interests of rebuilding his military in mind, this act played right into the hands of Octavian, who spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental paramour". Eck, 30. In 36 BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end, and that he would step down as triumvir if only Antony would do the same; Antony refused. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 20. After Roman troops captured Armenia in 34 BC, Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia; he also awarded the title "Queen of Kings" to Cleopatra, acts which Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome. When Octavian became consul once again on January 1, 33 BC, he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen. Eck, 31. Defecting consuls and senators rushed over to the side of Antony in disbelief of the propaganda (which turned out to be true), yet so did able ministers desert Antony for Octavian in the autumn of 32 BC. Eck, 32–34. These defectors, Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius, gave Octavian the information he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations he made against Antony. Eck, 34. By storming the sanctuary of the Vestal Virgins, Octavian forced their chief priestess to hand over Antony's secret will, which would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule, alongside plans to build a tomb in Alexandria for him and his queen to reside upon their deaths. Eck, 34–35 CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 21–22. In late 32 BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt. Eck, 35. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 22. The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London Octavian gained a preliminary victory in early 31 BC when the navy under command of Agrippa successfully ferried their troops across the Adriatic Sea. Eck, 37. While Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and marched south. Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations. In a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade, Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC. Eck, 38. Antony and his remaining forces were only spared due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby. Eck, 38–39. Octavian pursued them, and after another defeat in Alexandria on August 1, 30 BC, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide; Antony fell on his own sword and into Cleopatra's arms, while she let a poisonous snake bite her. Eck, 39. Having exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career Octavian was only too well aware of the dangers in allowing another to do so and, reportedly commenting that "two Caesars are one too many", he ordered Caesarion to be killed whilst sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony. Green, 697. Scullard, 171. Octavian had previously shown little mercy to military combatants and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium. Octavian becomes Augustus After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial principate. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 34–35. However, Octavian would have to achieve this through incremental gaining of power, courting the Senate and people, while upholding republican traditions of Rome to appear that he was not aiming for dictatorship or monarchy. Marching into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as dual consuls by the Senate. Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near-lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amongst the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed upon the courts of law and ensuring free elections, in name at least. Eck, 44–45. First settlement Augustus as a magistrate; the statue's marble head was made c. 30–20 BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD (Louvre, Paris) In 27 BC, Octavian formally returned full power to the Roman Senate and relinquished his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. However, under the consulship of Octavian, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. Eck, 45. Although Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power in the Roman Republic was unrivaled. The historian Werner Eck states of Augustus: The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas, which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions. Eck, 113. To a large extent, the public was aware of the vast financial resources Augustus commanded. When Augustus failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy, he took over direct responsibility of building roads in 20 BC. Eck, 80. His construction of roads was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to the aerarium Saturni, the public treasury. According to H.H. Scullard, however, Augustus' power was based on the exercise of "...a predominant military power and that the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised." Scullard, 211. The Senate proposed to Octavian, the cherished victor of Rome's civil wars, to once again assume command of the provinces. The senate proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional constitution of the Roman Republic. Whilst putting on the appearance of reluctance he accepted a ten year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered to be in a somewhat chaotic state. Eck, 46. Scullard, 210. The provinces ceded to him to pacify within the promised ten year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 34. Moreover, command over these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions. Eck, 47. While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure his orders were carried out. On the other hand, the provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate. Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, yet he did not have a sole monopoly on political and martial power. The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain, as well as Illyria and Macedonia, two martially strategic regions with several legions. However, with control of only five or six legions distributed amongst three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the 20 legions under the control of Augustus, the Senate's control of these regions did not amount to any political or martial challenge to Octavian. CCAA, 24–25. The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate. Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces for the objective of securing peace and creating stability followed Republican-era precedents, in which prominent Romans such as Pompey had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability. Bust of Augustus, wearing the Civic Crown. Glyptothek, Munich. In January of 27 BC, the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps. Eck, 50. Augustus, from the Latin word Augere (meaning to increase), can be translated as "the illustrious one". Eck, 49. It was a title of religious rather than political authority. According to Roman religious beliefs, the title symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity—and in fact nature—that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. After the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, the change in name would also serve to demarcate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus, the previous one he styled for himself in reference to the story of Romulus and Remus (founders of Rome), which would symbolize a second founding of Rome. However, the title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image Octavian tried to avoid. Princeps, comes from the Latin phrase primum caput, "the first head", originally meaning the oldest or most distinguished senator whose name would appear first on the senatorial roster; in the case of Augustus it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge. Eck, 3. Eck, 149 Princeps had also been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well; for example, Pompey had held the title. Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Caesar divi filius, "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. The word Caesar was merely a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, yet Augustus transformed Caesar into a new family line that began with him. Augustus was granted the right to hang the corona civica, the "civic crown" made from oak, above his door and have laurels drape his doorposts. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 24. This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a triumph, with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat "memento mori", or, "Remember, you are mortal", to the triumphant general. Additionally, laurel wreaths were important in several state ceremonies, and crowns of laurel were rewarded to champions of athletic, racing, and dramatic contests. Thus, both the laurel and the oak were integral symbols of Roman religion and statecraft; placing them on Augustus' doorposts was tantamount to declaring his home the capital. However, Augustus renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter, wearing a diadem, or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 13. If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the Curia, bearing the inscription virtus, pietas, clementia, iustitia—"valor, piety, clemency, and justice." Second settlement In 23 BC, there was a political crisis that involved Augustus' co-consul Terentius Varro Murena, who was part of a conspiracy against Augustus. The exact details of the conspiracy are unknown, yet Murena did not serve a full term as consul before Calpurnius Piso was elected to replace him. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 25. Eck, 55. Piso was a well known member of the republican faction, and serving as co-consul with him was another means by Augustus to show his willingness to make concessions and cooperate with all political parties. Eck, 55–56. In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would put in doubt the senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. Eck, 56. Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus' supposedly favored nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus came away empty-handed. This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 38. Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as a system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility amongst the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 38–39. Portrait of Augustus wearing a gorgoneion on a three layered sardonyx cameo, AD 14–20 Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his permanent consulship. The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 26. Although he had resigned as consul, Augustus retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Eck, 57. This was a clever ploy by Augustus; by stepping down as one of two consuls, this allowed aspiring senators a better chance to fill that position, while at the same time Augustus could "exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class." Augustus was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position over the Roman provinces remained unchanged as he became a proconsul. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 37. As an earlier consul he had the power to intervene, when he deemed necessary, with the affairs of provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate. Eck, 56–57. As a proconsul Augustus did not want this authority of overriding provincial governors to be stripped from him, so imperium proconsulare maius, or "power over all the proconsuls" was granted to Augustus by the Senate. Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune (tribunicia potestas) for life, though not the official title of tribune. Legally it was closed to patricians, a status that Augustus had acquired years ago when adopted by Julius Caesar. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 36. This allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting. Eck, 57–58. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. Eck, 59. With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all other attire besides the classic toga while entering the Forum. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 30. There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor. Bunson, 80. Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state, however this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the tribune plebis began to lose its prestige due to Augustus' amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the praetorship. Bunson, 427. The Via Labicana Augustus – Augustus as Pontifex Maximus. In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself: all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the prefects and consuls, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Eck, 60. With maius imperium proconsulare, Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was ostensibly the head of every Roman army. Eck, 61. In 19 BC, Lucius Cornelius Balbus, governor of Africa who defeated the Garamantes, was the first man of provincial origin to receive this award, as well as the last. For every following Roman victory the credit was given to Augustus, due to the fact that Rome's armies were commanded by the legatus, who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. Augustus' eldest son by marriage to Livia, Tiberius, was the only exception to this rule when he received a triumph for victories in Germania in 7 BC. Eck, 117. Ensuring that his status of maius imperium proconsulare was renewed in 13 BC, Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support. Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class. When Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, fears arose once again that Augustus was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus. Dio 54.1, 6, 10. In 22 BC there was a food shortage in Rome which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis. After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ended the crisis almost immediately. It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a praefectus annonae, a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome. Eck, 78. In 19 BC, the Senate voted to allow Augustus to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate, as well as sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces, an emblem of consular authority. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 43. Like his tribune authority, the granting of consular powers to him was another instance of holding power of offices he did not actually hold. This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people. On 6 March 12 BC, after the death of Lepidus, he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus, the high priest of the collegium of the Pontifices, the most important position in Roman religion. Bowersock, p. 380. The date is provided by inscribed calendars; see also Augustus, Res Gestae 10.2. Dio 27.2 reports this under 13 BC, probably as the year in which Lepidus died (Bowersock, p. 383). CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 28. On February 5, 2 BC, Augustus was also given the title pater patriae, or "father of the country". Mackay, 186. Eck, 129. Later Roman Emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often, to display humility, newly-appointed Emperors would often decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus. Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had actually been granted them by the Senate. The civic crown, which later Emperors took to actually wearing, consular insignia, and later the purple robes of a Triumphant general (toga picta) became the imperial insignia well into the Byzantine era. War and expansion under Augustus Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus; the yellow legend represents the extent of the Empire in 31 BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent client states; however, areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in Germania. Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus chose Imperator, "victorious commander" to be his first name, since he wanted to make the notion of victory associated with him emphatically clear. Eck, 93. By the year 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed "imperator" as his title after a successful battle. Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly-released memoirs of achievements known as the Res Gestae was devoted to his military victories and honors. Pandering to Roman patriots, Augustus promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (the extent to which the Romans knew it), embodied in the phrase tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento—"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!" This fit well with the Roman elite and the wider public opinion of the day which favored expansionism, reflected in a statement by the famous Roman poet Virgil who said that the gods had granted Rome imperium sine fine, "sovereignty without limit". Eck, 95. There was public disappointment and regret for not avenging Crassus' captured battle standards when Augustus decided that the Middle Eastern power of Parthia should not be invaded. Eck, 95–96. However, there were many other viable lands to be conquered. Bust of Tiberius, a successful military commander under Augustus before he was designated as his heir and successor By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal), Eck, 94. the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia), Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.), and extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south. After the reign of the client king Herod the Great (73–4 BC), Judea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed his successor Herod Archelaus. Like Egypt which had been conquered after the defeat of Antony in 30 BC, Syria was governed not by a proconsul or legate of Augustus, but a high prefect of the equestrian class. Again, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada. When the rebellious tribes of Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania. Eck, 97. This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus' future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects, especially the very rich gold deposits at Las Medulas for example. Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in Germania to the north. Eck, 98. The poet Horace dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monument Trophy of Augustus near Monaco was built to honor the occasion. Eck, 98–99. The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC, when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum and his brother Nero Claudius Drusus against the Germanic tribes of the eastern Rhineland. Eck, 99. Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus' forces reached the Elbe River by 9 BC, yet he died shortly after by falling off his horse. It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome. Gold mine of Las Médulas To protect the eastern areas of the Empire from the Parthian threat, Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas which could raise their own troops for defense. Eck, 96. To ensure security of the Empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria just in case, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East. One of Tiberius' greatest diplomatic achievements was negotiating for the return of Crassus' battle standards, a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome. Bunson, 416. Tiberius was also responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of Armenia. Although Parthia always posed a threat to Rome in the east, the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube rivers. Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia was the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube. Rowell, 13. Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania. A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, where three entire legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed with few survivors by Arminius, leader of the Cherusci, an apparent Roman 'Ally'. Eck, 101–102. Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which had some success although the battle of AD 9 brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany. Bunson, 417. The Roman general Germanicus took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and Segestes; they defeated Arminius, who fled that battle but was killed later in 19 due to treachery. Bunson, 31. Death and succession Roman aureus struck under Augustus, c. AD 13–14. The reverse shows Tiberius riding on a quadriga, celebrating the fifteenth renewal of his tribunician power. At least six potential heirs, including Agrippa and his sons, had expired or proven incapable of succeeding Augustus, before he finally settled on Tiberius in AD 9 The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic, and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy. If someone was to succeed his unofficial position of power, they were going to have to earn it through their own publicly-known merits. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 50. Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been quickly married to Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder. Eck, 114–115. Other historians dispute this due to Augustus' will read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC, Eck, 115. instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus' second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together. After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus' authority), his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the Cyclades. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 44. Eck, 58. Although this granting of power would have shown Augustus' favor for Agrippa, it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him. Augustus' intent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children. Syme, 416–417. He took the consulship in 5 and 2 BC so he could personally usher them into their political careers, Scullard, 217. and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4. Syme, 417. Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus and Tiberius Claudius, granting them military commands and public office, and seeming to favor Drusus. However, Drusus' marriage to Antonia, Augustus' niece, was a relationship far too embedded within the family to disturb over succession issues. After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Livia's son Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended. Eck, 116. While Drusus' marriage to Antonia was considered an unbreakable affair, Vipsania was "only" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage. Mausoleum of Augustus Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 46. Although no specific reason is known for his departure, it could have been a combination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia. It could very well have been from feelings of jealousy and being left out since Augustus' young grandchildren-turned-sons, Gaius and Lucius, joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul. Eck, 117–118. CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 46–47. After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus. Eck, 119. This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs. In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of imperium with that of Augustus. Eck, 119–120. The only other possible claimant as heir was Postumus Agrippa, who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him. He certainly fell out of Augustus' favor as an heir; historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character." CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 49. On August 19 AD 14, Augustus died while visiting the place of his father's death at Nola, and Tiberius—who was present alongside Livia at Augustus' deathbed—was named his heir. Eck, 123. Augustus' famous last words were, "Did you like the performance?"—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus' body from Nola to Rome, and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day. Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two rostra. Eck, 124. Augustus' body inside a coffin was cremated on a pyre close to his mausoleum, and it was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman pantheon. In 410 during the Sack of Rome the mausoleum was despoiled by the Goths and his ashes scattered. Historian D.C.A. Shotter states that Augustus' policies of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian should have been sufficient cause for Tiberius to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus. Shotter, 210–212. Shotter suggests that Augustus' deification, coupled with Tiberius' "extremely conservative" attitude towards religion forced Tiberius to hold back any open resentment he might have harbored. Shotter, 211. Also, historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits. Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her) as well as the two young Caesars Gaius and Lucius, instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion. Augustus' legacy Augustus of Prima Porta Augustus' reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted hundreds of years until the ultimate decline of the Roman Empire. Both his borrowed surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and New Rome. In many languages, caesar became the word for emperor, as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar. The cult of Divus Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum. Suetonius, Augustus 101.4. Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death. Eck, 1–2 The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it, and were inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum, called the "queen of inscriptions" by historian Theodor Mommsen. Eck, 2. There are a few known written works by Augustus that have survived. This includes his poems Sicily, Epiphanus, and Ajax, an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and his written rebuttal to Brutus' Eulogy of Cato. Bunson, 47. However, historians are able to analyze existing letters penned by Augustus to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life. Shaw-Smith, 213. Bourne, 53–66. Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta. He was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar, and was influenced on occasion by his third wife, Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors. A praefectus vigilum, or "Prefect of the Watch" was put in charge of the vigiles, Rome's fire brigade and police. Bunson, 345. With Rome's civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able to create a standing army for the Roman Empire, fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers. Eck, 85–87. This was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 soldiers each, often recruited from recently conquered areas. Eck, 86. With his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an official courier system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the praefectus vehiculorum. Besides the advent of swifter communication amongst Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country. Chisholm, 122. In the year 6 Augustus established the aerarium militare, donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers. Bunson, 6. One of the most lasting institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome. Bunson, 341. They had the power to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and depose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was Maxentius, as it was Constantine I who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the Castra Praetoria. Bunson, 341–342. Augustus in an Egyptian-style depiction, a stone carving of the Kalabsha Temple in Nubia. Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augustus paid 400 sesterces each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon. He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities. CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 23. In 28 BC, he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him, an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest. The longevity of Augustus' reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate. Tacitus, Annals I.3 Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title. The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire. Kelsall, 120. However, for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate, Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages. The contemporary Roman jurist Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. 10 or 11 AD), fond of the days of pre-Augustan republican liberty in which he had been born, openly criticized the Augustan regime. Starr, 5. In the beginning of his Annals, the Roman historian Tacitus (c. 56–c.117) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery. He continued to say that, with Augustus' death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another. Tacitus, however, records two contradictory but common views of Augustus: Fragment of a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus, 1st century AD According to the second opposing opinion: In a recent biography on Augustus, Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries, judgments on Augustus' reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that: Tacitus was of the belief that Nerva (r. 96–98) successfully "mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty." Starr, 6. The 3rd century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign, moderate ruler, yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus, Dio viewed Augustus as an autocrat. The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (39–65 AD) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, "perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly." The Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), in his Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome, criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC. Kelsall, 118. In his criticism of Augustus, the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon (1658–1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658). Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle. Kelsall, 119. In his Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell (1701–1757) deemed Augustus a Machiavellian ruler, "a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper", "wicked and worthless", "a mean spirit", and a "tyrant". Revenue reforms Coin of Augustus found at the Pudukottai hoard, from an ancient Tamil country, Pandyan Kingdom of present day Tamil Nadu in India. British Museum. Indian imitation of a coin of Augustus. 1st century. British Museum. Coin of the Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula. This is also an imitation of a coin of Augustus. 1st century. Augustus' public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus' predecessors had done. This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute. Eck, 83–84. The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. Bunson, 404. Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin. An equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors that raised taxes had been the norm in the Republican era, and some had grown powerful enough to influence the amount of votes for politicians in Rome. The tax farmers had gained great infamy for their depredations, as well as great private wealth, by winning the right to tax local areas. Rome's revenue was the amount of the successful bids, and the tax farmers' profits consisted of any additional amounts they could forcibly wring from the populace with Rome's blessing. Lack of effective supervision, combined with tax farmers' desire to maximize their profits, had produced a system of arbitrary exactions that was often barbarously cruel to taxpayers, widely (and accurately) perceived as unfair, and very harmful to investment and the economy. The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus' conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government. Bunson, 144. As it was effectively considered Augustus' private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium. Bunson, 144–145. Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Bunson, 145. The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions, as well as bread and circuses for the population of Rome. Month of August The month of August (Latin: Augustus) is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six was sex). Commonly-repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar). According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month. Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.35. Building projects Close up on the sculpted detail of the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), 13 BC to 9 BC. On his deathbed, Augustus boasted "I found Rome of bricks; I leave it to you of marble". Although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this, Cassius Dio asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire's strength. Dio 56.30.3 Marble could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus, but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus. Although this did not apply to the Subura slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius, with the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt. Eck, 122. The relief sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus' triumphs in the Res Gestae. Bunson, 32. Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians, the Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome. He also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor. Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippa's construction of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (eg Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Marcellus). Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family. Eck, 118–121 To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the Arch of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and widened in 19 BC to include a triple-arch design. There are also many buildings outside of the city of Rome that bear Augustus' name and legacy, such as the Theatre of Merida in modern Spain, the Maison Carrée built at Nîmes in today's southern France, as well as the Trophy of Augustus at La Turbie, located near Monaco. The Temple of Augustus and Livia in Vienne, late 1st century BC. After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense. Eck, 79. In that year, Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair. In the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult. Augustus created the senatorial group of the curatores viarum for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs. Eck, 81. The Corinthian order of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome. Bunson, 34. Suetonius once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model. Physical appearance The biographer Suetonius describes Augustus' outward appearance as follows: "He was unusually handsome ... He had clear, bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclining to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature ..." Suetonius, Augustus 79, translated by J. C. Rolfe. Ancestry Ancestors of Augustus Descendants Augustus's only child was his daughter. Despite the large number of his descendants, the line was extinct less than seventy years after his death. 1. Julia the Elder, 39BC - AD14, had 5 children; A. Gaius Caesar, 20BC - AD4, died without issue B. Julia the Younger, 19BC - AD28, had 2 children; I. Aemilia Lepida (fiancee of Claudius), 4BC - AD53, had 5 children; a. Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, 14 - 54, had 1 child; i. Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the younger, 50 - 66, died young b. Junia Calvina, 15 - 79, died without issue c. Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus, d. 64 without issue d. Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus the elder, d. 49 without issue e. Junia Lepida, died without issue? II. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (executed 39), 6 - 39, died without issue C. Lucius Caesar, 17BC - AD2, died without issue D. Agrippina the Elder, 14BC - AD33, had 6 children; I. Nero Caesar, 6 - 30, died without issue II. Drusus Caesar, 7 - 33, died without issue III. Caligula, 12 - 41, had 1 child; a. Julia Drusilla, 39 - 41, died young IV. Agrippina the Younger, 15 - 59, had 1 child; a. Nero, 37 - 68, died without issue V. Drusilla (sister of Caligula), 16 - 38, died without issue VI. Julia Livilla, 18 - 42, died without issue E. Agrippa Postumus, 12BC - AD14, died without issue See also Augustus (honorific) Augustan literature Augustan poetry Gaius Maecenas Gaius Octavian (character of Rome) Julio-Claudian family tree Roman trade with India Notes Footnotes References Blackburn, Bonnie & Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. The Oxford Companion to the Year. Oxford University Press. 1999, reprinted with corrections 2003. Bleicken, Jochen. Augustus. Eine Biographie. Berlin 1998. Bourne, Ella. "Augustus as a Letter-Writer," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association (Volume 49, 1918): 53–66. Bunson, Matthew (1994). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. New York: Facts on File Inc. ISBN 0-8160-3182-7 Chisholm, Kitty and John Ferguson. (1981). Rome: The Augustan Age; A Source Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, in association with the Open University Press. ISBN 0198721080 Dio Cassius, The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus, London, Penguin Books, 1987, ISBN 0-14-044448-3. Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, ISBN 0-631-22957-4; paperback, ISBN 0-631-22958-2). Eder, Walter. (2005). "Augustus and the Power of Tradition," in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 13–32. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-80796-4; paperback, ISBN 0-521-00393-8). Everitt, Anthony (2006) Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. Random House Books. ISBN 1400061288. Gruen, Erich S. (2005). "Augustus and the Making of the Principate," in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 33–51. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-80796-4; paperback, ISBN 0-521-00393-8). Kelsall, Malcolm. "Augustus and Pope," The Huntington Library Quarterly (Volume 39, Number 2, 1976): 117–131. Shaw-Smith, R. "A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius," Greece & Rome (Volume 18, Number 2, 1971): 213–214. Shotter, D.C.A. "Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus," Greece & Rome (Volume 13, Number 2, 1966): 207–212. Starr, Chester G., Jr. "The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire," The American Historical Review (Volume 58, Number 1, 1952): 1–16. Roebuck, C, The World of Ancient Times, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1966 Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-0956-4 Further reading Everitt, Anthony. Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. New York: Random House, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4000-6128-8). As The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome. London: John Murray, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0719554942). Reviewed by Alex Butterworth in The Guardian, December 23, 2006. Galinsky, Karl. Augustan Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-691-05890-3). Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169–85 Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna, Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59–74. Jones, A.H.M. "The Imperium of Augustus", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 41, Parts 1 and 2. (1951), pp. 112–119. Jones, A.H.M. Augustus. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1626-9). Osgood, Josiah. Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press (USA), 2006 (hardback, ISBN 0-521-85582-9; paperback, ISBN 0-521-67177-9). Raaflaub, Kurt A. & Toher, Mark (eds.). Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-08447-0). Reinhold, Meyer. The Golden Age of Augustus (Aspects of Antiquity). Toronto, ON: Univ of Toronto Press, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 0-89522-007-5; paperback, ISBN 0-89522-008-3). Southern, Pat. Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies). New York: Routledge, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-16631-4); 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-415-25855-3). Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-472-10101-3); 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0-472-08124-1). Karen Essex, Kleopatra Pharaoh (2001,2002) External links Primary sources Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation Gallery of the Ancient Art: August Humor of Augustus Life of Augustus by Nicolaus of Damascus, English translation Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of Augustus, his own account: complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation) The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C. Secondary source material Augustus – short biography at the BBC “Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana” – essay by Steven Kreis about Augustus's legacy “De Imperatoribus Romanis” – article about Augustus at Garrett G. Fagan’s online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors Octavian / Augustus – pages by Yong-Ling Ow Related information be-x-old:Актавіян Аўгуст

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Chad

Chad (, Tshād), officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west. Due to its distance from the sea and its largely desert climate, the country is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa". Chad is divided into three major geographical regions: a desert zone in the north, an arid Sahelian belt in the centre and a more fertile Sudanese savanna zone in the south. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the largest wetland in Chad and the second largest in Africa. Chad's highest peak is the Emi Koussi in the Sahara, and N'Djamena,(formerly Fort-Lamy), the capital, is the largest city. Chad is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. Arabic and French are the official languages. Islam and Christianity are the most widely practiced religions. Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium BC, a series of states and empires rose and fell in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa. In 1960 Chad obtained independence under the leadership of François Tombalbaye. Resentment towards his policies in the Muslim north culminated in the eruption of a long-lasting civil war in 1965. In 1979 the rebels conquered the capital and put an end to the south's hegemony. However, the rebel commanders fought amongst themselves until Hissène Habré defeated his rivals. He was overthrown in 1990 by his general Idriss Déby. Recently, the Darfur crisis in Sudan has spilt over the border and destabilised the nation, with hundreds of thousands of Sudanese refugees living in and around camps in eastern Chad. While many political parties are active, power lies firmly in the hands of President Déby and his political party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement. Chad remains plagued by political violence and recurrent attempted coups d'état (see Battle of N'Djamena (2006) and Battle of N'Djamena (2008)). The country is one of the poorest and most corrupt countries in the world; most Chadians live in poverty as subsistence herders and farmers. Since 2003 crude oil has become the country's primary source of export earnings, superseding the traditional cotton industry. History In the 7th millennium BC, ecological conditions in the northern half of Chadian territory favored human settlement, and the region experienced a strong population increase. Some of the most important African archaeological sites are found in Chad, mainly in the Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region; some date to earlier than 2,000 BC. S. Decalo, Historical Dictionary of Chad, 44–45 S. Collelo, Chad For more than 2000 years, the Chadian Basin has been inhabited by agricultural and sedentary peoples. The region became a crossroads of civilizations. The earliest of these were the legendary Sao, known from artifacts and oral histories. The Sao fell to the Kanem Empire, D. Lange, "The Chad region as a crossroad" S. Decalo, 6 the first and longest-lasting of the empires that developed in Chad's Sahelian strip by the end of the 1st millennium AD. The power of Kanem and its successors was based on control of the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. These states, at least tacitly Muslim, never extended their control to the southern grasslands except to raid for slaves. S. Decalo, 7–8 French colonial expansion led to the creation of the in 1900. By 1920, France had secured full control of the colony and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa. S. Decalo, 8, 309 French rule in Chad was characterised by an absence of policies to unify the territory and sluggish modernisation. The French primarily viewed the colony as an unimportant source of untrained labour and raw cotton; France introduced large-scale cotton production in 1929. The colonial administration in Chad was critically understaffed and had to rely on the dregs of the French civil service. Only the south was governed effectively; French presence in the north and east was nominal. The educational system suffered from this neglect. S. Decalo, 8–9 After World War II, France granted Chad the status of overseas territory and its inhabitants the right to elect representatives to the French National Assembly and a Chadian assembly. The largest political party was the Chadian Progressive Party (PPT), based in the southern half of the colony. Chad was granted independence on August 11, 1960 with the PPT's leader, François Tombalbaye, as its first president. S. Decalo, 248–249 S. Nolutshungu, Limits of Anarchy, 17 15,000 Chadian soldiers fought for Free France during WWII. S. Decalo, 53 By defeating and killing Rabih az-Zubayr on April 22, 1900, at the Battle of Kousséri, France removed a major obstacle to its colonisation of Chad. Two years later, Tombalbaye banned opposition parties and established a one-party system. Tombalbaye's autocratic rule and insensitive mismanagement exacerbated interethnic tensions. In 1965 Muslims began a civil war. Tombalbaye was overthrown and killed in 1975, "Death of a Dictator", Time, (April 28, 1975). Accessed on September 3, 2007. but the insurgency continued. In 1979 the rebel factions conquered the capital, and all central authority in the country collapsed. Armed factions, many from the north's rebellion, contended for power. S. Decalo, 12–16 S. Nolutshungu, 268 The disintegration of Chad caused the collapse of France's position in the country. Libya moved to fill the power vacuum and became involved in Chad's civil war. S. Nolutshungu, 150 Libyia adventure ended in disaster in 1987; the French-supported president, Hissène Habré, evoked a united response from Chadians of a kind never seen before S. Nolutshungu, 230 and forced the Libyan army off Chadian soil. K. Pollack, Arabs at War, 391–397 Habré consolidated his dictatorship through a power system that relied on corruption and violence; an estimated 40,000 people were killed under his rule. S. Macedo, Universal Jurisdiction, 133–134 "Chad: the Habré Legacy" The president favoured his own Daza ethnic group and discriminated against his former allies, the Zaghawa. His general, Idriss Déby, overthrew him in 1990. S. Nolutshungu, 234–237 Déby attempted to reconcile the rebel groups and reintroduced multiparty politics. Chadians approved a new constitution by referendum, and in 1996, Déby easily won a competitive presidential election. He won a second term five years later. R. East and R. Thomas, Profiles of People in Power, 100 Oil exploitation began in Chad in 2003, bringing with it hopes that Chad would at last have some chances of peace and prosperity. Instead, internal dissent worsened, and a new civil war broke out. Déby unilaterally modified the constitution to remove the two-term limit on the presidency; this caused an uproar among the civil society and opposition parties. IPS, "" In 2006 Déby won a third mandate in elections that the opposition boycotted. Ethnic violence in eastern Chad has increased; the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has warned that a genocide like that in Darfur may yet occur in Chad. Chad may face genocide, UN warns. BBC News, February 16, 2007 In 2006 and in 2008 rebel forces have attempted to take the capital by force, but have on both circumstances failed. Politics and government Chad's constitution provides for a strong executive branch headed by a president who dominates the political system. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the cabinet, and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad's para-statal firms. In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly, may declare a state of emergency. The president is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term; in 2005 constitutional term limits were removed. This removal allows a president to remain in power beyond the previous two-term limit. Most of Déby's key advisers are members of the Zaghawa ethnic group, although southern and opposition personalities are represented in government. "Background Notes: Chad Republic of Chad - Public Administration Country Profile Corruption is rife at all levels; Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2005 named Chad the most corrupt country in the world, BBC News, "Worst corruption offenders named" and it has fared only slightly better in the following years. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2006" (PDF), Transparency International. Accessed on September 3, 2007. In 2007, it scored 1.8 out of 10 on the Corruption Perceptions Index (with 10 being the least corrupt). Only Tonga, Uzbekistan, Haiti, Iraq, Myanmar, and Somalia scored lower. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2007" Transparency International. Accessed on December 16, 2007. Critics of President Déby have accused him of cronyism and tribalism. "'Isolated' Deby clings to power" BBC News. April 13, 2006. Accessed on September 4, 2007. Chad's legal system is based on French civil law and Chadian customary law where the latter does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality. Despite the constitution's guarantee of judicial independence, the president names most key judicial officials. The legal system's highest jurisdictions, the Supreme Court and the Constitutional Council, have become fully operational since 2000. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councillors, appointed for life by the president and the National Assembly. The Constitutional Court is headed by nine judges elected to nine-year terms. It has the power to review legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption. The National Assembly makes legislation. The body consists of 155 members elected for four-year terms who meet three times per year. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions when called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a National Assembly president every two years. The president must sign or reject newly passed laws within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister's plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch's programme twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through his party, the Patriotic Salvation Movement (MPS), which holds a large majority. Until the legalisation of opposition parties in 1992, Déby's MPS was the sole legal party in Chad. Since, 78 registered political parties have become active. "Chad", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, (2006) In 2005, opposition parties and human rights organisations supported the boycott of the constitutional referendum that allowed Déby to stand for re-election for a third term "Chad", Amnesty International amid reports of widespread irregularities in voter registration and government censorship of independent media outlets during the campaign. "Chad (2006)", Freedom House. Correspondents judged the 2006 presidential elections a mere formality, as the opposition deemed the polls a farce and boycotted. BBC News, "Chad leader's victory confirmed" Déby faces armed opposition from groups who are deeply divided by leadership clashes but united in their intention to overthrow him. ICG, "" These forces stormed the capital on April 13, 2006, but were ultimately repelled. Chad's greatest foreign influence is France, which maintains 1,000 troops in the country. Déby relies on the French to help repel the rebels, and France gives the Chadian army logistical and intelligence support for fear of a complete collapse of regional stability. PINR, "Instability on the March in Sudan, Chad and Central African Republic" Nevertheless, Franco-Chadian relations were soured by the granting of oil drilling rights to the American Exxon company in 1999. BBC News, "Chad's vulnerable president" Educators face considerable challenges due to the nation's dispersed population and a certain degree of reluctance on the part of parents to send their children to school. Although attendance is compulsory, only 68% of boys attend primary school, and more than half of the population is illiterate. Higher education is provided at the University of N'Djamena. Humanitarian situation According to the United Nations, Chad has been affected by a humanitarian crisis since at least 2001. As of 2008, the country of Chad hosts over 280,000 refugees from the Sudan's Darfur region, over 55,000 from the Central African Republic, as well as over 170,000 internally displaced persons. Humanitarian Action in Chad: Facts and Figures - Snapshot Report, UN, March 6, 2008 In February 2008 in the aftermath of the battle of N'Djamena, UN Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes expressed "extreme concern" that the crisis would have a negative effect on the ability of humanitarians to deliver life-saving assistance to half a million beneficiaries, most of whom - according to him - heavily rely on humanitarian aid for their survival. Eastern Chad: Concerns over vital humanitarian needs (press release), UN, February 7, 2008 UN spokesperson Maurizio Giuliano stated to The Washington Post: "If we do not manage to provide aid at sufficient levels, the humanitarian crisis might become a humanitarian catastrophe". Craig Timberg, Chadian Rebels Urge Cease-Fire As Push Falters, The Washington Post, February 6, 2008 Regions, departments, and sub-prefectures Chad is divided since February 2008 in 22 regions. Ordonnance n° 002/PR/08 portant restructuration de certaines collectivités territoriales décentralisées] ["Tableau des codes des circonscritions - Ministère de l'Intérieur"], April 2008. The subdivision of Chad in regions came about in 2003 as part of the decentralisation process, when the government abolished the previous 14 prefectures. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Prefects administer the 61 departments within the regions. The departments are divided into 200 sub-prefectures, which are in turn composed of 446 cantons. "Chad", Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, (2004) T. Ndang, "A qui Profitent les Dépenses Sociales au Tchad?" The cantons are scheduled to be replaced by communautés rurales, but the legal and regulatory framework has not yet been completed. Chad - Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project". World Bank. The constitution provides for decentralised government to compel local populations to play an active role in their own development. "Tchad", UNESCO To this end, the constitution declares that each administrative subdivisions be governed by elected local assemblies, La decentralisation au Tchad but no local elections have taken place, "Chad", OECD and communal elections scheduled for 2005 have been repeatedly postponed. The regions are: <ol> <li> Barh El Gazel <li> Batha <li> Borkou <li> Chari-Baguirmi <li> Ennedi <li> Guéra <li> Hadjer-Lamis <li> Kanem <li> Lac <li> Logone Occidental <li> Logone Oriental<li> Mandoul <li> Mayo-Kebbi Est <li> Mayo-Kebbi Ouest <li> Moyen-Chari <li> Ouaddaï <li> Salamat <li> Sila <li> Tandjilé <li> Tibesti <li> Wadi Fira <li> N'Djamena Geography View of Chari River Chad is divided into three distinct zones, from the Sudanese savanna in the south to the Sahara Desert in the north. At , Chad is the world's 21st-largest country. It is slightly smaller than Peru and slightly larger than South Africa. "Chad", The World Factbook. "Rank Order - Area" Chad is in north central Africa, lying between 8° and 24° north and between 14° and 24° east. Chad is bounded to the north by Libya, to the east by Sudan, to the west by Niger, Nigeria and Cameroon, and to the south by the Central African Republic. The country's capital is from the nearest seaport Douala (Cameroon). "Chad",Encyclopædia Britannica. "Chad". United Nations Commission on Human Rights. Due to this distance from the sea and the country's largely desert climate, Chad is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa". D. Botha, "S.H. Frankel" A heritage of the colonial era, Chad's borders do not coincide wholly with natural boundaries. The dominant physical structure is a wide basin bounded to the north, east and south by mountain ranges. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the remains of an immense lake that occupied of the Chadian Basin 7,000 years ago. Lake Chad in a 2001 satellite image. On the top, the changes from 1973 to 1997 are shown. Although in the 21st century it covers only , and its surface area is subject to heavy seasonal fluctuations, EB, "Chad, Lake", Encyclopædia Britannica. the lake is Africa's second largest wetland. A. Dinar, Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs, 57 The Emi Koussi, a dormant volcano in the Tibesti Mountains that reaches 3,414 metres (13,435 ft) above sea level, is the highest point in Chad and the Sahara. Each year a tropical weather system known as the intertropical front crosses Chad from south to north, bringing a wet season that lasts from May to October in the south, and from June to September in the Sahel. S. Decalo, Historical Dictionary of Chad, 3 Variations in local rainfall create three major geographical zones. The Sahara lies in the country's northern third. Yearly precipitations there are under ; in fact, Borkou in Chad is the most arid area of the Sahara. Vegetation throughout this belt is scarce; only the occasional spontaneous palm grove survives, the only ones to do so south of the Tropic of Cancer. The Sahara gives way to a Sahelian belt in Chad's centre; precipitation there varies from 300 mm to 600 mm (12–24 in) per year. In the Sahel a steppe of thorny bushes (mostly acacias) gradually gives way to a savanna in Chad's Sudanese zone to the south. Yearly rainfall in this belt is over . The region's tall grasses and extensive marshes make it favourable for birds, reptiles, and large mammals. Chad's major rivers—the Chari, Logone and their tributaries—flow through the southern savannas from the southeast into Lake Chad. J. Chapelle, 10-16 Economy and infrastructure A Chadian maternity ward. Although improving, Chad's infrastructure remains far less developed than that of its northern neighbours. The United Nations' Human Development Index ranks Chad as the fifth poorest country in the world, with 80% of the population living below the poverty line. The GDP (PPP) per capita was estimated as US$1,500 in 2005. The World's 10 Poorest Countries. Chad is part of the Bank of Central African States, the Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC) and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). . Its currency is the CFA franc. Years of civil war have scared away foreign investors; those who left Chad between 1979 and 1982 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. In 2000 major direct foreign investment in the oil sector began, boosting the country's economic prospects. Women in Mao, where water is provided by a water tower. Access to clean water is often a problem in Chad. Over 80% of Chad's population relies on subsistence farming and livestock raising for its livelihood. The crops grown and the locations of herds are determined by the local climate. In the southernmost 10 percent of the territory lies the nation's most fertile cropland, with rich yields of sorghum and millet. In the Sahel only the hardier varieties of millet grow, and these with much lower yields than in the south. On the other hand, the Sahel is ideal pastureland for large herds of commercial cattle and for goats, sheep, donkeys and horses. The Sahara's scattered oases support only some dates and legumes. Before the development of oil industry, cotton dominated industry and the labour market and accounted for approximately 80% of export earnings. S. Decalo, 11 Cotton remains a primary export, although exact figures are not available. Rehabilitation of Cotontchad, a major cotton company that suffered from a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Union, and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). The parastatal is now expected to be privatised. ExxonMobil leads a consortium of Chevron and Petronas that has invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at one billion barrels in southern Chad. Oil production began in 2003 with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the World Bank) that links the southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast of Cameroon. As a condition of its assistance, the World Bank insisted that 80% of oil revenues be spent on development projects. In January 2006 the World Bank suspended its loan programme when the Chadian government passed laws reducing this amount. On July 14, 2006, the World Bank and Chad signed a memorandum of understanding under which the Government of Chad commits 70% of its spending to priority poverty reduction programmes. World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction. World Bank. A bridge on the Bragoto River Civil war crippled the development of transport infrastructure; in 1987, Chad had only of paved roads. Successive road rehabilitation projects improved the network "Chad Poverty Assessment". World Bank. to by 2004. Lettre d'information. Délégation de la Commission Européenne au Tchad. Nevertheless, the road network is limited; roads are often unusable for several months of the year. With no railways of its own, Chad depends heavily on Cameroon's rail system for the transport of Chadian exports and imports to and from the seaport of Douala. A. Chowdhury & S. Erdenbileg, Geography Against Development An international airport serves the capital and provides regular direct flights to Paris and several African cities. The telecommunication system is basic and expensive, with fixed telephone services provided by the state telephone company SotelTchad. Only 14,000 fixed telephone lines serve all of Chad, one of the lowest telephone density rates in the world. Chad's energy sector has suffered from years of mismanagement by the parastatal Chad Water and Electric Society (STEE), which provides power for 15% of the capital's citizens and covers only 1.5% of the national population. Chad Country Commercial Guide. Most Chadians burn biomass fuels such as wood and animal manure for power. "Chad and Cameroon". Energy Information Administration. Chad's cities face serious difficulties of municipal infrastructure; only 48% of urban residents have access to potable water and only 2% to basic sanitation. "Chad - Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project". World Bank. The country's television audience is limited to N'Djamena. The only television station is the state-owned TeleTchad. Radio has a far greater reach, with 13 private radio stations. Newspapers are limited in quantity and distribution, and circulation figures are small due to transportation costs, low literacy rates, and poverty. ;"Chad (2006)". Freedom of the Press: 2007 Edition. While the constitution defends liberty of expression, the government has regularly restricted this right, and at the end of 2006 began to enact a system of prior censorship on the media. "Chad - 2006". Freedom Press Institute. Demographics 2005 estimates place Chad's population at 10,146,000; 25.8% live in urban areas and 74.8% in rural ones. World Population Prospects. The country's population is young: an estimated 47.3% is under 15. The birth rate is estimated at 42.35 births per 1,000 people, the mortality rate at 16.69. The life expectancy is 47.2 years. A Ouaddaian girl Chad's population is unevenly distributed. Density is in the Saharan Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Region but in the Logone Occidental Region. In the capital, it is even higher. About half of the nation's population lives in the southern fifth of its territory, making this the most densely populated region. "Chad Livelihood Profiles". U.S. Agency for International Development. Urban life is virtually restricted to the capital, whose population is mostly engaged in commerce. The other major towns are Sarh, Moundou, Abéché and Doba, which are less urbanised but are growing rapidly and joining the capital as decisive factors in economic growth. Since 2003, 230,000 Sudanese refugees have fled to eastern Chad from war-ridden Darfur. With the 172,000 Chadians "" (PDF), July 2007, UNHCR. displaced by the civil war in the east, this has generated increased tensions among the region's communities. "Chad: Humanitarian Profile - 2006/2007" Polygamy is common, with 39% of women living in such unions. This is sanctioned by law, which automatically permits polygamy unless spouses specify that this is unacceptable upon marriage. "Chad". Women of the World. Although violence against women is prohibited, domestic violence is common. Female genital mutilation is prohibited, but the practice is widespread and deeply rooted in tradition; 45% of Chadian women undergo the procedure, with the highest rates among Arabs, Hadjarai, and Ouaddaians (90% or more). Lower percentages were reported among the Sara (38%) and the Toubou (2%). Women lack equal opportunities in education and training, making it difficult for them to compete for the relatively few formal-sector jobs. Although property and inheritance laws based on the French code do not discriminate against women, local leaders adjudicate most inheritance cases in favour of men, according to traditional practice. A tribal delegation Chad has more than 200 distinct ethnic groups, which create diverse social structures. The colonial administration and independent governments have attempted to impose a national society, but for most Chadians the local or regional society remains the most important influence outside the immediate family. Nevertheless, Chad's peoples may be classified according to the geographical region in which they live. In the south live sedentary people such as the Sara, the nation's main ethnic group, whose essential social unit is the lineage. In the Sahel sedentary peoples live side-by-side with nomadic ones, such as the Arabs, the country's second major ethnic group. The north is inhabited by nomads, mostly Toubous. The nation's official business languages are French and Arabic, but over 100 languages and dialects are spoken. Due to the important role played by itinerant Arab traders and settled merchants in local communities, Chadian Arabic has become a lingua franca. Religion Chad is a religiously diverse country. The 1993 census found that 54% of Chadians were Muslim, 20% Roman Catholic, 14% Protestant, 10% animist, and 3% atheist. None of these religious traditions is monolithic. Animism includes a variety of ancestor and place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific. Islam, though characterised by an orthodox set of beliefs and observances, is expressed in diverse ways. Christianity arrived in Chad only with the French; as with Chadian Islam, it syncretises aspects of pre-Christian religious beliefs. Muslims are largely concentrated in northern and eastern Chad, and animists and Christians live primarily in southern Chad and Guéra. The constitution provides for a secular state and guarantees religious freedom; different religious communities generally co-exist without problems. "Chad", International Religious Freedom Report 2006. Many citizens, despite having stated religious affiliations, did not practice their religion regularly. The vast majority of Muslims in the country are adherents of a moderate branch of mystical Islam (Sufism) known locally as Tijaniyah, which incorporates some local African religious elements. A small minority of the country's Muslims hold more fundamentalist practices, which, in some cases, may be associated with Saudi-oriented belief systems such as Wahhabism or Salafism. Roman Catholics represent the largest Christian denomination in the country. Most Protestants, including the Nigeria-based "Winners Chapel," are affiliated with various evangelical Christian groups. Members of the Baha'i and Jehovah's Witnesses religious communities also are present in the country. Both faiths were introduced after independence in 1960 and therefore are considered to be "new" religions in the country. Chad is home to foreign missionaries representing both Christian and Islamic groups. Itinerant Muslim preachers primarily from Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan, also visit. Saudi Arabian funding generally supports social and educational projects and extensive mosque construction. U.S. Department of State Culture +Holidays Date English Name January 1 New Year's Day May 1 Labour Day May 25 African Liberation Day August 11 Independence Day November 1 All Saints' Day November 28 Republic Day December 1 Freedom and Democracy Day December 25 Christmas Due to its great variety of peoples and languages, Chad possesses a rich cultural heritage. The Chadian government have actively promoted Chadian culture and national traditions by opening the Chad National Museum and the Chad Cultural Centre. Six national holidays are observed throughout the year, and movable holidays include the Christian holiday of Easter Monday and the Muslim holidays of Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Adha, and Eid Milad Nnabi. Regarding music, Chadians play instruments such as the kinde, a type of bow harp; the kakaki, a long tin horn; and the hu hu, a stringed instrument that uses calabashes as loudspeakers. Other instruments and their combinations are more linked to specific ethic groups: the Sara prefer whistles, balafones, harps and kodjo drums; and the Kanembu combine the sounds of drums with those of flute-like instruments. "Chad: A Cultural Profile" A Chadian tailor sells traditional dresses. The music group Chari Jazz formed in 1964 and initiated Chad's modern music scene. Later, more renowned groups such as African Melody and International Challal attempted to mix modernity and tradition. Popular groups such as Tibesti have clung faster to their heritage by drawing on sai, a traditional style of music from southern Chad. The people of Chad have customarily disdained modern music. However, in 1995 greater interest has developed and fostered the distribution of CDs and audio cassettes featuring Chadian artists. Piracy and a lack of legal protections for artists' rights remain problems to further development of the Chadian music industry. L. Gondjé, "" Millet is the staple food throughout Chad. It is used to make balls of paste that are dipped in sauces. In the north this dish is known as alysh; in the south, as biya. Fish is popular, which is generally prepared and sold either as salanga (sun-dried and lightly smoked Alestes and Hydrocynus) or as banda (smoked larger fish). Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources Carcaje is a popular sweet drink extracted from hibiscus leaves. Alcoholic beverages, though absent in the north, are popular in the south, where people drink millet beer, known as billi-billi when brewed from red millet and as coshate when from white millet. As in other Sahelian countries, literature in Chad has suffered from an economic, political and spiritual drought that has affected its best known writers. Chadian authors have been forced to write from exile or expatriate status and have generated literature dominated by themes of political oppression and historical discourse. Since 1962, 20 Chadian authors have written some 60 works of fiction. Among the most internationally renowned writers are Joseph Brahim Seïd, Baba Moustapha, Antoine Bangui and Koulsy Lamko. In 2003 Chad's sole literary critic, Ahmat Taboye, published his to further knowledge of Chad's literature internationally and among youth and to make up for Chad's lack of publishing houses and promotional structure. N. Malo, "" D. Boyd-Buggs & J. Hope Scott, Camel Tracks, 12, 132, 135 The development of a Chadian film industry has suffered from the devastations of civil war and from the lack of cinemas, of which there is only one in the whole country. The first Chadian feature film, the docudrama Bye Bye Africa, was made in 1999 by Mahamat Saleh Haroun. His later film Abouna was critically acclaimed, and his Daratt won the Grand Special Jury Prize at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival. Issa Serge Coelo directed Chad's two other films, Daresalam and DP75: Tartina City. N. Bambé, "Issa Serge Coelo" N. Young, An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun BBC News, "Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice" D. Alphonse, "Cinéma" Football is Chad's most popular sport. The country's national team is closely followed during international competitions, and Chadian footballers have played for French teams. Basketball and freestyle wrestling are widely practiced, the latter in a form in which the wrestlers don traditional animal hides and cover themselves with dust. See also List of Chad-related topics Notes References Alphonse, Dokalyo (2003); "", 214. "Background Note: Chad". September 2006. United States Department of State. Bambé, Naygotimti (April 2007); "", 256. Botha, D.J.J. (December 1992); "S.H. Frankel: Reminiscences of an Economist", The South African Journal of Economics 60 (4): 246–255. Boyd-Buggs, Debra & Joyce Hope Scott (1999); Camel Tracks: Critical Perspectives on Sahelian Literatures. Lawrenceville: Africa World Press. ISBN 0-8654-3757-2 "Chad". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2006, March 6, 2007. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. "Chad". Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2004, February 28, 2005. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. "Chad". International Religious Freedom Report 2006. September 15, 2006. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State. "Chad". Amnesty International Report 2006. Amnesty International Publications. "Chad" (PDF). African Economic Outlook 2007. OECD. May 2007. ISBN 978-92-64-02510-3 "Chad". The World Factbook. United States Central Intelligence Agency. May 15, 2007. "Chad" (PDF). Women of the World: Laws and Policies Affecting Their Reproductive Lives - Francophone Africa. Center for Reproductive Rights. 2000 "Chad (2006)". Freedom of the Press: 2007 Edition. Freedom House, Inc. "Chad - 2006". World Press Freedom Review - 2006. International Press Institute. "Chad". Human Rights Instruments. United Nations Commission on Human Rights. December 12, 1997. "Chad". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2000). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. "Chad, Lake". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2000). "Chad - Community Based Integrated Ecosystem Management Project" (PDF). September 24, 2002. World Bank. "Chad: A Cultural Profile" (PDF). Cultural Profiles Project. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. ISBN 0-7727-9102-3 "Chad Urban Development Project" (PDF). October 21, 2004. World Bank. "Chad: Humanitarian Profile - 2006/2007" (PDF). January 8, 2007. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. "Chad Livelihood Profiles" (PDF). March 2005. United States Agency for International Development. "Chad Poverty Assessment: Constraints to Rural Development" (PDF). World Bank. October 21, 1997. "Chad (2006)". Country Report: 2006 Edition. Freedom House, Inc. "Chad and Cameroon". Country Analysis Briefs. January 2007. Energy Information Administration. "Chad leader's victory confirmed", BBC News, May 14, 2006. "Chad may face genocide, UN warns", BBC News, February 16, 2007. Chapelle, Jean (1981); . Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 2-85802-169-4 Chowdhury, Anwarul Karim & Sandagdorj Erdenbileg (2006); Geography Against Development: A Case for Landlocked Developing Countries. New York: United Nations. ISBN 92-1-104540-1 Collelo, Thomas (1990); Chad: A Country Study, 2d ed. Washington: U.S. GPO. ISBN 0-1602-4770-5 Dadnaji, Dimrangar (1999); Decalo, Samuel (1987); Historical Dictionary of Chad, 2 ed. Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-1937-6 East, Roger & Richard J. Thomas (2003); Profiles of People in Power: The World's Government Leaders. Routledge. ISBN 1-8574-3126-X Dinar, Ariel (1995); Restoring and Protecting the World's Lakes and Reservoirs. World Bank Publications. ISBN 0-8213-3321-6 Gondjé, Laoro (2003); "", 214. "Chad: the Habré Legacy". Amnesty International. October 16, 2001. Lange, Dierk (1988). "The Chad region as a crossroad" (PDF), in UNESCO General History of Africa - Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century, vol. 3: 436–460. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03914-8 (PDF). . N. 3. September 2004. Macedo, Stephen (2006); Universal Jurisdiction: National Courts and the Prosecution of Serious Crimes Under International Law. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1950-3 Malo, Nestor H. (2003); "", 214. Manley, Andrew; "Chad's vulnerable president", BBC News, March 15, 2006. "Mirren crowned 'queen' at Venice", BBC News, September 9, 2006. Ndang, Tabo Symphorien (2005); "" (PDF). 4th PEP Research Network General Meeting. Poverty and Economic Policy. Nolutshungu, Sam C. (1995); Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-1628-3 Pollack, Kenneth M. (2002); Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness, 1948–1991. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3733-2 "Rank Order - Area". The World Factbook. United States Central Intelligence Agency. May 10, 2007. "Republic of Chad - Public Administration Country Profile" (PDF). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. November 2004. . Government of Chad. Spera, Vincent (February 8, 2004); "Chad Country Commercial Guide -- FY 2005". United States Department of Commerce. "Symposium on the evaluation of fishery resources in the development and management of inland fisheries". CIFA Technical Paper No. 2. FAO. November 29 - December 1, 1972. "". . UNESCO, Education for All. "" (PDF). International Crisis Group. June 1, 2006. Tetchiada, Sylvestre; "", IPS, December 16, 2006. Wolfe, Adam; "Instability on the March in Sudan, Chad and Central African Republic", PINR, December 6, 2006. World Bank (July 14, 2006). World Bank, Govt. of Chad Sign Memorandum of Understanding on Poverty Reduction. Press release. World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision Population Database. 2006. United Nations Population Division. The World's 10 Poorest Countries. Media for Global Development. "Worst corruption offenders named", BBC News, November 18, 2005. Young, Neil (August 2002); An interview with Mahamet-Saleh Haroun, writer and director of Abouna ("Our Father"). External links Government Official government site Official presidency site Chad Embassy—Washington DC Chief of State and Cabinet Members General Chad from UCB Libraries GovPubs be-x-old:Чад

Chad |@lemmatized chad:159 tshād:1 officially:1 know:7 republic:9 landlocked:2 country:45 central:12 africa:16 border:3 libya:3 north:14 sudan:7 east:8 african:13 south:17 cameroon:7 nigeria:3 southwest:1 niger:2 west:2 due:6 distance:2 sea:3 largely:3 desert:4 climate:3 sometimes:2 refer:2 dead:2 heart:2 divide:5 three:4 major:8 geographical:3 region:21 zone:5 arid:2 sahelian:6 belt:4 centre:3 fertile:2 sudanese:5 savanna:4 lake:10 name:8 large:13 wetland:2 second:4 high:7 peak:1 emi:2 koussi:2 sahara:7 n:12 djamena:7 formerly:1 fort:1 lamy:1 capital:11 city:4 home:2 different:2 ethnic:7 linguistic:1 group:15 arabic:3 french:16 official:6 language:4 islam:4 christianity:2 widely:2 practiced:1 religion:5 begin:7 millennium:4 bc:4 human:14 population:17 move:2 chadian:36 basin:4 great:5 number:1 end:6 series:1 state:21 empire:3 rise:1 fell:2 strip:2 focus:1 control:4 trans:2 saharan:3 trade:2 route:2 pass:4 france:10 conquer:3 territory:6 incorporate:3 part:6 equatorial:2 obtain:1 independence:5 leadership:2 françois:2 tombalbaye:5 resentment:1 towards:1 policy:4 muslim:9 culminate:1 eruption:1 long:3 last:3 civil:11 war:12 rebel:7 put:1 hegemony:1 however:3 commander:1 fight:2 amongst:1 hissène:2 habré:5 defeat:2 rival:1 overthrow:4 general:7 idriss:2 déby:13 recently:2 darfur:4 crisis:5 spill:1 destabilise:1 nation:14 hundred:1 thousand:1 refugee:4 live:8 around:1 camp:1 eastern:5 many:3 political:8 party:12 active:3 power:13 lie:4 firmly:1 hand:2 president:19 patriotic:2 salvation:2 movement:2 remain:6 plague:1 violence:5 recurrent:1 attempt:5 coup:1 état:1 see:3 battle:4 one:9 poor:4 corrupt:3 world:36 poverty:9 subsistence:2 herder:1 farmer:1 since:7 crude:1 oil:8 become:7 primary:3 source:2 export:4 earnings:2 supersede:1 traditional:5 cotton:7 industry:5 history:3 ecological:1 condition:2 northern:4 half:5 favor:1 settlement:1 experience:1 strong:2 increase:2 important:3 archaeological:1 site:3 find:2 mainly:1 borkou:4 ennedi:3 tibesti:5 date:3 early:2 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Cinema_of_Italy

The history of Italian cinema began just a few months after the Lumière brothers had discovered the medium, when Pope Leo XIII was filmed for a few seconds in the act of blessing the camera. 71 Italian films or co-productions are represented in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die. Early years The Italian film industry took shape between 1903 and 1908, led by three major organizations - the Roman Cines, the Ambrosio of Turin and Itala Film. Other companies were soon to follow in Milan and Naples. In a short period of time, these early companies attained a respectable production quality and soon were selling films abroad as well as inside Italy. One of the first Italian filoni (sub-genres) was the historical film: the first work in the genre was Filoteo Alberini's La presa di Roma, 20 settembre 1870 ("The Capture of Rome, September 20, 1870"), filmed in 1905. Other films portrayed famous historical figures such as Nero, Messalina, Spartacus, Julius Caesar and Cleopatra. Arturo Ambrosio's Gli ultimi giorni di Pompei (1908, "The Last Days of Pompeii") quickly became famous, so famous that it was remade by Mario Caserini in 1913. In the same year Enrico Guazzoni directed the widely appreciated Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Actresses Lyda Borelli, Francesca Bertini and Pina Menichelli were the first "divas" (stars), specialising in passionate tragedies. Francesca Bertini became the first "star" of cinema, as well as the first actress to appear on film partly naked. Other filoni featured social themes, often based on published literature. In 1916 the film Cenere (Ash) was based on Grazia Deledda's book, and interpreted by the theatre actress Eleonora Duse (also famous as Gabriele D'Annunzio's lover). Avant garde Cinecittà Cinecittà studios Meanwhile, Fascism had created a board of judgment for popular culture. This administration suggested, with Mussolini's full approval, the creation of some important structures for Italian cinema. An area was founded in southeast Rome to build ex novo a town exclusively for cinema, dubbed the Cinecittà. The town was conceived in order to provide everything necessary for filmmaking: theaters, technical services, and even a cinematography school for younger apprentices. Even today, many films are shot entirely in Cinecittà. At the same time Vittorio Mussolini, the son of the dictator, created a national production company and organized the work of the most gifted authors, directors and actors (including even some political opponents), thereby creating an interesting communication network among them, resulting in several famous friendships and, beyond that, stimulating cultural interaction. Notable directors that worked at Cinecitta include Roberto Rossellini, Federico Fellini and Michelangelo Antonioni among many others. Neorealism Italian cinema had only a small price to pay for dictatorship. With the approaching war, many works were produced for propaganda purposes, as is the case in many countries at-war. Nevertheless, in 1942, Alessandro Blasetti produced his Quattro passi fra le nuvole (Four Steps in the Clouds), which is the story of a humble employee, considered by many as the first neorealist work. Neorealism exploded soon after the war, with unforgettable works such as Rossellini's trilogy Rome, Open City (1945), Paisà (1946), and Germany Year Zero (1948), and with extraordinary actors such as Anna Magnani, as an attempt to describe the difficult economic and moral conditions of Italy and the changes in public mentality in everyday life. Also, because Cinecittà was occupied by refugees, films were shot outdoors, on the devastated roads of a defeated country. This genre soon also became an important political tool, although in most cases directors were able to keep a distinguishing barrier between art and politics. Poetry and cruelty of life were harmonically combined in the works that Vittorio De Sica wrote and directed together with screenwriter Cesare Zavattini: among them, Sciuscià (Shoeshine, 1946), Ladri di biciclette (The Bicycle Thieves, 1948) and Miracolo a Milano (Miracle in Milan, 1950). The sad, bitter Umberto D. (1952), the touching story of a poor old man with his little dog, whom life forces to beg for alms against his dignity in the loneliness of the new society, is perhaps De Sica's masterpiece and one of the most important works in Italian cinema. Baptized with a heavy polemic with government, that would have censored it for alleged anti-national sentiments, the film was not a commercial success and since then it has been shown on Italian television only a few times. Yet it is perhaps the most violent attack, in the apparent quietness of the action, against the rules of the new economy, the new mentality, the new values, and it happens to have at the same time both a conservative and a progressive view. Pink neorealism and comedy It has been said that after Umberto D. nothing more could be added to neorealism. Whether because of this, or for other reasons, neorealism effectively ended with this film. Following works turned toward lighter atmospheres, perhaps more coherent with the improving conditions of the country, and this genre has been called pink neorealism. It was this filone that allowed better "equipped" actresses to become real celebrities: the encouraging figures of Sophia Loren, Gina Lollobrigida, Silvana Pampanini, Lucia Bosé, Barbara Bouchet, together with other beauties like Eleonora Rossi Drago, Silvana Mangano, Claudia Cardinale, and Stefania Sandrelli populated the imaginations of Italians just before the so-called "boom" of the 1960s. Soon pink neorealism was replaced by the Commedia all'italiana (Italian Comedy Style), a unique genre that, born on an ideally humouristic line, talked instead very seriously about important social themes. At this time, on the more commercial side of production, the phenomenon of Totò, a Neapolitan actor who is acclaimed as the major Italian comic, exploded. His films (often with Peppino De Filippo and almost always with Mario Castellani) expressed a sort of neorealistic satire, in the means of a guitto as well as with the art of the great dramatic actor he also was, like Pier Paolo Pasolini would have shown. A "film-machine" who produced dozens of titles per year, his repertoire was frequently repeated. His personal story (a prince born in the poorest rione of Naples), his unique twisted face, his special mimic expressions and his gesture, created an inimitable personage and made this man one of the most beloved Italians in his own country. Italian Comedy is generally considered to have started with Mario Monicelli's I soliti Ignoti (Big Deal on Madonna Street) and derives its name from the title of Pietro Germi's Divorzio all'Italiana (Divorce Italian Style, 1961). For a long time this definition was used with a derogatory intention. Vittorio Gassman, Marcello Mastroianni, Ugo Tognazzi, Alberto Sordi, Claudia Cardinale, Monica Vitti and Nino Manfredi were among the stars of these movies, that described the years of the economical reprise and investigated Italian dress, a sort of self-ethnological research. In 1961, Dino Risi directed Il sorpasso, now a cult-movie, then Una vita difficile (A Difficult Life), I Mostri (The Monsters, also known as 15 From Rome), In nome del Popolo Italiano (In the Name of the Italian People) and Profumo di donna (Scent of a Woman). Monicelli's works include La grande guerra (The Great War), I compagni (Comrades, also known as The Organizer), L'Armata Brancaleone, Vogliamo i colonnelli (We Want the Colonels), Romanzo popolare (Popular Novel) and the Amici miei series. Peplum (aka Sword and Sandal) With the release of 1958's Hercules, starring American bodybuilder Steve Reeves, the Italian film industry suddenly had an entree into the American film market. These films, many with mythological or Bible themes, were cheap costume adventure dramas, and had immediate appeal with both European and American audiences. Besides the many films starring a variety of muscle men as Hercules, heroes such as Sampson and Italian fictional hero Maciste were common. Sometimes dismissed as low-quality escapist fare, the Peplums allowed burgeoning Direttores, such as Sergio Leone and Mario Bava, a means of breaking into the film industry. Some, such as Mario Bava's Hercules at the Center of the World are considered seminal works in their own right. As the genre matured, budgets sometimes increased, as evidenced in 1962's Sette Gladiatore (Gladiator Seven in 1964 US release), a wide-screen epic with impressive sets and matte-painting work. It should be noted that most Peplum films were in color, whereas previous Italian efforts had often been black and white. The Spaghetti Western On the heels of the Sword and Sandal craze, another genre, the Spaghetti Western began to achieve great success, not only in Italy, but throughout the world. These films differed from traditional westerns not only in that they were filmed in Italy on low budgets, but also by their unique, vivid cinematography. The most important and popular spaghetti westerns were those of Sergio Leone, whose Dollars Trilogy, consisting of A Fistful of Dollars, For a Few Dollars More, and The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly, which also featured Clint Eastwood and scores by Ennio Morricone, came to define the genre along with Once Upon a Time in the West. Also considered spaghetti westerns is a genre of film that married the traditional western ambiance with the comic tradition of the Commedia all'italiana. Included among such films are Lo chiamavano Trinità... and ...continuavano a chiamarlo Trinità, which featured Bud Spencer and Terence Hill, the stage names of Carlo Pedersoli and Mario Girotti, respectively. Auteurs Italy produced many auteurs throughout its history, including Federico Fellini, Roberto Rossellini, Vittorio De Sica, Michelangelo Antonioni, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Bernardo Bertolucci, Mario Bava, Marco Ferreri, Ermanno Olmi, Umberto Lenzi, Sergio Leone and Luchino Visconti. These directors works often span many decades and genres. Nowadays auteurs are Giuseppe Tornatore, Marco Bellocchio, Nanni Moretti, Gabriele Salvatores, Gianni Amelio and Paolo Sorrentino. Sophia Loren Wins Academy Award In 1961, Sophia Loren wins the Academy Award for Best Actress for her role as a woman who is raped with her adolescent daughter in World War II in Vittorio De Sica's Two Women. She became the first actress to win an Academy Award for a performance in any foreign language, second Oscar for an Italian leading lady after Anna Magnani. Thriller/Horror "Giallo" This Italian gore style is known collectively as "Giallo", which means yellow in Italian. During 1960s and 70s, Italians filmmakers Mario Bava, Riccardo Freda, Antonio Margheriti and Dario Argento developed horror films (belonging to the Giallo genre) that soon become classics and influence the genre in other countries. Representative films include: Black Sunday, Castle of Blood, Twitch of the Death Nerve, L'uccello dalle piume di cristallo, Profondo rosso and Suspiria. Following the 1960s boom of shockumentary "Mondo films" such as Gualtiero Jacopetti's Mondo Cane, during the late 1970s and early 1980s, Italian cinema became internationally synonymous with violent horror films. These films were primarily produced for the video market and were credited with fueling the "video nasty" era in the United Kingdom. Directors included Lucio Fulci, Joe D'Amato, Umberto Lenzi and Ruggero Deodato. Some of the most notorious films faced legal challenges in the United Kingdom, after the Video Recordings Act or 1984, it became a legal offense to possess a copy of such films as Cannibal Holocaust and SS Experiment Camp. Italian films of this period are usually grouped together as exploitation films. Italian studios were charged with stepping over the line in many countries with the late 70s series of Nazi exploitation films, which were inspired by American movies like Ilsa, She Wolf of the SS. These included the notorious but comparatively tame SS Experiment Camp and the far more graphic Gestapo's Last Orgy. These films showed, in great detail, sexual crimes against prisoners at concentration camps. These films are still banned in the United Kingdom and other countries. The crisis of the 1980s Between the late 1970s and mid-1980s, Italian cinema endured a long period of crisis. During this time, "art films" became increasingly isolated, separating from the mainstream Italian cinema. Among the major artistic films of this era were La città delle donne, E la nave va, Ginger and Fred by Fellini, L'albero degli zoccoli by Ermanno Olmi (winner of the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival), La notte di San Lorenzo by Paolo and Vittorio Taviani, Antonioni's Identificazione di una donna, and Bianca and La messa è finita by Nanni Moretti. Although not entirely Italian, Bertolucci's The Last Emperor, winner of 9 Oscars, and Once Upon a Time in America of Sergio Leone cannot be ignored. At the same time, "trash films" reached great success with the Italian public. Films of little artistic value, these comedies reached their popularity by confronting Italian social taboos, most notably in the sexual sphere. Several actors, including Lino Banfi, Diego Abatantuono, Alvaro Vitali, Gloria Guida, Barbara Bouchet and Edwige Fenech owe much of their popularity to these films. Also considered part of the trash genre are a group of films that have the ragionier Fantozzi, a comic personage invented by Paolo Villaggio, albeit his movies tend to bridge trash comedy with a more elevated social satire; this character had a great impact on Italian society, to such a degree that the adjective fantozziano entered the lexicon. Of the many films telling of Fantozzi's misadventures, the most notable were Fantozzi and Il secondo tragico Fantozzi. 1990 to today A new generation of directors has helped return Italian cinema to a healthy level since the end of the 1980s. The sign-bearer for this renaissance is Nuovo Cinema Paradiso, for which Giuseppe Tornatore won the Oscar for Best Foreign Film in 1990. This victory was followed two years later by another, when Gabriele Salvatores's Mediterraneo won the same prize. Another exploit was in 1998 when Roberto Benigni won three oscars for his movie Life Is Beautiful (La vita è bella) (Best Actor, Best Foreign Film, Best Music). In 2001 Nanni Moretti's film La stanza del figlio (The Son's Room) received the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival. Other recent films of note include: Jona che visse nella balena directed by Roberto Faenza, Il grande cocomero by Francesca Archibugi, Il mestiere delle armi by Olmi, L'ora di religione by Marco Bellocchio, Il ladro di bambini, Lamerica, Le chiavi di casa by Gianni Amelio, Io non ho paura by Gabriele Salvatores, Le fate ignoranti, La finestra di fronte by Ferzan Özpetek, La bestia nel cuore by Cristina Comencini. In 2008 Paolo Sorrentino's Il Divo, a biographical film based on the life of Giulio Andreotti, won the Jury prize and Gomorra, a crime drama film, directed by Matteo Garrone won the Gran Prix at the Cannes Film Festival. See also List of Italian movies List of film directors from Italy List of actors from Italy List of actresses from Italy History of cinema References Bacon, Henry. 1998. Visconti: Explorations of Beauty and Decay. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ben-Ghiat, Ruth. 'The Fascist War Trilogy'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey. Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI Bernardi, Sandro. 2000. 'Rosselini's Landscapes: Nature, Myth, History'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey. Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI Bondanella, Peter. 2002. The Films of Federico Fellini. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57573-7 Bondanella, Peter. 3rd edition. 2002. Italian Cinema: From Neorealism to the Present. New York and London: Continuum Celli, Carlo, Cottino-Jones, Marga. 2007. "A New Guide to Italian Cinema". New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Cherchi Usai, Paolo. 1997. ' Italy: Spectacle and Melodrama'. Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press. Clark, Martin. 1984. Modern Italy 1871-1982. London: Longman Forgacs, David. 2000. 'Introduction: Rossellini and the Critics'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey. Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey. Eds. 2000. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI Indiana, Gary. 2000. Salo or The 120 Days of Sodom. London, BFI Kemp, Philip. 2002. 'The Son's Room'. Sight and Sound. Vol 12 No 3 March p. 56 Landy, Marcia. 2000. Italian Film. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Mancini, Elaine. 1985 Struggles of the Italian Film Industry during Fascism 1930-1935 Ann Arbor: UMI Press Marcus, Millicent. 1993. Filmmaking by the Book. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press Marcus, Millicent. 1986. Italian Film in the Light of Neorealism. Princeton: Princeton University Press Morandini, Morando. 1997. ' Vittorio de Sica' . Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press. Morandini, Morando. 1997. 'Italy from Fascism to Neo-Realism'. Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press. Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey. 2003 3rd edition. Luchino Visconti. London: British Film Institute Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey. 2000. 'North and South, East and West': Rossellini and Politics. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey. Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI Rohdie, Sam. 2002. Fellini Lexicon. London: BFI Rohdie, Sam. 2000. 'India' Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey. Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI Rohdie, Sam. Rocco and his Brothers. London: BFI Sitney, P. Adams. 1995. Vital Crises in Italian Cinema. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77688-8 Sorlin, Pierre. 1996. Italian National Cinema. London: Routledge Wagstaff, Christopher. 2000. 'Rossellini and Neo-Realism'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey. Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI Wood, Mary. 2002. 'Bernado Bertolucci in context': Tasker Yvonne: Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers. London: Routledge Wood, Michael. 2003. 'Death becomes Visconti'. Sight and Sound, May 2003 Volume 13 Issue 5 , pp 24-27 External links european-films.net - Reviews, trailers, interviews, news and previews of recent and upcoming European films (in English) http://www.activitaly.it/activcinema_eng/activcinema_eng.htm - Italian cinema. The best Italian movie Cinema Italia Stills & Posters Gallery from the British Film Institute, (gallery navigation is on the left). Terrore Italiani: Detective Fiction and the Giallo http://www.italyatlantafilms.com - Italian film festival held from February to November in Atlanta. http://www.cinematrash.com - Italian Trash Cinema. Italian Cinema - Italian cinema links, movies and celebrities

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Meet_the_Feebles

Meet The Feebles (1989) is a black comedy film by director Peter Jackson. It features Jim Henson-esque puppets in a perverse comic satire. Like Henson's Muppets, the Feebles are animal-figured puppets (though some were people in suits) assembled together as members of a theatre troupe. However, whereas Henson's Muppets characterise the positivity, naïve folly, and innocence in humanity, the Feebles present negativity, vice, and other misanthropic characteristics. Plot summary Meet the Feebles tells the story of the Feebles theatre troupe. They are a group of performers who, that night, are going on live network TV. If they are good enough, they will get picked up for a syndicated network show and everyone will get rich. Scenes involving violence, sexually explicit images, drug dealing, back stabbing, date rape, and death (including a snuff film within the film) follow. Character list Robert (Wobert) (hedgehog) - A new member of the troupe. He has no vices. He falls in love with Lucile. Has a minor speech disorder: He pronounces the letter 'R' as sounding similar to the letter 'W'. Bletch (walrus) - The villainous boss of the troupe. He acts as producer for the Feebles troupe, runs porn and drug businesses on the side, and is mean as well. He is in a long-term relationship with Heidi while in an adulterous relationship with Samantha. He is killed by Heidi after she shoots him in the head, at the end of the movie. Heidi (hippo) - A singer and dancer, she is the big star of the show. She is in a relationship with Bletch. She has bipolar tendencies and when upset, she overeats. Lucile (poodle) - Chorus girl who falls in love with Robert after he courts her. At one point, Trevor drugs and attempts to rape her. Trevor (rat) - Bletch's enforcer. Directs pornography and manages the drug business on the side but he is murdered by Heidi. Arthur (worm) - The friendly stage manager. His appearance resembles a book worm. Is an avid cigar smoker. Sebastian (fox) - The homosexual stage director with a penchant for sodomy - including an entire song about it. It is presumed he lost an eye during the film's events since the epilogue for the surviving characters shows him with an eye patch. Wynyard (frog) - Addicted to "every barbiturate known to man". He is a Vietnam veteran who gets flashbacks about the war and throws knives for the show. He accidentally kills himself during his knife throwing performance. He could possibly be a parody of Kermit the Frog, and also the Reverend Jim character portrayed by Christopher Lloyd from the TV series Taxi. Samantha (cat) - A showgirl and Bletch's mistress. Harry (rabbit) - Satyristic MC who contracts "the big one", a fatal STD. It is apparently myxomatosis but Harry later finds out it's just "bunny pox." Fly-in-the-sky (fly) - Stereotypical paparazzo bent on breaking Harry's story. After he publishes it, Bletch and Trevor track him down, rip his wings off and flush him down a toilet. Sidney (Sid) (elephant) - Animal trainer who thinks that he has terrible luck. Though he initially denies being Seymour's father, when Seymour is threatened with death in the slaughter which closes the film, Sid acknowledges him and runs to his rescue. Sandy (chicken) - Has Sid's child out of wedlock. He denies it is his and for this, she is bringing a paternity suit against him. Seymour (hybrid) - The baby of Sidney and Sandy. He is a half elephant and half chicken hybrid. Barry (bulldog) - Bletch's driver and enforcer. After raiding the docks with Bletch and Trevor to gain drugs, a large spider bites off his head. Dennis (either an anteater or aardvark) - After "The Masked Masochist" dies, he is convinced by Trevor to take a part in the porn movie. It looks like semen drips from his nose and he has a penchant for sniffing panties. He dies after sniffing up borax. Abi (human) - The only human character, an Indian snake-charmer and contortionist who physically appears to be a parody of Gandhi. Gets his head stuck in his rectum and when he pulls it out, a bed of nails crushes him. Cedric (wild boar) - A Scottish boar who is part of a large gang, a golfer and tries to double cross Bletch in a drug deal. He is killed when Barry stabs him with a knife. Louie (dog) - Cedric's side-kick who is a stereotypical "mangy mutt". He is killed by being force fed borax by Bletch after finding out the drug trade was a scam. Mr. Big (whale) - Cedric and Louie's boss. Bletch orders Trevor to drive his car through Mr. Big's mouth and they exit out of his anus. Madam Bovine (cow) - Heavily pierced and large-uddered cow who stars in Trevor's porn. She is never seen again after the filming of the porn with Dennis. "The Masked Masochist" (cockroach) - Actor in Trevor's porn. Dies after Madam Bovine unknowingly crushes his face and suffocates him. Trevor feeds his body to a monstruous whale-like creature. Dorothy (dog) - One of the few minor characters of the theater troupe that is given a name. Her name is mentioned by Heidi before the show's debut. Dr. Quack (duck) - Harry's doctor who told Harry about his illness but later told him the truth when he found out what it really was. The ending sees Heidi go on a shooting spree with an M60 machine gun and killing Samantha, Harry, Sandy, Dorothy, Trevor and Bletch, among other surviving (nameless) members of the troupe. There is a brief epilogue sequence in which the fates of the notable survivors are shown. Sydney underwent surgery on his kneecap injuries and lives as a horticulturist with his son Seymour. Arthur received an OBE for lifelong service to the theatre and retired to the country. Sebastian wrote a book about the film's events which, it is indicated, may be less than accurate, and is currently negotiating the film rights. Robert and Lucile got married, started a family and Robert became a professional photographer for a women's magazine. Heidi spent a decade in a female penitentiary, was rehabilitated into the community and now works under a new identity at a large supermarket. Sub-plot summaries The plot follows several interconnected side stories. The Love Triangle The movie opens with a distraught Heidi who runs to Bletch after being insulted by Trevor. Bletch is having sex with Samantha, but hides the tryst. Although Bletch is physically disgusted with Heidi, he insincerely comforts her since he needs her talent on the show. Later outside, Samantha insults Heidi, claiming Bletch really wants Samantha. Distraught, Heidi drowns her sorrows in an entire chocolate cake, as she reminisces about her past romance with Bletch in a black-and-white flashback to her days as a lounge singer. The flatulence from the cake causes Heidi to lay waste to the set during the rehearsal of a feature number. Sebastian lambastes her for overeating and thus destroying the set. Heidi again rushes to Bletch for emotional affirmation, but he is unable to spare her the sight of Samantha performing oral sex on him. Heidi locks herself in her room and refuses to perform, but relents after Bletch has make-up sex with her. Heidi's performance secures the Feebles a syndicated series. Shortly afterwards, Heidi attempts to seduce Bletch in his office, but Bletch completely disowns her since Samantha can now be the star of the show. Unfortunately, Bletch is unaware of Heidi's extremely fragile mental state. Robert and Lucile Robert shows up for his first day as a cast member, and is accosted by the Fly, who tries to corrupt Robert into informing on the cast. Arthur rescues Robert and shows him around, where Robert sees Lucile for the first time. Although he is romantically terrified of her at first, he later summons up enough courage to ask her out and they fall in love. Later in the movie, Trevor drugs Lucile (to manipulate her into performing in his pornography films). Robert walks in on the drugging, but misinterprets it as Lucile's decision, and disowns her for being a drunk. They make up later after Robert saves her from Heidi's crazed gun rampage, and eventually get married. The Big One Dennis is shown peeping on Harry in a threesome with two female rabbits. Harry feels physically ill after this episode and is accosted by the Fly, who assumes he has an STD and wants to publish the scandal. Dr. Quack diagnoses Harry with "The Big One". After vomiting all over the stage in the live performance, he finally learns that he only has 'bunny pox'. Unfortunately, while rejoicing in the news that "The Big One" will not cause his death, Harry's head is blown apart by Heidi's gunshot rampage. The Fly publishes the scandal in a local tabloid - to the dismay of Bletch, who presumably wants to avoid negative press on the cast. Trevor lures the Fly into the washroom, where Bletch tears his wings off and flushes the Fly down the toilet. Sexcapades Trevor is shooting a porn movie in the basement with the Masked Masochist and Madam Bovine. They are interrupted by Robert, who mistakes the scene for torture and tries to save the cow, who in turn accidentally crushes the Masked Masochist, suffocating him. Trevor later replaces him with Dennis (who has a snout resembling male genitalia) to perform 'nasal sex' on Madam Bovine. Drug Running Trevor is approached by a sniveling Wynyard looking for his fix, but the drugs have not yet been delivered. Bletch is later shown on a golf course consummating a deal with Cedric. However, after testing on Dennis, the drugs provided by Cedric turn out to be household borax, infuriating Bletch. Louie (Cedric's agent) is literally liquidated after being force-fed some of the borax by Bletch's henchmen. Bletch and his cronies venture to the docklands to fight Cedric and his crab-crewmen. Bletch's side prevails after killing Cedric and the crabs, maneuvering past a huge spider, and driving through the insides of Cedric's boss Mr. Big. However, Barry's head is eaten by the spider. When the drugs finally arrive at the theatre, Wynyard is finally able to get his fix, which puts him into a stupor. The Show While the cast performs an opera number, Sebastian lambastes Robert for not acting his part as an extra on the stage. As punishment, he assigns Robert the task of being Wynyard's assistant, who was just killed by Wynyard's drug-withdrawal knife throwing. He later reluctantly approaches Wynyard, who is still in the throes of withdrawal. Wynyard guilt-trips Robert into giving him money after telling him a horror story about his time in Vietnam (shown as a flashback parody of the movie The Deer Hunter). He eventually gets his fix from Trevor and injects himself into a deep slumber. The show's acts gradually disintegrate - Heidi nearly destroys the set by botching a swing, the Indian mystic incapacitates himself by contorting his head into his rectum, and Sid's tribble-like pets are crushed by a barrel. Seeing his show in shambles, Sebastian tries to convince Bletch to feature his personal performance, the sexually explicit number 'Sodomy'. This is summarily rejected by Bletch, who physically throws Sebastian out of his office. Sebastian decides to use the number anyway and performs it in front of the live audience, to Bletch's horror. The Elephant and the Chicken Sandy accuses Sid of being the father of their chicken-elephant baby, to his dismay and denial. During the live show, Sandy again accosts Sid on stage with the paternity suit. During a later tragic crossfire scene, Sid braves the crazed Heidi's automatic fire to save his baby. His heroism costs the elephant two bloody knee wounds, and he accidentally crushes Sandy's shot-off head after it squawks out one final invective. The Climax While the live show is proceeding elsewhere, Heidi attempts suicide by hanging, but her weight breaks the chandelier from the ceiling and she falls through the floor. She makes her way to Bletch's machine gun and tries to kill herself, but at the last moment, Samantha shows up and taunts her. She responds by pumping Samantha full of lead, then rampages over the entire set. She finally finds Bletch and pumps many rounds into him as well - although she feels terribly guilty doing so. Realizing that she killed her love, she gives up her gun and sadly sings "Garden of Love", leading into the epilogue and credits. Cultural impact The movie has become a cult classic, and has enjoyed great popularity since Jackson's success with The Lord of the Rings. During his acceptance speech at the 2004 Academy Awards, Peter Jackson mentioned the movie, noting that it had been "wisely overlooked by the Academy." Cast (voice only) Donna Akersten as Samantha the Cat / The Sheep Stuart Devenie as Sebastian / Dr. Quack / Daisy the Cow / Sandy the Chicken Mark Hadlow as Heidi / Robert / Barry the Bulldog Brian Sergent as Wynyard the Frog / Trevor the Rat / The Fly Peter Vere-Jones as Bletch / Arthur the Worm Mark Wright as Sid the Elephant / The Cockroach / Louie the Fish Danny Mulheron as Heidi the Hippo Jay Snowfield as Killer man Doug Wren as Bletch Trivia Money ran out during production, so the flashback to Vietnam was quietly filmed separately (with a different budget) as The Frogs of War. This scene includes a game of Russian roulette as a parody of The Deer Hunter. The Jesus Christ in the Feebles universe appears to be a Kermit the Frog-like frog. This is shown in the form of a crucifix held by Harry when he is praying to God to recover from his sickness. The dialogue was recorded before shooting began. It is often mistakenly stated that there are no human characters in the film; the character Abi is a human. However, there are no real-life human characters in the film. Tech metal band Meshuggah cited Meet The Feebles as one of their sources of inspiration for their Destroy Erase Improve album in the booklet. Peter Jackson has a cameo as an audience member dressed as an alien from "Bad Taste". Brisbane 90's band Feebles Junky was made up of a collective of friends (including Andrew G of Australian idol fame) who were massive fans of this film. The film was originally conceived for Japanese television and only belatedly became a feature; as such, the script was hastily re-written to be longer. According to the Internet Movie Database trivia for the film, the production team could not get hold of blank rounds for the M60 machine gun used in the movie and therefore the gun was firing live ammunition. Every vehicle seen in the movie is a variation on the Morris Minor, including a specially constructed limousine. Morris Minors also appear in Jackson's other movies Bad Taste and Braindead See also New Zealand humour Adult puppeteering External links Meet The Feebles - Fan site

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June

June is the sixth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with a length of 30 days. The month is named after the Roman goddess Juno, wife of Jupiter and equivalent to the Greek goddess Hera. See:- Months in various calendars At the start of June, the sun rises in the constellation of Taurus; at the end of June, the sun rises in the constellation of Gemini. However, due to the precession of the equinoxes, June begins with the sun in the astrological sign of Gemini, and ends with the sun in the astrological sign of Cancer. June is the month with the longest daylight hours of the year in the Northern Hemisphere and the shortest daylight hours of the year in the Southern Hemisphere. June in the Northern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent to December in the Southern Hemisphere and vice versa. The month of June—in the Northern Hemisphere—is in Spring until the 21st, when the first day of summer begins. The traditional June birthstone is the pearl. The June birth flower is the rose, or the honeysuckle, as roses and honeysuckles bloom throughout June. June is also sometimes called the "Rose month." June is known for the large number of marriages that occur over the course of the month. June is named after Juno (Hera). Juno was the goddess of marriage and a married couple's household, so some consider it good luck to be married in this month. In both common and leap years, no other month begins on the same day of the week as June. This month and May are the only two months that have this. Events in June June, from the Très riches heures du duc de Berry June, Leandro Bassano Trooping the Colour is celebrated in June in London Madaraka Day June 1 to commemorate when Kenya gained internal self-rule. Flag Days of Sweden (June 6), United States (June 14 — see Flag Day in the United States), Denmark (June 15), Argentina (June 20), and Romania (June 26). D-Day landings by Allied forces in Normandy, June 6th, 1944. Kamehameha Day, on June 11, is a state holiday in Hawaii, US, honoring the first ruler of the one-time kingdom. Philippine Independence Day is on June 12. Feast of St. Anthony of Padua June 13 United Kingdom – Trooping the Colour (Military celebration of the monarch's official birthday held in London on the second Saturday of June) Bloomsday in Ireland, and worldwide among fans of James Joyce's Ulysses June 16 Youth Day in South Africa June 16 The Comrades in South Africa June 16. Juneteenth, (aka Freedom Day or Emancipation Day) primarily in Texas June 19, "Martyrs Day" in Eritrea June 20 West Virginia Day in the U.S. state of West Virginia June 20. The solstice called the Summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and the Winter solstice in the southern hemisphere occurs on dates varying from 22 June to 23 June (in UTC). In the pagan wheel of the year the summer solstice is the time of Litha and the winter solstice is that of Yule. Feast of the Birth of St. John the Baptist (Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day in Quebec) June 24. Feast of St. Peter and St. Paul, principal patrons of the Roman Catholic Church, June 29 Mother's Day (in Luxembourg on the second Sunday in June) Father's Day (in Belgium on the second Sunday in June) (in the United States, the United Kingdom, Mexico, the Netherlands, Ireland and Canada on the third Sunday in June) Midsummer is celebrated in Finland and Sweden on the third Friday in June. Gay pride celebrations take place in many countries in honour of the Stonewall riots. The majority of the Portland Rose Festival occurs. The first Monday in June is one of the public holidays in the Republic of Ireland; in the Irish Calendar the month is called Meitheamh and is the middle month of the summer season. Secondary schools are off during the month (and also July and August), while June is the last month in primary schools. The second Sunday in June is Canadian Rivers Day. Children's Day celebrated in many eastern European countries including Poland, Slovakia, Romania as well as China and other countries throughout the world. June symbols Red and white roses. June's birthstone is the pearl, the Moonstone (gemstone), and the Alexandrite. The meaning is health & longevity. Its birth flower is the rose. http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/ References be-x-old:Чэрвень

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Music_of_India

The music of India includes multiple varieties of folk, popular, pop, classical music and R&B. India's classical music tradition, including Carnatic and Hindustani music, has a history spanning millennia and, developed over several eras, it remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment. India is made up of several dozen ethnic groups, speaking their own languages and dialects, having very distinct cultural traditions. Classical music The two main traditions of classical music which have been Carnatic music, found predominantly in the peninsular regions and Hindustani music, found in the northern and central parts. While both traditions claim Vedic origin, history indicates that the two traditions diverged from a common musical root since c. 13th century. Hindustani music (hindusthānī) Hindustani music is an Indian classical music tradition that go back to Vedic times, and further developed circa the 13th and 14th centuries AD with Persian influences and from existing religious and folk music. The practice of singing based on notes was popular even from the Vedic times where the hymns in Sama Veda, a sacred text, was sung as Samagana and not chanted. Developing a strong and diverse tradition over several centuries, it has contemporary traditions established primarily in India but also in Pakistan and Bangladesh. In contrast to Carnatic music, the other main Indian classical music tradition (originating from the South), Hindustani music was not only influenced by ancient Hindu musical traditions, Vedic philosophy and native Indian sounds but also enriched by the Persian performance practices of the Mughals. Besides pure classical, there are also several semi-classical forms such as thumri and tappa. Check out some North Indian music, video and audio streams, at Ragmala Television and Radio presented by the Batish Institute of India Music and Fine Arts Carnatic music (karnātic) The present form of Carnatic music is based on historical developments that can be traced to the 15th - 16th centuries AD and thereafter. From the ancient Sanskrit works available, and the several epigraphical inscriptional evidences, the history of classical musical traditions can be traced back to about 2500 years. Carnatic music is completely melodic, with improvised variations. The main emphasis is on vocal music; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in a singing style (known as gāyaki). Like Hindustani music, Carnatic music rests on two main elements: , the modes or melodic formulæ, and , the rhythmic cycles. http://www.carnatic.com What is Carnatic Music Purandara Dasa is credited with having founded today's Carnatic Music. He systematized the teaching method by framing a series of graded lessons such as swaravalis, janta swaras, alankaras, lakshana geetas, prabandhas, ugabhogas, thattu varase, geetha, sooladis and kritis. He introduced the Mayamalavagaula as the basic scale for music instruction. These are followed by teachers and students of Carnatic music even today. Another of his important contributions was the fusion of bhava, raga and laya in his compositions. Purandara Dasa was the first composer that started commenting on the daily life of the people in compositions. He incorporated in his songs popular folk language and introduced folk ragas in the mainstream. The most important contribution he made was the fusion of bhava, raga and laya into organic units. He also composed a large number of lakshya and lakshana geetas, many of which are sung to this day. His sooladis exhibit his mastery of the techniques of music, and are considered an authority for raga lakshana. Scholars attribute the standardization of varna mettus entirely to Purandaradasa. Purandaradasa's era was probably the beginning of Carnatic music's movement towards krithi based classical music (one of its distinguishing characteristics compared to Hindustani). The peripatetic dasas who followed him are believed to have followed the systems he devised, as well as orally passing down his compositions. Purandaradasa was a performer, a musicologist and the father of Carnatic musical pedagogy. He is credited with having elevated Carnatic music from religious and devotional music into the realm of a performing art. For all these reasons and the enormous influence that he had on Carnatic music, musicologists call him the "Sangeeta Pitamaha" or the grandfather of Carnatic music. Popular Carnatic vocalists of today include M. Balamuralikrishna, Nithyashree Mahadevan, Sudha Ragunathan, P. Unni Krishnan, Aruna Sairam, Priya Sisters, S. Sowmya, Sanjay Subrahmanyan, Sreevalsan J. Menon, Bombay Jayashri Ramnath, Ranjani & Gayatri, Vijay Siva, O. S. Arun, O. S. Thyagarajan, T. M. Krishna, Malladi Brothers - Sriram Prasad & Ravikumar, Sriram Parasuram & Anuradha Parasuram, Sikkil C. Gurucharan, Vishakha Hari, S. Kasthurirangan and Singapore V.S.Hari. Folk music A pair of Indian folk musicians performing in a rural village Bauls The Bauls of Bengal were an order of musicians in 18th, 19th and early 20th century India who played a form of music using a khamak, ektara and dotara. The word Baul comes from Sanskrit batul meaning divinely inspired insanity. They are a group of mystic minstrels. They are thought to have been influenced greatly by the Hindu tantric sect of the Kartabhajas as well as by Sufi sects. Bauls travel in search of the internal ideal, Maner Manush (Man of the Heart). Bhangra Bhangra is a lively form of music and dance that originated in the Punjab region. As many Bhangra lyrics reflect the long and often tumultuous history of the Punjab, knowledge of Punjabi history offers important insights into the meaning of the music. While Bhangra began as a part of harvest festival celebrations, it eventually became a part of such diverse occasions as weddings and New Year celebrations. Moreover, during the last thirty years, Bhangra has enjoyed a surge in popularity worldwide, both in traditional form and as a fusion with genres such as hip-hop, house, and reggae, and in such forms it has become a pop sensation in the United Kingdom and North America. Rabbi Shergill is not a Bhangra artist, but is a punjabi singer, and is a great example. Bhavageete Bhavageete (literally "emotion(al) song") is a form of expressionist poetry and light music. Some notable Bhavageete performers include Gantasala, P. Kalinga Rao, Mysore Ananthaswamy, C. Aswath, Shimoga Subbanna, Archana Udupa, and Raju Ananthaswamy. Dandiya Dandiya is a form of dance-oriented folk music that has also been adapted for pop music. The present musical style is derived from the traditional musical accompaniment to the folk dance. Lavani Lavani comes from the word Lavanya which means beauty. This is one of the most popular forms of dance and music that is practiced all over Maharashtra. It has in fact become a necessary part of the Maharashtrian folk dance performances. Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artistes, but male artistes may occasionally sing Lavanis. The dance format associated with Lavani is known as Tamasha. Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the enchanting beats of 'Dholak', an drum like instrument. Dance performed by attractive women wearing nine-yard saris. They are sung in a quick tempo. The verve, the enthusiasm, the rhythm and above all the very beat of India finds an expressive declaration amidst the folk music of India, which has somewhat, redefined the term "bliss". Lavani originated in the arid region of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Popular music The biggest form of Indian popular music is filmi, or songs from Indian musical films. The film industry of India supported music by according reverence to classical music while utilizing the western orchestration to support Indian melodies. Music composers like Naushad, Vasant Desai, Shankar Jaikishan, C. Ramchandra, Salil Chowdhary and S.D. Burman employed the principles of harmony while retaining classical and folk flavor. Reputed names in the domain of Indian classical music like Pt. Ravi Shankar, Ustad Vilayat Khan, Ustad Ali Akbar Khan and Pt. Ramnarayan have also composed music for films. Independent pop acts such as Asha Bhosle, Alisha Chinai, Shaan, Madhushree, Shreya Ghoshal, Nihira Joshi, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Sonu Nigam, Sukhwinder Singh, Kunal Ganjawala, Sunidhi Chauhan, Alka Yagnik and rock bands like Indus Creed, Indian Ocean, and Euphoria exist and have gained mass appeal with the advent of cable music television. Qawwali Qawwali is a Sufi form of devotional music based on the principles of classical music. It is performed with one or two lead singers, several chorus singers, harmonium, tabla, and dholak. Rabindra Sangeet Rabindranath Tagore was a towering figure in Indian music. Writing in Bengali, he created a library of over 2,000 songs now known by Bengalis as 'rabindra sangeet' whose form is primarily influenced by Hindustani classical, sub-classicals, Karnatic, western, bauls, bhatiyali and different folk songs of India. Many singers in West Bengal, and Bangladesh base their entire careers on the singing of Tagore musical masterpieces. The national anthem of India and national song of Bangladesh are Rabindra Sangeets. Rajasthan Rajasthan has a very diverse cultural collection of musician castes, including Langas, Sapera, Bhopa, Jogi and Manganiyar. Rajasthan Diary quotes it as a soulful, full-throated music with Harmonious diversity. The haunting melody of Rajasthan evokes from a variety of delightfully primitive looking instruments. The stringed variety include the Sarangi, Rawanhattha, Kamayacha, Morsing and Ektara. Percussion instruments come in all shapes and sizes from the huge Nagaras and Dhols to the tiny Damrus. The Daf and Chang are a big favourite of Holi (the festival of colours) revellers. Flutes and bagpipers come in local flavours such as Shehnai, Poongi, Algoza, Tarpi, Been and Bankia. The essence of Rajasthani music is derived from the creative symphony of string instruments, percussion instruments and wind instruments accompanied by melodious renditions of folk singers. It enjoys a respectable presence in Bollywood music as well. Interaction with non-Indian music In the late 1970s and early 1980s, rock and roll fusions with Indian music were well-known throughout Europe and North America. Ali Akbar Khan's 1955 performance in the United States was perhaps the beginning of this trend. Jazz pioneers such as John Coltrane—who recorded a composition entitled 'India' during the November 1961 sessions for his album Live At The Village Vanguard (the track was not released until 1963 on Coltrane's album Impressions)—also embraced this fusion. George Harrison (of the Beatles) played the sitar on the song "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)" in 1965, which sparked interest from Shankar, who subsequently took Harrison as his apprentice. Jazz innovator Miles Davis recorded and performed with musicians like Khalil Balakrishna, Bihari Sharma, and Badal Roy in his post-1968 electric ensembles. Virtuoso jazz guitarist John McLaughlin spent several years in Madurai learning Carnatic music and incorporated it into many of his acts including Shakti which featured prominent Indian musicians. Other Western artists such as the Grateful Dead, Incredible String Band, the Rolling Stones, the Move and Traffic soon incorporated Indian influences and instruments, and added Indian performers. Legendary Grateful Dead frontman Jerry Garcia joined guitarist Sanjay Mishra on his classic cd "Blue Incantation" (1995). Mishra also wrote an original score for French Director Eric Heumann for his film Port Djema (1996) which won best score at Hamptons film festival and The Golden Bear at Berlin. in 2000 he recorded Rescue with drummer Dennis Chambers (Carlos Santana, John McLaughlin et al.) and in 2006 Chateau Benares with guests DJ Logic and Keller Williams (guitar and bass). Though the Indian music craze soon died down among mainstream audiences, diehard fans and immigrants continued the fusion. A 1985 release shook the US airwaves with a ground shaking, beat oriented, Raga Rock hybrid called Sitar Power. It was from Indian sitar wizard Ashwin Batish. Ashwin had been heavily involved with classical North India music and was classically trained by his father Pandit Shiv Dayal Batish. Sitar Power, with its catchy melodies and humorous song titles like the Bombay Boogie, Raga Rock, New Delhi Vice and Sitar Magic, quickly garnered heavy airplay amongst NPR and college radio in US and Canada. It drew the attention of a number of record labels and was snapped up by Shanachie Records of New Jersey to head their World Beat Ethno Pop division. Sitar Power 1 was followed up by Sitar Power 2 with more fusions of rock, jazz, hip-hop, country, R&B and jazz. Ashwin's special brand of fusion music has today become a favorite download on iTunes and Amazon.com In the late 1980s, Indian-British artists fused Indian and Western traditions to make the Asian Underground. Since the 90's, Canadian born musician Nadaka who has spent most of his life in India, has been creating music that is an acoustic fusion of Indian classical music with western styles. One such singer who has merged the Bhakti sangeet tradition of India with the western non-India music is Krishna Das and sells music records of his musical sadhana. In the new millennium, American hip-hop has featured Indian Filmi and Bhangra. Mainstream hip-hop artists have sampled songs from Bollywood movies and have collaborated with Indian artists. Examples include Timbaland's "Indian Flute", Erick Sermon and Redman's "React", Slum Village's "Disco", and Truth Hurts' hit song "Addictive", which sampled a Lata Mangeshkar song, and the Black Eyed Peas sampled Asha Bhosle's song "Yeh Mera Dil" in their hit single "Don't Phunk With My Heart". In 1997, the British band Cornershop paid tribute to Asha Bhosle with their song Brimful of Asha, which became an international hit. British-born Indian artist Panjabi MC also had a Bhangra hit in the U.S. with "Mundian To Bach Ke" which featured rapper Jay-Z. Asian Dub Foundation are not huge mainstream stars, but their politically-charged rap and punk rock influenced sound has a multi-racial audience in their native UK. Recently international star Snoop Dogg appeared in a song in the film Singh Is Kinng. Sometimes, the music of India will fuse with the traditional music of other countries. For example, Delhi 2 Dublin , a band based in Canada, is known for fusing Indian and Irish music, and Bhangraton is a fusion of Bhangra music with reggaeton, which itself is a fusion of hip hop, reggae, and traditional Latin American music. Modern music Indi-pop music Indian pop music, often known as Indipop or Indi-pop, is based on an amalgamation of Indian folk and classical music, and modern beats from different parts of the world. Indian popular music began initially with root-grass efforts made by Pakistani famous singers Nazia Hassan and Zohaib Hassan.The indian pop music is largely catered by indian filmy music and the Pakistani famous pop music.In fact almost all Pakistani artists and bands are extremely popular among indians like Vital sign, Junoon, fusion, strings, Reath, Jal are some famous bands from Pakistan while famouse pop artists are Junaid jamshed, Nazia and Zohaib Hassan, Ali Hyder, Sajjad Ali, Atif Aslam, Shehzad Roy, Ali Azmat, Ali Zafar, Hadiqa Kiani, Najum Sheraz, Saleem Javed and many more. Much of Indian Pop music comes from the Indian Film Industry, and until the 1990s, few singers like Usha Uthup, Sharon Prabhakar, and Peenaz Masani outside it were popular. Since then, pop singers in the latter group have included Baba Sehgal, Alisha Chinai, Shantanu Mukherjee aka Shaan, Sagarika, Colonial Cousins (Hariharan, Leslie Lewis), Lucky Ali, and Sonu Nigam, and music composers like Jawahar Wattal, who made top selling albums with, Daler Mehndi, Shubha Mudgal, Baba Sehgal, Swetha Shetty and Hans Raj Hans Music man with a golden touch The Hindu, December 9, 2002."..Daler Mehndi's "Dardi Rab Rab" and "Ho Jayegi Balle Balle", Shubha Mudgal's "Ali More Angana", Shweta Shetty's "Deewane To Deewane Hain", Hans Raj Hans' "Jhangar", Bhupi Chawla's "Jogiya Khalli Balli", Ila Arun's "Haule Haule", Malkit Singh's "Paaro", Ali Haider's "Mahi O Mahi" and Sujat Khan's "Lajo Lajo". Besides those listed above, popular Indi-Pop singers include Zubeen Garg,Daler Mehndi, Raghav Sachar Rageshwari, Devika Chawla, Bombay Vikings, Asha Bhosle, Sunidhi Chauhan, Bombay Rockers, Anu Malik, Jazzy B, Malkit Singh, Hans Raj Hans, Raghav, Jay Sean, Juggy D, Rishi Rich, Sheila Chandra, Bally Sagoo, Punjabi MC, Bhangra Knights, Mehnaz, and Sanober. Recently, Indian pop has taken an interesting turn with the "remixing" of songs from past Indian movie songs, new beats being added to them. Rock & Metal music The rock music "scene" in India is extremely small when compared to filmi or fusion music "scenes" but has of recent years come into its own, achieving a cult status of sorts. Rock music in India has its origins in 1960s and 70's when international stars such as The Beatles visited India and brought their music with them. These artistes' collaboration with Indian musicians such as Ravi Shankar and Zakir Hussain have led to the development of Raga Rock. However Indian Rock Bands began to gain prominence only much later, around the late 1980s. It was around this time that the rock band Indus Creed formerly known as The Rock Machine got itself noticed on the international stage with hits like Rock N Roll Renegade. Other bands quickly followed. As of now, the rock music scene in India is quietly growing day by day and gathering more support. With the introduction of MTV in the early 1990s, Indians began to be exposed to various forms of rock such as grunge and speed metal. This influence can be clearly seen in many Indian bands today. The cities of Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore have emerged as major melting pots for rock and metal enthusiasts. Some prominent bands include Indian Ocean,Parikrama, Pentagram, Hologram, Thermal and a Quarter,No Idea(indian band), Zero, Half step down, Scribe, Indus Creed, Demonic Resurrection, PRITHVI, Agni, Exiled, Cassini's Division, The Supersonics, Span, Camouflage, Five Little Indians and Nexus. The future looks encouraging thanks to entities such as DogmaTone Records, Eastern fare music foundation, that are dedicated to promoting and supporting Indian Rock. One of the most famous rock musicians in the world is the late Freddie Mercury of Queen. Born Farrokh Bomi Bulsara to Indian parents in Zanzibar, he was raised in Panchgani near Mumbai. Mercury was influenced early on by the Bollywood playback singer Lata Mangeshkar along with western influences such as Led Zeppelin, Jimi Hendrix, John Lennon and The Beatles. Dance music Western classical music The spread and following of Western Classical Music in India is almost entirely non-existent. It is mainly patronized by the Indian Zoroastrian community and small esoteric groups with historical exposure to Western Classical Music. There are practically no conservatories, opera companies or working symphonies that cater to Western Classical music. Western Music education is also severely neglected and pretty rare in India. Western Keyboard, drums and guitar instruction being an exception as it has found some interest; mainly in an effort to create musicians to service contemporary popular Indian music. Many reasons have been citied for the obscurity of Western Classical Music in India, a country rich in its musical heritage by its own right, however the two main reasons are an utter lack of exposure and a passive disinterest in what is considered esoteric at best. Also, the difficulty in importing Western Musical instruments and their rarity has also contributed to the obscurity of Classical Western music. Despite more than a century of exposure to Western classical music and two centuries of British colonialism, classical music in India has never gained more than 'fringe' popularity. Many attempts to popularize Western Classical Music in India have failed in the past due to disinterest and lack of sustained efforts, most notably in the setting up of the Bombay Symphony Orchestra by Mehli Mehta in the 1930s. In 2006 at Mumbai (Bombay), the National Centre for the Performing Arts was established with a grant of Rs 4 million from the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust (an eminent Indian-Zoroastrian entrepreneur) and the collaboration of other corporate houses to promote Western Classical music and visual arts. It was designed to accommodate performance of symphony orchestras and Operas. However, there are still no schools of repute that train musicians in Western classical music or vocalists in Opera to this day. Most Indians in Western classical music reside outside India in countries with adequate training and performance opportunities. Some prominent Indians in Western classical music are: A. R. Rahman, Music Director, Composer, Singer. Specialized in Western Classical from Trinity University(OXFORD). Zubin Mehta, Renowned music conductor. Mehli Mehta, Father of Zubin, violinist and founding conductor of the Bombay Symphony Orchestra. Naresh Sohal, British Indian-born composer. Param Vir, British Indian-born composer. Sandee Bhagwati, German Indian-born composer. Opera singers: Amar Muchhala, Anando Mukerjee Further reading Maycock, Robert and Hunt, Ken. "How to Listen - a Routemap of India". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 63–69. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0 Hunt, Ken. "Ragas and Riches". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 70–78. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0. See also Indian musical instruments List of regional genres of music References

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Lydia

Ancient Region of AnatoliaLydia (Λυδία) Byzantine shops at Sardis Location Western Anatolia State existed: 15-14th c. BC (as Arzawa)1200-546 BC Language Lydian Historical capitals Sardis Famous rulers Gyges, Croesus Persian satrapy Lydia Roman province Asia, Lydia Lydia (Assyrian: Luddu; ) was an Iron Age kingdom of western Asia Minor located generally east of ancient Ionia in the modern Turkish provinces of Manisa and inland İzmir. Its population spoke an Anatolian language known as Lydian. At its greatest extent, the Kingdom of Lydia covered all of western Anatolia. Lydia was later the name for a Roman province. Coins were invented in Lydia around 660 BC. Defining Lydia Aside from a legend related by Herodotus, Book I Chapter 7. who states that the name Lydia came from king Lydus at the time of the fall of Troy (the Bronze Age), and that Lydus' brother Tyrrhenus led the Tyrrhenians (Etruscans) to Italy, the name Lydia is limited to Greek and Assyrian records and Biblical passages no earlier than the 8th century BC. It seems to be associated with Guggu of Luddu (Gyges) in Assyrian records, who acceded to the throne about 680 BC as the first of the Mermnad Dynasty. Despite events portrayed as historic in Virgil's epic poem the Aeneid, the Bronze Age Sea People called the Teresh and the Etruscan-like language of the Lemnos stele, the recent decipherment of Lydian and its classification as an Anatolian language mean that Etruscan and Lydian were not even in the same language family; moreover, there is no substantial evidence of Etruscans in Lydia. Since Ionia was between historical Lydia and the sea, the Lydians had no coastline from as early as at least the 10th century BC from which to launch and maintain fleets. Historic Lydia was not a maritime power, and there is no documentary evidence of any state or people possibly called Luddu before the 8th century BC. While the Hebrew Bible mentions Lud in three different places, scholars of various religions are not agreed as to whether all these represent the same entity. The only instance generally agreed to refer to the Anatolian Lydia occurs in Isaiah 66:19 where Lud is listed with Javan (Ionia) as being one of the people "that draw the bow" who have not heard of God. The name Lydia and its Biblical and Assyrian forms appear to have been or were derived from an exonym assigned by the Ionian Greeks (who invaded the coastal part of their country) on the basis of some now unknown understanding. The endonym survives in a larger and more official body of records inscribed in bilingual and trilingual stone-carved notices of the Achaemenid Empire: Lydian Śfard, the satrapy of Sparda (Old Persian), Aramaic Saparda, Babylonian Sapardu, Elamitic Išbarda. These in the Greek tradition are associated with Sardis, the capital city of Gyges, constructed in the 7th century BC. The inscriptions mean, however, the entire state; moreover, the entire people. This array of names evidences the development of the Lydian language itself: Anatolian p became f and there was extensive syncope of vowels. Saparda must precede Śfard. If the Sepharad of the Hebrew Bible is Śfard that word can be dated to at least as early as 600 BC, before the Persians invaded Lydia. Like the Lydian language, the names Lydia and Śfard seem to have appeared out of the Greek Dark Ages without documentation of their immediate precedents or any known connections to the historical records of the Bronze Age. The cultural ancestors appear to have been associated with or part of the Luwian political entity of Arzawa and yet Lydian is not part of the Luwian subgroup (as is Carian and Lycian). The ancestral population was Anatolian but not Luwian. In this gap the Greeks placed the Maeonians of the Trojan Battle Order but the connections are essentially legendary; no documents illuminate them. Geography The boundaries of historical Lydia varied across the centuries. It was first bounded by Mysia, Caria, Phrygia and coastal Ionia. Later on, the military power of Alyattes and Croesus expanded Lydia into an empire, with its capital at Sardis, which controlled all Asia Minor west of the River Halys, except Lycia. Lydia never again shrank back into its original dimensions. After the Persian conquest the Maeander was regarded as its southern boundary, and under Rome, Lydia comprised the country between Mysia and Caria on the one side and Phrygia and the Aegean on the other. Language The Lydian language was an Indo-European language in the Anatolian language family, related to Luwian and Hittite. It used many prefixes and particles. Lydia Lydian finally became extinct during the first century BC. History Early history: Maeonia and Lydia Lydia arose as a Neo-Hittite kingdom following the collapse of the Hittite Empire in the twelfth century BC. In Hittite times, the name for the region had been Arzawa, a Luwian-speaking area. According to Greek source, the original name of the Lydian kingdom was Maionia (or Maeonia): Homer (Iliad ii. 865; v. 43, xi. 431) refers to the inhabitants of Lydia as Maiones (Μαίονες). Homer describes their capital not as Sardis but as Hyde (Iliad xx. 385); Hyde may have been the name of the district where Sardis stood. See Strabo xiii.626. Later, Herodotus (Histories i. 7) adds that the "Meiones" were renamed Lydians after their king, Lydus (Λυδός), son of Attis, in the mythical epoch that preceded the rise of the Heracleid dynasty. This etiological eponym served to account for the Greek ethnic name Lydoi (Λυδοί). The Hebrew term for Lydians, (לודים), as found in Jeremiah 46.9, is similarly considered to be derived from the eponymous Lud son of Shem; in Biblical times, the Lydian warriors were also famous archers. Some Maeones still existed in historical times in the upland interior along the River Hermus, where a town called Maeonia existed, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History book v:30) and Hierocles. Lydia in Greek mythology Lydian mythology is virtually unknown, and their literature and rituals lost, in the absence of any monuments or archaeological finds with extensive inscriptions; therefore those myths involving Lydia are mainly in the realm of Greek mythology. For the Greeks, Tantalus was a primordial ruler of mythic Lydia, and Niobe his proud daughter; her husband Zethos linked the affairs of Lydia with Thebes, and through Pelops the line of Tantalus was part of the founding myths of Mycenae's second dynasty. In reference to the myth of Bellerophon, Karl Kerenyi remarked, in The Heroes of The Greeks 1959, p. 83. "As Lykia was thus connected with Crete, and as the person of Pelops, the hero of Olympia, connected Lydia with the Peloponnesos, so Bellerophontes connected another Asian country, or rather two, Lykia and Karia, with the kingdom of Argos." In Greek myth, Lydia was also the first home of the double-axe, the labrys. Sources noted in Karl Kerenyi, The Heroes of the Greeks 1959, p. 192. Omphale, daughter of the river Iardanos, was a ruler of Lydia, whom Heracles was required to serve for a time. His adventures in Lydia are the adventures of a Greek hero in a peripheral and foreign land: during his stay, Heracles enslaved the Itones, killed Syleus who forced passers-by to hoe his vineyard; slew the serpent of the river Sangarios; Thus appearing in the heavens as the constellation Ophiucus (Hyginus, Astronomica ii.14). and captured the simian tricksters, the Cercopes. Accounts speak of at least one son born to Omphale and Heracles: Diodorus Siculus (4.31.8) and Ovid (Heroides 9.54) mention a son Lamos, while pseudo-Apollodorus (Bibliotheke 2.7.8) gives the name Agelaus, and Pausanias (2.21.3) names Tyrsenus son of Heracles by "the Lydian woman." All three heroic ancestors indicate a Lydian dynasty claiming descent from Heracles. Herodotus (1.7) refers to a Heraclid dynasty of kings who ruled Lydia, yet were perhaps not descended from Omphale. He also mentions (1.94) the recurring legend that the Etruscan civilization was founded by colonists from Lydia led by Tyrrhenus, brother of Lydus. However, Dionysius of Halicarnassus was skeptical of this story, pointing out that the Etruscan language and customs were known to be totally dissimilar to those of the Lydians. Later chronographers also ignored Herodotus's statement that Agron was the first to be a king, and included Alcaeus, Belus, and Ninus in their list of kings of Lydia. Strabo (5.2.2) makes Atys, father of Lydus and Tyrrhenus, to be a descendant of Heracles and Omphale. All other accounts place Atys, Lydus, and Tyrrhenus among the pre-Heraclid kings of Lydia. The gold deposits in the river Pactolus that were the source of the proverbial wealth of Croesus (Lydia's last historical king) were said to have been left there when the legendary king Midas of Phrygia washed away the "Midas touch" in its waters. First coinage Early 6th century BC one-third stater coin. According to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coin, and the first to establish retail shops in permanent locations. Herodotus. Histories, I, 94 It is believed that these first stamped coins were minted around 650-600 BC. The first coin was made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver. It was made in the 1/3 stater (trite) denomination, meaning that it weighed 4.76 grams. It was stamped with a lion's head, the king's symbol. 14.1 grams of electrum was one stater (meaning "standard"). A stater was about one month's pay for a soldier. To complement the stater, fractions were made: the trite (third), the hekte (sixth), and so forth, including 1/24 of a stater, and even down to 1/48th and 1/96th of a stater. The 1/96 stater was only about 0.14 to 0.15 grams. The name of Croesus of Lydia became synonymous with wealth. Sardis was renowned as a beautiful city. Around 550 BC, Croesus paid for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Croesus was beaten by Cyrus II of Persia in 546 BC, and the kingdom became a satrapy. Autochthonous Dynasties Map of the Lydian Empire in its final period of sovereignty under Croesus, 6th century BC. Lydia was ruled by three dynasties: Atyads (1300BC or earlier) - Heraclids (Tylonids) (to 687 BC) According to Herodotus the Heraclids ruled for 22 generations during the period from 1185 BC, lasting for 505 years). Alyattes was the king of Lydia in 776 BC Lydian Period of Anatolia . The last king of this dynasty was Myrsilos or Candaules. Candaules - After ruling for seventeen years he was assassinated by his former friend Gyges, who succeeded him on the throne of Lydia. Mermnads Gyges, called Gugu of Luddu in Assyrian inscriptions (687-652 BC or (690-657 BC) - Once established on the throne, Gyges devoted himself to consolidating his kingdom and making it a military power. The capital moved from Hyde to Sardis. Barbarian Cimmerians sacked many Lydian cities, except for Sardis. Gyges was the son of Dascylus, who, when recalled from banishment in Cappadocia by the Lydian king Mursylos — called Candaules "the Dog-strangler" (a title of the Lydian Hermes) by the Greeks — sent his son back to Lydia instead of himself. Gyges turned to Egypt, sending his faithful Carian troops along with Ionian mercenaries to assist Psammetichus in shaking off the Assyrian yoke. Some Bible scholars believe that Gyges of Lydia was the Biblical figure of Gog, ruler of Magog, who is mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Revelation. Ardys II (652-621BC) Sadyattes (621-609BC) or (624-610BC) - Herodotus wrote (in Inquiries) that he fought with Cyaxares, the descendant of Deioces, and with the Medes, drove out the Cimmerians from Asia, took Smyrna, which had been founded by colonists from Colophon, and invaded Clazomenae and Miletus. Alyattes II (609 or 619-560BC) - one of the greatest rulers of Lydia. When Cyaxares attacked Lydia, the kings of Cilicia and Babylon intervened and negotiated a peace in 585 BC, whereby the Halys was established as the Medes' frontier with Lydia. Herodotus writes: "On the refusal of Alyattes to give up his supplicants when Cyaxares sent to demand them of him, war broke out between the Lydians and the Medes, and continued for five years, with various success. In the course of it the Medes gained many victories over the Lydians, and the Lydians also gained many victories over the Medes." The Battle of the Eclipse was the final battle in a fifteen-year war between Alyattes II of Lydia and Cyaxares of the Medes. It took place on May 28, 585 BC, and ended abruptly due to a total solar eclipse. Croesus (560-546 BC) - the expression "rich as Croesus" came from this king. The Lydian Empire came to an end when Croesus attacked the Persian Empire of Cyrus II and was defeated in 546 BC. Persian Empire In 546 BC, the Achaemenid king Cyrus II the Great captured Sardis and Lydia became his satrapy. Hellenistic Empire Lydia remained a satrapy after Persia's conquest by the Macedonian king Alexander III of Macedon. When Alexander's empire fell apart after his death, Lydia went to the major Asian diadoch dynasty, the Seleucids, and when it was unable to maintain its territory in Asia Minor, Lydia fell to the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum. Its last king avoided the spoils and ravage of a Roman conquest war by leaving the realm by testament to the Roman Empire. Roman province of Asia Roman province of Asia Photo of a 15th century map showing Lydia When the Romans entered its capital Sardis in 133 BC, Lydia, as the other western parts of the Attalid legacy, became part of the province of Asia, a very rich Roman province, worthy of a governor of the high rank of proconsul. The whole west of Asia Minor had Jewish colonies very early, and Christianity was also soon present there. Acts of the Apostles 16:14-15 mentions the baptism of a merchant woman called "Lydia" who came from Thyatira, in what had once been the satrapy of Lydia. Christianity spread rapidly in the 3rd century AD, centered on the nearby Exarchate of Ephesus. Roman province of Lydia Under the tetrarchy reform of Emperor Diocletian in 296 AD, Lydia was revived as the name of a separate Roman province, much smaller than the former satrapy, with its capital at Sardis. Together with the provinces of Caria, Hellespontus, Lycia, Pamphylia, Phrygia prima and secunda, Pisidia and the Insulae (Ionian islands), it formed the diocese (under a vicarius) of Asiana, which was part of the praetorian prefecture of Oriens, together with the dioceses Pontiana (most of the rest of Asia Minor), Oriens proper (mainly Syria), Aegyptus and Thraciae (on the Balkans, roughly Bulgaria). Under the Byzantine emperor Heraclius (610-641), Lydia became part of Anatolikon, one of the original themata, and later of Thrakesion. Although the Seljuk Turks conquered most of the rest of Anatolia for Islam, forming the Sultanate of Ikonion, Lydia remained part of the Byzantine Empire. During the occupation of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade, Lydia continued to be a part of the Byzantine orthodox 'Greek Empire' based at Nicaea. Under Turkish rule Lydia finally fell to new Turkish beyliks, which were all absorbed by the Ottoman state in 1390. The area became part of the Ottoman vilayet (province) of Aydin, ending up as the westernmost part of the modern republic of Turkey. Lydian gods Annat Anax Artimus Asterios Atergätus Atys Baki. See also Bacchus Bassareus Damasēn Gugaie/Guge/Gugaia Hermos Hipta Hullos Kandaulēs Kaustros Kubebe Lamētrus Lukos Lydian Lion Mēles Moxus Omfalē Pldans Notes References Goldsborough, Reid. "World's First Coin" R.S.P. Beekes. The Origin of the Etruscans. See also List of Kings of Lydia List of satraps of Lydia Ludim Digda External links Livius.org: Lydia

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Brouwer_fixed-point_theorem

In mathematics, the Brouwer fixed point theorem is an important fixed point theorem that applies to finite-dimensional spaces and which forms the basis for several general fixed point theorems. It is named after Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer. Statement The theorem states that every continuous function from the closed unit ball D n to itself has at least one fixed point. In this theorem, n is any positive integer, and the closed unit ball is the set of all points in Euclidean n-space Rn which are at distance at most 1 from the origin. A fixed point of a function f : D n → D n is a point x in D n such that f(x) = x. Notes The function f in this theorem is not required to be bijective or even surjective. Because the properties involved (continuity, being a fixed point) are invariant under homeomorphisms, the theorem equally applies if the domain is not the closed unit ball itself but some set homeomorphic to it (and therefore also closed, bounded, connected, without holes, etc.). The statement of the theorem is false if formulated for the open unit disk, the set of points with distance strictly less than 1 from the origin. Consider for example the function which maps every point of the open unit disk in R2 to another point of the open unit disk slightly to the right of the given one. Illustrations The theorem has several "real world" illustrations. For example: take two sheets of graph paper of equal size with coordinate systems on them, lay one flat on the table and crumple up (without ripping or tearing) the other one and place it any fashion on top of the first so that the crumpled paper does not reach outside the flat one. There will then be at least one point of the crumpled sheet that lies exactly on top of its corresponding point (i.e. the point with the same coordinates) of the flat sheet. This is a consequence of the n = 2 case of Brouwer's theorem applied to the continuous map that assigns to the coordinates of every point of the crumpled sheet the coordinates of the point of the flat sheet immediately beneath it. In three dimensions the consequence of the Brouwer fixed point theorem is that no matter how much you stir or shake a cocktail in a glass some point in the liquid will remain in the exact same place in the glass as before you took any action, assuming that the final position of each point is a continuous function of its original position, and that the liquid after stirring or shaking is contained within the space originally taken up by it. Another consequence of the case n = 3 is given by an informational display of a map in, for example, an airport terminal. The function that sends points of the terminal to their image on the map is continuous and therefore has a fixed point, usually indicated by a cross or arrow with the text You are here. A similar display outside the terminal would violate the condition that the function is "to itself" and fail to have a fixed point. For this example, the existence of a fixed point is also a consequence of the Banach fixed point theorem, since the function mapping points in space to the display is a contraction mapping. History The Brouwer fixed point theorem was one of the early achievements of algebraic topology, and is the basis of more general fixed point theorems which are important in functional analysis. The case n = 3 first was proved by Piers Bohl in 1904 (published in Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik). It was later proved by L. E. J. Brouwer in 1909. Jacques Hadamard proved the general case in 1910, and Brouwer found a different proof in 1912. Since these early proofs were all non-constructive indirect proofs, they ran contrary to Brouwer's intuitionist ideals. Methods to construct (approximations to) fixed points guaranteed by Brouwer's theorem are now known, however; see for example (Karamadian 1977) and (Istrăţescu 1981). Proof outlines A full proof of the theorem would be too long to reproduce here, but the following outlines a proof omitting the most difficult part. The proof uses the observation that the boundary of D n is S n − 1, the (n − 1)-sphere. Illustration of the retraction F The argument proceeds by contradiction, supposing that a continuous function f : D n → D n has no fixed point, and then attempting to derive an inconsistency, which proves that the function must in fact have a fixed point. For each x in D n, there is only one straight line that passes through f(x) and x, because it must be the case that f(x) and x are distinct by hypothesis (recall that f having no fixed points means that f(x) ≠ x). Following this line from f(x) through x leads to a point on S n − 1, denoted by F(x). This defines a continuous function F : D n → S n − 1, which is a special type of continuous function known as a retraction: every point of the codomain (in this case S n − 1) is a fixed point of the function. Intuitively it seems unlikely that there could be a retraction of D n onto S n − 1, and in the case n = 1 it is obviously impossible because S 0 (i.e., the endpoints of the closed interval D 1) is not even connected. The case n = 2 is less obvious, but can be proven by using basic arguments involving the fundamental groups of the respective spaces: the retraction would induce an injective group homomorphism from the fundamental group of S 1 to that of D 2, but the first group is isomorphic to Z while the latter group is trivial, so this is impossible. The case n = 2 can also be proven by contradiction based on a theorem about non-vanishing vector fields. For n > 2, however, proving the impossibility of the retraction is more difficult. One way is to make use of homology groups: it can be shown that the homology Hn − 1(D n) is trivial, while Hn − 1(S n − 1) is infinite cyclic. This shows that the retraction is impossible, because again the retraction would induce an injective group homomorphism from the latter to the former group. There is also a more elementary combinatorial proof, whose main step consists in establishing Sperner's lemma in n dimensions. There is also a quick proof, by Morris Hirsch, based on the impossibility of a differentiable retraction. The indirect proof starts by noting that the map f can be approximated by a smooth map retaining the property of not fixing a point; this can be done by using the Weierstrass approximation theorem, for example. One then defines a retraction as above which must now be differentiable. Such a retraction must have a non-singular value, by Sard's theorem, which is also non-singular for the restriction to the boundary (which is just the identity). Thus the inverse image would be a 1-manifold with boundary. The boundary would have to contain at least two end points, both of which would have to lie on the boundary of the original ball—which is impossible in a retraction. A quite different proof given by David Gale is based on the game of Hex. The basic theorem about Hex is that no game can end in a draw. This is equivalent to the Brouwer fixed point theorem for dimension 2. By considering n-dimensional versions of Hex, one can prove in general that Brouwer's theorem is equivalent to the determinacy theorem for Hex. Generalizations The Brouwer fixed point theorem forms the starting point of a number of more general fixed point theorems. The straightforward generalization to infinite dimensions, i.e. using the unit ball of an arbitrary Hilbert space instead of Euclidean space, is not true. The main problem here is that the unit balls of infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are not compact. For example, in the Hilbert space ℓ2 of square-summable real (or complex) sequences, consider the map f : ℓ2 → ℓ2 which sends a sequence (xn) from the closed unit ball of ℓ2 to the sequence (yn) defined by It is not difficult to check that this map is continuous, has its image in the unit sphere of ℓ 2, but does not have a fixed point. The generalizations of the Brouwer fixed point theorem to infinite dimensional spaces therefore all include a compactness assumption of some sort, and in addition also often an assumption of convexity. See fixed point theorems in infinite-dimensional spaces for a discussion of these theorems. The Kakutani fixed point theorem generalizes the Brouwer fixed point theorem in a different direction: it stays in Rn, but considers upper semi-continuous correspondences (functions that assign to each point of the set a subset of the set). It also requires compactness and convexity of the set. By using forcing to collapse cardinals, the Brouwer fixed point theorem can be generalized to arbitrary cardinality: if L is a compact, connected order topology, then any continuous function from Ln to itself has a fixed point. Note that if we require L to be separable, this is precisely the Brouwer fixed point theorem. The Lefschetz fixed-point theorem applies to (almost) arbitrary compact topological spaces, and gives a condition in terms of singular homology that guarantees the existence of fixed points; this condition is trivially satisfied for any map in the case of D n. See also Sperner's lemma Borsuk-Ulam theorem Tucker's lemma Topological combinatorics Notes References Morris W. Hirsch, "Differential Topology", Springer, 1980 (see p. 72-73 for Hirsch's proof utilizing non-existence of a differentiable retraction) S. Karamadian (ed.), Fixed points. Algorithms and applications, Academic Press, 1977 V.I. Istrăţescu, Fixed point theory, Reidel, 1981 External links Brouwer's Fixed Point Theorem for Triangles at cut-the-knot Brouwer theorem, from PlanetMath with attached proof. Reconstructing Brouwer at MathPages

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Cofinality

In mathematics, especially in order theory, the cofinality cf(A) of a partially ordered set A is the least of the cardinalities of the cofinal subsets of A. This definition of cofinality relies on the axiom of choice, as it uses the fact that every non-empty set of cardinal numbers has a least member. The cofinality of a partially ordered set A can alternatively be defined as the least ordinal x such that there is a function from x to A with cofinal image. This second definition makes sense without the axiom of choice. If the axiom of choice is assumed, as will be the case in the rest of this article, then the two definitions are equivalent. Cofinality can be similarly defined for a directed set and is used to generalize the notion of a subsequence in a net. Examples The cofinality of a partially ordered set with greatest element is 1 as the set consisting only of the greatest element is cofinal and must be contained in every other cofinal subset. In particular, the cofinality of any nonzero finite ordinal, or indeed any finite directed set, is 1, since such sets have a greatest element. Every cofinal subset of a partially ordered set must contain all maximal elements of that set. Thus the cofinality of a finite partially ordered set is equal to the number of its maximal elements. In particular, let A be a set of size n, and consider the set of subsets of A containing no more than m elements. This is partially ordered under inclusion and the subsets with m elements are maximal. Thus the cofinality of this poset is n choose m. A subset of the natural numbers N is cofinal in N if and only if it is infinite, and therefore the cofinality of is . Thus is a regular cardinal. The cofinality of the real numbers with their usual ordering is , since N is cofinal in R. The usual ordering of R is not order isomorphic to c, the cardinality of the real numbers, which has cofinality strictly greater than . This demonstrates that the cofinality depends on the order; different orders on the same set may have different cofinality. Properties If A admits a totally ordered cofinal subset, then we can find a subset B which is well-ordered and cofinal in A. Any subset of B is also well-ordered. If two cofinal subsets of B have minimal cardinality (i.e. their cardinality is the cofinality of B), then they are order isomorphic to each other. Cofinality of ordinals and other well-ordered sets The cofinality of an ordinal is the smallest ordinal which is the order type of a cofinal subset of . The cofinality of a set of ordinals or any other well-ordered set is the cofinality of the order type of that set. Thus for a limit ordinal, there exists a -indexed strictly increasing sequence with limit . For example, the cofinality of ω² is ω, because the sequence ω·m (where m ranges over the natural numbers) tends to ω²; but, more generally, any countable limit ordinal has cofinality ω. An uncountable limit ordinal may have either cofinality ω as does or an uncountable cofinality. The cofinality of 0 is 0. The cofinality of any successor ordinal is 1. The cofinality of any limit ordinal is at least . Regular and singular ordinals A regular ordinal is an ordinal which is equal to its cofinality. A singular ordinal is any ordinal which is not regular. Every regular ordinal is the initial ordinal of a cardinal. Any limit of regular ordinals is a limit of initial ordinals and thus is also initial but need not be regular. Assuming the Axiom of choice, is regular for each α. In this case, the ordinals 0, 1, , , and are regular, whereas 2, 3, , and ωω·2 are initial ordinals which are not regular. The cofinality of any ordinal α is a regular ordinal, i.e. the cofinality of the cofinality of α is the same as the cofinality of α. So the cofinality operation is idempotent. Cofinality of cardinals If κ is an infinite cardinal number, then cf(κ) is the least cardinal such that there is an unbounded function from it to κ; and cf(κ) = the cardinality of the smallest collection of sets of strictly smaller cardinals such that their sum is κ; more precisely That the set above is nonempty comes from the fact that i.e. the disjoint union of κ singleton sets. This implies immediately that cf(κ) ≤ κ. The cofinality of any totally ordered set is regular, so one has cf(κ) = cf(cf(κ)). Using König's theorem, one can prove κ < κcf(κ) and κ < cf(2κ) for any infinite cardinal κ. The last inequality implies that the cofinality of the cardinality of the continuum must be uncountable. On the other hand, . the ordinal number ω being the first infinite ordinal, so that the cofinality of is card(ω) = . (In particular, is singular.) Therefore, (Compare to the continuum hypothesis, which states .) Generalizing this argument, one can prove that for a limit ordinal δ . See also Initial ordinal References Jech, Thomas, 2003. Set Theory: The Third Millennium Edition, Revised and Expanded. Springer. ISBN 3-540-44085-2. Kunen, Kenneth, 1980. Set Theory: An Introduction to Independence Proofs. Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-86839-9.

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Monism

Monism is any philosophical view which holds that there is unity in a given field of inquiry, where this is not to be expected. Thus, some philosophers may hold that the Universe is really just one thing, despite its many appearances and diversities; or theology may support the view that there is one God, with many manifestations in different religions. Philosophical monism Monism in philosophy can be defined according to four kinds: Idealism, phenomenalism, or mentalistic monism which holds that only mind is real. Neutral monism, which holds that both the mental and the physical can be reduced to some sort of third substance, or energy. Physicalism or materialism, which holds that only the physical is real, and that the mental can be reduced to the physical. Holistic gnoseology, which holds that only a global approach to reality, by means of a global knowledge, is able to get the truth. Holistic gnoseology is therefore an anti-specialist way to get a supposed deeper and comprehensive reality. Certain other positions are hard to pigeonhole into the above categories, see links below. Ancient Western Philosophers The following pre-Socratic philosophers described reality as being monistic: Thales: Water. Anaximander: Apeiron (meaning 'the undefined infinite'). Reality is some, one thing, but we cannot know what. Anaximenes: Air. Heraclitus: Fire (in that everything is in constant flux). Parmenides: Being. Reality is an unmoving perfect sphere, unchanging, undivided. And post-Socrates: Neopythagorians such as Apollonius of Tyana centered their cosmologies on the Monad or One. Middle Platonism under such works as Numenius express the Universe emanating from the Monad or One. Neoplatonism is Monistic. Plotinus taught that there was an ineffable transcendent God, 'The One,' of which subsequent realities were emanations. From The One emanates the Divine Mind (Nous), the Cosmic Soul (Psyche), and the World (Cosmos). Monism, pantheism, and panentheism Following a long and still current tradition H.P. Owen (1971: 65) claimed that "Pantheists are ‘monists’...they believe that there is only one Being, and that all other forms of reality are either modes (or appearances) of it or identical with it." Although almost all pantheists are monists, some pantheists may also be not-monists, but undeniably monists were the most famous pantheisms as that of Stoics, Plotinus and Spinoza. Exclusive Monists believe that the universe, the "God" of naturalistic pantheism, simply does not exist. In addition, monists can be Deists, Pandeists, Theists or Panentheists; believing in a monotheistic God that is omnipotent and all-pervading, and both transcendent and immanent. There are monist pantheists and panentheists in Hinduism (particularly in Advaita and Vishistadvaita respectively), Judaism (monistic panentheism is especially found in Kabbalah and Hasidic philosophy), in Christianity (especially among Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, and Anglicans) and in Islam (among the Sufis, especially the Bektashi). Monism in religious and spiritual systems Hinduism Monism is found in the Nasadiya Sukta of the Rigveda, which speaks of the One being-non-being that 'breathed without breath'. The first system in Hinduism that unequivocally explicated absolute monism was the non-dualist philosophy of Advaita Vedanta as expounded by Shankara. In short, Advaita declares - All is Brahman. It is part of the six Hindu systems of philosophy, based on the Upanishads, and posits that the ultimate monad is a formless, ineffable divine ground of all being. Vishishtadvaita, qualified monism, is from the school of Ramanuja. Shuddhadvaita, in-essence monism, is the school of Vallabha. Dvaitadvaita, differential monism, is a school founded by Nimbarka. Dvaita, dualist monism, is a school founded by Madhvacharya. All Vaishnava schools are panentheistic and view the universe as part of Krishna or Narayana, but see a plurality of souls and substances within Brahman. Monistic theism, which includes the concept of a personal God as a universal, omnipotent Supreme Being who is both immanent and transcendent, is prevalent within many other schools of Hinduism as well. Buddhism Buddhist philosophy is generally suspicious of ontology. The Buddha himself, and some of his prominent disciples such as Nagarjuna, discouraged ontological theorizing for its own sake. According to the Pali Canon, both pluralism (naanatta) and monism (ekatta) are speculative views. A Theravada commentary notes that the former is similar to or associated with nihilism (ucchedavada), and the latter is similar to or associated with eternalism (sassatavada). David Kalupahana, Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. The University Press of Hawaii, 1975, page 88. The passage is SN 2.77. See middle way. Among the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, the ultimate nature of the world is described as emptiness, which is indistinguishable from material form. That appears to be a monist position, but the Madhyamaka views - including variations like Prasangika and Yogacara and the more modern shentong Tibetan position - will fail to assert in the ultimate nature any particular point of view. They instead deconstruct any assertions about ultimate existence as resulting in absurd consequences. The doctrine of emptiness is also found in earlier Theravada Buddhist literature. In Soto Zen teaching, it is said that "All is One and All is Different." Since non-dualism does not recognize a dualism between Oneness and Difference, or even between dualism and non-dualism, it is difficult to state the meaning of this doctrine. All discussion of this teaching by Soto Zen masters falls under the Buddhist concept of skill in means, which is to say, not literally correct, but suitable for leading others to the Truth. Chinese Soto (Cao-Dong) master Tozan (Tung Shan, Dongshan) wrote the Verses of the Five Ranks (of the Ideal and the Actual), which is also important as a set of koans in the Rinzai school. Dongshan describes the Fifth Rank in part thus: Unity Attained: Who dares to equal him Who falls into neither being nor non-being! Shih-t'ou Hsi-ch'ien's poem "The Harmony of Difference and Sameness" Sandokai is an important early expression of Zen Buddhism and is chanted in Sōtō temples to this day. Another poem of Tung-shan Liang-chieh on these and related themes, "The Song of the Jewel Mirror Awareness", is also chanted in Sōtō temples daily. Other expressions of this teaching include the koan: A disciple asked, "What is the difference between the enlightened and the unenlightened man?" The Master replied, "The unenlightened man sees a difference, but the enlightened man does not." and Dogen Zenji's personal koan, "Why are training and enlightenment differentiated, since the Truth is universal?" (Fukanzazengi, Instructions for Meditation) Christianity Christianity strongly maintains the Creator-creature distinction, and so firmly rejects metaphysical monism. Christianity maintains that God created the universe ex nihilo and not from himself, nor within himself, so that the creator is not to be confused with creation, but rather transcends it (metaphysical dualism). God is transcendent. Immanence is defined as God's omnipotence, omnipresence and omniscience, due to God's desire for intimate contact with his own creation. Another use of the term "monism" is in Christian anthropology to refer to the innate nature of mankind as being holistic, as opposed to bipartite and tripartite views. While the Christian view of reality is dualistic (in regard to metaphysics) in that it holds to the Creator's transcendence of creation, it rejects other types of dualism (or pluralism) such as the idea that God must compete with other (equal) powers such as Satan or Evil. In On Free Choice of the Will, Augustine argued, in the context of the problem of evil, that evil is not the opposite of good, but rather merely the absence of good, something that does not have existence in itself. Likewise, C. S. Lewis described evil as a "parasite" in Mere Christianity, as he viewed evil as something that cannot exist without good to provide it with existence. Lewis went on to argue against dualism from the basis of moral absolutism, and rejected the dualistic notion that God and Satan are opposites, arguing instead that God has no equal, hence no opposite. Lewis rather viewed Satan as the opposite of Michael the archangel. Judaism According to Chasidic Thought (particularly as propounded by Shneur Zalman of Liadi) of Chabad, God is held to be immanent within creation for two interrelated reasons. Firstly, a very strong Jewish belief is that "[t]he Divine life-force which brings [the universe] into existence must constantly be present... were this life-force to forsake [the universe] for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation..." . Secondly, and simultaneously, Judaism holds as axiomatic that God is an absolute unity, and that He is Perfectly Simple - thus if His sustaining power is within nature, then His essence is also within nature. However the Vilna Gaon was very much against this philosophy, for he felt that it would lead to pantheism and heresy. According to some this is the main reason for the Gaon's ban on Chasidism. Note that, at the same time, Jewish Thought considers God as separate from all physical, created things (transcendent) and as existing outside of time (eternal). For a discussion of the resultant paradox; see Tzimtzum. See also Negative theology. The later, modern Hasidic approach should be contrasted with that of the earlier scholars, more in pale with mainstream Jewish thought of the time, such as Maimonides. According to Maimonides, (see Foundations of the Law, Chapter 1), God is an incorporeal being that caused all other existence. In fact, God is defined as the necessary existent that caused all other existence. According to Maimonides, to admit corporeality to God is tantamount to admitting complexity to God, which is a contradiction to God as the First Cause and constitutes heresy. While Hasidic mystics considered the existence of the physical world a contradiction to God's simpleness, Maimonides saw no contradiction. See the Guide for the Perplexed, especially chapter I:50. Islam According to non-Sufi Islamic perspective, the creation and the creator cannot be equal, therefore Monism stands rejected in Islam. Islam claims that God created the universe from nothing, therefore the concept of anthropomorphism and viewing God himself as evolving or changing are forms of shirk (associating partners with God). The belief of God in Islam can be summarized by chapter 112 of the Qur'an "Say, he is God the one, God is he upon whom all depend. He does not beget nor was he begotten, and there is nothing that is like him/equal to him." Many followers of Sufism advocated monism. Most notably the 13th-century Persian poet Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi (1207 -73) in his didactic poem Masnavi espouses monism Reynold Nicholson Rumi Cyprian Rice, O.P., (1964) The Persian Sufism George Allen, London . Rumi says Masnavi, "in the shop for Unity (wahdat); anything that you see there except the One is an idol." Theological growth and breadth Many forms of Hinduism (including Vedanta, Yoga, and certain schools of Shaivism), Taoism, Pantheism, Rastafari and similar systems of thought explore the mystical and spiritual elements of a monistic philosophy. With increasing awareness of these systems of thought, western spiritual and philosophical climate has seen a growing understanding of monism. Moreover, the New Thought and New Age movements embraced many monistic concepts during the twentieth century and continue up to the present day. Monism can be said to oppose religious philosophy altogether by claiming that the idea of spirituality contradicts the monist principle of an indistinguishable mind and body. However, one might consider monism more fundamental than any religious philosophy while taking religion and spirituality as sources of wisdom. Materialistic monism Materialistic monism (or monistic materialism) is the philosophical concept which sees the unity of matter in its globality. For the materialistic monist the cosmos is “one” and comprehensive, then a “one-all” made up of parts such as its effects. The matter is then originary and cause of all reality. See also Forms of monism Anomalous monism Dialectical monism Indefinite monism Neutral Monism Reflexive monism Monad Mind-body problem Dualism Non-Dualism Eliminativism Functionalism Holism Pluralism Ontological pluralism Notes External links Catholic Encyclopedia - Monism Hinduism's Online Lexicon - (search for Monism) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Monism

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Mater_lectionis

In the spelling of Hebrew and some other Semitic languages, matres lectionis (Latin "mothers of reading", singular form: mater lectionis, Hebrew: אֵם קְרִיאָה mother of reading), refers to the use of certain consonants to indicate a vowel. The letters that do this in Hebrew are aleph, he, waw (or vav) and yod (or yud). The yod and waw in particular are more often vowels than they are consonants. In Arabic, the matres lectionis (though they are much less often referred to thus) are alif ا, waw و, and ya' ي. History Because of the lack of vowel letters, unambiguous reading of a text would be difficult. Therefore, to indicate vowels (mostly long), consonant letters are used. For example, in the words "the house of" (Hebrew: בית bēt), the middle letter, "י", acts as a vowel versus a consonant. (Contrast bayit, house, where the middle letter is a genuine consonant.) Matres lectionis are also found in Ugaritic, Moabite and the Phoenician alphabets, but are widely used only in Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac and Arabic. This system developed as an early system for indicating vowels using the Hebrew alphabet. The consonant letters yod י, waw ו and Aleph א can be given for a rough indication of long vowels. Where words can be written either with or without matres lectionis, spellings that include these letters are called male (Hebrew) or plene (Latin), meaning "full"; spellings without them are called haser or defective. In some verb forms, matres lectionis are used almost always. In the 9th century, it was decided that the system of matres lectionis did not suffice to indicate the vowels precisely enough, so a supplemental vowel pointing systems (niqqud) (diacritic symbols indicating vowel pronunciation and other important phonological features not written by the traditional basic consonantal orthography) joined matres lectionis as part of the Hebrew writing system. In some words in Hebrew there is a choice of whether to use a mater lectionis or not, and in modern printed texts matres lectionis are sometimes used even for short vowels, which is considered to be grammatically incorrect though instances are found as far back as Talmudic times. In Talmudic times texts from Israel were noticeably more inclined to male spellings than texts from Babylonia: this may reflect the influence of Greek, which had full alphabetic spelling. Similarly in the Middle Ages Ashkenazim tended to use male spellings under the influence of European languages, while Sephardim tended to use haser spellings under the influence of Arabic. In Arabic there is no such choice, and the almost invariable rule is that a long vowel is written with a mater lectionis and a short vowel with a diacritic symbol, although the Othmani orthography, the one in which Quran is traditionally written and printed, has some differences which are not always consistent. Usage in Hebrew Most commonly, yud י indicates i or e, while vav ו indicates o or u. Aleph א was not systematically developed as a mater lectionis in Hebrew (as it was in Aramaic and Arabic), but it is occasionally used to indicate an a vowel. (However, a silent aleph — indicating an original glottal stop consonant sound which has become silent in Hebrew pronunciation — can occur after almost any vowel.) At the end of a word, He ה can also be used to indicate that a vowel should be pronounced. Examples: {|class="wikitable" |- ! rowspan=2 | Symbol ! colspan=2 | Name ! rowspan=2 | Vowel formation ! rowspan=2 | Vowel quality ! colspan=2 | Example |- ! Biblical ! Modern ! Hebrew ! Transliteration |- | align="center" style="font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman;font-size:200%"|א | colspan=2 align="center" | Alef || ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô ||mostly ā ||פארן ||Paran |- | align="center" style="font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman;font-size:200%" rowspan=2 | ה | rowspan=2 colspan=2 align="center" | He | rowspan=2 | ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô | rowspan=2 |mostly ā or e | לאה | Leah |- | שה | Seh |- | align="center" style="font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman;font-size:200%" rowspan=2| ו | rowspan=2 align="center" | Waw | rowspan=2 align="center" | Vav | rowspan=2 | ô, û | rowspan=2 | ō or ū | יואל | Yo'el |- | ברוך | Baruch |- | align="center" style="font-family:SBL Hebrew, Ezra SIL SR, Ezra SIL, Cardo, Chrysanthi Unicode, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, Arial Unicode MS, Narkisim, Times New Roman;font-size:200%"|י | align="center" | Yod |align="center" | Yud || î, ê, ệ ||ī, ē or ||דויד ||David |} Origins and development Historically, the practice of using matres lectionis seems to have originated when [ay] and [aw] diphthongs (written using the yod י and waw ו consonant letters respectively) monophthongized to simple long vowels [ē] and [ō]. This epiphenomenal association between consonant letters and vowel sounds was then seized upon and used in words without historic diphthongs. In general terms, it is observable that early Phoenician texts have very few matres lectionis, and that during most of the 1st millennium B.C.E. Hebrew and Aramaic were quicker to develop matres lectionis than Phoenician. However, in its latest period of development in North Africa (referred to as "Punic"), the Phoenician language developed a very full use of matres lectionis (including the use of the letter `Ayin ע, also used for this purpose much later in Yiddish orthography). In pre-exilic Hebrew, there was a significant development of the use of the letter He ה to indicate word final vowels other than ī and ū. This was probably inspired by the phonological change of the third-person singular possessive suffix from [ahū] > [aw] > [ō] in most environments. However, in later periods of Hebrew the orthography was changed so that word-final ō was no longer written with the letter He ה (except in a few archaically-spelled proper names, such as Solomon שלמה and Shiloh שלה). The difference between the spelling of the third-person singular possessive suffix (as attached to singular nouns) with He ה in early Hebrew vs. with waw ו in later Hebrew has become an issue in the authentication of the Jehoash Inscription. According to Sass (5), already in the Middle Kingdom there were some cases of matres lectionis, i.e. consonant graphemes which were used to transcribe vowels in foreign words, namely in Punic (Jensen 290, Naveh 62), Aramaic, and Hebrew (he, waw, yod; sometimes even aleph; Naveh 62). Naveh (ibid.) notes that the earliest Aramaic and Hebrew documents already used matres lectionis. Some scholars argue that therefore the Greeks must have borrowed their alphabet from the Arameans. But the practice has older roots: the Semitic cuneiform alphabet of Ugarit (13th ct. BC) already has matres lectionis (Naveh 138). Influence on other languages Later, in some adaptations of the Arabic alphabet (such those used for Persian and Uyghur) and of the Hebrew alphabet (such as those used for the Yiddish and Ladino languages), matres lectionis were generally used for all or most vowels, thus in effect becoming vowel letters: see Yiddish orthography. This tendency was taken to its logical conclusion in fully alphabetic scripts such as the Greek, Roman and Cyrillic alphabets. The vowel letters in these languages historically go back to matres lectionis in the Phoenician script: for example, the letter I was originally derived from the consonant letter yod. Similarly the vowel letters in Avestan are adapted from matres lectionis in the version of the Aramaic script used for Pahlavi. Bibliography Garr, W. Randall. 1985. Dialect Geography of Syria-Palestine, 1000-586 B.C.E. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Jensen, Hans. 1970. Sign Symbol and Script. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Transl. of Die Schrift in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart. VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. 1958, as revised by the author. Naveh, Joseph. 1979. Die Entstehung des Alphabets. Transl. of Origins of the Alphabet. Zürich und Köln. Benziger. Sass, Benjamin. 1991. Studia Alphabetica. On the origin and early history of the Northwest Semitic, South Semitic and Greek alphabets. CH-Freiburg: Universitätsverlag Freiburg Schweiz. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. See also Hebrew spelling Niqqud Ktiv male Mappiq Tiberian vocalization

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Bayonne

Bayonne (French: Bayonne ; Gascon Occitan and Basque: Baiona) is a city and commune in southwestern France at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers, in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department, of which it is a sub-prefecture. Together with nearby Anglet, Biarritz, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, and several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an urban area with 178,965 inhabitants at the 1999 census, 40,078 of whom lived in the city of Bayonne proper (44,300 as of 2004 estimates). The communes of Bayonne, Biarritz, and Anglet have joined into an intercommunal entity called the Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz. Bayonne is the main town of Labourd and it is part of the French Basque Country. History In the 3rd century AD, the area was the site of a Roman castrum, named Lapurdum. It was a military site, but not a port. In 840, the Vikings appeared before Lapurdum. In 842, with their chieftain Björn Ironside they launched a large-scale inland offensive and settled outside the city on the river bank. Lapurdum was an oppidum and they needed a port. Bayonne (from Basque ibai "river") became a key place on the route between the Adour and Ebro Rivers, which served as a kind of link between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. This commercial route was the main goal of Danish invaders in France. By this route, they could easily reach Tortosa, which was the main marketplace in Europe dealing with slaves. Joël Supéry, Le Secret des Vikings By the 12th century, the city was an important port, with a mixed Basque and Gascon population. As part of Aquitaine, it was ruled by England between 1151 to 1452 and was a key commercial centre at the southern end of the English kingdom. Its importance waned somewhat when the French king, Charles VII, took the city at the end of the Hundred Years' War and the Adour changed course shortly afterwards, leaving Bayonne without its access to the sea. The French, however, realised Bayonne's strategic site near the Spanish border and in 1578 dug a canal to redirect the river through the city once again. Bayonne endured numerous sieges from Plantagenet times until the end of the First French Empire in 1814. In the 17th century, Vauban built large fortifications and the Citadelle in and around the city. These proved crucial in 1813 and 1814, when Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington's army besieged the city in the Napoleonic Wars, only taking it when they used a bridge of ships across the Adour to position artillery around the city. Bayonne's location close to the border, but also within the Basque Country straddling both France and Spain, gave it an often privileged position in commerce. Basque sailors travelled the world, bringing back products such as cinnamon and riches from piracy and the whaling and cod trades. An armaments industry developed, giving the world the "bayonet". Jewish refugees from the Spanish Inquisition from 1560 brought new trades, most notably chocolate-making, which is still important in Bayonne. Spanish Basques also sought refuge in Bayonne in the 20th century during Francisco Franco's repression, with Petit Bayonne still a centre of Basque nationalism. By the mid-19th century, Bayonne had declined somewhat with the centralisation of power to Paris and to the new département capital, non-Basque Pau, after the 1789 French Revolution, and with Wellington's bombardment. However, rail links with Paris from 1854 and the growing touristic importance of nearby Biarritz brought industrialisation and development. Bayonne is now part of 'BAB' (Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz), a metropolitan area of almost 200,000 people. Description The Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne, with five bridges between the two, both quarters still backed by Vauban's walls. Indeed the Nive is more like a main street, with many restaurants, squares and the covered market on its quays. The houses lining the Nive are picturesque examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green. The much wider Adour is to the north. The Pont St-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier St-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located. Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the cathedral and Hôtel de Ville. The Cathédrale Sainte-Marie is an imposing, elegant Gothic building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets. It was constructed in the 12th and 13th centuries. The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower. The cathedral is noted for its charming cloisters. There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution. Nearby is the Château-Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English Black Prince. Petit Bayonne is lively with Basque bars and restaurants more reminiscent of cities the other side of the Pyrenees. There are two important museums here. The Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country. It opened in 1922 but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment. It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and pelota, handicrafts and Basque history and way of life. The Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter Léon Bonnat. The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by Degas, El Greco, Botticelli and Goya among others. At the back of Petit-Bayonne is the Château-Neuf, among the ramparts. Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly-arrived French in 1460 to control the city. The walls nearby have been opened to visitors. They are important for plant life now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive. The area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway. The St-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by Louis XI to care for pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela. It has an attractive wooden Flight into Egypt sculpture. Overlooking the quarter is Vauban's 1680 Citadelle. The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by Queen Victoria and other British dignitaries when staying in Biarritz. The distillery of the famous local liqueur, Izarra, is on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors. Culture and sport Bayonne has the longest tradition of bull-fighting in France and there is a ring beyond the walls of Grand Bayonne. The season runs between July and September. Bull-fighting is a major part of the five-day Fêtes de Bayonne which starts on the first Wednesday of August and attracts people from across the Basque Country and beyond. Parades, music, dance, fireworks, food and drink all feature in the celebrations. Soon after the Assumption festival of 15 August heralds a few more days of bull-fights. There are also important festivals of Jazz (July), Bayonne ham (Holy Week), theatre and pelota (the Basque sport). Aviron Bayonnais is the city's rugby union club, founded in 1904 and French champions three times, in 1913, 1934 and 1943. The local football team is Aviron Bayonnais FC. Economy and products Bayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500 years, and Bayonne ham, a cured ham seasoned with peppers from nearby Espelette. Izarra, the liqueur made in bright green or yellow colours, is distilled locally. It is said by some that Bayonne is the birthplace of mayonnaise, supposedly a corruption of Bayonnaise, the French adjective describing the city's people and produce. Now bayonnaise can refer to a particular mayonnaise flavoured with the Espelette chillis. Bayonne is now the centre of certain craft industries that were once widespread, including the manufacture of makilas, traditional Basque walking-sticks. The Fabrique Alza just outside the city is known for its palas, bats used in pelota, the traditional Basque sport. As of 1935, its chief industries were shipbuilding, tanning, and pottery. In the late 20th century, the processing of by-products from the Lacq natural gas field near Pau became important, although Bayonne has had higher-than-average unemployment. Metallurgy also provides local jobs. Transportation Bayonne is on the high-speed TGV line between Paris and Hendaye for connections with Spain. In practice, the line slows considerably beyond Bordeaux although there are plans to improve the service. There are regional rail services along the Basque coast, to Pau and through the Landes to Dax and Bordeaux. There is a line along the Nive valley through Labourd and Lower Navarre to Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, used principally by tourists and hikers. There are extensive bus connections with Biarritz, Anglet and surrounding villages. The city is near the intersection between the A63 autoroute between Bordeaux and the Spanish border and the A64 from Bayonne to Toulouse. Bayonne has airport Aéroport de Biarritz-Anglet-Bayonne, its away from the city towards Anglet .Its just opposite of N10 road. It's a joined airport with Biarritz and Anglet with flights to destinations across France as well Europe. Points of interest Jardin botanique de Bayonne Famous residents Bayonne was the birthplace of: Dominique Joseph Garat (1749-1833), writer and politician François Cabarrus (1752-1810), adventurer and Spanish financier, father of Madame Tallien Armand Joseph Dubernad (1741-1799), financial trader, Freemason, Consul general of the Holy Roman Empire, deputy, mayor, and cofounder of the first Jacobin Club of Brittany. Jacques Laffitte (1767-1844), banker and politician Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850), classical liberal author and political economist Léon Bonnat (1833-1922), painter René Cassin (1887-1976), jurist and judge, recipient of the 1968 Nobel Peace Prize Roland Barthes (1915-1980), critic Michel Camdessus (born 1933), Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) from 1997 to 2000 Didier Deschamps (born 1968), World-Cup-winning footballer Imanol Harinordoquy (born 1980), French international rugby union player Anthony Dupuis (born 1973), professional tennis player Sylvain Luc (born 1965), jazz guitarist Xavier de le Rue (born 1979), snowboarder Every member of Death metal band Gojira Civic information The Mayor of Bayonne (1995-2007) is Jean Grenet of the centre-right UMP. The 39-strong town council is also dominated by the UMP, who hold 31 of the seats. The centre-left group has five seats, the Basque nationalist Baiona Berria have two and the communist LCR one. Bayonne's Sister cities are: Pamplona, Navarre, Spain Daytona Beach, Florida, United States Bayonne, New Jersey, United States Kutaisi, Georgia Bayonne in Literature In Wyndham Lewis's The Wild Body (1927) the protagonist, Ker-Orr, in the first story, 'A Soldier of Humour', takes the train from Paris and stays in the town of Bayonne before passing through into Spain. In Ernest Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises, three of the characters visit the town en route to Pamplona, Spain. In Kim Stanley Robinson's The Years of Rice and Salt (2002), Bayonne is the first city recolonized by the Muslims after the total depopulation of Europe by the Black Death. Named "Baraka", its earliest colonizers are later driven out by rivals from Al-Andalus and flee to the Loire Valley, where they found the city of Nsara. See also Communes of the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department References INSEE commune file External links City council website Official website of the "Office de commerce de Bayonne" Webpage about the citadel and fortifications of the town BAIONA in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa - Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa) (in Spanish) Fiestas Songs

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Boulting_brothers

John and Roy Boulting were English film-makers, who became known for their popular series of satirical comedies in the 1950s and 1960s. Biography The twin brothers were born in Bray, Berkshire, England on November 21 1913 to Arthur Boulting and Rose Bennet. They worked together as producer and director whenever they could, and often alternated these duties depending on the nature of the film they were working on, although they also made films separately. The two worked as screenwriters on their own films. They began with serious, tight, economical drama films such as Seven Days to Noon (1950) and Graham Greene's Brighton Rock (1947) (both with producer: Roy, director: John). They then became known for a series of satirical comedy films which are considered British classics today, such as Private's Progress (1956), Lucky Jim (1957) and I'm All Right Jack (1959), all with the same credits as above, and usually with John as co-writer. The comedies often starred Ian Carmichael as the lead, along with Richard Attenborough and Terry-Thomas; and often Dennis Price, John Le Mesurier, Irene Handl and Miles Malleson. I'm All Right Jack also starred Peter Sellers and boosted his film career, winning him a BAFTA Best Actor Award. He also appeared in other Boulting brothers films later. The Family Way (1966) was a slightly controversial film about a young married couple and their down-to-earth family. Roy Boulting did some work in British TV in the eighties including directing one of the popular BBC Miss Marple mysteries. In 1971, he married Hayley Mills whom he met on the set of The Family Way, and they had a son, Crispian Mills. They divorced in 1977. John died on June 17, 1985, in Sunningdale, Berkshire and Roy on November 5, 2001. Their elder brother Sydney Boulting, became an actor and stage producer as Peter Cotes, he was the original director of The Mousetrap. Filmography John Journey Together (1945) Brighton Rock (1947) Seven Days to Noon (1950) The Magic Box (1951) Private's Progress (1956) Lucky Jim (1957) I'm All Right Jack (1959) Heavens Above! (1963) Rotten to the Core (1965) The Number (1979) Roy Inquest (1940) Thunder Rock (1942) Tunisian Victory (1944, documentary co-directed with Frank Capra) Fame is the Spur (1947) The Guinea Pig (1948) Singlehanded (1951) High Treason (1951) Seagulls Over Sorrento (1954) Josephine and Men (1955) Run for the Sun (1956) Happy is the Bride (1958) Brothers in Law (1957) Carlton-Browne of the FO (1959) Suspect (1960) A French Mistress (1960) The Family Way (1966) Twisted Nerve (1968) There's a Girl in My Soup (1970) Soft Beds, Hard Battles (1973) References Burton Alan, O'Sullivan Tim, Wells Paul; Eds. 2000. The Family Way: The Boulting Brothers and British Film Culture. Trowbridge: Flicks Books. ISBN 0-948911-59-X External links Boulting Brothers Stills & Posters Gallery from the British Film Institute, (gallery navigation is on the left).

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Campaign_for_Real_Ale

Logo The Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) is an independent, voluntary, consumer organisation based in St Albans, England, whose main aims are promoting real ale and the traditional British pub. It is now the largest single-issue consumer group in the UK and is a founding member of the European Beer Consumers' Union (EBCU). History CAMRA logo on a bar towel The organisation was founded in 1971 by a group of four drinkers—Graham Lees, Bill Mellor, Michael Hardman, and Jim Makin—who were opposed to the growing mass production of beer and the homogenisation of the British brewing industry. Other early influential members included Christopher Hutt, author of Death of the English Pub, who succeeded Hardman as chairman, Frank Baillie, author of The Beer Drinker's Companion, and later the current Good Beer Guide editor, Roger Protz. The original name was the Campaign for the Revitalisation of Ale. Aims CAMRA's campaigns include promoting small brewing and pub businesses, reforming licensing laws, reducing tax on beer, and stopping continued consolidation among local British brewers. It also makes an effort to promote less common varieties of beer and other traditionally brewed beverages including stout, porter, mild, traditional cider, and perry. Organisation The CAMRA office building in St Albans CAMRA has over 95,000 members. Member benefits include a monthly newsletter, "What's Brewing", and reduced price admission to CAMRA-organised beer festivals. CAMRA is organised on a federal basis, with numerous independent local branches each covering a particular geographical area of the UK, that contribute to the central body of the organisation based in St Albans. The local branches are grouped into 16 regional branches across the UK, such as the West Midlands or Greater Manchester. CAMRA has established influence at national government level, including English Heritage, and has been designated by the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry as a "super-complainant" to the Office of Fair Trading. Events and publications CAMRA publishes the Good Beer Guide, an annually compiled directory of its recommended pubs and brewers. They also run the Great British Beer Festival, a yearly event held in London at which a large selection of cask ales are tasted. It also maintains a National Inventory of Historic Pub Interiors to help bring greater recognition and protection to Britain's most historic pubs. Festivals CAMRA supports and promotes numerous beer and cider festivals around the country each year, which are organised by local CAMRA branches around the UK. Generally, each festival charges an entry fee which varies depending upon the area, and either covers entry only or includes a commemorative ⅓, ½ or 1 pint glass sporting the details of the festival. A festival programme is usually also provided, listing the drinks available for tasting and providing a brief description of each beverage. Awards CAMRA presents awards for beers and pubs, such as the National Pub of the Year, in which approximately 4,000 active CAMRA members from 200 local branches vote for their favourite pub. The branch winners are entered into 16 regional competitions which are then visited by several individuals who select the ones they like best. There are also the Pub Design Awards, which are held in association with English Heritage and The Victorian Society. These comprise several categories, including new build, refurbished, and converted pubs. The best known CAMRA award is the Champion Beer of Britain which is selected at the Great British Beer Festival, other awards include the Champion Beer of Scotland and the Champion Beer of Wales. National Beer Scoring Scheme CAMRA developed the "National Beer Scoring Scheme" (NBSS) as an easy to use scheme for judging beer quality in pubs, to assist CAMRA branches in selecting pubs for the Good Beer Guide. The person filling in the form records their name, date, the pub, the beer and the score. The scores range from 0, which signifies the beer is in such poor condition it cannot be drunk; through 2, which signifies an average beer that is drunk without calling attention to itself in either a positive or negative manner; up to 5, which signifies a perfect beer. Pub heritage group The "CAMRA Pub Heritage Group" is a group established to identify, record and help protect public house interiors of historic and/or architectural importance, and seeks to get them listed, if not already. The group maintains two inventories of "Heritage pubs", the National Inventory (NI), which contains only those pubs that have been maintained in their original condition (or have been modified very little) for at least 30 years, but usually since at least World War II. The second, larger inventory is the Regional Inventory (RI), which is broken down by county and contains both those pubs listed in the NI and other pubs that are not eligible for the NI, due to reasons such as having been overly modified, but are still considered historically important, or have particular architectural value. The NI contains 254 pubs as of July 2007. In popular culture The Kinks are the Village Green Preservation Society, and the eponymous opening track includes the line "We are the draught beer preservation society". This may be a reference to CAMRA, since in their early days the name was in flux. See also Society of Independent Brewers Independent Family Brewers of Britain References External links CAMRA website Pub Heritage Group - Official Site

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Canary_Islands

The Canary Islands (Spain) (; , ; Berber: Taknara; ) are a Spanish archipelago which, in turn, forms one of the Spanish Autonomous Communities and an Outermost Region of the European Union. The archipelago is located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the disputed border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The status of capital city is shared by the cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, which in turn are the capitals of the provinces of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas. The third city of the Canary Islands is San Cristóbal de La Laguna (City World Heritage Site) on the island of Tenerife. Geology The originally volcanic islands –seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets– were formed by the Canary hotspot. The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain where volcanic eruptions have been recorded during the Modern Era, with some volcanoes still active (even though recently inactive) Instituto Geográfico Nacional . Etymology The name Islas Canarias is likely derived from the Latin term Insula Canaria, meaning "Island of the Dogs", a name applied originally only to Gran Canaria. It is speculated that the so called dogs were actually a species of Monk Seals ("sea dog" in Latin) now extinct. Seals and Sea Lions Endangered Species Handbook The dense population of seals may have been the characteristic that most struck the few ancient Romans who established contact with these islands by sea. The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms (shown above). History Ancient and pre-colonial times Mummy in the Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre (Tenerife, Canarias). King Juba, Augustus's Roman protege, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world, and he dispatched a contingent to re-open the dye production facility at Mogador in the early 1st century AD. C.Michael Hogan, Chellah, The Megalithic Portal, ed. Andy Burnham, That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base. When the Europeans began to explore the islands, they encountered several indigenous populations living at a Neolithic level of technology. Although the history of the settlement of the Canary Islands is still unclear, linguistic and genetic analyses seem to indicate that at least some of these inhabitants shared a common origin with the Berbers of northern Africa. The pre-colonial inhabitants came to be known collectively as the Guanches, although Guanches was originally the name for the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife. During the Middle Ages, the islands were visited by the Arabs for commercial purposes. Muslim navigator Ibn Farrukh, from Granada, is said to have landed in "Gando" (Gran Canaria) in February 999, visiting a king named Guanarigato. From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors from Majorca, Portugal, and Genoa. Lancelotto Malocello settled on the island of Lanzarote in 1312. The Majorcans established a mission with a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. Alonso Fernández de Lugo presenting the captured native kings of Tenerife to Ferdinand and Isabella Castilian conquest There are claims that the Portuguese had discovered the Canaries as early as 1336, though there appears to be little evidence for this. B. W. Diffie,Treaty of Alcacovas in 1479 between Portugal and Spain. Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415 -1580, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, p. 28. In 1402, the Castilian conquest of the islands began, with the expedition of Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle, nobles and vassals of Henry III of Castile, to the island of Lanzarote. From there, they conquered Fuerteventura and El Hierro. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognized King Henry III as his overlord. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was truly conquered. The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448 Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator, an action that was not accepted by the natives nor by the Castilians. A crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. Finally, in 1479, Portugal recognised Castilian control of the Canary Islands in the Treaty of Alcaçovas. The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, complete pacification was not achieved until 1495, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued by Alonso Fernández de Lugo. After that, the Canaries were incorporated into the Kingdom of Castile. After the conquest After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: first sugar cane; then wine, an important item of trade with England. In this era, the first institutions of colonial government were founded. Both Gran Canaria, a colony of Castile since March 6, 1480 (from 1556, of Spain), and Tenerife, a Spanish colony since 1495, had separate governors. The cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria became a stopping point for the Spanish conquerors, traders, and missionaries on their way to the New World. This trade route brought great prosperity to some of the social sectors of the islands. The islands became quite wealthy and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. Magnificent palaces and churches were built on the island of La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century. The Canaries' wealth invited attacks by pirates and privateers. Ottoman Turkish admiral and privateer Kemal Reis ventured into the Canaries in 1501, while Murat Reis the Elder captured Lanzarote in 1585. The most severe attack took place in 1599, during the Dutch War of Independence. A Dutch fleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded by Johan van der Does, attacked the capital, Las Palmas (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants). The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor. The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city). The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city. The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth. They received 12 sheep and 3 calves. Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida. 300 Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat. The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas, attempting to burn it down. The Dutch pillaged Maspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria, San Sebastian on La Gomera, and Santa Cruz on La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew. Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, when Santa Cruz de Tenerife was attacked by a British fleet under the future Lord Nelson on 25 July. The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men. It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm. 18th to 19th century The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain's American colonies. Crises in the sugar market in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop, cochineal (cochinilla), came into cultivation during this time, saving the islands' economy. By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such as Havana, Veracruz, Santo Domingo, www.personal.psu.edu "THE SPANISH OF THE CANARY ISLANDS" San Antonio, Texas (thus conceiving Victoria Monsalvo) www.tshaonline.org "Handbook of Texas Online - CANARY ISLANDERS" and St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana www.losislenos.org "Welcome to the Los Islenos Heritage & Cultural Society Website!" www.americaslibrary.gov "Isleños Society of St. Bernard Parish" These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration, primarily to the Americas, during the 19th and first half of the 20th century. From 1840 to 1890, as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated to Venezuela. Also, thousands of Canarians moved to Puerto Rico; the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain. Deeply entrenched traditions such as the Mascaras Festival in the town of Hatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico. Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores of Cuba as well. During the Spanish-American War of 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against possible American attack, but an attack never came. Early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a new cash-crop, the banana, the export of which was controlled by companies such as Fyffes. The rivalry between the elites of the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of the archipelago into two provinces in 1927. This has not laid to rest the rivalry between the two cities, which continues to this day. During the time of the Second Spanish Republic, Marxist and anarchist workers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez and Guillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organizations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War. Franco regime In 1936, Francisco Franco was appointed General Commandant of the Canaries. He joined the military revolt of July 17 which began the Spanish Civil War. Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on the island of La Palma and in the town of Vallehermoso, on La Gomera. Though there was never a proper war in the islands, the post-war repression on the Canaries was most severe. During the Second World War, Winston Churchill prepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as a naval base, in the event of Gibraltar being invaded from the Spanish mainland. Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organize until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as the Communist Party of Spain and the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties. Parliament of the Canary Islands (Santa Cruz de Tenerife) Today After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based in Algeria, the MPAIAC. Now there are some pro-independence political parties, like the CNC and the Popular Front of the Canary Islands, but none of them calls for an armed struggle. Their popular support is insignificant, with no presence in both the autonomous parliament and the cabildos insulares. After the establishment of a democratic constitutional monarchy in Spain, autonomy was granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were held. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) won. In the most recent autonomous elections (2007), the PSOE gained a plurality of seats, but the nationalist Canarian Coalition and the conservative Partido Popular (PP) formed a ruling coalition government. In Santa Cruz de Tenerife are the Torres de Santa Cruz (towers of Santa Cruz). These sky-scrapers are at a height of 120 meters, without counting the antennas or lightning rod. They are the highest sky-scrapers in the city and of the Archipelago Canary, and also residentially are the highest towers in Spain, they are next to the Tenerife Auditorium, in downtown. The Tenerife Auditorium is the best known modern building of Canaries. Demographics Demographics of the Canary Islands (2008) Nationality Population PercentCanarian 1,541,381 74.9%Mainland Spanish (Peninsulares) 178,613 8.6% Spanish total 1,792,121 83.5%Foreign 283,847 16.5% Total 2,075,968100% The Canarian population includes long-tenured and new waves of Spanish immigrants (including Galicians, Castilians, Catalans, Basques), and Portuguese, Italians, Flemings. As of 2008, the total Canarian population is 2,075,968. Over 1,541,381 people are native Canarian-born, and another 178,613 people from the Spanish mainland, making a total 1,792,121 Spanish population. Most of the 283,847 foreign residents are Europeans (155,415, 55%), such as Germans (39,505), British (37,937) and Italians (24,177). There are 86,287 from the Americas, with Colombians (21,798), Venezuelans (11,958), Cubans (11,098) and Argentines (10,159) being the most numerous. There are 28,136 from Africa with 16,240 Moroccans. Native and foreign residents in Canary Islands (Spanish) Religion The overwhelming majority of native Canarians are Roman Catholic with various smaller foreign born populations of other Christian beliefs such as Protestants from northern Europe and Africans following Islam. Pre-Hispanic people Population history Official census statistics of the Canary Islands population Year Population 1768 155.763 1787 168.928 1797173.865 1842241.266 1860237.036 1887301.983 1900364.408 1920488.483 1940687.937 1960966.177 19811.367.646 19901.589.403 20001.716.276 20082.075.968Figures between 1768-2008. The Guanches are believed to be related to the indigenous Berbers of neighboring Morocco. Other believe that the Guanches are related to the Celts of Western Europe, and that the Canary Islands were an early realm of these races. They were left isolated on the islands, until the Spanish arrived in the 15th century, allowing no contact and mixing with other ethnic groups. Canary Islanders may descend from the Guanches as much as the Spanish. Fischer, who studied the modern Canarians, found among them the following types: A true, small Mediterranean type, which may be partly of Spanish introduction. A "Berber" type, with a heavier, broader face, but essentially Mediterranean. An "Oriental" type, with a narrow face, thin, convex nose, dark hair, and attenuated extremities. An Alpine of Bavarian appearance - this is said to be uncommon. The "Crô-Magnon" type; with a low, rectangular face, especially characterized by bigonial prominence; deep-set eyes under heavy browridges, with low orbits; a straight nasal profile, but relative broad nose; thin lips, and heavy jaw. This type has a thick-set body build, with trunk proportions similar to those of living Bavarians. Western Barbary; Morocco and the Canary Islands Modern Canarians appear less blond than the Riffians. Despite the statistical evidence that most modern Canarians are brunettes, the legend of the blond beauty of the female inhabitants of Teneriffe is famous in seafaring quarters, just as the blond looks of the early Guanches struck the Spaniards. Population genetics The most frequent mtDNA haplogroup in Canary Islands is H (37.6%), followed by North African U6 (14.0%), T (12.7%), U (except U6) (10.3%) and J (7.0%). Two haplogroups, H and U6 alone account for more than 50% of the individuals. Significant frequencies of sub-Saharan L haplogroups (6.6%) is also consistent with the historical records on introduction of sub-Saharan slave labour in Canary Islands Phylogeographic patterns of mtDNA reflecting the colonization of the Canary Islands, Rando et al. 1999 Mitochondrial portraits of the Madeira and Açores archipelagos witness different genetic pools of its settlers, Brehm et al. 2003 . A 2003 genetics research article by Nicole Maca-Meyer et al. published in the European Journal of Human Genetics compared aboriginal Guanche mtDNA (collected from Canarian archaeological sites) to that of today's Canarians and concluded that, "despite the continuous changes suffered by the population (Spanish colonization, slave trade), aboriginal mtDNA [direct maternal] lineages constitute a considerable proportion [42 – 73%] of the Canarian gene pool. Although the Berbers are the most probable ancestors of the Guanches, it is deduced that important human movements [e.g., the Islamic-Arabic conquest of the Berbers] have reshaped Northwest Africa after the migratory wave to the Canary Islands" and the "results support, from a maternal perspective, the supposition that since the end of the 16th century, at least, two-thirds of the Canarian population had an indigenous substrate, as was previously inferred from historical and anthropological data." http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v12/n2/full/5201075a.html Ancient mtDNA analysis and the origin of the Guanches mtDNA haplogroup U subclade U6b1 is Canarian-specific Phylogeny of the mtDNA haplogroup U6. Analysis of the sequences observed in North Africa and Iberia and is the most common mtDNA haplogroup found in aboriginal Guanche archaeological burial sites. Y-DNA, or Y-chromosomal, (direct paternal) lineages were not analyzed in this study; however, an earlier study giving the aboriginal y-DNA contribution at 6% was cited by Maca-Meyer et al., but the results were criticized as possibly flawed due to the widespread phylogeography of y-DNA haplogroup E1b1b1b, which may skew determination of the aboriginality versus coloniality of contemporary y-DNA lineages in the Canaries. Regardless, Maca-Meyer et al. states that historical evidence does support the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry...as a result of a strong bias favoring matings between European males and aboriginal females, and to the important aboriginal male mortality during the Conquest." http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v12/n2/full/5201075a.html Ancient mtDNA analysis and the origin of the Guanches. The genetics thus suggests the native men were sharply reduced in numbers due to the war, large numbers of Spaniard men stayed in the islands and married the local women, the Canarians adopted Spanish names, language, and religion, and in this way, the Canarians were Hispanicized. According to a 2005 study, in spite of the geographic nearness between the Canary Islands and Morocco, the genetic heritage of the Canary islands male lineages, is mainly from European origin. Indeed, nearly 72% of the haplogroups resulting from are Euro–Eurasian (R1a, R1b, I and G). Unsurprisingly the Spanish conquest brought the genetic base of the current male population of the Canary Islands. Nevertheless, the second most important Haplogroup family is from Africa, Near and Middle East. E1b1b (12% including 7% of the typically berber haplogroup E-M81), E1b1a (2%), J (10%) and T (3%) Haplogroups are present at a rate of 27%. Even if a part of these "eastern" haplogroups were introduced by the Spanish too, we can suppose that a good portion of this rate was already there at the time of the conquest Y-chromosome STR haplotypes in the Canary Islands population (Spain), Zurita et al. 2005 . Physical geography The islands and their capitals are: Island Capital Tenerife Santa Cruz de Tenerife Gran Canaria Las Palmas de Gran Canaria Lanzarote Arrecife La Palma Santa Cruz de La Palma La Gomera San Sebastián de La Gomera El Hierro Valverde Fuerteventura Puerto del Rosario La Graciosa (Lanzarote) Caleta de Sebo Tenerife, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' and Spain's most populous island. The island of Fuerteventura is the second largest in the archipelago and located 100 km from the African coast. The islands form the Macaronesia ecoregion with the Azores, Cape Verde, Madeira, and the Savage Isles. The archipelago consists of seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are volcanic in origin. (Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,) José Mangas Viñuela, "The Canary Islands Hot Spot" This is the source for the geological history that follows. The Teide volcano on Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third largest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island. All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years; four of them (Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro) have historical records of eruptions since European discovery. The islands rise from Jurassic oceanic crust associated with the opening of the Atlantic. Underwater magmatism commenced during the Cretaceous, and reached the ocean's surface during the Miocene. The islands are considered as a distinct physiographic section of the Atlas Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger African Alpine System division. According to the position of the islands with respect to the NE trade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species form laurisilva forests. Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community. In the early 90's, there were only five Spanish national parks, four of them being the Canarian parks, and the other one Doñana. The parks are: Hacha Grande, a mountain in the south of Lanzarote, viewed from the road to the Playa de Papagayo. Park Island Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente La Palma Garajonay National Park La Gomera Teide National Park Tenerife Timanfaya National Park Lanzarote Islands Calatrava´s Audorium, home to the Tenerife Symphonic Orchestra Tenerife is, with its 2,034 km², the most extensive island of the Canaries. In addition, the 886,033 inhabitants make it the most populated island in Spain. Two of the archipelago's principal cities are located on it: Santa Cruz de Tenerife (metropilitana is the area most densely populated of the Canary Islands, with 1156.33 m/km²) and San Cristóbal de La Laguna (a World Heritage Site). Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the capital and seat of the Parliament of Canaries. Santa Cruz de Tenerife shares the status of capital of the Canaries with Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. The Teide, with its 3,718 m is the highest peak of Spain and also a World Heritage Site. This island is in the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Gran Canaria is the province of Las Palmas' most populated island, with 829,597 inhabitants. The capital, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (377,203 inhabitants), is the most populated city and share the status of capital of the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife. In center of the island lie the Roque Nublo (1,813 m) and the Peak of Snow (1,949 m), the two highest points of the island. Fuerteventura, with a surface of 1,659 km², is the second-most extensive island of the archipelago, as well as the second most oriental. Being also the most ancient of the islands, it is the one that is more eroded: its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of 807 m. Its capital is Puerto del Rosario. La Palma, with 85,933 inhabitants, covering an area of 708.32 km² is in its entirety a biosphere reserve. It shows no recent signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcano Teneguía entered into eruption last in 1971. In addition, it is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos (2,423 m) as highest point. Santa Cruz de La Palma is its capital. Lanzarote, is the easternmost island and one of the most ancient of the archipelago, and it has shown recent volcanic activity. It has a surface of 845.94 km², and a population of 132,366 inhabitants. The capital is Arrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants. La Graciosa, is the smallest inhabited island of the archipelago, and the major island of the Chinijo Archipelago. The whole archipelago is administrated by Lanzarote. It has a surface of 29.05 km², and a population of 658 inhabitants. The capital is Caleta de Sebo, with 656 inhabitants. El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers 268.71 km², making it the smallest of the major islands, and the least populated with 10,558 inhabitants. The whole island was declared Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000. Its capital is Valverde. Also known as Ferro, it was once believed to be the westernmost land in the world. La Gomera, has an area of 369.76 km² and is the third-least-populated island with 22,259 inhabitants. Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago. The insular capital is San Sebastian de La Gomera. Garajonay's National Park is here. Political geography Map of the Canary Islands Maps of the Canary Islands drawn by William Dampier during his voyage to New Holland in 1699. The Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands consists of two provinces, Las Palmas and Santa Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife) are capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands is ruled by an island council named cabildo insular. The international boundary of the Canaries is the subject of dispute between Spain and Morocco. Morocco does not agree that the laws regarding territorial limits allow Spain to claim for itself seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, because the Canary Islands are autonomous. In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy as each one of the Spanish regions is considered an autonomous community. Under the Law of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation or do not have an economic life of their own, which is clearly not the case of the Canary Islands. The boundary is relevant for possible seabed oil deposits and other ocean resource exploitation. Morocco therefore does not formally agree to the territorial boundary; it rejected a 2002 unilateral Spanish proposal. The Islands have 13 seats in the Spanish Senate. Of these, 11 seats are directly elected, 3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, 1 for each other island; 2 seats are indirectly elected by the regional Autonomous Government. The local government is presided over by Paulino Rivero Baute. Economy Tourism in the Canary Islands www.gobiernodecanarias.org Statistics Year Population2009(Jan, Feb)1,530,2672008 9,210,50920079,326,116 20069,530,039 20059,276,96320049,427,26520039,836,785 20029,778,512 200110,137,20220009,975,977 19936,545,396 Country (2008) Population Germany2,498,847Great Britain3,355,942 The economy is based primarily on tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 10 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the more arid islands, are being overexploited but there are still many agricultural resources like tomatoes, potatoes, onions, cochineal, sugarcane, grapes, vines, dates, oranges, lemons, figs, wheat, barley, maize, apricots, peaches and almonds. The economy is € 25 billion (2001 GDP figures). The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20 year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts of Foreign Direct Investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near 11 billion euro in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds). Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than 5 jobs. The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made the Roque de los Muchachos peak (on La Palma island) a leading location for telescopes like the Grantecan. The islands are outside the European Union customs territory and VAT area, though politically within the EU. Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 5%, an increased tax rate of 12%, a reduced tax rate of 2% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services (eg telecommunications). The ISO 3166-1 α-2 code IC is reserved for representing them in customs affairs. Goods subject to Spanish customs and excise duties and Value Added Tax (VAT), such as tobacco or electronic goods, are therefore significantly cheaper in the Canaries. Spanish magazines usually have a similar or higher price than in the peninsula since VAT is substituted with air transport costs. The islands' country calling code is (+34) and the Internet country code is the same as Spain's (.es). The currency is the euro. Canarian time is Western European Time (WET) (or GMT; in summer one hour ahead of GMT). So Canarian time is one hour behind that of mainland Spain and the same as that of the British Isles and Portugal all year round. Wildlife Terrestrial wildlife With a range of habitats, the Canary Islands exhibit diverse plant species. The bird life includes European and African species, such as the Black-bellied Sandgrouse; and a rich variety of endemic (local) species including the: Canary Graja (endemic to La Palma) Blue Chaffinch Canary Islands Chiffchaff Fuerteventura Chat Tenerife Goldcrest Madeira Firecrest Bolle's Pigeon Laurel Pigeon Trocaz Pigeon Plain Swift Houbara Bustard Terrestrial fauna includes geckos (such as the striped Canary Islands Gecko) and wall lizards, and three endemic species of recently rediscovered and critically endangered giant lizard: the El Hierro Giant Lizard (or Roque Chico de Salmor Giant Lizard), La Gomera Giant Lizard, and La Palma Giant Lizard. Mammals include the Canarian Shrew, Canary Big-Eared Bat, the Algerian Hedgehog (which may have been introduced) and the more recently introduced Mouflon. Some endemic mammals, the Lava Mouse and Canary Islands Giant Rat, are extinct, as are the Canary Islands Quail, Long-legged Bunting, and the Eastern Canary Islands Chiffchaff. Marine life A Loggerhead Turtle, by far the most common species of marine turtle in the Canary Islands. The Marine life found in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination of North Atlantic, Mediterranean and endemic species. In recent years, the increasing popularity of both scuba diving and underwater photography have provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands. Fish species found in the islands include many species of shark, ray, moray eel, bream, jack, grunt, scorpionfish, triggerfish, grouper, goby, and blenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species including sponge, jellyfish, anemone, crab, mollusc, sea urchin, starfish, sea cucumber and coral. There are a total of 5 different species of marine turtle that are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being the endangered Loggerhead Turtle. The other four are the Green, Hawksbill, Leatherback and Kemp's Ridley Turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usually migrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory. Marine mammals include the Short-Finned Pilot Whale, Common and Bottlenose dolphins. The Canary Islands were also formerly home to a population of the rarest Pinniped in the world, the Mediterranean Monk Seal. Sports A unique form of wrestling known as Canarian Wrestling (lucha canaria) has opponents stand in a special area called a "terrero" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements. http://www.ctspanish.com/communities/canarym/canary%20islands.htm Another sport is the "game of the sticks" where opponents fence with long sticks. This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks. http://www.ctspanish.com/communities/canarym/canary%20islands.htm Another sport is called the Shepard's jump. This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area. This sport possibly evolved from the shepard's need to occasionally get over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep. http://www.ctspanish.com/communities/canarym/canary%20islands.htm Notable athletes One native of the Canary Islands played Major League Baseball: Alfredo Cabrera, born there in 1881; he played shortstop for the St. Louis Cardinals in 1913. Another native of the Canary Islands plays in the National Basketball Association today: Sergio Rodríguez, born there in 1986; he plays point guard for the Portland Trail Blazers. See also Science Science in the Canary Islands History Canary Islands in pre-colonial times Guanches Pyramids of Güímar Jean de Béthencourt Gadifer de la Salle First Battle of Acentejo Second Battle of Acentejo Alonso Fernández de Lugo Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797) Tanausu Tenerife disaster; prior to the 9/11 attacks, the deadliest commercial aviation disaster in history. San Andrés Geography La Matanza de Acentejo, Santa Cruz de Tenerife Los Llanos de Aridane Macaronesia Orotava Valley Guatiza (Lanzarote) Cumbre Vieja, a volcano on La Palma Tourism in the Canary Islands Culture Canarian cuisine Military of the Canary Islands Salto del pastor (Canary Islands mountain gymnastic folk sport) Silbo Gomero language, a whistled language, is an indigenous language, whose existence was known since Roman times. Isleños Music of the Canary Islands Virgin of Candelaria (Saint Patron of Canary Islands) Neighbours Azores Cape Verde Madeira Morocco Western Sahara Natural history See:- Borgesen, F. 1929. Marine algae from the Canary Islands. III Rhodophyceae. Part II. Cryptonemiales, Gigartinales, and Rhodymeniales. Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Biologiske Meddelelser. 8: 1 — 97. Notes References Alfred Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0-521-45690-8 Felipe Fernández-Armesto, The Canary Islands after the Conquest: The Making of a Colonial Society in the Early-Sixteenth Century, Oxford U. Press, 1982. ISBN 978-0-198-21888-3; ISBN 0-198-21888-5 Sergio Hanquet, Diving in Canaries, Litografía A. ROMERO, 2001. ISBN 84-932195-0-9 Martin Wiemers: The butterflies of the Canary Islands. - A survey on their distribution, biology and ecology (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea and Hesperioidea) - Linneana Belgica 15 (1995): 63-84 & 87–118 pdf External links Official Tourism Website of the Canary Islands be-x-old:Канарскі архіпэляг

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Cartesian_product

In mathematics, a Cartesian product (or product set) is the direct product of two sets. The Cartesian product is named after René Descartes, whose formulation of analytic geometry gave rise to this concept. Specifically, the Cartesian product of two sets X (for example the points on an x-axis) and Y (for example the points on a y-axis), denoted X × Y, is the set of all possible ordered pairs whose first component is a member of X and whose second component is a member of Y (e.g. the whole of the x-y plane): For example, the Cartesian product of the 13-element set of standard playing card ranks {Ace, King, Queen, Jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2} and the four-element set of card suits {♠, ♥, ♦, ♣} is the 52-element set of all possible playing cards {(Ace, ♠), (King, ♠), ..., (2, ♠), (Ace, ♥), ..., (3, ♣), (2, ♣)}. The corresponding Cartesian product has 52 = 13x4 elements. A Cartesian product of two finite sets can be represented by a table, with one set as the rows and the other as the columns, and forming the ordered pairs, the cells of the table, by choosing the element of the set from the row and the column. Basic properties Let and be sets. In cases where the two input sets are not the same, the Cartesian product is not commutative because the ordered pairs are reversed. Although the elements of each of the ordered pairs in the sets will be the same, the pairing will differ. For example: {1,2} x {3,4} = {(1,3), (1,4), (2,3), (2,4)} {3,4} x {1,2} = {(3,1), (3,2), (4,1), (4,2)} One exception is with the empty set, which acts as a "zero" and for equal sets. and, supposing G,T are sets and G=T: Strictly speaking, the Cartesian Product is not associative. The Cartesian Product acts nicely with respect to intersections. Notice that in most cases the above statement is not true if we replace intersection with union. However, for intersection and union it holds for: and, n-ary product The Cartesian product can be generalized to the n-ary Cartesian product over n sets X1, ..., Xn: Indeed, it can be identified to (X1 × ... × Xn-1) × Xn. It is a set of n-tuples. Cartesian square and Cartesian power The Cartesian square (or binary Cartesian product) of a set X is the Cartesian product X2 = X × X. An example is the 2-dimensional plane R2 = R × R where R is the set of real numbers - all points (x,y) where x and y are real numbers (see the Cartesian coordinate system). The cartesian power of a set X can be defined as: An example of this is R3 = R × R × R, with R again the set of real numbers, and more generally Rn. See also: Euclidean space Infinite products It is possible to define the Cartesian product of an arbitrary (possibly infinite) family of sets. If I is any index set, and {Xi | i ∈ I} is a collection of sets indexed by I, then the Cartesian product of the sets in X is defined to be that is, the set of all functions defined on the index set such that the value of the function at a particular index i is an element of Xi . For each j in I, the function defined by πj(f) = f(j) is called the j -th projection map. An important case is when the index set is N the natural numbers: this Cartesian product is the set of all infinite sequences with the i -th term in its corresponding set Xi . For example, each element of can be visualized as a vector with an infinite number of real-number components. The special case Cartesian exponentiation occurs when all the factors Xi involved in the product are the same set X. In this case, is the set of all functions from I to X. This case is important in the study of cardinal exponentiation. The definition of finite Cartesian products can be seen as a special case of the definition for infinite products. In this interpretation, an n-tuple can be viewed as a function on {1, 2, ..., n} that takes its value at i to be the i-th element of the tuple (in some settings, this is taken as the very definition of an n-tuple). Nothing in the definition of an infinite Cartesian product implies that the Cartesian product of nonempty sets must itself be nonempty. This assertion is equivalent to the axiom of choice. Abbreviated form If several sets are being multiplied together, e.g. X1, X2, X3, …, then some authors Osborne, M., and Rubinstein, A., 1994. A Course in Game Theory. MIT Press. choose to abbreviate the Cartesian product as simply ×Xi. Cartesian product of functions If f is a function from A to B and g is a function from X to Y, their cartesian product f×g is a function from A×X to B×Y with As above this can be extended to tuples and infinite collections of functions. Category theory Although the Cartesian product is traditionally applied to sets, category theory provides a more general interpretation of the product of mathematical structures. This is distinct from, although related to, the notion of a Cartesian square in category theory, which is a generalization of the fiber product. Graph theory In graph theory the Cartesian product of two graphs G and H is the graph denoted by G×H whose vertex set is the (ordinary) Cartesian product V(G)×V(H) and such that two vertices (u,v) and (u′,v′) are adjacent in G×H if and only if u is adjacent to u′ and v is adjacent to v′. Unlike the ordinary Cartesian product, the Cartesian product of graphs is not a product in the sense of category theory. Instead it is more like a tensor product. See also Binary relation Empty product Product (category theory) Product topology Finitary relation Ultraproduct Notes External links Cartesian Product at ProvenMath be-x-old:Дэкартавы здабытак

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Death_of_a_Hero

Death of a Hero is a World War I novel by Richard Aldington. It was his first novel, written in 1929, and thought to be partly autobiographical. Plot summary Death of a Hero is the story of a young English artist named George Winterbourne who enlists in the army at the outbreak of World War I. The book is narrated by an unnamed first-person narrator who claims to have known and served with the main character. It is divided into three parts. Book I The first part details George's family history. His father, a middle-classed man from England's countryside, marries a poor woman who falsely believes she is marrying into a monied family. After George's birth, his mother takes a series of lovers. George is brought up to be a proper and patriotic member of English society. He is encouraged to follow in his father's insurance business, but he fails to do so. After a falling out with his parents, he moves to London to pursue art and live a socialite lifestyle. Book II The second section of the book deals with George's London life. He ingrains himself in socialite society and engages a number of trendy philosophies. After he and his lover, Elizabeth, have a pregnancy scare, they decide to marry. Although they do not have a child, the marriage stands. They decide to leave their marriage open. George takes Elizabeth's closet friend as a lover, however, their marriage begins to fall apart. Just as the situation is becoming particularly heated, England declares war on Germany. George decides to enlist. Book III George trains for the army and is sent to France. (No particular location in France is mentioned. The town behind the front where George spends much of his time is referred to as M---.) He fights on the front for some time. When he returns home, he finds that he has been so affected by the war that he cannot relate to his friends, including his wife and lover. The casualty rate among officers is particularly high at the front. When a number of officers in George's unit are killed, he is promoted. Upon spending time with the other officers, he finds them to be cynical and utilitarian. He loses faith in the war quickly. The story ends with George standing up during a machine-gun barrage. He is killed. At the end of the book there is a poem written from the point of view of a veteran comparing World War I to the Trojan War. Censorship Aldington, a veteran of World War I, claimed that his novel was accurate in terms of speech and style. It contained extensive colloquial speech, including profanity, discussion of sexuality, and graphic descriptions of the war and of trench life. There were extensive censorship laws in place in England at the time, and many previous war novels had been banned or burned as a result. When Aldington first published his novel, he redacted a number of passages in order to ensure the publication of his book would not be challenged. He insisted that his publishers include a disclaimer in the original printing of the book which included the following text: To my astonishment, my publisher informed me that certain words, phrases, sentences, and even passages, are at present taboo in England. I have recorded nothing which I have not observed in human life, said nothing I do not believe to be true. [...] At my request the publishers are removing what they believe would be considered objectionable, and are placing asterisks to show where omissions have been made. [...] In my opinion it is better for the book to appear mutilated than for me to say what I don't believe. External links http://www.le.ac.uk/engassoc/publications/188.htm#abs1

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Nucleotide

Nucleotides are molecules that, when joined together, make up the structural units of RNA and DNA. Additionally, nucleotides play central roles in metabolism. In that capacity, they serve as sources of chemical energy (adenosine triphosphate and guanosine triphosphate), participate in cellular signaling (cyclic guanosine monophosphate and cyclic adenosine monophosphate), and are incorporated into important cofactors of enzymatic reactions (coenzyme A, flavin adenine dinucleotide, flavin mononucleotide, and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K & Wlater P (2002). Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science. ISBN 0-8153-3218-1. pp. 120-121. Figure 1: Structural elements of the most common nucleotides Nucleotide structure Figure 2: Ribose structure indicating numbering of carbon atoms A nucleotide is composed of a nucleobase (nitrogenous base) and a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or 2'-deoxyribose), and one to three phosphate groups. Together, the nucleobase and sugar comprise a nucleoside. The phosphate groups form bonds with either the 2, 3, or 5-carbon of the sugar, with the 5-carbon site most common. Cyclic nucleotides form when the phosphate group is bound to two of the sugar's hydroxyl groups. Ribonucleotides are nucleotides where the sugar is ribose, and deoxyribonucleotides contain the sugar deoxyribose. Nucleotides can contain either a purine or pyrimidine base. Nucleic acids are polymeric macromolecules made from nucleotide monomers. In DNA, the purine bases are adenine and guanine, while the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine. RNA uses uracil in place of thymine. Synthesis Nucleotides can be synthesized by a variety of means both in vitro and in vivo. In vivo, nucleotides can be synthesised de novo or recycled through salvage pathways. Nucleotides undergo breakdown such that useful parts can be reused in synthesis reactions to create new nucleotides. In vitro, protecting groups may be used during laboratory production of nucleotides. A purified nucleoside is protected to create a phosphoramidite, which can then be used to obtain analogues not found in nature and/or to synthesize an oligonucleotide. Pyrimidine ribonucleotides The synthesis of UMP.The color scheme is as follows: enzymes, coenzymes, substrate names, inorganic molecules Pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis starts with the formation of carbamoyl phosphate from glutamine and CO2. The cyclisation reaction between carbamoyl phosphate reacts with aspartate yielding orotate in subsequent steps. Orotate reacts with 5-phosphoribosyl α-diphosphate (PRPP) yielding orotidine monophosphate (OMP) which is decarboxylated to form uridine monophosphate (UMP). It is from UMP that other pyrimidine nucleotides are derived. UMP is phosphorylated to uridine triphosphate (UTP) via two sequential reactions with ATP. Cytidine monophosphate (CMP) is derived from conversion of UTP to cytidine triphosphate (CTP) with subsequent loss of two phosphates. Purine ribonucleotides The atoms which are used to build the purine nucleotides come from a variety of sources: Image:Nucleotides syn3.png The biosynthetic origins of purine ring atomsN1 arises from the amine group of AspC2 and C8 originate from formateN3 and N9 are contributed by the amide group of GlnC4, C5 and N7 are derived from Gly C6 comes from HCO3- (CO2) The synthesis of IMP. The color scheme is as follows: enzymes, coenzymes, substrate names, metal ions, inorganic molecules The de novo synthesis of purine nucleotides by which these precursors are incorporated into the purine ring, proceeds by a 10 step pathway to the branch point intermediate IMP, the nucleotide of the base hypoxanthine. AMP and GMP are subsequently synthesized from this intermediate via separate, two step each, pathways. Thus purine moieties are initially formed as part of the ribonucleotides rather than as free bases. Six enzymes take part in IMP synthesis. Three of them are multifunctional: GART (reactions 2, 3, and 5) PAICS (reactions 6, and 7) ATIC (reactions 9, and 10) Reaction 1. The pathway starts with the formation of PRPP. PRPS1 is the enzyme that activates R5P, which is primarily formed by the pentose phosphate pathway, to PRPP by reacting it with ATP. The reaction is unusual in that a pyrophosphoryl group is directly transferred from ATP to C1 of R5P and that the product has the α configuration about C1. This reaction is also shared with the pathways for the synthesis of the pyrimidine nucleotides, Trp, and His. As a result of being on (a) such (a) major metabolic crossroad and the use of energy, this reaction is highly regulated. Reaction 2. In the first reaction unique to purine nucleotide biosynthesis, PPAT catalyzes the displacement of PRPP's pyrophosphate group (PPi) by Gln's amide nitrogen. The reaction occurs with the inversion of configuration about ribose C1, thereby forming β-5-phosphorybosylamine (5-PRA) and establishing the anomeric form of the future nucleotide. This reaction which is driven to completion by the subsequent hydrolysis of the released PPi, is the pathway's flux generating step and is therefore regulated too. References See also Chromosome Gene Genetics Nucleic acid analogues External links Abbreviations and Symbols for Nucleic Acids, Polynucleotides and their Constituents (IUPAC) Provisional Recommendations 2004 (IUPAC) Chemistry explanation of nucleotide structure

Nucleotide |@lemmatized nucleotide:23 molecule:3 join:1 together:2 make:2 structural:2 unit:1 rna:2 dna:2 additionally:1 play:1 central:1 role:1 metabolism:1 capacity:1 serve:1 source:2 chemical:1 energy:2 adenosine:2 triphosphate:4 guanosine:2 participate:1 cellular:1 signaling:1 cyclic:3 monophosphate:5 incorporate:2 important:1 cofactor:1 enzymatic:1 reaction:15 coenzyme:3 flavin:2 adenine:3 dinucleotide:2 mononucleotide:1 nicotinamide:1 phosphate:8 alberts:1 b:1 johnson:1 lewis:1 j:1 raff:1 roberts:1 k:1 wlater:1 p:1 molecular:1 biology:1 cell:1 ed:1 garland:1 science:1 isbn:1 pp:1 figure:2 element:1 common:2 structure:3 ribose:4 indicate:1 numbering:1 carbon:4 atom:2 compose:1 nucleobase:2 nitrogenous:1 base:5 five:1 sugar:6 either:3 deoxyribose:2 one:1 three:2 group:9 comprise:1 nucleoside:2 form:7 bond:1 site:1 bind:1 two:4 hydroxyl:1 ribonucleotides:4 deoxyribonucleotides:1 contain:2 purine:9 pyrimidine:6 nucleic:3 acid:3 polymeric:1 macromolecule:1 monomer:1 guanine:1 thymine:2 cytosine:1 us:1 uracil:1 place:1 synthesis:8 synthesize:3 variety:2 mean:1 vitro:2 vivo:2 synthesise:1 de:2 novo:2 recycle:1 salvage:1 pathway:7 undergo:1 breakdown:1 useful:1 part:3 reuse:1 create:2 new:1 protect:2 may:1 use:4 laboratory:1 production:1 purified:1 phosphoramidite:1 obtain:1 analogue:2 find:1 nature:1 oligonucleotide:1 ump:4 color:2 scheme:2 follow:2 enzyme:4 substrate:2 name:2 inorganic:2 start:2 formation:2 carbamoyl:2 glutamine:1 cyclisation:1 reacts:2 aspartate:1 yield:2 orotate:2 subsequent:3 step:4 phosphoribosyl:1 α:2 diphosphate:1 prpp:4 orotidine:1 omp:1 decarboxylate:1 uridine:2 derive:3 phosphorylated:1 utp:2 via:2 sequential:1 atp:3 cytidine:2 cmp:1 conversion:1 ctp:1 loss:1 build:1 nucleotides:1 come:2 image:1 png:1 biosynthetic:1 origin:1 ring:2 arises:1 amine:1 originate:1 contribute:1 amide:2 gly:1 imp:3 metal:1 ion:1 precursor:1 proceeds:1 branch:1 point:1 intermediate:2 hypoxanthine:1 amp:1 gmp:1 subsequently:1 separate:1 thus:1 moiety:1 initially:1 rather:1 free:1 six:1 take:1 multifunctional:1 gart:1 paics:1 atic:1 activate:1 primarily:1 pentose:1 react:1 unusual:1 pyrophosphoryl:1 directly:1 transfer:1 product:1 configuration:2 also:2 share:1 trp:1 result:1 major:1 metabolic:1 crossroad:1 highly:1 regulate:2 first:1 unique:1 biosynthesis:1 ppat:1 catalyze:1 displacement:1 pyrophosphate:1 ppi:2 gln:1 nitrogen:1 occur:1 inversion:1 thereby:1 β:1 phosphorybosylamine:1 pra:1 establish:1 anomeric:1 future:1 drive:1 completion:1 hydrolysis:1 release:1 flux:1 generate:1 therefore:1 reference:1 see:1 chromosome:1 gene:1 genetics:1 external:1 link:1 abbreviation:1 symbol:1 polynucleotides:1 constituent:1 iupac:2 provisional:1 recommendation:1 chemistry:1 explanation:1 |@bigram adenosine_triphosphate:1 guanosine_triphosphate:1 adenosine_monophosphate:1 enzymatic_reaction:1 adenine_dinucleotide:2 nicotinamide_adenine:1 molecular_biology:1 carbon_atom:1 cyclic_nucleotide:1 purine_pyrimidine:1 nucleic_acid:3 enzyme_coenzyme:2 pentose_phosphate:1 phosphate_pathway:1 external_link:1

Agatha_Christie

Agatha Mary Clarissa, Lady Mallowan, DBE (née Miller; 15 September 1890 12 January 1976), commonly known as Agatha Christie, was an English crime writer of novels, short stories and plays. She also wrote romances under the name Mary Westmacott, but is best remembered for her 80 detective novels and her successful West End theatre plays. Her works, particularly featuring detectives Hercule Poirot or Miss Jane Marple, have given her the title the 'Queen of Crime' and made her one of the most important and innovative writers in the development of the genre. Christie has been called by the Guinness Book of World Records as the best-selling writer of books of all time and the best-selling writer of any kind, along with William Shakespeare. Only the Bible is known to have outsold her collected sales of roughly four billion copies of novels. Agatha Christie gets a clue for filmmakersEntertainment News, Michael Fleming, MediaVariety UNESCO states that she is currently the most translated individual author in the world with only the collective corporate works of Walt Disney Productions surpassing her. Christie's books have been translated into (at least) 56 languages. Her stage play The Mousetrap holds the record for the longest initial run in the world, opening at the Ambassadors Theatre in London on 25 November, 1952, and as of 2009 is still running after more than 23,000 performances. In 1955 Christie was the first recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's highest honour, the Grand Master Award, and in the same year, Witness for the Prosecution was given an Edgar Award by the MWA, for Best Play. Most of her books and short stories have been filmed, some many times over (Murder on the Orient Express, Death on the Nile and 4.50 From Paddington for instance), and many have been adapted for television, radio, video games and comics. In 1968 Booker Books, a subsidiary of the agri-industrial conglomerate Booker-McConnell, bought a 51 percent stake in Agatha Christie Limited, the private company that Christie had set up for tax purposes. Booker later increased its stake to 64 percent. In 1998, Booker sold its shares to Chorion, a company whose portfolio also includes the literary estates of Enid Blyton and Dennis Wheatley. Chorion Biography Early life and first marriage Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller was born in Torquay, Devon, England. Her mother, Clarissa Margaret Boehmer, was the daughter of a British army captain Morgan, Janet. Agatha Christie, A Biography. (Page 2) Collins, 1984 ISBN 0-00-216330-6 , but had been sent as a child to live with her own mother's sister, who was the second wife of a wealthy American. Eventually Margaret married her stepfather's son from his first marriage, Frederick Alvah Miller, an American stockbroker. Thus the two women Agatha called "Grannie" were sisters. Despite her father's nationality as a "New Yorker" and her aunt's relation to the Pierpont Morgans, Agatha never claimed United States citizenship or connection. Wagoner, Mary S. Agatha Christie. (Page 26) Twayne Publishers, 1986 ISBN 0805769366, 9780805769364 The Millers had two other children: Margaret Frary Miller (1879–1950), called Madge, who was eleven years Agatha's senior, and Louis Miller (1880–1929), called Monty, ten years older than Agatha. Later, in her autobiography, Agatha would refer to her brother as "an amiable scapegrace of a brother". Brief Biography of Agatha Christie Christie Bio Despite turbulent courtship, on Christmas Eve 1914 Agatha married Archibald Christie, an aviator in the Royal Flying Corps who was beginning to earn a reputation as an aviator ace. The couple had one daughter, Rosalind Hicks. They divorced in 1928, two years after Christie discovered her husband was having an affair. It was during this marriage that she published her first novel in 1920, The Mysterious Affair at Styles. During World War I she worked at a hospital and then a pharmacy, a job that influenced her work, as many of the murders in her books are carried out with poison. Disappearance In late 1926 Agatha's husband Archie revealed that he was in love with another woman, Nancy Neele, and wanted a divorce. On 3 December 1926 the couple quarreled, and Archie Christie left their house in Sunningdale, Berkshire to spend the weekend with his mistress at Godalming, Surrey. That same evening Agatha disappeared from her home, leaving behind a letter for her secretary saying that she was going to Yorkshire. Her disappearance caused an outcry from the public, many of whom were admirers of Agatha Christie's novels. Despite a massive manhunt, there were no results until eleven days later. Sunday, 22 February 2009, "MRS. CHRISTIE FOUND IN A YORKSHIRE SPA; Missing Novelist, Under an Assumed Name, Was Staying at a Hotel There. CLUE A NEWSPAPER PICTURE Mystery Writer Is Victim of Loss of Memory, Her Husband Declares. MRS. CHRISTIE FOUND IN A YORKSHIRE SPA" http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C17FE3C591B7A93C7A81789D95F428285F9&scp=4&sq=Agatha%20Christie%20Disappearance&st=cse Retrieved Sunday, 22 February 2009 |Agatha Christie's gravestone in Cholsey Eleven days after her disappearance, Christie was identified as a guest at the Swan Hydropathic Hotel (now the Old Swan Hotel The Harrogate Hydropathic hotel, nowadays the Old Swan Hotel, was also known as the Swan Hydro, because of its location on Swan Road, on the site of an earlier Old Swan Hotel. A Brief History of Harrogate ) in Harrogate, Yorkshire where she was registered as 'Mrs Teresa Neele' from Cape Town. Christie gave no account of her disappearance. Although two doctors had diagnosed her as suffering from amnesia, opinion remains divided as to the reasons for her disappearance. One suggestion is that she had suffered a nervous breakdown brought about by a natural propensity for depression, exacerbated by her mother's death earlier that year, and the discovery of her husband's infidelity. Public reaction at the time was largely negative with many believing it was all just a publicity stunt, whilst others speculated she was trying to make the police think her husband killed her as revenge for his affair. Adams, Cecil, Why did mystery writer Agatha Christie mysteriously disappear? The Chicago Reader, 4/2/82. Accessed 5/19/08. Second marriage and later life In 1930 Christie married archaeologist Max Mallowan after joining him in an archaeological dig. Their marriage was happy in the early years and endured despite Mallowan's many affairs in later life, notably with Barbara Parker whom he married in 1977, the year after Christie's death. Christie's travels with Mallowan contributed background to several of her novels set in the Middle East. Other novels (such as And Then There Were None) were set in and around Torquay, Devon where she was born. Christie's 1934 novel, Murder on the Orient Express was written in the Hotel Pera Palace in Istanbul, Turkey, the southern terminus of the railway. The hotel maintains Christie's room as a memorial to the author. jbottero; "Agatha Christie's Hotel Pera Palace" http://virtualglobetrotting.com/map/51232/ 2008-06-05 23:08:11 The Greenway Estate in Devon, acquired by the couple as a summer residence in 1938, is now in the care of the National Trust. Christie often stayed at Abney Hall in Cheshire, which was owned by her brother-in-law, James Watts. She based at least two of her stories on the hall: The short story The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding, which is in the story collection of the same name, and the novel After the Funeral. "Abney became Agatha's greatest inspiration for country-house life, with all the servants and grandeur which have been woven into her plots. The descriptions of the fictional Styles, Chimneys, Stoneygates and the other houses in her stories are mostly Abney in various forms." Agatha Christie: A Reader's CompanionVanessa Wagstaff and Stephen Poole, Aurum Press Ltd. 2004. Page 14. ISBN 1 84513 015 4. Agatha Christie's room at the Hotel Pera Palace, where she wrote Murder on the Orient Express. To honour her many literary works, she was awarded a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1956. The next year, she became the President of the Detection Club. In 1971 she was made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire, three years after her husband was knighted in 1968 for his archeological work. "Biography: Agatha Christie" Retrieved 22, February 2009; http://www.illiterarty.com/authors/biography-agatha-christie From 1971 to 1974, Christie's health began to fail however she continued to write. In 1975, sensing her increasing weakness, Christie signed over the rights of her most successful play, The Mousetrap, to her grandson. "The Authorised Biography of Agatha Christie: An English Mystery", pages 484-492; Thompson, Laura; Headline Publishing Group, 2008; ISBN 0755314883, 9780755314881 Agatha Christie died on 12 January 1976, at age 85, from natural causes, at her Winterbrook House in the north of Cholsey parish, adjoining Wallingford in Oxfordshire (formerly Berkshire). She is buried in the nearby St. Mary's Churchyard in Cholsey. Christie's only child, Rosalind Margaret Hicks died, also aged 85, on 28 October 2004 from natural causes, in Torbay, Devon. Deaths England and Wales 1984-2006 Christie's grandson, Mathew Prichard, was heir to the copyright to some of his grandmother's literary work (including The Mousetrap) and is still associated with Agatha Christie Limited. Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple Agatha Christie's first novel The Mysterious Affair at Styles was published in 1920 and introduced the long-running character detective Hercule Poirot, who appeared in 33 of Christie's novels and 54 short stories. Her other well known character, Miss Marple, was introduced in The Tuesday Night Club in 1927 (short story), and was based on women like Christie's grandmother and her "cronies". BBC:Dusty clues to Christie unearthed During World War II, Christie wrote two novels, Curtain and Sleeping Murder, intended as the last cases of these two great detectives, Hercule Poirot and Jane Marple, respectively. Both books were sealed in a bank vault for over thirty years, and were released for publication by Christie only at the end of her life, when she realized that she could not write any more novels. These publications came on the heels of the success of the film version of Murder on the Orient Express in 1974. Like Arthur Conan Doyle with Sherlock Holmes, Christie was to become increasingly tired of her detective, Poirot. In fact, by the end of the 1930s, Christie confided to her diary that she was finding Poirot “insufferable," and by the 1960s she felt that he was "an ego-centric creep." However, unlike Conan Doyle, Christie resisted the temptation to kill her detective off while he was still popular. She saw herself as an entertainer whose job was to produce what the public liked, and the public liked Poirot. "Agatha Christie - Her Detectives and Other Characters" Retrieved 22 February, 2009 http://www.christiemystery.co.uk/detectives.html In contrast, Christie was fond of Miss Marple. However it is interesting to note that the Belgian detective’s titles outnumber the Marple titles by more than two to one. This is largely because Christie wrote numerous Poirot novels early in her career, while The Murder at the Vicarage remained the sole Marple novel until the 1940s. Christie never wrote a novel or short story featuring both Poirot and Miss Marple. In a recording, recently re-discovered and released in 2008, Christie revealed the reason for this: "Hercule Poirot, a complete egoist, would not like being taught his business or having suggestions made to him by an elderly spinster lady". Poirot is the only fictional character to have been given an obituary in The New York Times, following the publication of Curtain in 1975. Following the great success of Curtain, Christie gave permission for the release of Sleeping Murder sometime in 1976, but died in January 1976 before the book could be released. This may explain some of the inconsistencies compared to the rest of the Marple series — for example, Colonel Arthur Bantry, husband of Miss Marple's friend, Dolly, is still alive and well in Sleeping Murder despite the fact he is noted as having died in books published earlier. It may be that Christie simply did not have time to revise the manuscript before she died. Miss Marple fared better than Poirot, since after solving the mystery in Sleeping Murder she returns home to her regular life in St. Mary Mead. On an edition of Desert Island Discs in 2007, Brian Aldiss claimed that Agatha Christie told him that she wrote her books up to the last chapter, and then decided who the most unlikely suspect was. She would then go back and make the necessary changes to "frame" that person. The evidence of Christie's working methods, as described by successive biographers, belies this claim. Formula and plot devices Almost all of Agatha Christie’s books are whodunits, focusing on the English middle and upper classes. Usually, the detective either stumbles across the murder or is called upon by an old acquaintance, who is somehow involved. Gradually, the detective interrogates each suspect, examines the scene of the crime and makes a note of each clue, so readers can analyze it and be allowed a fair chance of solving the mystery themselves. Then, about halfway through, or sometimes even during the final act, one of the suspects usually dies, often because they have inadvertently deduced the killer's identity and need silencing. In a few of her novels, including Death Comes as the End and Ten Little Indians, there are multiple victims. Finally, the detective organizes a meeting of all the suspects and slowly denounces the guilty party, exposing several unrelated secrets along the way, sometimes over the course of thirty or so pages. The murders are often extremely ingenious, involving some convoluted piece of deception. Christie’s stories are also known for their taut atmosphere and strong psychological suspense, developed from the deliberately slow pace of her prose. Twice, the murderer surprisingly turns out to be the narrator of the story. In four stories, Christie allows the murderer to escape justice (and in the case of the last three, implicitly almost approves of their crimes); these are The Witness for the Prosecution, Murder on the Orient Express, Curtain and The Unexpected Guest. After the denouement of Taken at the Flood, her sleuth Poirot has the guilty party arrested for the lesser crime of manslaughter. (When Christie adapted Witness into a stage play, she lengthened the ending so that the murderer was also killed.) There are also numerous instances where the killer is not brought to justice in the legal sense but instead dies (death usually being presented as a more 'sympathetic' outcome), for example Death on the Nile, The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Crooked House, Appointment with Death and The Hollow. In some cases this is with the collusion of the detective involved. Five Little Pigs, and arguably Ordeal by Innocence, end with the question of whether formal justice will be done unresolved. Critical reception Agatha Christie was revered as a master of suspense, plotting and characterization by most of her contemporaries and, even today, her stories have received glowing reviews in most literary circles. Fellow crime writer Anthony Berkeley Cox was an admitted fan of her work, once saying that nobody can write an Agatha Christie novel but the authoress herself. However, she does have her detractors, most notably the American novelist Raymond Chandler, who criticised her in his book, The Simple Art of Murder. Portrayals Christie has been portrayed on a number of occasions in film and television. Several films, such as the 1979 film Agatha by Vanessa Redgrave and the Doctor Who episode "The Unicorn and the Wasp" by Fenella Woolgar, explored and offered accounts of Christie's disappearance in 1926. Others, such as 1980 Hungarian film, Kojak Budapesten (not to be confused with the 1986 comedy by the same name) recreate their own scenarios involving Christie's criminal skill. "Kojak Budapesten" 1990. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0081006/plotsummary In the 1986 TV play, Murder by the Book, Christie herself (Peggy Ashcroft) murdered one of her fictional-turned-real characters, Poirot. Several educational programs have been made, such as the 2004 BBC television program entitled Agatha Christie: A Life in Pictures, in which she is portrayed by Olivia Williams, Anna Massey, and Bonnie Wright. Several parodies have been made, including Murder by Indecision, where she is parodied as "Agatha Crispy". List of works See List of works by Agatha Christie Other works based on Christie's books and plays Plays adapted into novels by Charles Osborne 1998 Black Coffee 1999 The Unexpected Guest 2000 Spider's Web Plays adapted by other authors 1928 Alibi (dramatized by Michael Morton from the novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd) 1936 Love from a Stranger (play) (dramatized by Frank Vosper from the short story Philomel Cottage) 1939 Tea for Three (dramatized by Margery Vosper from the short story Accident) 1940 Peril at End House (dramatized from her novel by Arnold Ridley) 1949 Murder at the Vicarage (dramatized from the novel by Moie Charles and Barbara Toy) 1977 Murder at the Vicarage (dramatized from the novel by Leslie Darbon) 1981 Cards on the Table (dramatized from the novel by Leslie Darbon) 1993 Murder is Easy (dramatized from the novel by Clive Exton) 2005 And Then There Were None (dramatized from the novel by Kevin Elyot) Movie Adaptations 1928 The Coming of Mr. Quin (Based on the short story The Coming of Mr. Quin) 1929 Die Abenteurer GmbH (Based on The Secret Adversary) 1931 Alibi (Based on the stage play of the same name from the novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd) 1931 Black Coffee 1932 Le Coffret de laque (Black Coffee) 1934 Lord Edgware Dies 1937 Love from a Stranger (Based on the stage play of the same name from the short story Philomel Cottage. Released in the US as A Night of Terror) 1945 And Then There Were None 1947 Love from a Stranger (Released in the UK as A Stranger Walked In) 1957 Witness for the Prosecution 1960 Spider's Web 1962 Murder, She Said (Based on the novel 4.50 From Paddington) 1963 Murder at the Gallop (Based on the novel After the Funeral) 1964 Murder Most Foul (Based on the novel Mrs. McGinty's Dead) 1964 Murder Ahoy! (An original movie not based on any of the books, though it borrows some of the elements of They Do It with Mirrors) 1965 Gumnaam (uncredited adaptation of And Then There Were None) 1966 Ten Little Indians 1966 The Alphabet Murders (Based on The A.B.C. Murders) 1972 Endless Night 1974 Murder on the Orient Express 1975 Ten Little Indians 1978 Death on the Nile 1980 The Mirror Crack'd (Based on The Mirror Crack'd From Side to Side) 1982 Evil Under the Sun 1984 Ordeal by Innocence 1988 Appointment with Death 1987 Desyat Negrityat (Ten Little Niggers) 1989 Ten Little Indians 1995 Innocent Lies (Loosely based on the novel Towards Zero) 2005 Mon petit doigt m'a dit... (By the Pricking of my Thumbs) 2007 L'Heure zéro (Towards Zero) 2008 Le Crime est notre Affaire (Partners in Crime) Television Adaptations 1938 Love from a Stranger (TV) (Based on the stage play of the same name from the short story Philomel Cottage) 1947 Love from a Stranger (TV) 1949 Ten Little Indians 1959 Ten Little Indians 1970 The Murder at the Vicarage 1980 Why Didn't They Ask Evans? 1982 Spider's Web (TV) 1982 The Seven Dials Mystery 1982 The Agatha Christie Hour 1982 Murder is Easy 1982 The Witness for the Prosecution 1983 The Secret Adversary 1983 Partners in Crime 1983 A Caribbean Mystery 1983 Sparkling Cyanide 1984 The Body in the Library 1985 Murder with Mirrors 1985 The Moving Finger 1985 A Murder Is Announced 1985 A Pocket Full of Rye 1985 Thirteen at Dinner 1986 Dead Man's Folly 1986 Murder in Three Acts 1986 The Murder at the Vicarage 1987 Sleeping Murder 1987 At Bertram's Hotel 1987 Nemesis 1987 4.50 from Paddington 1989 The Man in the Brown Suit 1989 A Caribbean Mystery 1991 They Do It with Mirrors 1992 The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side 1997 The Pale Horse 2001 Murder on the Orient Expressvery loose adaptation 2003 Sparkling Cyanidevery loose adaptation 2004 The Body in the Library 2004 The Murder at the Vicarage 2004 4.50 from Paddington 2005 A Murder Is Announced 2005 Sleeping Murder 2006 The Moving Finger 2006 By the Pricking of My Thumbsvery loose adaptation 2006 The Sittaford Mysteryvery loose adaptation 2007 Hercule Poirot's Christmas (A French film adaptation) 2007 Towards Zero 2007 Nemesisvery loose adaptation 2007 At Bertram's Hotelvery loose adaptation 2007 Ordeal by Innocence 2008 A Pocket Full of Rye 2008 Murder Is Easyvery loose adaptation 2008 Why Didn't They Ask Evans?very loose adaptation 2008 They Do It with Mirrors Agatha Christie's Poirot television series Episodes include: 1990 Peril at End House 1990 The Mysterious Affair at Styles 1994 Hercule Poirot's Christmas 1995 Murder on the Links 1995 Hickory Dickory Dock 1996 Dumb Witness 2000 The Murder of Roger Ackroydvery loose adaptation 2000 Lord Edgware Dies 2001 Evil Under the Sun 2001 Murder in Mesopotamia 2004 Five Little Pigs 2004 Death on the Nile 2004 Sad Cypress 2004 The Hollow 2005 The Mystery of the Blue Trainvery loose adaptation 2005 Cards on the Table 2005 After the Funeral 2006 Taken at the Flood 2008 Mrs. McGinty's Dead 2008 Cat Among the Pigeons 2008 Third Girl 2008 Appointment with Deathvery loose adaptationGraphic novels Euro Comics India began issuing a series of graphic novel adaptations of Christie's work in 2007. 2007 The Murder on the Links Adapted by François Rivière, Illustrated by Marc Piskic 2007 Murder on the Orient Express Adapted by François Rivière, Illustrated by Solidor (Jean-François Miniac). 2007 Death on the Nile Adapted by Francois Riviere, Illustrated by Solidor (Jean-François Miniac) 2007 The Secret of Chimneys Adapted by François Rivière, Illustrated by Laurence Suhner 2007 The Murder of Roger Ackroyd Adapted and illustrated by Bruno Lachard 2007 The Mystery of the Blue Train Adapted and illustrated by Marc Piskic 2007 The Man in the Brown Suit Adapted and illustrated by Alain Paillou 2007 The Big Four Adapted by Hichot and illustrated by Bairi 2007 The Secret Adversary Adapted by François Rivière and illustrated by Frank Leclercq 2007 The Murder at the Vicarage Adapted and illustrated by "Norma" 2007 Murder in Mesopotamia Adapted by François Rivière and illustrated by Chandre 2007 And Then There Were None Adapted by François Rivière and illustrated by Frank Leclercq 2007 Endless Night Adapted by Francois Rivière and illustrated by Frank Leclercq HarperCollins independently began issuing this series also in 2007. In addition to the titles issued the following titles are also planned for release: 2008 Ordeal by Innocence Adapted and illustrated by Chandre 2008 Hallowe'en Party Adapted and illustrated by Chandre 2008 Peril at End House Adapted by Thierry Jollet and illustrated by Didier Quella-Guyot 2009 Dumb Witness Adapted and illustrated by "Marek" Video games 1988 The Scoop (published by Spinnaker Software and Telarium) (PC) 2005 Agatha Christie: And Then There Were None (PC and Wii in 2008). 2006 Agatha Christie: Murder on the Orient Express (PC and Wii in 2009) 2007 Death on the Nile "I-Spy" hidden-object game (PC) 2007 Agatha Christie: Evil Under the Sun (PC and Wii in 2008) 2008 Agatha Christie: Peril at End House "I-Spy" hidden-object game (PC) 2009-Agatha Christie: The ABC Murders (DS) Unpublished material Snow Upon the Desert (romantic novel) Personal Call (supernatural radio play, featuring Inspector Narracotta recording is in the British National Sound Archive) The Woman and the Kenite (horror: an Italian translation, allegedly transcribed from an Italian magazine of the 1920s, is available on the internet)La moglie del Kenita Butter In a Lordly Dish (horror/detective radio play, adapted from The Woman and the Kenite) Being So Very Wilful (romantic) Two previously unpublished Poirot short stories will be included with The Secret Notebooks of Agatha Christie by John Curran, to be published in 2009 Animation In 2004 the Japanese broadcasting company Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai turned Poirot and Marple into animated characters in the anime series Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, introducing Mabel West (daughter of Miss Marple's mystery-writer nephew Raymond West, a canonical Christie character) and her duck Oliver as new characters. See also Tropes in Agatha Christie's novels Agatha Christie: A Life in Pictures (Her life story in a 2004 BBC drama) Abney Hall (home to her brother-in-law; several books use Abney as their setting) Greenway Estate (Christie's former home in Devon. The grounds are now in the possession of the National Trust and open to the public) References Further reading Articles Agatha Christie's holiday home |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/4785905/Agatha-Christies-holiday-home-opens-to-the-public.html| Books Reprinted as New York: Mysterious Press, 1987. External links Official Agatha Christie site Dutch Agatha Christie collection AgathaChristie.net Unofficial Christie website Agatha Christie profile and articles at "The Guardian" Agatha Christie profile on PBS.ORG "Biography of an Author" Agatha Christie Festival in Torquay Agatha Christie’s style and methods, the plot devices that she uses to trick the reader newly discovered audio tapes of Agatha Christie talking about the origins of Miss Marple online here </s>

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North_American_English

North American English is a collective term used for the varieties of the English language that are spoken in North America, namely in the United States and Canada. Because of the considerable similarities in pronunciation, vocabulary and accent between American English and Canadian English, the two spoken languages are often grouped together under a single category (Labov, Ash, & Boberg, 2006; Trudgill & Hannah, 2002). Labov, William; Sharon Ash; and Charles Boberg. (2006). Atlas of North American English: Phonetics, Phonology and Sound Change. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3110167468. Trudgill, Peter & Jean Hannah. (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, 4th. London: Arnold. ISBN 0-340-80834-9 . North American English is distinguished from the varieties of English that are spoken in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Commonwealth of Nations countries such as Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, those in the Caribbean and on the Indian subcontinent. Despite the fact that Canadian spellings often (but not always) follow British usage, the collective term North American English is sometimes also used to designate the written language of the two countries. Many terms in North American English are used almost exclusively in the two countries alone, such as diaper and gasoline. Although many English speakers from outside North America regard these words as distinctive Americanisms, they are just as ubiquitous in Canada. Differences between American and Canadian English are somewhat more apparent in the written form, where Canadians retain much, though not all, of the standard British spelling and punctuation (orthography); however, this affects less than one percent of all words regardless of the dialect in the world. There are a considerable number of different accents within the regions of both the United States and Canada, originally deriving from the accents prevalent in different English, Scots and Irish regions and corresponding to settlement patterns of these peoples in the colonies. These were developed and built upon as new waves of immigration, and migration across the North American continent, brought new accents and dialects to new areas, and as these ways of speaking merged and assimilated with the population. It is claimed that despite the centuries of linguistic changes there is still a resemblance between the English East Anglia accents which would have been used by early English settlers in New England (including the Pilgrims), and modern Northeastern United States accents. Similarly, the accents of Newfoundland are similar to Scots Irish while the Appalachian dialect retains Scots Irish features. See also North American English regional phonology Northern American English American and British English differences American English Americanisms Canadian English List of American words not widely used in the United Kingdom List of words having different meanings in British and American English Regional accents of English References

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Alexander_Grothendieck

Alexander Grothendieck (born March 28, 1928 in Berlin, Germany) is considered one of the greatest mathematicians of the 20th century. He is most famous for his revolutionary advances in algebraic geometry, but he has also made major contributions to algebraic topology, number theory, category theory, Galois theory, descent theory, commutative homological algebra and functional analysis. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1966, and was co-awarded the Crafoord Prize with Pierre Deligne in 1988. He declined the latter prize on ethical grounds in an open letter to the media. He is noted for his mastery of abstract approaches to mathematics, and his perfectionism in matters of formulation and presentation. In particular, he demonstrated the ability to derive concrete results using only very general methods. See, for example, . Relatively little of his work after 1960 was published by the conventional route of the learned journal, circulating initially in duplicated volumes of seminar notes; his influence was to a considerable extent personal, on French mathematics and the Zariski school at Harvard University. He is the subject of many stories and some misleading rumors concerning his work habits and politics, his confrontations with other mathematicians and the French authorities, his withdrawal from mathematics at age 42, his retirement, and his subsequent lengthy writings. Mathematical achievements Grothendieck's early mathematical work was done in functional analysis between 1949 and 1953 working on (what became) his doctoral thesis in Nancy, supervised by Jean Dieudonné and Laurent Schwartz. His key contributions include topological tensor products of vector spaces, the theory of nuclear spaces and the application of Lp spaces in studying linear maps between topological vector spaces. In the space of a few years, he had turned himself into a leading authority on the theory of topological vector spaces — to the extent that Dieudonné compares his impact in this field to that of Banach . However, it is algebraic geometry and related fields where Grothendieck did his most important and influential work. From about 1955 he started to work on sheaf theory and homological algebra, rapidly producing the very influential "Tôhoku paper" (Sur quelques points d'algèbre homologique, published in 1957) where he introduced Abelian categories and applied it to show that sheaf cohomology can be defined as certain derived functors in this context. Homological methods and sheaf theory had already been introduced in algebraic geometry by Jean-Pierre Serre and others, after sheaves had been defined by Jean Leray. Grothendieck took them to a higher level of abstraction and turned them into a key organising principle of his theory. He thereby changed the tools and the level of abstraction in algebraic geometry. He shifted attention from the study of individual varieties to the relative point of view (pairs of varieties related by a morphism), allowing a broad generalization of many classical theorems. The first major application was the relative version of Serre's theorem showing that the cohomology of a coherent sheaf on a complete variety is finite dimensional; Grothendieck's theorem shows that the higher direct images of coherent sheaves under a proper map are coherent; this reduces to Serre's theorem over a one-point space. Next, in 1956, he applied the same thinking to the Riemann–Roch theorem, which had already recently been generalized to any dimension by Hirzebruch. The Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem was announced by Grothendieck at the initial Mathematische Arbeitstagung in Bonn, in 1957. It appeared in print in a paper written by Armand Borel with Serre. This result was his first major achievement in algebraic geometry. He went on to plan and execute a major foundational programme for rebuilding the foundations of algebraic geometry; he exposed the main outlines of this programme in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians. His foundational work on algebraic geometry is at a higher level of abstraction than all prior versions. He adapted the use of non-closed generic points, which led to the theory of schemes. He also pioneered the systematic use of nilpotents. As 'functions' these can take only the value 0, but they carry infinitesimal information, in purely algebraic settings. His theory of schemes has become established as the best universal foundation for this major field, because of its great expressive power as well as technical depth. In that setting one can use birational geometry, techniques from number theory, Galois theory and commutative algebra, and close analogues of the methods of algebraic topology, all in an integrated way. His influence spilled over into many other branches of mathematics, for example the contemporary theory of D-modules. (It also provoked adverse reactions, with many mathematicians seeking out more concrete areas and problems.) EGA and SGA The bulk of Grothendieck's published work is collected in the monumental, and yet incomplete, Éléments de géométrie algébrique (EGA) and Séminaire de géométrie algébrique (SGA). The collection Fondements de la Géometrie Algébrique (FGA), which gathers together talks given in the Séminaire Bourbaki, also contains important material. Perhaps Grothendieck's deepest single accomplishment is the invention of the étale and l-adic cohomology theories, which explain an observation of André Weil's that there is a deep connection between the topological characteristics of a variety and its diophantine (number theoretic) properties. For example, the number of solutions of an equation over a finite field reflects the topological nature of its solutions over the complex numbers. Weil realized that to prove such a connection one needed a new cohomology theory, but neither he nor any other expert saw how to do this until such a theory was found by Grothendieck. This program culminated in the proofs of the Weil conjectures, the last of which was settled by Grothendieck's student Pierre Deligne in the early 1970s after Grothendieck had largely withdrawn from mathematics. Major mathematical topics (from Récoltes et Semailles) He wrote a retrospective assessment of his mathematical work (see the external link La Vision below). As his main mathematical achievements ("maître-thèmes"), he chose this collection of 12 topics (his chronological order): Topological tensor products and nuclear spaces "Continuous" and "discrete" duality (derived categories and "six operations"). Yoga of the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem (K-theory, relation with intersection theory). Schemes. Topoi. Étale cohomology including l-adic cohomology. Motives and the motivic Galois group (and Grothendieck categories) Crystals and crystalline cohomology, yoga of De Rham and Hodge coefficients. Topological algebra, infinity-stacks, 'dérivateurs', cohomological formalism of toposes as an inspiration for a new homotopic algebra Tame topology. Yoga of anabelian geometry and Galois–Teichmüller theory. Schematic point of view, or "arithmetics" for regular polyhedra and regular configurations of all sorts. He wrote that the central theme of the topics above is that of topos theory, while the first and last were of the least importance to him. Here the term yoga denotes a kind of "meta-theory" that can be used heuristically. The word yoke, meaning "linkage", is derived from the same Indo-European root. Life Family and early life Alexander Grothendieck was born in Berlin to anarchist parents: a Russian father from an ultimately Hassidic family, Alexander Shapiro aka Tanaroff, and a mother from a German Protestant family, Johanna "Hanka" Grothendieck; both of his parents had broken away from their early backgrounds in their teens Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics . At the time of his birth Grothendieck's mother was married to Johannes Raddatz, a German journalist, and his birthname was initially recorded as Alexander Raddatz. The marriage was dissolved in 1929 and Shapiro/Tanaroff acknowledged his paternity, but never married Hanka Grothendieck Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics . Grothendieck lived with his parents until 1933 in Berlin. At the end of that year, Shapiro moved to Paris, and Hanka followed him the next year. They left Grothendieck in the care of Wilhelm Heydorn, a Lutheran Pastor and teacher Allyn Jackson, The Life of Alexander Grothendieck, p. 1040 in Hamburg where he went to school. During this time, his parents fought in the Spanish Civil War. During WWII In 1939 Grothendieck came to France and lived in various camps for displaced persons with his mother, first at the Camp de Rieucros, spending 1942–44 at Le Chambon-sur-Lignon. His father was sent via Drancy to Auschwitz where he died in 1942. Studies and contact with research mathematics After the war, the young Grothendieck studied mathematics in France, initially at the University of Montpellier. He had decided to become a math teacher because he had been told that mathematical research had been completed early in the 20th century and there were no more open problems. See Jackson (2004:1). The remark is from the beginning of Récoltes et Semailles (page P4, in the introductory section Prélude en quatre Mouvements) However, his talent was noticed, and he was encouraged to go to Paris in 1948. Initially, Grothendieck attended Henri Cartan's Seminar at École Normale Supérieure, but lacking the necessary background to follow the high-powered seminar, he moved to the University of Nancy where he wrote his dissertation under Laurent Schwartz in functional analysis, from 1950 to 1953. At this time he was a leading expert in the theory of topological vector spaces. By 1957, he set this subject aside in order to work in algebraic geometry and homological algebra. The IHÉS years Installed at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques (IHÉS), Grothendieck attracted attention by an intense and highly productive activity of seminars (de facto working groups drafting into foundational work some of the ablest French and other mathematicians of the younger generation). Grothendieck himself practically ceased publication of papers through the conventional, learned journal route. He was, however, able to play a dominant role in mathematics for around a decade, gathering a strong school. During this time he had officially as students Michel Demazure (who worked on SGA3, on group schemes), Luc Illusie (cotangent complex), Michel Raynaud, Jean-Louis Verdier (cofounder of the derived category theory) and Pierre Deligne. Collaborators on the SGA projects also included Mike Artin (étale cohomology) and Nick Katz (monodromy theory and Lefschetz pencils). Jean Giraud worked out torsor theory extensions of non-abelian cohomology. Many others were involved. The 'Golden Age' Alexander Grothendieck's work during the `Golden Age' period at IHÉS established several unifying themes in algebraic geometry, number theory, topology, category theory and complex analysis. His first (pre-IHÉS) breakthrough in algebraic geometry was the Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem, a far-reaching generalisation of the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem proved algebraically; in this context he also introduced K-theory. Then, following the programme he outlined in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians, he introduced the theory of schemes, developing it in detail in his Éléments de géométrie algébrique (EGA) and providing the new more flexible and general foundations for algebraic geometry that has been adopted in the field since that time. He went on to introduce the étale cohomology theory of schemes, providing the key tools for proving the Weil conjectures, as well as crystalline cohomology and algebraic de Rham cohomology to complement it. Closely linked to these cohomology theories, he originated topos theory as a generalisation of topology (relevant also in mathematical logic, category theory, and also to computer software/programming and institutional ontology classification and bioinformatics). He also provided an algebraic definition of fundamental groups of schemes and more generally the main structures of a categorical Galois theory. As a framework for his coherent duality theory he also introduced derived categories, which were further developed by Verdier. The results of work on these and other topics were published in the EGA and in less polished form in the notes of the Séminaire de géométrie algébrique (SGA) that he directed at IHES. Politics and retreat from scientific community Grothendieck's political views were radical and pacifist, but not communist (thus he strongly disapproved of the Soviet military expansionism as well). He gave lectures on category theory in the forests surrounding Hanoi while the city was being bombed, to protest against the Vietnam War (The Life and Work of Alexander Grothendieck, American Math. Monthly, vol. 113, no. 9, footnote 6). He retired from scientific life around 1970, after having discovered the partly military funding of IHÉS (see pp. xii and xiii of SGA1, Springer Lecture Notes 224). He returned to academia a few years later as a professor at the University of Montpellier, where he stayed until his retirement in 1988. His criticisms of the scientific community, and especially of several mathematics circles, are also contained in a letter, written in 1988, in which he states the reasons for his refusal of the Crafoord Prize. While the issue of military funding was perhaps the most obvious explanation for Grothendieck's departure from IHÉS, those who knew him say that the causes of the rupture ran deeper. Pierre Cartier, a visiteur de longue durée at the IHÉS, wrote a piece about Grothendieck for a special volume published on the occasion of the IHÉS's fortieth anniversary. The Grothendieck Festschrift was a three-volume collection of research papers to mark his sixtieth birthday (falling in 1988), and published in 1990. The editors were Pierre Cartier, Luc Illusie, Nick Katz, Gérard Laumon, Yuri Manin, and Ken Ribet. A second edition has been printed (2007) by Birkhauser. In it Cartier notes that, as the son of an antimilitary anarchist and one who grew up among the disenfranchised, Grothendieck always had a deep compassion for the poor and the downtrodden. As Cartier puts it, Grothendieck came to find Bures-sur-Yvette "une cage dorée" [a golden cage]. While Grothendieck was at the IHÉS, opposition to the Vietnam War was heating up, and Cartier suggests that this also reinforced Grothendieck's distaste at having become a mandarin of the scientific world. In addition, after several years at the IHÉS Grothendieck seemed to cast about for new intellectual interests. By the late 1960s he had started to become interested in scientific areas outside of mathematics. David Ruelle, a physicist who joined the IHÉS faculty in 1964, said that Grothendieck came to talk to him a few times about physics. (In the 1970s Ruelle and the Dutch mathematician Floris Takens produced a new model for turbulence, and it was Ruelle who invented the concept of a strange attractor in a dynamical system.) Biology interested Grothendieck much more than physics, and he organized some seminars on biological topics. http://www.ams.org/notices/199903/ihes-changes.pdf After leaving the IHÉS, Grothendieck tried but failed to get a position at the Collège de France. He then went to Université de Montpellier, where he became increasingly estranged from the mathematical community. Around this time, he founded a group called Survivre, which was dedicated to antimilitary and ecological issues. His mathematical career, for the most part, ended when he left the IHÉS. In 1984 he wrote a proposal to get a position through the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. The proposal, entitled Esquisse d'un Programme [Sketch of a Program] describes new ideas for studying the moduli space of complex curves. Although Grothendieck himself never published his work in this area, the proposal became the inspiration for work by other mathematicians and the source of the theory of dessins d’enfants. Esquisse d’un Programme was published in the two-volume proceedings Geometric Galois Actions (Cambridge University Press, 1997)." http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Hlf1j2XmXkcC&dq=Geometric+Galois+Actions&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=q9iN4QMkYj&sig=fAsvVlPOhN9K9LfjGFJC5zm_IA4&hl=en&ei=KW-3ScSkHYHIMuDukOEK&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result Manuscripts written in the 1980s While not publishing mathematical research in conventional ways during the 1980s, he produced several influential manuscripts with limited distribution, with both mathematical and biographical content. During that period he also released his work on Bertini type theorems contained in EGA 5, published by the Grothendieck Circle in 2004. La Longue Marche à travers la théorie de Galois [The Long March Through Galois Theory] is an approximately 1600-page handwritten manuscript produced by Grothendieck during the years 1980–1981, containing many of the ideas leading to the Esquisse d'un programme (see below, and also a more detailed entry http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esquisse_d%27un_Programme ), and in particular studying the Teichmüller theory. (For an English translation of the tables of contents of these manuscripts see the Wikipedia separate entry on the Esquisse d'un programme.) In 1983 he wrote a huge extended manuscript (about 600 pages) entitled Pursuing Stacks, stimulated by correspondence with Ronald Brown, (see also R.Brown and Tim Porter at University of Bangor in Wales), and starting with a letter addressed to Daniel Quillen. This letter and successive parts were distributed from Bangor (see External Links below): in an informal manner, as a kind of diary, Grothendieck explained and developed his ideas on the relationship between algebraic homotopy theory and algebraic geometry and prospects for a noncommutative theory of stacks. The manuscript, which is being edited for publication by G. Maltsiniotis, later led to another of his monumental works, Les Dérivateurs. Written in 1991, this latter opus of about 2000 pages further developed the homotopical ideas begun in Pursuing Stacks. Much of this work anticipated the subsequent development of the motivic homotopy theory of F. Morel and V. Voevodsky in the mid 1990s. His Esquisse d'un programme (1984) is a proposal for a position at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, which he held from 1984 to his retirement in 1988. Ideas from it have proved influential, and have been developed by others, in particular dessins d'enfants and a new field emerging as anabelian geometry. In La Clef des Songes he explains how the reality of dreams convinced him of God's existence. The 1000-page autobiographical manuscript Récoltes et semailles (1986) is now available on the internet in the French original, and an English translation is underway (these parts of Récoltes et semailles have already been translated into Russian and published in Moscow). Some parts of Récoltes et semailles and the whole La Clef des Songes have been translated into Spanish. Disappearance In 1991, Grothendieck left his home and disappeared. He is now said to live in southern France or Andorra and to entertain no visitors. Though he has been inactive in mathematics for many years, he remains one of the greatest and most influential mathematicians of modern times. See also Ax-Grothendieck theorem Birkhoff–Grothendieck theorem Esquisse d'un Programme Grothendieck category http://planetphysics.org/encyclopedia/GrothendieckCategory.html Grothendieck's connectedness theorem Grothendieck connection Grothendieck construction Grothendieck's Galois theory Grothendieck group Grothendieck inequality or Grothendieck constant Grothendieck–Katz p-curvature conjecture Grothendieck's relative point of view Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem Grothendieck's Séminaire de géométrie algébrique Grothendieck space Grothendieck spectral sequence Grothendieck topology Grothendieck universe Tarski–Grothendieck set theory IHES IHES at Forty by Allyn Jackson Notes References . An English translation of Cartier (1998) Three-volume biography. External links Grothendieck Circle, collection of mathematical and biographical information, photos, links to his writings Grothendieck Circle discussion Forum Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques The origins of `Pursuing Stacks' This is an account of how `Pursuing Stacks' was written in response to a correspondence in English with Ronnie Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor, which continued until 1991. Récoltes et Semailles in French. Spanish translation of "Récoltes et Semailles" et "Le Clef des Songes" and other Grothendieck's texts short bio from Notices of the American Mathematical Society

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Ediacaran

The Ediacaran Period (; named after the Ediacara Hills of South Australia) is the last geological period of the Neoproterozoic Era and of the Proterozoic Eon, immediately preceding the Cambrian Period, the first period of the Paleozoic Era and of the Phanerozoic Eon. Its status as an official geological period was ratified in 2004 by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), making it the first new geological period declared in 120 years. The type section is in the Flinders Ranges in South Australia. Ediacaran and Vendian Ediacaran period overlaps, but is shorter than the Vendian period, a name that was earlier, in 1952, proposed by Russian geologist/paleontologist Boris Sokolov. The Vendian concept was formed stratigraphically top-down, and the lower boundary of the Cambrian became the upper boundary of the Vendian. Sokolov, B.S. (1997). "Essays on the Advent of the Vendian System." 153 pp. KMK Scientific Press, Moscow. (in Russian) Paleontological substantiation of this boundary was worked out separately for the siliciclastic basin (base of the Baltic Stage of the Eastern-European Platform Sokolov B. S. (1965) "Abstracts of All-Union Symposium on Paleontology of the Precambrian and Early Cambrian." Nauka, Novosibirsk. ) and for the carbonate basin (base of the Tommotian Stage of the Siberian Platform ). Lower boundary of the Vendian was suggested to be defined at the base of the Varanger (Laplandian) tillites. M.A. Fedonkin, B.S. Sokolov, M.A. Semikhatov, N.M.Chumakov (2007). "Vendian versus Ediacaran: priorities, contents, prospectives." In: "The Rise and Fall of the Vendian (Ediacaran) Biota. Origin of the Modern Biosphere. Transactions of the International Conference on the IGCP Project 493, August 20-31, 2007, Moscow." Moscow: GEOS. The Vendian in its type area consists of large subdivisions such as Laplandian, Redkino, Kotlin and Rovno Regional stages with the globally traceable subdivisions and their boundaries, including its lower one. The Redkino, Kotlin and Rovno regional stages have been substantiated in the type area of the Vendian on the basis of the abundant organic-walled microfossils, megascopic algae, metazoan body fossils and ichnofossils. The lower boundary of the Vendian could have a biostratigraphic substantiation as well taking into consideration the worldwide occurrence of the Pertatataka assemblage of giant acantomorph acritarchs. Borders of the Ediacaran The Ediacaran Period (ca. 635-542 Ma) represents the time from the end of global Marinoan glaciation to the first appearance worldwide of somewhat complicated trace fossils (Trichophycus pedum). A. Knoll, M. Walter, G. Narbonne, and N. Christie-Blick (2004) "The Ediacaran Period: A New Addition to the Geologic Time Scale." Submitted on Behalf of the Terminal Proterozoic Subcommission of the International Commission on Stratigraphy. Although the Ediacaran Period does contain soft-bodied fossils, it is unusual in comparison to later periods because its beginning is not defined by a change in the fossil record. Rather, the beginning is defined at the base of a chemically distinctive carbonate layer (this bed is characterized by an unusual depletion of 13C), referred to as a "cap carbonate", because it caps glacial deposits and indicates a sudden climatic change at the end of the Marinoan ice age. The lower boundary GSSP of the Ediacaran is at the base of the cap carbonate (Nuccaleena Formation), immediately above the Elatina diamictite in the Enorama Creek section, Flinders Ranges, South Australia. The GSSP of the upper boundary of the Ediacaran is the lower boundary of the Cambrian on the SE coast of Newfoundland approved by the International Commission on Stratigraphy as a preferred alternative to the base of the Tommotian Stage in Siberia which was selected on the basis of the ichnofossils Treptichnus pedum. In the history of stratigraphy it was the first case of usage of bioturbations for the System boundary definition. Nevertheless, the definitions of the lower and upper boundaries of the Ediacaran on the basis of chemostratigraphy and ichnofossils are disputable. Comments By B. S. Sokolov, M. A. Semikhatov, And M. A. Fedonkin. (2004) Appendix 2 in: "The Ediacaran Period: A New Addition to the Geologic Time Scale." Submitted on Behalf of the Terminal Proterozoic Subcommission of the International Commission on Stratigraphy. pp. 32-34 Cap carbonates generally have a restricted geographic distribution (due to specific conditions of their precipitation) and usually siliciclastic sediments replace laterally the cap carbonates in a rather short distance and cap carbonates do not occur above every tillite elsewhere in the world. The C-isotope chemostratigraphic characteristics obtained for contemporaneous cap carbonates in different parts of the world may be variable in a wide range owing to different degrees of secondary alteration of carbonates, dissimilar criteria used for selection of the least altered samples, and, as far as the C-isotope data are concerned, due to primary lateral variations of δ l3Ccarb in the upper layer of the ocean. As to the Treptichnus pedum, a reference ichnofossil for the lower boundary of the Cambrian, its usage for the stratigraphic detection of this boundary is always risky because of the occurrence of very similar trace fossils belonging to the Treptichnids group well below the T. pedum in Namibia, Spain and Newfoundland, and possibly, in the west of USA. The stratigraphic range of T. pedum overlaps the range of the Ediacaran fossils in Namibia, and probably in Spain. A. Ragozina, D. Dorjnamjaa, A. Krayushkin, E. Serezhnikova (2008). "Treptichnus pedum and the Vendian-Cambrian boundary". 33 Intern. Geol. Congr. August 6- 14, 2008, Oslo, Norway. Abstracts. Section HPF 07 Rise and fall of the Ediacaran (Vendian) biota. P. 183. Dating No dating has been possible at the type section of the Ediacaran Period in South Australia. Therefore the age range of 635 to 542 million years before the present is based on correlations to other countries where dating has been possible. The base age of approximately 635 million years ago is based on U-Pb (uranium-lead) isochron dating from Namibia and China. Applying this age to the base of the Ediacaran assumes that individual cap carbonates are synchronous around the world and that the correct cap carbonate layers have been correlated between Australian and Namibia. This is controversial because an age of about 580 million years has been obtained in association with glacial rocks in Tasmania which some scientists tentatively correlate with those just beneath the Ediacaran rocks of the Flinders Ranges. The age of the top is the same as the widely recognised age for the base of the Cambrian Period 542± 0.3 Ma (million years ago). Biota The animal fossil record from this period is sparse, possibly because animals had yet to evolve hard shells, which make for easier fossilization. The Ediacaran biota include the oldest definite multicellular organisms with tissues, and the most common types resemble segmented worms, fronds, disks, or immobile bags. They bear little resemblance to modern lifeforms, and their relationship even with the later lifeforms of the Cambrian explosion is difficult to interpret. More than 100 genera have been described, and well known forms include Arkarua, Charnia, Dickinsonia, Ediacaria, Marywadea, Onega, Pteridinium, and Yorgia. In addition, there are unverified claims of "footprints" - tracks made by legged organisms thought to resemble arthropods or legged worms. The significance of these finds awaits their publication. Earliest Animal Footprints Ever Found -- Discovered in Nevada Newswise, Retrieved on October 5, 2008. Reporting on a poster session at the Geological Society of America See also List of fossil sites (with link directory) References External links Introduction to the Vendian Period Introduction to the Ediacaran Fauna transcript – Catalyst (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) Mistaken Point Fauna: The Discovery

Ediacaran |@lemmatized ediacaran:20 period:17 name:2 ediacara:1 hill:1 south:4 australia:4 last:1 geological:5 neoproterozoic:1 era:2 proterozoic:3 eon:2 immediately:2 precede:1 cambrian:8 first:4 paleozoic:1 phanerozoic:1 status:1 official:1 ratify:1 international:5 union:2 science:1 iugs:1 make:3 new:3 declare:1 year:5 type:5 section:4 flinders:3 range:7 vendian:14 overlap:2 short:2 earlier:1 propose:1 russian:2 geologist:1 paleontologist:1 boris:1 sokolov:5 concept:1 form:2 stratigraphically:1 top:2 low:8 boundary:14 become:1 upper:4 b:4 essay:1 advent:1 system:2 pp:2 kmk:1 scientific:1 press:1 moscow:3 paleontological:1 substantiation:2 work:1 separately:1 siliciclastic:2 basin:2 base:11 baltic:1 stage:5 eastern:1 european:1 platform:2 abstract:2 symposium:1 paleontology:1 precambrian:1 early:2 nauka:1 novosibirsk:1 carbonate:11 tommotian:2 siberian:1 suggest:1 define:3 varanger:1 laplandian:2 tillites:1 fedonkin:2 semikhatov:2 n:2 chumakov:1 versus:1 priority:1 content:1 prospectives:1 rise:2 fall:2 biota:4 origin:1 modern:2 biosphere:1 transaction:1 conference:1 igcp:1 project:1 august:2 geos:1 area:2 consist:1 large:1 subdivision:2 redkino:2 kotlin:2 rovno:2 regional:2 globally:1 traceable:1 include:3 one:1 substantiate:1 basis:3 abundant:1 organic:1 wall:1 microfossil:1 megascopic:1 algae:1 metazoan:1 body:2 fossil:8 ichnofossils:3 could:1 biostratigraphic:1 well:3 take:1 consideration:1 worldwide:2 occurrence:2 pertatataka:1 assemblage:1 giant:1 acantomorph:1 acritarchs:1 border:1 ca:1 represent:1 time:3 end:2 global:1 marinoan:2 glaciation:1 appearance:1 somewhat:1 complicated:1 trace:2 trichophycus:1 pedum:6 knoll:1 walter:1 g:1 narbonne:1 christie:1 blick:1 addition:3 geologic:2 scale:2 submit:2 behalf:2 terminal:2 subcommission:2 commission:3 stratigraphy:4 although:1 contain:1 soft:1 unusual:2 comparison:1 later:1 beginning:2 change:2 record:2 rather:2 chemically:1 distinctive:1 layer:3 bed:1 characterize:1 depletion:1 refer:1 cap:9 glacial:2 deposit:1 indicate:1 sudden:1 climatic:1 ice:1 age:7 gssp:2 nuccaleena:1 formation:1 elatina:1 diamictite:1 enorama:1 creek:1 se:1 coast:1 newfoundland:2 approve:1 preferred:1 alternative:1 siberia:1 select:1 treptichnus:3 history:1 case:1 usage:2 bioturbations:1 definition:2 nevertheless:1 chemostratigraphy:1 disputable:1 comment:1 appendix:1 generally:1 restrict:1 geographic:1 distribution:1 due:2 specific:1 condition:1 precipitation:1 usually:1 sediment:1 replace:1 laterally:1 distance:1 occur:1 every:1 tillite:1 elsewhere:1 world:3 c:2 isotope:2 chemostratigraphic:1 characteristic:1 obtain:2 contemporaneous:1 different:2 part:1 may:1 variable:1 wide:1 owe:1 degree:1 secondary:1 alteration:1 dissimilar:1 criterion:1 use:1 selection:1 least:1 altered:1 sample:1 far:1 data:1 concern:1 primary:1 lateral:1 variation:1 δ:1 ocean:1 reference:2 ichnofossil:1 stratigraphic:2 detection:1 always:1 risky:1 similar:1 belong:1 treptichnids:1 group:1 namibia:4 spain:2 possibly:2 west:1 usa:1 probably:1 ragozina:1 dorjnamjaa:1 krayushkin:1 e:1 serezhnikova:1 intern:1 geol:1 congr:1 oslo:1 norway:1 hpf:1 p:1 date:2 dating:2 possible:2 therefore:1 million:4 present:1 correlation:1 country:1 approximately:1 ago:2 u:1 pb:1 uranium:1 lead:1 isochron:1 china:1 apply:1 assume:1 individual:1 synchronous:1 around:1 correct:1 correlate:2 australian:2 controversial:1 association:1 rock:2 tasmania:1 scientist:1 tentatively:1 beneath:1 widely:1 recognise:1 animal:3 sparse:1 yet:1 evolve:1 hard:1 shell:1 easy:1 fossilization:1 old:1 definite:1 multicellular:1 organism:2 tissue:1 common:1 resemble:2 segment:1 worm:2 frond:1 disk:1 immobile:1 bag:1 bear:1 little:1 resemblance:1 lifeforms:2 relationship:1 even:1 late:1 explosion:1 difficult:1 interpret:1 genus:1 describe:1 know:1 arkarua:1 charnia:1 dickinsonia:1 ediacaria:1 marywadea:1 onega:1 pteridinium:1 yorgia:1 unverified:1 claim:1 footprint:2 track:1 legged:2 think:1 arthropod:1 significance:1 find:2 await:1 publication:1 ever:1 discover:1 nevada:1 newswise:1 retrieve:1 october:1 report:1 poster:1 session:1 society:1 america:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 site:1 link:2 directory:1 external:1 introduction:2 fauna:2 transcript:1 catalyst:1 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 mistaken:1 point:1 discovery:1 |@bigram proterozoic_eon:1 paleozoic_era:1 phanerozoic_eon:1 ediacaran_biota:2 commission_stratigraphy:3 treptichnus_pedum:3 oslo_norway:1 multicellular_organism:1 cambrian_explosion:1 newswise_retrieve:1 external_link:1 broadcasting_corporation:1

Green

Green is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 520–570 nanometres. In the subtractive color system, it is not a primary color, but is created out of a mixture of yellow and blue, or yellow and cyan; it is considered one of the additive primary colors. On the HSV color wheel, the complement of green is magenta; that is, a purple color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light. On a color wheel based on traditional color theory (RYB), the complementary color to green is considered to be red. The word green is closely related to the Old English verb growan, “to grow”. It is used to describe plants or the ocean. Sometimes it can also describe someone who is inexperienced, jealous, or sick. In America, green is a slang term for money, among other things. Several colloquialisms have derived from these meanings, such as “green around the gills”, a phrase used to describe a person who looks ill. Several minerals have a green color, including emerald, which is colored green by its chromium content. Animals such as frogs, lizards, and other reptiles and amphibians, fish, insects, and birds, appear green because of a mixture of layers of blue and green coloring on their skin. By far the largest contributor to green in nature is chlorophyll, the chemical by which plants photosynthesize. Many creatures have adapted to their green environments by taking on a green hue themselves as camouflage. Culturally, green has broad and sometimes contradictory meanings. In some cultures, green symbolizes hope and growth, while in others, it is associated with death, sickness, envy, or the devil. The most common associations, however, are found in its ties to nature. For example, Islam venerates the color, as it expects paradise to be full of lush greenery. Green is also associated with regeneration, fertility and rebirth for its connections to nature. Recent political groups have taken on the color as symbol of environmental protection and social justice, and consider themselves part of the Green movement, some naming themselves Green parties. This has led to similar campaigns in advertising, as companies have sold green, or environmentally friendly, products. Etymology and definitions In traffic lights, green means "go". The word green comes from the Old English word grene, or, in its older form, groeni. This adjective is closely related to the Old English verb growan (“to grow”) and goes back into Western Germanic and Scandinavian languages. The word designates the color on the visible light spectrum situated between blue and yellow. It is often used to describe foliage and the sea, and has become a symbol of environmentalism. It also is combined with other color names to increase specificity, as in “blue-green”, or with objects, as in “emerald green”. Green is also used to describe jealousy and envy, as well as anyone young, inexperienced, or gullible (probably by analogy to unripe, i.e. unready or immature, fruit). A green tinge in the skin is sometimes associated with nausea and sickness. Ford, Mark. Self Improvement of Relationship Skills through Body Language. City: Llumina Press, 2004. ISBN 1932303790 pg. 81 Lastly, green can communicate safety to proceed, as in traffic lights. Oxford English Dictionary Overall, greens, along with blues and purples, are frequently described as “cool” colors, in contrast to red and yellow. The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2002. ISBN 0852297874 Some languages have no word separating green from blue. The word green is found in several colloquial phrases derived from these meanings: in golf, the region of grass around the hole is trimmed short and referred to as the putting green, or simply, the green. Someone who works well with plants is said to have a green thumb or green fingers, a physically-ill person is said to look green around the gills, and the word greenhorn refers to an inexperienced person. A company is said to be greenwashing if they advertise positive environmental practices to cover up environmental destruction. The article on greenwashing discusses several examples. Many Asian languages have no word distinguishing blue from green, although recently published dictionaries do make the distinction. Newman, Paul and Martha Ratliff. Linguistic Fieldwork. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0521669375 pg. 105 The Thai word เขียว besides meaning "green" also means "rank" and "smelly" and holds other unpleasant associations. In Japanese, despite the existence of a word in the modern language meaning "green", the color is sometimes described as , as in and , reflecting the absence of a word meaning "green" in old Japanese. In Persian, the word for green is سبز sabz, but this word can also mean "black" or "dark". In Persian erotic poetry, dark-skinned women are addressed as "green," as in phrases like سبز گندم گون sabz-gandom-gun (literally "green wheat colored") or سبز مليح sabz-malih ("a green beauty"). F. Steingass, A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary s.v. سبز Similarly, in Sudanese Arabic, dark-skinned people are described as أخضر akhḍar 'green', instead of black. Carla N. Daughtry, "Greenness in the Field," Michigan Today, University of Michigan, Fall 1997 In science Color vision and colorimetry Chlorophyll is responsible for the green color in plants. The perception of green is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by energy with a wavelength of roughly 520–570 nm. Green is considered one of the additive primary colors, along with red and blue. The additive color model defines colors emitted from a light source. For example, a mixture of green, red, and blue light will produce white light. In subtractive color mixtures, which deals with colors found in pigments and dyes, green is created by mixing yellow and blue. On the HSV color wheel, the complement of green is magenta; that is, a color corresponding to an equal mixture of red and blue light (one of the purples). On a traditional color wheel, based on subtractive color, the complementary color to green is considered to be red. The sensitivity of the dark-adapted human eye is greatest at about 507 nm, a blue-green color, while the light-adapted eye is most sensitive about 555 nm, a slightly yellowish green. Human eyes have color receptors known as cone cells, of which there are three types. In some cases, one is missing or faulty, which can cause color blindness, including the common inability to distinguish red and yellow from green, known as deuteranopia or red–green color blindness. Green is restful to the eye. Studies show that a green environment can reduce fatigue. Laird, Donald A. "Fatigue: Public Enemy Number One: What It Is and How to Fight It." The American Journal of Nursing (Sep 1933) 33.9 pgs. 835-841. In minerals and chemistry Emeralds come in many shades of green. Many minerals provide pigments which have been used in green paints and dyes over the centuries. Pigments, in this case, are minerals which reflect the color green, rather that emitting it through luminescent or phosphorescent qualities. The large number of green pigments makes it impossible to mention them all. Among the more notable green minerals, however is the emerald, which is colored green by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr, & Kammerling, Robert C., 1991, Gemology, p. 203, John Wiley & Sons, New York Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3), is called chrome green, also called viridian or institutional green when used as a pigment. A. F. Holleman and E. Wiberg "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press, 2001, New York. For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery. Widely thought to have been due to copper because copper compounds often have blue and green colors, the blue-green color is likely to be derived from small quantities of lead and water in the feldspar. Copper is the source of the green color in malachite pigments, chemically known as basic copper(II) carbonate. Early painters would also use copper in the form of verdigris mixed with wax and turpentine to create green pigmentation in paints. Mixtures of oxidized cobalt and zinc were also used to create green paints as early as the 18th century. A more complete list of green minerals and pigments can be seen here. Fireworks typically use barium salts to create green sparks. There is no natural source for green food colorings which has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. Chlorophyll, the E numbers E140 and E141, is the most common green chemical found in nature, and only allowed in certain medicines and cosmetic materials. Quinoline Yellow (E104) is a commonly used coloring in the United Kingdom but is banned in Australia, Japan, Norway and the United States. Green S (E142) is prohibited in many countries, for it is known to cause hyperactivity, asthma, urticaria, and insomnia. To create green sparks, fireworks use barium salts, such as barium chlorate, barium nitrate crystals, or barium chloride, also used for green fireplace logs. Copper salts typically burn blue, but cupric chloride (also known as "campfire blue") can also produce green flames. Green pyrotechnic flares can use a mix ratio 75:25 of boron and potassium nitrate. Smoke can be turned green by a mixture: solvent yellow 33, solvent green 3, lactose, magnesium carbonate plus sodium carbonate added to potassium chlorate. In biology Frogs often appear green because light reflects off of a blue underlayer of chemicals and through a yellow upperlayer, filtering the light to be primarily green. Green is common in nature, as many plants are green because of a complex chemical known as chlorophyll which is involved in photosynthesis. Animals typically use the color green as camouflage, blending in with the chlorophyll green of the surrounding environment. Green animals include, especially, amphibians, reptiles, and some fish, birds and insects. Most fish, reptiles, amphibians, and birds appear green because of a reflection of blue light coming through an over-layer of yellow pigment. Perception of color can also be affected by the surrounding environment. For example, broadleaf forests typically have a yellow-green light about them as the trees filter the light. Turacoverdin is one chemical which can cause a green hue in birds, especially. Invertebrates such as insects or mollusks often display green colors because of porphyrin pigments, sometimes caused by diet. This can causes their feces to look green as well. Other chemicals which generally contribute to greenness among organisms are flavins (lychochromes) and hemanovadin. Humans have imitated this by wearing green clothing as a camouflage in military and other fields. Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include biliverdin, the green pigment in bile, and ceruloplasmin, a protein that carries copper ions in chelation. In culture In the 15th century "Saint Wolfgang and the Devil" by Michael Pacher, the Devil is green. Poets such as Chaucer also drew connections between the color green and the devil. Robertson, D. W. Jr. "Why the Devil Wears Green." Modern Language Notes. (Nov 1954) 69.7 pgs. 470-472 Nature In many folklores and literatures, green has traditionally been used to symbolize nature and its embodied attributes, namely those of life, fertility, and rebirth. Green was symbolic of resurrection and immortality in Ancient Egypt; the god Osiris was depicted as green-skinned. Love and lust Stories of the medieval period further portray it as representing love Chamberlin, Vernon A. “Symbolic Green: A Time-Honored Characterizing Device in Spanish Literature.” Hispania. 51.1 (Mar 1968) pp. 29-37 and the base, natural desires of man. Goldhurst, William. “The Green and the Gold: The Major Theme of Gawain and the Green Knight.” College English. 20.2 (Nov 1958) pp. 61-65 doi:10.2307/372161 In Persian and Sudanese poetry, dark-skinned women, called "green" women may be eroticized. Carla N. Daughtry, "Greenness in the Field," Michigan Today, University of Michigan, Fall 1997 The Chinese term for cuckold is "to wear a green hat." It is because of this that it is extremely rare to see any Chinese man wearing a green hat. Death, decay, and evil Green is also known to have signified witchcraft, devilry and evil for its association with faeries and spirits of early English folklore. It also had an association with decay and toxicity. Williams, Margaret. The Pearl Poet, His Complete Works. Random House, 1967. Actor Bela Lugosi wore green-hued makeup for the role of Dracula in the 1927–28 Broadway stage production. The color, when combined with gold, is seen as representing the fading of youth. Lewis, John S. "Gawain and the Green Knight." College English. 21.1 (Oct 1959) pp. 50–51 In the Celtic tradition, green was avoided in clothing for its superstitious association with misfortune and death. The Idea of the Green Knight, Lawrence Besserman, ELH, Vol. 53, No. 2. (Summer, 1986), pp. 219-239. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Why The Devil Wears Green, D. W. Robertson Jr., Modern Language Notes, Vol. 69, No. 7. (Nov., 1954), pp. 470-472. The Johns Hopkins University Press. Green is thought to be an unlucky color in British and British-derived cultures, "Folklore and Symbolism of Green," by John Hutchings in Folklore, 1997, 108:55. where green cars, wedding dresses, and theater costumes are all the objects of superstition. Spider-Man villains were often colored green to represent a contrast to the hero's red. In some Far East cultures the color green is often used as a symbol of sickness and/or nausea; Kalb, Ira. Creating Your Own Marketing Makes Good $ & Sense. K & A Press, 1989. ISBN 0924050012 pg. 210 In China, green is associated with the east, with sunrise, and with life and growth. Yoon, Hong-Key. The Culture of Feng-Shui in Korea. Lexington: Lexington Books, 2006. ISBN 0739113488 pg. 27 Prosperity The United States one dollar note, like all other American dollar bills, is historically green. In areas that use the U.S. Dollar as currency, green carries a connotation of money, wealth, and capitalism, because green is the color of United States banknotes, giving rise to the slang term greenback for cash. One of the more notable uses of this meaning is found in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. In this story is the Emerald City, where everyone wears tinted glasses which make everything look green. According to the populist interpretation of the story, the city’s color is used by the author, L. Frank Baum, to illustrate the financial system of America in his day, as he lived in a time when America was debating the use of paper money versus gold. Carruthers, Bruce G.; Sarah Babb. "The Color of Money and the Nature of Value: Greenbacks and Gold in Postbellum America." The American Journal of Sociology. (May 1996) 101.6 pgs. 1556-1591 Other traditions In high schools in the United States during the 1960s, it was widely believed that if someone wore green on Thursdays, it meant that they were homosexual. Grahn, Judy Another Mother Tongue. New York: 1990. Beacon Press. This book discusses the origins of this curious belief. Green is rarely used by football teams as it may often not stand out on a green football field. Nationality and politics Sovereign states with green flags: {{Legend|#00ff00|Islamic states using green|#009900|Pan-African colors (red, black, and green)|#00ff8a|Other, most commonly to represent either lush national vegetation or heraldry Several countries use green on their flags for symbolic or cultural reasons. Green, for example is one of the three colors (along with red and black, or red and gold) of Pan-Africanism. Several African countries thus use the color on their flags, including South Africa, Ghana, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Togo, Guinea, Benin, and Zimbabwe. The Pan-African colors are borrowed from the Ethiopian flag, one of the oldest independent African countries. Green in these cases represents the natural richness of Africa. Murrell, Nathaniel et al. Chanting down Babylon. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998. ISBN 1566395844 pg. 135 Many flags of the Islamic world are green, as the color is considered sacred in Islam. Matthews, John. The Quest for the Green Man. Wheaton: Quest Books, 2001. ISBN 0835608255 pg. 30 The flag of Libya consists of a simple green field with no other characteristics. It is the only national flag in the world with just one color and no design, insignia, or other details. Symons, Mitchell. This Book...of More Perfectly Useless Information. New York: HarperEntertainment, 2005. ISBN 0060828234 p. 229 The flag of Hamas, Friedland, Roger and Richard Hecht. To Rule Jerusalem. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000. ISBN 0520220927 pg. 461 as well as the flag of Iran, is green, symbolizing their Islamist ideology. Kaplan, Leslie C. Iran. ISBN 1404255486 pg. 22 Green is the lowest of the three bands on the flag of India. The green stands for fertility and prosperity. earlier Indian flags had contained a similar green band representing Islam, the second-most predominant religion in India. Vert tincture Other countries use flags for reasons of heraldry, or to represent lush national vegetation. In heraldry, green is called vert (French for "green"). Fourteenth century documents describe vert as a symbol of "jolliness and youth, but also of beauty and shame" as well as of death. Vert is used for the flags of Wales and Hungary, and is the basis for the Brazilian flag as well. Miller, Dean. The Epic Hero. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000. ISBN 0801862396 pgs. 289-290 Brault, Gerard J. (1997). Early Blazon: Heraldic Terminology in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries, (2nd ed.). Woodbridge, UK: The Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-711-4. Other countries using green in their flags use it to represent their country's lush vegetation, as in the flag of Jamaica, Smith, Whitney. Flag Lore of All Nations. Brookfield: Millbrook Press, 2001. ISBN 0761317538 pg. 49 and hope in the future, as in the flag of Nigeria. Amienyi, Osabuohien. Communicating National Integration. Ashgate Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0754644251 pg. 43 Green is a symbol of Ireland, which is often referred to as the “Emerald Isle”. The color is particularly identified with the republican and nationalist traditions in modern times. It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland, in balance with white and the Protestant orange. Green is a strong trend in the Irish holiday St. Patrick’s Day. Green has become the symbolic color of environmentalism, chosen for its association with nature, health, and growth. The Green Party is any of various political parties emphasizing ecology, grassroots democracy, nonviolence, and social justice. Green Parties, now active in over one hundred countries, are more broadly included in the green movement, and most are members of the Global Green Network. The association of green with advocates of the environment has extended to other circles as well, as is the case with Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople, who is often referred to as the “Green Patriarch” because the new environmental focus which he brought about within the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Religion and philosophy The Libyan flag is completely green, in honor of Islam's veneration of the color. Green is considered the traditional color of Islam, likewise because of its association with nature. There are several reasons for this. First, Muhammad is reliably quoted in a hadith as saying that “water, greenery, and a beautiful face” were three universally good things. In the Qur'an, sura Al-Insan, believers in God in Paradise wear fine green silk. Also, Al-Khidr (“The Green One”), is a Qur’anic figure who met and traveled with Moses. In the metaphysics of the "New Age Prophetess", Alice Bailey, in her system called the Seven Rays which classifies humans into seven different metaphysical psychological types, the "third ray" of "creative intelligence" is represented by the color green. People who have this metaphysical psychological type are said to be "on the Green Ray". In Hinduism, Green is used to symbolically represent the fourth, heart chakra (Anahata). Stevens, Samantha. The Seven Rays: a Universal Guide to the Archangels. City: Insomniac Press, 2004. ISBN 1894663497 pg. 24 Psychics who claim to be able to observe the aura with their third eye report that someone with a green aura is typically someone who is in an occupation related to health, such as a physician or nurse, as well as people who are lovers of nature and the outdoors. Swami Panchadasi The Human Aura: Astral Colors and Thought Forms Des Plaines, Illinois, USA:1912--Yogi Publications Society Page 35 Also, Roman Catholic and more traditional Protestant clergy wear green vestments at liturgical celebrations during Ordinary Time. In the Eastern Catholic Church, green is the color of Pentecost. Green is one of the Christmas colors as well, possibly dating back to pre-Christian times, when evergreens were worshiped for their ability to maintain their color through the winter season. Romans used green holly and evergreen as decorations for their winter solstice celebration called Saturnalia, which eventually evolved into a Christmas celebration. Collins, Ace and Clint Hansen. Stories behind the Great Traditions of Christmas. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2003. ISBN 0310248809 pg. 77 See also Variations of green Green in Islam Notes and references

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Data_set

A data set (or dataset) is a collection of data, usually presented in tabular form. Each column represents a particular variable. Each row corresponds to a given member of the data set in question. It lists values for each of the variables, such as height and weight of an object or values of random numbers. Each value is known as a datum. The data set may comprise data for one or more members, corresponding to the number of rows. Historically, the term originated in the mainframe field, where it had a well-defined meaning, very close to contemporary computer file. This topic is not covered here. In the simplest case, there is only one variable, and then the data set consists of a single column of values, often represented as a list. In spite of the name, such a univariate data set is not a set in the usual mathematical sense, since a given value may occur multiple times. Normally the order does not matter, and then the collection of values may be considered to be a multiset rather than an (ordered) list. The values may be numbers, such as real numbers or integers, for example representing a person's height in centimeters, but may also be nominal data (i.e., not consisting of numerical values), for example representing a person's ethnicity. More generally, values may be of any of the kinds described as a level of measurement. For each variable, the values will normally all be of the same kind. However, there may also be "missing values", which need to be indicated in some way. In statistics data sets usually come from actual observations obtained by sampling a statistical population, and each row corresponds to the observations on one element of that population. Data sets may further be generated by algorithms for the purpose of testing certain kinds of software. Some modern statistical analysis software such as PSPP still present their data in the classical data set fashion. Classic data sets Several classic data sets have been used extensively in the statistical literature: Iris flower data set - multivariate data set introduced by Ronald Fisher (1936). Categorical data analysis - Data sets used in the book, An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis, by Agresti are provided on-line by StatLib. Robust statistics - Data sets used in Robust Regression and Outlier Detection (Rousseeuw and Leroy, 1986). Provided on-line at the University of Cologne. Time series - Data used in Chatfield's book, The Analysis of Time Series, are provided on-line by StatLib. Extreme values - Data used in the book, An Introduction to the Statistical Modeling of Extreme Values are provided on-line by Stuart Coles, the book's author. Bayesian Data Analysis - Data used in the book, Bayesian Data Analysis, are provided on-line by Andrew Gelman, one of the book's authors. The Bupa liver data, used in several papers in the machine learning (data mining) literature. Notes External links The Research Pipeline - A free resource for accessing datasets on many different topics. StatLib--Datasets Archive StatLib--JASA Data Archive Data.gov GCMD - The Global Change Master Directory contains more than 20,000 descriptions of Earth science data sets and services covering all aspects of Earth and environmental sciences.

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Exile_(video_game_series)

See Exile (disambiguation) for other meanings and video games bearing this name. The Exile series of role-playing games were created by Jeff Vogel of Spiderweb Software. They are released as shareware titles for Apple Macintosh and Microsoft Windows systems. Exile III was also ported to Linux by a third party. There were four games released in this series. Exile: Escape from the Pit (released in January 1995) Exile II: Crystal Souls (released in November 1995) Exile III: Ruined World (released in January 1997) Blades of Exile (released in December 1997) Games A screenshot from the Mac edition of Exile I Exile I: Escape from the Pit The first game of the Exile trilogy sees your newly created characters thrown from the world above into the subterranean world known as Exile. Once here you discover a culture that has formed from the outcasts of the Empire above, a culture beset by constant warfare and monsters galore. In Exile you meet with many who wish to get revenge on the Empire for the wrongs it has done to the peoples of Exile. You become a rallying point around which the people of Exile who desire vengeance gather to focus their energies into finding a way to strike back against the cruel Emperor of the surface. Together you manage to assassinate Emperor Hawthorne in his throne room, banish the demon prince Grah-Hoth who was becoming a significant threat to the citizens of Exile, and secure an escape route to the surface. Exile II: Crystal Souls The second Exile game follows directly from the first. The Empire has begun to recognise the threat the Exiles pose and begin sending their army down into Exile in huge numbers. To make matters worse, unknown barriers of energy are sprouting up around the world – sometimes aiding the Exiles, sometimes helping the Empire who can afford the losses much more easily than the Exiles. A new party of characters meets one of the creatures causing the barriers sprouting up in Exile and go to meet with the unknown race to try and secure an end to hostilities. In the end you are even more successful - and the Vahnatai join with the Exiles to drive out the Empire. With the support of the Vahnatai the Exiles turn the tables on the Empire and successfully repulse their invasion. Exile III: Ruined World The final release in the Exile trilogy takes place some time after Exile II. A lot of preparation has taken place and now the Exiles are ready to send a selected few back into the light of the surface. However, while you are at first stunned by the sheer beauty of the land around you, you begin to notice that things are not as perfect as they seem. The slimes you encounter are only the first part of what becomes a series of monsters and terrible occurrences that are blighting the Empire and laying it to waste. While scouting the land, as were your orders from the Exile government, you are asked by the Empire to help save the surface from its blight. You bring the Exiles and the Empire together once more as allies trying to find the cause of the destruction. A screenshot of combat in the Mac edition of Blades of Exile Blades of Exile Blades of Exile consists of three short scenarios set after the main trilogy as well as an editor that allows players to create their own scenarios, which need not be set in the Exile game world at all. Several hundred custom-made scenarios have been designed since the release of the game in 1997. The most prominent meeting places on the web of the Blades of Exile community are the official company-hosted internet forum. These forums offer support for beginning designers and players, reviews of new scenarios and general discussions about the use of the scenario editor. In June 2007, Jeff Vogel released the source code for Blades of Exile, which is currently under the GNU General Public License, version 2. Game Features Common to all games in the Exile series are 2D graphics and basic sound. The games are designed to be non-linear and long in gameplay length. Reception The Exile trilogy was very well-received. PC Games wrote that Exile: Escape from the Pit "offers an easygoing point-and-click interface; pleasant, if unambitious, graphics; ... literate prose; and a vast scope." Exile II: Crystal Souls won the 1995 Eddy Award Honorable Mention for Best Shareware Game of the Year, and received a 5 out of 5 star rating from ZiffNet. Exile III: Ruined World received the Shareware Game of the Year award from Computer Gaming World and Ziff-Davis Publishing. Avernum More recently the Exile games have been remade as the Avernum series, which replaced the two-dimensional tile-based graphics system with an isometric one and made numerous changes to the RPG system and some changes to the content. A fifth title in the series is available under the Avernum moniker and engine. Engine and Interface While the game engine itself remained relatively similar between all games in the series, the interface went through many changes. Each iteration sported a new layout and color scheme, as well the individual elements, like the inventory and character roster boxes, were also changed to display information differently. Between Exile I and Exile II the most notable difference is a background color change as well as a change to the border of the play window. Between Exile II and Exile III the interface was changed significantly in that the colors and window styles were changed again but the player roster was overhauled and an inventory window was added. The changes between Exile III and Blades of Exile were more subtle and were again of the color and style nature. See also Jeff Vogel Spiderweb Software Avernum series External links Spiderweb Software Blades of Exile Source Code Encyclopedia Ermariana - an extensive encyclopedia of Exile

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Capability_Maturity_Model

The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) in software engineering is a model of the maturity of the capability of certain business processes. A maturity model can be described as a structured collection of elements that describe certain aspects of maturity in an organization, and aids in the definition and understanding of an organization's processes. Overview The Capability Maturity Model (CMM) was originally developed as a tool for objectively assessing the ability of government contractors' processes to perform a contracted software project. The CMM is based on the Process Maturity Framework first described in the 1989 book "Managing the Software Process" by Watts Humphrey and later published in its full form as a book in 1995 by Mark Paulk, Charles Weber, Bill Curtis, and Mary Beth Chrissis. Though it comes from the area of software development, it has also been applied to improving organizational processes in diverse areas; for example in software engineering, system engineering, project management, software maintenance, risk management, system acquisition, information technology (IT), services, business processes, and human capital management. The CMM has been used extensively not only by government, but has also been widely adopted in software and application development organizations around the world, and most notably by organizations offering offshore outsourcing services. History The Capability Maturity Model is based on the Process Maturity Framework first described in the 1989 book "Managing the Software Process" by Watts Humphrey. Humphrey based this framework on the earlier Quality Maturity Grid developed by Phil Crosby in his book "Quality Is Free". However, Humphrey's approach differed because of his unique insight that organizations mature their processes in stages based on solving process problems in a specific order. Humphrey based his approach on the staged evolution of a system of software development practices within an organization, rather than measuring the maturity of each separate development process independently. This insight has given the staged maturity models based on Humphrey's original framework their unique power for improving organizational performance . Humphrey began developing his process maturity concepts during the later stages of his 27 year career at IBM. He joined the Software Engineering Institute located at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 1986 after retiring from IBM. At the request of the U.S. Air Force he began formalizing his Process Maturity Framework to aid the U.S. Department of Defense in evaluating the capability of software contractors as part of awarding contracts. Organizations were originally assessed using a process maturity questionnaire and a Software Capability Evaluation method devised by Humphrey and his colleagues at the SEI. The full representation of the Capability Maturity Model as a collection of defined process areas and practices at each of the five maturity levels was initiated 1991, with Version 1.1 being completed in January 1993. The CMM was published as a book in 1995 by its primary authors, Mark C. Paulk, Charles V. Weber, Bill Curtis, and Mary Beth Chrissis. The CMM has been superseded by the Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI). Context In the 1970s the use of computers became more widespread, flexible and less expensive. Organizations began to adopt computerized information systems, and the demand for software development grew significantly. The processes for software development were in their infancy, with few standard or "best practice" approaches defined. As a result, the growth was accompanied by growing pains: project failure was common, and the field of computer science was still in its infancy, and the ambitions for project scale and complexity exceeded the market capability to deliver. Individuals such as Edward Yourdon, Larry Constantine, Gerald Weinberg, Tom DeMarco, and David Parnas began to publish articles and books with research results in an attempt to professionalize the software development process. Watts Humphrey's Capability Maturity Model (CMM) was described in Managing the Software Process. The CMM as conceived by Watts Humphrey was based on the work a decade earlier of Phil Crosby who published the Quality Management Maturity Grid in his book Quality is Free in 1979. Active development of the model by the US Department of Defense Software Engineering Institute (SEI) began in 1986. The CMM was originally intended as a tool to evaluate the ability of government contractors to perform a contracted software project. Though it comes from the area of software development, it can be, has been, and continues to be widely applied as a general model of the maturity of processes (e.g. IT Service Management processes) in IS/IT (and other) organizations. Note that the first application of a staged maturity model to IT was not by CMM/SEI, but rather Richard L. Nolan, who, in 1973 published the Stages of growth model for IT organizations. The model identifies five levels of process maturity for an organization: Initial (chaotic, ad hoc, heroic) the starting point for use of a new process. Repeatable (project management, process discipline) the process is used repeatedly. Defined (institutionalized) the process is defined/confirmed as a standard business process. Managed (quantified) process management and measurement takes place. Optimizing (process improvement) process management includes deliberate process optimization/improvement. Within each of these maturity levels are Key Process Areas (KPAs) which characterise that level, and for each KPA there are five definitions identified: Goals Commitment Ability Measurement Verification The KPAs are not necessarily unique to CMM, representing — as they do — the stages that organizations must go through on the way to becoming mature. Process assessment is best led by an appropriately skilled/competent lead assessor. The organisation's process maturity level is assessed, and then a specific plan is developed to get to the next level. Skipping levels is not allowed. N.B.: The CMM was originally intended as a tool to evaluate the ability of government contractors to perform a contracted software project. It may be suited for that purpose. When it became a general model for software process improvement, there were many critics. Shrinkwrap companies are also called commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) firms or software package firms. They include Claris, Apple, Symantec, Microsoft, and Lotus, amongst others. Many such companies rarely if ever managed their requirements documents as formally as the CMM described in order to achieve level 2, and so all of these companies would probably fall into level 1 of the model. Origins In the 1980s, several military projects involving software subcontractors ran over-budget and were completed much later than planned, if they were completed at all. In an effort to determine why this was occurring, the United States Air Force funded a study at the SEI. The result of this study was a model for the military to use as an objective evaluation of software subcontractors. In 1989, the Capability Maturity Model was published as Managing the Software Process. The basis for the model is the Quality Management Maturity Grid introduced by Philip Crosby in his 1979 book 'Quality is Free'. Current state and future direction Although the CMM model proved useful to many organizations, the use of multiple models has been problematic. Applying multiple models that are not integrated within and across an organization could be costly in terms of training, appraisals, and improvement activities. The CMM Integration (CMMI) project was formed to sort out the problem of using multiple CMMs. Capability Maturity Model Topics Maturity model A maturity model can be described as a structured collection of elements that describe certain aspects of maturity in an organization. A maturity model may provide, for example : a place to start the benefit of a community’s prior experiences a common language and a shared vision a framework for prioritizing actions a way to define what improvement means for your organization. A maturity model can be used as a benchmark for comparison and as an aid to understanding - for example, for comparative assessment of different organizations where there is something in common that can be used as a basis for comparison. In the case of the CMM, for example, the basis for comparison would be the organizations' software development processes. Capability Maturity Model Structure The Capability Maturity Model involves the following aspects: Maturity Levels: A 5-Level process maturity continuum - where the uppermost (5th) level is a notional ideal state where processes would be systematically managed by a combination of process optimization and continuous process improvement. Key Process Areas: A Key Process Area (KPA) identifies a cluster of related activities that, when performed collectively, achieve a set of goals considered important. Goals: The goals of a key process area summarize the states that must exist for that key process area to have been implemented in an effective and lasting way. The extent to which the goals have been accomplished is an indicator of how much capability the organization has established at that maturity level. The goals signify the scope, boundaries, and intent of each key process area. Common Features: Common features include practices that implement and institutionalize a key process area. There are five types of common features: Commitment to Perform, Ability to Perform, Activities Performed, Measurement and Analysis, and Verifying Implementation. Key Practices: The key practices describe the elements of infrastructure and practice that contribute most effectively to the implementation and institutionalization of the KPAs. Levels of the Capability Maturity Model There are five levels defined along the continuum of the CMM (March 2002 edition of CMMI from SEI), chapter 2 page 11.) , and, according to the SEI: "Predictability, effectiveness, and control of an organization's software processes are believed to improve as the organization moves up these five levels. While not rigorous, the empirical evidence to date supports this belief." Level 1 - Ad hoc (Chaotic) It is characteristic of processes at this level that they are (typically) undocumented and in a state of dynamic change, tending to be driven in an ad hoc, uncontrolled and reactive manner by users or events. This provides a chaotic or unstable environment for the processes. Level 2 - Repeatable It is characteristic of processes at this level that some processes are repeatable, possibly with consistent results. Process discipline is unlikely to be rigorous, but where it exists it may help to ensure that existing processes are maintained during times of stress. Level 3 - Defined It is characteristic of processes at this level that there are sets of defined and documented standard processes established and subject to some degree of improvement over time. These standard processes are in place (i.e., they are the AS-IS processes) and used to establish consistency of process performance across the organization. Level 4 - Managed It is characteristic of processes at this level that, using process metrics, management can effectively control the AS-IS process (e.g., for software development ). In particular, management can identify ways to adjust and adapt the process to particular projects without measurable losses of quality or deviations from specifications. Process Capability is established from this level. Level 5 - Optimizing It is a characteristic of processes at this level that the focus is on continually improving process performance through both incremental and innovative technological changes/improvements. At maturity level 5, processes are concerned with addressing statistical common causes of process variation and changing the process (for example, shifting the mean of the process performance) to improve process performance. This would be done at the same time as maintaining the likelihood of achieving the established quantitative process-improvement objectives. Software process framework for SEI's Capability Maturity Model The software process framework documented is intended to guide those wishing to assess an organization/projects consistency with the CMM. For each maturity level there are five checklist types: {| class="wikitable" |- ! TypeSD ! Description |- | Policy |Describes the policy contents and KPA goals recommended by the CMM. |- | Standard |Describes the recommended content of select work products described in the CMM. |- | Process | Describes the process information content recommended by the CMM. The process checklists are further refined into checklists for: roles entry criteria inputs activities outputs exit criteria reviews and audits work products managed and controlled measurements documented procedures training tools |- | Procedure | Describes the recommended content of documented procedures described in the CMM. |- | Level Overview | Provides an overview of an entire maturity level. The level overview checklists are further refined into checklists for: KPA purposes (Key Process Areas) KPA goals policies standards process descriptions procedures training tools reviews and audits work products managed and controlled measurements |- |} Footnotes References Mark C. Paulk, Charles V. Weber, Bill Curtis, & Mary Beth Chrissis (1995). The Capability Maturity Model: Guidelines for Improving the Software Process. Boston: Addison Wesley. ISBN 0-201-54664-7. Watts S. Humphrey (1987). Characterizing the Software Process: A Maturity Framework. IEEE Software, vol. 56, no. 2, March 1988, pp. 73–79. External links

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characterize:1 ieee:1 vol:1 pp:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram capability_maturity:13 carnegie_mellon:1 pittsburgh_pennsylvania:1 ad_hoc:3 class_wikitable:1 addison_wesley:1 external_link:1

Abelian_group

An abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on their order (the axiom of commutativity). Abelian groups generalize the arithmetic of addition of integers. They are named after Niels Henrik Abel. The concept of an abelian group is one of the first concepts encountered in undergraduate abstract algebra, with many other basic objects, such as a module and a vector space, being its refinements. The theory of abelian groups is generally simpler than that of their non-abelian counterparts, and finite abelian groups are very well understood. On the other hand, the theory of infinite abelian groups is an area of current research. Definition An abelian group is a set, A, together with an operation "•" that combines any two elements a and b to form another element denoted . The symbol "•" is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as an abelian group, the set and operation, , must satisfy five requirements known as the abelian group axioms: Closure For all a, b in A, the result of the operation a • b is also in A. Associativity For all a, b and c in A, the equation (a • b) • c = a • (b • c) holds. Identity element There exists an element e in A, such that for all elements a in A, the equation e • a = a • e = a holds. Inverse element For each a in A, there exists an element b in A such that a • b = b • a = e, where e is the identity element. Commutativity For all a, b in A, a • b = b • a. More compactly, an abelian group is a commutative group. A group in which the group operation is not commutative is called a "non-abelian group" or "non-commutative group". Facts Notation There are two main notational conventions for abelian groups — additive and multiplicative. Convention Operation Identity Powers Inverse Addition x + y 0 nx −x Multiplication x * y or xy e or 1 xn x −1 Generally, the multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for modules. The additive notation may also be used to emphasize that a particular group is abelian, whenever both abelian and non-abelian groups are considered. Multiplication table To verify that a finite group is abelian, a table (matrix) - known as a Cayley table - can be constructed in a similar fashion to a multiplication table. If the group is G = {g1 = e, g2, ..., gn} under the operation ⋅, the (i, j)'th entry of this table contains the product gi ⋅ gj. The group is abelian if and only if this table is symmetric about the main diagonal (i.e. if the matrix is a symmetric matrix). This is true since if the group is abelian, then gi ⋅ gj = gj ⋅ gi. This implies that the (i, j)'th entry of the table equals the (j, i)'th entry - i.e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal. Examples For the integers and the operation addition "+", denoted (Z,+), the operation + combines any two integers to form a third integer, addition is associative, zero is the additive identity, every integer n has an additive inverse, −n, and the addition operation is commutative since m + n = n + m for any two integers m and n. Every cyclic group G is abelian, because if x, y are in G, then xy = aman = am + n = an + m = anam = yx. Thus the integers, Z, form an abelian group under addition, as do the integers modulo n, Z/nZ. Every ring is an abelian group with respect to its addition operation. In a commutative ring the invertible elements, or units, form an abelian multiplicative group. In particular, the real numbers are an abelian group under addition, and the nonzero real numbers are an abelian group under multiplication. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal, so each subgroup gives rise to a quotient group. Subgroups, quotients, and direct sums of abelian groups are again abelian. In general, matrices, even invertible matrices, do not form an abelian group under multiplication because matrix multiplication is generally not commutative. However, some groups of matrices are abelian groups under matrix multiplication - one example is the group of 2x2 rotation matrices. Historical remarks Abelian groups were named for Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel by Camille Jordan who was first to observe their importance in connection with the problem of solvability by radicals, first posed by Abel. Properties If n is a natural number and x is an element of an abelian group G written additively, then nx can be defined as x + x + ... + x (n summands) and (−n)x = −(nx). In this way, G becomes a module over the ring Z of integers. In fact, the modules over Z can be identified with the abelian groups. Theorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the principal ideal domain Z) can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of finitely generated abelian groups which is a specialization of the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. In the case of finitely generated abelian groups, this theorem guarantees that an abelian group splits as a direct sum of a torsion group and a free abelian group. The former may be written as a direct sum of finitely many groups of the form Z/pkZ for p prime, and the latter is a direct sum of finitely many copies of Z. If f, g : G  →  H are two group homomorphisms between abelian groups, then their sum f + g, defined by (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x), is again a homomorphism. (This is not true if H is a non-abelian group.) The set Hom(G, H) of all group homomorphisms from G to H thus turns into an abelian group in its own right. Somewhat akin to the dimension of vector spaces, every abelian group has a rank. It is defined as the cardinality of the largest set of linearly independent elements of the group. The integers and the rational numbers have rank one, as well as every subgroup of the rationals. Finite abelian groups Cyclic groups of integers modulo n, Z/nZ, were among the first examples of groups. It turns out that an arbitrary finite abelian group is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups of prime power order, and these orders are uniquely determined, forming a complete system of invariants. The automorphism group of a finite abelian group can be described directly in terms of these invariants. The theory had been first developed in the 1879 paper of Georg Frobenius and Ludwig Stickelberger and later was both simplified and generalized to finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain, forming an important chapter of linear algebra. Classification The fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states that every finite abelian group G can be expressed as the direct sum of cyclic subgroups of prime-power order. This is a special case of the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups when G has zero rank. The cyclic group of order mn is isomorphic to the direct sum of and if and only if m and n are coprime. It follows that any finite abelian group G is isomorphic to a direct sum of the form in either of the following canonical ways: the numbers k1,...,ku are powers of primes k1 divides k2, which divides k3, and so on up to ku. For example, can be expressed as the direct sum of two cyclic subgroups of order 3 and 5: . The same can be said for any abelian group of order 15, leading to the remarkable conclusion that all abelian groups of order 15 are isomorphic. For another example, every abelian group of order 8 is isomorphic to either (the integers 0 to 7 under addition modulo 8), (the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16), or . See also list of small groups for finite abelian groups of order 16 or less. Automorphisms One can apply the fundamental theorem to count (and sometimes determine) the automorphisms of a given finite abelian group G. To do this, one uses the fact (which will not be proved here) that if G splits as a direct sum H K of subgroups of coprime order, then Aut(H K) Aut(H) Aut(K). Given this, the fundamental theorem shows that to compute the automorphism group of G it suffices to compute the automorphism groups of the Sylow p-subgroups separately (that is, all direct sums of cyclic subgroups, each with order a power of p). Fix a prime p and suppose the exponents ei of the cyclic factors of the Sylow p-subgroup are arranged in increasing order: for some n > 0. One needs to find the automorphisms of One special case is when n = 1, so that there is only one cyclic prime-power factor in the Sylow p-subgroup P. In this case the theory of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group can be used. Another special case is when n is arbitrary but ei = 1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Here, one is considering P to be of the form so elements of this subgroup can be viewed as comprising a vector space of dimension n over the finite field of p elements . The automorphisms of this subgroup are therefore given by the invertible linear transformations, so where GL is the appropriate general linear group. This is easily shown to have order In the most general case, where the ei and n are arbitrary, the automorphism group is more difficult to determine. It is known, however, that if one defines and then one has in particular dk ≥ k, ck ≤ k, and One can check that this yields the orders in the previous examples as special cases (see [Hillar,Rhea]). Infinite abelian groups The theory of infinite abelian groups is far from complete. Two important special classes with diametrically opposite properties are torsion groups and torsion-free groups. Torsion groups An abelian group is called periodic or torsion if every element has finite order. Important areas of the theory of torsion groups are: Direct sums of cyclic groups, also called pure projective modules Bounded groups, an example of pure injective modules Ulm invariants Torsion-free groups An abelian group is called torsion-free if every non-zero element has infinite order. Important areas of torsion-free groups are: Rank of an abelian group Basic subgroups Cotorsion and algebraically compact torsion-free groups such as the p-adic integers Slender groups Mixed groups An abelian group is called mixed if it is neither torsion nor torsion-free. Important topics in the theory of mixed groups are: Ext functor Pure subgroups Divisible groups In each case, the new ideas help to approximate a mixed group as a direct sum of a torsion and a torsion-free group. Additive groups of rings The additive group of a ring is an abelian group, but not all abelian groups are additive groups of rings. Some important topics in this area of study are: Tensor product Corner's results on countable torsion-free groups Shelah's work to remove cardinality restrictions Relation to other mathematical topics Many large abelian groups possess a natural topology, which turns them into topological groups. The collection of all abelian groups, together with the homomorphisms between them, forms the category Ab, the prototype of an abelian category. Nearly all well-known algebraic structures other than Boolean algebra, are undecidable. Hence it is surprising that Tarski's student Szmielew (1955) proved that the first order theory of abelian groups, unlike its nonabelian counterpart, is decidable. This decidability, plus the fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups described above, highlight some of the successes in abelian group theory, but there are still many areas of current research: Amongst torsion-free abelian groups of finite rank, only the finitely generated case and the rank 1 case are well understood; There are many unsolved problems in the theory of infinite-rank torsion-free abelian groups; While countable torsion abelian groups are well understood through simple presentations and Ulm invariants, the cased of countable mixed groups is much less mature. Many mild extensions of the first order theory of abelian groups are known to be undecidable. Finite abelian groups remain a topic of research in computational group theory. Moreover, abelian groups of infinite order lead, quite surprisingly, to deep questions about the set theory commonly assumed to underlie all of mathematics. Take the Whitehead problem: are all Whitehead groups of infinite order also free abelian groups? In the 1970s, Saharon Shelah proved that the Whitehead problem is: Undecidable in ZFC, the conventional axiomatic set theory from which nearly all of present day mathematics can be derived. The Whitehead problem is also the first question in ordinary mathematics proved undecidable in ZFC; Undecidable even if ZFC is augmented by taking the generalized continuum hypothesis as an axiom; Decidable if ZFC is augmented with the axiom of constructibility (see statements true in L). A note on the typography Among mathematical adjectives derived from the proper name of a mathematician, the word "abelian" is rare in that it is spelled with a lowercase a, rather than an uppercase A, indicating how ubiquitous the concept is in modern mathematics. Abel Prize Awarded: The Mathematicians' Nobel See also Abelianization Class field theory Commutator subgroup Elementary abelian group Finitely generated abelian group Free abelian group Pontryagin duality Torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1 Notes References Fuchs, László (1970) Infinite abelian groups, Vol. I. Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 36. New York-London: Academic Press. xi+290 pp. ------ (1973) Infinite abelian groups, Vol. II. Pure and Applied Mathematics. Vol. 36-II. New York-London: Academic Press. ix+363 pp. Hillar, Christopher and Rhea, Darren (2007), Automorphisms of finite abelian groups. Amer. Math. Monthly 114, no. 10, 917-923. . Szmielew, Wanda (1955) "Elementary properties of abelian groups," Fundamenta Mathematica 41''': 203-71.

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Politics_of_Equatorial_Guinea

Politics of Equatorial Guinea takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President is both the head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Chamber of People's Representatives Political conditions In the period following Spain's grant of local autonomy to Equatorial Guinea in 1963, there was a great deal of political party activity. Bubi and Fernandino parties on the island preferred separation from Río Muni or a loose federation. Ethnically based parties in Río Muni favored independence for a united country comprising Bioko and Río Muni, an approach that ultimately won out. (The Movement for the Self-Determination of Bioko Island (MAIB) which advocates independence for the island under Bubi control, is one of the offshoots of the era immediately preceding independence). Equatorial Guinea became officially independent from Spain on October 12, 1968. Since then, the country has had two presidents: Francisco Macías Nguema, the former mayor of Mongomo under the Spanish colonial government, and Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo (often incorrectly labeled Macías's nephew), who has ruled since 1979 when he staged a military coup d'état and executed Macías. The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives Obiang extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. Obiang retains his role as commander-in-chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of the military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security. After the accession of Macías to power, political activity largely ceased in Equatorial Guinea. Opposition figures who lived among the exile communities in Spain and elsewhere agitated for reforms; some of them had been employed in the Macías and Obiang governments. After political activities in Equatorial Guinea were legalized in the early 1990s, some opposition leaders returned to test the waters, but repressive actions have continued sporadically. With the prodding of the United Nations, the United States, Spain, and other donor countries, the government undertook an electoral census in 1995. Freely contested municipal elections, the country's first, were held in September. Most observers agree that the elections themselves were relatively free and transparent and that the opposition parties garnered between two-thirds and three-quarters of the total vote. The government delayed announcement of the results and then claimed a highly dubious 52% victory overall and the capture of 19 of 27 municipal councils. Malabo's council went to the opposition. In early January 1996 Obiang called presidential elections to be held in 6 weeks. The campaign was marred by allegations of fraud, and most of the other candidates withdrew in the final week. Obiang claimed re-election with 98% of the vote. International observers agreed the election was not free or fair. In an attempt to ameliorate his critics, Obiang announced his new cabinet, giving minor portfolios to some people identified by the government as being opposition figures. Since independence, the two Presidents (Macías and Obiang) have been the dominant political forces in Equatorial Guinea. Since 1979, President Obiang has been constrained only by a need to maintain a consensus among his advisers and political supporters, most of whom are drawn from the Nguema family in Mongomo, in the eastern part of Río Muni. The Nguema family is part of the Esangui subclan of the Fang. Alleged coup attempts in 1981 and 1983 raised little sympathy among the populace. President Obiang's rule, in which schools were permitted to reopen and primary education expanded, and public utilities and roads restored, compares favorably with Macías' tyranny and terror. It has been criticized for not implementing genuine democratic reforms. Corruption and a dysfunctional judicial system disrupt the development of Equatorial Guinea's economy and society. In March 2001 the President appointed a new Prime Minister, Cándido Muatetema Rivas, and replaced several ministers perceived to be especially corrupt. However, the government budget still does not include all revenues and expenditures. The United Nations Development Programme has proposed a broad governance reform program, but the Equatorial Guinean Government was not moving rapidly to implement it. Although Equatorial Guinea lacks a well-established democratic tradition comparable to the developed democracies of the West, it has progressed toward developing a participatory political system out of the anarchic, chaotic, and repressive conditions of the Macias years. In power since 1979, the Obiang government has made little progress in stimulating the economy. Extremely serious health and sanitary conditions persist, and the educational system remains in desperate condition. Although the abuses and atrocities that characterized the Macias years have been eliminated, effective rule of law does not exist. Religious freedom is tolerated. On December 15, 2002 allAfrica.com: Equatorial Guinea: Obiang Sure to Win As Opposition Quits Poll (Page 1 of 1) , Equatorial Guinea's four main opposition parties withdrew from the country's presidential election. Obiang won an election widely considered fraudulent by members of the western press. According to a March 2004 BBC profile BBC NEWS | World | Africa | Profile: Equatorial Guinea's great survivor , politics within the country are currently dominated by tensions between Obiang's son Teodoro (known by the nickname Teodorín, meaning Little Teodoro), and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces. The tension may be rooted in a power shift arising from the dramatic increase since 1997 in oil production. A November 2004 report http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,11431299%255E2703,00.html named Mark Thatcher as a financial backer of a March 2004 attempt to topple Obiang organized by Simon Mann. Various accounts also name Britain's MI6, the CIA, and Spain as having been tacit supporters of the coup attempt. http://www.sundayherald.com/print44412 Nevertheless, an Amnesty International report Equatorial Guinea: A trial with too many flaws | Amnesty International on the ensuing trial highlights the government's failure to demonstrate in court that the alleged coup attempt had ever actually taken place. Executive branch |President |Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo |PDGE |3 August 1979 |- |Prime Minister |Ignacio Milam Tang |PDGE |8 July 2008 |- |Minister of National Security |Manuel Nguema Mba |n/a |n/a |} The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives the President extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. The President retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of the military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo seized power in a military coup. He is elected by popular vote to a seven-year term. Another official branch of the government is the State Council. The State Council's main function is to serve as caretaker in case of death or physical incapacity of the President. It comprises the following ex officio members: the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, the President of the National Assembly and the Chairman of the Social and Economic Council. Legislative branch The Chamber of People's Representatives (Cámara de Representantes del Pueblo) has 100 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation in multi-member constituencies. Equatorial Guinea is a One party dominant state. This means that only one political party, the Democratic Party of Equatorial Guinea is in fact allowed to hold effective power. Although minor parties are allowed, they are de facto required to accept the leadership of the dominant party. Political parties and elections Judicial branch The judicial system follows similar administrative levels. At the top are the President and his judicial advisors (the Supreme Court). In descending rank are the appeals courts, chief judges for the divisions, and local magistrates. Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. The current court system, which often uses customary law, is a combination of traditional, civil, and military justice, and it operates in an ad hoc manner for lack of established procedures and experienced judicial personnel. Administrative divisions A politician's image appears in the entrance to the Consulate-General of Equatorial Guinea in Houston, a diplomatic complex in an office building in Houston, Texas, United States Equatorial Guinea is divided in 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas. The President appoints the governors of the seven provinces. Each province is divided administratively into districts and municipalities. The internal administrative system falls under the Ministry of Territorial Administration; several other ministries are represented at the provincial and district levels. International organization participation ACCT, Agency for the French-Speaking Community, ACP, African, Caribbean, and Pacific Group of States, AfDB, African Development Bank, BDEAC, Central African States Development Bank, CEEAC, Economic Community of Central African States, ECA, Economic Commission for Africa, FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization, FZ, Franc Zone, G-77, Group of 77, IBRD, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, ICAO, International Civil Aviation Organization, ICRM, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, IDA, International Development Association, IFAD, International Fund for Agricultural Development, IFC, International Finance Corporation, IFRCS, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, ILO, International Labour Organization, IMF, International Monetary Fund, IMO, International Maritime Organization, Intelsat, International Telecommunications Satellite Organization, Interpol, International Criminal Police Organization, IOC, International Olympic Committee, ITU, International Telecommunication Union, NAM, Non-Aligned Movement, OAS; (observer), Organization of American States OAU, Organization of African Unity, OPCW, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, UDEAC, Central African Customs and Economic Union, UN, United Nations, UNCTAD, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, UNESCO, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, UNIDO, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, UPU, Universal Postal Union, WHO, World Health Organization, WIPO, World Intellectual Property Organization, WToO, World Tourism Organization, WTrO;(applicant),World Trade Organization References

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Bioterrorism

Bioterrorism is terrorism by intentional release or dissemination of biological agents (bacteria, viruses, or toxins); these may be in a naturally-occurring or in a human-modified form. Definition Bioterrorism is an attractive weapon because biological agents are relatively easy and inexpensive to obtain or produce, can be easily disseminated, and can cause widespread fear and panic beyond the actual physical damage they can cause. of Biologics as Weapons Bioterrorism: A Threat to National Security or Public Health Defining Issue? MM&I 554 University of Wisconsin at Madison and Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, September 30, 2008 Military leaders, however, have learned that, as a military asset, bioterrorism has some important limitations; it is difficult to employ a bioweapon in a way that only the enemy is affected and not friendly forces. A biological weapon is useful to a terrorist group mainly as a method of creating mass panic and disruption to a society. However, technologists such as Bill Joy have warned of the potential power which genetic engineering might place in the hands of future bio-terrorists. The use of agents that do not cause harm to humans but disrupt the economy have been discussed. A highly relevant pathogen in this context is the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus, which is capable of causing widespread economic damage and public concern (as witnessed in the 2001 and 2007 FMD outbreaks in the UK), whilst having almost no capacity to infect humans. History Early developments Biological terrorism dates as far back as ancient Roman civilization, where feces was thrown into faces of enemies. This early version of biological terrorism was used to destroy enemy forces covertly. It continued on into the 14th century where the bubonic plague was used to infiltrate enemy cities, both by instilling the fear of infection in residences, in hopes that they would evacuate, and also to destroy defending forces that would not yield to the attack. The use of disease as a weapon in this stage of history exhibited a lack of control aggressors had over their own biological weapons. Primitive medical technology provided limited means of protection for the aggressor and a battle's surrounding geographical regions. After the battle was won, the inability to contain enemies who escaped death led to widespread epidemics affecting not only the enemy forces, but also surrounding regions' inhabitants. Due to the use of these biological weapons, and the apparent lack of medical advancement necessary to defend surrounding regions from them, widespread epidemics such as the bubonic plague quickly moved across all of Western Europe, destroying a large portion of its population. The victims of biological terrorism in fact became weapons themselves. This was noted in the Middle Ages, but medical advancements had not progressed far enough to prevent the consequences of a weapons use. Over time, biological warfare became more and more sophisticated. Countries began to develop weapons which were much more effective, and much less likely to cause infection to the wrong party. One significant enhancement in biological weapon development was the first use of anthrax. Anthrax effectiveness was initially limited to victims of large dosages. This became a weapon of choice because it is easily transferred, has a high mortality rate, and could be easily obtained. Also, variants of the anthrax bacterium can be found all around the world making it the biological weapon of choice in the early 19th century. Another property of anthrax that helped fuel its use as a biological weapon is its poor ability to spread far beyond the targeted population. Twentieth century By the time World War I began, attempts to use anthrax were directed at animal populations. This was ineffective. Instead, the use of poisonous mustard gas became the biological weapon of choice. Poison Gas and World War One, History Learning Site The sheer horror of its effects lead to a treaty called the Geneva Protocol of 1925. The treaty was created to prevent the use of asphyxiating gas as a method of biological warfare. While this was a significant advancement toward the prevention of biological weapon use, the treaty said nothing about weapon development. Secretly, biological weapon development programs existed in many nations. While no documented instances of biological weapon use exist it is believed that this was primarily due to the programs immaturity and not the unwillingness to use them. Following the start of World War One, Germany launched a biological sabotage campaign in the United States, Russia, Romania, and France. At that time, Anton Dilger lived in Germany, but in 1915 he was sent to the United States carrying cultures of glanders, a virulent disease of horses and mules. Dilger set up a laboratory in his home in Chevy Chase, Maryland. He used stevedores working the docks in Baltimore to infect horses with glanders while they were waiting to be shipped to Britain. Dilger was under suspicion as being a German agent, but was never arrested. Dilger eventually fled to Madrid, Spain, where he died during the Influenza Pandemic of 1918. In 1916, the Russians arrested a German agent with similar intentions. Germany and its allies infected French cavalry horses and many of Russia’s mules and horses on the Eastern Front. These actions hindered artillery and troop movements, as well as supply convoys. American biological weapon development began in 1942. President Franklin D. Roosevelt placed George W. Merck in charge of the effort to create a development program. Endicott,S.L., and Hagerman,Edward, World War Two Origins,Chapter 2, in The United States and Biological Warfare, Indiana University Press, 1998 ISBN 0253334721, p.27 These programs continued until 1969, when by executive order President Richard Nixon shut down all programs related to American offensive use of biological weapons. Accusations of the use of biological weapons against North Korea were spread during Vietnam, however it is believed that those accusations were propaganda developed by the North Korean regime to villainize American Armed Forces. As the 1970s passed, global efforts to prevent the development of biological weapons and their use were widespread. In 1972 the prohibition of development, production and stockpiling biological weapons was developed. Modernization In the 1980’s Iraq made substantial efforts to develop and stockpile large amounts of biological weapons. By the end of the 80’s Iraq had several sites dedicated to the research and development of biological warfare. They began to test their findings in the late 80’s. These actions lead to the first Gulf war in which Iraq’s biological weapons were dismantled and destroyed. Since that time, efforts to use biological warfare has been more apparent in small radical organizations attempting to create fear in the eyes of large groups. Some efforts have been partially effective in creating fear, due to the lack of visibility associated with modern biological weapon use by small organizations. Aum Shinrikyo In 1995 a small terrorist group, then called Aum Shinrikyo but today called Aleph, launched a Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway system. The attack killed twelve and affected more than 5000. The response of Japanese emergency services successfully prevented an outcome with much higher mortality rates. Olson, Kyle B. Aum Shinrikyo: Once and Future Threat? CDC Emerging Diseases, Vol.5 No.4 This was not the group's first such attack; on March 27, 1994, Aum Shinrikyo targeted a neighborhood in Matsumoto, Japan to try to kill the judges presiding over a lawsuit involving a real-estate dispute. There were seven fatalities. In the United States a more recent biological terrorism attack occurred in 2001 when letters laced with infectious anthrax were delivered to news media offices and the U.S Congress. The letters killed 5. While many believed this attack to be in relation to Iraq’s development of biological weapons, tests on the anthrax strand used in the attack pointed to a domestic source. 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack In 1984, followers of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh attempted to control a local election by incapacitating the local population. This was done by infecting salad bars in eleven restaurants, produce in grocery stores, doorknobs, and other public domains with Salmonella typhimurium bacteria in the city of The Dalles, Oregon. The attack infected 751 people with severe food poisoning. However, there were no fatalities. This incident was the first known bioterrorist attack in the United States in the 20th century. Past U.S. Incidents of Food Bioterrorism Bioterrorism: A Threat to National Security or Public Health Defining Issue, University of Wisconsin at Madison and the the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, MM&I 554, September 30, 2008 2001 anthrax attacks In September and October 2001, several cases of anthrax broke out in the United States in the 2001 anthrax attacks, caused deliberately. This was a well-publicized act of bioterrorism. It motivated efforts to define biodefense and biosecurity, where more limited definitions of biosafety had focused on unintentional or accidental impacts of agricultural and medical technologies. Ricin incidents In September 1978, the Bulgarian dissident Georgi Markov was assassinated in London by means of a ricin-filled poison dart fired from an umbrella . This was the first of a long series of ricin events which would slowly unroll over the next thirty years. Bioterrorism remained quiescent for twenty-two years until March 2000, when following his suicide, police discovered ricin, a blowgun, and darts in the Irvine, California home of Dr. Larry C. Ford. A total of 266 bottles and vials of pathogens were found in refrigerators at his home and office. A cluster of ricin-related events occurred in 2003. In January that year, Scotland Yard arrested seven Algerian terror suspects after traces of ricin were discovered in their homes. Then in March, French police found small bottles containing traces of ricin in a Paris train station. During October, ricin was discovered in an envelope at a post office in Greenville, South Carolina. A month later in November, the Secret Service intercepted a letter addressed to the White House which contained a vial of ricin and a letter. The letter was a complaint about trucking regulations, and was very similar to the ricin letter discovered a month earlier in South Carolina. Ricin was found again in Washington, DC, this time in the Dirksen Senate Office building mailroom in February 2004. Ricin activity remained quiet until January 2005, when an Ocala, Florida man was arrested after FBI agents found ricin in his home. Most recently in February 2008, a man living in a Las Vegas motel was taken to a hospital in critical condition. A number of firearms and an anarchist manual were found in his motel room along with several vials of ricin. Types of agents Category A These high-priority agents pose a risk to national security, can be easily transmitted and disseminated, result in high mortality, have potential major public health impact, may cause public paanic, or require special action for public health preparedness. Anthrax Anthrax is a non-contagious disease. An anthrax vaccine does exist but requires many injections for stable use. Its first modern incidence in biological warfare were when Scandinavian "freedom fighters" supplied by the German General Staff used anthrax with unknown results against the Imperial Russian Army in Finland in 1916. Bisher, Jamie, "During World War I, Terrorists Schemed to Use Anthrax in the Cause of Finnish Independence," Military History, August 2003, pp. 17-22. Anthrax Sabotage in Finland Anthrax was used in a series of attacks on the offices of several United States Senators in late 2001. The Anthrax was in a powder form and it was delivered by the mail. Puneet K. Dewan, Alicia M. Fry, Kayla Laserson, et al Inhalational Anthrax Outbreak among Postal Workers, Washington, D.C., 2001 Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol 8, No 10, October 2002 Anthrax is one of the few biological agents that federal employees have been vaccinated for. Smallpox CDC Smallpox Smallpox is a highly contagious virus. It is transmitted easily through the atmosphere and has a high mortality rate (20-40%). Smallpox was eliminated in the world in the 1970s, thanks to a worldwide vaccination program. What CDC Is Doing to Protect the Public From Smallpox However, some virus samples are still available in Russian and American laboratories. Some believe that after the collapse of the Soviet Union, cultures of smallpox have become available in other countries. Although people born pre-1970 will have been vaccinated for smallpox under the WHO program, the effectiveness of vaccination is limited since the vaccine provides high level of immunity for only 3 to 5 years. Revaccination's protection lasts longer. Military Vaccination Program website As a biological weapon smallpox is dangerous because of the highly contagious nature of both the infected and their pox. Also, the infrequency with which vaccines are administered among the general population since the eradication of the disease would leave most people unprotected in the event of an outbreak. Smallpox occurs only in humans, and has no external hosts or vectors. Botulinum toxin CDC Botulism Botulinum toxin is one of the deadliest toxins known, and is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Botulism causes death by respiratory failure and paralysis. CDC Botulism Factsheet Bubonic plague CDC Plague Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. Rodents are the normal host of plague, and the disease is transmitted to humans by flea bites and occasionally by aerosol in the form of pneumonic plague. CDC Plague Home Page The disease has a history of use in biological warfare dating back many centuries, and is considered a threat due to its ease of culture and ability to remain in circulation among local rodents for a long period of time. The weaponized threat comes mainly in the form of pneumonic plague (infection by inhalation) Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) About Plague Viral hemorrhagic fever CDC VuralHemirrhagic Fevers This includes the Filoviridae (containing the Marburg and Ebola genera), and the Arenaviridae (for example Lassa or Machupo). Ebola has fatality rates ranging from 50-90%. No cure currently exists, although vaccines are in development. The United States and the erstwhile Soviet Union both investigated the use of Ebola for biological warfare, and the Aum Shinrikyo group possessed cultures of the virus. Ebola kills its victims through multiple organ failure and hypovolemic shock. Marburg was first discovered in Marburg, Germany. No treatments currently exist aside from supportive care. The Arenaviruses have a greatly reduced fatality rate, but a larger presence, chiefly in central Africa and South America. Tularemia CDC Tularemia Tularemia, or rabbit fever, has a very low fatality rate if treated, but can severely incapacitate. The disease is caused by the Francisella tularensis bacterium, and can be contracted through contact with the , inhalation, ingestion of contaminated water or insect bites. Category B Category B agents are moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates. Brucellosis (Brucella species) CDC Brucellosis Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria of the genus Brucella. These bacteria are primarily passed among animals, and they cause disease in many different vertebrates. Various Brucella species affect sheep, goats, cattle, deer, elk, pigs, dogs, and several other animals. Humans become infected by coming in contact with animals or animal products that are contaminated with these bacteria. In humans brucellosis can cause a range of symptoms that are similar to the flu and may include fever, sweats, headaches, back pains, and physical weakness. Severe infections of the central nervous systems or lining of the heart may occur. Brucellosis can also cause long-lasting or chronic symptoms that include recurrent fevers, joint pain, and fatigue Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens Food safety threats (e.g., Salmonella species, E coli O157:H7, Shigella, Staph) Glanders CDC Glanders (Burkholderia mallei) Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei) CDC Melioidosis CDC Why has melioidosis become a current issue? Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci) Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) CDC Q Fever Ricin CDC Ricin toxin from Ricinus communis (castor beans) Staphylococcal enterotoxin B Typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii) Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses, e.g.: Venezuelan equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis) Water supply threats (e.g., Vibrio cholerae, WebMD.com Cholera Cryptosporidium parvum) Category C Category C agents are emerging pathogens that might be engineered for mass dissemination because availability, easy to produce and disseminate, or may posses high mortality or a major health impact. Planning and response Planning may involve the development of biological identification systems. Until recently in the United States, most biological defense strategies have been geared to protecting soldiers on the battlefield rather than ordinary people in cities. Financial cutbacks have limited the tracking of disease outbreaks. Some outbreaks, such as food poisoning due to E. coli or Salmonella, could be of either natural or deliberate origin. Preparedness Biological agents are relatively easy to obtain by terrorists and are becoming more threatening in the U.S., and laboratories are working on advanced detection systems to provide early warning, identify contaminated areas and populations at risk, and to facilitate prompt treatment. Methods for predicting the use of biological agents in urban areas as well as assessing the area for the hazards associated with a biological attack are being established in major cities. In addition, forensic technologies are working on identifying biological agents, their geographical origins and/or their initial son. forts include decontamination technologies to restore facilities without causing additional environmental concerns. Early detection and rapid response to bioterrorism depend on close cooperation between public health authorities and law enforcement; however, such cooperation is currently lacking. National detection assets and vaccine stockpiles are not useful if local and state officials do not have access to them. Biosurveillance In 1999, the University of Pittsburgh's Center for Biomedical Informatics deployed the first automated bioterrorism detection system, called RODS (Real-Time Outbreak Disease Surveillance). RODS is designed to draw collect data from many data sources and use them to perform signal detection, that is, to detect the a possible bioterrorism event at the earliest possible moment. RODS, and other systems like it, collect data from sources including clinic data, laboratory data, and data from over-the-counter drug sales. In 2000, Michael Wagner, the codirector of the RODS laboratory, and Ron Aryel, a subcontractor, conceived of the idea of obtaining live data feeds from "non-traditional" (non-health-care) data sources. The RODS laboratory's first efforts eventually led to the establishment of the National Retail Data Monitor, a system which collects data from 20,000 retail locations nation-wide. On February 5, 2002, George W. Bush visited the RODS laboratory and used it as a model for a $300 million spending proposal to equip all 50 states with biosurveillance systems. In a speech delivered at the nearby Masonic temple, Bush compared the RODS system to a modern "DEW" line (referring to the Cold War ballistic missile early warning system). The principles and practices of biosurveillance, a new interdisciplinary science, were defined and described in the Handbook of Biosurveillance, edited by Michael Wagner, Andrew Moore and Ron Aryel, and published in 2006. Biosurveillance is the science of real-time disease outbreak detection. Its principles apply to both natural and man-made epidemics (bioterrorism). Data which potentially could assist in early detection of a bioterrorism event include many categories of information. Health-related data such as that from hospital computer systems, clinical laboratories, electronic health record systems, medical examiner record-keeping systems, 911 call center computers, and veterinary medical record systems could be of help; researchers are also considering the utility of data generated by ranching and feedlot operations, food processors, drinking water systems, school attendance recording, and physiologic monitors, among others. Intuitively, one would expect systems which collect more than one type of data to be more useful than systems which collect only one type of information (such as single-purpose laboratory or 911 call-center based systems), and be less prone to false alarms, and this appears to be the case. In Europe, disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. The system not only monitors infected persons, but attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak. Researchers are experimenting with devices to detect the existence of a threat: Tiny electronic chips that would contain living nerve cells to warn of the presence of bacterial toxins (identification of broad range toxins) Fiber-optic tubes lined with antibodies coupled to light-emitting molecules (identification of specific pathogens, such as anthrax, botulinum, ricin) New research shows that ultraviolet avalanche photodiodes offer the high gain, reliability and robustness needed to detect anthrax and other bioterrorism agents in the air. The fabrication methods and device characteristics were described at the 50th Electronic Materials Conference in Santa Barbara on June 25, 2008. Details of the photodiodes were also published in the February 14, 2008 issue of the journal Electronics Letters and the November 2007 issue of the journal IEEE Photonics Technology Letters. Avalanche Photodiodes Target Bioterrorism Agents Newswise, Retrieved on June 25, 2008. Response to bioterrorism incident or threat Government agencies which would be called on to respond to a bioterrorism incident would include law enforcement, hazardous materials/decontamination units and emergency medical units. The US military has specialized units, which can respond to a bioterrorism event; among them are the US Marine Corp's Chemical Biological Incident Response Force and the US Army's 20th Support Command (CBRNE), which can detect, identify, and neutralize threats, and decontaminate victims exposed to bioterror agents. References Notes Bibliography External links Emerging Health Threats Forum EU Health Portal Information on EU activities related to bioterrorism United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention NOVA: Bioterror Pandemics and Bioterrorism: From Realistic Threats to Effective Policies

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Lake_Ladoga

Lake Ladoga (, Ladozhskoye Ozero; ) is a freshwater lake located in Republic of Karelia and Leningrad Oblast in northwestern Russia, not far from Saint Petersburg. It is the largest lake in Europe, and the 14th largest lake by area in the world. Geography Map of Lake Ladoga The lake's area is 17,891 km² (excluding the islands). Its length (north to south) is 219 km, average width is 83 km, average depth is 51 m, maximum depth is about 230 m (in the north-western part). Basin area: 276,000 km², volume: 837 km³ Sorokin, Aleksander I. et al. (1996). New morphometrical data of Lake Ladoga. Hydrobiologia 322.1-3, 65-67. (earlier estimated as 908 km³);. There are about 660 islands, with a total area of 435 km². Ladoga's level above the sea is 5 m on average. Калесник С.В. Ладожское озеро. Л.: Гидрометеоиздат, 1968. Most of the islands, including the famous Valaam archipelago, Kilpola and Konevets, are situated in the north-western part. Separated from the Baltic Sea by the Karelian Isthmus, it drains into the Gulf of Finland via the Neva River. Lake Ladoga is navigable, being a part of the Volga-Baltic Waterway connecting the Baltic Sea with the Volga River. The Ladoga Canal bypasses the lake in the southern part, connecting the Neva to the Svir. The basin of Lake Ladoga includes about 50,000 lakes and 3,500 rivers longer than 10 km. About 85% of the water income is due to tributaries, 13% is due to precipitation, and 2% is due to underground waters. Tributaries (incomplete list) Svir River from Lake Onega (south-east, discharge: 790 m³/s); Volkhov River from Lake Ilmen (south, discharge: 580 m³/s); Vuoksi River (and Burnaya River) from Lake Saimaa in Finland (west, discharge: 540 m³/s). Syas River (south, discharge: 53 m³/s). Olonka River from Lake Utozero Geological history Ancylus Lake around 7 000 BC. Deglaciation following the Weichsel glaciation took place in the Lake Ladoga basin between 12,500 and 11,500 radiocarbon years BP. Lake Ladoga was initially part of the Baltic Ice Lake (70-80 m. above present sea-level), a historical freshwater stage of Baltic Sea. It is possible, though not certain, that Ladoga was isolated from it during regression of the subsequent Yoldia Sea brackish stage (10,200-9,500 BP). The isolation threshold should be at Heinjoki to the east of Vyborg, where the Baltic Sea and Ladoga were connected by a strait or a river outlet at least until the formation of the River Neva, and possibly even much later, until 12th century AD or so. Ailio, Julius (1915). Die geographische Entwicklung des Ladogasees in postglazialer Zeit. Bull. Comm. Géol. Finlande 45, 1 – 159. Davydova, Natalia N. et al. (1996). Late- and postglacial history of lakes of the Karelian Isthmus. Hydrobiologia 322.1-3, 199-204. At 9,500 BP, Lake Onega, previously draining into the White Sea, started emptying into Ladoga via the River Svir. Between 9,500 and 9,100 BP, during the transgression of Ancylus Lake, the next freshwater stage of the Baltic, Ladoga certainly became part of it, even if they hadn't been connected immediately before. During the Ancylus Lake subsequent regression, around 8,800 BP Ladoga became isolated. Ladoga slowly transgressed in its southern part due to uplift of the Baltic Shield in the north. It was hypothesized, but not proven, that waters of the Litorina Sea, the next brackish-water stage of the Baltic, occasionally invaded Ladoga between 7,000 and 5,000 BP. Around 5,000 BP the waters of the Saimaa Lake penetrated Salpausselkä and formed a new outlet, River Vuoksi, entering Lake Ladoga in the northwestern corner and raising its level by 1-2 m. Saarnisto, Matti (1970). The Late Weichselian and Flandrian history of the Saimaa Lake complex. Societas Scientiarium Fennicae. Commentationes Physico-Mathematicae 37. The River Neva originated when the Ladoga waters at last broke through the threshold at Porogi into the lower portions of Izhora River, then a tributary of the Gulf of Finland, between 4,000 and 2,000 BP. According to some new data, it happened at 3,100 radiocarbon years BP (3,410-3,250 calendar years BP). Saarnisto, Matti & Tuulikki Grönlund (1996). Shoreline displacement of Lake Ladoga - new data from Kilpolansaari. Hydrobiologia 322.1-3, 205-215. Wildlife Valaam Archipelago The Ladoga is rich with fish. 48 forms (species and infraspecific taxa) of fish have been encountered in the lake, including roach, carp bream, zander, European perch, ruffe, endemic variety of smelt, two varieties of Coregonus albula (vendace), eight varieties of Coregonus lavaretus, a number of other Salmonidae as well as, albeit rarely, endangered European sea sturgeon. Commercial fishing was once a major industry but has been hurt by overfishing. After the war, between 1945 – 1954, the total annual catch increased and reached a maximum of 4,900 tonnes. However, unbalanced fishery led to the drastic decrease of catch in 1955 – 1963, sometimes to 1,600 tonnes per year. Trawling has been forbidden in Lake Ladoga since 1956 and some other restrictions were imposed. The situation gradually recovered, and in 1971-1990 the catch ranged between 4,900 and 6,900 tonnes per year, about the same level as the total catch in 1938. Kudersky, Leonid K. et al. (1996). Fishery of Lake Ladoga — past, present and future. Hydrobiologia 322.1-3, 57-64. Fish farms and recreational fishing are developing. It has its own endemic Ringed Seal subspecies known as the Ladoga Seal. Since the beginning of the 1960s Ladoga has become considerably eutrophicated. Holopainen, Anna-Liisa et al. (1996) The trophic state of Lake Ladoga as indicated by late summer phytoplankton. Hydrobiologia 322.1-3, 9-16. Nizhnesvirsky Natural Reserve is situated along the shore of Lake Ladoga immediately to the north of the mouth of the River Svir. History Konevets Island In the Middle Ages, the lake formed a vital part of the Trade Route from the Varangians to the Greeks, with the Norse emporium at Staraya Ladoga defending the mouth of the Volkhov since the 8th century. In the course of the Swedish-Novgorodian Wars, the area was disputed between the Novgorod Republic and Sweden. In the early 14th century, the fortresses of Korela (Kexholm) and Oreshek (Nöteborg) were established along the banks of the lake. The ancient Valaam Monastery was founded on the island of Valaam, the largest in Lake Ladoga, abandoned between 1611 – 1715, magnificently restored in the 18th century, and evacuated to Finland during the Winter War in 1940. In 1989 the monastic activities in the Valaam were resumed. Other historic cloisters in the vicinity are the Konevets Monastery, which sits on the Konevets island, and the Alexander-Svirsky Monastery, which preserves fine samples of medieval Muscovite architecture. During the Ingrian War, a fraction of the Ladoga coast was occupied by Sweden. In 1617, by the Treaty of Stolbovo, the northern and western coast was ceded by Russia to Sweden. In 1721, after the Great Northern War, it was restituted to Russia by the Treaty of Nystad. Later, in 1812 – 1940 the lake was shared between Finland and Russia. According to the conditions of the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty militarization of the lake was severely restricted. However, both Soviet Russia and Finland had flotillas in Ladoga (see also Finnish Ladoga Naval Detachment). After the Winter War (1939-1940) according to the Moscow Peace Treaty, Ladoga, previously shared with Finland, became an internal basin of the Soviet Union. Superior mirage on Lake Ladoga During the Continuation War (1941-1944) not only Finnish and Soviet, but also German and Italian (see also Naval Detachment K and Regia Marina#Lake Ladoga) vessels operated there. Under these circumstances, during much of the Siege of Leningrad (1941 – 1944), Lake Ladoga provided the only access to the besieged city because a section of the eastern shore remained in Soviet hands. Supplies were transported into Leningrad with trucks on winter roads over the ice, the "Road of Life", and by boat in the summer. After World War II, Finland lost the Karelia region to the USSR, and all Finnish citizens were evacuated from the ceded territory. Ladoga became an internal Soviet basin. The northern shore, Ladoga Karelia with the town of Sortavala, is now part of the Republic of Karelia. The western shore, Karelian Isthmus, became part of Leningrad Oblast. Towns upon the Ladoga Oreshek Fortress on Ladoga shore in Shlisselburg Shlisselburg (at ) Novaya Ladoga (at ) Syasstroy (at ) Pitkyaranta (at ) Sortavala (at ) Lakhdenpokhya (at ) Priozersk (at ) References External links Simola, Heikki et al. (eds), Proceeding of The First International Lake Ladoga Symposium. Special issue of Hydrobiologia. Vol. 322, Issues 1-3. / April 1996. Ladoga Lake (photos) War on Lake Ladoga, 1941-1944 Maps

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Harp

A harp is a stringed instrument which has the plane of its strings positioned perpendicular to the soundboard. As many other non-percussion instruments, it can also be used as a percussion instrument. "Harp percussion tips". All harps have a neck, resonator and strings. Some, known as frame harps, also have a forepillar; those lacking the forepillar are referred to as open harps. Depending on its size (which varies considerably), a harp may be played while held in the lap or while stood on the floor. Harp strings can be made of nylon (sometimes wound around copper), gut (more commonly used than nylon), wire, or silk. A person who plays the harp is called a harpist or a harper. Folk and Celtic musicians often use the term "harper," whereas classical/pedal musicians use "harpist." Various types of harps are found in Africa, Europe, North, and South America, and a few parts of Asia. In antiquity harps and the closely related lyres were very prominent in nearly all musical cultures, but they lost popularity in the early 19th century with Western music composers, being thought of primarily as a woman's instrument after Marie Antoinette popularised it as an activity for women. The aeolian harp (wind harp), the autoharp, and all forms of the lyre and Kithara are not harps because their strings are not perpendicular to the soundboard; they are part of the zither family of instruments along with the piano and harpsichord. In blues music, the Harmonica is called a "Blues harp" or "harp", but it is a free reed wind instrument, not a stringed instrument. Origins An ancient Egyptian harp on display in the British Museum. Harps were most likely independently invented in many parts of the world in remote prehistory. It is often said that the harp's origins may lie in the sound of a plucked hunter's bow string; the converse is considered possible. A type of harp called a 'bow harp' is nothing more than a bow like a hunter's, with a resonating vessel such as a gourd fixed somewhere along its length. To allow a greater number of strings, harps were later made from two pieces of wood attached at the ends: this type is known as the 'angle harp'. The oldest depictions of harps without a forepillar are from 4000 BC in Egypt(see Music of Egypt) and 3000 BCE in Persia (see Music of Iran). While most English translations of the Bible feature the word 'harp', especially in connection with King David, the Hebrew word is nevel, a type of lyre with 10 strings and not a harp at all. The kanun is a descendant of the ancient Egyptian harp and was introduced to Europe by the Moors during the Middle Ages. Structure and mechanism Harps are roughly triangular and are usually made primarily of wood. The lower ends of the strings are fastened to the side closest to the player. This side is hollow and acts as a resonating chamber, much like the body of a violin. The crossbar, or neck, contains the instant-tuning mechanism to which the upper ends of the strings are attached. The longest side, the shaft, encloses the rods controlling the tuning devices. At the base are seven pedals, which activate the rods. The modern sophisticated instrument—spanning 6½ octaves in all keys—was perfected by the 19th-century French maker Sébastien Érard. Development and history in Europe A medieval European harp (the Wartburg harp) with buzzing bray pins. Angle harps and bow harps continue to be used up to the present day. In Europe however a further development took place: adding a third structural member, the pillar, to support the far ends of the arch and sound box. The 'Triangular Frame harp' is depicted in manuscripts and sculpture from about the 8th century CE, especially in North-West Europe, though specific nationalistic claims to the invention of the triangular frame harp cannot be substantiated. European harps in medieval and Renaissance times usually had a bray pin fitted to make a buzzing sound when a string was plucked. By the baroque period in Italy and Spain more strings were added to allow for chromatic notes; these were usually in a second line of strings. At the same time single-row diatonic harps continued to be played. In Germany in the second half of the 17th century, diatonic single-row harps were fitted with manually-turned hooks which fretted individual strings to raise their pitch by a half step. In the 1700s, a link mechanism was developed connecting these hooks with pedals, leading to the invention of the single-action pedal harp. Later, a second row of hooks was installed along the neck to allow for the double-action pedal harp, capable of raising the pitch of a string by either one or two half steps. The idea was even extended to triple-action harps but these were never common. The double-action pedal harp remains the normal form of the instrument in the Western classical orchestra. South America In South America, there are Mexican, Andean, Venezuelan, and Paraguayan harps. They are derived from the Baroque harps that were brought from Spain during the colonial period. They have a wide and deep soundbox which tapers to the top. Like Baroque harps but unlike modern Western harps they do not stand upright when unattended. The Paraguayan harp, Paraguay's national instrument, is the most popular in South America. It has about 36 strings. Its spacing is narrower and tension lighter than that of modern Western harps. It is played mostly with the fingernails. Africa There are many different kinds of harp in Africa. They do not have forepillars and so are either bow harps or angle harps. As well as true harps such as Mauritania's ardin, there are a number of instruments that are difficult to classify, often being labelled harp-lutes. Another term for them is spike harps. The West African kora is the best known. The strings run from a string arm to a 'spike' and the resonating chamber is attached to the base of the spike. Asia Sassanid mosaic excavated at Bishapur depicting player and a harp. Artifact is kept at The Louvre. In Asia, there are very few harps today, though the instrument was popular in ancient times; in that continent, zithers such as China's guzheng and guqin and Japan's koto predominate. However, a few harps exist, the most notable being Burma's saung-gauk, which is considered the national instrument in that country. There was an ancient Chinese harp called konghou; the name is used for a modern Chinese instrument which is being revived. Turkey had a harp called the çeng that has also fallen out of use. They have 9 strings Modern European and American instruments Playing style of the European-derived instrument Most European-derived harps have a single row of strings with strings for each note of the C Major scale (over several octaves). Harpists can tell which strings they are playing because all F strings are black or blue and all C strings are red or orange. The instrument rests between the knees of the harpist and along their right shoulder. The Welsh triple harp and early Irish and Scottish harps, however, are traditionally placed on the left shoulder (in order to have it over the heart). The first four fingers of each hand are used to pluck the strings; the little fingers are too short and cannot reach the correct position without distorting the position of the other fingers, although on some folk harps with light tension, closely spaced strings, they may occasionally be used. Also, the little finger is not strong enough to pluck a string. Plucking with varying degrees of force creates dynamics. Depending on finger position, different tones can be produced: a fleshy pluck (near the middle of the first finger joint) will make a warm tone, while a pluck near the end of the finger will make a loud, bright sound. Concert harp The concert harp is large and technically modern, designed for classical music and played solo, as part of chamber ensembles, and in symphony orchestras. It typically has six and a half octaves (46 or 47 strings), weighs about 80lb (36 kg), is approximately 1.8 m (6 ft) high, has a depth of 1.2 m (4 ft), and is 55 cm (21.5 in) wide at the bass end of the soundboard. The notes range from three octaves below middle C (or the D above) to three and a half octaves above, usually ending on G. Using octave designations, the range is C1 or D1 to G7. A string shown in blue, Points in contact with the string are shown in red. Points not in contact with the string are in green. The concert harp is a pedal harp. Pedal harps use the mechanical action of pedals to change the pitches of the strings. There are seven pedals, each affecting the tuning of all strings of one letter-name, and each pedal is attached to a rod or cable within the column of the harp, which then connects with a mechanism within the neck. When a pedal is moved with the foot, small discs at the top of the harp rotate. The discs are studded with two pegs that pinch the string as they turn, shortening the vibrating length of the string. The pedal has three positions. In the top position no pegs are in contact with the string and all notes are flat; thus the harp's native tuning is to the scale of C-flat major. Double chromatic harp, ca. 1890 In the middle position the top wheel pinches the string, resulting in a natural, giving the scale of C major if all pedals are set in the middle position. In the bottom position another wheel is turned, shortening the string again to create a sharp, giving the scale of C-sharp major if all pedals are set in the bottom position. Many other scales, both diatonic and synthetic, can be obtained by adjusting the pedals differently from each other; also, many chords in traditional harmony can be obtained by adjusting pedals so that some notes are enharmonic equivalents of others, and this is central to harp technique. In each position the pedal can be secured in a notch so that the foot does not have to keep holding it in the correct position. This mechanism is called the double-action pedal system, invented by Sébastien Érard in 1810. Earlier pedal harps had a single-action mechanism that allowed strings to play sharpened notes. Lyon and Healy, Camac Harps, Venus Harps, and other manufacturers also make electric pedal harps. The electric harp is a concert harp with piezoelectric pickups at the base of each string and an amplifier. Electric harps can be a blend of electric and acoustic, with the option of using an amplifier or playing the harp just like a normal pedal harp, or can be entirely electric, lacking a soundbox and being mute without an amplifier. The tension of the strings on the sound board is roughly equal to 10 kN (a ton-force). The lowest strings are made of copper or steel-wound nylon, the middle strings of gut and the highest of nylon. This is not to say that strings in the higher register are not produced in gut or that middle strings are not produced in nylon. The middle gut string and high nylon string setting is mainly because gut strings usually carry a higher price than nylon strings; they also fray and break more frequently than nylon strings. Gut strings produce fuller sounds than nylon strings do, whereas nylon strings produce a brighter, more sparkling tone, particularly in the highest register. The strings in the higher register are thinner and break more frequently. In the case of a broken string, replacing it with the same type (gut or nylon) is recommended, for a change in the type can be noticeable. For example, in a sequence of strings such as gut-gut-nylon-gut-gut, the nylon string's sound may stand out from the gut strings' sounds. Also, changing the string's type makes it necessary to "regulate" the action, changing the degree of force with which the pins of that string's disc press against it. Otherwise the string will be out of tune when set to natural or sharp. Technique Harp playing uses all of the fingers except for the little finger, which is generally too short and weak to effectively pluck a string. Most types of harp only require use of the hands, with the exception of the pedal (concert) harp, in which the feet are also used to operate foot pedals. The Salzedo method, developed by Carlos Salzedo, uses expressive gestures, and the performer keeps his or her elbows parallel to the ground. The French method advocated by Marcel Grandjany does not use expressive gestures; the elbows are held at an angle, and the wrists may occasionally rest upon the soundboard. In both methods, the shoulders, neck, and back are relaxed. On the wire-strung clarsach, a "thumb under" technique is also used. Baroque harp, as in other Baroque instrumental techniques, uses strong and weak articulation. The player only uses three fingers of each hand, and the thumb moves under the other fingers, rather than being held very high as in modern harp technique. The thumb and third fingers are "strong" fingers and the second finger is a "weak" finger. Scales are fingered with alternating strong and weak fingers—that is, a scale fingering could be either 1 2 1 2 1 2 or 3 2 3 2 3 2. In contrast, classical harp technique uses a fingering of 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 going up and 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 going down. Another approach to "thumb under" technique as described above is to place the thumb so that it passes over the second finger, rather than under it. There is equal evidence for both thumb over and thumb under playing techniques on historical harps. In this second approach it is important to note that the fingers are placed on the strings halfway up the string from the soundboard. This may be as little as 5-8 inches on very lightly strung harps. If you begin by making a circle with your thumb and second finger, placing both the thumb and the second finger on the same string, open your thumb and place your thumb on the string above, also placing the third (and fourth – if you choose to use it) on the neighboring strings below the second finger. The fingertips placed on the strings should loosely form a straight line parallel to the soundboard of the harp. Use in music The harp is used sparingly in ballad (music), and most classical music, usually for special effects such as the glissando, arpeggios, and bisbigliando. Orchestral harp parts are often clumsily written and harpists adapt them as a matter of course, making them radically easier to play without perceptible musical loss. Harps were commonly used in American pop music hits of the 1970s. Italian and German opera uses harp for romantic arias and dances; an example of which is Musetta's Waltz from La bohème. Composers such as Elias Parish Alvars, Louis Spohr, Jan Ladislav Dussek, and Jean-Baptiste Krumpholz composed many solo and chamber pieces for the harp, while more well known in the standard repertoire are Handel's Harp Concerto in B flat and Mozart's Concerto for Flute and Harp, K. 299. In the 19th century, the French composer and harpist Nicolas-Charles Bochsa composed hundreds of pieces of all kinds (opera transcriptions, chamber music, concertos, operas, harp methods). Prominent 20th century French composers such as Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel incorporated the harp into many of their chamber and orchestral works. Henriette Renié and Marcel Grandjany have composed many lesser-known solo pieces and chamber music. Modern composers utilize the harp frequently, but while the pedals on a concert harp allow many sorts of non-diatonic scales and strange accidentals to be played, some modern pieces call for impractical pedal manipulations. Many passages for solo harp can be found in 19th century ballet music, particularly in scores for the ballets staged for the Mariinsky Theatre of St. Petersburg, where the renowned harpist Albert Zabel played in the orchestra. In ballet, the harp was utilized to a great extent in order to embellish the dancing of the ballerina. Elaborate cadenzas written especially for Zabel's talents were composed by Tchaikovsky for his ballets The Nutcracker and The Sleeping Beauty; as well as Alexander Glazunov for his score for the ballet Raymonda, which contains the variation titled Une fantaisie (a.k.a. Prélude et variations) which many modern conservatories utilize for the application and audition process. In particular, the scores of Riccardo Drigo contained many pieces for harp in such works as Le Talisman (1889), Le Réveil de Flore (1894) and Les Millions d'Arlequin(1900). Cesare Pugni wrote extensively for the harp as well—his ballet Éoline, ou La Dryade included music written for harp to accompany the ballerina's numerous variations and enhance the atmosphere of the ballet's many fantastical scenes. Ludwig Minkus was celebrated for his harp cadenzas, most notably the Variation de la Reine du jour from his ballet La Nuit et le Jour (1881), the elaborate entr'acte composed for Albert Zabel from his ballet Roxana (1878), and numerous passages found in his score for the ballet La Bayadère, which in some passages were used to represent a veena which was used on stage as a prop. There is a prominent harp part in "She's Leaving Home" by The Beatles in their 1967 album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. In the 1970s, a harp was common in popular music, and can be heard in such hits as Cher's Dark Lady and the intro of Gypsies, Tramps, and Thieves. Most often this was played by Los Angeles studio harpist Gayle Levant, who has played on hundreds of recordings. In current pop music, the harp appears relatively rarely. Joanna Newsom, Dee Carstensen, Darian Scatton, Habiba Doorenbos, Jessa Callen of The Callen Sisters and Oona McOuat have separately established images as harp-playing singer-songwriters with signature harp and vocal sounds. Canadian singer-songwriter Sarah McLachlan plays the harp in her 2006 holiday album, Wintersong. In Hong Kong, a notable example of harp in pop music is the song Tin Shui Walled City (天水圍城) performed by Hacken Lee with harp played by Korean harpist Jung Kwak (Harpist K). A pedal harpist, Ricky Rasura, is a member of the "symphonic pop" band, The Polyphonic Spree. Also, Björk sometimes features acoustic and electric harp in her work, often played by Zeena Parkins. Philadelphia based Indie Pop Band Br'er uses a pedal harp as the foundation for their cinematic live sets. Art in America was the first known rock band featuring a pedal harp to appear on a major record label, and released only one record, in 1983. The pedal harp was also present in the Michael Kamen and Metallica concert and album, S&M, as part of the San Francisco Symphony orchestra. R&B singer Maxwell featured harpist Gloria Agostini in 1997 on his cover of Kate Bush's "This Woman's Work". On his 7th solo album Finding Forever, Hip- Hop artist Common features harpist Brandee Younger on the introductory track, followed by a Dorothy Ashby sample from her 1969 recording of The Windmills of Your Mind. Some Celtic-pop crossover bands and artists such as Clannad and Loreena McKennitt include folk harps, following Alan Stivell's work. See the List of compositions for harp for the names of some notable pieces from the classical repertoire. Harp Players Alan Stivell is a well-known crossover and Celtic harpist. He first recorded an EP record, "Musique Gaélique," in 1959, then an LP in 1964 called "Telenn Geltiek " (available in CD). Following these, he has released 21 other albums including his harps, from 1970 until now (the last one is "Explore" - 2006- ). He also recorded some albums especially dedicated to the harp: the famous "Renaissance of the Celtic Harp" (1972), "Harpes du Nouvel Age" (1985), and "Beyond Words" (2002). He helped to promote developments in Electro-acoustic and Electric harps. Harpists active in jazz, free improvisation, folk music, world music, or "Celtic dream" music, include: Harpist Joanna Newsom onstage in 2007 Dorothy Ashby Cormac De Barra (Ireland) Moya Brennan (Ireland) Edmar Castañeda Máire Ní Chathasaigh (Ireland) Pearl Chertok Alice Coltrane Cécile Corbel Toumani Diabate Órla Fallon Anne-Marie O'Farrell (Ireland) Gráinne Hambly (Ireland) Deborah Henson-Conant (USA) Alison Kinnaird (Scotland) Jung Kwak (South Korea) Corrina Hewat (Scotland) Laoise Kelly (Ireland) Anne LeBaron Mary Macmaster (Scotland) Catriona McKay (Scotland) Loreena McKennitt (Canada) Oona McOuat Joanna Newsom Rüdiger Oppermanm (Germany) Alfredo Rolando Ortiz (USA) Zeena Parkins Anna-Maria Ravnopolska-Dean (Bulgaria) Floraleda Sacchi Patsy Seddon (Scotland) Alan Stivell (France) Anne van Schothorst Andreas Vollenweider Brandee Younger Hellawes (Russia) Concert Harpists Ann Hobson Pilot Sarah Bullen Nancy Allen Eleanor Fell Susann McDonald Yolanda Kondonassis Ellie Choate Sarah Fuller Julie Spring Elizabeth Hainen Sara Chassé Folk, lever, and Celtic instruments Singersongwriter / Harpist / Storyteller Oona McOuat plays her Dusty Strings Celtic Harp at the Apple Festival on Salt Spring Island, BC New Salem Village re-enactors playing Celtic harps The folk harp or Celtic harp is small to medium-sized and usually designed for traditional music; it can be played solo or with small groups. It is prominent in Welsh, Breton, Irish, Scottish and other Celtic cultures within traditional or folk music and as a social and political symbol. Often the folk harp is played by beginners who wish to move on to the pedal harp at a later stage, or by musicians who simply prefer the smaller size or different sounds. Alan Stivell, with his father Jord Cochevelou (who recreate the Breton Celtic harp), were at the origin of the revival of the Celtic harp (in the 50s). The folk or lever harp ranges in size from two octaves to six octaves, and uses levers or blades to change pitch. The most common size has 34 strings: Two octaves below middle C and two and a half above (ending on A), although folk or lever harps can usually be found with anywhere from 19 to 40 strings. The strings are generally made of nylon, gut, carbon fiber or flourocarbon, or wrapped metal, and are plucked with the fingers using a similar technique to the pedal harp. Folk harps with levers installed have a lever close to the top of each string; when it is engaged, it shortens the string so its pitch is raised a semitone, resulting in a sharped note if the string was a natural, or a natural note if the string was a flat. Lever harps are often tuned to the key of E-flat. Using this scheme, the major keys of E-flat, B-flat, F, C, G, D, A, and E can be reached by changing lever positions, rather than re-tuning any strings. Many smaller folk harps are tuned in C or F, and may have no levers, or levers on the F and C strings only, allowing a narrower range of keys. Blades and hooks perform almost the same function as levers, but use a different mechanism. The most common type of lever is either the Camac or Truitt lever although Loveland levers are still used by some makers. One of the attendant problems with lever harps is the potential loss of quality when the levers are used. The Teifi semi tone developed by Allan Shiers is a development from traditional mechanisms and nips up the string with two forks similarly to a concert harp. The semi tone is double locking for a full clear sound and does not wear the string. It is machined from solid brass and hardened steel and is adjustable by an eccentric roller to suit any gauge of string. In addition, the whole unit can be moved up or down to affect perfect pitch and string alignment. The lever arms are coloured for ease of note recognition and two sizes are made to suit treble, mid and bass. Electric instruments Amplified (electro-acoustic) and solid body electric lever harps are produced by some harpmakers such as Camac Harps The Laser harp is also not a stringed instrument; it is a harp-shaped electronic instrument with laser beams where harps have strings. Wire-strung instruments (clàrsach or cláirseach) The harper on the Monifeith Pictish stone, Scotland, 700 - 900 AD Maedoc book-cover, Ireland, circa 1000 AD [[Image:Celtic harp dsc05425.jpg|thumb|170px|The Scottish medieval clàrsach 'Queen Mary harp' 'Clàrsach na Banrigh Màiri, (c.1400) Caldwell, D.H. (ed). Angels Nobles and Unicorns: Art and Patronage in Medieval Scotland. Edinburgh: NMS, 1982 now in the Museum of Scotland, is a one of only three surviving medieval Gaelic harps.]] The Gaelic triangular, wire-strung harp has always been known by the feminine term cruit but by 1204 was certainly known by the masculine term 'clàr' (board) and, by the 14th century, by the feminine form of 'clàr', ie, 'clàirseach/clàrsach'. (Gd.) Clàirseach/clàrsach is a compound word, feminine in gender and composed of the masculine word 'clàr' (board/harp) and the feminising suffix '-seach/-sach'. The suggestion that it is composed of the elements 'clàr' (board) and 'shoileach' (willow) is a much less likely explanation as i) the 'clàr shoileach' term is masculine in gender, taking the masculine form of the definite article, and ii) the /s/ phoneme is absent (replaced by an /h/ phoneme) and therefore the /l/ phoneme would be more likely to form part of any contraction (eg, clàirleach). The origins of the Gaelic triangular harp go back at least to the first millennium. There are several stone carvings of triangular harps from the 10th century, many of which have simple triangular shapes, generally with straight pillars, straight string arms or necks, and soundboxes. There is stone carving evidence that the lyre and/or perhaps a non-triangular harp were present in Ireland during the first millennium. Evidence for the triangular harp in Gaelic/Pictish Scotland dates from the 9th century. "The Origins of the Clairsach or Irish Harp", Musical Times, Vol. 53, No 828 (Feb 1912), pp 89-92. The harp was the most popular musical instrument in later medieval Scotland and Ireland and Gaelic poets portrayed their Pictish counterparts as very much like themselves. Forsyth, "Evidence of a lost Pictish Source", pp. 27–28. —Gerald of Wales Gerald of Wales, "Topographia Hibernica", 94; tr. John O’ Meary, The History and Topography of Ireland, (London, 1982). The harp played by the Gaels of Scotland and Ireland between the 11th and 19th centuries was certainly wire-strung. The Irish Maedoc Book Shrine dates from the 11th century, and clearly shows a harper with a triangular framed harp including a "T-Section" in the pillar. The Irish word lamhchrann came into use at an unknown date to indicate this pillar which would have supplied the bracing to withstand the tension of a wire-strung harp. The Irish and Highland Harps by Robert Bruce Armstrong is an excellent book describing these ancient harps. There is historical evidence that the types of wire used in these harps are iron, brass, silver, and gold. Three pre-16th century examples survive today; the Brian Boru harp in Trinity College, Dublin, and the Queen Mary and Lamont Harps, both in Scotland. One of the largest and most complete collections of 17th century harp music is the work of Turlough O'Carolan, a blind, itinerant Irish harper and composer. At least 220 of his compositions survive to this day. Since the 1970s, the tradition has been revived. Alan Stivell's "Renaissance de la harpe celtique" (perhaps the best-seller harp album in the world), using mainly the bronze strung harp, and his tours, have brought the instrument into the ears and the love of many people. Ann Heymann has revived the ancient tradition and technique by playing the instrument as well as studying Bunting's original manuscripts in the library of Queens University, Belfast. Katie Targett-Adams ( KT-A) is currently leading the modern day crossover movement for the clarsach, performing to mainstream audiences across the globe, notably China. Other high profile players include Patrick Ball, Cynthia Cathcart, Alison Kinnaird, Bill Taylor, Siobhán Armstrong and others. As performers have become interested in the instrument, harp makers ("luthiers") such as Jay Witcher, David Kortier, Ardival Harps, Joël Herrou and others have begun building wire-strung harps. The traditional wire materials are used, however iron has been replaced by steel and the modern phosphor bronze has been added to the list. The phosphor bronze and brass are most commonly used. Steel tends to be very abrasive to the nails. Silver and gold are used to get high density materials into the bass courses of high quality clàrsachs to greatly improve their tone quality. In the period, no sharping devices were used. Harpers had to re-tune strings to change keys. This practice is reflected by most of the modern luthiers, yet some allow provisions for either levers or blades. Multi-course A multi-course harp is a harp with more than one row of strings. A harp with only one row of strings is called a single-course harp. Double harp A double-strung harp consists of two rows of diatonic strings one on either side of the neck. These strings may run parallel to each other or may converge so the bottom ends of the strings are very close together. Either way, the strings that are next to each other are tuned to the same note. Double-strung harps often have levers either on every string or on the most commonly sharped strings, for example C and F. Having two sets of strings allows the harpist's left and right hands to occupy the same range of notes without having both hands attempt to play the same string at the same time. It also allows for special effects such as repeating a note very quickly without stopping the sound from the previous note. A triple harp features three rows of parallel strings, two outer rows of diatonic strings, and a center row of chromatic strings. To play a sharp, the harpist reaches in between the strings in either outer row and plucks the center row string. Like the double-strung harp, the two outer rows of strings are tuned the same, but the triple-strung harp has no levers. This harp originated in Italy in the 16th century as a low headed instrument, and towards the end of 1600s it arrived in Wales where it developed a high head and larger size. It established itself as part of Welsh tradition and became known as the Welsh harp (telyn deires, "three-row harp"). The traditional design has all of the strings strung from the left side of the neck, but modern neck designs have the two outer rows of strings strung from opposite sides of the neck to greatly reduce the tendency for the neck to roll over to the left. Cross-strung harp The cross-strung harp consists of one row of diatonically tuned strings and another row of chromatic notes. These strings cross approximately in the middle of the string without touching. Traditionally the diatonic row runs from the right (as seen by someone sitting at the harp) side of the neck to the left side of the sound board. The chromatic row runs from the left of the neck to the right of the sound board. The diatonic row has the normal string coloration for a harp, but the chromatic row may be black. The chromatic row is not a full set of strings. It is missing the strings between the Es and Fs in the diatonic row and between the Bs and Cs in the diatonic row. In this respect it is much like a piano. The diatonic row corresponds to the white keys and the chromatic row to the black keys. Playing each string in succession results in a complete chromatic scale. Harp makers Salvi - Italian harp makers Telynau Teifi Harps - Welsh maker of traditional Celtic & folk harps As a symbol Political The Irish €1 coin The harp has been used as a political symbol of Ireland for centuries. Its origin is from the time of Brian Boru, a famous 'High King' of the whole island of Ireland who played the harp. In Celtic society every clan would have a resident harp player who would write songs in honour of the leader. These were called Planxties. This evolved and would eventually be adapted as a symbol and representation of the Irish people, and under English occupation. It was used to symbolize Ireland in the Royal Standard of King James VI/I of Scotland, England and Ireland in 1603 and had continued to feature on all English, British and United Kingdom Royal Standards ever since, though the style of harp used differed on some Royal Standards. It was also used on the Commonwealth Jack of Oliver Cromwell, issued in 1649 and on the Protectorate Jack issued in 1658 as well as on the Lord Protector's Standard issued on the succession of Richard Cromwell in 1658. The harp is also traditionally used on the flag of Leinster. From 1922, the Irish Free State continued to use a similar harp, facing left, as its state symbol on the Great Seal of the Irish Free State, featuring it both on the coat of arms and on the Presidential Standard and Presidential Seal - as well as on various other official seals and documents. This was based on the Brian Boru harp in the Library of Trinity College Dublin, which was badly restored in the 1840s. Since it was fully rebuilt in 1961, it is seen to be wider at the base of the soundbox but this has gone unnoticed by Irish officials. Comerford R.V. Ireland (Arnold, London 2003) p265. The harp also appears on Irish coinage from the Middle Ages to the current Irish euro coins. A South Asian version of harp known in Tamil as 'yaal', is the symbol of City of Jaffna, Sri Lanka, whose legendary root originates from a harp player. Corporate The harp is also used extensively as a corporate logo — both private and government organisations. For instance; Ireland's most famous drink, Guinness, also uses a harp, facing right and also less detailed than the state arms. This was the second London-registered trademark in the 1860s, but was not used until the 1870s, when it was placed on bottles of stout exported to Britain, in the hope that British consumers would associate the drink with wholesome Irish agricultural produce. It was adopted on Guinness products in Ireland from the 1890s, for a different reason; to remind supporters of the growing nationalist movement that Guinness was Irish. Dennison & McDonagh Guinness 1886-1939 (London 1992) passim. A simplified harp was adopted in the 1990s. Relatively new organizations also use the harp, but often modified to reflect a theme relevant to their organization, for instance; Irish airline Ryanair uses a modified harp, somewhat in the form of an angel taking flight, and the Irish State Examinations Commission uses it with an educational theme. Other organizations in Ireland use the harp, but not always prominently; these include the National University of Ireland and the associated University College Dublin, and the Gaelic Athletic Association. In Northern Ireland the Police Service of Northern Ireland and Queen's University of Belfast use the harp as part of their identity. See also Harp guitar Lyre Kora Plucked string instruments Jaffna, a city in Northern Sri Lanka named after the Harp Related categories Harpists References Additional sources "The Anglo Saxon Harp", Spectrum, Vol. 71, No.2 (Apr., 1996), pp 290–320. "The Origins of the Clairsach or Irish Harp", Musical Times, Vol. 53, No 828 (Feb 1912), pp 89–92. Alasdair Ross discusses that all the Scottish harp figures were copied from foreign drawings and not from life, in "'Harps of Their Owne Sorte'? A Reassessment of Pictish Chordophone Depictions", Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies 36, Winter 1998.Snyder's Medieval Art, 2nd ed, p.32. Luttikhuizen and Verkerk. Courteau, Mona-Lynn. "Harp". In J. Shepherd, D. Horn, D. Laing, P. Oliver and P. Wicke (Eds.), The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World, Vol. 2, 2003, pp. 427–437. Rensch, Roslyn (2007/1989). Harps and Harpists'', revised (2nd) edition. Indiana University. ISBN 0-253-34903-6. External links Harp Spectrum - general information about the harp Video - short video showing the parts of the lever harp Your harpist - Information on harps full with diagram and parts labeled. the first International Harp Competition & Festival, the Netherlands will take place in Utrecht 23-27 of March 2010. Celtic harp earlygaelicharp.info - information about early Irish and Scottish harps Gaelic Modes Information about Gaelic harp harmony and modes Asni: harp lore - descriptions of several types of historical European harps (with sound samples) The Celtic Harp Page - information on Celtic and other types of harps My Harp's Delight - learning to play the Celtic harp, tips and techniques, buying a harp "Tears, Laughter, Magic" - An Interview with Master Celtic Harp Builder Timothy Habinski on AdventuresInMusic.biz, 2007 Celtic Harp Amplification Series - using microphones and guitar amplifiers with folk harps Markwood Strings-information on installing harp strings, harp string installation guide be-x-old:Арфа

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Electromagnetic_field

The electromagnetic field is a physical field produced by electrically charged objects. It affects the behavior of charged objects in the vicinity of the field. The electromagnetic field extends indefinitely throughout space and describes the electromagnetic interaction. It is one of the four fundamental forces of nature (the others are gravitation, the weak interaction, and the strong interaction). The field propagates by electromagnetic radiation; in order of increasing energy (decreasing wavelength) electromagnetic radiation comprises: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field is produced by stationary charges, and the magnetic field by moving charges (currents); these two are often described as the sources of the field. The way in which charges and currents interact with the electromagnetic field is described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law. From a classical perspective, the electromagnetic field can be regarded as a smooth, continuous field, propagated in a wavelike manner; whereas, from a quantum mechanical perspective, the field is seen as quantised, being composed of individual photons. Structure of the electromagnetic field The electromagnetic field may be viewed in two distinct ways. Continuous structure Classically, electric and magnetic fields are thought of as being produced by smooth motions of charged objects. For example, oscillating charges produce electric and magnetic fields that may be viewed in a 'smooth', continuous, wavelike manner. In this case, energy is viewed as being transferred continuously through the electromagnetic field between any two locations. For instance, the metal atoms in a radio transmitter appear to transfer energy continuously. This view is useful to a certain extent (radiation of low frequency), but problems are found at high frequencies (see ultraviolet catastrophe). This problem leads to another view. Discrete structure The electromagnetic field may be thought of in a more 'coarse' way. Experiments reveal that electromagnetic energy transfer is better described as being carried away in 'packets' or 'chunks' called photons with a fixed frequency. Planck's relation links the energy of a photon to its frequency through the equation: where is Planck's constant, named in honor of Max Planck, and is the frequency of the photon . For example, in the photoelectric effect —the emission of electrons from metallic surfaces subjected to electromagnetic radiation— it is found that increasing the intensity of the incident radiation has no effect, and that only the frequency of the radiation is relevant in ejecting electrons. This quantum picture of the electromagnetic field has proved very successful, giving rise to quantum electrodynamics, a quantum field theory describing the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with charged matter. Dynamics of the electromagnetic field In the past, electrically charged objects were thought to produce two types of field associated with their charge property. An electric field is produced when the charge is stationary with respect to an observer measuring the properties of the charge, and a magnetic field (as well as an electric field) is produced when the charge moves (creating an electric current) with respect to this observer. Over time, it was realized that the electric and magnetic fields are better thought of as two parts of a greater whole — the electromagnetic field. Once this electromagnetic field has been produced from a given charge distribution, other charged objects in this field will experience a force (in a similar way that planets experience a force in the gravitational field of the Sun). If these other charges and currents are comparable in size to the sources producing the above electromagnetic field, then a new net electromagnetic field will be produced. Thus, the electromagnetic field may be viewed as a dynamic entity that causes other charges and currents to move, and which is also affected by them. These interactions are described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law. The electromagnetic field as a feedback loop The behavior of the electromagnetic field can be resolved into four different parts of a loop: (1) the electric and magnetic fields are generated by electric charges, (2) the electric and magnetic fields interact only with each other, (3) the electric and magnetic fields produce forces on electric charges, (4) the electric charges move in space. The feedback loop can be summarized in a list, including phenomena belonging to each part of the loop: charges generate fields charges generate electric fields currents generate magnetic fields the fields interact with each other changing electric field acts like a current, generating 'vortex' of magnetic field Faraday induction: changing magnetic field induces (negative) vortex of electric field Lenz's law: negative feedback loop between electric and magnetic fields simplified version of electromagnetic fields act upon charges Lorentz force: force due to electromagnetic field electric force: same direction as electric field magnetic force: perpendicular both to magnetic field and to velocity of charge charges move current is movement of charges Phenomena in the list are marked with a star if they consist of magnetic fields and moving charges which can be reduced by suitable to electric fields and static charges. This means that the magnetic field ends up being (conceptually) reduced to an appendage of the electric field, something which interacts with reality only indirectly through the electric field. Mathematical description There are different mathematical ways of representing the electromagnetic field. The first one views the electric and magnetic fields as three-dimensional vector fields. These vector fields each have a value defined at every point of space and time and are thus often regarded as functions of the space and time coordinates. As such, they are often written as (electric field) and (magnetic field). If only the electric field () is non-zero, and is constant in time, the field is said to be an electrostatic field. Similarly, if only the magnetic field () is non-zero and is constant in time, the field is said to be a magnetostatic field. However, if either the electric or magnetic field has a time-dependence, then both fields must be considered together as a coupled electromagnetic field using Maxwell's equations Electromagnetic Fields (2nd Edition), Roald K. Wangsness, Wiley, 1986. ISBN 0-471-81186-6 (intermediate level textbook) . With the advent of special relativity, physical laws became susceptible to the formalism of tensors. Maxwell's equations can be written in tensor form, generally viewed by physicists as a more elegant means of expressing physical laws. The behaviour of electric and magnetic fields, whether in cases of electrostatics, magnetostatics, or electrodynamics (electromagnetic fields), is governed in a vacuum by Maxwell's equations. In the vector field formalism, these are: (Gauss' law) (Gauss' law for magnetism) (Faraday's law) (Ampère-Maxwell law) where is the charge density, which can (and often does) depend on time and position, is the permittivity of free space, is the permeability of free space, and is the current density vector, also a function of time and position. The units used above are the standard SI units. Inside a linear material, Maxwell's equations change by switching the permeability and permittivity of free space with the permeability and permittivity of the linear material in question. Inside other materials which possess more complex responses to electromagnetic fields, these terms are often represented by complex numbers, or tensors. The Lorentz force law governs the interaction of the electromagnetic field with charged matter. Properties of the field Reciprocal behavior of electric and magnetic fields The two Maxwell equations, Faraday's Law and the Ampère-Maxwell Law, illustrate a very practical feature of the electromagnetic field Faraday's Law may be stated roughly as 'a changing magnetic field creates an electric field'. This is the principle behind the electric generator. The Law roughly states that 'a changing electric field creates a magnetic field'. Thus, this law can be applied to generate a magnetic field and run an electric motor. Light as an electromagnetic disturbance Maxwell's equations take the form of an electromagnetic wave in an area that is very far away from any charges or currents (free space) - that is, where and are zero. It can be shown, that, under these conditions, the electric and magnetic fields satisfy the electromagnetic wave equation: James Clerk Maxwell was the first to obtain this relationship by his completion of Maxwell's equations with the addition of a displacement current term to Ampere's Circuital law. Relation to and comparison with other physical fields Being one of the four fundamental forces of nature, it is useful to compare the electromagnetic field with the gravitational, strong and weak fields. The word 'force' is sometimes replaced by 'interaction'. Electromagnetic and gravitational fields Sources of electromagnetic fields consist of two types of charge - positive and negative. This contrasts with the sources of the gravitational field, which are masses. Masses are sometimes described as gravitational charges, the important feature of them being that there is only one type (no negative masses), or, in more colloquial terms, 'gravity is always attractive'. The relative strengths and ranges of the four interactions and other information are tabulated below: Theory Interaction mediator Relative Magnitude Behavior Range Chromodynamics Strong interaction gluon 1038 1 10-15 m Electrodynamics Electromagnetic interaction photon 1036 1/r2 infinite Flavordynamics Weak interaction W and Z bosons 1025 1/r5 to 1/r7 10-16 m Geometrodynamics Gravitation graviton 100 1/r2 infinite Applications Properties of the electromagnetic field are exploited in many areas of industry. The use of electromagnetic radiation is seen in various disciplines. For example, X-rays are high frequency electromagnetic radiation and are used in radio astronomy, radiography in medicine and radiometry in telecommunications. Other medical applications include laser therapy, which is an example of photomedicine. Applications of lasers are found in military devices such as laser-guided bombs, as well as more down to earth devices such as barcode readers and CD players. Something as simple as a relay in any electrical device uses an electromagnetic field to engage or to disengage the two different states of output (ie, when electricity is not applied, the metal strip will connect output A and B, but if electricity is applied, an electromagnetic field will be created and the metal strip will connect output A and C). Health and safety The potential health effects of the very low frequency EMFs surrounding power lines and electrical devices are the subject of on-going research and a significant amount of public debate. In workplace environments, where EMF exposures can be up to 10,000 times greater than the average, the US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has issued some cautionary advisories but stresses that the data is currently too limited to draw good conclusions. The potential effects of electromagnetic fields on human health vary widely depending on the frequency and intensity of the fields. For more information on the health effects due to specific parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, see the following articles with details of possible dangers (MRI) and some currently unfounded fears (mobile phones): Static electric fields: see Electric shock Static magnetic fields: see MRI/Safety for one of the few applications in which magnetic fields are strong enough to have safety implications Extremely low frequency (ELF): see Power lines/health concerns Radio frequency (RF): see Electromagnetic radiation and health Light: see Laser safety Ultraviolet (UV): see Sunburn Gamma rays: see Gamma ray Mobile telephony: see Mobile phone radiation and health See also Afterglow plasma Antenna factor Classification of electromagnetic fields Electric field Electromagnetism Electromagnetic tensor Electromagnetic therapy Fundamental interaction Electromagnetic radiation Electromagnetic spectrum Gravitational field List of environment topics Magnetic field Maxwell's equations Photoelectric effect Photon Quantum electrodynamics Free space SI units References External links On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies by Albert Einstein, June 30, 1905. On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies (pdf) Non-Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields (2002) by the IARC. Report on the efficacy of electromagnetic screening for sports injuries National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - EMF Topic Page

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Alford_plea

In the law of the United States, an Alford plea is a plea in criminal court in which the defendant does not admit the act and asserts innocence, but admits that sufficient evidence exists with which the prosecution could likely convince a judge or jury to find the defendant guilty. Upon receiving an Alford plea from a defendant, the court may immediately pronounce the defendant guilty and impose sentence as if the defendant had otherwise been convicted of the crime. The Alford plea differs slightly from the nolo contendere ("no contest") plea. An Alford plea is simply a form of a guilty plea, and, as with other guilty pleas, the judge must see there is some factual basis for the plea. Therefore, a defendant's prior conviction via an Alford plea can be considered in future trials; and it will count as a "strike" if a three strikes law applies. On the other hand, a nolo contendere plea is in no way an admission of guilt, and it cannot be introduced in future trials as evidence of incorrigibility. However, courts do not have to accept a plea of nolo contendere, and this plea is not permitted in some states. The Alford plea originated in the United States Supreme Court case of North Carolina v. Alford (1970), 400 US 25. Under subsequent case law, an Alford plea generally has the same effect as a plea of guilty with respect to sentencing, and use of the conviction as an aggravating factor if the defendant is later convicted of another offense. The Alford plea has been used in connection with plea bargains, as in the case of Lee Boyd Malvo. Further reading

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Buddhist_cuisine

Buddhist cuisine is an East Asian cuisine which is followed by some believers of Buddhism. It is primarily vegetarian, in order to keep with the general Buddhist precept of ahimsa (non-violence). Vegetarian cuisine is known as zhāicài ("(Buddhist) vegetarian food") in China, Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan; shōjin ryōri ("devotion cuisine") in Japan; sachal eumsik ("temple food") in Korea and by other names in many countries. Buddhism and vegetarianism Buddhism, along with Jainism, recognizes that even eating vegetables could contribute to the indirect killing of living beings because animal life is destroyed by tilling the soil or the use of pesticides. Jainism consequently considers death by starvation as the ultimate practice of non-violence, while Buddhism considers extreme self-mortification to be undesirable for attaining enlightenment. Both Mahayana and Theravada thinking is that eating meat in and of itself does not constitute a violation of the Five Precepts which prohibit one from directly harming life. However, when monks and nuns who follow the Theravadan way feed themselves by alms, they must eat whatever leftover foods which are given to them, including meat. (The Pali/Sanskrit term for monks and nuns means one who seek alms.) The exception to this alms rule is when monks and nuns have seen, heard or known that animal(s) have been specifically killed to feed the alm seeker, in which case, consumption of such meat would be karmically negative. This is also followed by lay Buddhists; and is known as the consumption of the 'triply-clean meat' (三净肉). On the other hand, when lay communities specifically purchase meat for consumption of monks and nuns, the permissibility of meat eating differ among Buddhist sects. The Theravada Pali Canon records instances of Buddha eating meat which were specifically purchased for Buddha. This act was deliberately performed by the Buddha to demonstrate that if need be, a Buddhist can bend the rules in times of emergency or inconvenience. Obstinately observing vegetarianism or Buddhist rules in times when you cannot, conflicts with Mahayana philosophy because obstinacy or attachment for anything, is considered to be 'stubbornness' (执著) which will become an obstacle to nirvana or enlightenment. However even then, if one undertakes a vow to be a Buddhist vegetarian, one is expected to follow this vow until it is humanly impossible to continue one's vegetarian diet. Acceptance of authenticity of the Pali Sutras differ within Mahayana sects and Mahayana sutras do not record Buddha eating meat. While no Mahayana sects consider Pali sutras to be inauthentic, Chinese Buddhist sects tend to consider this particular part of writing in Pali sutras to be false. Japanese Buddhist sects generally accept that Buddha ate meat . Still, both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhists consider that one may practice vegetarianism as part of cultivating Bodhisattvas's paramita. Since Mahayana Buddhists recognise the consumption of meat to be cruel and devoid of compassion, some Mahayana Buddhists are vegetarians. Numbers of Mahayana sutra record Buddha praising the virtue of avoiding meat. However, Tibetan Buddhism believes that tantric practice makes vegetarianism unnecessary. All Japanese Kamakura sects of Buddhism (Zen, Nichiren, Jodo) have relaxed Mahayana vinaya, and as a consequence, do not practice vegetarianism but rather pescetarianism. Chinese Buddhism and part of Korean Buddhism strictly adhere to vegetarianism. Buddhism and other food considerations East Asian "Buddhist" cuisine differ from Western vegetarian cuisine in one aspect, that is avoidance of killing plant life. Buddhist vinaya for monks and nuns prohibit harming of plant. Therefore, strictly speaking, no root vegetables (such as potatoes, carrots or onion) are to be used as this will result in death of vegetables. Instead, vegetables such as beans or fruits are used. However, this stricter version of diet is often practiced only on special occasion. Some Mahayana Buddhists in China and Vietnam specifically avoid eating strong-smelling plants, traditionally garlic, Allium chinense, asafoetida, shallot, and Allium victorialis (victory onion or mountain leek), and refer to these as 五荤 'Five Acrid And Strong Smelling Vegetables' or 五辛 'Five Spices' as they tend to excite senses. This is based on teachings found in the Brahma Net Sutra, the Surangama Sutra and the Lankavatara Sutra (chapter 8). In modern times this rule is often interpreted to include other vegetables of the onion genus, as well as coriander. An example of shōjin-ryōri taken in Kyoto, Japan at the zen temple of Ryuanji.The food that a strict Buddhist takes, even if he/she is not a vegetarian, is also specific. For many Chinese Buddhists, beef and the consumption of large animals and exotic species is avoided. Then there would be the aforementioned sanjingrou rule. One restriction on food that is not known to many is the abstinence from eating animal innards and organs. This is known as 下水 (xia shui), and is not to be confused with the term for sewage. Alcohol and/or other drugs are also avoided by many Buddhists because of their effects on the mind and "mindfulness". It is part of the Five Precepts which dictate that one is not to consume "addictive materials". The definition of "addictive" depends on each individual but most Buddhists consider alcohol,tobacco and contraband drugs to be addictive. Common sources for Buddhist foods Buddhist vegetarian chefs have become extremely creative in imitating meat using prepared wheat gluten, also known as "seitan" or "wheat meat", soy (such as tofu or tempeh), agar, and other plant products. Some of their recipes are the oldest and most-refined meat analogues in the world. Soy and wheat gluten are very versatile materials, because they can be manufactured into various shapes and textures, and they absorb flavourings (including, but not limited to, meat-like flavourings), whilst having very little flavour of their own. With the proper seasonings, they can mimic various kinds of meat quite closely. Some of these Buddhist vegetarian chefs are in the many monasteries which serve wu hun and mock-meat (also known as 'meat analogues') dishes to the monks and visitors (including non-Buddhists who often stay for a few hours or days, to Buddhists who are not monks, but staying overnight for anywhere up to weeks or months). Many Buddhist restaurants also serve vegetarian, vegan, non-alcoholic, and/or wu hun dishes. Some Buddhists eat vegetarian only once per week or month, or on special occasions such as annual visits to an ancestor's grave. To cater to this type of customer, as well as full-time vegetarians, the menu of a Buddhist vegetarian restaurant usually shows no difference from a typical Chinese or far-Eastern restaurant, except that in recipes originally made to contain meat, a chicken flavoured soy or wheat gluten might be served instead. See also Buddha's delight Buddhist ethics Buddhist vegetarianism Cultural elements of Buddhism Vegetarianism and religion Notes External links Shabkar.org: Vegetarianism as a way of life for Buddhists Shojin Ryori: Vegetarian Cooking Tantras on Buddhist food Sutras on vegetarianism Return To The Middle Kingdom: Chinese Vegetarian Eating in East Asia Toshio Tanahashi vegetarian-china.info

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Bouldering

Bouldering is a style of rock climbing undertaken without a rope and normally limited to very short climbs so that a fall will not result in serious injury. It is typically practiced on large boulders or artificial man-made boulders. However, it may also be practiced at the base of larger rock faces, or even on buildings or public architecture (see buildering). Bouldering Basics A climber with chalked-up hands and a crash pad on the ground. (Black Mountain, Idyllwild, California, U.S.) Bouldering is a style of climbing emphasizing power, strength, and dynamics. Its focus is on individual moves or short sequences of moves, unlike traditional climbing or sport climbing, which generally demand more endurance over longer stretches of rock where the difficulty of individual moves is not as great. Boulder routes are commonly referred to as problems (a British appellation) because the nature of the climb is often short, curious, and much like problem solving. Sometimes these problems are eliminates, meaning certain artificial restrictions are imposed. To reduce the risk of injury from a fall, climbers rarely go higher than 3-5 meters above the ground. Anything over 7 meters is generally considered to be free-soloing (or simply 'soloing' in the United Kingdom), although such climbs might also be termed high-ball bouldering problems. For further protection, climbers typically put a bouldering mat (crash pad) on the ground to break their fall. Lastly, climbers often have one or more spotters, who work to direct the climber's body toward the crash pad during a fall, while protecting the climber's head from hazards. Bouldering is increasing in popularity; bouldering areas are common in indoor climbing gyms and some climbing gyms are dedicated solely to bouldering. Children are joining the sport now as well as adults. In fact, studies have found that young climbers develop better skills as adults from their experience with youthful disadvantages such as height and strength. Equipment One of the major appeals of bouldering is its relatively scant equipment requirements. It is not uncommon to see people bouldering with shoes, a chalkbag, and a small mat to wipe their feet on. Although nothing is actually required, common equipment includes: Loose, powdered chalk as a hand drying agent while climbing. A mattress-like object called a crash pad. These are generally thick, rectangular foam pads with a heavy-duty fabric shell. They are opened and placed at the base of a boulder to cover irregularities in the landing and provide some cushion if the climber falls. Climbing shoes, for better traction and edging capabilities. A brush, or several brushes of differing sizes, typically with nylon bristles but sometimes coarse animal hair, is used to clean holds and is often mounted on a telescopic pole to allow greater reach. Sports tape is useful for covering cuts or blisters, as well as providing support for joints that may have been strained. Clothing usually include a sleeveless shirt and shorts, though anything that's comfortable and flexible enough will generally work. Ratings As in other types of climbing, bouldering has developed its own grading systems for comparing the difficulty of problems. The most commonly used grading systems are the Fontainebleau system which ranges from 1 to 8c+, and the John Sherman V-grade system, beginning at V0 and increasing by integers to a current top grade of V16 (The Wheel of Life by Dai Koyamada in the Grampians, Australia http://www.climbing.com/news/koyainaust/index.html ). Both scales are open-ended at the top, and thus the upper grade of these systems is always increasing as boulderers ascend more difficult problems. History Bouldering's documented origins may be found in the United Kingdom, France, and Italy in the last quarter of the 19th century Origins of Bouldering - from John Gill's Website . The British coined the word bouldering at that time. For many years, bouldering was usually viewed as training for climbers, although, in the 1930s and late 1940s, Pierre Allain and his companions enjoyed bouldering for its own sake in Fontainebleau, considered by many to be the Mecca of bouldering. The first climber to actually make bouldering his primary specialty (in the mid 1950s) and to advocate its acceptance as a legitimate sport not restricted to a particular area was John Gill, an amateur gymnast who found the challenge and movement of bouldering enjoyable. The Art of Bouldering by John Gill, The Journal of the American Alpine Club, 1969 Terminology Bouldering in Saint Just, département of Cantal, France Adjusting (v.) Refining the hand or foot positions after the first catch or step to improve balance and power consumption, or just to make place for second arm or feet. Arrete (n.) An edge of a rock. Beached Whale (v.) A very poor way of topping out, which involves the climber flopping back and forth to try and get on top of the rock. This action looks much like a beached whale trying to get back into the sea, as the name implies. Beta (n.) Any helpful tips, solutions to problems, guides, tricks, etc that one climber passes on to another, usually about a particular problem (as opposed to tips about bouldering in general, though there is obviously some overlap). Boulderer (n.) Any person participating in bouldering; usually synonymous in context with the more general term 'climber'. Crash pad (n.) A pad, usually made of foam, placed at the bottom of a boulder problem onto which a climber can land if they fall, reducing the likelihood of some injuries. (A green crash pad is pictured at right under the climber.) Crimp (n. v.) A type of hold used when the climber can fit only their fingertips on the hold. A crimp may be 'closed,' in which the thumb is pressed over the index finger to strengthen one's grip, or the crimp may be 'open', where the thumb does not touch the fingers. Closed crimps, while stronger, put more stress on the hand and are generally regarded as posing a higher risk of injury. Crux (n.) The most dificult move or series of moves in a problem. There may be also multiple cruxes in single boulder, like hard sit start in combination with easy middle and hard top out, or hard crimping and later mono section. Dab (v.) Touching anything other than the climbing surface in any way, whether intentional or not; it is grounds for immediate termination of a 'send' attempt. Deathball (n.) Similar to a highball, but high enough that if one would fall, death is a possibility. Dyno (n.) Shortened form of dynamic movement. Essentially any movement that requires the climber to jump or to swing from one hold to another. Technically, a dyno is a move that, if not completed successfully (by catching the next hold), will result in a fall. Some consider the definition of the dyno as every dynamic movement, that cannot be reversed, e.g. to be not able to come in previos position after doing that kind of move. Eliminate (n. v.) (a.k.a. Elimination) Any problem that eliminates some of the holds on a natural way up the boulder, maximizing the total number of climbs in a limited space. The removed holds or rock parts can be removed for foots, hands or both. First Ascent (n.) (a.k.a. FA) As it sounds - to climb a project for a first time. First Go (n.) This is the case when the climber has climbed some sections of the boulder already and then climbs the whole boulder on his first try. This can happen when the boulderer wanted to check out the crux section just to see if it is possible for him to do the boulder or when he already has climbed part of the boulder, which is a variaton of the current one or belongs to other line. Flag (v.) Extending a leg as a counter-balance without placing your foot on a hold. Flash (n.) Completing a problem on the first try with no falls, but with beta. The climber can also check the holds but not to hang on them or put his feet on the boulder. Free (v.) To FA a problem usually refers when the project was available for a long time and was opened for all (which in climbing ethics means that everyone may try the problem and take the FA). Gaston (v.) The act in which the climber does a side-pull that brings him into the rock. Grade (n.) Boulder problems are ranked by difficulty using a graded system. Spotters at Rat Rock in Central Park, NYC. Photo by joshunojoshu Highball (n.) A term for a boulder that is so high, falling when close to the top could cause serious injury. Some highballs have anchor bolts at the top to allow for protected top-rope climbing. Hold (n.) Any rock feature that a climber can use to ascend the problem. These can be cracks, crimps, jugs, places to smear, etc, that can be used in any useful way by the hands or the feet. Jam (v. n.) Placing a foot or a hand, usually in a crack, and rotating or loading it so that it can fully support the climber. Jug (n.) A hold that is large enough to allow the climber to reach their entire hand around (or inside of), making it a good low-impact hold, usually with low possibility of injury. In hard boulders jugs are well beloved for resting (shaking hands or even no hand rests). Mantle (v.) A manoeuver whereby the climber initially pulls down on a hold (usually matched) with enough force to propel them upwards, and then rapidly changes the pulling motion into a downward pushing motion. Matching (v.) Matching implies that both climber's feet or hands are on the same hold. Offwidth (n. adj.) An awkward crack that is too wide to jam a hand in, yet not wide enough to back and foot. These typically require a combination of several different methods to achieve a good hold. Onsight (v.) To send a problem on the first try without falling and with no beta. Usually onsighting for boulders is not so widely accepted, because on most boulders the beta is pretty obvios due to chalked holds, which are not so far above the climbers view point. That makes applying the onsight rule possible in rare cases and normally the ascent goes to the flash category. Overhang (n.) A rock face which creates an acute angle with the ground. Pinch (n. v.) A hold or movement that has the boulderer pinch a hold. Problem (n.) A sequence of moves leading to the top of a boulder, or an indoor bouldering wall. Boulder problems are to bouldering as 'routes' are to traditional or sport climbing. Project (n.) A problem never done before. In climbing ethics there are usually two types of projects - opened (may be climbed by everyone) and closed (only the founder, may climb them). In climbing usually projects are marked with small rope knot on the first bolt that the projects are closed but in bouldering this cannot be done as no bolts exist, so usually the community should know if some boulder should be climbed or not (in parallel to bolting a route in climbing, we have "brushing" or "cleaning" a boulder in bouldering). Prow (n.) As it sounds (like an overhanging arete). Redpoint (v.) This term is generally used in sport and traditional climbing. To redpoint a route means that the climber completed the route, but after multiple tries. Roof (n.) Boulder problem with roof section. Usually the climber needs more power than technique to send it. Send (v.) To successfully climb a problem (e.g. from the start to the end without falling somewhere, also regarding the given first ascender restrictions, if such exist). Sequence (n.) The combination of movements to climb a single part or the whole boulder. Usually every climber has his own sequence for every problem according to his height, weight, power, technique, etc. Shep (v.) To run at a problem in an attempt to run up the start to where better holds may be. Not orthodox, but it works. Side-Pull (n. v.) A hold or movement in which the climber holds himself on the rock by hanging off the side of a hold. Sit Start (n.) A start to a problem beginning with the boulderer sitting on either the ground or on a crash pad, at the lowest point of a route. Typically, starting from a sit start increases the difficulty of a route. Slab (n.) A rock face that is tilted so that the climber can pretty much walk up it. A fall would result in a long slide down the rock. Sloper (n.) A hold that tends to slope, or is round (very little positive surface). Sometimes very difficult to grasp. Smear (v.) Pushing with the ball of the foot where there is no hold. Spot (v.), Spotting (n.) The act of being a spotter: this may include duties such as moving the crash pad, removing dangerous objects in the fall zone, and physically cushioning or modifying the trajectory of the climber in the event of a fall. Spotter (n.) A person who tends to the safety of the climber, who 'spots'. Traverse (v. n.) Generally a horizontal climb that involves traversing across a face or overhang, or sometimes around a boulder, occasionally finishing off at an arête in order to top out. Top out (v.) To complete a problem by getting to the top of the boulder where one can stand upright. Undercling (n. v.) A hold or movement where the climber grabs the bottom of the hold and pulls upwards, using his/her legs to apply tension and keep him/her on the rock. Famous Bouldering Areas The region around Fontainebleau near Paris is particularly famous for its beautiful and concentrated bouldering areas. Well-known areas include Stanage (UK), Hueco Tanks (Texas), Castle Hill (New Zealand), Bishop (California), Yosemite (California), Rocktown (Georgia), Rocklands (South Africa), Kjugekull (Sweden), Hampi (India) Bouldering in Hampi Horse Pens 40 (Alabama) and Horseshoe Canyon Ranch (Arkansas) amongst others. Places to Boulder Fontainebleau - biggest and most developed bouldering area in the world located in the Fontainebleau forrest. From there comes also the Fb bouldering grade. List of New York bouldering sites List of New Jersey bouldering sites List of Utah bouldering sites See also Buildering Glossary of climbing terms Ice Climbing Le Parkour Rock Climbing Tree climbing Notes

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Baku

Baku (), sometimes known as Baqy, Baky, Baki or Bakü, is the capital, the largest city, and the largest port of Azerbaijan. Located on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, the city consists of two principal parts: the downtown and the old Inner City (21,5 ha). Baku is one of the oldest and biggest cities in East for antiquity, territory and population. As of 1 January 2005 the population was 2,036,000, of which 153,400 were internally displaced persons and 93,400 refugees. Baku is a member of Organization of World Heritage Cities and Sister Cities International. The city was also bidding for the 2016 Summer Olympics, but was eliminated on 4 June 2008. In 2007 Culture Ministers of the member-states of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference declared Baku to be the capital of Islamic Culture for 2009. APA Azeri Press Agency Baku is divided into eleven administrative raions (Azizbayov, Binagadi, Garadagh, Narimanov, Nasimi, Nizami, Sabail, Sabunchu, Khatai, Surakhany and Yasamal) and 48 townships. Among these are the townships on islands in the Baku Bay and the town of Oil Rocks built on stilts in the Caspian Sea, away from Baku. Etymology The name Baku is widely believed to be derived from the old Persian names of the city Bād-kube باد کوبہ, meaning "Wind-pounded city", in which bād means "wind" and kube is rooted in the verb kubidan, "to pound", thus referring to a place where wind is strong and pounding. Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds. It is also believed that Baku refers to Baghkuh, meaning "Mount of God". Baga (now bagh) and kaufa (now kuh) are the Old Persian words for "god" and "mountain" respectively; the name Baghkuh may be compared with Baghdād ("God-given") in which dā is the Old Persian word for "give". Arabic sources refer to the city as Baku, Bakukh, Bakuya, and Bakuye, all of which seem to come from a Persian name. Various different hypotheses were also proposed to explain the etymology of the word Baku. According to L.G.Lopatinski Ган К.Ф. Oпыть объяснения кавказских географических названий. Тифлис, 1909 and Ali Huseynzade .The Name “Baku” Baku is derived from Turkic word for "hill". Caucasian history specialist K.P. Patkanov also explains the name as "hill" but in the Lak language. The Turkish Islamic Encyclopedia presents the origin of the word Baku as being derived from the words Bey-Kyoy, which mean "the main city" in Turkish. History The first written evidence for Baku dates to the 6th century AD. Much of its history since that time has been linked to various Persian Empires. The city became important after an earthquake destroyed Shamakhy in the 12th century, when the ruling Shirvanshah, Ahsitan I, chose Baku as the new capital. In 1501, Safavid Shah Ismail I laid a siege on Baku. At this time the city was however enclosed within the lines of strong walls, which were washed by sea on one side and protected by a wide trench on land. In 1540 Baku was again captured by the Safavid troops. In 1604 the Baku fortress was destroyed by Iranian shah Abbas I. On 26 June 1723, after a lasting siege using cannons, Baku surrendered to the Russians. According to Peter the Great's decree the soldiers of two regiments (2,382 people) were left in the Baku garrison under the command of Prince Baryatyanski, the commandant of the city. In 1795, Baku was invaded by Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar to defend against tsarist Russia's ambitions to subjugate the South Caucasus. In the spring of 1796, by Catherine II's order, General Zubov's troops began a major campaign in Transcaucasia. Baku surrendered after the first demand of Zubov who had sent 6,000 troops to capture the city. On 13 June 1796 the Russian flotilla entered Baku Bay and a garrison of Russian troops was placed in the city. General Pavel Tsitsianov was appointed Baku's commandant. Later, however, Czar Paul I ordered him to cease the campaign and withdraw Russian forces. In March 1797 the tsarist troops left Baku but a new tsar, Alexander I, began to show a special interest in capturing Baku. In 1803, Tsitsianov reached an agreement with the Baku khan to compromise, but the agreement was soon annulled. On 8 February 1806, upon the surrendering of Baku, Huseyngulu khan of Baku stabbed and killed Tsitsianov at the gates of the city. In 1813, Russia signed the Treaty of Gulistan with Persia, which provided for the cession of Baku and most of the Caucasus from Iran and their annexation by Russia. Oil boom The first oil well was drilled in Bibi-Heybat suburb of Baku in 1846. But the large-scale oil development started in 1872, when the Russian imperial authorities auctioned the parcels of oil-rich land around Baku to private investors. Within a short period of time Swiss, British, French, Belgian, German, Swedish and American investors appeared in Baku, among them were the firms of the Nobel brothers together with the family von Börtzell-Szuch (Carl Knut Börtzell, who also owned the Livadia Palace) and the Rothschild family. An industrial oil belt, better known as Black City, was established near Baku. By the beginning of the 20th century almost half of the oil reserves in the world had been extracted in Baku. Window2Baku.com In 1917, after the October revolution and amidst the turmoil of World War I and the breakup of the Russian Empire, Baku came under the control of the Baku Commune, which was led by veteran Bolshevik Stepan Shaumyan. Seeking to capitalize on the existing inter-ethnic conflicts, by spring 1918, Bolsheviks inspired and condoned civil warfare in and around Baku. During the infamous March Days, using the support of the Dashnak Armenian militia in the city, and under the pretext of suppressing Musavat party, Bolsheviks attacked and massacred thousands of Azeris and other Muslims in Baku. Michael Smith. "Anatomy of Rumor: Murder Scandal, the Musavat Party and Narrative of the Russian Revolution in Baku, 1917-1920", Journal of Contemporary History, Vol 36, No. 2, (Apr. 2001), p. 228 On 28 May 1918 the Azerbaijani fraction of the Transcaucasian Sejm proclaimed the independent Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) in Ganja. Shortly after, Azerbaijani forces, with support of the Ottoman Army of Islam led by Nuru Pasha, started their advance into Baku, eventually capturing the city from the loose coalition of Bolsheviks, Esers, Dashnaks, Mensheviks and British forces under the command of General Lionel Dunsterville on 15 September 1918. Thousands of Armenians in the city were massacred in revenge for the earlier March Days. Furuz Kazemzadeh, Struggle For Transcaucasia (1917 - 1921), New York Philosophical Library, 1951, p. 143-144 Baku became the capital of the ADR. On 28 April 1920, the 11th Red Army invaded Baku and reinstalled the Bolsheviks, making Baku the capital of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Historical city core Icheri Sheher - an old inner city of Baku. The centre of Baku is the old town, which is also a fortress. In December 2000, the Inner City of Baku with the Palace of the Shirvanshahs and Maiden Tower became the first location in Azerbaijan classified as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO. Most of the walls and towers, strengthened after the Russian conquest in 1806, survived. This section is picturesque, with its maze of narrow alleys and ancient buildings: the cobbled streets past the Palace of the Shirvanshahs, two caravansaries (ancient inns), the Maiden Tower (nice view of the harbor), the baths and the Juma Mosque (it used to house the Carpet and Applied Arts Museum, but now is a mosque again; the carpets got moved to the former Lenin museum). The old town also has dozens of small mosques, often without any particular sign to distinguish them from the next building. In 2003, UNESCO placed the Inner City on the List of World Heritage in Danger, citing damage from a November 2000 earthquake, poor conservation as well as "dubious" restoration efforts. Other features of Baku The Martyrs' Lane, formerly the Kirov Park, is dedicated to the memory of those who lost their lives during the Nagorno-Karabakh War and also to the 137 people who were killed on Black January, 1990. Climate During Soviet times, Baku was a vacation destination where citizens could enjoy beaches or relax in now-dilapidated spa complexes overlooking the Caspian Sea. The climate is hot and humid in the summer, and cool and wet in the winter. During the winter gale-force winds sweep through on occasion, driven by masses of polar air (strong northern winds Khazri and southern Gilavar are typical here); however, snow is rare at 28 m below sea level, and temperatures on the coast rarely drop to freezing. The average annual temperature of Baku and that of the Earth differ by less than : it is . Window to Baku The southwestern part of Great Baku is a more arid part of Azerbaijan (precipitation here is less than a year). In the vicinities of the city there are a number of mud volcanoes (Keyraki, Bogkh-bogkha, Lokbatan and others) and salt lakes (Boyukshor, Khodasan etc.). Demographics Until 1988 Baku had very large Armenian, Russian, and Jewish population that contributed to cultural diversity and added in various ways (music, literature, architecture) to Baku's history treasure chest. Under Communism, the Soviets took over the majority of Jewish property in Baku and Kuba. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliev has returned several synagogues and a Jewish college nationalized by the Soviets, to the Jewish community. He has encouraged the restoration of these buildings and is well-liked by the Jews of Azerbaijan. Renovation has begun on seven of the original eleven synagogues, including the Gilah synagogue, built in 1896, and the large Kruei Synagogue. JewishVirtualLibrary.org The new Azerbaijan constitution grants religious freedom and asserts that there is no state religion. Currently the vast majority of the population of Baku are ethnic Azerbaijanis (more than 90%). The intensive growth of the population started in the middle of the 19th century when Baku was a small town with the population of about 7 thousand people. The population increased again from about 13,000 in the 1860s to 112,000 in 1897 and 215,000 in 1913, making Baku the largest city in the Caucasus region. Country-data.com Baku has been a cosmopolitan city at certain times during its history, meaning ethnic Azerbaijanis did not constitute the majority of population. Audrey Altstadt, Conflict, Cleavage, and Change in Central Asia and the Caucasus, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 112, table 4.1, Ethnic composition of Baku, 1897, 1903,1913 Year Azerbaijanis Russians Armenians Iranian Citizens Germans Jews Georgians Total 189740,148 37,39919,0609,4262,4602,341971111,904 190344,25756,95526,15111,1323,749n/an/a155,876191345,96276,28841,68025,0963,2749,6904,073214,672 Religion More than 94% of the residents of Baku practice various forms of Islam. A small minority of the population (about 4%) are Christians (majority Russian Orthodox Church, Georgian Orthodox Church and Molokans). Baku also has three Jewish communities, namely the Ashkenazim Jews, the Mountain Jews, and the Georgian Jews. Economy Office buildings at Jafar Jabbarli Street The basis of Baku's economy is petroleum. The existence of petroleum has been known since the 8th century. In the 10th century, the Arabian traveler, Marudee, reported that both white and black oil were being extracted naturally from Baku. By the 15th century oil for lamps was obtained from hand dug surface wells. Commercial exploitation began in 1872, and by the beginning of the 20th century the Baku oil fields were the largest in the world. Towards the end of the 20th century much of the onshore petroleum had been exhausted, and drilling had extended into the sea offshore. By the end of the 19th century skilled workers and specialists flocked to Baku. By 1900 the city had more than 3,000 oil wells of which 2,000 of them were producing oil at industrial levels. Baku ranked as one of the largest centres for the production of oil industry equipment before World War II. The World War II Battle of Stalingrad was fought to determine who would have control of the Baku oil fields. Fifty years before the battle, Baku produced half of the world's oil supply: Azerbaijan and the United States are the only two countries ever to have been the world's majority oil producer. Currently the oil economy of Baku is undergoing a resurgence, with the development of the massive Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli field (Shallow water Gunashli by SOCAR, deeper areas by a consortium lead by BP), development of the Shah Deniz gas field, the expansion of the Sangachal Terminal and the construction of the BTC Pipeline. The old Inturist Hotel was one of Baku's largest, now being renovated, but overshadowed by the newer Hyatt Park, Hyatt Regency, Park Inn and Excelsior. Baku Stock Exchange has been operating since February 2001. Infrastructure Bulk power supply of Baku is provided by five 110 kV lines. As of 8 February 2008 three of them (total length ) have been completely refitted and modernized with their carrying capacity being doubled. Three 110 kV and twelve 35 kV substations were commissioned recently. Water supply is secured by several lines, the purest water comes from Khachmaz and Shollar lines. Baku was named the most dirty city in the world by Forbes magazine citing "the capital, suffers from life-threatening levels of air pollution emitted from oil drilling and shipping.". - In Pictures: The World's 25 Dirtiest Cities Transport and communication Baku International Airport named after Heydar Aliyev. Baku is served by the Heydar Aliyev International Airport and the Baku Metro. There were once also trams. There are two official taxi companies in the city: the yellow Star cabs and the white taxis with blue sign from "Azerq Taxis". The van buses stop at any point along that route when flagged down or told to stop. Shipping services operate regularly from Baku across the Caspian Sea to Turkmenbashi (formerly Krasnovodsk) in Turkmenistan and to Bandar Anzali and Bandar Nowshar in Iran. Baku had its first permanent internet link only in 1995, through the Academy of Sciences. Dial-up internet access has been available since 1991. ADSL service was made widely available in 2007. Education As Azerbaijan's centre of education, Baku boasts many universities and vocational schools. After Azerbaijan gained independence, the fall of Communism led to development of a number of private institutions. Baku also houses the Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan founded here in 1945 . The mayoralty of Baku. Public universities Azerbaijan Medical University (founded 1930) Azerbaijan State Economic University (1930) Azerbaijan State Oil Academy (1920) Azerbaijan Technical University (1950) Azerbaijan Tourism Institute (2006) Azerbaijan University of Languages (1973) Azerbaijan Architecture and Construction University (1975) Baku Academy of Music (1920) Baku Slavic University (1946) Baku State University (1919) Private universities Azerbaijan International University (1997) Khazar University (1991) Odlar Yurdu University (1995) Qafqaz University (1992) Western University (1991) Entertainment Philharmonic Hall of Baku. Baku has a vibrant life regarding theatre, opera and ballet, drawing both from the rich local dramatic portfolio and from the international repertoire. The main movie theatre is "Azerbaijan Cinema". The Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre, designed by architect N. G. Bayev, is one of the most ornate music halls in the city. The State Philharmonic Hall with excellent acoustic conditions often holds performances outside, in a pleasant park. The Carpet and Applied Arts Museum exhibits the carpets from all periods, styles and from both Azerbaijan proper and the Azeri provinces in Iran. Baku also houses country's biggest art museum - Azerbaijan State Museum of Art, a depository of both domestic and foreign works of art, Western and Eastern, and the Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature. Heydar Aliyev Palace, one of the main venues featuring sizeable performances (e.g. that of Coolio), has recently reopened after a major refurbishment. Some of the most popular discotheques and night clubs include, "X-Site", "Le Chevalier" at Europa Hotel, "Zagulba Disco Club" and "Le Mirage". Most of them are open till the early hours of the morning. Most of the pubs and bars are located near Fountain Square and are usually open until the early hours of the morning. There are several British, Scottish and Irish style public houses, among them "The Clansman", The Caledonia, "Corner Bar", "Shakespeares", "Finnigans" the "Rig Bar", "O'Malley's" and the "Phoenix Bar". There is also a Jazz Club. The Baku International Jazz Festival is organized annually. Notable beaches include Shikhovo, "Amburan" in Bilgah and "One Thousand and One Nights". Walled City of Baku with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower. International relations Twin towns - Sister cities Baku is twinned with: Amman in Jordan Basra in Iraq Bordeaux in France (since 1985) Dakar in Senegal Honolulu in United States Houston in United States (since 1976) Istanbul in Turkey Izmir in Turkey Ankara in Turkey Jeddah in Saudi Arabia Kiev in Ukraine Mainz in Germany Naples in Italy Saint Petersburg in Russia (since 1998) Sarajevo in Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 1972) Fraternity cities on Sarajevo Official Web Site Tabriz in Iran Vung Tau in Vietnam Konya in Turkey Isparta in Turkey Tekirdağ in Turkey London in United Kingdom Partnership relations at different levels were established with Berlin, Paris, Aberdeen, Vienna, Stavanger, Tbilisi, Astana, Minsk, Moscow, Volgograd, Kizlyar, Tashkent and Chengdu. A Mosque in Baku. Famous people from Baku Because of intermittent periods of great prosperity and as the largest city in the Caucasus and one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse in the Soviet Union, Baku prides itself on having produced a disproportionate number of notable figures in the sciences, arts and other fields. Some of the houses they resided in display commemorative plaques. Science Abbasgulu Bakikhanov, philosopher Max Black, philosopher Hovannes Adamian, engineer and designer of the systems of black and white and color television Kerim Kerimov, one of the founders and head of Soviet space program for 25 years Lev Landau, physicist, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics of 1962 Lotfi Zadeh, inventor of fuzzy logic Music Fikret Amirov, composer Artemi Ayvazyan, composer and conductor Bulbul, singer Polad Bülbüloğlu, singer Bella Davidovich, pianist Larisa Dolina, Russian pop singer Alexey Ekimyan, composer and police general Gara Garayev, composer Garri Dadyan, painter, a National Master Artist of the Soviet Union Uzeyir Hajibeyov, composer Muslim Magomayev, famous opera and pop singer Vagif Mustafazadeh, iconic Soviet jazz pianist, composer Alim Qasimov, Mugham singer (a nearby village) Mstislav Rostropovich, cellist Avet Terterian, composer Aysel Teymurzadeh, pop and R&B singer. Literature and arts Sattar Bahlulzade, painter Huseyn Javid, poet and playwright Mikayil Mushfig, poet Lev Nussimbaum, writer, author of the best-selling novel "Ali and Nino" Tahir Salahov, painter and draughtsman Zacharia Sitchin, writer "The 12th Planet" Chess The Fire Temple at Suraxany and its surroundings are famous for natural fires due to petroleum gases seeping from the earth beneath. Vladimir Bagirov, grandmaster Vugar Gashimov, grandmaster Garri Kasparov, grandmaster and world champion Vladimir Akopian, grandmaster Elmar Magerramov, grandmaster Teimour Radjabov, grandmaster Emil Sutovsky, grandmaster Tatiana Zatulovskaya, grandmaster Andrew Marshall, grandmaster, Baku 1-12 Invitational runner up, and world champion Entertainment Rasim Ismaylov, film director and writer Rustam Ibrahimbeyov, screenwriter and Academy Award winner Magsud Ibrahimbeyov, writer Murad Ibrahimbeyov, film director Vladimir Menshov, Academy Award winning film producer Abbas Sharifzadeh, actor and director Sergo Zakariadze, actor Business Araz Agalarov, real estate businessman, founder of Crocus International Group Vagit Alekperov, founder of the leading Russian oil company LUKOIL Murtuza Mukhtarov, oil industrialist and millionaire Musa Nagiyev, industrial magnate in late 19th - early 20th century Zeynalabdin Taghiyev, industrial magnate and philanthropist Politics Khalilullah I, (1417-1465), ruler of Shirvan Mammed Amin Rasulzade, politician, founding father of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Georgy Shakhnazarov, Soviet political scientist Alimardan Topchubashev, politician, foreign minister of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Military Ziya Bunyadov, Hero of the Soviet Union and Academician Mehdi Huseynzade, Hero of the Soviet Union Rafael Kapreliants (Gabrielyan), Hero of the Soviet Union Musa Manarov, cosmonaut Samedbey Mehmandarov, Russian tsarist general, Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Ali-Agha Shikhlinski, Russian tsarist lieutenant-general, Deputy Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Richard Sorge, famous Soviet spy Sport Anatoliy Banishevskiy, football Football players of Azerbaijan, playing in different years for the USSR team Gallery See also Second Baku Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline Bāgh Notes References Sources Abbasov, Mazakhir. Baku During the Great Patriotic War. Madatov, G. Azerbaijan During the Great Patriotic War. Baku, 1975. External links Baku city guide The Caledonia Bar one of Baku's expatriate establishments Azerbaijan travel information UNESCO World Heritage Site listing Walled City of Baku Baku Pages Baku hotels directory Baku Hotels American Embassy in Baku Azerbaijan British Embassy in Azerbaijan Baku travel guide and photos Azerbaijan Satellite view (Google Maps) Building projects and real estate development in Baku Professional taxi services in Baku be-x-old:Баку

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Charlie_Chaplin

Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr. KBE (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977), better known as Charlie Chaplin, was an Academy Award-winning English comedic actor and filmmaker. Chaplin became one of the most famous actors as well as a notable filmmaker, composer and musician in the early to mid "Classical Hollywood" era of American cinema. Chaplin acted in, directed, scripted, produced and eventually scored his own films as one of the most creative and influential personalities of the silent-film era. His working life in entertainment spanned over 65 years, from the Victorian stage and the Music Hall in the United Kingdom as a child performer almost until his death at the age of 88. His high-profile public and private life encompassed both adulation and controversy. With Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and D. W. Griffith, Chaplin co-founded United Artists in 1919. In a review of the book Chaplin: A Life (2008), Martin Sieff writes: "Chaplin was not just 'big', he was gigantic. In 1915, he burst onto a war-torn world bringing it the gift of comedy, laughter and relief while it was tearing itself apart through World War I. Over the next 25 years, through the Great Depression and the rise of Hitler, he stayed on the job. He was bigger than anybody. It is doubtful any individual has ever given more entertainment, pleasure and relief to so many human beings when they needed it the most." Sieff, Martin.Washington Times -Books 21 December 2008 Early life Chaplin, c. 1920 Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889, in East Street, Walworth, London. His parents were both entertainers in the music hall tradition; his father was a vocalist and an actor and his mother, a singer and an actress. They separated before Charlie was three. He learned singing from his parents. The 1891 census shows that his mother, the actress Hannah Hill, lived with Charlie and his older half-brother Sydney on Barlow Street, Walworth. As a child, Charlie also lived with his mother in various addresses in and around Kennington Road in Lambeth, including 3 Pownall Terrace, Chester Street and 39 Methley Street. His maternal grandmother was half-Gypsy, a fact he was extremely proud of, Charles Chaplin, Jr., with N. and M. Rau, My Father, Charlie Chaplin, Random House: New York,(1960), pages 7-8. Quoted in but was also described as "the skeleton in our family cupboard". Charlie Chaplin, My Autobiography, page 19. Quoted in Chaplin's father, Charles Chaplin, Sr., was an alcoholic and had little contact with his son, though Chaplin and his half-brother briefly lived with their father and his mistress, Louise, at 287 Kennington Road where a plaque now commemorates the fact. The half-brothers lived there while their mentally ill mother resided at Cane Hill Asylum at Coulsdon. Chaplin's father's mistress sent the boy to Kennington Road School. His father died of alcoholism when Charlie was twelve in 1901. As of the 1901 Census, Charles resided at 94 Ferndale Road, Lambeth, with The Eight Lancashire Lads, led by John William Jackson (the 17 year old son of one of the founders). A larynx condition ended the singing career of Chaplin's mother. Hannah's first crisis came in 1894 when she was performing at The Canteen, a theatre in Aldershot. The theatre was mainly frequented by rioters and soldiers. Hannah was badly injured by the objects the audience threw at her and she was booed off the stage. Backstage, she cried and argued with her manager. Meanwhile, the five-year old Chaplin went on stage alone and sang a well-known tune at that time, "Jack Jones". After Chaplin's mother (who went by the stage name Lilly Harley) was again admitted to the Cane Hill Asylum, her son was left in the workhouse at Lambeth in south London, moving after several weeks to the Central London District School for paupers in Hanwell. The young Chaplin brothers forged a close relationship in order to survive. They gravitated to the Music Hall while still very young, and both of them proved to have considerable natural stage talent. Chaplin's early years of desperate poverty were a great influence on his characters. Themes in his films in later years would re-visit the scenes of his childhood deprivation in Lambeth. Chaplin's mother died in 1928 in Hollywood, seven years after having been brought to the U.S. by her sons. Unknown to Charlie and Sydney until years later, they had a half-brother through their mother. The boy, Wheeler Dryden, was raised abroad by his father but later connected with the rest of the family and went to work for Chaplin at his Hollywood studio. America Making a Living (1914), Chaplin's film debut Chaplin first toured America with the Fred Karno troupe from 1910 to 1912. After five months back in England, he returned to the U.S. for a second tour, arriving with the Karno Troupe on 2 October 1912. In the Karno Company was Arthur Stanley Jefferson, who would later become known as Stan Laurel. Chaplin and Laurel shared a room in a boarding house. Stan Laurel returned to England but Chaplin remained in the United States. In late 1913, Chaplin's act with the Karno Troupe was seen by film producer Mack Sennett, Mabel Normand, Minta Durfee, and Fatty Arbuckle. Sennett hired him for his studio, the Keystone Film Company as a replacement for Ford Sterling. After Chaplin's first film appearance, Making a Living was filmed, Sennett felt he had made a costly mistake. Most agree it was Normand who persuaded him to give Chaplin another chance. Chaplin was given over to Normand, who directed and wrote a handful of his earliest films. Chaplin did not enjoy being directed by a woman, and the two often disagreed. Eventually, the two worked out their differences and remained friends long after Chaplin left Keystone. Mack Sennett did not warm to Chaplin right away, and Chaplin believed Sennett intended to fire him following a disagreement with Normand. However, Chaplin's pictures were soon a success, and he became one of the biggest stars at Keystone. American Experience | Mary Pickford | People & Events | PBS Pioneering film artist Chaplin's earliest films were made for Mack Sennett's Keystone Studios, where he developed his tramp character and very quickly learned the art and craft of film making. The public first saw the tramp when Chaplin, age 24, appeared in his second film to be released (7 February 1914), Kid Auto Races at Venice. However, he had devised the tramp costume for a film produced a few days earlier but released later (9 February 1914), Mabel's Strange Predicament. Mack Sennett had requested that Chaplin "get into a comedy make-up". As Chaplin recalled in his autobiography: "I had no idea what makeup to put on. I did not like my get-up as the press reporter [in Making a Living]. However on the way to the wardrobe I thought I would dress in baggy pants, big shoes, a cane and a derby hat. I wanted everything to be a contradiction: the pants baggy, the coat tight, the hat small and the shoes large. I was undecided whether to look old or young, but remembering Sennett had expected me to be a much older man, I added a small moustache, which I reasoned, would add age without hiding my expression. I had no idea of the character. But the moment I was dressed, the clothes and the makeup made me feel the person he was. I began to know him, and by the time I walked on stage he was fully born." Fatty Arbucke contributed his father-in-law's derby and his own pants (of generous proportions). Chester Conklin provided the little cutaway tailcoat, and Ford Sterling the size-14 shoes, which were so big, Chaplin had to wear each on the wrong foot to keep them on. He devised the moustache from a bit of crepe hair belonging to Mack Swain. The only thing Chaplin himself owned was the whangee cane. Chaplin's tramp character would immediately gain enormous popularity among cinema audiences. Kid Auto Races at Venice (1914): Chaplin's second film and the debut of his "tramp" costume Chaplin's early Keystones use the standard Mack Sennett formula of extreme physical comedy and exaggerated gestures. Chaplin's pantomime was subtler, more suitable to romantic and domestic farces than to the usual Keystone chases and mob scenes. The visual gags were pure Keystone, however; the tramp character would aggressively assault his enemies with kicks and bricks. Moviegoers loved this cheerfully earthy new comedian, even though critics warned that his antics bordered on vulgarity. Chaplin was soon entrusted with directing and editing his own films. He made 34 shorts for Sennett during his first year in pictures, as well as the landmark comedy feature Tillie's Punctured Romance. Chaplin's principal character was "The Tramp" (known as "Charlot" in France, and the French-speaking world, Italy, Spain, Andorra, Portugal, Greece, Romania and Turkey, "Carlitos" in Brazil and Argentina, and "Vagabond" in Germany). "The Tramp" is a vagrant with the refined manners, clothes, and dignity of a gentleman. The character wears a tight coat, oversized trousers and shoes, and a derby; carries a bamboo cane; and has a signature toothbrush moustache. The Tramp character was featured in the first movie trailer to be exhibited in a U.S. movie theater, a slide promotion developed by Nils Granlund, advertising manager for the Marcus Loew theater chain, and shown at the Loew's Seventh Avenue Theatre in Harlem in 1914. Granlund, Nils (1957). Blondes, Brunettes and Bullets. New York: Van Rees Press, p. 53 In 1915, Chaplin signed a much more favorable contract with Essanay Studios, and further developed his cinematic skills, adding new levels of depth and pathos to the Keystone-style slapstick. Most of the Essanay films were more ambitious, running twice as long as the average Keystone comedy. Chaplin also developed his own stock company, including ingenue Edna Purviance and comic villains Leo White and Bud Jamison. Bronze statue at Waterville, County Kerry As immigrant groups arrived in waves to America silent movies were able to cross all the barriers of language, and spoke to every level of the American Tower of Babel, precisely because they were silent. Chaplin was emerging as the supreme exponent of silent movies, an emigrant himself from London. Chaplin's Tramp enacted the difficulties and humiliations of the immigrant underdog, the constant struggle at the bottom of the American heap and yet he triumphed over adversity without ever rising to the top, and thereby stayed in touch with his audience. Chaplin's films were also deliciously subversive. The bumbling officials enabled the immigrants to laugh at those they feared. Robert Hughes American Visions BBCTV In 1916, the Mutual Film Corporation paid Chaplin US$670,000 to produce a dozen two-reel comedies. He was given near complete artistic control, and produced twelve films over an eighteen-month period that rank among the most influential comedy films in cinema. Practically every Mutual comedy is a classic: Easy Street, One AM, The Pawnshop, and The Adventurer are perhaps the best known. Edna Purviance remained the leading lady, and Chaplin added Eric Campbell, Henry Bergman, and Albert Austin to his stock company; Campbell, a Gilbert and Sullivan veteran, provided superb villainy, and second bananas Bergman and Austin would remain with Chaplin for decades. Chaplin regarded the Mutual period as the happiest of his career, although he also had concerns that the films during that time were becoming formulaic owing to the stringent production schedule his contract required. Upon the U.S. entering World War I, Chaplin became a spokesman for Liberty Bonds with his close friend Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. Most of the Chaplin films in circulation date from his Keystone, Essanay, and Mutual periods. After Chaplin assumed control of his productions in 1918 (and kept exhibitors and audiences waiting for them), entrepreneurs serviced the demand for Chaplin by bringing back his older comedies. The films were recut, retitled, and reissued again and again, first for theatres, then for the home-movie market, and in recent years, for home video. Even Essanay was guilty of this practice, fashioning "new" Chaplin comedies from old film clips and out-takes. The twelve Mutual comedies were revamped as sound movies in 1933, when producer Amadee J. Van Beuren added new orchestral scores and sound effects. A listing of the dozens of Chaplin films and alternate versions can be found in the Ted Okuda-David Maska book Charlie Chaplin at Keystone and Essanay: Dawn of the Tramp. Efforts to produce definitive versions of Chaplin's pre-1918 short films have been underway in recent years; all twelve Mutual films were restored in 1975 by archivist David Shepard and Blackhawk Films, and new restorations with even more footage were released on DVD in 2006. Filmmaking techniques Chaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion. In fact, until he began making spoken dialogue films with The Great Dictator, Chaplin never shot from a completed script. The method he developed, once his Essanay contract gave him the freedom to write for and direct himself, was to start from a vague premise—e.g., "Charlie enters a health spa" or "Charlie works in a pawn shop." Chaplin then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and "business" around them, almost always working the ideas out on film. As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story. Unknown Chaplin Chaplin's unique filmaking techniques became known only after his death, when his rare surviving outakes and cut sequences were carefully examined in the 1983 British documentary Unknown Chaplin. This is one reason why Chaplin took so much longer to complete his films than did his rivals. In addition, Chaplin was an incredibly exacting director, showing his actors exactly how he wanted them to perform and shooting scores of takes until he had the shot he wanted. (Animator Chuck Jones, who lived near Charlie Chaplin's Lone Star studio as a boy, remembered his father saying he watched Chaplin shoot a scene more than a hundred times until he was satisfied with it. Jones, Chuck. Chuck Amuck: The Life and Times of an Animated Cartoonist. Avon Books, ISBN 0380712148) ) This combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionism—which resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expense—often proved very taxing for Chaplin, who in frustration would often lash out at his actors and crew, keep them waiting idly for hours or, in extreme cases, shutting down production altogether. Chaplin was known by his actors for doing numerous takes to get a perfect scene. During the Gold Rush scene wherein the Lone Prospector was eating his shoelaces (made entirely of licorice) Chaplin was not satisfied with the scene so he did take after take of eating the shoelaces. Creative control Charlie Chaplin Studios, 1922 At the conclusion of the Mutual contract in 1917, Chaplin signed a contract with First National to produce eight two-reel films. First National financed and distributed these pictures (1918-23) but otherwise gave him complete creative control over production which he could perform at a more relaxed pace that allowed him to focus on quality. Chaplin built his own Hollywood studio and using his independence, created a remarkable, timeless body of work that remains entertaining and influential. Although First National expected Chaplin to deliver short comedies like the celebrated Mutuals, Chaplin ambitiously expanded most of his personal projects into longer, feature-length films, including Shoulder Arms (1918), The Pilgrim (1923) and the feature-length classic The Kid (1921). In 1919, Chaplin co-founded the United Artists film distribution company with Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks and D.W. Griffith, all of whom were seeking to escape the growing power consolidation of film distributors and financiers in the developing Hollywood studio system. This move, along with complete control of his film production through his studio, assured Chaplin's independence as a film-maker. He served on the board of UA until the early 1950s. All Chaplin's United Artists pictures were of feature length, beginning with the atypical drama in which Chaplin had only a brief cameo role, A Woman of Paris (1923). This was followed by the classic comedies The Gold Rush (1925) and The Circus (1928). World premier of Modern Times (1936), New York After the arrival of sound films, Chaplin made City Lights (1931), as well as Modern Times (1936) before he committed to sound. These were essentially silent films scored with his own music and sound effects. City Lights contained arguably his most perfect balance of comedy and sentimentality. Of the final scene, critic James Agee wrote in Life magazine in 1949 that it was the "greatest single piece of acting ever committed to celluloid". Chaplin's dialogue films made in Hollywood were The Great Dictator (1940), Monsieur Verdoux (1947) and Limelight (1952). While Modern Times (1936) is a non-talkie, it does contain talk—usually coming from inanimate objects such as a radio or a TV monitor. This was done to help 1930s audiences, who were out of the habit of watching silent films, adjust to not hearing dialogue. Modern Times was the first film where Chaplin's voice is heard (in the nonsense song at the end, being both written and performed by Chaplin). However, for most viewers it is still considered a silent film—and the end of an era. Although "talkies" became the dominant mode of movie making soon after they were introduced in 1927, Chaplin resisted making such a film all through the 1930s. He considered cinema essentially a pantomimic art. He said: "Action is more generally understood than words. Like Chinese symbolism, it will mean different things according to its scenic connotation. Listen to a description of some unfamiliar object — an African warthog, for example; then look at a picture of the animal and see how surprised you are". Time Magazine, 9 February 1931 It is a tribute to Chaplin's versatility that he also has one film credit for choreography for the 1952 film Limelight, and another as a singer for the title music of The Circus (1928). The best known of several songs he composed are "Smile", composed for the film Modern Times (1936) and given lyrics to help promote a 1950s revival of the film, famously covered by Nat King Cole. "This Is My Song" from Chaplin's last film, "A Countess From Hong Kong," was a number one hit in several different languages in the 1960s (most notably the version by Petula Clark and discovery of an unreleased version in the 1990s recorded in 1967 by Judith Durham of The Seekers), and Chaplin's theme from Limelight was a hit in the 1950s under the title "Eternally." Chaplin's score to Limelight won an Academy Award in 1972; a delay in the film premiering in Los Angeles made it eligible decades after it was filmed. Chaplin also wrote scores for his earlier silent films when they were re-released in the sound era, notably The Kid for its 1971 re-release. The Great Dictator Chaplin's first dialogue picture, The Great Dictator (1940), was an act of defiance against German dictator Adolf Hitler and Nazism, filmed and released in the United States one year before the U.S. abandoned its policy of neutrality to enter World War II. Chaplin played the role of "Adenoid Hynkel", Dictator of Tomania, clearly modeled on Hitler. The film also showcased comedian Jack Oakie as "Benzino Napaloni", dictator of Bacteria. The Napaloni character was clearly a jab at Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and Fascism. Paulette Goddard filmed with Chaplin again, depicting a woman in the ghetto. The film was seen as an act of courage in the political environment of the time, both for its ridicule of Nazism and for the portrayal of overt Jewish characters and the depiction of their persecution. Chaplin played both the role of Adenoid Hynkel and also that of a look-alike Jewish barber persecuted by the Nazis. The barber physically resembles Chaplin's Tramp character, but is not considered to be the Tramp. At the conclusion, the two characters Chaplin portrayed swapped positions through a complex plot, and he dropped out of his comic character to address the audience directly in a speech. Politics Chaplin together with the American socialist Max Eastman in Hollywood 1919 Chaplin's political sympathies always lay with the left. His politics seem moderate by some contemporary standards, but in the 1940s his views (in conjunction with his influence, fame, and status in the United States as a resident foreigner) were seen by many as communistic. His silent films made prior to the Great Depression typically did not contain overt political themes or messages, apart from the Tramp's plight in poverty and his run-ins with the law, but his 1930s films were more openly political. Modern Times depicts workers and poor people in dismal conditions. The final dramatic speech in The Great Dictator, which was critical of following patriotic nationalism without question, and his vocal public support for the opening of a second European front in 1942 to assist the Soviet Union in World War II were controversial. In at least one of those speeches, according to a contemporary account in the Daily Worker, he intimated that Communism might sweep the world after World War II and equated it with human progress. Apart from the controversial 1942 speeches, Chaplin declined to support the war effort as he had done for the First World War which led to public anger, although his two sons saw service in the Army in Europe. For most of World War II he was fighting serious criminal and civil charges related to his involvement with actress Joan Barry (see below). After the war, the critical view towards what he regarded as capitalism in his 1947 black comedy, Monsieur Verdoux led to increased hostility, with the film being the subject of protests in many U.S. cities. As a result, Chaplin's final American film, Limelight, was less political and more autobiographical in nature. His following European-made film, A King in New York (1957), satirized the political persecution and paranoia that had forced him to leave the U.S. five years earlier. After this film, Chaplin lost interest in making overt political statements, later saying that comedians and clowns should be "above politics". McCarthy era Although Chaplin had his major successes in the United States and was a resident from 1914 to 1953, he always maintained a neutral nationalistic stance. During the era of McCarthyism, Chaplin was accused of "un-American activities" as a suspected communist and J. Edgar Hoover, who had instructed the FBI to keep extensive secret files on him, tried to end his United States residency. FBI pressure on Chaplin grew after his 1942 campaign for a second European front in the war and reached a critical level in the late 1940s, when Congressional figures threatened to call him as a witness in hearings. This was never done, probably from fear of Chaplin's ability to lampoon the investigators. Whitfield, Stephen J., The Culture of the Cold War, page 187-192 This was probably a wise decision, as Chaplin later stated that, if called, he wanted to appear dressed in his Tramp costume. In 1952, Chaplin left the US for what was intended as a brief trip home to the United Kingdom for the London premiere of Limelight. Hoover learned of the trip and negotiated with the Immigration and Naturalization Service to revoke Chaplin's re-entry permit. Chaplin decided not to re-enter the United States, writing; ".....Since the end of the last world war, I have been the object of lies and propaganda by powerful reactionary groups who, by their influence and by the aid of America's yellow press, have created an unhealthy atmosphere in which liberal-minded individuals can be singled out and persecuted. Under these conditions I find it virtually impossible to continue my motion-picture work, and I have therefore given up my residence in the United States." Chaplin then made his home in Vevey, Switzerland. He briefly and triumphantly returned to the United States in April 1972, with his wife, to receive an Honorary Oscar, and also to discuss how his films would be re-released and marketed. He was welcomed warmly. Chaplin and Jackie Coogan in The Kid (1921) Academy Awards Chaplin won one Oscar in a competitive category, and was given two honorary Academy Awards. Competitive awards In 1972, Chaplin won an Oscar for the Best Music in an Original Dramatic Score for the 1952 film Limelight, which co-starred Claire Bloom. The film also features an appearance with Buster Keaton, which was the only time the two great comedians ever appeared together. Due to Chaplin's political difficulties, the film did not play a one-week theatrical engagement in Los Angeles when it was first produced. This criterion for nomination was unfulfilled until 1972. Chaplin was also nominated for Best Comedy Director for The Circus in 1929, for Best Picture, Best Actor, Best Original Screenplay (although the Academy no longer lists these nominations in their official records because he received a Special Award instead of being included in the final voting for the competitive ones), Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor for The Great Dictator in 1940, and again for Best Original Screenplay for Monsieur Verdoux in 1948. During his active years as a filmmaker, Chaplin expressed disdain for the Academy Awards; his son Charles Jr wrote that Chaplin invoked the ire of the Academy in the 1930s by jokingly using his 1929 Oscar as a doorstop. This may help explain why City Lights and Modern Times, considered by several polls to be two of the greatest of all motion pictures, were not nominated for a single Academy Award. Honorary awards When the first Oscars were awarded on 16 May 1929, the voting audit procedures that now exist had not yet been put into place, and the categories were still very fluid. Chaplin had originally been nominated for both Best Actor and Best Comedy Directing for his movie The Circus, but his name was withdrawn and the Academy decided to give him a special award "for versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing The Circus" instead. The other film to receive a special award that year was The Jazz Singer. Chaplin's second honorary award came forty-four years later in 1972, and was for "the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century". He came out of his exile to accept his award, and received the longest standing ovation in Academy Award history, lasting a full five minutes. Final works Statue of Chaplin in Leicester Square, London Chaplin's final two films were made in London: A King in New York (1957) in which he starred, wrote, directed and produced; and A Countess from Hong Kong (1967), which he directed, produced, and wrote. The latter film stars Sophia Loren and Marlon Brando, and Chaplin made his final on-screen appearance in a brief cameo role as a seasick steward. He also composed the music for both films with the theme song from A Countess From Hong Kong, "This is My Song," reaching number one in the UK as sung by Petula Clark. Chaplin also compiled a film The Chaplin Revue from three First National films A Dog's Life (1918), Shoulder Arms (1918) and The Pilgrim (1923) for which he composed the music and recorded an introductary narration. As well as directing these final films, Chaplin also wrote My Autobiography, between 1959 and 1963, which was published in 1964. In his pictorial autobiography My Life In Pictures, published in 1974, Chaplin indicated that he had written a screenplay for his daughter, Victoria; entitled The Freak, the film would have cast her as an angel. According to Chaplin, a script was completed and pre-production rehearsals had begun on the film (the book includes a photograph of Victoria in costume), but were halted when Victoria married. "I mean to make it some day," Chaplin wrote. However, his health declined steadily in the 1970s which hampered all hopes of the film ever being produced. From 1969 until 1976, Chaplin wrote original music compositions and scores for his silent pictures and re-released them. He composed the scores of all his First National shorts: The Idle Class in 1971 (paired with The Kid for re-release in 1972), A Day's Pleasure in 1973, Pay Day in 1972, Sunnyside in 1974, and of his feature length films firstly The Circus in 1969 and The Kid in 1971. Chaplin worked with music associate Eric James whilst composing all his scores. Chaplin's last completed work was the score for his 1923 film A Woman of Paris, which was completed in 1976, by which time Chaplin was extremely frail, even finding communication difficult. Relationships with women, marriages and children Hetty Kelly Hetty Kelly was Chaplin's "true" first love, a dancer with whom he "instantly" fell in love when she was fifteen and almost married when he was nineteen, in 1908. At the time Kelly was performing before him in a London music hall and Chaplin asked if she would meet him the following weekend; she agreed. It is said Chaplin fell madly in love with her and asked her to marry him. When she refused, Chaplin suggested it would be best if they did not see each other again; he was reportedly crushed when she agreed. Years later, her memory would remain an obsession with Chaplin. He was devastated in 1921 when he learned that she had died of influenza during the Great Flu Pandemic of 1918. There is a small controversy over whether or not Chaplin and Kelly had a child; if so, the child has yet to be brought to light. Edna Purviance Edna Purviance Chaplin and his first major leading lady after Mabel Normand, Edna Purviance, were involved in a close romantic relationship during the production of his Essanay and Mutual films in 1916–1917. The romance seems to have ended by 1918, and Chaplin's marriage to Mildred Harris in late 1918 ended any possibility of reconciliation. Purviance would continue as leading lady in Chaplin's films until 1923, and would remain on Chaplin's payroll until her death in 1958. She and Chaplin spoke warmly of one another for the rest of their lives. Mildred Harris Mildred Harris, c. 1918–1920 On 23 October 1918, Chaplin, age 29, married the popular child-actress, Mildred Harris, who was 16. They had one son, Norman Spencer Chaplin (also known as "The Little Mouse") on 7 July 1919, who died three days later. Chaplin separated from Harris by late 1919, moving back into the Los Angeles Athletic Club. The couple divorced in November, 1920, with Harris getting some of their community property and a US$100,000 settlement. Chaplin admitted that he "was not in love, now that [he] was married [he] wanted to be and wanted the marriage to be a success." During the divorce, Chaplin claimed Harris had an affair with noted actress of the time Alla Nazimova, rumoured to be fond of seducing young actresses. Pola Negri Chaplin was involved in a very public relationship and engagement to the Polish actress Pola Negri in 1922–23, after she arrived in Hollywood to star in films. The stormy on-off engagement was halted after about nine months, but in many ways it foreshadowed the modern stereotypes of Hollywood star relationships. Chaplin's public involvement with Negri was unique in his public life. By comparison he strove to keep his other romances during this period very discreet and private (usually without success). Many biographers have concluded the affair with Negri was largely for publicity purposes. Marion Davies In 1924, during the time he was involved with the underage Lita Grey, Chaplin was rumored to have had a fling with actress Marion Davies, companion of William Randolph Hearst. Davies and Chaplin were both present on Hearst's yacht the weekend preceding the mysterious death of Thomas Harper Ince. Charlie allegedly tried to persuade Marion to leave Hearst and remain with him, but she refused and stayed by Hearst's side until his death in 1951. Chaplin made a rare cameo appearance in Davies' 1928 film Show People, and by some accounts supposedly continued an affair with her until 1931. Lita Grey Chaplin first met Lita Grey during the filming of The Kid. Three years later, at age 35, he became involved with the then 16-year-old Grey during preparations for The Gold Rush in which she was to star as the female lead. They married on 26 November 1924, after she became pregnant (a development that resulted in her being removed from the cast of the film). They had two sons, the actors Charles Chaplin, Jr. (1925–1968) and Sydney Earle Chaplin (1926–2009). The marriage was a disaster, with the couple hopelessly mismatched. The couple divorced on 22 August 1927. International Herald Tribune. 23 August 2002. 1927:Chaplin Divorce Settled : IN OUR PAGES:100, 75 AND 50 YEARS AGO Their extraordinarily bitter divorce had Chaplin paying Grey a then-record-breaking US$825,000 settlement, on top of almost one million dollars in legal costs. The stress of the sensational divorce, compounded by a federal tax dispute, allegedly turned his hair white. The Chaplin biographer Joyce Milton asserted in Tramp: The Life of Charlie Chaplin that the Grey-Chaplin marriage was the inspiration for Vladimir Nabokov's 1950s novel Lolita. This allegation runs contrary to recent scholarship on Nabokov literature, namely the discovery of the 1916 Lolita novel by Heinz von Eschwege. Georgia Hale Grey's replacement on The Gold Rush was Georgia Hale. In the documentary series, Unknown Chaplin, (directed and written by film historians Kevin Brownlow and David Gill), Hale, in a 1980s interview states that she had idolized Chaplin since childhood and that the then-19-year-old actress and Chaplin began an affair that continued for several years, which she details in her memoir, Charlie Chaplin: Intimate Close-Ups. During production of Chaplin's film City Lights in 1929-30, Hale, who by then was Chaplin's closest companion, was called in to replace Virginia Cherrill as the flower girl. Seven minutes of test footage survives from this recasting, and is included on the 2003 DVD release of the film, but economics forced Chaplin to rehire Cherrill. In discussing the situation in Unknown Chaplin, Hale states that her relationship with Chaplin was as strong as ever during filming. Their romance apparently ended sometime after Chaplin's return from his world tour in 1933. Louise Brooks Then a chorine in the Ziegfeld Follies, Louise Brooks met Chaplin when he came to New York for the opening there of The Gold Rush. For two months in the summer of 1925, they cavorted together at the Ritz, and with film financier A.C. Blumenthal and Brooks' fellow Ziegfeld girl Peggy Fears in Blumenthal's penthouse suite at the Ambassador Hotel. Brooks was with Chaplin when he spent four hours watching a musician torture a violin in a Lower East Side restaurant, an act he would recreate in Limelight. May Reeves May Reeves was originally hired to be Chaplin's secretary on his 1931-1932 extended trip to Europe, dealing mostly with reading his personal correspondence. She worked only one morning, and then was introduced to Chaplin, who was instantly infatuated with her. May became his constant companion and lover on the trip, much to the disgust of Chaplin's brother, Syd. After Reeves also became involved with Syd, Chaplin ended the relationship and she left his entourage. Reeves chronicled her short time with Chaplin in her book, "The Intimate Charlie Chaplin". Paulette Juliet Goddard Chaplin and Paulette Goddard in The Great Dictator (1940) Chaplin and actress Paulette Goddard were involved in a romantic and professional relationship between 1932 and 1940, with Goddard living with Chaplin in his Beverly Hills home for most of this time. Chaplin "discovered" Goddard and gave her starring roles in Modern Times and The Great Dictator. Refusal to clarify their marital status is often claimed to have eliminated Goddard from final consideration for the role of Scarlett O'Hara in Gone with the Wind. After the relationship ended in 1940, Chaplin and Goddard made public statements that they had been secretly married in 1936; but these claims were likely a mutual effort to prevent any lasting damage to Goddard's career. In any case, their relationship ended amicably in 1942, with Goddard being granted a settlement. Goddard went on to a major career in films at Paramount in the 1940s, working several times with Cecil B. DeMille. Like Chaplin, she lived her later life in Switzerland, dying in 1990. Joan Barry In 1942 Chaplin had a brief affair with Joan Barry (1920-1996), whom he was considering for a starring role in a proposed film, but the relationship ended when she began harassing him and displaying signs of severe mental illness (not unlike his mother). Chaplin's brief involvement with Barry proved to be a nightmare for him. After having a child, she filed a paternity suit against him in 1943. Although blood tests proved Chaplin was not the father of Barry's child, Barry's attorney, Joseph Scott, convinced the court that the tests were inadmissible as evidence, and Chaplin was ordered to support the child. The injustice of the ruling later led to a change in California law to allow blood tests as evidence. Federal prosecutors also brought Mann Act charges against Chaplin related to Barry in 1944, of which he was acquitted. Chaplin's public image in America was gravely damaged by these sensational trials. Barry was institutionalized in 1953 after she was found walking the streets barefoot, carrying a pair of baby sandals and a child's ring, and murmuring: "This is magic". Oona O'Neill During Chaplin's legal trouble over the Barry affair, he met Oona O'Neill, daughter of Eugene O'Neill, and married her on 16 June 1943. He was fifty-four; she had just turned eighteen. The elder O'Neill refused all contact with Oona after the marriage, up until his death in 1953. The marriage was a long and happy one, with eight children. They had three sons: Christopher, Eugene and Michael Chaplin and five daughters: Geraldine, Josephine, Jane, Victoria and Annette-Emilie Chaplin. Oona survived Chaplin by fourteen years, but her final years were unhappy, with grief over Chaplin's death eventually leading to alcoholism. She died from pancreatic cancer in 1991. Knighthood Chaplin was named in the New Year's Honours List in 1975. On 4 March, he was knighted at age eighty-five as a Knight Commander of the British Empire (KBE) by Queen Elizabeth II. The honour was first proposed in 1931, but was not carried through due to lingering controversy over Chaplin's failure to serve in the First World War. Knighthood was proposed again in 1956, but was vetoed by the then Conservative government for fears of damage to relations with the United States at the height of the Cold War and planned invasion of Suez of that year. Death Chaplin's robust health began to slowly fail in the late 1960s, after the completion of his final film A Countess from Hong Kong, and more rapidly after he received his Academy Award in 1972. By 1977 he could no longer communicate and was confined to a wheelchair. He died in his sleep in Vevey, Switzerland. He was interred in Corsier-Sur-Vevey Cemetery, Vaud, Switzerland. On 1 March 1978, his corpse was stolen by a small group of Swiss mechanics in an attempt to extort money from his family. The plot failed, the robbers were captured, and the corpse was recovered eleven weeks later near Lake Geneva. His body was reburied under two meters of concrete to prevent further attempts. Other controversies During World War I, Chaplin was criticized in the British press for not joining the Army. He had in fact presented himself for service, but was denied for being too small and underweight. Chaplin raised substantial funds for the war effort during War bond drives not only with public speaking at rallies but also by making, at his own expense, The Bond, a comedic propaganda film used in 1918. The lingering controversy may have prevented Chaplin from receiving a knighthood in the 1930s. For Chaplin's entire career, some level of controversy existed over claims of Jewish ancestry. Nazi propaganda in the 1930s prominently portrayed him as Jewish (named Karl Tonstein) relying on articles published in the U.S. press before, http://www.filmography.co.il/en/entry/8/ and FBI investigations of Chaplin in the late 1940s also focused on Chaplin's ethnic origins. There is no documentary evidence of Jewish ancestry for Chaplin himself. For his entire public life, he fiercely refused to challenge or refute claims that he was Jewish, saying that to do so would always "play directly into the hands of anti-Semites." Although baptised in the Church of England, Chaplin was thought to be an agnostic for most of his life. In 1924, Chaplin was aboard the yacht of William Randolph Hearst when producer Thomas Ince died there in mysterious circumstances. A dramatisation of one reported version of these events is depicted in Peter Bogdanovich's 2001 film The Cat's Meow. The precise circumstances of Ince's death are still not known. Chaplin's lifelong attraction to younger women remains another enduring source of interest to some. His biographers have attributed this to a teenage infatuation with Hetty Kelly, whom he met in Britain while performing in the music hall, and which possibly defined his feminine ideal. Chaplin clearly relished the role of discovering and closely guiding young female stars; with the exception of Mildred Harris, all of his marriages and most of his major relationships began in this manner. Legacy A minor planet, 3623 Chaplin, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Georgievna Karachkina in 1981, is named after Chaplin. The third of composer Karl Amadeus Hartmann's 1929-30 composition Wachsfigurenkabinett: Funf kleine Opern (Waxworks: Five Little Operas) is entitled 'Chaplin-Ford-Trot', and features the character of Charlie Chaplin (in a speaking rather than operatic role). Among his many honours, Chaplin has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (Chaplin's star was not dedicated until the 1970s, due to controversies over his politics in the 1950s and 1960s). In 1985 he was honoured with his image on a postage stamp of the United Kingdom, and in 1994 he appeared on a United States postage stamp designed by caricaturist Al Hirschfeld. From 1917 to 1918, silent film actor Billy West made more than 20 films as a comedian precisely imitating Chaplin's tramp character, makeup and costume. In 1992, a film was made about Chaplin's life entitled Chaplin, directed by Oscar-winner Richard Attenborough, and starring Robert Downey Jr., Dan Aykroyd, and Geraldine Chaplin (Charlie's daughter, portraying Charlie's mother, her own grandmother), for which Downey was nominated for the Best Actor Oscar in 1993. In 2001, British comedian Eddie Izzard played Chaplin in the film, The Cat's Meow, which speculated about the still-unsolved death of producer Thomas Ince aboard William Randolph Hearst's yacht, on which Chaplin was a guest. Kamal Haasan moulded his character "Chaplin Chellappa" in the Tamil film Punnagai Mannan http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2006/12/10556_space.html John Woo directed a parody film of Chaplin's "The Kid" called Hua ji shi dai (1981), aka "Laughing Times." Comparison with other silent comics Since the 1960s, Chaplin's films have been compared to those of Buster Keaton and Harold Lloyd (the other two great silent film comedians of the time), especially among the loyal fans of each comic. The three had different styles: Chaplin had a strong affinity for sentimentality and pathos (which was popular in the 1920s), Lloyd was renowned for his everyman persona and 1920s optimism, and Keaton adhered to onscreen stoicism with a cynical tone more suited to modern audiences. On a historical level, Chaplin was behind the pioneering generation of film comedians, and both the younger Keaton and Harold Lloyd built upon his groundwork (in fact, Lloyd's early characters "Willie Work" and "Lonesome Luke" were obvious Chaplin ripoffs, something that Lloyd acknowledged and tried hard to move away from—eventually succeeding). Chaplin's period of film experimentation ended after the Mutual period (1916-1917), just before Keaton entered films. Commercially, Chaplin made some of the highest-grossing films in the silent era; The Gold Rush is the fifth with US$4.25 million and The Circus is the seventh with US$3.8 million. However, Chaplin's films combined made about US$10.5 million while Harold Lloyd's grossed US$15.7 million (Lloyd was far more prolific, releasing twelve feature films in the 1920s while Chaplin released just three). Buster Keaton's films were not nearly as commercially successful as Chaplin's or Lloyd's even at the height of his popularity, and only received belated critical acclaim in the late 1950s and 1960s. Beyond a healthy professional rivalry, former vaudevillians Chaplin and Keaton thought highly of one another. Keaton stated in his autobiography that Chaplin was the greatest comedian that ever lived, and the greatest comedy director. Chaplin also greatly admired Keaton: he welcomed him to United Artists in 1925, advised him against his disastrous move to MGM in 1928, and for his last American film, Limelight, wrote a part specifically for Keaton as his first on-screen comedy partner since 1915. Chaplin was an admirer of a predecessor, the French silent movie comedian Max Linder, to whom he dedicated one of his films. Media Filmography See also Chaplin family Chaplin (1992 film) My Autobiography Chaplin: His Life and Art Edna Purviance Albert Austin Henry Bergman Eric Campbell (actor) List of United States comedy films Notes Further reading Charlie Chaplin works listed in Worldcat.org: Charles Chaplin: My Autobiography. Simon & Schuster, 1964. Charles Chaplin: Die Geschichte meines Lebens. Fischer-Verlag, 1964. (germ.) Charlie Chaplin Die Wurzeln meiner Komik in: Jüdische Allgemeine Wochenzeitung, 3.3.67, gekürzt: wieder ebd. 12.4. 2006, S. 54 (germ.) Charles Chaplin: My Life in Pictures. Bodley Head, 1974. Alistair Cooke: Six Men. Harmondsworth, 1978. S. Frind: Die Sprache als Propagandainstrument des Nationalsozialismus, in: Muttersprache, 76. Jg., 1966, S. 129-135. (germ.) Georgia Hale, Charlie Chaplin: Intimate Close-Ups, edited by Heather Kiernan. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 1995 and 1999. ISBN 157-886-0040 (1999 edition). Victor Klemperer: LTI - Notizbuch eines Philologen. Leipzig: Reclam, 1990. ISBN 337-900-1252; Frankfurt am Main (19. A.) 2004 (germ.) Charlie Chaplin at Keystone and Essanay: Dawn of the Tramp, Ted Okuda & David Maska. iUniverse, New York, 2005. Chaplin: His Life and Art, David Robinson. McGraw-Hill, second edition 2001. Chaplin: Genius of the Cinema, Jeffrey Vance. Abrams, New York, 2003. Charlie Chaplin: A Photo Diary, Michel Comte & Sam Stourdze. Steidl, first edition, hardcover, 359pp, ISBN 388-243-7928, 2002. Chaplin in Pictures, Sam Stourdze (ed.), texts by Patrice Blouin, Christian Delage and Sam Stourdze, NBC Editions, 2005. Double Exposure: Charlie Chaplin as Author and Celebrity, Jonathan Goldman. M/C Journal 7.5. External links Official sites Charlie Chaplin Website The Chaplin Museum The Charlie Chaplin Archive Biography Works by or about Charlie Chaplin at Internet Archive (scanned books original editions color illustrated) Charlie Chaplin Biography Charlie Chaplin's Golden Silence Filmography Films by, about or starring Charlie Chaplin at Internet Archive (video) Music Charles Chaplin, "Eternally", music from a Film. Record with concert of the Quartet "SKAZ" in Gun Chamber Moscow Kremlin Others Obituary, NY Times, 26 December 1977 Chaplin's Little Tramp, an Everyman Trying to Gild Cage of Life, Enthralled World The TIME 100: Charlie Chaplin Chaplin films at ednapurviance.org About Chaplin UK |- |- be-x-old:Чарлі Чаплін

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Jan_and_Dean

Jan and Dean were a rock and roll duo, popular from the late 1950s through the mid 1960s, consisting of William Jan Berry (April 3, 1941 – March 26, 2004) and Dean Ormsby Torrence (born March 10, 1940). Although Jan & Dean pre-dated The Beach Boys, they became most famously associated with the vocal "surf music" craze inspired by The Beach Boys. Beginnings: 1958-1963 Jan Berry and Dean Torrence, both born in Los Angeles, California, began singing together as a duo after football practice at University High School. Primitive recording sessions followed soon after, in a makeshift studio in Berry's garage. They first performed onstage as "The Barons" at a high school dance. With the Barons, Jan Berry was experimenting with multi-part vocal arrangements — five years before he started working professionally with Brian Wilson. Barons and KJAN recordings (open reel tapes, including "a cappella" harmonies) provided by Joe Lubin, eventual producer for Jan and Arnie, to Mark A. Moore. Dean Torrence is present as a vocalist on some of these garage recordings. Their first commercial success was "Jennie Lee" (1958), an ode to a local, Hollywood burlesque performer, that Jan Berry recorded with fellow Baron Arnie Ginsburg and which reached #8 on the charts. "Jan & Arnie" released three singles in all. After Dean Torrence returned from a stint in the army reserves, Berry and Torrence began to make music as "Jan and Dean". With the help of record producers Herb Alpert and Lou Adler, Jan and Dean scored a #10 hit with "Baby Talk" (1959), and then scored a series of hits over the next couple of years. Playing local venues, they met and performed with the Beach Boys, and discovered the appeal of the latter's "surf sound". By this time, Berry was co-writing, arranging, and producing all of Jan and Dean's original material. Berry signed a series of contracts with Screen Gems to write and produce music for Jan and Dean, as well as other artists such as Judy & Jill (which included Berry's girlfriend Jill Gibson and Dean Torrence's girlfriend Judy Lovejoy), The Matadors, and Pixie (a young female solo singer). Jan Berry's Nevins-Kirshner and Screen Gems contracts in possession of Mark A. Moore. During this time, Berry co-wrote and/or arranged and produced songs for artists outside of Jan and Dean, including The Angels ("I Adore Him", Top 30), the Gents, the Matadors (Sinners), Judy & Jill, Pixie (unreleased), Jill Gibson, Shelley Fabares, Deane Hawley, The Rip Chords ("Three Window Coupe", Top 30), and Johnny Crawford, among others. Part-time musicians Unlike most other rock 'n roll acts of the period, Jan and Dean did not give music their full-time attention. Jan & Dean were college students, maintaining their studies while writing and recording music and making public appearances on the side. Torrence majored in advertising design in the school of architecture at USC. Berry took science and music classes at UCLA, and entered the California College of Medicine (now the UC Irvine School of Medicine) in 1963. By the time of his 1966 auto accident, Berry had completed two years of medical school. Jan Berry's UCLA and CCM school transcripts, in possession of Mark A. Moore Surf's golden boys: 1963-1964 Jan and Dean reached their commercial peak in 1963 and 1964. The duo scored an impressive sixteen Top 40 hits on the Billboard and Cash Box magazine charts, with a total of twenty-six chart hits over an eight-year period (1958-1966). Jan and Brian Wilson collaborated on roughly a dozen hits and album cuts for Jan and Dean, including the number one national hit "Surf City" in 1963. Subsequent top 10 hits included "Drag City" (#10) (1963), "The Little Old Lady from Pasadena" (#3) (1964), and the eerily portentous "Dead Man's Curve" (#8) (1964). In 1964, at the height of their fame, Jan and Dean hosted and performed at The T.A.M.I. Show, a historic concert film directed by Steve Binder. The film also featured such acts as The Rolling Stones, Chuck Berry, Gerry & The Pacemakers, James Brown, Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas, Marvin Gaye, The Supremes, Lesley Gore, Smokey Robinson & The Miracles, and the Beach Boys (whose sequence was later cut from the film, due to contract violation issues). Also in 1964, the duo performed the title track for the Columbia Pictures film Ride the Wild Surf, starring Fabian, Tab Hunter, Peter Brown, Shelley Fabares, and Barbara Eden. The song, penned by Jan Berry, Brian Wilson, and Roger Christian, was a Top 20 national hit. Jan and Dean also filmed two unreleased television pilots: Surf Scene in 1963 and On the Run in 1966. Their feature film for Paramount Pictures, Easy Come, Easy Go, was canceled when Berry, as well as the film's director and other crew members, were seriously injured in a railroad accident while shooting the movie in Chatsworth, California in August 1965. Changing times: 1965-1966 After the surf craze, Jan and Dean scored two Top-30 hits in 1965: "You Really Know How to Hurt a Guy" and "I Found a Girl" — the latter from the album Folk 'n Roll. During this period, they also began to experiment with cutting-edge comedy concepts such as the original (unreleased) Filet of Soul and Jan & Dean Meet Batman. The former's album cover shows Berry with his leg in a cast as a result of the accident while filming Easy Come, Easy Go. Berry's car wreck and its aftermath: 1966-1968 On April 12, 1966, Berry received severe head injuries in an automobile accident just a short distance from Dead Man's Curve in Los Angeles, California, two years after the song had become a hit. Berry was on his way to a business meeting when he crashed his Corvette into a parked truck on Whittier Drive, near the intersection of Sunset Boulevard, in Beverly Hills. Berry had also separated from his girlfriend of seven years, singer-artist Jill Gibson, later a member for a short time of The Mamas and the Papas, who had also co-written several songs with Berry. Berry traveled a long and difficult road toward recovery from brain damage and partial paralysis. He had minimal use of his right arm, and had to learn to write with his left hand. Doctors said he would never walk again, but he refused to give up, and ultimately succeeded. Torrence stood by his partner, maintaining their presence in the music industry, and keeping open the possibility that they would perform together again. Jan Berry's detailed medical records and psychological evaluations, 1966-2004, in possession of Mark A. Moore. In Berry's absence, Torrence released several singles on the J&D Record Co. label and recorded Save for a Rainy Day in 1966, a concept album featuring all rain-themed songs. Torrence posed with Berry's brother Ken for the album cover photos. Columbia Records released one single from the project ("Yellow Balloon") as did the song's writer, Gary Zekley, with The Yellow Balloon, but with legal wrangles scuttling Torrence's Columbia deal and Berry's disapproval of the project, Save for a Rainy Day remained a self-released album on the J&D Record Co. label. Studio and Legal documentation in possession of Mark A. Moore. Besides his studio work, Torrence became a graphic artist while Berry recovered, starting his own company, Kittyhawk Graphics, and designing and creating album covers and logos for other musicians and recording artists, including Harry Nilsson, Steve Martin, the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, Dennis Wilson, Bruce Johnston, The Beach Boys, Diana Ross and The Supremes, Linda Ronstadt, Papa Doo Run Run, Canned Heat, The Ventures and many others. Torrence (with Gene Brownell) won a Grammy Award for Album Cover of the Year, for the group Pollution in 1973. Berry returned to the studio in April 1967, one year to the month after his accident. Working with collaborators, he began writing and producing music again. In December 1967, Jan and Dean signed an agreement with Warner Bros. Records. Warner issued two singles under the name Jan and Dean, but a 1968 Berry-produced album for Warner Bros., the psychedelic Carnival of Sound, remains unreleased. Moore, Mark A. "Rainy Days in a Carnival of Sound: "The Lost Renaissance of Jan & Dean." Endless Summer Quarterly (Fall 2007). Also Studio, AFM, AFTRA, contract, legal, and company documentation in possession of Moore. Further progress: 1969-1978 Berry began to sing again in the early 1970s, and he arranged and produced a number of singles (both solo and as Jan & Dean) between 1972 and 1978 on the Ode and A&M labels, facilitated by friend and former manager Lou Adler. Studio documentation in possession of Mark A. Moore, plus Alan Wolfson, Jim Pewter, and Lou Adler interviews conducted by Moore. Berry also toured with his Aloha band, while Dean began performing with a band called Papa Doo Run Run. In 1973, Jan and Dean made an appearance at the Hollywood Palladium, as part of Jim Pewter's "Surfer's Stomp" reunion. But the duo's first performance after Berry's accident — backed with live musicians — occurred at the Palomino Nightclub in North Hollywood, June 5, 1976 (ten years after the accident). Backing the duo was Dean's band, Papa Doo Run Run. The day after that performance there was a very positive review in "Variety" and the phones started ringing. By fall 1976, a successful tour of the Pacific Northwest took place. This was followed by four additional nationwide tours between 1977 and 1980. Jan was still suffering the effects of his 1966 accident, with partial paralysis and aphasia. He had a noticeable limp and his right arm was useless. In addition, his speech was slurred. Don Zirilli, Manager of Papa Doo Run Run. Documentation provided by Jim Pewter to Mark A. Moore. Pewter took photographs of the Palomino event. In 1974, attorney Paul Morantz published a landmark article about Jan Berry's recovery in Rolling Stone magazine. Rolling Stone, No. 179, September 12, 1974. Back on the road: 1978-2004 On February 3, 1978, CBS aired a made-for-TV movie about the duo titled Deadman's Curve. The biopic starred Richard Hatch as Jan Berry and Bruce Davison as Dean Torrence, with cameo appearances by Dick Clark, Wolfman Jack, Mike Love of the Beach Boys, and Bruce Johnston (who at that time was temporarily out of the Beach Boys), as well as Berry himself (near the end of the movie, he can be seen sitting in the audience, watching "himself" (Richard Hatch) perform onstage). The part of Jan & Dean's band, Papa Doo Run Run, was played by themselves. Johnston and Berry had known each other since high school, and had played music together in Berry's garage in Bel Air — long before Jan & Dean or the Beach Boys were formed. Following the release of the film, the duo made steps toward an official comeback that year, including touring with the Beach Boys. In the early 1980s, Papa Doo Run Run left to explore other performance and recording ventures. Berry struggled to overcome drug addiction, so Torrence toured briefly as "Mike & Dean", with Mike Love of the Beach Boys. Once Berry got sober, the duo reunited for good. In "Phase II" of their career, Dean Torrence led the touring operation. In 1986, Berry helped establish the Jan Berry Center for the Brain Injured in Downey, California. Though Berry only made a partial recovery, he remained a high-profile example for patients with traumatic brain injury. In association with Rancho Los Amigos and Southern California Rehabilitation Services. Documentation and promotional literature in possession of Mark A. Moore. Jan and Dean continued to tour on their own throughout the 1980s, 1990s, and into the new millennium — with 1960s nostalgia providing them with a ready audience. Sundazed Records reissued Save for a Rainy Day in 1996, and the album drew critical praise. Between the 1970s and 1990s, Torrence issued a number of re-recordings of classic Jan and Dean hits. An album titled One Summer Night / Live was issued by Rhino Records in 1982, and Dean collaborated with Berry on Port to Paradise, released on J&D Records in 1986. In 1997, after many years of hard work, Berry released a solo album called Second Wave on One Way Records. On August 31, 1991, Berry married Gertie Filip at The Stardust Convention Centre in Las Vegas, Nevada. Torrence was Berry's best man at the wedding. Jan and Dean ended with Jan Berry's death on March 26, 2004, at the age of 62. Berry was an organ donor, and his body was cremated. On April 18, 2004, a "Celebration of Life" was held in Berry's memory at The Roxy Theatre on the Sunset Strip in West Hollywood, California. Celebrities attending the event included Dean Torrence, Lou Adler, Jill Gibson, and Nancy Sinatra. Also present were many family members, friends, and musicians associated with Jan and Dean and the Beach Boys including the original 1970's version of Papa Doo Run Run. Torrence now tours occasionally with The Surf City Allstars. He serves as a spokesman for the City of Huntington Beach California, which, thanks in part to his efforts, is nationally recognized as "Surf City USA". He officially endorses the Official Jan & Dean Fan Site. Dean Torrence lives in Huntington Beach, California with his wife and two daughters. Katie Torrence, his oldest daughter, is reportedly recording an album. Jan and Dean's place in rock history According to rock critic Dave Marsh, the attitude and public persona of punk rock can be traced to Jan and Dean. Dave Marsh "An Analytical Study", in the liners for Jan and Dean's Anthology LP, United Artists, 1971. Moreover, both Jan Berry and Dean Torrence's anti-establishment attitude toward the music industry is well documented. Their music has been covered by numerous Punk and alternative bands since the 1970s. Along with Phil Spector, Brian Wilson, and Lee Hazlewood, Berry enjoyed a reputation as one of the best record producers on the West Coast. Peer acknowledgment from Berry's music industry associates, who knew and worked closely with him, included Artie Kornfeld, P. F. Sloan, Steve Barri, Hal Blaine, Bones Howe, Kim Fowley, and Joe Lubin, among others. From in-depth interviews conducted by Mark A. Moore. Brian Wilson has cited Berry as having a direct impact on his own growth as a record producer. Brian Wilson interview with Peter Jones Productions, quoted in article by Mark A. Moore titled: Jan Berry 101: A Study in Composition (Endless Summer Quarterly, Summer 2004). Dean Torrence believes the duo should be in the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame: "We have the scoreboard if you just want to compare number of hits and musical projects done. We beat 75 percent of the people in there. So what else is it? I've got to think that we were pretty irreverent when it came to the music industry. They kind of always held that against us. That's OK with me." Quote in liner notes to the CD: Jan & Dean The Complete Liberty Singles The Who covered Jan and Deans song "Bucket T" on their album A Quick One from 1966. Being very rare, Keith Moon (a huge surf music fan) provided the lead vocals. Dean Torrence also played a small part in a more sinister chapter of music history, when he loaned $500 to high school pal Barry Keenan to finance the successful plot to kidnap Frank Sinatra, Jr. The Kidnapping of Frank Sinatra, Jr. Discography Singles Billboard (BB) and Cashbox (CB) chart peak positions shown (Top 10 positions in bold) 1958 (Jan & Arnie) 01. "Jennie Lee" b/w "Gotta Get a Date" (Arwin 108) - BB #8, CB #3 - (JL) 02. "Gas Money" b/w "Bonnie Lou" (Arwin 111) - BB #81 - (JL) 03. "The Beat That Can't Be Beat" b/w "I Love Linda" (Arwin 113) - (JL) 1959 (Jan & Dean) 04. "Baby Talk" b/w "Jeanette Get Your Hair Done" (Dore 522) - BB #10, CB #7 - (AA) First pressings erroneously shown as "Jan & Arnie" 05. "There's a Girl" b/w "My Heart Sings" (Dore 531) - BB #97, CB #80 - (AA) 1960 06. "Clementine" b/w "You're On My Mind" (Dore 539) - BB #65, CB #88 - (AA) 07. "White Tennis Sneakers" b/w "Cindy" (Dore 548) - (AA) 08. "We Go Together" b/w "Rosie Lane" (Dore 555) - BB #53, CB #39 - (AA) Original pressings show B-side as "Rosilane" 09. "Gee" b/w "Such a Good Nights Dreaming" (Dore 576) - BB #81 - (AA) 1961 10. "Baggy Pants" b/w "Judy's an Angel" (Dore 583) - (AA) 11. "Tomorrow's Teardrops" b/w "My Midsummer Nights Dream" (Ripple 6101) - (LA) Jan Berry solo release, misspelled as Jan Barry on label 12. "Heart and Soul" b/w "Midsummer Nights Dream" (Challenge 9111) - BB #25, CB #16 - (LA) (AJB) 13. "Don't Fly Away" b/w "Julie" (Dore 610) - (LA) 14. "Wanted One Girl" b/w "Something a Little Bit Different" (Challenge 9120) - BB #104 - (LA) 15. "A Sunday Kind of Love" b/w "Poor Little Puppet" (Liberty 55397) - BB #95 - (LA) (AJB) 1962 16. "Tennessee" b/w "You're Heart Has Changed Its Mind" (Liberty 55454) - BB #69, CB #83 - (SG) (LA) 17. "Who Put the Bomp" b/w "My Favorite Dream" (Liberty 55496) - (LA) 18. "Frosty the Snowman" b/w "She's Still Talking Baby Talk" (Liberty 55522) - (LA) 1963 19. "Linda" b/w "When I Learn How to Cry" (Liberty 55531) - BB #28, CB #26 - (JB) 20. "Surf City" b/w "She's My Summer Girl" (Liberty 55580) - BB #1, CB #1 - (JB) 21. "Honolulu Lulu" b/w "Someday (You'll Go Walking By)" (Liberty 55613) - BB #11, CB #10 - (JB) 22. "Drag City" b/w "Schlock Rod Part 1" (Liberty 55641) - BB #10, CB #10 - (JB) 1964 23. "Dead Man's Curve" b/w "The New Girl In School" (Liberty 55672) - BB #8, CB #9 / BB #37, CB #26 - (JB) 24. "The Little Old Lady from Pasadena" b/w "My Mighty G.T.O" (Liberty 55704) - BB #3, CB #5 - (JB) 25. "Ride The Wild Surf" b/w "The Anaheim, Azusa & Cucamonga Sewing Circle, Book Review And Timing Association" (Liberty 55724) - BB #16, CB #23 / BB #77, CB #50 - (JB) 26. "Sidewalk Surfin'" b/w "When It's Over" (Liberty 55727) - BB #25, CB #28 - (JB) 1965 27. "(Here They Come) From All Over the World" b/w "Freeway Flyer" (Liberty 55766) - BB #56, CB #50 - (JB) 28. "Summertime Summertime" b/w "Theme From Leons Garage" (Brer Bird 001) (Dean Torrence, Released as "Our Gang") - (GZ-DT) 29. "You Really Know How to Hurt a Guy" b/w "It's as Easy As 1,2,3" (Liberty 55792) - BB #27, CB #42 - (JB) Despite being an official Jan & Dean song, Dean Torrence does not appear on the A-side 30. "It's a Shame to Say Goodbye" b/w "Submarine Races" (Liberty 55816) (Cancelled) - (JB) 31. "I Found A Girl" b/w "It's a Shame to Say Goodbye" (Liberty 55833) - BB #30, CB #39 - (JB) 32. "The Universal Soldier" b/w "I Can't Wait to Love You" (Liberty 55845) - (JB) 33. "A Beginning From an End" b/w "Folk City" (Liberty 55849) - BB #109 - (JB) 1966 34. "Norwegian Wood" b/w "I Can't Wait To Love You" (Liberty 55856) (Cancelled) - (JB) 35. "Batman!" b/w "Bucket "T"" (Liberty 55860) - BB #66, CB #60 - (JB) Last single released before Jan's car accident 36. "Popsicle" b/w "Norwegian Wood" (Liberty 55886) - BB #21, CB #24 - (JB) 37. "Fiddle Around" b/w "A Surfer's Dream" (Liberty 55905) - BB #93, CB #73 - (LA) / (JB) 38. "School Day (Ring! Ring! Goes the Bell)" b/w "The New Girl In School" (Liberty 55923) - (JB) 39. "Summertime Summertime" b/w "California Lullaby" (Magic Lamp 401) - (DT) Also released on J&D 001 40. "Like a Summer Rain" b/w "Louisiana Man" (J&D Record Co. 402) - (DT) / (JB) 1967 41. "Yellow Balloon b/w "Taste of Rain" (Columbia 44036) #111 - (DT) 42. "Hawaii" b/w "Tijuana" (Jan & Dean Label 10) - (JB) 43. "Fan Tan" b/w "Love & Hate" (Jan & Dean Label 11) - (JB) 44. "Only a Boy" b/w "Love & Hate" (Warner Bros. 7151) - (JB) 45. "Vegetables" b/w "Snowflakes On Laughing Gravy's Whiskers" (White Whale 261) - (LG) Released as by "Laughing Gravy" 1968 46. "I Know My Mind" b/w "Laurel & Hardy" (Warner Bros. 7219) - (JB) 47. "Girl You're Blowing My Mind" b/w "In the Still of the Night" (Warner Bros. 7240) - (JB)Promo copies known to exist, commercial copies unconfirmed Albums Billboard and Cashbox chart peak positions 1960 1. Jan & Dean (Dore LP-101) - (AA)Issued in mono only, includes bonus photo. Original copies feature blue record labels, 70's reissues feature black labels1962 2. Jan & Dean's Golden Hits (Liberty LRP-3248 (Mono)/LST-7248 (Stereo)) - (LA) 1963 3. Jan & Dean Take Linda Surfin' (Liberty LRP-3294/LST-7294) - BB #71 - (JB) 4. Surf City & Other Swingin Cities (Liberty LRP-3314/LST-7314) - BB #32, CB Mono chart #21 - (JB) 5. Drag City (Liberty LRP-3339/LST-7339) - BB #22, CB Mono chart #17 - (JB) 1964 6. Dead Man's Curve / The New Girl in School (Liberty LRP-3361/LST-7361) - BB #80, CB Mono chart #42 - (JB)Original album covers are black and white with pink tint, later replaced with full-color covers of the same photo7. Ride the Wild Surf (Liberty LRP-3368/LST-7368) - BB #66, CB Mono chart #26 - (JB) 8. The Little Old Lady From Pasadena (Liberty LRP-3377/LST-7377) - BB #40, CB Mono chart #40 - (JB) 1965 (Note: Mono and Stereo Cashbox album charts were merged by this time) 9. Command Performance (Liberty LRP-3403/LST-7403) - BB #33, CB #42 - (JB)Featuring their performance from "The T.A.M.I. Show" 10. Pop Symphony No. 1 (Liberty LRP-3414/LST-7414) - (JB-GT) Instrumental interpretations of Jan & Dean's hits by The Bel-Aire Pops Orchestra, conducted by Jan Berry & George Tipton 12. Golden Hits Vol. 2 (Liberty LRP-3417/LST-7417) - BB #107, CB #71 - (JB) 13. Folk 'n Roll (Liberty LRP-3431/LST-7431) - BB #145, CB #87 - (JB-GT) 1966 14. Jan & Dean Meet Batman (Liberty LRP-3444/LST-7444) - (JB) Last album released before Jan's car accident 15. Filet of Soul (Liberty LRP-3441/LST-7441) - BB #127 - (JB) 16. Popsicle (Liberty LRP-3458/LST-7458) - (JB) (SG) 17. Golden Hits Vol. 3 (Liberty LRP-3460/LST-7460) - (JB) 18. Save for a Rainy Day (J&D Record Co. 101) - (DT) Private pressings by Dean Torrence 1967 19. Save for a Rainy Day (Columbia CL 2661 (Mono)/CS 9461 (Stereo)) (Cancelled) - (DT) Acetate of stereo version confirmed to exist 1968 20. Carnival of Sound (Warner Bros.) (Unreleased) - (JB) 1971 21. Jan & Dean Anthology Album (United Artists UAS-9961) 1974 22. Gotta Take That One Last Ride (United Artists UA-LA341-H2) 1975 23. The Very Best of Jan & Dean (United Artists UA-LA443-E) 24. The Very Best of Jan & Dean, Volume 2 (United Artists UA-LA515-E) 1982 25. One Summer Night/Live (Rhino RNDA 1498) 1985 26. Silver Summer/25th Anniversary Album (Silver Eagle) 1986 27. Port To Paradise (J&D) 1996 28. Save For A Rainy Day (Sundazed LP 5022) First commercial release; 2-record set featuring original mono tracks plus bonus tracks of unreleased songs and alternate mixes 29. Save For A Rainy Day (Sundazed CD SC 11035) First commercial release; original mono tracks plus 13 bonus tracks of unreleased songs and alternate mixes 30. Jan & Dean (The Dore Album) (Sundazed LP 5040) Reissue of original Dore LP with bonus tracks and posted, pressed on color vinyl (JL) = Produced by Joe Lubin (AA) = Produced by Lou Adler & Herb Alpert (LA) = Produced by Lou Adler (SG) = Produced by Snuff Garrett (AJB) = Arranged by Jan Berry (JB) = Arranged & Produced by Jan Berry (JB-GT) = Arranged & Produced by Jan Berry and George Tipton (GZ-DT) = Arranged & Produced by Gary Zekley & Dean Torrence (DT) = Produced by Dean Torrence (LG) = A Laughing Gravy Production References Footnotes External links Official Jan & Dean Web Site Official Jan & Dean Web Page Official Jan Berry Website Jan and Dean at Allmusic Jan and Dean at Discogs Dean Torrence History Jan & Dean from History-of-rock Surfin Again - The Authorized International Jan & Dean Site Google Map location of Jan Berry's accident

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Draupnir

Draupnir is a golden arm ring possessed by Odin, the highest god in Norse mythology. The ring was a source of endless wealth, since each ninth morning it had spawned eight more gold rings just like itself. Draupnir was forged by the dwarven brothers Brokkr and Eitri (or Sindri). Its name means Dripper in English. Brokkr and Eitri made this ring as one of a set of three gifts which included Mjöllnir and Gullinbursti. They made these gifts in accordance with a wager Loki made saying that Brokk and Eitri could not make better gifts than the three made by the Sons of Ivaldi. In the end Mjöllnir, Thor's hammer, won the contest for Brokkr and Eitri. Loki used a loophole to get out of the wager for his head and Brokk punished him by sealing his lips shut with wire. The ring was placed by Odin on the funeral pyre of his son Baldr: Odin laid upon the pyre the gold ring called Draupnir; this quality attended it: that every ninth night there fell from it eight gold rings of equal weight. (from the Gylfaginning). The ring was subsequently retrieved by Hermóðr. It was offered as a gift by Freyr's servant Skírnir in the wooing of Gerd, which is described in the poem Skírnismál.

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Blindness

Blindness is the condition of lacking visual perception due to physiological or neurological factors. Various scales have been developed to describe the extent of vision loss and define "blindness." International Council of Ophthalmology. "International Standards: Visual Standards — Aspects and Ranges of Vision Loss with Emphasis on Population Surveys." April 2002. Total blindness is the complete lack of form and visual light perception and is clinically recorded as "NLP," an abbreviation for "no light perception." Blindness is frequently used to describe severe visual impairment with residual vision. Those described as having only "light perception" have no more sight than the ability to tell light from dark. A person with only "light projection" can tell the general direction of a light source. In order to determine which people may need special assistance because of their visual disabilities, various governmental jurisdictions have formulated more complex definitions referred to as legal blindness. Belote, Larry. "Low Vision Education and Training: Defining the Boundaries of Low Vision Patients." A Personal Guide to the VA Visual Impairment Services Program. Retrieved March 31, 2006. In North America and most of Europe, legal blindness is defined as visual acuity (vision) of 20/200 (6/60) or less in the better eye with best correction possible. This means that a legally blind individual would have to stand from an object to see it—with vision correction—with the same degree of clarity as a normally sighted person could from . In many areas, people with average acuity who nonetheless have a visual field of less than 20 degrees (the norm being 180 degrees) are also classified as being legally blind. Approximately ten percent of those deemed legally blind, by any measure, have no vision. The rest have some vision, from light perception alone to relatively good acuity. Low vision is sometimes used to describe visual acuities from 20/70 to 20/200. Living with Low Vision - American Foundation for the Blind By the 10th Revision of the WHO International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death, low vision is defined as visual acuity of less than 6/18 (20/60), but equal to or better than 3/60 (20/400), or corresponding visual field loss to less than 20 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction. Blindness is defined as visual acuity of less than 3/60 (20/400), or corresponding visual field loss to less than 10 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction. http://www3.who.int/icd/currentversion/fr-icd.htm WHO | Magnitude and causes of visual impairment It should be noted that blind people with undamaged eyes may still register light non-visually for the purpose of circadian entrainment to the 24-hour light/dark cycle. Light signals for this purpose travel through the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT), so a damaged optic nerve beyond where the RHT exits it is no hindrance. Legal blindness In 1934, the American Medical Association (AMA) adopted the following definition of blindness: Central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with corrective glasses or central visual acuity of more than 20/200 if there is a visual field defect in which the peripheral field is contracted to such an extent that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angular distance no greater than 20 degrees in the better eye. Koestler, F. A., (1976). The unseen minority: a social history of blindness in the United States. New York: David McKay. The United States Congress included this definition as part of the Aid to the Blind program in the Social Security Act passed in 1935. Corn, AL; Spungin, SJ. "Free and Appropriate Public Education and the Personnel Crisis for Students with Visual Impairments and Blindness." Center on Personnel Studies in Special Education. April 2003. In 1972, the Aid to the Blind program and two others combined under Title XVI of the Social Security Act to form the Supplemental Security Income program http://www.ssa.gov/history/pdf/80chap12.pdf which currently states: An individual shall be considered to be blind for purposes of this title if he has central visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with the use of a correcting lens. An eye which is accompanied by a limitation in the fields of vision such that the widest diameter of the visual field subtends an angle no greater than 20 degrees shall be considered for purposes of the first sentence of this subsection as having a central visual acuity of 20/200 or less. An individual shall also be considered to be blind for purposes of this title if he is blind as defined under a State plan approved under title X or XVI as in effect for October 1972 and received aid under such plan (on the basis of blindness) for December 1973, so long as he is continuously blind as so defined. Social Security Act. "Sec. 1614. Meaning of terms." Retrieved February 17, 2006. Kuwait is one of many nations that share the same criteria for legal blindness. Al-Merjan JI, Pandova MG, Al-Ghanim M, Al-Wayel A, Al-Mutairi S. "Registered blindness and low vision in Kuwait." Ophthalmic Epidemiol. 2005 Aug;12(4):251-7. PMID 16033746. Epidemiology In 1987, it was estimated that 598,000 people in the United States met the legal definition of blindness. Kirchner, C., Stephen, G. & Chandu, F. (1987). "Estimated 1987 prevalence of non-institutionalized 'severe visual impairment' by age base on 1977 estimated rates: U. S.", 1987. AER Yearbook. Of this number, 58% were over the age of 65. In 1994-1995, 1.3 million Americans reported legal blindness. American Foundation for the Blind. "Statistics and Sources for Professionals." Retrieved April 1, 2006. In the November 2004 article Magnitude and causes of visual impairment, the WHO estimated that in 2002 there were 161 million (about 2.6% of the world population) visually impaired people in the world, of whom 124 million (about 2%) had low vision and 37 million (about 0.6%) were blind. Causes of blindness Serious visual impairment has a variety of causes: Diseases Most visual impairment is caused by disease and malnutrition. According to WHO estimates in 2002, the most common causes of blindness around the world are: cataracts (47.9%), glaucoma (12.3%), age-related macular degeneration (AMD) (8.7%), corneal opacity (5.1%), and diabetic retinopathy (4.8%), among other causes. People in developing countries are significantly more likely to experience visual impairment as a consequence of treatable or preventable conditions than are their counterparts in the developed world. While vision impairment is most common in people over age 60 across all regions, children in poorer communities are more likely to be affected by blinding diseases than are their more affluent peers. The link between poverty and treatable visual impairment is most obvious when conducting regional comparisons of cause. Most adult visual impairment in North America and Western Europe is related to age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. While both of these conditions are subject to treatment, neither can be cured. In developing countries, wherein people have shorter life expectancies, cataracts and water-borne parasites—both of which can be treated effectively—are most often the culprits (see River blindness, for example). Of the estimated 40 million blind people located around the world, 70–80% can have some or all of their sight restored through treatment. In developed countries where parasitic diseases are less common and cataract surgery is more available, age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy are usually the leading causes of blindness. Bunce C, Wormald R. "Leading Causes of Certification for Blindness and Partial Sight in England & Wales." BMC Public Health. 2006 March 8;6(1):58 [Epub ahead of print]. PMID 16524463. Abnormalities and injuries Eye injuries, most often occurring in people under 30, are the leading cause of monocular blindness (vision loss in one eye) throughout the United States. Injuries and cataracts affect the eye itself, while abnormalities such as optic nerve hypoplasia affect the nerve bundle that sends signals from the eye to the back of the brain, which can lead to decreased visual acuity. People with injuries to the occipital lobe of the brain can, despite having undamaged eyes and optic nerves, still be legally or totally blind. Genetic defects People with albinism often suffer from visual impairment to the extent that many are legally blind, though few of them actually cannot see. Leber's congenital amaurosis can cause total blindness or severe sight loss from birth or early childhood. Recent advances in mapping of the human genome have identified other genetic causes of low vision or blindness. One such example is Bardet-Biedl syndrome. Poisoning Rarely, blindness is caused by the intake of certain chemicals. A well-known example is methanol, which ironically is only mildly toxic and minimally intoxicating, but when not competing with ethanol for metabolism, methanol breaks down into the substances formaldehyde and formic acid which in turn can cause blindness, an array of other health complications, and death. Methanol is commonly found in methylated spirits, denatured ethyl alcohol, to avoid paying taxes on selling ethanol intended for human consumption. Methylated spirits are sometimes used by alcoholics as a desperate and cheap substitute for regular ethanol alcoholic beverages. Willful actions Blinding has been used as an act of vengeance and torture in some instances, to deprive a person of a major sense by which they can navigate or interact within the world, act fully independently, and be aware of events surrounding them. An example from the classical realm is Oedipus, who gouges out his own eyes after realizing that he fulfilled the awful prophecy spoken of him. In 2003, a Pakistani man named Mohammad Sajid was sentenced to be blinded under Islamic Qisas law, for blinding his fiancee after her parents called off the engagement. Treatments A 2008 study published in the New England Journal of Medicine tested the effect of using gene therapy to help restore the sight of patients with a rare form of inherited blindness, known as Leber Congenital Amaurosis or LCA. Leber Congenital Amaurosis damages the light receptors in the retina and usually begins affecting sight in early childhood, with worsening vision until complete blindness around the age of 30. The study used a common cold virus to deliver a normal version of the gene called RPE65 directly into the eyes of affected patients. Remarkably all 3 patients aged 19, 22 and 25 responded well to the treatment and reported improved vision following the procedure. Due to the age of the patients and the degenerative nature of LCA the improvement of vision in gene therapy patients is encouraging for researchers. It is hoped that gene therapy may be even more effective in younger LCA patients who have experienced limited vision loss as well as in other blind or partially blind individuals. Adaptive techniques A tactile feature on a Canadian banknote. Visually impaired and blind people have devised a number of techniques that allow them to complete daily activities using their remaining senses. These might include the following: Adaptive computer and mobile phone software that allows people with visual impairments to interact with their computers and/or phones via screen readers or screen magnifiers. Adaptations of coins and banknotes so that the value can be determined by touch. For example: In some currencies, such as the euro, the pound sterling and the Indian rupee, the size of a note increases with its value. On US coins, pennies and dimes, and nickels and quarters are similar in size. The larger denominations (dimes and quarters) have ridges along the sides for identification. Some currencies' banknotes have a tactile feature to indicate denomination. For example, the tactile feature is a system of raised dots in one corner, based on Braille cells but not standard Braille Accessibility features - Bank Notes - Bank of Canada . It is also possible to fold notes in different ways to assist recognition. Labeling and tagging clothing and other personal items Placing different types of food at different positions on a dinner plate Marking controls of household appliances Most people, once they have been visually impaired for long enough, devise their own adaptive strategies in all areas of personal and professional management. For corrective surgery of blindness, see acquired vision. Tools Designers, both visually impaired and sighted, have developed a number of tools for use by blind people. Mobility Folded long cane. Many people with serious visual impairments can travel independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Orientation and mobility specialists are professionals who are specifically trained to teach people with visual impairments how to travel safely, confidently, and independently in the home and the community. These professionals can also help blind people to practice travelling on specific routes which they may use often, such as the route from one's house to a convenience store. Becoming familiar with an environment or route can make it much easier for a blind person to navigate successfully. Tools such as the white cane with a red tip - the international symbol of blindness - may also be used to improve mobility. A long cane is used to extend the user's range of touch sensation. It is usually swung in a low sweeping motion, across the intended path of travel, to detect obstacles. However, techniques for cane travel can vary depending on the user and/or the situation. Some visually impaired persons do not carry these kinds of canes, opting instead for the shorter, lighter identification (ID) cane. Still others require a support cane. The choice depends on the individual's vision, motivation, and other factors. A small number of people employ guide dogs to assist in mobility. These dogs are trained to navigate around various obstacles, and to indicate when it becomes necessary to go up or down a step. However, the helpfulness of guide dogs is limited by the inability of dogs to understand complex directions. The human half of the guide dog team does the directing, based upon skills acquired through previous mobility training. In this sense, the handler might be likened to an aircraft's navigator, who must know how to get from one place to another, and the dog is the pilot, who gets them there safely. Government actions are sometimes taken to make public places more accessible to blind people. Public transportation is freely available to the blind in many cities. Tactile paving and audible traffic signals can make it easier and safer for visually impaired pedestrians to cross streets. In addition to making rules about who can and cannot use a cane, some governments mandate the right-of-way be given to users of white canes or guide dogs. Reading and magnification Watch for the blind Most visually impaired people who are not totally blind read print, either of a regular size or enlarged by magnification devices. Many also read large-print, which is easier for them to read without such devices. A variety of magnifying glasses, some handheld, and some on desktops, can make reading easier for them. The rest read Braille (or the infrequently used Moon type), or rely on talking books and readers or reading machines, which convert printed text to speech or Braille. They use computers with special hardware such as scanners and refreshable Braille displays as well as software written specifically for the blind, such as optical character recognition applications and screen readers. Some people access these materials through agencies for the blind, such as the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in the United States, the National Library for the Blind or the RNIB in the United Kingdom. Closed-circuit televisions, equipment that enlarges and contrasts textual items, are a more high-tech alternative to traditional magnification devices. So too are modern web browsers, which can increase the size of text on some web pages through browser controls or through user-controlled style sheets. There are also over 100 radio reading services throughout the world that provide people with vision impairments with readings from periodicals over the radio. The International Association of Audio Information Services provides links to all of these organizations. Computers Access technology such as screen readers and Screen magnifiers enable the blind to use mainstream computer applications. Most legally blind people (70% of them across all ages, according to the Seattle Lighthouse for the Blind) do not use computers. Only a small fraction of this population, when compared to the sighted community, have Internet access. This bleak outlook is changing, however, as availability of assistive technology increases, accompanied by concerted efforts to ensure the accessibility of information technology to all potential users, including the blind. Later versions of Microsoft Windows include an Accessibility Wizard & Magnifier for those with partial vision, and Microsoft Narrator, a simple screen reader. Linux distributions (as Live CDs) for the blind include Oralux and Adriane Knoppix, the latter developed in part by Adriane Knopper who has a visual impairment. The Macintosh OS also comes with a built-in screen reader, called VoiceOver. The movement towards greater web accessibility is opening a far wider number of websites to adaptive technology, making the web a more inviting place for visually impaired surfers. Experimental approaches in sensory substitution are beginning to provide access to arbitrary live views from a camera. Other aids People may use talking thermometers, enlarged or marked oven dials, talking watches, talking clocks, talking scales, talking calculators, talking compasses and other talking equipment. Sports Blind and partially sighted people participate in sports such as swimming, snow skiing and athletics. Some sports have been invented or adapted for the blind such as goalball, cricket and golf. The worldwide authority on sports for the blind is the International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA). People with vision impairments have participated in the Paralympic Games since the 1976 summer Paralympics in Toronto. Blindness in animals Statements that certain species of mammals are "born blind" refers to them being born with their eyes closed and their eyelids fused together; the eyes open later. One example is the rabbit. In humans the eyelids are fused for a while before birth, but open again before the normal birth time, but very premature babies are sometimes born with their eyes fused shut, and opening later. Other animals such as the blind mole rat are truly blind and rely on other senses. The theme of blind animals has been a powerful one in literature. Peter Schaffer's Tony-Award winning play, Equus, tells the story of a boy who blinds six horses. Theodore Taylor's classic young adult novel, The Trouble With Tuck, is about a teenage girl, Helen, who trains her blind dog to follow and trust a seeing-eye dog. Jacob Appel's prize-winning story, "Rods and Cones," describes the disruption that a blind rabbit causes in a married couple's life. In non-fiction, a recent classic is Linda Kay Hardie's essay, "Lessons Learned from a Blind Cat," in Cat Women: Female Writers on their Feline Friends. Metaphorical uses The word "blind" (adjective and verb) is often used to signify a lack of knowledge of something. For example, a blind date is a date where the people involved have not previously met; a blind experiment is one in which information is kept from either the experimenter or the participant in order to mitigate the placebo effect or observer bias. A "blind spot" is an area where someone cannot see, e.g. where a car driver cannot see because parts of his car's bodywork are in the way. See also Accessibility Amaurosis Blind musicians Blindness and education Braille Color blindness Cortical blindness Deafblind GPS for the visually impaired Inattentional blindness List of eye diseases List of blind people Night blindness Scotoma Snow blindness Slate and stylus Stereoblindness Web accessibility References External links Directgov disabled people - UK govt information Access Watch: Blind users review accessibility of mainstream software Action for Blind People: UK charity providing free and confidential support for blind and partially sighted people The Chicago Lighthouse for People Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired AccessWorld Technology and People Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired American Council of the Blind American Foundation for the Blind Association for the Blind Improving the quality of life for the visually impaired. Blind Access Journal: Visual impairment in the real world Spoken-Web A free web portal managing a wide range of articles for computer users who are blind or visually impaired. Christian Blind Mission VISION 2020: The Right to Sight International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB) International Association of Audio Information Services International Braille Research Center Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness Literature Bibliography and Resources List National Braille Press National Federation of the Blind: Civil rights and consumer advocacy National Library for the Blind National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic Royal National Institute for the Blind Scottish Sensory Centre SMCCB Vision Links WHO Fact Sheet on Visual Impairment Catalan Association for the Blind and Visually Impaired Vision Australia

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Katanga_Province

Katanga is a southern province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Between 1971 and 1997, its official name was Shaba Province. Under the new constitution, the province is to be replaced by four smaller provinces by February 2009. Its regional capital is Lubumbashi (formerly Elisabethville in French, Elisabethstad in Dutch). Its area is 518,000 km² (larger than California and 16 times larger than Belgium, its former colonial ruler). Katanga has a population of about 4.1 million. Farming and ranching are carried out on the Katanga Plateau. The eastern part of the province is a rich mining region, which supplies cobalt, copper, tin, radium, uranium, and diamonds. The capital city, Lubumbashi, is the second largest city in the Congo. New provinces In 2009, the name of Katanga will survive only as Haut-Katanga Province, one of the four new provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The other three new administrative divisions carved out of former Katanga are: Tanganyika Province, Lualaba Province and Haut-Lomami Province. History In the past, Katanga has struggled significantly for independence from the rest of the country. Government Moïse Katumbi Chapwe, a businessman, is the governor of Katanga province. He took office on 24 February 2007. Provinces of Congo (Kinshasa) Economy Copper mining is an important part of the economy of Katanga province. COPPER Cobalt mining by individual contractors is also prevalent. There are a number of reasons cited for the discrepancy between the vast mineral wealth of the province and the failure of the wealth to increase the overall standard of living. THE STATE VS. THE PEOPLE GOVERNANCE, MINING AND THE TRANSITIONAL REGIME IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO Gecamines is the state owned mining company which has monopoly concessions in the province. Medical care The Jason Sendwe Hospital is the largest hospital in the province. It is located in Lubumbashi. Climate Katanga has a wet and dry season. Rainfall is about 49 inches per year (120 cm). Katanga, or Shaba (province, Democratic Republic of the Congo) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Geography The province forms the Congolese border with Angola and Zambia. The province also borders Tanzania, although Katanga province and Tanzania do not share a land border but the border is within Lake Tanganyika. Education University of Lubumbashi is the largest university in the province and one of the largest in the country. The university is located in the northern part of Lubumbashi city. The Faculté Méthodiste de Théologie (FMT) is a Methodist seminary in province which is accredited within the university system. TESOL, the English Language School of Lubumbashi is a secondary school that serves the expatriate community that was founded in 1987 on the grounds of the now defunct French School. Home Transportation Katanga Province has limited railway service centered around Lubumbashi. Reliability is limited. The area also has an airport called Luano Airport which is located northeast of Lubumbashi. Media Katanga province is served by television broadcasts. Radio-Télévision Nationale Congolaise (RTNC) has a transmitter in Lubumbashi that re-transmits the signal from Kinshasha. In 2005, new television broadcasts by Radio Mwangaza began in Lubumbashi. See also Congo Free State Congo Pedicle Msiri References External links The United Nations and the Congo Katanga; The Untold Story (of U.N. betrayal) 1960s Video about UN Involvement Meaning of flag WorldStatesmen- Congo (Kinshasa) The Bank Notes of Katanga Rush and Ruin: The Devastating Mineral Trade in Southern Katanga

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Espionage

Espionage or spying involves an individual obtaining information that is considered secret or confidential without the permission of the holder of the information. Espionage is inherently clandestine, as the legitimate holder of the information may change plans or take other countermeasures once it is known that the information is in unauthorized hands. See clandestine HUMINT for the basic concepts of such information collection, and subordinate articles such as clandestine HUMINT operational techniques and clandestine HUMINT asset recruiting for discussions of the "tradecraft" used to collect this information. History Incidents of espionage are well documented throughout history. The ancient writings of Chinese and Indian military strategists such as Sun-Tzu and Chanakya contain information on deception and subversion. Chanakya's student Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Maurya Empire, made use of assassinations, spies and secret agents, which are described in Chanakya's Arthasastra. The ancient Egyptians had a thoroughly developed system for the acquisition of intelligence, and the Hebrews used spies as well, as in the story of Rahab. Feudal Japan often used ninjas to gather intelligence. More recently, spies played a significant part in Elizabethan England (see Francis Walsingham). Many modern espionage methods were well established even then. http://www.henrywotton.org.uk/ The Cold War involved intense espionage activity between the United States of America and its allies and the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China and their allies, particularly related to nuclear weapons secrets. Recently, espionage agencies have targeted the illegal drug trade and those considered to be terrorists. Different intelligence services value certain intelligence collection techniques over others. The former Soviet Union, for example, preferred human sources over research in open sources, while the United States has tended to emphasize technological methods such as SIGINT and IMINT. Both Soviet political (KGB) and military intelligence (GRU ) officers were judged by the number of agents they recruited. Various Forms Unlike other forms of intelligence collection disciplines, espionage usually involves accessing the place where the desired information is stored, or accessing the people who know the information and will divulge it through some kind of subterfuge. There are exceptions to physical meetings, such as the Oslo Report, or the insistence of Robert Hanssen in never meeting the people to whom he was selling information. The US defines espionage towards itself as "The act of obtaining, delivering, transmitting, communicating, or receiving information about the national defense with an intent, or reason to believe, that the information may be used to the injury of the United States or to the advantage of any foreign nation. Espionage is a violation of United States law, and Article 106 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice ." The United States, like most nations, conducts espionage against other nations, under the control of the National Clandestine Service. Britain's espionage activities are controlled by the Secret Intelligence Service. Espionage is usually part of an institutional effort (i.e., governmental or corporate espionage), and the term is most readily associated with state spying on potential or actual enemies, primarily for military purposes, but this has been extended to spying involving corporations, known specifically as industrial espionage. Many nations routinely spy on both their enemies and allies, although they maintain a policy of not making comment on this. In addition to utilizing agencies within a government many also employ private companies to collect information on their behalf such as SCG International Risk and others. Black's Law Dictionary (1990) defines espionage as: "...gathering, transmitting, or losing...information related to the national defense." While news media may speak of "spy satellites" and the like, espionage is not a synonym for all types of intelligence functions. It is a specific form of human source intelligence (HUMINT). Codebreaking (cryptanalysis or COMINT), aircraft or satellite photography (IMINT) and research in open publications (OSINT) are all intelligence gathering disciplines, but none of them are espionage. Not all HUMINT activities, such as interviewing prisoners, reports from military reconnaissance patrols and from diplomats, etc., are espionage. A spy is a person employed to obtain such secrets. Within the US intelligence community, asset is a more common usage. A case officer, who may have diplomatic status (i.e., official cover or non-official cover) supports and directs the human collector. Cutouts are couriers who do not know the agent or case officer, but transfer messages. A safe house is a refuge for spies. In larger networks, the organization can be complex, with many methods to avoid detection, including clandestine cell systems. Often the players have never met and are sometimes unaware that they are participating. This is often referred to as "the Tyson Effect," where important players are unaware of their own participation. See Clandestine HUMINT for details of the actual operations and people of espionage systems. Case officers are stationed in foreign countries to recruit and supervise intelligence agents, who in turn spy on targets in their countries where they are assigned. A spy may or may not be an actual citizen of a target country. While the more common practice is to recruit a person already trusted with access to sensitive information, there are cases where a person may attempt to infiltrate a target organization, with a well-prepared synthetic identity for them, called a legend in tradecraft. These agents can be moles (who are recruited before they get access to secrets), defectors (who are recruited after they get access to secrets and leave their country) or defectors in place (who get access but do not leave). Risks The risks of espionage vary. A spy breaking the host country's laws may be deported, imprisoned, or even executed. A spy breaking his/her own country's laws can be imprisoned for espionage or/and treason, or even executed, as the Rosenbergs were. For example, when Aldrich Ames handed a stack of dossiers of CIA agents in the Eastern Bloc to his KGB-officer "handler," the KGB "rolled up" several networks, and at least ten people were secretly shot. When Ames was arrested by the FBI, he faced life in prison; his contact, who had diplomatic immunity, was declared persona non grata and taken to the airport. Ames's wife was threatened with life imprisonment if her husband did not cooperate; he did, and she was given a five-year sentence. Hugh Francis Redmond, a CIA officer in China, spent nineteen years in a Chinese prison for espionage—and died there—as he was operating without diplomatic cover and immunity. Many organizations, both national and non-national, conduct espionage operations. It should not be assumed that espionage is always directed at the most secret operations of a target country; national and terrorist organizations and other groups needed to get agents into target countries to learn security routines around their targets. They also needed to arrange secure ways of transferring money. Communications both are necessary to espionage and clandestine operations, and also a great vulnerability when the adversary has sophisticated SIGINT detection and interception capability. See espionage organizations for national and non-national groups that conduct clandestine human operations, for any of a number of reasons: assessment of national capabilities at the strategic level, warning of the movements of security and military organizations; financial systems; protective measures around targets. Be aware that certain organizations who have an association with espionage, such as the US FBI, UK Security Service, and Canadian Security Intelligence Service do not perform espionage, but, with these three examples, all monitor and defend against it, the CSIS principally at an analytical levels. In the US and UK, respectively, the National Clandestine Service, part of the Central Intelligence Agency, performs espionage, while the Secret Intelligence Service does so for Great Britain. Canada does not appear to run espionage, although it collects SIGINT. The Russian SVR performs espionage while the FSB defends against it. Spies in various conflicts Espionage under Elizabeth I of England Sir Francis Walsingham Espionage in the American Revolution Nathan Hale John Andre Espionage in the Napoleonic Wars William Wickham Espionage in the American Civil War One of the innovations in the American Civil War was the use of proprietary companies for intelligence collection. See Allan Pinkerton Espionage in the Second Boer War Fritz Joubert Duquesne Espionage in World War I Fritz Joubert Duquesne Jules C. Silber Espionage in World War II FBI file photo of the leader of the Duquesne Spy Ring (1941) With a few notable exceptions, most espionage in World War II was conducted by "rings", or teams of agents. Duquesne Spy Ring Richard Sorge Abwehr Red Orchestra Lucy Ring Espionage turned: Double Cross System, Operation North Pole Espionage in the Cold War Cold War Espionage technology and techniques Agent Handling Concealment device Covert listening device Cut-out Cyber spying Dead drop False flag operations Honeypot Interrogation Nonofficial cover (NOC) Numbers messaging One-way voice link safe house Steganography Surveillance Spy fiction An early example of espionage literature is Kim by the English novelist Rudyard Kipling, with a description of the training of an intelligence agent in the Great Game between the UK and Russia in 19th century Central Asia. An even earlier work was James Fenimore Cooper's classic novel, The Spy, written in 1821, about an American spy in New York during the Revolutionary War. During the many 20th century spy scandals, a large amount of information became publicly known about national spy agencies and dozens of real-life secret agents. These sensational stories piqued public interest in a profession largely off-limits to human interest news reporting, a natural consequence of the secrecy inherent to their work. To fill in the blanks, the popular conception of the secret agent has been formed largely by 20th and 21st century literature and cinema. While it is obvious from reading news accounts that many real spies, such as Valerie Plame, are attractive and sociable, the fictional secret agent is often a loner, sometimes amoral—an existential hero operating outside the everyday constraints of society. Loner spy personalities may have been a stereotype of convenience for authors who already knew how to write loner private investigator characters that sold well from the 1920s to the present. While fictional secret agents, such as Johnny Fedora, were popular during the 1950s and 60s, James Bond, the protagonist of Ian Fleming's novels, who went on to spawn an extremely successful film franchise, is the most famous fictional secret agent of all: he uses the best toys and excels at fighting and seduction, completely ignoring the more tedious side of espionage. In direct contrast to this, John le Carré's character George Smiley is often considered the "anti-Bond" and one of the more realistic fictional spies: he is a finite and imperfect man, initially defeated by enemies within the Secret Service, who eventually prevails by patience, intelligence, and compassion. Another is the boy spy Alex Rider, created by Anthony Horowitz; Rider is said to be useful due to his youth. Other popular spies are the characters Johnny Fedora by Desmond Cory; Quiller by Adam Hall; Philip McAlpine by Adam Diment. Nikita, played by Peta Wilson, and Michael Samuelle, played by Roy Dupuis, in the TV series La Femme Nikita (1997–2001), Jack Ryan in numerous Tom Clancy novels, as well as Jason Bourne from Robert Ludlum's Bourne trilogy, and Sydney Bristow, played by Jennifer Garner, in the TV series Alias (2001–2006). The British TV series Spooks is another example of spy fiction. Spy fiction has also become prevalent in video gaming, where the "wetwork" aspect of espionage is highlighted. Game situations typically involve agents sent into enemy territory for purposes of subversion. These depictions are more action-oriented than would be typical in most cases of espionage, and they tend to focus on infiltration rather than information-gathering. Some examples are GoldenEye 007, Perfect Dark, Thief, Metal Gear and Splinter Cell. Recent incarnations have attempted to introduce more psychological aspects of infiltration, such as social camouflage and moral decision making, into gameplay. Further reading There is a vast and ever-growing body of literature devoted to espionage. The following reading list features some of the better known and more comprehensive accounts. The lists are sortable, using the icons next to the headings. In this way the reader can sort the lists by author, title, date and so forth. This is of value especially in terms of the year, for espionage literature tends to build on earlier material as well as on newfound sources. Surveys Author(s) Title Publisher Date Notes Jenkins, Peter Advanced Surveillance: The Complete Manual of Surveillance Training - - ISBN 0953537811 West, Nigel MI6: British Secret Intelligence Service Operations 1909-1945 - 1983 - Smith Jr., W. Thomas Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency - 2003 popular Richelson, Jeffery T. The U.S. Intelligence Community - 1999 fourth edition Richelson, Jeffery T. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century - 1977 - Owen, David Hidden Secrets: A Complete History of Espionage and the Technology Used to Support It - - - O'Toole, George Honorable Treachery: A History of U.S. Intelligence, Espionage, Covert Action from the American Revolution to the CIA - 1991 - Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. Terrorism: essential primary sources Thomas Gale 2006 ISBN 9781414406213 Lerner, K. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security - 2003 1100 pages. 850 articles, strong on technology Knightley, Philip The Second Oldest Profession: Spies and Spying in the Twentieth Century Norton 1986 - Kahn, David The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet - 1996 Revised edition, 1200 pages. First published in 1967. Johnson, Robert Spying for Empire: The Great Game in Central and South Asia, 1757-1947 London: Greenhill 2006 British Intelligence and its imperial connection Friedman, George America's Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between the United States and Its Enemies - 2005 since 9-11 Bungert, Heike et al. eds. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century - 2003 essays by scholars May, Ernest (ed.) Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars - 1984 - Black, Ian and Morris, Benny Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services - 1991 - Andrew, Christopher For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush - 1996 - World War I Author(s) Title Publisher Date Notes Tunney, Thomas Joseph and Paul Merrick Hollister Throttled!: The Detection of the German and Anarchist Bomb Plotters Boston: Small, Maynard & company 1919 Chapter 9 is about Duquesne and is available on Wikisource: see text Beesly, Patrick Room 40 - 1982 Covers the breaking of German codes by RN intelligence, including the Turkish bribe, Zimmermann telegram, and failure at Jutland. Burnham, Frederick Russell Taking Chances - 1944 Chapter 2 is about Duquesne May, Ernest (ed.) Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars - 1984 - Tuchman, Barbara W. The Zimmermann Telegram Ballantine Books 1966 - World War II: 1931-1945 Author(s) Title Publisher Date Notes Babington-Smith, Constance Air Spy: The Story of Photo Intelligence in World War II - 1957 - Bryden, John Best-Kept Secret: Canadian Secret Intelligence in the Second World War Lester 1993 - Hinsley, F. H. and Alan Stripp Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park - 2001 - Hinsley, F. H. British Intelligence in the Second World War - 1996 Abridged version of multivolume official history. Hohne, Heinz Canaris: Hitler's Master Spy - 1979 - Jones, R. V. The Wizard War: British Scientific Intelligence 1939-1945 - 1978 - Kahn, David Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II' || - || 1978 || - |- | Kahn, David || Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-Boat Codes, 1939-1943 || - ||1991 || FACE |- | Kitson, Simon ||The Hunt for Nazi Spies: Fighting Espionage in Vichy France||-||2008 |- | Lewin, Ronald || The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the Defeat of Japan || - || 1982 || - |- | Masterman, J. C. || The Double Cross System in the War of 1935 to 1945 || Yale || 1972 || - |- | Persico, Joseph || Roosevelt's Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage || - || 2001 || - |- | Persico, Joseph || Casey: The Lives and Secrets of William J. Casey-From the OSS to the CIA || - || 1991 || - |- | Ronnie, Art || Counterfeit Hero: Fritz Duquesne, Adventurer and Spy || - || 1995 || ISBN 1-55750-733-3- |- | Sayers, Michael & Albert E. Kahn || Sabotage! The Secret War Against America || - || 1942 || - |- | Smith, Richard Harris || OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency || - || 2005 || - |- | Stanley, Roy M. || World War II Photo Intelligence || - || 1981 || - |- | Wark, Wesley || The Ultimate Enemy: British Intelligence and Nazi Germany, 1933-1939 || - || 1985 || - |- | Wark, Wesley || "Cryptographic Innocence: The Origins of Signals Intelligence in Canada in the Second World War" in Journal of Contemporary History 22 || - || 1987 || - |- | West, Nigel || Secret War: The Story of SOE, Britain's Wartime Sabotage Organization || - || 1992 || - |- | Winterbotham, F. W.|| The Ultra Secret || Harper & Row || 1974 || - |- | Winterbotham, F. W.|| The Nazi Connection || Harper & Row || 1978 || - |- | Cowburn, B.|| No Cloak No Dagger || Brown, Watson, Ltd. || 1960 || - |- | Wohlstetter, Roberta. || Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision || - || 1962 || - |- |} Cold War Era: 1945-1991 {| class= "wikitable sortable" border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |- bgcolor="#CCCCCC" align="center" | Author(s) || Title || Publisher || Date || Notes |- | Aldrich, Richard J. || The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence || - || 2002 || - |- | Ambrose, Stephen E.|| Ike's Spies: Eisenhower and the Intelligence Establishment|| - || 1981- || - |- | Andrew, Christopher and Vasili Mitrokhin || The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB || Basic Books || 1991, 2005 || ISBN 0465003117 |- | Andrew, Christopher, and Oleg Gordievsky || KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev || - || 1990 || - |- | Aronoff, Myron J. || The Spy Novels of John Le Carré: Balancing Ethics and Politics || - || 1999 || - |- | Bissell, Richard || Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs' - 1996 - Bogle, Lori, ed. Cold War Espionage and Spying - 2001- essays Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World - - - Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West Gardners Books 2000 ISBN 978-0-14-028487-4 Jim Colella My Life as an Italian Mafioso Spy - 2000 - Dorril, Stephen MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service - 2000 - Dziak, John J. Chekisty: A History of the KGB - 1988 - Gates, Robert M. From The Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story Of Five Presidents And How They Won The Cold War' || - || 1997 || - |- | Frost, Mike and Michel Gratton || Spyworld: Inside the Canadian and American Intelligence Establishments || Doubleday Canada || 1994 || - |- | Haynes, John Earl, and Harvey Klehr || Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America || - || 1999 || - |- | Helms, Richard || A Look over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency || - || 2003 || - |- | Koehler, John O. || Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police' - 1999 - Persico, Joseph Casey: The Lives and Secrets of William J. Casey-From the OSS to the CIA - 1991 - Murphy, David E., Sergei A. Kondrashev, and George Bailey Battleground Berlin: CIA vs. KGB in the Cold War - 1997 - Prados, John Presidents' Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations Since World War II - 1996 - Rositzke, Harry. The CIA's Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage, and Covert Action - 1988 - Srodes, James Allen Dulles: Master of Spies Regnery 2000 CIA head to 1961 Sontag Sherry, and Christopher Drew Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espinonage Harper 1998 Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations Greenwood Press/Questia 2004 - Anderson, Nicholas NOC - 2008 eBook and 2009 published Enigma Books See also Classified information Corporate espionage Counter-espionage Dumpster diving Intelligence (information gathering) Labor spies List of cryptographers Military intelligence Mitrokhin Archive Mole (espionage) Ninja Operation Snow White Sabotage Safe house Security clearance Spymaster References External Links An Interactive Rosenberg Espionage Ring Timeline and Archive

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Cocaine

Cocaine (benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. Aggrawal, Anil. Narcotic Drugs. National Book Trust, India (1995), p. 52-3. ISBN 81-237-1383-5. The name comes from "coca" in addition to the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is both a stimulant of the central nervous system and an appetite suppressant. Specifically, it is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor, a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, which mediates functionality of such as an exogenous DAT ligand. Because of the way it affects the mesolimbic reward pathway, cocaine is addictive. Its possession, cultivation, and distribution are illegal for non-medicinal and non-government sanctioned purposes in virtually all parts of the world. Although its free commercialization is illegal and has been severely penalized in virtually all countries, its use worldwide remains widespread in many social, cultural, and personal settings. History Coca leaf For over a thousand years South American indigenous peoples have chewed the coca leaf (Erythroxylon coca), a plant that contains vital nutrients as well as numerous alkaloids, including cocaine. The leaf was, and is, chewed almost universally by some indigenous communities—ancient Peruvian mummies have been found with the remains of coca leaves, and pottery from the time period depicts humans, cheeks bulged with the presence of something on which they are chewing. There is also evidence that these cultures used a mixture of coca leaves and saliva as an anesthetic for the performance of trepanation. The coca plant, Erythroxylon coca. When the Spaniards conquered South America, they at first ignored aboriginal claims that the leaf gave them strength and energy, and declared the practice of chewing it the work of the Devil. But after discovering that these claims were true, they legalized and taxed the leaf, taking 10% off the value of each crop. In 1569, Nicolás Monardes described the practice of the natives of chewing a mixture of tobacco and coca leaves to induce "great contentment": In 1609, Padre Blas Valera wrote: Isolation Although the stimulant and hunger-suppressant properties of coca had been known for many centuries, the isolation of the cocaine alkaloid was not achieved until 1855 . Many scientists had attempted to isolate cocaine, but none had been successful for two reasons: the knowledge of chemistry required was insufficient at the time, and the cocaine was worsened because coca does not grow in Europe and ruins easily during travel. The cocaine alkaloid was first isolated by the German chemist Friedrich Gaedcke in 1855. Gaedcke named the alkaloid "erythroxyline", and published a description in the journal Archiv der Pharmazie. In 1856, Friedrich Wöhler asked Dr. Carl Scherzer, a scientist aboard the Novara (an Austrian frigate sent by Emperor Franz Joseph to circle the globe), to bring him a large amount of coca leaves from South America. In 1859, the ship finished its travels and Wöhler received a trunk full of coca. Wöhler passed on the leaves to Albert Niemann, a Ph.D. student at the University of Göttingen in Germany, who then developed an improved purification process. Niemann described every step he took to isolate cocaine in his dissertation titled Über eine neue organische Base in den Cocablättern (On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves), which was published in 1860—it earned him his Ph.D. and is now in the British Library. He wrote of the alkaloid's “colourless transparent prisms” and said that, “Its solutions have an alkaline reaction, a bitter taste, promote the flow of saliva and leave a peculiar numbness, followed by a sense of cold when applied to the tongue.” Niemann named the alkaloid “cocaine”—as with other alkaloids its name carried the “-ine” suffix (from Latin -ina). The first synthesis and elucidation of the structure of the cocaine molecule was by Richard Willstätter in 1898. The synthesis started from tropinone, a related natural product and took five steps. Medicalization With the discovery of this new alkaloid, Western medicine was quick to exploit the possible uses of this plant. In 1879, Vassili von Anrep, of the University of Würzburg, devised an experiment to demonstrate the analgesic properties of the newly-discovered alkaloid. He prepared two separate jars, one containing a cocaine-salt solution, with the other containing merely salt water. He then submerged a frog's legs into the two jars, one leg in the treatment and one in the control solution, and proceeded to stimulate the legs in several different ways. The leg that had been immersed in the cocaine solution reacted very differently than the leg that had been immersed in salt water. Carl Koller (a close associate of Sigmund Freud, who would write about cocaine later) experimented with cocaine for ophthalmic usage. In an infamous experiment in 1884, he experimented upon himself by applying a cocaine solution to his own eye and then pricking it with pins. His findings were presented to the Heidelberg Ophthalmological Society. Also in 1884, Jellinek demonstrated the effects of cocaine as a respiratory system anesthetic. In 1885, William Halsted demonstrated nerve-block anesthesia, and James Corning demonstrated peridural anesthesia. 1898 saw Heinrich Quincke use cocaine for spinal anaesthesia. Today, cocaine has very limited medical use. See the section Cocaine as a local anesthetic Popularization In 1859, an Italian doctor, Paolo Mantegazza, returned from Peru, where he had witnessed first-hand the use of coca by the natives. He proceeded to experiment on himself and upon his return to Milan he wrote a paper in which he described the effects. In this paper he declared coca and cocaine (at the time they were assumed to be the same) as being useful medicinally, in the treatment of “a furred tongue in the morning, flatulence, [and] whitening of the teeth.” Pope Leo XIII purportedly carried a hipflask of the coca-treated Vin Mariani with him, and awarded a Vatican gold medal to Angelo Mariani. A chemist named Angelo Mariani who read Mantegazza’s paper became immediately intrigued with coca and its economic potential. In 1863, Mariani started marketing a wine called Vin Mariani, which had been treated with coca leaves, to become cocawine. The ethanol in wine acted as a solvent and extracted the cocaine from the coca leaves, altering the drink’s effect. It contained 6 mg cocaine per ounce of wine, but Vin Mariani which was to be exported contained 7.2 mg per ounce, to compete with the higher cocaine content of similar drinks in the United States. A “pinch of coca leaves” was included in John Styth Pemberton's original 1886 recipe for Coca-Cola, though the company began using decocainized leaves in 1906 when the Pure Food and Drug Act was passed. The actual amount of cocaine that Coca-Cola contained during the first twenty years of its production is practically impossible to determine. In 1879 cocaine began to be used to treat morphine addiction. Cocaine was introduced into clinical use as a local anaesthetic in Germany in 1884, about the same time as Sigmund Freud published his work Über Coca, in which he wrote that cocaine causes: Cocaine was marketed as a fast-acting anesthetic.In 1885 the U.S. manufacturer Parke-Davis sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user’s veins with the included needle. The company promised that its cocaine products would “supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and ... render the sufferer insensitive to pain.” By the late Victorian era cocaine use had appeared as a vice in literature. For example, it was injected by Arthur Conan Doyle’s fictional Sherlock Holmes. In early 20th-century Memphis, Tennessee, cocaine was sold in neighborhood drugstores on Beale Street, costing five or ten cents for a small boxful. Stevedores along the Mississippi River used the drug as a stimulant, and white employers encouraged its use by black laborers. Barlow, William. "Looking Up At Down": The Emergence of Blues Culture. Temple University Press (1989), p. 207. ISBN 0-87722-583-4. In 1909, Ernest Shackleton took “Forced March” brand cocaine tablets to Antarctica, as did Captain Scott a year later on his ill-fated journey to the South Pole. Prohibition By the turn of the twentieth century, the addictive properties of cocaine had become clear, and the problem of cocaine abuse began to capture public attention in the United States. The dangers of cocaine abuse became part of a moral panic that was tied to the dominant racial and social anxieties of the day. In 1903, the American Journal of Pharmacy stressed that most cocaine abusers were “bohemians, gamblers, high- and low-class prostitutes, night porters, bell boys, burglars, racketeers, pimps, and casual laborers.” In 1914, Dr. Christopher Koch of Pennsylvania’s State Pharmacy Board made the racial innuendo explicit, testifying that, “Most of the attacks upon the white women of the South are the direct result of a cocaine-crazed Negro brain.” Mass media manufactured an epidemic of cocaine use among African Americans in the Southern United States to play upon racial prejudices of the era, though there is little evidence that such an epidemic actually took place. In the same year, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act outlawed the sale and distribution of cocaine in the United States. This law incorrectly referred to cocaine as a narcotic, and the misclassification passed into popular culture. As stated above, cocaine is a stimulant, not a narcotic. Although technically illegal for purposes of distribution and use, the distribution, sale and use of cocaine was still legal for registered companies and individuals. Because of the misclassification of cocaine as a narcotic, the debate is still open on whether the government actually enforced these laws strictly. Cocaine was not considered a controlled substance until 1970, when the United States listed it as such in the Controlled Substances Act. Until that point, the use of cocaine was open and rarely prosecuted in the US due to the moral and physical debates commonly discussed. Modern usage In many countries, cocaine is a popular recreational drug. In the United States, the development of "crack" cocaine introduced the substance to a generally poorer inner-city market. Use of the powder form has stayed relatively constant, experiencing a new height of use during the late 1990s and early 2000s in the U.S., and has become much more popular in the last few years in the UK. Cocaine use is prevalent across all socioeconomic strata, including age, demographics, economic, social, political, religious, and livelihood. The estimated U.S. cocaine market exceeded $70 billion in street value for the year 2005, exceeding revenues by corporations such as Starbucks Apple Sanity - Fetish - Blow: War on Drugs VS. Cocaine Cocaine Market . There is a tremendous demand for cocaine in the U.S. market, particularly among those who are making incomes affording luxury spending, such as single adults and professionals with discretionary income. Cocaine’s status as a club drug shows its immense popularity among the “party crowd”. In 1995 the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) announced in a press release the publication of the results of the largest global study on cocaine use ever undertaken. However, a decision in the World Health Assembly banned the publication of the study. In the sixth meeting of the B committee the US representative threatened that "If WHO activities relating to drugs failed to reinforce proven drug control approaches, funds for the relevant programs should be curtailed". This led to the decision to discontinue publication. A part of the study has been recuperated. Available are profiles of cocaine use in 20 countries. A problem with illegal cocaine use, especially in the higher volumes used to combat fatigue (rather than increase euphoria) by long-term users is the risk of ill effects or damage caused by the compounds used in adulteration. Cutting or "stamping on" the drug is commonplace, using compounds which simulate ingestion effects, such as Novocain (procaine) producing temporary anaesthaesia as many users believe a strong numbing effect is the result of strong and/or pure cocaine, ephedrine or similar stimulants that are to produce an increased heart rate. The normal adulterants for profit are inactive sugars, usually mannitol, creatine or glucose, so introducing active adulterants gives the illusion of purity and to 'stretch' or make it so a dealer can sell more product than without the adulterants. The adulterant of sugars therefore allows the dealer to sell the product for a higher price because of the illusion of purity and allows to sell more of the product at that higher price, enabling dealers to make a lot of revenue with little cost of the adulterants. Cocaine trading carries large penalties in most jurisdictions, so user deception about purity and consequent high profits for dealers are the norm. Pharmacology Appearance A pile of cocaine hydrochloride A piece of compressed cocaine powder Cocaine in its purest form is a white, pearly product. Cocaine appearing in powder form is a salt, typically cocaine hydrochloride (CAS 53-21-4). Street market cocaine is frequently adulterated or “cut” with various powdery fillers to increase its weight; the substances most commonly used in this process are baking soda; sugars, such as lactose, dextrose, inositol, and mannitol; and local anesthetics, such as lidocaine or benzocaine, which mimic or add to cocaine's numbing effect on mucous membranes. Cocaine may also be "cut" with other stimulants such as methamphetamine. Adulterated cocaine is often a white, off-white or pinkish powder. The color of “crack” cocaine depends upon several factors including the origin of the cocaine used, the method of preparation – with ammonia or baking soda – and the presence of impurities, but will generally range from white to a yellowish cream to a light brown. Its texture will also depend on the adulterants, origin and processing of the powdered cocaine, and the method of converting the base. It ranges from a crumbly texture, sometimes extremely oily, to a hard, almost crystalline nature. Forms of cocaine Cocaine sulfate Cocaine sulfate is produced by macerating coca leaves along with water that has been acidulated with sulfuric acid, or an aromatic-based solvent, like kerosene or benzene. This is often accomplished by placing the ingredients into a vat and stomping on them, in a manner similar to the traditional method for crushing grapes. A more popular method in modern times is to form a makeshift "vat" by spreading a heavy nylon tarp on the floor of an enclosed area and shred the leaves with a gas-powered weed trimmer. This method is fast, and not only shreds the leaves, but results in bruising and fragmenting of the remaining pieces, aiding the extraction process. After the maceration is completed, the water is evaporated to yield a pasty mass of impure cocaine sulfate. The sulfate salt itself is an intermediate step to producing cocaine hydrochloride. Freebase As the name implies, “freebase” is the base form of cocaine, as opposed to the salt form of cocaine hydrochloride. Whereas cocaine hydrochloride is extremely soluble in water, cocaine base is insoluble in water and is therefore not suitable for drinking, snorting or injecting. Whereas cocaine hydrochloride is not well-suited for smoking because the temperature at which it vaporizes is very high and close to the temperature at which it burns; cocaine base vaporizes at a much lower temperature, which makes it suitable for inhalation. Smoking freebase cocaine has the additional effect of releasing methylecgonidine into the user's system due to the pyrolysis of the substance (a side effect which insufflating or injecting powder cocaine does not create). Some research suggests that smoking freebase cocaine can be even more cardiotoxic than other routes of administration Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Methylecgonidine, a Crack Cocaine Pyrolyzate - Scheidweiler et al. 307 (3): 1179 Figure IG6 - Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental... because of methylecgonidine's effects on lung tissue and liver tissue. Smoking freebase is a popular route of ingestion because the cocaine is absorbed immediately into blood via the lungs, reaching the brain in about five seconds. The rush is much more intense than snorting the same amount of cocaine nasally, but the effects do not last as long. The peak of the freebase rush is over almost as soon as the user exhales the vapor, but the high typically lasts 5–10 minutes afterward. What makes freebasing particularly dangerous is that users typically do not wait that long for their next hit and will continue to smoke freebase until none is left. These effects are similar to those that can be achieved by injecting or “slamming” cocaine hydrochloride, but without the risks associated with intravenous drug use (though there are other serious risks associated with smoking freebase). Freebase cocaine is produced by first dissolving cocaine hydrochloride in water. Once dissolved in water, cocaine hydrochloride (Coc-HCl) dissociates into the protonated cocaine ion (Coc-H+) and the chloride ion (Cl−). Any solids that remain suspended in the solution are impurities from the cut and are removed by filtration. A base, typically ammonia (NH3), is added to the solution. The following net acid-base reaction takes place: Coc-H+ + NH3 → Coc + NH4+ As freebase cocaine (Coc) is insoluble in water, it precipitates and the solution becomes cloudy. To recover the freebase in the "traditional" manner, diethyl ether is added to the solution. Since freebase is highly soluble in ether, a vigorous shaking of the mixture results in the freebase being dissolved in the ether. As ether is practically insoluble in water, it can be siphoned off. The ether is then left to evaporate, leaving behind the nearly pure freebase. Handling diethyl ether is dangerous because ether is extremely flammable; its vapors are heavier than air and can "creep" from an open bottle, and in the presence of oxygen it can form peroxides, which can spontaneously combust. Comedian Richard Pryor performed a skit poking fun at himself for a 1980 incident in which he caused an explosion and ignited himself attempting to smoke "freebase", presumably while still wet with ether (though his ex-wife Jennifer Lee Pryor said that he poured high-proof rum over his body and torched himself in a drug psychosis). Crack cocaine A woman smoking crack cocaine in San Francisco's Tenderloin district. In its creation process, due to the dangers of using ether to produce pure freebase cocaine, cocaine producers began to omit the step of removing the freebase cocaine precipitate from the ammonia mixture. Typically, filtration processes are also omitted. The end result of this process is that the cut, in addition to the ammonium salt (NH4Cl), remains in the freebase cocaine after the mixture is evaporated. The “rock” that is thus formed also contains a small amount of water. Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is also preferred in preparing the freebase, for when commonly "cooked" the ratio is 50/50 to 40/60% cocaine/bicarbonate. This acts as a filler which extends the overall profitability of illicit sales. Crack cocaine may be reprocessed in small quantities with water (users refer to the resultant product as "cookback"). This removes the residual bicarbonate, and any adulterants or cuts that have been used in the previous handling of the cocaine and leaves a relatively pure, anhydrous cocaine base. When the rock is heated, this water boils, making a crackling sound (hence the onomatopoeic “crack”). Baking soda is now most often used as a base rather than ammonia for reasons of lowered stench and toxicity; however, any weak base can be used to make crack cocaine. Strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide, tend to hydrolyze some of the cocaine into non-psychoactive ecgonine. Coca leaf infusions Coca herbal infusion (also referred to as Coca tea) is used in coca-leaf producing countries much as any herbal medicinal infusion would elsewhere in the world. The free and legal commercialization of dried coca leaves under the form of filtration bags to be used as "coca tea" has been actively promoted by the governments of Peru and Bolivia for many years as a drink having medicinal powers. Visitors to the city of Cuzco in Peru, and La Paz in Bolivia are greeted with the offering of coca leaf infusions (prepared in tea pots with whole coca leaves) purportedly to help the newly-arrived traveler overcome the malaise of high altitude sickness. The effects of drinking coca tea are a mild stimulation and mood lift. It does not produce any significant numbing of the mouth nor does it give a rush like snorting cocaine. In order to prevent the demonization of this product, its promoters publicize the unproven concept that much of the effect of the ingestion of coca leaf infusion would come from the secondary alkaloids, as being not only quantitatively different from pure cocaine but also qualitatively different. It has been promoted as an adjuvant for the treatment of cocaine dependence. In one controversial study, coca leaf infusion was used -in addition to counseling- to treat 23 addicted coca-paste smokers in Lima, Peru. Relapses fell from an average of four times per month before treatment with coca tea to one during the treatment. The duration of abstinence increased from an average of 32 days prior to treatment to 217 days during treatment. These results suggest that the administration of coca leaf infusion plus counseling would be an effective method for preventing relapse during treatment for cocaine addiction. Importantly, these results also suggest strongly that the primary pharmacologically active metabolite in coca leaf infusions is actually cocaine and not the secondary alkaloids. The cocaine metabolite benzoylecgonine can be detected in the urine of people a few hours after drinking one cup of coca leaf infusion. Routes of administration Oral Many users rub the powder along the gum line, or onto a cigarette filter which is then smoked (called a "hoolie"), which numbs the gums and teeth - hence the colloquial names of "numbies", "gummers" or "cocoa puffs" for this type of administration. This is mostly done with the small amounts of cocaine remaining on a surface after insufflation. Another oral method is to wrap up some cocaine in rolling paper and swallow it. This is sometimes called a "snow bomb." Coca leaf Coca leaves are typically mixed with an alkaline substance (such as lime) and chewed into a wad that is retained in the mouth between gum and cheek (much in the same as chewing tobacco is chewed) and sucked of its juices. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastrointestinal tract when swallowed. Alternatively, coca leaves can be infused in liquid and consumed like tea. Ingesting coca leaves generally is an inefficient means of administering cocaine. Advocates of the consumption of the coca leaf state that coca leaf consumption should not be criminalized as it is not actual cocaine, and consequently it is not properly the illicit drug. Because cocaine is hydrolyzed and rendered inactive in the acidic stomach, it is not readily absorbed when ingested alone. Only when mixed with a highly alkaline substance (such as lime) can it be absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach. The efficiency of absorption of orally administered cocaine is limited by two additional factors. First, the drug is partly catabolized by the liver. Second, capillaries in the mouth and esophagus constrict after contact with the drug, reducing the surface area over which the drug can be absorbed. Nevertheless, cocaine metabolites can be detected in the urine of subjects that have sipped even one cup of coca leaf infusion. Therefore, this is an actual additional form of administration of cocaine, albeit an inefficient one. Orally administered cocaine takes approximately 30 minutes to enter the bloodstream. Typically, only a third of an oral dose is absorbed, although absorption has been shown to reach 60% in controlled settings. Given the slow rate of absorption, maximum physiological and psychotropic effects are attained approximately 60 minutes after cocaine is administered by ingestion. While the onset of these effects is slow, the effects are sustained for approximately 60 minutes after their peak is attained. Contrary to popular belief, both ingestion and insufflation result in approximately the same proportion of the drug being absorbed: 30 to 60%. Compared to ingestion, the faster absorption of insufflated cocaine results in quicker attainment of maximum drug effects. Snorting cocaine produces maximum physiological effects within 40 minutes and maximum psychotropic effects within 20 minutes, however, a more realistic activation period is closer to 5 to 10 minutes, which is similar to ingestion of cocaine. Physiological and psychotropic effects from nasally insufflated cocaine are sustained for approximately 40 – 60 minutes after the peak effects are attained. G. Barnett, R. Hawks and R. Resnick, "Cocaine Pharmacokinetics in Humans," 3 Journal of Ethnopharmacology 353 (1981); Jones, supra note 19; Wilkinson et al., Van Dyke et al. Mate de coca or coca-leaf infusion is also a traditional method of consumption and is often recommended in coca producing countries, like Peru and Bolivia, to ameliorate some symptoms of altitude sickness. This method of consumption has been practiced for many centuries by the native tribes of South America. One specific purpose of ancient coca leaf consumption was to increase energy and reduce fatigue in messengers who made multi-day quests to other settlements. In 1986 an article in the Journal of the American Medical Association revealed that U.S. health food stores were selling dried coca leaves to be prepared as an infusion as “Health Inca Tea.” While the packaging claimed it had been “decocainized,” no such process had actually taken place. The article stated that drinking two cups of the tea per day gave a mild stimulation, increased heart rate, and mood elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless. Despite this, the DEA seized several shipments in Hawaii, Chicago, Illinois, Georgia, and several locations on the East Coast of the United States, and the product was removed from the shelves. Insufflation Insufflation (known colloquially as "snorting," "sniffing," or "blowing") is the most common method of ingestion of recreational powdered cocaine in the Western world. The drug coats and is absorbed through the mucous membranes lining the sinuses. When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 30–60%, with higher doses leading to increased absorption efficiency. Any material not directly absorbed through the mucous membranes is collected in mucus and swallowed (this "drip" is considered pleasant by some and unpleasant by others). In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 14.6 minutes. Any damage to the inside of the nose is because cocaine highly constricts blood vessels and therefore blood and oxygen/nutrient flow to that area. Prior to insufflation, cocaine powder must be divided into very fine particles. Cocaine of high purity breaks into fine dust very easily, except when it is moist (not well stored) and forms "chunks," which reduces the efficiency of nasal absorption. Rolled up banknotes, hollowed-out pens, cut straws, pointed ends of keys, specialized spoons, long fingernails, and (clean) tampon applicators are often used to insufflate cocaine. Such devices are often called "tooters" by users. The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface (such as a mirror, CD case or book) and divided into "bumps", "lines" or "rails", and then insufflated. cesar.umd.edu - Cocaine terminology As tolerance builds rapidly in the short-term (hours), many lines are often snorted to produce greater effects. A study by Bonkovsky and Mehta reported that, just like shared needles, the sharing of straws used to "snort" cocaine can spread blood diseases such as Hepatitis C. www.erowid.org - Cocaine, Bits & Pieces In the United States, as far back as 1992 many of the people sentenced by federal authorities for charges related to powder cocaine were Hispanic; more Hispanics than non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black people received sentences for crimes related to powder cocaine. "White powder cocaine no longer just for yuppies." CNN. Injection Drug injection provides the highest blood levels of drug in the shortest amount of time. Subjective effects not commonly shared with other methods of administration include a ringing in the ears moments after injection (usually when in excess of 120 milligrams) lasting 2 to 5 minutes including tinnitus & audio distortion. This is colloquially referred to as a "bell ringer". Urban Dictionary: Bell ringer, drug-forum.co.uk & bluelight.ru In a study of cocaine users, the average time taken to reach peak subjective effects was 3.1 minutes. The euphoria passes quickly. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also danger of circulatory emboli from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. As with all injected illicit substances, there is a risk of the user contracting blood-borne infections if sterile injecting equipment is not available or used. An injected mixture of cocaine and heroin, known as “speedball” is a particularly popular and dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, including celebrities such as John Belushi, Chris Farley, Mitch Hedberg, River Phoenix and Layne Staley. Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction. Inhalation Smoking freebase or crack cocaine is most often accomplished using a pipe made from a small glass tube, often taken from "Love roses," small glass tubes with a paper rose that are promoted as romantic gifts. These are sometimes called "stems", "horns", "blasters" and "straight shooters". A small piece of clean heavy copper or occasionally stainless steel scouring pad often called a "brillo" (actual Brillo pads contain soap, and are not used), or "chore", named for Chore Boy brand copper scouring pads, serves as a reduction base and flow modulator in which the "rock" can be melted and boiled to vapor. In a pinch, crack smokers sometimes smoke though a soda can with small holes in the bottom instead of a crack pipe. Also, the bottoms of small glass liquor bottles can be removed, and the bottles neck can then be stuffed with chore to use as a makeshift crack pipe. Crack is smoked by placing it at the end of the pipe; a flame held close to it produces vapor, which is then inhaled by the smoker. The effects, felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense and do not last long usually five to fifteen minutes. In a study performed on crack cocaine users, the average time taken for them to reach their peak subjective "high" was 1.4 minutes. Most (especially frequent) users crave more immediately after the peak. "Crack houses" depend on these cravings by providing a place for smoking crack to its users, and a ready supply of small bags for sale. When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as cannabis, often rolled into a joint or blunt. Powdered cocaine is also sometimes smoked, though heat destroys much of the chemical; smokers often sprinkle it on marijuana. The language referring to paraphernalia and practices of smoking cocaine vary, as do the packaging methods in the street level sale. Physical mechanisms The difference between cocaine & amphetamine with regard to DAT1 receptor reuptake blocking. Cocaine binds directly to the DAT1 transporter, whereas amphetamines phosphorylate and invert the transporter causing it to internalize. The pharmacodynamics of cocaine involve the complex relationships of neurotransmitters (inhibiting monoamine uptake in rats with ratios of about: serotonin:dopamine = 2:3, serotonin:norepinephrine = 2:5 Rothman, et al. "Amphetamine-Type Central Nervous System Stimulants Release Norepinepehrine more Potently than they Release Dopamine and Serotonin." (2001): Synapse 39, 32-41 (Table V. on page 37) ) The most extensively studied effect of cocaine on the central nervous system is the blockade of the dopamine transporter protein. Dopamine transmitter released during neural signaling is normally recycled via the transporter; i.e., the transporter binds the transmitter and pumps it out of the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic neuron, where it is taken up into storage vesicles. Cocaine binds tightly at the dopamine transporter forming a complex that blocks the transporter's function. The dopamine transporter can no longer perform its reuptake function, and thus dopamine accumulates in the synaptic cleft. This results in an enhanced and prolonged postsynaptic effect of dopaminergic signaling at dopamine receptors on the receiving neuron. Prolonged exposure to cocaine, as occurs with habitual use, leads to homeostatic dysregulation of normal (i.e. without cocaine) dopaminergic signaling via down-regulation of dopamine receptors and enhanced signal transduction. The decreased dopaminergic signaling after chronic cocaine use may contribute to depressive mood disorders and sensitize this important brain reward circuit to the reinforcing effects of cocaine (e.g. enhanced dopaminergic signalling only when cocaine is self-administered). This sensitization contributes to the intractable nature of addiction and relapse. Dopamine-rich brain regions such as the ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens, and prefrontal cortex are frequent targets of cocaine addiction research. Of particular interest is the pathway consisting of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area that terminate in the nucleus accumbens. This projection may function as a "reward center", in that it seems to show activation in response to drugs of abuse like cocaine in addition to natural rewards like food or sex. While the precise role of dopamine in the subjective experience of reward is highly controversial among neuroscientists, the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens is widely considered to be at least partially responsible for cocaine's rewarding effects. This hypothesis is largely based on laboratory data involving rats that are trained to self-administer cocaine. If dopamine antagonists are infused directly into the nucleus accumbens, well-trained rats self-administering cocaine will undergo extinction (i.e. initially increase responding only to stop completely) thereby indicating that cocaine is no longer reinforcing (i.e. rewarding) the drug-seeking behavior. Cocaine's effects on serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) show across multiple serotonin receptors, and is shown to inhibit the re-uptake of 5-HT3 specifically as an important contributor to the effects of cocaine. The overabundance of 5-HT3 receptors in cocaine conditioned rats display this trait, however the exact effect of 5-HT3 in this process is unclear. The 5-HT2 receptor (particularly the subtypes 5-HT2AR, 5-HT2BR and 5-HT2CR) show influence in the evocation of hyperactivity displayed in cocaine use. In addition to the mechanism shown on the above chart, cocaine has been demonstrated to bind as to directly stabilize the DAT transporter on the open outward-facing conformation whereas other stimulants (namely phenethylamines) stabilize the closed conformation. Further, cocaine binds in such a way as to inhibit a hydrogen bond innate to DAT that otherwise still forms when amphetamine and similar molecules are bound. Cocaine's binding properties are such that it attaches so this hydrogen bond will not form and is blocked from formation due to the tightly locked orientation of the cocaine molecule. Research studies have suggested that the affinity for the transporter is not what is involved in habituation of the substance so much as the conformation and binding properties to where & how on the transporter the molecule binds. The binding sites for cocaine and dopamine in the dopamine transporter overlap. Nature Neuroscience 11, 780 - 789 (2008) Published online: 22 June 2008 Sigma receptors are effected by cocaine, as cocaine functions as a sigma ligand agonist. Sigma Receptors Play Role In Cocaine-induced Suppression Of Immune System Further specific receptors it has been demonstrated to function on are NMDA and the D1 dopamine receptor. Cocaine also blocks sodium channels, thereby interfering with the propagation of action potentials; thus, like lignocaine and novocaine, it acts as a local anesthetic. Cocaine also causes vasoconstriction, thus reducing bleeding during minor surgical procedures. The locomotor enhancing properties of cocaine may be attributable to its enhancement of dopaminergic transmission from the substantia nigra. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms and clock genes in behavioral actions of cocaine. Because nicotine increases the levels of dopamine in the brain, many cocaine users find that consumption of tobacco products during cocaine use enhances the euphoria. This, however, may have undesirable consequences, such as uncontrollable chain smoking during cocaine use (even users who do not normally smoke cigarettes have been known to chain smoke when using cocaine), in addition to the detrimental health effects and the additional strain on the cardiovascular system caused by tobacco. In addition to irritability, mood disturbances, restlessness, paranoia, and auditory hallucinations, cocaine use can cause several dangerous physical conditions. It can lead to disturbances in heart rhythm and heart attacks, as well as chest pains or even respiratory failure. In addition, strokes, seizures and headaches are common in heavy users. Cocaine can often cause reduced food intake, many chronic users lose their appetite and can experience severe malnutrition and significant weight loss. Cocaine effects, further, are shown to be potentiated for the user when used in conjunction with new surroundings and stimuli, and otherwise novel environs. Metabolism and excretion Cocaine is extensively metabolized, primarily in the liver, with only about 1% excreted unchanged in the urine. The metabolism is dominated by hydrolytic ester cleavage, so the eliminated metabolites consist mostly of benzoylecgonine (BE), the major metabolite, and other significant metabolites in lesser amounts such as ecgonine methyl ester (EME) and ecgonine. Further minor metabolites of cocaine include norcocaine, p-hydroxycocaine, m-hydroxycocaine, p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine (pOHBE), and m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine. These do not include metabolites created beyond the standard metabolism of the drug in the human body, like for example by the process of pyrolysis such as is the case with methylecgonidine. Depending on liver and kidney function, cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine. Benzoylecgonine can be detected in urine within four hours after cocaine intake and remains detectable in concentrations greater than 150 ng/ml typically for up to eight days after cocaine is used. Detection of accumulation of cocaine metabolites in hair is possible in regular users until the sections of hair grown during use are cut or fall out. If consumed with alcohol, cocaine combines with alcohol in the liver to form cocaethylene. Studies have suggested cocaethylene is both more euphorigenic, and has a higher cardiovascular toxicity than cocaine by itself. Effects and health issues Acute Data from The Lancet shows Cocaine to be the 2nd most dependent and 2nd most harmful of 20 drugs. Cocaine is a potent central nervous system stimulant. Its effects can last from 20 minutes to several hours, depending upon the dosage of cocaine taken, purity, and method of administration. The initial signs of stimulation are hyperactivity, restlessness, increased blood pressure, increased heart rate and euphoria. The euphoria is sometimes followed by feelings of discomfort and depression and a craving to experience the drug again. Sexual interest and pleasure can be amplified. Side effects can include twitching, paranoia, and impotence, which usually increases with frequent usage. With excessive or prolonged use, the drug can cause itching, tachycardia, hallucinations, and paranoid delusions. Overdoses cause tachyarrhythmias and a marked elevation of blood pressure. These can be life-threatening, especially if the user has existing cardiac problems. The LD50 of cocaine when administered intraperitoneally to mice is 95.1 mg/kg. Toxicity results in seizures, followed by respiratory and circulatory depression of medullar origin. This may lead to death from respiratory failure, stroke, cerebral hemorrhage, or heart-failure. Cocaine is also highly pyrogenic, because the stimulation and increased muscular activity cause greater heat production. Heat loss is inhibited by the intense vasoconstriction. Cocaine-induced hyperthermia may cause muscle cell destruction and myoglobinuria resulting in renal failure. Emergency treatment often consists of administering a benzodiazepine sedation agent, such as diazepam (Valium) to decrease the elevated heart rate and blood pressure. Physical cooling (ice, cold blankets, etc...) and paracetamol (acetaminophen) may be used to treat hyperthermia, while specific treatments are then developed for any further complications. There is no officially approved specific antidote for cocaine overdose, and although some drugs such as dexmedetomidine and rimcazole have been found to be useful for treating cocaine overdose in animal studies, no formal human trials have been carried out. In cases where a patient is unable or unwilling to seek medical attention, cocaine overdoses resulting in mild-moderate tachycardia (i.e.: a resting pulse greater than 120 bpm), may be initially treated with 20 mg of orally administered diazepam or equivalent benzodiazepine (eg: 2 mg lorazepam). Acetaminophen and physical cooling may likewise be used to reduce mild hyperthermia (<39 C). However, a history of high blood pressure or cardiac problems puts the patient at high risk of cardiac arrest or stroke, and requires immediate medical treatment. Similarly, if benzodiazepine sedation fails to reduce heart rate or body temperatures fails to lower, professional intervention is necessary. Cocaine's primary acute effect on brain chemistry is to raise the amount of dopamine and serotonin in the nucleus accumbens (the pleasure center in the brain); this effect ceases, due to metabolism of cocaine to inactive compounds and particularly due to the depletion of the transmitter resources (tachyphylaxis). This can be experienced acutely as feelings of depression, as a "crash" after the initial high. Further mechanisms occur in chronic cocaine use. The "crash" is accompanied with muscle spasms throughout the body, also known as the "jitters", muscle weakness, headaches, dizziness, and suicidal thoughts. Not all users will experience these, but most tend to experience some or all of these symptoms. Studies have shown that cocaine usage during pregnancy triggers premature labor and may lead to abruptio placentae. Cocaine can cause coronary artery spasms which lead to a myocardial infarction. This effect can happen randomly to any user. The coronary artery spasms can occur on the user's first usage or any other usage after. The coronary spasms cause the ectopic ventricular foci of the heart to become hypoxic and the extreme irritability can trigger life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. Chronic Chronic cocaine intake causes brain cells to adapt functionally to strong imbalances of transmitter levels in order to compensate extremes. Thus, receptors disappear from the cell surface or reappear on it, resulting more or less in an "off" or "working mode" respectively, or they change their susceptibility for binding partners (ligands) mechanisms called down-/upregulation. However, studies suggest cocaine abusers do not show normal age-related loss of striatal DAT sites, suggesting cocaine has neuroprotective properties for dopamine neurons. Biological Psychiatry By H. A. H. D'haenen, Johan A. den Boer, Paul Willner The experience of insatiable hunger, aches, insomnia/oversleeping, lethargy, and persistent runny nose are often described as very unpleasant. Depression with suicidal ideation may develop in very heavy users. Finally, a loss of vesicular monoamine transporters, neurofilament proteins, and other morphological changes appear to indicate a long term damage of dopamine neurons. All these effects contribute a rise in tolerance thus requiring a larger dosage to achieve the same effect. The lack of normal amounts of serotonin and dopamine in the brain is the cause of the dysphoria and depression felt after the initial high. Physical withdrawal is not dangerous, and is in fact restorative. The diagnostic criteria for cocaine withdrawal are characterized by a dysphoric mood, fatigue, unpleasant dreams, insomnia or hypersomnia, erectile dysfunction, increased appetite, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and anxiety. Physical side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include hemoptysis, bronchospasm, pruritus, fever, diffuse alveolar infiltrates without effusions, pulmonary and systemic eosinophilia, chest pain, lung trauma, sore throat, asthma, hoarse voice, dyspnea (shortness of breath), and an aching, flu-like syndrome. A common but untrue belief is that the smoking of cocaine chemically breaks down tooth enamel and causes tooth decay. However, cocaine does often cause involuntary tooth grinding, known as bruxism, which can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to gingivitis. Chronic intranasal usage can degrade the cartilage separating the nostrils (the septum nasi), leading eventually to its complete disappearance. Due to the absorption of the cocaine from cocaine hydrochloride, the remaining hydrochloride forms a dilute hydrochloric acid. Cocaine may also greatly increase this risk of developing rare autoimmune or connective tissue diseases such as lupus, Goodpasture's disease, vasculitis, glomerulonephritis, Stevens-Johnson syndrome and other diseases. It can also cause a wide array of kidney diseases and renal failure. While these conditions are normally found in chronic use they can also be caused by short term exposure in susceptible individuals. Cocaine abuse doubles both the risks of hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes , as well as increases the risk of other infarctions, such as myocardial infarction. Years after the abuse has ended, many ex-abusers report a noticeably reduced attention span. Cocaine as a local anesthetic Cocaine was historically useful as a topical anesthetic in eye and nasal surgery, although it is now predominantly used for nasal and lacrimal duct surgery. The major disadvantages of this use are cocaine's intense vasoconstrictor activity and potential for cardiovascular toxicity. Cocaine has since been largely replaced in Western medicine by synthetic local anaesthetics such as benzocaine, proparacaine, lignocaine/xylocaine/lidocaine, and tetracaine though it remains available for use if specified. If vasoconstriction is desired for a procedure (as it reduces bleeding), the anesthetic is combined with a vasoconstrictor such as phenylephrine or epinephrine. In Australia it is currently prescribed for use as a local anesthetic for conditions such as mouth and lung ulcers. Some ENT specialists occasionally use cocaine within the practice when performing procedures such as nasal cauterization. In this scenario dissolved cocaine is soaked into a ball of cotton wool, which is placed in the nostril for the 10–15 minutes immediately prior to the procedure, thus performing the dual role of both numbing the area to be cauterized and also vasoconstriction. Even when used this way, some of the used cocaine may be absorbed through oral or nasal mucosa and give systemic effects. In 2005, researchers from Kyoto University Hospital proposed the use of cocaine in conjunction with phenylephrine administered in the form of an eye drop as a diagnostic test for Parkinson's disease. Etymology The word "cocaine" was made from "coca" + the suffix "-ine"; from its use as a local anaesthetic a suffix "-caine" was extracted and used to form names of synthetic local anaesthetics. Current prohibition The production, distribution and sale of cocaine products is restricted (and illegal in most contexts) in most countries as regulated by the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, and the United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances. In the United States the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of cocaine is additionally regulated by the 1970 Controlled Substances Act. Some countries, such as Peru and Bolivia permit the cultivation of coca leaf for traditional consumption by the local indigenous population, but nevertheless prohibit the production, sale and consumption of cocaine. Some parts of Europe and Australia allow processed cocaine for medicinal uses only. Interdiction In 2004, according to the United Nations, 589 metric tons of cocaine were seized globally by law enforcement authorities. Colombia seized 188 tons, the United States 166 tons, Europe 79 tons, Peru 14 tons, Bolivia 9 tons, and the rest of the world 133 tons. Illicit trade Bricks of cocaine, a form in which it is commonly transported. Because of the extensive processing it undergoes during preparation, cocaine is generally treated as a 'hard drug', with severe penalties for possession and trafficking. Demand remains high, and consequently black market cocaine is quite expensive. Unprocessed cocaine, such as coca leaves, are occasionally purchased and sold, but this is exceedingly rare as it is much easier and more profitable to conceal and smuggle it in powdered form. The scale of the market is immense: 770 tonnes times $100 per gram retail = up to $77 billion. Production Colombia is the world's leading producer of cocaine. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/co.html. Due to Colombia's 1994 legalization of small amounts of cocaine for personal use, while sale of cocaine was still prohibited, the result was the spread of local coca crops, partly justified by the local demand. Three-quarters of the world's annual yield of cocaine has been produced in Colombia, both from cocaine base imported from Peru (primarily the Huallaga Valley) and Bolivia, and from locally grown coca. There was a 28% increase from the amount of potentially harvestable coca plants which were grown in Colombia in 1998 . This, combined with crop reductions in Bolivia and Peru, made Colombia the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation after the mid-1990s. Coca grown for traditional purposes by indigenous communities, a use which is still present and is permitted by Colombian laws, only makes up a small fragment of total coca production, most of which is used for the illegal drug trade. Attempts to eradicate coca fields through the use of defoliants have devastated part of the farming economy in some coca growing regions of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are more resistant or immune to their use. Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. Although production fell temporarily, coca crops rebounded as numerous smaller fields in Colombia, rather than the larger plantations. The cultivation of coca has become an attractive, and in some cases even necessary, economic decision on the part of many growers due to the combination of several factors, including the persistence of worldwide demand, the lack of other employment alternatives, the lower profitability of alternative crops in official crop substitution programs, the eradication-related damages to non-drug farms, and the spread of new strains of the coca plant. <caption>Estimated Andean region coca cultivation and potential pure cocaine production, 2000–2004. <caption> 20002001200220032004 Net cultivation (km²)187522182007.516631662 Potential pure cocaine production (tonnes)770925830680645 Synthesis Synthetic cocaine would be highly desirable to the illegal drug industry, as it would eliminate the high visibility and low reliability of offshore sources and international smuggling, replacing them with clandestine domestic laboratories, as are common for illicit methamphetamine. However, natural cocaine remains the lowest cost and highest quality supply of cocaine. Actual full synthesis of cocaine is rarely done. Formation of inactive enantiomers (cocaine has 4 chiral centres - 1R,2R,3S,5S - hence a total potential of 16 possible enantiomers and disteroisomers) plus synthetic by-products limits the yield and purity. Note, names like 'synthetic cocaine' and 'new cocaine' have been misapplied to phencyclidine (PCP) and various designer drugs. Trafficking and distribution Cocaine smuggled in a charango, 2008. Organized criminal gangs operating on a large scale dominate the cocaine trade. Most cocaine is grown and processed in South America, particularly in Colombia, Bolivia, Peru, and smuggled into the United States and Europe, the United States being the worlds largest consumer of Cocaine Field Listing - Illicit drugs (by country) , where it is sold at huge markups; usually in the US at $50–$75 for 1 gram (or a "fitty rock"), and $125–200 for 3.5 grams (1/8th of an ounce, or an "eight ball"). Cocaine shipments from South America transported through Mexico or Central America are generally moved over land or by air to staging sites in northern Mexico. The cocaine is then broken down into smaller loads for smuggling across the U.S.–Mexico border. The primary cocaine importation points in the United States are in Arizona, southern California, southern Florida, and Texas. Typically, land vehicles are driven across the U.S.-Mexico border. Sixty five percent of cocaine enters the United States through Mexico, and the vast majority of the rest enters through Florida. Jacobson, Robert. "Illegal Drugs: America's Anguish". Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2006 Cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as “mules” (or “mulas”), who cross a border either legally, e.g. through a port or airport, or illegally elsewhere. The drugs may be strapped to the waist or legs or hidden in bags, or hidden in the body. If the mule gets through without being caught, the gangs will reap most of the profits. If he or she is caught however, gangs will sever all links and the mule will usually stand trial for trafficking alone. Cocaine traffickers from Colombia, and recently Mexico, have also established a labyrinth of smuggling routes throughout the Caribbean, the Bahama Island chain, and South Florida. They often hire traffickers from Mexico or the Dominican Republic to transport the drug. The traffickers use a variety of smuggling techniques to transfer their drug to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of 500–700 kg in the Bahama Islands or off the coast of Puerto Rico, mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500–2,000 kg, and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of Miami. Bulk cargo ships are also used to smuggle cocaine to staging sites in the western Caribbean–Gulf of Mexico area. These vessels are typically 150–250-foot (50–80 m) coastal freighters that carry an average cocaine load of approximately 2.5 tonnes. Commercial fishing vessels are also used for smuggling operations. In areas with a high volume of recreational traffic, smugglers use the same types of vessels, such as go-fast boats, as those used by the local populations. Sophisticated drug subs are the latest tool drug runners are using to bring cocaine north from Colombia, it was reported on March 20, 2008. Although the vessels were once viewed as a quirky sideshow in the drug war, they are becoming faster, more seaworthy, and capable of carrying bigger loads of drugs than earlier models, according to those charged with catching them. Sales to consumers Cocaine is readily available in all major countries' metropolitan areas. According to the Summer 1998 Pulse Check, published by the U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy, cocaine use had stabilized across the country, with a few increases reported in San Diego, Bridgeport, Miami, and Boston. In the West, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be due to a switch to methamphetamine among some users; methamphetamine is cheaper and provides a longer-lasting high. Numbers of cocaine users are still very large, with a concentration among urban youth. In addition to the amounts previously mentioned, cocaine can be sold in "bill sizes": for example, $10 might purchase a "dime bag," a very small amount (0.1–0.15 g) of cocaine. Twenty dollars might purchase .15–.3 g. However, in lower Texas, it's sold cheaper due to it being easier to receive: a dime for $10 is .4g, a 20 is .8-1.0 gram and a 8-ball (3.5g) is sold for $60 to $80 dollars, depending on the quality and dealer. These amounts and prices are very popular among young people because they are inexpensive and easily concealed on one's body. Quality and price can vary dramatically depending on supply and demand, and on geographic region. "Pricing powder", The Economist, June 28, 2007, Prices: USA around $110/g, Israel/ Germany/ Britain around $46/g, Colombia $2/g, New Zealand recordbreaking $714.30/g. However, UK prices are astronomical compared to those in the USA, with £40 (typically $80) getting 1 gram of cocaine (compared to $20–$40 in the USA). The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that the typical retail price of cocaine varied between 50€ and 75€ per gram in most European countries, although Cyprus, Romania, Sweden and Turkey reported much higher values. Bags of cocaine, adulterated with fruit flavoring. Consumption World annual cocaine consumption currently stands at around 600 metric tons, with the United States consuming around 300 metric tons, 50% of the total, Europe about 150 metric tons, 25% of the total, and the rest of the world the remaining 150 metric tons or 25%. Cocaine adulterants Cocaine is "cut" with many substances such as: Anesthetics: Lidocaine Benzocaine Procaine Other stimulants: Caffeine Ephedrine Methamphetamine Inert powder: Baking soda Inositol Usage According to a 2007 United Nations report, Spain is the country with the highest rate of cocaine usage (3.0% of adults in the previous year). , p243. Other countries where the usage rate meets or exceeds 1.5% are the United States (2.8%), England and Wales (2.4%), Canada (2.3%), Italy (2.1%), Bolivia (1.9%), Chile (1.8%), and Scotland (1.5%). In the United States General usage Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in the U.S. (behind marijuana) and the U.S. is the world's largest consumer of cocaine. Cocaine is commonly used in middle to upper class communities. It is also popular amongst college students, to aid in studying and as a party drug. Its users span over different ages, races, and professions. In the 1970s and 80's, the drug became particularly popular in the disco culture as cocaine usage was very common and popular in many discos such as Studio 54. The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) reported in 1999 that cocaine was used by 3.7 million Americans, or 1.7% of the household population age 12 and older. Estimates of the current number of those who use cocaine regularly (at least once per month) vary, but 1.5 million is a widely accepted figure within the research community. Although cocaine use had not significantly changed over the six years prior to 1999, the number of first-time users went up from 574,000 in 1991, to 934,000 in 1998 an increase of 63%. While these numbers indicated that cocaine is still widely present in the United States, cocaine use was significantly less prevalent than it was during the early 1980s. Usage among youth The 1999 Monitoring the Future (MTF) survey found the proportion of American students reporting use of powdered cocaine rose during the 1990s. In 1991, 2.3% of eighth-graders stated that they had used cocaine in their lifetime. This figure rose to 4.7% in 1999. For the older grades, increases began in 1992 and continued through the beginning of 1999. Between those years, lifetime use of cocaine went from 3.3% to 7.7% for tenth-graders and from 6.1% to 9.8% for high school seniors. Lifetime use of crack cocaine, according to MTF, also increased among eighth-, tenth-, and twelfth-graders, from an average of 2% in 1991 to 3.9% in 1999. Perceived risk and disapproval of cocaine and crack use both decreased during the 1990s at all three grade levels. The 1999 NHSDA found the highest rate of monthly cocaine use was for those aged 18–25 at 1.7%, an increase from 1.2% in 1997. Rates declined between 1996 and 1998 for ages 26–34, while rates slightly increased for the 12–17 and 35+ age groups. Studies also show people are experimenting with cocaine at younger ages. NHSDA found a steady decline in the mean age of first use from 23.6 years in 1992 to 20.6 years in 1998. In Europe General usage Cocaine is the second most popular illegal recreational drug in Europe (behind marijuana). Since the mid-1990s, overall cocaine usage in Europe has been on the rise, but usage rates and attitudes tend to vary between countries. Countries with the highest usage rates are: The United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, and Ireland. Approximately 12 million Europeans (3.6%) have used cocaine at least once, 4 million (1.2%) in the last year, and 2 million in the last month (0.5%). Usage among young adults About 3.5 million or 87.5% of those who have used the drug in the last year are young adults (15-34 years old). Usage is particularly prevalent among this demographic: 4% to 7% of males have used cocaine in the last year in Spain, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, and the United Kingdom. The ratio of male to female users is approximately 3.8:1, but this statistic varies from 1:1 to 13:1 depending on country. , p58-62. Addiction Cocaine dependence (or addiction) is physical and psychological dependency on the regular use of cocaine. It can result in physiological damage, lethargy, psychosis, depression, or a potentially fatal overdose. See also Cocaine paste ("paco") Black cocaine Coca Coca eradication Coca Museum Crack baby Crack lung Crack Epidemic Cuscohygrine Drug addiction Drug injection Drugs and prostitution Ecgonine benzoate Entomotoxicology The Great Binge Hydroxytropacocaine Hygrine List of cocaine analogues Methylecgonine cinnamate Psychoactive drug TA-CD Take a Whiff On Me Vanoxerine References External links Cocaine in Egyptian Mummies EMCDDA drugs profile: Cocaine(2007) Erowid -> Cocaine Information — A collection of data about cocaine including dose, effects, chemistry, legal status, images and more. Slang Dictionary for Cocaine. Cocaine content of plants Cocaine - The History and the Risks at h2g2 Cocaine Frequently Asked Questions Cocaine users are destroying the rainforest - at 4 square metres a gram | World news | The Guardian be-x-old:Какаін

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Church_(building)

A church building is a building or structure whose primary purpose is to facilitate the meeting of a church. Originally, Christians met in synagogues and in one another's homes. As Christianity grew and became more accepted by governments, rooms, and eventually entire buildings, were set aside for the explicit purpose of Christian worship. Traditional church buildings are often in the shape of a cross, and frequently have a tower or dome. More modern church buildings have a variety of architectural styles and layouts; many buildings that were designed for other purposes have now been converted for church use, and similarly many original church buildings have been put to other uses. History Early development The first Christians were, like Jesus, Jews resident in Israel who worshiped on occasion in the Temple in Jerusalem and weekly in local synagogues. Temple worship was a ritual involving sacrifice, occasionally including the sacrifice of animals in atonement for sin, offered to Yahweh. The New Testament includes many references to Jesus visiting the Temple, the first time as an infant with his parents.The early history of the synagogue is obscure, but it seems to be an institution developed for public Jewish worship during the Babylonian captivity when the Jews did not have access to the Jerusalem Temple for ritual sacrifice. Instead, they developed a daily and weekly service of readings from the Torah or the prophets followed by commentary. This could be carried out in a house if the attendance was small enough, and in many towns of the Diaspora that was the case. In others, more elaborate architectural settings developed, sometimes by converting a house and sometimes by converting a previously public building. The minimum requirements seem to have been a meeting room with adequate seating, a case for the Torah scrolls, and a raised platform for the reader and preacher. Jesus himself participated in this sort of service as a reader and commentator (see Gospel of Luke 4: 16-24) and his followers probably remained worshipers in synagogues in some cities. However, following the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70, the new Christian movement and Judaism increasingly parted ways. The Church became overwhelmingly Gentile sometime in the 4th century. The Syrian city of Dura-Europos on the West bank of the Euphrates was an outpost town between the Roman and Parthian empires. During a siege by Parthian troops in A.D. 257 the buildings in the outermost blocks of the city grid were partially destroyed and filled with rubble to reinforce the city wall. Thus were preserved and securely dated the earliest decorated church and a synagogue decorated with extensive wall paintings. Both had been converted from earlier private buildings. The church at Dura Europos has a special room dedicated for baptisms with a large baptismal font. Churches in medieval Europe During the 11th through 14th centuries, a wave of building of cathedrals and smaller parish churches occurred across Western Europe. In addition to being a place of worship, the cathedral or parish church was used by the community in other ways. It could serve as a meeting place for guilds or a hall for banquets. Mystery plays were sometimes performed in cathedrals, and cathedrals might also be used for fairs. The church could be used as a place to thresh and store grain. Architecture A common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross (a long central rectangle, with side rectangles, and a rectangle in front for the altar space or sanctuary). These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, to represent the church's bringing light to the world. Another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the "west" end of the church or over the crossing. Types of churches Basilica The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek, Basiliké Stoà, Royal Stoa), was originally used to describe a Roman public building (as in Greece, mainly a tribunal), usually located in the forum of a Roman town. After the Roman Empire became officially Christian, the term came by extension to refer to a large and important church that has been given special ceremonial rites by the Pope. Thus the word retains two senses today, one architectural and the other ecclesiastical. Cathedral A cathedral is a church, usually Roman Catholic, Anglican, or Eastern Orthodox, housing the seat of a bishop. The word cathedral takes its name from the word cathedra, or Bishop's Throne (In Latin: ecclesia cathedralis). The term is sometimes (improperly) used to refer to any church of great size. The church that has the function of cathedral is not of necessity a large building. It might be as small as Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford or Chur Cathedral, Switzerland. But frequently, the cathedral, along with some of the abbey churches, was the largest building in any region. Alternative buildings Old and disused church buildings can be seen as an interesting proposition for developers as the architecture and location often provide for attractive homes Church conversions - Times Online Buying a church conversion - OurProperty.co.uk or city centre entertainment venues Pitcher and Piano - quality food and drink On the other hand, many newer Churches have decided to host meetings in public buildings such as schools The Family Church Christchurch:Welcome to the Family Church Christchurch Dorset , universities Welcome to The Hope Church, Manchester... A Newfrontiers Church based in Salford, Manchester UK, Manchester Churches, Churches Manchester, Newfrontiers Church Manchester, Manchester Newfrontiers Churc... , cinemas Jubilee Church Enfield, London or theatres Hillsong Church London . There is another trend to convert old buildings for worship use rather than face the construction costs and planning difficulties of a new build. Unusual venues in the UK include an old Tram power station CITY CHURCH NEWCASTLE & GATESHEAD - enjoying God...making friends...changing lives - Welcome , a former bus garage Aylsham Community Church , an old cinema and bingo hall , a former Territorial Army Drill Hall, Shrewsbury Venue Shrewsbury - Barnabas Community Church Shrewsbury a former synagogue http://www.citychurchsheffield.org.uk/jubileecentre.htm and a windmill. See also Church architecture Cathedral Basilica Chapel Sistine Chapel Meeting house Stave church Post church Palisade church Duomo Parish Eastern Orthodox church architecture Cathedral architecture of Western Europe Architecture of the medieval cathedrals of England Polish Cathedral style List of cathedrals List of cathedrals in the United Kingdom List of largest church buildings in the world List of tallest churches in the world List of highest church navesCathedral diagram Narthex Nave Iconostasis Sanctuary List of basilicas Church of the Holy Sepulchre Hagia Sophia St. Peter's Basilica Places of worship Mosque Temple Synagogue Post-congregational narrative House church Monastery Church in a pub Cowboy church Double Church Simultaneum References Notes Sources External links Church from the Catholic Encyclopedia Archeologist discover first Church be-x-old:Царква

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Bruce_Sterling

Michael Bruce Sterling (born April 14, 1954) is an American science fiction author, best known for his novels and his seminal work on the Mirrorshades anthology, which helped define the cyberpunk genre. Writings Sterling is, along with William Gibson, Rudy Rucker, John Shirley, Lewis Shiner, and Pat Cadigan, one of the founders of the cyberpunk movement in science fiction, as well as its chief ideological promulgator, and one whose polemics on the topic earned him the nickname "Chairman Bruce". He was also one of the first organizers of the Turkey City Writer's Workshop, and is a frequent attendee at the Sycamore Hill Writer's Workshop. He won Hugo Awards for his novelettes "Bicycle Repairman" and "Taklamakan". His first novel, Involution Ocean, published in 1977, features the world Nullaqua where all the atmosphere is contained in a single, miles-deep crater; the story concerns a ship sailing on the ocean of dust at the bottom, which hunts creatures called dustwhales that live beneath the surface. It is partially a science-fictional pastiche of Moby-Dick by Herman Melville. From the late 1970s onwards, Sterling wrote a series of stories set in the Shaper/Mechanist universe: the solar system is colonised, with two major warring factions. The Mechanists use a great deal of computer-based mechanical technologies; the Shapers do genetic engineering on a massive scale. The situation is complicated by the eventual contact with alien civilizations; humanity eventually splits into many subspecies, with the implication that many of these effectively vanish from the galaxy, reminiscent of The Singularity in the works of Vernor Vinge. The Shaper/Mechanist stories can be found in the collection Crystal Express and the collection Schismatrix Plus, which contains the original novel Schismatrix and all of the stories set in the Shaper/Mechanist universe. Alastair Reynolds identified Schismatrix and the other Shaper/Mechanist stories as one of the greatest influences on his own work. Bruce Sterling at the Open Cultures conference (5 June 2003) In the 1980s, Sterling edited the science fiction critical fanzine Cheap Truth, under the alias of Vincent Omniaveritas. He wrote a column called Catscan, for the now-defunct science fiction critical magazine, SF Eye. He recently contributed a chapter to Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture (The MIT Press, 2008) edited by Paul D. Miller a.k.a. DJ Spooky. From April 2009 through May 2009, he was an editor at Cool Tools. http://www.kk.org/cooltools/archives/003672.php Projects He has been the instigator of three projects which can be found on the Web - The Dead Media Project - A collection of "research notes" on dead media technologies, from Incan quipus, through Victorian phenakistoscopes, to the departed video game and home computers of the 1980s. The Project's homepage, including Sterling's original Dead Media Manifesto can be found at http://www.deadmedia.org The Viridian Design Movement - his attempt to create a "green" design movement focused on high-tech, stylish, and ecologically sound design. http://www.bigpicture.tv/index.php?id=83&cat=&a=224 The Viridian Design home page, including Sterling's Viridian Manifesto and all of his Viridian Notes, is managed by Jon Lebkowsky at http://www.viridiandesign.org. The Viridian Movement helped to spawn the popular "bright green" environmental weblog Worldchanging. WorldChanging contributors include many of the original members of the Viridian "curia". Embrace the Decay - a web-only art piece commissioned by the LA Museum of Contemporary Art in 2003. http://www.moca.org/museum/dg_detail.php?&dgDetail=bsterling Incorporating contributions solicited through The Viridian Design 'movement', Embrace the Decay was the most visited piece/page at LA MOCA's Digital Gallery, and included contributions from Jared Tarbell of levitated.net and co-author of several books on advanced Flash programming, and Monty Zukowski, creator of the winning 'decay algorithm' sponsored by Bruce. Neologisms Sterling has a habit of coining neologisms to describe things which he believes will be common in the future, especially items which already exist in limited numbers. In the December 2005 issue of Wired magazine, Sterling coined the term buckyjunk. Buckyjunk refers to future, difficult-to-recycle consumer waste made of carbon nanotubes (aka buckytubes, based on buckyballs or buckminsterfullerene). In July 1989, in SF Eye #5, he was the first to use the word "slipstream" to refer to a type of speculative fiction between traditional science fiction and fantasy and mainstream literature. In December 1999 he coined the term "Wexelblat disaster", for a disaster caused when a natural disaster triggers a secondary, and more damaging, failure of human technology. In August 2004 he suggested a type of technological device (he called it "spime") that, through pervasive RFID and GPS tracking, can track its history of use and interact with the world. In the speech where he offered "spime", he noted that the term "blobject", with which he is sometimes credited, was passed on to him by industrial designer Karim Rashid. The term may originally have been coined by Steven Skov Holt. Personal Sterling at Robofest '94 (with mullet). In childhood, Sterling spent several years in India, and today has a notable fondness for Bollywood films. In 2003 he was appointed Professor at the European Graduate School where he is teaching Summer Intensive Courses on media and design. In 2005, he became "visionary in residence" at Art Center College of Design in Pasadena, California. He lived in Belgrade with his second wife, Serbian author and film-maker Jasmina Tesanovic Life Doesn't Lack for Variety | Beyond the Beyond from Wired.com for several years. In September 2007 he moved to Turin, Italy. Putting people first » Bruce Sterling moving to Torino, Italy He also travels the world extensively giving speeches and attending conferences. In his hometown of Austin, Texas, the author was known for throwing large South By Southwest parties up through 2005, and for participating in his block's annual Christmas lights display, to which Sterling added digital art. Bibliography Novels Involution Ocean (1977) A science fiction version of Moby Dick, set in a deep crater filled with dust instead of water, featuring an impossible romance between the protagonist and an alien woman. The book was published as part of a series of books by new authors discovered by Harlan Ellison and was marketed as such. The Artificial Kid (1980) A novel about a young street fighter who continuously films himself using remote controlled cameras. Schismatrix (1985) Nebula Award nominee, 1985 ; British Science Fiction Association Award nominee, 1986 The twenty third century solar system is divided among two human factions: the "Shapers" who are employing genetics and psychology, and the "Mechanists" who use computers and body prosthetics. The novel is narrated from the viewpoint of Abelard Lindsay, a brilliant diplomat who makes history many times throughout the story. Islands in the Net (1988) Campbell Award winner, 1989 ; Hugo Award nominee, 1989 ; Locus SF Award nominee, 1989 A view of an early twenty first century world apparently peaceful with delocalised, networking corporations. The protagonist, swept up in events beyond her control, finds herself in the places off the net, from a datahaven in Grenada, to a Singapore under terrorist attack, and the poorest and most disaster-struck part of Africa. The Difference Engine (1990) (with William Gibson) BSFA Award nominee, 1990 ; Nebula Award nominee, 1991 ; Campbell Award nominee, 1992 A steampunk alternate history novel set in a Victorian Great Britain in the throes of a steam-driven computer revolution. Heavy Weather (1994) Follows high-tech storm chasers in the American midwest where greenhouse warming has made tornadoes far more energetic than the present day. Holy Fire (1996) BSFA Award nominee, 1996 ; Hugo Award nominee, 1997 ; Locus SF Award nominee, 1997 Set in a world of steadily increasing longevity (gerontocracy), a newly rejuvenated American woman drifts through the marginalised subculture of European young artists while dealing with the implications of posthumanism. Distraction (1998) Campbell Award nominee, 1999 ; Hugo Award nominee, 1999 ; Locus SF Award nominee, 1999 ; Clarke Award winner, 2000 A master political strategist and a genius genetic researcher find love as they fight an insane Louisiana governor for control of a high-tech scientific facility in a post-collapse United States. US editions: ISBN 0-553-10484-5 (hardcover), ISBN 0-553-57639-9 (paperback). Zeitgeist (2000) Locus SF Award nominee, 2001 A girl group à la the Spice Girls tours the Middle East under the direction of trickster Leggy Starlitz. Explores a world in which postmodernism and deconstructionism were actually true in their postulation of reality as a malleable major consensus narrative. The Zenith Angle (2004) A techno-thriller about a cyber-security expert who goes to work for the U.S. government fighting terrorism after 9/11. Kiosk (2007) The Caryatids (February 2009) Three women, clones of a Balkan war criminal living on a space station, may be able to rescue the earth from environmental collapse in 2060. Del Rey Online | The Caryatids by Bruce Sterling Short story collections Mirrorshades: A Cyberpunk Anthology (1986) - defining cyberpunk short story collection, edited by Bruce Sterling; ISBN 0-441-53382-5 "The Gernsback Continuum" by William Gibson "Snake-Eyes" by Tom Maddox "Rock On" by Pat Cadigan "Tales of Houdini" by Rudy Rucker "400 Boys" by Marc Laidlaw "Solstice" by James Patrick Kelly "Petra" by Greg Bear "Till Human Voices Wake Us" by Lewis Shiner "Freezone" by John Shirley "Stone Lives" by Paul Di Filippo "Red Star, Winter Orbit" by Bruce Sterling, William Gibson "Mozart in Mirrorshades" by Bruce Sterling, Lewis Shiner Crystal Express (1989) - a collection of short stories, including several set in the Shaper/Mechanist universe; ISBN 0-87054-158-7 "Swarm" "Spider Rose" "Cicada Queen" "Sunken Gardens" "Twenty Evocations" "Green Days in Brunei" "Spook" "The Beautiful and the Sublime" "Telliamed" "The Little Magic Shop" "Flowers of Edo" "Dinner in Audoghast" Globalhead (1992, paperback 1994); ISBN 0-553-56281-9 "Our Neural Chernobyl" "Storming the Cosmos" "The Compassionate, the Digital" "Jim and Irene" "The Sword of Damocles" "The Gulf Wars" "The Shores of Bohemia" "The Moral Bullet" "The Unthinkable" "We See Things Differently" "Hollywood Kremlin" "Are You for 86?" "Dori Bangs" A Good Old-fashioned Future (1999); ISBN 1-85798-710-1 "Maneki Neko" "Big Jelly" (with Rudy Rucker) "The Littlest Jackal" "Sacred Cow" "Deep Eddy" Bicycle Repairman" "Taklamakan" Visionary in Residence (2006); ISBN 1-56025-841-1 "In Paradise" "Luciferase" "Homo Sapiens Declared Extinct" "Ivory Tower" "Message Found in a Bottle" "The Growthing" "User-Centric" "Code" "The Scab's Progress" "Junk DNA" "The Necropolis of Thebes" "The Blemmye's Stratagem" "The Denial" Non-fiction The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier (1992) - about the panic of law enforcers in the late 1980s about 'hackers' and the raid on Steve Jackson Games as part of Operation Sun Devil. Spectra Books, ISBN 0-553-56370-X. Reasoning that the book had a naturally time-limited commercial life, he has made the text of the book freely available via Project Gutenberg (HTML version). Tomorrow Now: Envisioning the next fifty years (2002) - a popular science approach on futurology, reflecting technology, politics and culture of the next 50 years. Readers of Sterling will recognize many issues from books like Zeitgeist, Distraction or Holy Fire. ISBN 0679463224 Shaping Things (2005) is a "book about created objects", i.e. a lengthy essay about design, things and how we will move from the age of products and gizmos to the age of spimes (a Sterling neologism). The 150-pages book covers issues like "intelligent things" (spiked with RFID-tags), sustainability and "fabbing". MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-69326-7. Awards 2000 Clarke Award winner for the novel Distraction 1999 Hayakawa Award winner Taklamakan Best Foreign Short Story 1999 Hugo Award winner for the novellette Taklamakan 1997 Hugo Award winner for the novelette Bicycle Repairman 1989 Campbell Award winner for the novel Islands in the Net References External links Closing talk by Bruce Sterling South by South West, March 13 2007, Austin Texas. Opening keynote speech at Ubicomp 2006 conference, Orange County, California. Bruce's speech begins at 0:10:20. Video Interview with Bruce Sterling, English language with German intro and subtitles Wired Blog : Beyond the beyond Video Lecture by Bruce Sterling, European Graduate School, Saas-fee, Switzerland 2006 about technologies such as RFID's. Reason Magazine Interview with Bruce Sterling Interview pour le site Actusf.com (in French) Archive of Catscan columns at EFF Talk at the Innovationsforum Interactiondesign, Germany 2007 "Computer Entertainment Thirty-Five Years From Today", Flurb'' 6 (Fall-Winter 2008). Speech at the Austin Game Developers Conference. Opening Keynote at Lift08: "A look at 2008, the boring year ahead" Talk on "Spimes and the future of artifacts" Lift Asis 08 talk: "Mobiles and the urban poor"

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John_A._Macdonald

Sir John Alexander Macdonald, GCB, KCMG, PC, PC (Can), (January 11, Pope, Sir Joseph (1930) Memoirs of The Right Honourable John Alexander Macdonald. Toronto: ON: The Musson Book Company Ltd., p.3. Pope relates that Hugh Macdonald recorded the time of Sir John's birth as 4:15, January 11, 1815. 1815  – June 6, 1891) was the first Prime Minister of Canada and the dominant figure of Canadian Confederation. Macdonald's tenure in office spanned 18 years, making him the second longest serving Prime Minister of Canada. He is the only Canadian Prime Minister to win eight majority governments. He was the major proponent of a national railway, completed in 1885, linking Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans. He won praise for having helped forge a nation of sprawling geographic size, with two diverse European colonial origins, numerous Aboriginal nations, and a multiplicity of cultural backgrounds and political views. Early years, 1815–1835 John Alexander Macdonald was born in Glasgow, Scotland on January 11, 1815. Although January 10 is the official date recorded in the Glasgow Registry Office, January 11 is the day Macdonald and his family celebrated his birthday. Waite, P.B. (1976) John A. Macdonald. Don Mills: ON: Fitzhenry and Whiteside Limited, p.7. His father was Hugh Macdonald, an unsuccessful merchant, who had married Helen Shaw, on October 21, 1811. Phenix, Patricia. (2007) Private Demons: The Tragic Personal Life of John A. Macdonald. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Ltd. p.6. Together, they produced five children. The first-born, William died in infancy. The next was Margaret who was followed a year and a half later by John Alexander, then a younger brother, James and a baby sister named Louisa. After the failure of Hugh Macdonald's business ventures, the family emigrated to Kingston, Upper Canada in 1820 along with thousands of others seeking affordable land and promises of prosperity. Swainson, Donald. (1989) Sir John A. Macdonald: The Man and the Politician. Kingston, ON: Quarry Press, p.17. Bad luck followed the family to their new country. Macdonald watched as his younger brother James was struck and killed by a drunken servant who was supposed to be looking after them. Pope, Joseph. (1894) Memoirs of the Right Honourable Sir John Alexander Macdonald, vol.1. Ottawa: J. Durie and Son, p.5. The death was treated as an accident. Hugh Macdonald's business ventures in the Kingston area were scarcely more successful than they had been in Scotland. Pope, p.3. The family managed to scrape up the money to send Macdonald to Kingston's Midland Grammar School where, according to biographer Donald Creighton, he studied subjects such as Latin, French and mathematics. "Already he was a voracious reader," Creighton writes, "and he would sit for hours deep in a book, almost oblivious to what was going on." Creighton, Donald (1952) John A. Macdonald: The Young Politician. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada Limited, p.14–15. At 14, Macdonald switched to a school for "general and classical education" founded by a newly arrived Presbyterian minister from Scotland. It was one of the few schools in Upper Canada that taught both boys and girls. Creighton, pp.17–18 Macdonald's formal schooling ended at 15, which was common when only the most prosperous were able to attend university. Creighton, p.18. Nevertheless, Macdonald later regretted leaving school when he did, remarking to his private secretary Joseph Pope that if he had attended university, he might have embarked on a literary career. "He did not add, as he might have done," Pope wrote in his biography of Macdonald, "that the successful government of millions of men, the strengthening of an empire, the creation of a great dominion, call for the possession and exercise of rarer qualities than are necessary to the achievement of literary fame." Pope, pp.4–5. Law career, 1830-1843 Professional training, 1830-1836 Macdonald's parents decided he should become a lawyer after leaving school. Swainson, p.19. As Donald Creighton writes, "law was a broad, well-trodden path to comfort, influence, even to power." It was also "the obvious choice for a boy who seemed as attracted to study as he was uninterested in trade." Creighton, p.19. Besides, Macdonald needed to start earning money immediately to support his family because his father's business ventures were failing. "I had no boyhood," he complained many years later. "From the age of 15, I began to earn my own living." Pope, p.6. A few months after he opened his first law office in 1835, Macdonald moved with his parents and sisters to this two and a half storey stone house on Kingston's Rideau Street.Library and Archives Canada. Macdonald travelled by steamboat to Toronto (then known as York), where he passed an examination set by the Law Society of Upper Canada. Gwyn, p.34. In 1830, there were no law schools, so prospective lawyers wrote the entrance exam, then learned the trade through on-the-job training by articling with an established lawyer. Macdonald was extremely fortunate to begin his apprenticeship with George Mackenzie, a young lawyer who was a prominent member of Kingston's rising Scottish community. Mackenzie practised corporate law, a lucrative specialty that Macdonald himself would later pursue. Gwyn, pp.46-47. A promising law student, Macdonald was managing a branch office for Mackenzie in Napanee at age 17. It meant much more independence and responsibility. Creighton, p.25. In 1833, Mackenzie permitted his articling student to leave his firm to run the law practice of Macdonald's ailing cousin, Lowther Pennington Macpherson, at Picton. By all accounts, the 19-year-old Macdonald did well. Swainson, p.21. But in the summer of 1835, he decided to return to Kingston to open his own practice after George Mackenzie's sudden death during a cholera epidemic. Creighton, p.34. Biographer Donald Swainson writes that Macdonald was determined to step into Mackenzie's shoes as the "leading lawyer within Kingston's Scottish Presbyterian community, a community that was quickly becoming the dominant force in the life of the city." Swainson, pp.21&23. Early successes, 1836-1837 Macdonald was then called to the Bar on February 6 1836. Johnson J.K. and Waite P.B. (2007) "Sir John Alexander Macdonald" in Canada's Prime Ministers, Macdonald to Trudeau: Portraits from the Canadian Dictionary of Biography, p.1. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Soon after opening his own law firm he took in two students: Oliver Mowat, a future premier of Ontario and like Macdonald himself, a Father of Confederation, and Alexander Campbell, future Father of Confederation, federal cabinet minister and Lieutenant Governor of Ontario. Pope, p.8. With the help of his students, Macdonald "busied himself with lucrative but tedious work, such as chasing down unpaid bills and searching titles." Gwyn, pp.48-49. Then suddenly, in 1837, Macdonald switched to criminal law for two years. Biographer Richard Gwyn writes that although there's no documentary evidence, there is a "plausible explanation" for Macdonald's motives: As a criminal lawyer who took on dramatic cases, Macdonald got himself noticed well beyond the narrow confines of the Kingston business community. He was operating now in the arena where he would spend by far the greatest part of his life --- the court of public opinion. And while there he was learning the arts of argument and of persuasion that would serve him all his political life. Gwyn, p.49. Macdonald unsuccessfully defended a man accused of raping an eight-year-old girl but won praise from a local newspaper for conducting "a very able defence." He then won the acquittal of a man accused of murdering a friend after an argument. Alexander Campbell, Macdonald's student, wrote years later that Macdonald had persuaded the jury by his "humour and strong liking for anecdote more than for his professional knowledge." The details of these cases are recounted in Gywn, pp.49-50. Rebellions of 1837 The Rebellions of 1837 in Upper and Lower Canada proved to be a crucial turning point in Macdonald's legal career. In fact, biographer Donald Creighton argues that the rebellions "made him as a lawyer," giving him the "reputation of a conservative who was not afraid to battle for liberal principles." Creighton, p.68. Macdonald showed he was willing to take professional risks first by defending eight political prisoners from nearby counties who had been charged with treason for allegedly participating in the uprisings against colonial authorities. Macdonald succeeded in winning acquittals for all eight earning praise for his "ingenuity and ability" from a Kingston newspaper which also noted that the young barrister "is rapidly rising in his profession." Quoted in Creighton, p.54. Then, Macdonald served as co-counsel for John Ashley, the man in charge of a local military jail, who had himself been arrested and briefly imprisoned for allegedly helping 15 political prisoners escape from custody. Ashley sued Colonel Dundas, the military commander for illegal arrest. Dundas was a popular figure, but Macdonald helped persuade the jury to award Ashley substantial monetary damages. Macdonald, Creighton writes, was now associated "with the defence of the plain people against the encroachments of military power. The solid blue of his inherited conservatism was varied now, in a pleasantly interesting fashion, with a few threads of a different and livelier color." Creighton, pp.55-58 Battle of the Windmill, near Prescott, Upper Canada, November 13, 1838. Finally, Macdonald took his biggest risk of all by agreeing to advise American raiders who had participated in an abortive invasion to liberate Canada from what they saw as the yoke of British colonial oppression. The inept raiders had been captured after the Battle of the Windmill (1838, near Prescott, Ontario) --- a battle in which 16 Canadians were killed and 60 wounded. Worst of all, the American invaders were accused of mutilating the body of a dead Canadian lieutenant. Creighton writes that Kingston was "mad with grief and rage and horror." Creighton, p.63. At least two other lawyers refused to help when the brother-in-law of one of the Americans pleaded with them to provide legal advice. Macdonald must have hesitated, but eventually said yes after the frantic brother-in-law knocked on his door one morning before he was out of bed. It was surely wisdom to have nothing to do with the whole affair. And yet, he took the case. Even he might have found it difficult to say why. A curious interest in people, a relish for cases which were odd and difficult, a jaunty recognition of the fact that professional prestige involved publicity, and, perhaps, a certain stubborn, independent conviction that these helpless and deluded men deserved at least the bare minimum of assistance - all these may have helped to move him to his decision. Creighton, pp.63-64. There was little Macdonald could do to defend the Americans. Under military rules governing courts martial, civilian lawyers were not allowed to question witnesses or address the judge. Macdonald could only give private advice which helped the brother-in-law to ask searching questions during his trial, but did not save him from the gallows. Macdonald also advised "General" Nils Szoltevcky Von Schoultz, the brave and charismatic Polish immigrant who had led the American raiders after their real commanders abandoned them at Windmill Point. Von Shoultz insisted on pleading guilty and wanted to leave Macdonald $100 in his will. Macdonald had to refuse it, but he never forgot the tragic story of the tall, handsome Pole. Creighton, pp.65-68. The information about the $100 legacy appears in Pope, p.10. Biographer Donald Creighton writes that although the rebellions and their aftermath helped Macdonald's career, they also had lasting psychological effects. "For him, and for Kingston," Creighton writes, "the 'rebellion' had been not so much a native uprising as a succession of American raids; and from then on he never quite lost a certain lingering anxiety for the problem of British North American defence." Political rise, 1843–1864 John A. Macdonald in 1843 In 1843, Macdonald entered politics, standing for the office of Alderman in Kingston, a position to which he was elected. In 1844 he was elected to the legislature of the Province of Canada to represent Kingston , gained the recognition of his peers and in 1847 was appointed Receiver General in William Henry Draper's government. However, Macdonald had to give up his portfolio when Draper's government lost the next election. He left the Conservatives, hoping to build a more moderate and palatable base. In 1854, he helped with the founding of the Liberal-Conservative Party under the leadership of Sir Allan McNab. Within a few years, the Liberal-Conservatives would attract all of the old Conservative base as well as some centrist Reformers. The Liberal-Conservatives came to power in 1854 and under the new government Macdonald was appointed Attorney-General. During his time in cabinet, Macdonald was usually the most powerful minister, even when other men held the premiership. In the next election Macdonald continued his rise in politics by becoming Joint Premier of the Province of Canada with Sir Étienne-Paschal Taché of Canada East for the years 1856 and 1857. Taché resigned in 1857, and George-Étienne Cartier took his place. In the election of 1858, the Macdonald-Cartier government was defeated and they resigned as Premiers. In an interesting piece of politics, the Governor General of Canada asked Cartier to become the senior Premier, only a week after his defeat. Cartier accepted and brought Macdonald into office along with him. This was legal as any member of the cabinet could re-enter the cabinet provided they did so within a month of resigning their previous position. Macdonald focused on communications and defence, especially the Intercolonial Railway. Canada had to pressure the Colonial Office, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island to, as one historian notes, "consider an ambitious scheme proposed by their pushing and turbulent neighbour, Canada." [Creighton, 1956, p. 273] The coalition government was again defeated in 1862. Macdonald then served as the leader of the opposition until the election of 1864, when Taché came out of retirement and joined ranks with Macdonald to form the governing party yet again. The Confederation of Canada, 1864–1867 To resolve the frequent legislative deadlocks in the Province of Canada, George Brown, the leader of the Clear Grits (the forerunners to the Liberal Party of Canada) and an extremely vocal opponent of Macdonald's Conservatives, joined with Macdonald's Conservatives and George-Étienne Cartier's Parti Bleu in 1864 to form the Great Coalition. The coalition sought to reform the political system of Canada, and was a crucial step in achieving a consensus to support future reform. However, the Parti Rouge of Canada East, led by Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion, still refused to join the coalition. Macdonald then spent 1864 to 1867 organizing the legislation needed to confederate the colonies into the country of Canada. In September 1864, he led the Canadian delegation at the Charlottetown Conference in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, to present his idea to the Maritime colonies, who were discussing a union of their own. In October 1864 delegates for confederation met in Quebec City, Quebec, for the Quebec Conference, where the Seventy-Two Resolutions were created – the plan for confederation. By 1866, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Canada had agreed to confederation. Newfoundland and Prince Edward Island were opposed. In the final conference of confederation held in 1866 in London, England the agreement to confederate was completed. In 1867 the agreement was brought to the British Parliament, which passed the British North America Act creating the Dominion of Canada. Upon the creation of the Dominion of Canada, the Province of Canada was then divided into the individual provinces of Quebec and Ontario. Macdonald was asked by the first Governor General of Canada Charles Monck, to form the first government. He was subsequently knighted on Canada Day, July 1, 1867, the only colonial leader ever to receive that honour. Macdonald in 1870, age 55 First term as prime minister, 1867–1871 Queen Victoria knighted John A. Macdonald for playing an integral role in bringing about Confederation. His appointment as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George was announced at the birth of the Dominion, July 1, 1867. An election was held in August which put Macdonald and his Conservative party into power. Macdonald's vision as prime minister was to enlarge the country and unify it. Accordingly, under his rule Canada bought Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory from the Hudson's Bay Company for £300,000 (about $11,500,000 in modern Canadian dollars). This became the Northwest Territories. In 1870 Parliament passed the Manitoba Act, creating the province of Manitoba out of a portion of the Northwest Territories in response to the Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel. Second term and resignation over Pacific Scandal, 1871–1873 Macdonald in November 1883, age 68 In 1871 Britain added British Columbia to Confederation, making it the sixth province. Macdonald promised a transcontinental railway connection to persuade the province to join, which his opponents decried as a highly unrealistic and expensive promise. In 1873 Prince Edward Island joined Confederation, and Macdonald created the North-West Mounted Police (now called the "Royal Canadian Mounted Police") on the advice of the Northwest Territories government to act as a police force for the vast Northwest Territories. In 1873, Macdonald was accused of taking bribes to award contracts for the construction of the railway. The Pacific Scandal broke and Macdonald was forced to resign on November 5th, 1873. Liberal leader Alexander Mackenzie formed a caretaker government. After New Years, 1874, the Liberals called an election. Macdonald's Tories were unable to recover from the scandal and the Liberals formed a majority government. This election was also the first in Canada to use a secret ballot. Final years as prime minister, 1878–1891 1890 painting of Macdonald, age 75, by Robert Harris Macdonald was returned to power in 1878 on the strength of the National Policy, a plan to promote trade within the country by protecting it from the industries of other nations. He also promised to renew the effort to complete the previously promised Canadian Pacific Railway. Macdonald won re-election as prime minister again in 1882. In 1884, Macdonald introduced a bill that would have gave unmarried women with the required qualifications, Dominion franchise, but the bill was defeated by the house. The CPR was completed in 1885, after several refinancing plans to cover shortfalls for the very expensive project, plunging Canada heavily into debt. Also in 1885, Louis Riel returned to Canada from exile in the United States, and launched the North-West Rebellion in the District of Saskatchewan (at that time part of the Northwest Territories) in a bid for independence, but now that there was a railway through the area, militia were quickly sent to put it down; troops travelling from central Canada reached the site in eleven days. Mr. Prime Minister 1867-1964, by Bruce Hutchison, Toronto 1964, Longmans Canada. The success of this operation gave the CPR enough political capital to garner sufficient support to complete its construction. The trial and subsequent execution of Riel for treason caused a deep political division between French Canadians, who supported Riel (a culturally French Métis and devoutly Catholic) and English Canadians, who supported Macdonald. A Conservative election poster from 1891 In 1891, Macdonald won the elections again, but by this time, the 76-year-old political warhorse started to feel the years of overwork, stress, drink and several bouts of severe illness, including a gallstone problem in 1870 that turned his office into a sick room for two months. On May 29, 1891, Sir John A. suffered a severe stroke, which robbed him of the ability to speak, and from which he would never recover. He died a week later on June 6, 1891 at the age of 76. He would lie in state in the Canadian Senate Chamber (prime ministers now lie in state in the Hall of Honour in the Centre Block) where grieving Canadians turned out in the thousands to pay their respects. His state funeral was held on June 9, attended by hundreds of thousands of people. He is buried in Cataraqui Cemetery in Kingston, Ontario. None of his children left heirs; he is survived by relative Hugh Gainsford. Personal life Tragic first marriage Portrait of Isabella Clark Macdonald, artist unknown. Donald Creighton writes that within two years, her marriage to John A. became "a grey, unrelieved tragedy."Library and Archives Canada. John A. Macdonald's adult life was marked by sickness, death, drunkenness and tragedy. Yet, he rose above his private unhappiness and personal failings to become a well-loved and highly successful public figure, applying "all his passion to politics". Gwyn, p. 86. He officially became head of his family on September 29, 1841, with the sudden death of his father Hugh from a brain hemorrhage. Phenix, p.49. Now, John was solely responsible for the financial support of his mother and two unmarried sisters. Fortunately, his law practice was going well and his income was supplemented by extensive business activities. He served for example, as a director of the prosperous Commercial Bank of the Midland District as well as its lawyer. The Bank provided him with a large part of his income. Swainson, p.29. He also bought real estate and eventually became a director of a dozen Kingston companies. Gwyn, pp.54–55. But at the same time, he frequently suffered from an undiagnosed illness. The symptoms, weakness and listlessness, began in 1840 and continued sporadically throughout 1841. Swainson, p.31. Macdonald decided he needed a complete rest, and in January 1842 he set sail for Britain, his pockets full of the money (about two thousand dollars) he had won during three nights of playing a card game called Loo. Creighton, p.84. The two thousand dollar figure is from Gwyn, p.55. Macdonald's trip proved to be fateful. He recovered his health and met his first cousin Isabella Clark. Waite, P.B. (1975) Macdonald: His Life and World. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited, p.24. Waite notes that "strictly speaking" Isabella was "a half-second cousin." The two had a maternal grandmother in common. Isabella's features were gentle and tranquil, according to biographer Donald Creighton, "her hair brushed smoothly away from its centre part in the demure fashion of the 1840s." Creighton, p.85. She also had "large, beautiful blue eyes with an imploring expression that melted more than one observer's heart." Phenix, pp.56–57. "Isa," as Macdonald called her, followed him home to Kingston and on September 1, 1843, they were married. Macdonald was 28, Isabella, 34. Phenix pp.56 & 59 For the first year and a half, the Macdonalds lived the life of a happy, successful couple. John had been elected city alderman a few months before his marriage, so he was now a prominent local politician, and his law partnership with his former student, Alexander Campbell, continued to flourish. Swainson, p.33. Macdonald concluded his partnership agreement with Campbell on the same day as his wedding. See, Phenix, p.61. In the fall of 1844, Macdonald was elected as a Conservative Member of Parliament for Kingston. Creighton, p.99. Then, in 1845, everything changed when his beloved "Isa" got sick. She suffered periodic attacks that included severe headaches and numbness. Biographer Patricia Phenix writes that Isabella was diagnosed "as suffering everything from tic douloureux, a devastating pain in the fifth nerve of her face, to 'uterine neuralgia.'" Phenix, p.70. . To relieve the pain, she drank liquid opium as well as sherry. The opium and alcohol combined with the painful attacks left her groggy, exhausted and bedridden. Phenix, pp.69–71, 82 & 86. Her chronic illness may also have had psychological causes rooted in an "hysterical personality" compounded by migraine headaches and her dependence on opium. McSherry, James. (1984) "The invisible lady: Sir John A. Macdonald's first wife." In Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, pp. 91–97. See also Phenix, pp.71–72 & 77. As the illness continued, Macdonald feared Isabella would die. "The warm, pleasant edifice of his domestic happiness," Donald Creighton writes, "was crumbling towards utter ruin." Creighton, p.112 Macdonald's two sons John responded to his wife's protracted illness by taking her to Savannah, Georgia where he hoped the warm climate and the company of her sisters would restore her health. They set off on their journey in the summer of 1845. The trip turned out to be long and gruelling with Isabella often unable to walk and suffering excruciating pain. They first joined Isabella's sisters in New Haven, Connecticut, finally reaching Savannah in late November. John A. was anxious to return home to continue his political career. He had to remain in the American south however, until Isabella's sisters arrived in mid-January 1846. He would not see his wife again until Christmas when they were reunited in New York City. Phenix gives a detailed account of the couple's arduous travels, pp.72–79. There, Isabella became pregnant. After Macdonald returned to Canada, she remained under medical care in New York. Gwyn, p.83 Their first son, John Alexander, was born in New York on August 3, 1847 after a long and agonizing labour. Phenix, p.85. "His eyes are dark blue, very large & nose to match," Macdonald wrote to his sister-in-law. "When born his length was 1 foot 9 inches & was strong and healthy, though thin." Johnson, J.K. (1969) Affectionately Yours: The Letters of Sir John A. Macdonald and His Family. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada, p.53. Miniature of an oil painting depicting the infant, Hugh John Macdonald in a gold locket.Library and Archives Canada. Macdonald rented Bellevue House in Kingston in 1848 in the hope that the fresh suburban air and quiet would help Isabella's condition after her return from New York. This experiment, however, was a failure. Worse still, shortly after the Macdonalds moved into their new home, 13-month-old John Alexander was found dead in his crib, a possible victim of SIDS or sudden infant death syndrome. Phenix, pp.93–94. Phenix writes: "According to Dr. Josephine Faveraux of the Addiction Research Foundation of Ontario, the rate of SIDS increases in infants and toddlers born to mothers addicted to opiates, especially if alcohol has also played a part in the equation." Isabella became pregnant again in 1849, yet another miracle for a 40-year-old chronically ill woman. Phenix, p.100. Their second son, Hugh John, was born on March 13, 1850. "We have got Johnnie back again," Macdonald wrote to his sister. "I don't think he is so pretty, but he is not so delicate. He was born fat & coarse." Johnson, p.71. Hugh John and his father were never close. The boy was raised by Macdonald's sister Margaret and her husband, James Williamson, after Isabella's death in 1857. Debt and drinking Macdonald's frequent absences from his law practice to care for Isabella and the expenses of providing medical and nursing care drove him into debt. Salaries for politicians during this period were meager stipends. His partner objected to his casual habit of using law firm revenues to pay his expenses and in 1849, Alexander Campbell decided to leave the partnership. Creighton, pp.147–149. Macdonald had already turned to the bottle for solace during the 12 lonely years of Isabella's illness. They were years in which, according to Donald Creighton, he had become "a bachelor husband who had to go for companionship to bars and lounges and smoking rooms; a frustrated host who drank too much on occasion, partly because it was the only way he could entertain, and because it passed the empty time, and because it was an easy way to forget." Creighton, pp.260–261. According to Richard Gwyn, a biographer, Sir John was not a steady alcoholic but rather a binge drinker. Long periods of abstinence would precede bouts of intense inebriation lasting weeks. Once while debating an opponent the drunken Sir John flooded the speaker's podium with vomit. He apologized to the crowd by explaining that whenever he heard his opponent speak he would lose his stomach. Macdonald was well known for his wit and also for his alcoholism. Two apocryphal stories are commonly repeated; the first describing an election debate in which Macdonald was so drunk he began vomiting while on stage. His opponent quickly pointed this out and said: "Is this the man you want running your country? A drunk!" Collecting himself, Macdonald replied "I get sick ... not because of drink [but because] I am forced to listen to the ranting of my honourable opponent."[62] The second version has Macdonald responding to his opponent's query of his drunkenness with "It goes to show that I would rather have a drunk Conservative than a sober Liberal." Second marriage and daughter In 1867, at the age of 52, Macdonald married his second wife Susan Agnes Bernard (1836–1920). They had one daughter, Margaret Mary Theodora Macdonald (1869–1933), who was born with hydrocephalus and suffered from physical and mental disabilities. Macdonald always hoped she would recover, but she never did. She died in 1933. Supreme Court appointments Macdonald chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor General: Christopher Salmon Patterson (October 27, 1888 – July 24, 1893) John Wellington Gwynne (January 14, 1879 – January 7, 1902) Sir William Johnstone Ritchie (as Chief Justice, January 11, 1879 – September 25, 1892; appointed a Puisne Justice under Prime Minister Mackenzie, September 30, 1875) Freemasonry Macdonald was a Freemason, initiated in 1844 at St. John’s Lodge No. 5 in Kingston. In 1868, he was named by the United Grand Lodge of England as its Grand Representative near the Grand Lodge of Canada (in Ontario) and the rank of Past Grand Senior Warden conferred upon him. He continued to represent the Grand Lodge of England until his death in 1891. His commission, together with his apron and earmuffs, are in the Masonic Temple at Kingston, along with his regalia as Past Grand Senior Warden. Among the books in his library was a very rare copy of the first Masonic book published in Canada, A History of Freemasonry in Nova Scotia (1786). Canadian Prime Ministers Sir John A. Macdonald, Freemason Trivia Macdonald played an integral role in the trial of John Anderson, an escaped slave from Missouri. Macdonald's temper sometimes got the better of him, such as in one incident in the House of Commons when Donald Smith angered him so much, that he charged across the Commons floor to physically attack him. While he was restrained, Macdonald was unrepentant, proclaiming "I'll lick him faster than Hell can scorch a feather!" Macdonald resembled British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli. At Disraeli's funeral in 1881, another British official thought that he saw Disraeli's ghost in attendance, although it was actually Macdonald. The Vancouver Sun reported on June 30, 2005, that Macdonald's birthplace in Glasgow, Scotland, is under threat of demolition. Macdonald's private train car, which he named The Jamaica, was given to him by the Canadian Pacific Railway for his work on the railway. According to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Macdonald's nicknames included Old Chieftain and Old Tomorrow, for his habit of putting off any large political problems until conditions were personally favourable to him. Sir John A. Macdonald: Architect of Modern Canada Macdonald's nephew Newton Ford was the father of iconic Canadian-born American actor Glenn Ford. Glenn Ford, Leading Man in Films and TV, Dies at 90 As of 2008, Macdonald was the first of two Canadian Prime Ministers to die in office (The other is John Thompson). Macdonald was the favourite target of the "Grip" magazine's premier cartoonist John Wilson Bengough, who came to fame by ridiculing Macdonald's government during the Pacific Scandal. Legacy Statue of John A. Macdonald outside the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in Toronto. Macdonald's funeral train carried his remains on June 10 1891, hi hannah :) from Ottawa to Kingston. Macdonald is depicted on the Canadian ten-dollar bill. He also has bridges (Macdonald-Cartier Bridge), airports (Ottawa Macdonald-Cartier International Airport, and highways (Macdonald-Cartier Freeway) named after him, as well as statues and a plethora of schools across the country. In Kingston, Macdonald Park and Sir John A. Macdonald Boulevard are both named in his honour and a bronze statue of the man stands at the corner of King and West streets. The law building at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario is named in his honour. The Hotel Macdonald in Edmonton and Macdonald House, part of Canada's high commission in London, are also named for him. Macdonald and his son, Hugh John Macdonald, briefly sat together in the Canadian House of Commons before the elder Macdonald's death. In 1999, after a survey of Canadian historians of all the Prime Ministers up through Jean Chrétien, J.L. Granatstein and Norman Hillmer showed that Macdonald was ranked #2 only beaten out of first place by William Lyon Mackenzie King. In 2004, Macdonald was nominated as one of the top 10 "Greatest Canadians" by viewers of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. He is considered by some Canadian political scientists to be the founder of the Red Tory tradition. The Bellevue House National Historic Site of Canada in Kingston, Ontario was Sir John Alexander Macdonald's home from 1848 to 1849. Biographical and historical studies Bliss, Michael. (1994) Right Honourable Men: The Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Mulroney. Bowering, George. (1999) Egotists and Autocrats: The Prime Ministers of Canada. Careless, J.M.S. (1963) Canada: A Story of Challenge. (Revised Edition) Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. Collins, Joseph Edmund. (1883) Life and times of the Right Honourable Sir John A. Macdonald: Premier of the Dominion of Canada Creighton, Donald. (1952) John A. Macdonald: The Young Politician vol 1: 1815–1867. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada Limited. Creighton, Donald. (1955) John A. Macdonald: The Old Chieftain vol 2: 1867–1891. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada Limited. Creighton, Donald. (1964) The Road to Confederation: The Emergence of Canada: 1863–1867. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. Granatstein, J.L. and Hillmer, Norman (1999) Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders. Toronto: HarperCollinsPublishingLtd. P. 15-28. ISBN 0-00-200027-X. Guillet, Edwin C, (1967) You'll Never Die, John A!. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. Gwyn, Richard. (2007) The Man Who Made Us: The Life and Times of Sir John A. Macdonald. vol 1: 1815–1867. Random House Canada. Hutchison, Bruce. (1964) Mr. Prime Minister 1867-1964. Toronto: Longmans Canada. Johnson, J.K. (1969) Affectionately Yours: The Letters of Sir John A. Macdonald and His Family. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. Johnson, J.K. and Waite, P.B. (2007) "Sir John Alexander Macdonald," in Canada's Prime Ministers, Macdonald to Trudeau: Portraits from the Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. McSherry, James. (1984) The invisible lady: Sir John A. Macdonald's first wife. In Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, pp. 91–97. Phenix, Patricia. (2006) Private Demons, The Tragic Personal Life of John A. Macdonald. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. Pope, Joseph. (1894) Memoirs of the Right Honourable Sir John Alexander Macdonald, G.C.B., First Prime Minister of The Dominion of Canada, Vols. 1&2. Ottawa: J. Durie & Son. Pope, Joseph. (1915) The Day of Sir John Macdonald: A Chronicle of the First Prime Minister of the Dominion. Toronto: Brook & Co. Pope, Joseph (1921) Correspondence of Sir John Macdonald: selections from the correspondence of Sir John Alexander Macdonald. Toronto: Oxford University Press. Sletcher, Michael. (2004) "Sir John A. Macdonald," in James Eli Adams, and Tom and Sara Pendergast, eds., Encyclopedia of the Victorian Era. 4 vols., Danbury, CT: Grolier Academic Reference. Swainson, Donald. (1989) Sir John A. Macdonald: The Man and the Politician. Kingston, ON: Quarry Press. Waite, P. B. (1971) Canada 1874-1896: Arduous Destiny. Toronto, McClelland & Stewart Ltd. Waite, P. B. (1975) Macdonald: His Life and World. Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. ISBN 0-07-082301-4. Waite, P. B. (1976) + (1999) John A. Macdonald. Don Mills, ON: Fitzhenry and Whiteside Limited. Wallace, W. Stewart. (1924) Sir John Macdonald. Toronto: The Macmillan Company of Canada Limited. Notes External links The Canadian Museum of Civilization – Face-to-Face – The Canadian Personalities Hall Sir John A. Macdonald: Architect of Modern Canada John A. Macdonald, Confederation and Canadian Federalism Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online "Sir John A. Macdonald, Freemason" Synopsis of federal political experience from the Library of Parliament Image of The Jamaica with Sir and Lady Macdonald aboard John Macdonald's Gravesite Correspondence of Sir John Macdonald; selections from the correspondence of the Right Honorable Sir John Alexander Macdonald, first Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada, made by his literary executor Sir Joseph Pope (1921) Dictionary of Canadian Biography article by J. K. Johnson and P. B. Waite The John A. Macdonald Portal, edited by Alastair Sweeny

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Amine

The general structure of an amine Amines are organic compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group. Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine and aniline; see :Category:Amines for a list of amines. Compounds with the nitrogen atom next to a carbonyl of the structure R-C(=O)NR2 are called amides and have different chemical properties from amines. Introduction Aliphatic Amines As displayed in the images below, primary amines arise when one of three hydrogen atoms in ammonia is replaced by an organic substituent. Secondary amines have two organic substituents bound to N together with one H. In tertiary amines all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents. It is also possible to have four alkyl substituents on the nitrogen. These compounds have a charged nitrogen center, and necessarily come with a negative counterion, so they are called quaternary ammonium cations. Primary amine Secondary amine Tertiary amine primary amine secondary amine tertiary amine Similarly, an organic compound with multiple amino groups is called a diamine, triamine, tetraamine and so forth. Aromatic amines Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring as in anilines. The aromatic ring strongly decreases the alkalinity of the amine, depending on its substituents. Interestingly, the presence of an amine group strongly increases the reactivity of the aromatic ring, due to an electron-donating effect. One organic reaction involving aromatic amines is the Goldberg reaction. Naming conventions the prefix "N-" shows substitution on the nitrogen atom as prefix: "amino-" as suffix: "-amine" Systematic names for some common amines: Lower amines are named with the suffix -amine. methylamine Higher amines have the prefix amino as a functional group. 2-aminopentane(or sometimes: pent-2-yl-amine or pentane-2-amine) Primary amines: methylamine ethanolamine or 2-aminoethanol trisamine (or more commonly tris) (Its HCl salt is used as a pH buffering agent in biochemistry) Secondary amines: dimethylamine methylethanolamine or 2-(methylamino)ethanol Cyclic amines: aziridine (3-member ring), azetidine (4-member ring), pyrrolidine (5-member ring) and piperidine (6-member ring) Tertiary amines: trimethylamine dimethylethanolamine (DMEA) or 2-(dimethylamino)ethanol bis-tris (It is used as a pH buffering agent in biochemistry) Physical properties General properties Hydrogen bonding significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines as well as the protonated derivatives of all amines. Thus the boiling point of amines is higher than those of the corresponding phosphines, but generally lower than those of the corresponding alcohols. Alcohols, or alkanols, resemble amines but feature an -OH group in place of NR2. Since oxygen is more electronegative than nitrogen, RO-H is typically more acidic than the related R2N-H compound. Methyl-, dimethyl-, trimethyl-, and ethylamine are gases under standard conditions, whereas diethylamine and triethylamine are liquids. Most other common alkyl amines are liquids; high-molecular-weight amines are solids. Gaseous amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell, liquid amines have a distinctive "fishy" smell. Most aliphatic amines display some solubility in water, reflecting their ability to form hydrogen bonds. Solubility decreases with the increase in the number of carbon atoms, especially when the carbon atom number is greater than 6. Aliphatic amines display significant solubility in organic solvents, especially polar organic solvents. Primary amines react with ketones such as acetone, and most amines are incompatible with chloroform and carbon tetrachloride. The aromatic amines, such as aniline, have their lone pair electrons conjugated into the benzene ring, thus their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is diminished. Otherwise they display the following properties: Their boiling points are usually still high due to their larger size. Diminished solubility in water, although they retain their solubility in suitable organic solvents only. They are toxic and are easily absorbed through the skin: thus hazardous. amine inversion Chirality Tertiary amines of the type NHRR' and NRR'R" are chiral: the nitrogen atom bears four distinct substituents counting the lone pair. The energy barrier for the inversion of the stereocenter is relatively low, e.g., ~7 kcal/mol for a trialkylamine. The interconversion of the stereoisomers has been compared to the inversion of an open umbrella in to a strong wind. Because of this low barrier, amines such as NHRR' cannot be resolved optically and NRR'R" can only be resolved when the R, R', and R" groups are constrained in cyclic structures such as aziridines. Quaternary ammonium salts with four distinct groups on the nitrogen are capable of exhibiting optical activity. Properties as bases Like ammonia, amines act as bases but are reasonably weak(see table for examples of conjugate acid Ka values). The basicity of amines depends on: The electronic properties of the substituents (alkyl groups enhance the basicity, aryl groups diminish it). Steric hindrance offered by the groups on nitrogen. The degree of solvation of the protonated amine. The nitrogen atom features a lone electron pair that can bind H+ to form an ammonium ion R3NH+. The lone electron pair is represented in this article by a two dots above or next to the N. The water solubility of simple amines is largely due to hydrogen bonding between protons on the water molecules and these lone electron pairs. Inductive effect of alkyl groups Ions of compound Kb Ammonia NH3 1.8·10-5 M propylamine CH3CH2CH2NH2 4.7·10-4 M 2-propylamine (CH3)2CNH2 3.4·10-4 M methylamine CH3NH2 4.4·10-4 M dimethylamine (CH3)2NH 5.4·10-4 M trimethylamine (CH3)3N 5.9·10-5 M +I effect of alkyl groups raises the energy of the lone pair of electrons, thus elevating the basicity. Thus the basicity of an amine may be expected to increase with the number of alkyl groups on the amine. However, there is no strict trend in this regard, as basicity is also governed by other factors mentioned above. Consider the Kb values of the methyl amines given above. The increase in Kb from methylamine to dimethylamine may be attributed to +I effect; however, there is a decrease from dimethylamine to trimethyl amine due to the predominance of steric hindrance offered by the three methyl groups to the approaching Lewis acid. Mesomeric effect of aromatic systems Ions of compound Kb Ammonia NH3 1.8·10-5 M Aniline C6H5NH2 3.8·10-10 M 4-methylphenylamine 4-CH3C6H4NH2 1.2·10-9 M 2-nitrophenylamine 1.5·10-15 M 3-nitrophenylamine 2.8·10-13 M 4-nitrophenylamine 9.5·10-14 M -M effect of aromatic ring delocalises the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen into the ring, resulting in decreased basicity. Substituents on the aromatic ring, and their positions relative to the amine group may also considerably alter basicity as seen above. The degree of solvation of protonated amines: Ions of compound Maximum number of H-bond NH4+ 4 Very Soluble in H2O RNH3+ 3 R2NH2+ 2 R3NH+ 1 Least Soluble in H2O The degree of solvation of the protonated amine depends on the approachability of solvent molecules. If the molecule is sterically hindered (as in the case of trimethylamine), the protonated form is not well-solvated, thereby reducing basicity. This also explains the order of basicity of the methyl amines (see above). In the case of aprotic polar solvents (like DMSO and DMF), wherein the extent of solvation is not as high as in protic polar solvents (like water and methanol), the basicity of amines is almost solely governed by the electronic factors within the molecule. Synthesis The following laboratory methods exist for the preparation of amines: via the Gabriel synthesis: The Gabriel synthesis via azides by the Staudinger reduction, or with a reducing agent such as lithium aluminium hydride. From carboxylic acids in the Schmidt reaction. Allylic amines can be prepared from imines in the Aza-Baylis-Hillman reaction. via Hofmann degradation of amides. This reaction is valid for preparation of primary amines only. Gives good yields of primary amines uncontaminated with other amines. The Hofmann rearrangement Quaternary ammonium salts upon treatment with strong base undergo the so-called Hofmann Elimination Reduction of nitriles, amides and nitro compounds: Nitrile reduction Nitriles are reduced to amines using hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst, although acidic or alkaline conditions should be avoided to avoid hydrolysis of -CN group. LiAlH4 is more commonly employed for the reduction of nitriles on the laboratory scale. Similarly, LiAlH4 reduces amides to amines: Reduction of amides to amines The reduction of nitro compounds to amines can be accomplished with elemental zinc, tin or iron with an acid. Nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes For an example see: Org. Synth. 2008, 85, 10-14 Article . Primary amines can also be synthesized by alkylaton of ammonia. Haloalkanes react with amines to give a corresponding alkyl-substituted amine, with the release of a halogen acid. Such reactions, which are most useful for alkyl iodides and bromides, are rarely employed because the degree of alkylation is difficult to control. If the reacting amine is tertiary, a quaternary ammonium cation results in the Menshutkin reaction. Many quaternary ammonium salts can be prepared by this route with diverse R groups and many halide and pseudohalide anions. Amine alkylation Amine alkylation via halides and hexamine in the Delepine reaction aryl amines can be obtained from amines and aryl halides in the Buchwald-Hartwig reaction from alkenes and alkynes in hydroamination from rearrangement of haloamines in the Hofmann-Löffler reaction via amination of an alcohol with ammonia over a hydrogenating catalyst such as a nickel/copper alloy. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4014933.html,"Production of Amines from Alcohols" Reactions Amines react in a variety of ways: By nucleophilic acyl substitution. Acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides react with primary and secondary amines in cold to form amides in the Schotten-Baumann reaction. Tertiary amines cannot be acylated due to the absence of a replaceable hydrogen atom. With the much less active benzoyl chloride, acylation can still be performed by the use of excess aqeous alkali to facilitate the reaction. Amide formation Because amines are basic, they neutralize carboxylic acids to form the corresponding ammonium carboxylate salts. Upon heating to 200 °C, the primary and secondary amine salts dehydrate to form the corresponding amides. Amine reaction with carboxylic acids By ammonium salt formation. Amines R3N react with strong acids such as hydroiodic acid, hydrobromic acid and hydrochloric acid in neutralization reactions forming ammonium salts R3NH+. By diazonium salt formation. Nitrous acid with formula HNO2 is unstable, therefore usually a mixture of NaNO2 and dilute hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid is used to produce nitrous acid indirectly. Primary aliphatic amines with nitrous acid give very unstable diazonium salts which spontaneously decompose by losing N2 to form carbonium ion. The carbonium ion goes on to produce a mixture of alkenes, alkanols or alkyl halides, with alkanols as the major product. This reaction is of little synthetic importance because the diazonium salt formed is too unstable, even at cold conditions. NaNO2 + HCl → HNO2 + NaCl Nitrous acid reaction Primary aromatic amines, such as aniline (phenylamine) form more stable diazonium ions at 0–5 °C. Above 5 °C, they will decompose to give phenol and N2. Arenediazonium salts can be isolated in the crystalline form but are usually used in solution immediately after preparation, due to rapid decomposition on standing even when cold. The solid arenediazonium salt is explosive upon shock or mild warming. Because of their greater stability, arenediazonium salts are more synthetically useful than their aliphatic counterparts. Since it is not necessary to isolate the diazonium salt, once it is formed another reagent such as cuprous cyanide can simply be added to the mixture, and with gentle heating of the solution, a replacement reaction takes place along with the evolution of nitrogen. In addition, arenediazonium ions can also undergo a coupling reaction with a highly activated aromatic compound such as a phenol to form an azo compound. Aromatic diazonium salts By imine formation. Primary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form imines. In the case of formaldehyde (R' = H), these products are typically cyclic trimers. RNH2 + R'2C=O → R'2C=NR + H2O Secondary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form enamines R2NH + R'(R"CH2)C=O → R"CH=C(NR2)R' + H2O By reaction with sulfonyl chlorides forming sulfonamides, the Hinsberg reaction is a chemical test for the presence of amines. By oxidation to nitroso compounds, for instance with peroxymonosulfuric acid. By reduction of quaternary ammonium cations to tertiary amines in the Emde degradation. By rearrangement of N-alkyl anilines to aryl substituted anilines in the Hofmann-Martius rearrangement. primary and secondary amines react with pyridinium salts in the Zincke reaction By cleavage (tertiary amines only) with cyanogen bromide in the Von Braun reaction. Biological activity Amines have strong, characteristic odors, and are toxic. The smells of ammonia, old fish, urine, rotting flesh, and semen are all mainly composed of amines. Many kinds of biological activity produce amines by breakdown of amino acids. Many natural neurotransmitters like epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonine, histamine are amines. Use of amines Dyes Primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the manufacture of azo dyes. It reacts with nitric(III) acid to form diazonium salt, which can undergo coupling reaction to form azo compound. As azo-compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing industries, such as: Methyl orange Direct brown 138 Sunset yellow FCF Ponceau Drugs Many drugs are designed to mimic or to interfere with the action of natural amine neurotransmitters, exemplified by the amine drugs: Chlorpheniramine is an antihistamine that helps to relieve allergic disorders due to cold, hay fever, itchy skin, insect bites and stings. Chlorpromazine is a tranquillizer that sedates without inducing sleep. It is used to relieve anxiety, excitement, restlessness or even mental disorder. Ephedrine and Phenylephrine, as amine hydrochlorides, are used as decongestants. Amphetamine, Methamphetamine, and Methcathinone are amines that are listed as controlled substances by the DEA. Amitriptyline, Imipramine, Lofepramine and Clomipramine are tricyclic antidepressants and tertiary amines Nortriptyline, Desipramine, and Amoxapine are tricyclic antidepressants and secondary amines (The tricyclics are grouped by the nature of the final amine group on the side chain.) Gas Treatment Aqueous monoethanolamine (MEA), diglycolamine (DGA), diethanolamine (DEA), diisopropanolamine (DIPA) and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) are widely used industrially for removing carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from natural gas streams and refinery process streams. They may also be used to remove CO2 from combustion gases / flue gases and may have potential for abatement of greenhouse gases. See also IUPAC nomenclature for the official naming rules for amines. Biogenic amine Imine Acid-base extraction Amine gas treating References

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Bernoulli's_inequality

An illustration of Bernoulli's inequality, with the graphs of and shown in red and blue respectively. Here, In real analysis, Bernoulli's inequality is an inequality that approximates exponentiations of 1 + x. The inequality states that for every integer r ≥ 0 and every real number x > −1. If the exponent r is even, then the inequality is valid for all real numbers x. The strict version of the inequality reads for every integer r ≥ 2 and every real number x ≥ −1 with x ≠ 0. Bernoulli's inequality is often used as the crucial step in the proof of other inequalities. It can itself be proved using mathematical induction, as shown below. Proof of the inequality For is equivalent to which is true as required. Now suppose the statement is true for : Then it follows that (by hypothesis, since ) However, as (since ), it follows that , which means the statement is true for as required. By induction we conclude the statement is true for all Generalization The exponent r can be generalized to an arbitrary real number as follows: if x > −1, then for r ≤ 0 or r ≥ 1, and for 0 ≤ r ≤ 1. This generalization can be proved by comparing derivatives. Again, the strict versions of these inequalities require x ≠ 0 and r ≠ 0, 1. Related inequalities The following inequality estimates the r-th power of 1 + x from the other side. For any real numbers x, r > 0, one has where e = 2.718.... This may be proved using the inequality (1 + 1/k)k < e. References External links Bernoulli Inequality by Chris Boucher, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.

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James_Brown

James Joseph Brown (May 3, 1933 – December 25, 2006), originally James Joseph Brown, Jr., was an American entertainer. He is recognized as one of the most influential figures in 20th century popular music and was renowned for his vocals and feverish dancing. He is known as "The Godfather of Soul". As a prolific singer, songwriter, dancer and bandleader, Brown was a pivotal force in the music industry. He left his mark on numerous artists. Brown's music also left its mark on the rhythms of African popular music, such as afrobeat, jùjú and mbalax, Pareles, J. (2006, December 26). James Brown, the "Godfather of Soul" dies at 73. The New York Times. Retrieved January 31, 2007. and provided a template for go-go music. Chuck Brown. (2000). Washington Area Music Association. Retrieved January 28, 2007. Brown began his professional music career in 1956 and rose to fame during the late 1950s and early 1960s on the strength of his thrilling live performances and string of smash hits. In spite of various personal problems and setbacks he continued to score hits in every decade through the 1980s. In addition to his acclaim in music, Brown was also a presence in American political affairs during the 1960s and 1970s. Brown was recognized by numerous titles, including Soul Brother Number One, Sex Machine, Mr. Dynamite, The Hardest Working Man in Show Business, The King of Funk, Minister of The New New Super Heavy Funk, Mr. Please Please Please Please Her, I Feel Good, The Boss and foremost The Godfather of Soul. Early life James Brown was born to Susie (née Behlings) and Joseph ("Joe") James Gardner (who changed his name to Brown after Mattie Brown who raised him)in the small town of Barnwell, South Carolina in the Jim Crow South during the Depression era. Although Brown was to be named after his father, his name was reversed mistakenly on the birth certificate. Because of this mix-up during the birth registration, Brown's name instead became James Joseph Brown, Jr. James Brown. (1998). Notable Black American Men. Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale (Document no. K1622000047). Retrieved January 12, 2007 from the Biography Resource Center database. As a young child, Brown was known to his family as Junior, and he was also known as Little Junior when he later lived with his aunt and cousin, since his cousin's nickname was also Junior. James Brown is of Native American specifically Apache descent through his father, and also has Asian ancestry. He was given up for foster care at a young age. Brown and his family lived in extreme poverty. Hirshey, G. Funk's founding father. (2007, January 10). Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved January 27, 2007. When Brown was two years old, his parents separated after his mother left his father for another man. Gourevitch, P. (2002, July 22). He met is biological father once and he gave Brown a harmonica. His biological father worked on the railroad in Ridgeland, Kansas.Mr. Brown: On the road with his bad self. The New Yorker. Retrieved January 12, 2007. After his mother abandoned the family, Brown continued to live with his father and his live-in girlfriends until he was six years old. After that time, Brown and his father moved to Augusta, Georgia, and his father sent him to live with an aunt who ran a house of prostitution. Even though Brown lived with relatives, he spent long stretches of time on his own, hanging out on the streets and hustling to get by. Brown managed to stay in school until he dropped out in the seventh grade. Page, C. (December 27, 2006). His adopted son, Jon White, of Memphis, Tennessee, says his Dad has come a long way since those dark days of his youth. "I asked my Dad how he felt after his 11th rehab visit, and J.B. stated...."Whoa, I feel good, I knew that I would now...I feel nice, like sugar and spice....so good, so good, I got you!"...I suggested he make it a song". Godfather of soul, and of our goal. The Chicago Tribune. Retrieved January 28, 2007. During his childhood, Brown earned money shining shoes, sweeping out stores, selling and trading in old stamps, washing cars and dishes and singing in talent contests. Brown also performed buck dances for change to entertain troops from Camp Gordon during the start of World War II as their convoys traveled over a canal bridge near his aunt's house. Between earning money from these adventures, Brown taught himself to play a harmonica given to him by his father, and he learned to play some guitar from Tampa Red (who was "dating" one of the girls from his aunt's house), in addition to learning to play piano and drums from others. Brown was inspired to become an entertainer after watching Louis Jordan, a popular jazz and R&B performer during the 1940s, and His Tympany Five in a short film performing "Caldonia". Kowalski, E. (2006, December 25). Godfather of soul, James Brown, dead at 73. Voice of America. Retrieved January 12, 2007. As an adult, Brown legally changed his name to remove the "Jr." designation. Brown, J. & Eliot, M. (introduction). (2005). I Feel Good: A Memoir of a Life Soul. New York: New American Library. ISBN 045-121393-9. In his spare time, Brown spent time practicing his various skills in Augusta-area stalls and committing petty crimes. At the age of sixteen, he was convicted of armed robbery and sent to a juvenile detention center upstate in Toccoa in 1948. While Brown was in reform school, he became acquainted with Bobby Byrd, who first saw Brown perform in prison as Byrd watched and admired Brown's ability to sing and perform. Byrd's family helped Brown secure an early release after serving three years of his sentence. The authorities back then agreed to release Brown on the condition that he (Brown) would try to get a job and not return to Augusta or Richmond County. After stints as a boxer Obituary: James Brown. (2006, December 25). BBC News. Retrieved January 9, 2007. and baseball pitcher in semi-professional baseball (a career move ended by a leg injury), Brown turned his energy toward music. Career Brown's career spanned decades, and profoundly influenced the development of many different musical genres. Wiegand, D. (December 26, 2006). James Brown: 1933-2006 - Godfather of soul changed music at frenetic pace. The San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved January 10, 2007. Brown moves on a continuum of blues and gospel-based forms and styles to a profoundly Africanised approach to music making. Collins, W. (January 29, 2002). James Brown. St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. Retrieved January 12, 2007. Brown performed in concerts, first making his rounds across the "chitlin' circuit", and then across the country and later around the world, along with appearing in shows on television and in movies. Although he contributed much to the music world through his hitmaking, Brown held the record as the artist who charted the most singles on the Billboard Hot 100 without ever hitting number one on that chart. Whitburn, J. (2000). Top Pop Singles: 1955-1999, 900. Menonite Falls, WI: Record Research. ISBN 0-89820-140-3. 1955: The Famous Flames In 1955, Brown and Bobby Byrd's sister Sarah performed in a group called "The Gospel Starlighters". Eventually, Brown joined Bobby Byrd's vocal group, the Avons, and Byrd turned the group's sound towards secular rhythm and blues. After the group's name was changed to The Flames, Brown and Byrd's group toured the Southern "chitlin' circuit", and the group eventually signed a deal with the Cincinnati, Ohio-based label Federal Records, a sister label of King Records. The group's first recording was the single "Please, Please, Please" (1956). The single was a #5 R&B hit, selling over a million copies. Nine subsequent singles released by The Flames failed to live up to the success of their debut, and the group was in danger of being dropped by King Records. Brown's early recordings were fairly straightforward gospel-inspired R&B compositions, heavily influenced by the work of contemporary musicians such as Ray Charles and Little Richard. Little Richard's relations with Brown were particularly significant in Brown's development as a musician and showman. Brown once called Richard his idol, and credited Richard's saxophone-studded mid-1950s road band, The Upsetters, with being the first to put the funk in the rock and roll beat. 1986 Inductees: Little Richard, performer. (2005). The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, Inc. Retrieved October 28, 2006. When Richard left pop music in 1957 to become a preacher, Brown filled out Richard's remaining tour dates in his place. Several former members of Little Richard's backup band joined Brown's group as a consequence of Richard's exit from the pop music scene. Brown (middle) & The Famous Flames (far left to right, Bobby Bennett, Lloyd Stallworth, and Bobby Byrd), performing live at the Apollo Theater in New York City, 1964. Brown's band is on the far right. Brown's group returned to the charts to stay in 1958 with the #1 R&B hit "Try Me". This hit record was the best-selling R&B single of the year, becoming the first of 17 chart-topping R&B singles by Brown over the next two decades. 1986 Inductees: James Brown, performer. (2005). The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, Inc. Retrieved January 9, 2007. By the time "Try Me" was released on record, the group's billing was changed to James Brown and The Famous Flames. "The Famous Flames" was a vocal group, not a backing band contrary to popular belief. In 1959, Brown and The Famous Flames moved from the Federal Records subsidiary to King Records, the parent label. Brown began to have recurring conflicts with King Records president Syd Nathan over repertoire and other matters. In one notable instance, Brown recorded the 1960 Top Ten R&B hit "(Do the) Mashed Potatoes" on Dade Records, owned by Henry Stone, under the pseudonym "Nat Kendrick & The Swans" because Nathan refused to allow him to record it for King. Nat Kendrick & The Swans. Henry Stone Music, Inc. Retrieved January 28, 2007. Early and mid-1960s Brown scored on the charts in the early 1960s with recordings such as his 1962 cover of "Night Train". While Brown's early singles were major hits across the southern United States and then regular R&B Top Ten hits, he and the Famous Flames were not successful nationally until his self-financed live show was captured on the 1963 LP Live at the Apollo. Brown financed the recording of the album himself, and it was released on King Records over the objections of label owner Syd Nathan, who saw no commercial potential in a live album containing no new songs. Defying Nathan's expectations, the album stayed on the pop charts for fourteen months, peaking at #2. Guralnick, P. (1986). Sweet Soul Music: Rhythm and Blues and the Southern Dream of Freedom, 235. New York: Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-45226-697-1. In addition, Brown recorded a hit version of the ballad "Prisoner of Love" ,( his first Top 20 pop hit), in 1963 and founded (under King auspices) the fledgling Try Me Records, Brown's first attempt at running a record label. Brown followed the success of Live at the Apollo with a string of singles that, along with the work of Allen Toussaint in New Orleans, essentially defined the foundation of funk music. Driven by the success of Live at the Apollo and the failure of King Records to expand record promotion beyond the "black" market, James Brown and fellow Famous Flame Bobby Byrd formed a production company, Fair Deal, to promote sales of Brown's record releases to white audiences. In this arrangement, Smash Records, a subsidiary of Mercury Records, was used as a vehicle to distribute Brown's music. Smash released his 1964 hit "Out of Sight", which reached #24 on the pop charts and pointed the way to his later funk hits. James Brown. The History of Rock 'n' Roll: The Golden Decade 1954-1963. Retrieved February 25, 2007. Its release also triggered a legal battle between Smash and King that resulted in a one year ban on the release of Brown's vocal recordings. James Brown: Biography. (2006). All Media Guide. Retrieved November 22, 2006. During the mid-1960s, two of Brown's signature tunes "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag" and "I Got You (I Feel Good)", both from 1965, were his first Top 10 pop hits, as well as major #1 R&B hits, with each remaining the top-selling singles in black venues for over a month. In 1966, Brown's "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag" won the Grammy for Best Rhythm & Blues Recording (an award last given in 1968). Brown's national profile was boosted further that year by appearances in the movie Ski Party and the concert film The T.A.M.I. Show, in which he and The Famous Flames (Bobby Byrd, Bobby Bennett and "Baby Lloyd" Stallworth) upstaged The Rolling Stones. In his concert repertoire and on record, Brown mingled his innovative rhythmic essays with Broadway show tunes and ballads, such as his hit "It's a Man's Man's Man's World" (1966). Late 1960s As the 1960s decade neared its end, Brown continued to refine the new funk idiom. Brown's 1967 #1 R&B hit, "Cold Sweat", sometimes cited as the first true funk song, was the first of his recordings to contain a drum break and the first that featured a harmony that was reduced to a single chord change. George, N. (1988). The Death of Rhythm & Blues, 101. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-55238-5. Vincent, R. & Clinton, G. (1996). Funk: The Music, The People, and The Rhythm of The One, 123. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0-31213-499-1. The instrumental arrangements on tracks such as "Give It Up Or Turnit A Loose" and "Licking Stick-Licking Stick" (both recorded in 1968) and "Funky Drummer" (recorded in 1969) featured a more developed version of Brown's mid-1960s style, with the horn section, guitars, bass and drums meshed together in intricate rhythmic patterns based on multiple interlocking riffs. Changes in Brown's style that started with "Cold Sweat" also established the musical foundation for Brown's later hits, such as "I Got the Feelin'" (1968) and "Mother Popcorn" (1969). By this time Brown's vocals frequently took the form of a kind of rhythmic declamation, not quite sung but not quite spoken, that only intermittently featured traces of pitch or melody. This would become a major influence on the techniques of rapping, which would come to maturity along with hip hop music in the coming decades. In November 1967 James Brown purchased radio station WGYW in Knoxville, Tennessee for a reported $75,000, according to the January 20, 1968 Record World magazine. The call letters were changed to WJBE reflecting his initials. WJBE began on January 15, 1968 and broadcast a Rhythm & Blues format. The station slogan was "WJBE 1430 Raw Soul". At the time it was mentioned "Brown has also branched out into real estate and music publishing in recent months". Brown's recordings influenced musicians across the industry, most notably Sly and his Family Stone, Charles Wright & the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band, Booker T. & the M.G.'s and soul shouters like Edwin Starr, Temptations David Ruffin, and Dennis Edwards. A then-prepubescent Michael Jackson took Brown's shouts and dancing into the pop mainstream as the lead singer of Motown's The Jackson 5. Those same tracks were later resurrected by countless hip-hop musicians from the 1970s onward. As a result, James Brown remains to this day the world's most sampled recording artist SamplesDB - James Brown's Tracks , with "Funky Drummer" itself becoming the most sampled individual piece of music. Most sampled songs and Most sampled artists. The-Breaks.com. Retrieved December 30, 2006 Brown's band during this period employed musicians and arrangers who had come up through the jazz tradition. He was noted for his ability as a bandleader and songwriter to blend the simplicity and drive of R&B with the rhythmic complexity and precision of jazz. Trumpeter Lewis Hamlin and saxophonist/keyboardist Alfred "Pee Wee" Ellis (the successor to previous bandleader Nat Jones) led the band. Guitarist Jimmy Nolen provided percussive, deceptively simple riffs for each song, and Maceo Parker's prominent saxophone solos provided a focal point for many performances. Other members of Brown's band included stalwart singer and sideman Bobby Byrd, drummers John "Jabo" Starks, Clyde Stubblefield and Melvin Parker (Maceo's brother), saxophonist St. Clair Pinckney, trombonist Fred Wesley, guitarist Alphonso "Country" Kellum and bassist Bernard Odum. During this period, Brown's music empire also expanded along with his influence on the music scene. As Brown's music empire grew, his desire for financial and artistic independence grew as well. Brown bought radio stations during the late 1960s, including radio station WRDW in Augusta, Georgia where he shined shoes as a boy. Brown also branched out to make several recordings with musicians outside his own band. He recorded Gettin' Down To It (1969) and Soul on Top (1970), two albums consisting mostly of romantic ballads and jazz standards, with the Dee Felice Trio and the Louie Bellson Orchestra respectively. He recorded a number of tracks with the Dapps, a white Cincinnati bar band, including the hit "I Can't Stand Myself (When You Touch Me)". He also released three albums of Christmas music with his own band. 1970s and the J.B.'s Brown greets fans after a concert in Tampa, Jan. 29, 1972 By 1970, most members of James Brown's classic 1960s band had quit his act for other opportunities, and The Famous Flames singing group had disbanded, with original member Bobby Byrd the only one remaining with Brown. Brown and Byrd employed a new band that included future funk greats, such as bassist Bootsy Collins, Collins' guitarist brother Phelps "Catfish" Collins and trombonist and musical director Fred Wesley. This new backing band was dubbed "The J.B.'s", and the band made its debut on Brown's 1970 single "Get Up (I Feel Like Being A) Sex Machine". Although The J.B.'s went through several lineup changes, with the first change occurring in 1971, the band remained Brown's most familiar backing band. In 1971, Brown began recording for Polydor Records which also took over distribution of Brown's King Records catalog. Many of his sidemen and supporting players, such as Fred Wesley & The J.B.'s, Bobby Byrd, Lyn Collins, Vicki Anderson and Hank Ballard, released records on the People label, an imprint founded by Brown that was purchased by Polydor as part of Brown's new contract. The recordings on the People label, almost all of which were produced by Brown himself, exemplified his "house style". Songs such as "I Know You Got Soul" by Bobby Byrd, "Think (About It)" by Lyn Collins and "Doing It to Death" by Fred Wesley & The J.B.'s are considered as much a part of Brown's recorded legacy as the recordings released under his own name. In 1973, Brown provided the score for the blaxploitation film Black Caesar. In 1974, he toured Africa and performed in Zaire as part of the buildup to the Rumble in the Jungle fight between Muhammad Ali and George Foreman. Admirers of Brown's music, including Miles Davis and other jazz musicians, began to cite Brown as a major influence on their own styles. However, Brown, like others who were influenced by his music, also "borrowed" from other musicians. His 1976 single "Hot" (I Need To Be Loved, Loved, Loved, Loved)" (R&B #31) borrowed the main riff from "Fame" by David Bowie, not the other way around as was often believed. The riff was provided to "Fame" co-writers John Lennon and Bowie by guitarist Carlos Alomar. The Whole Note: Under the Radar in '06. (2006). All Media Guide. Retrieved January 9, 2007. Brown's Polydor recordings during the 1970s exemplified his innovations from the previous twenty years. Compositions such as "The Payback" (1973), "Papa Don't Take No Mess", "Stoned to the Bone", and "Funky President (People It's Bad)" (1974), and "Get Up Offa That Thing" (1976) were among his most noted recordings during this time. Late 1970s and early 1980s By the mid-1970s, Brown's star-status was on the wane, and key musicians in his band such as Fred Wesley left to join Parliament-Funkadelic. The onslaught of the slickly commercial style of disco caught Brown off guard, as it superseded his raw style of funk music on the dance floor. His 1976 albums Get Up Offa That Thing and Bodyheat were Brown's first flirtations with disco rhythms and its slicker production techniques. While the albums Mutha's Nature (1977) and Jam 1980s (1978) did not generate chart hits, Brown's 1979 LP The Original Disco Man was a notable late addition to his oeuvre. This album featured the song "It's Too Funky in Here", which was his last top R&B hit of the decade. Like the rest of songs on the The Original Disco Man LP, "It's Too Funky in Here" was not produced by Brown himself, but produced instead by Brad Shapiro. Brown's contract with Polydor expired in 1981, and his recording and touring schedule was somewhat reduced. Despite these events, Brown experienced something of a resurgence during the 1980s, effectively crossing over to a broader, more mainstream audience. He appeared in the feature films The Blues Brothers, Doctor Detroit and Rocky IV, as well as guest starring in the Miami Vice episode "Missing Hours" (1988). He also recorded Gravity, a modestly popular crossover album released on his new host label Scotti Bros., and the top 10 hit 1985 single "Living in America", which was featured prominently in the Rocky IV film and soundtrack. Brown performed the song in the film at Apollo Creed's final fight, shot in the Ziegfeld Room at the MGM Grand in Las Vegas and was credited as "The Godfather of Soul". In 1987, Brown won the Grammy for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for "Living in America". Acknowledging his influence on modern hip-hop and R&B music, Brown collaborated with hip-hop artist Afrika Bambaataa on the single "Unity". In 1988, Brown worked with the production team Full Force on the hip-hop influenced album I'm Real, which spawned a #5 R&B hit single, "Static". Meanwhile, the drum break from the second version of the original 1969 hit "Give It Up Or Turnit A Loose" (the recording included on the compilation album In the Jungle Groove) became so popular at hip hop dance parties (especially for breakdance) during the late 1970s and early 1980s that hip hop founding father Kurtis Blow called the song "the national anthem of hip hop". Liner notes - Kurtis Blow presents: The History of Rap, Vol. 1. Rhino Records. Retrieved January 9, 2007. Late 1980s to the 2000s James Brown on December 23, 2006 After a stint in prison during the late 1980s, Brown released the album Love Overdue, with the new single "Move On". Brown also released the 1991 four-CD box set Star Time, which included music spanning his four-decade career at that time. Nearly all of his earlier LPs were re-released on CD, often with additional tracks and commentary by experts on Brown's music. In 1991, Brown appeared in MC Hammer's video Too Legit to Quit (song) (or 2 Legit 2 Quit), someone Hammer idolized. In 1993, James Brown released the album Universal James, which spawned the singles "Can't Get Any Harder", "How Long" and "Georgia-Lina". In 1995, the live album Live at the Apollo 1995 was released, featuring the new studio track "Respect Me", which was released as a single that same year. Brown followed up this single with the megamix "Hooked on Brown" that was released as a single in 1996. Brown's later LP releases during this time included the 1998 studio album I'm Back that featured the single "Funk on ah Roll", and the 2002 album The Next Step that featured the single "Killing is Out, School is In". In 2003, all Produced and co-written by Derrick Monk. Brown participated in the PBS American Masters television documentary James Brown: Soul Survivor, which was directed by Jeremy Marre. Although Brown had various run-ins with the law, he continued to perform and record regularly, and he also made appearances in television shows and films, such as Blues Brothers 2000, and sporting events, such as his 2000 appearance at the World Championship Wrestling pay-per-view event SuperBrawl X. In Brown's appearance at the SuperBrawl X event, he danced alongside wrestler Ernest "The Cat" Miller, whose character was based on Brown, during his in ring skit with The Maestro. In 2004 the Egyptian Singer [Hakim] released his album “El Yomen Dol” including a duet track with Brown. James Brown profile. Celebrity Wonder. Retrieved January 9, 2007. Brown was featured in Tony Scott's 2001 short film, Beat the Devil, alongside Clive Owen, Gary Oldman, Danny Trejo and Marilyn Manson. Beat the Devil. (2002). Internet Movie Database Inc. (IMDb). Retrieved January 9, 2007. Brown also made a cameo appearance in the 2002 Jackie Chan film The Tuxedo, in which Chan was required to finish Brown's act after Brown was accidentally knocked out by Chan. Full cast and crew for The Tuxedo. (2002). Internet Movie Database Inc. (IMDb). Retrieved January 9, 2007. In 2002 brown appeared in Undercover Brother, playing the role as himself. Brown appeared at Edinburgh 50,000 - The Final Push, the final Live 8 concert on July 6, 2005, where he performed a duet with British pop star Will Young on "Papa's Got A Brand New Bag". He also performed a duet with another British pop star, Joss Stone, a week earlier on the United Kingdom chat show Friday Night with Jonathan Ross. Before his death, Brown was scheduled to perform a duet with singer Annie Lennox on the song "Vengeance" for her new album Venus, scheduled for release in early 2007. In 2006, Brown continued his "Seven Decades Of Funk World Tour", his last concert tour where he performed all over the world. His last shows were greeted with positive reviews, and one of his final concert appearances at the Irish Oxegen festival in Punchestown in 2006 was performed for a record crowd of 80,000 people. Brown's last televised appearance was at his induction into the UK Music Hall of Fame in November 2006, before his death the following month. James Brown Revue For many years, Brown's touring show was one of the most extravagant productions in American popular music. At the time of Brown's death, his band included three guitarists, two bass guitar players, two drummers, three horns and a percussionist. James Brown band to resume touring soon. (2006, December 29). MSNBC. Retrieved January 13, 2007. The bands that he maintained during the late 1960s and 1970s were of comparable size, and the bands also included a three-piece amplified string section that played during ballads. White, C. & Weinger, H. Are You Ready for Star Time? Star Time, J. Brown. (1991) Liner notes, 31. Polydor. Brown employed between 40 and 50 people for the James Brown Revue, and members of the revue traveled with him in a bus to cities and towns all over the country, performing upwards of 330 shows a year with almost all of the shows as one-nighters. George, N. (1988). The Death of Rhythm and Blues, 101. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-45226-697-1. Guralnick, P. (1986). Sweet Soul Music: Rhythm and Blues and the Southern Dream of Freedom, 240. New York: Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-45226-697-1. Concert introduction Before James Brown appeared on stage, his personal MC gave him an elaborate introduction accompanied by drumrolls, as the MC worked in Brown's various sobriquets along with the names of many of his hit songs. The introduction by Fats Gonder, captured on Brown's 1963 album Live at the Apollo album, is a representative example: So now ladies and gentlemen it is star time, are you ready for star time? Thank you and thank you very kindly. It is indeed a great pleasure to present to you at this particular time, national and international[ly] known as the hardest working man in show business, the man that sings "I'll Go Crazy" ... "Try Me" ... "You've Got the Power" ... "Think" ... "If You Want Me" ... "I Don't Mind" ... "Bewildered" ...the million dollar seller, "Lost Someone" ... the very latest release, "Night Train" ... let's everybody "Shout and Shimmy" ... Mr. Dynamite, the amazing Mr. Please Please himself, the star of the show, James Brown and The Famous Flames!! Gross, T. (2005, February 22). James Brown (Fresh Air WHYY-FM audio interview). National Public Radio. Retrieved January 22, 2007. Among the MCs who worked with Brown and his revue through the years, Brown's most famous MC was Danny Ray, who appeared on stage with him for over 30 years. Concert repertoire and format Brown and MC Danny Ray during cape routine, BBC Electronic Proms '06 concert James Brown's performances were famous for their intensity and length. His own stated goal was to "give people more than what they came for — make them tired, 'cause that's what they came for.'" Guralnick, 231. Brown's concert repertoire consisted mostly of his own hits and recent songs, with a few R&B covers mixed in. Brown danced vigorously as he sang, working popular dance steps such as the Mashed Potato into his routine along with dramatic leaps, splits and slides. In addition, his horn players and backup singers (The Famous Flames) typically performed choreographed dance routines, and later incarnations of the Revue included backup dancers. Male performers in the Revue were required to wear tuxedoes and cummerbunds long after more casual concert wear became the norm among the younger musical acts. Brown's own extravagant outfits and his elaborate processed hairdo completed the visual impression. A James Brown concert typically included a performance by a featured vocalist, such as Vicki Anderson or Marva Whitney, and an instrumental feature for the band, which sometimes served as the opening act for the show. Although Brown released many live albums, Say It Live & Loud: Live in Dallas 08.26.68, released by Polydor in 1998, was one of only a few audio recordings that captured a performance of the James Brown Revue from beginning to end. Cape routine A trademark feature of Brown's stage shows, usually during the song "Please, Please, Please", involved Brown dropping to his knees while clutching the microphone stand in his hands, prompting the show's MC to come out, drape a cape over Brown's shoulders and escort him off the stage after he had worked himself to exhaustion during his performance. As Brown was escorted off the stage by the MC, Brown's vocal group, The Famous Flames, continued singing the background vocals "Please, please don't go-oh-oh". Page, C. (January 2, 2007). Godfather's soul transcended racial, musical barriers. The Record. Retrieved June 17, 2007. Brown then shook off the cape and staggered back to the microphone to perform an encore. This act was often repeated several times in succession. The Alan Parker film The Commitments features the would-be Dublin soul musicians watching the act on video for inspiration. Brown's cape routine was inspired by a similar routine used by the professional wrestler Gorgeous George. Loverro, T. (December 28, 2006). Soul Brother had sports roots. The Washington Times. Retrieved January 13, 2007. Brown as band leader Brown demanded extreme discipline, perfection and precision from his musicians and dancers — right down to when performers in his Revue showed up for rehearsals all the way to whether members wore the right "uniform" or "costume" for concert performances. Tangari, J. (2007, January 3). James Brown, 1933-2006. Pitchforkmedia, Inc. Retrieved January 21, 2007. During an interview conducted by Terri Gross during the NPR segment "Fresh Air" with Maceo Parker, a former saxophonist in Brown's band for most of the 1960s and part of the 1970s and 1980s, Parker offered his experience with the discipline that Brown demanded of the band: You gotta be on time. You gotta have your uniform. Your stuff's got to be intact. You gotta have the bow tie. You got to have it. You can't come up without the bow tie. You cannot come up without a cummerbund ... [The] patent leather shoes we were wearing at the time gotta be greased. You just gotta have this stuff. This is what [Brown expects] ... [Brown] bought the costumes. He bought the shoes. And if for some reason [the band member decided] to leave the group, [Brown told the person to] please leave my uniforms .... Gross, T. (1989). Musician Maceo Parker (Fresh Air WHYY-FM audio interview). National Public Radio. Retrieved January 22, 2007. Brown also had a practice of directing, correcting and assessing fines on members of his band who broke his rules, such as wearing unshined shoes, dancing out of sync or showing up late on stage. Burnett, B. (2006, December 21). James Brown: Audience with the Godfather (interview). The Hour. Retrieved January 9, 2007. During some of his concert performances, Brown danced in front of his band with his back to the audience as he slid across the floor, flashing hand signals and splaying his pulsating fingers to the beat of the music. Although audiences thought Brown's dance routine was part of his act, this practice was actually his way of pointing to the offending member of his troupe who played or sang the wrong note or committed some other infraction. Brown used his splayed fingers and hand signals to alert the offending person of the fine that person must pay to him for breaking his rules. Gottschild, B.D. (2000, August). James Brown: Godfather of dance. Dance Magazine, 74(8), p. 54 (Document no. A63735725). Retrieved January 11, 2007 from the Biography Resource Center database. Social activism Civil unrest and self-empowerment During the late 1960s and early 1970s, James Brown was renowned for his work with social activism. In 1966, he released the single "Don't Be a Drop-Out" as a lesson to young students who had thoughts of dropping out. He later made public speeches in front of dozens of children and advocated the importance of education in school. In 1967, he issued a patriotic single, "America is My Home", which was a "rap" about how he felt people, particularly in the African-American community, were neglecting the country that he said "could give (them) opportunities" explaining how at one time he was shining shoes and the next, he was greeting the President of the United States as he did when President Lyndon B. Johnson thanked him for donating money to school drop-out prevention programs. A year later, he performed in front of a televised audience in Boston the day after the death of Martin Luther King, Jr.. Brown is often given credit for preventing rioting with the performance The Night James Brown Saved Boston. VH1 rockDocs. . However, it was Mayor Kevin White who strongly restrained the Boston Police from cracking down on minor violence and protests after the assassination, and Boston religious and community leaders who worked to keep tempers from flaring. Also, White arranged to have the performance broadcast multiple times on Boston's public television station, WGBH, thus keeping many potential rioters off the streets, watching the concert for free. Brown demanded $60,000 for "gate" fees (money he thought would be lost from ticket sales on account of the concert being broadcast for free), and then threatened to go public about the secret arrangement when the city balked at paying up after the concert, news of which would have been a political death-blow to White, and possibly sparked riots on its own. White successfully lobbied the behind-the-scenes power-brokering group known as "The Vault" to come up with money for Brown's gate fee and other social programs; The Vault contributed $100,000 to such programs, and Brown received $15,000 from them via the city. White persuaded management at the Boston Garden to give up their share of receipts to make up the difference. The story is documented in the PBS film "The Night James Brown Saved Boston". Afterwards, President Johnson advised Brown to visit Washington, D.C. to greet inner-city residents there performing at a benefit concert there and expressed the notion that violence "wasn't the way to go". Many in the black community felt that Brown was speaking out to them more than some major leaders in the country, a sentiment that was strengthened with the release of his groundbreaking landmark single, "Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud". Brown continued performing benefit concerts for various civil rights organizations including Jesse Jackson's PUSH and The Black Panther Party's Breakfast program throughout the early-1970s. Brown also continued to release socially-conscious singles such as "I Don't Want Nobody To Give Me Nothing (Open Up the Door, I'll Get It Myself)" (1969), "Get Up, Get Into It, Get Involved" (1971), "Talking Loud and Saying Nothing" (1972), "King Heroin" (1974), "Funky President (People It's Bad)" (1974) and "Reality" (1975). The week before his death, Brown took time to give Christmas presents to an orphanage in Atlanta. Fannie Brown James Brown's sister, Fannie Brown, shared James' passion and concern for the condition of today's youth and expressed these concerns by writing songs for James Brown and his band to perform in concert. Brown pocketed the songs for later collaboration, but sang songs written by Fannie Brown wrote in his final track "Gut Bucket". According to Fannie Brown, "Pull Your Pants UP! U SAGGIN'", a song about negativity in today's music world, is planned for a future release. The God Sister of Soul - Home Personal life At the end of his life, James Brown lived in a riverfront home in Beech Island, South Carolina, directly across the Savannah River from Augusta, Georgia. Brown was once diagnosed with prostate cancer, which was successfully treated with surgery. Singer James Brown prostate cancer surgery successful. (December 16, 2004). Medical News Today. Retrieved January 10, 2007. Also not known to many, James Brown was diagnosed with diabetes at a very early stage of his life. Famous diabetes sufferers - James Brown. (December 1, 2008). Diabetes Forum. Retrieved December 11, 2008. Regardless of his health, Brown maintained his reputation as the "hardest working man in show business" by keeping up with his grueling performance schedule. However, James Brown led as colorful a life on stage with his performances, as he had off stage with his troubles with the law and his last marriage in particular. Marriages and children Brown was married four times — Velma Warren (19 June 1953–1969, divorced), Deidre "Deedee" Jenkins (22 October 1970–10 January 1981, divorced), Adrienne Lois Rodriguez (born 9 March 1950) (1984–6 January 1996, wife's death) and Tomi Rae Hynie (December 2001–2006, his death). From these and other relationships, James Brown had five sons — Teddy Brown (1954-1973), Terry Brown, and Larry Brown, Daryl Brown (a member of Brown's backing band) and James Joseph Brown II, in addition to four daughters — Lisa Brown, Dr. Yamma Noyola Brown Lumar, Deanna Brown Thomas and Venisha Brown. May the works I have done speak for me ... James Brown. (December 29, 2006). Carpentersville Baptist Church, North Augusta, SC (obituary program for the Brown family's private memorial service). Retrieved January 10, 2007 (Adobe Acrobat Reader required for viewing). A Home coming celebration for Augusta's own native son: James Brown. (2006, December 30). The James Arena, Augusta, Georgia (obituary program for the public memorial service of James Brown). Retrieved January 12, 2007 (Microsoft PowerPoint viewer/program required for viewing) http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/08/keeping-track-of-james-brown-and-the-big-payback/ "Keeping Track of James Brown and The Big Payback" Brenda Goodman, Nov. 8, 2007 Brown also had eight grandchildren and four great-grandchildren. Brown's eldest son, Teddy, died in a car crash on 14 June 1973. Stritof, S. & Stritof, B. (2006). The marriages of James Brown. About.com: Marriage. Retrieved January 8, 2007. According to a 22 August 2007 article published in the British newspaper The Daily Telegraph, DNA tests indicate that Brown also fathered at least three illegitimate children. The only one of them who has been identified is LaRhonda Pettit (born 1962), a retired air stewardess and teacher who lives in Houston. Telgraph report Brown-Hynie marriage controversy Much controversy surrounds Tomi Rae Hynie's marriage to James Brown that occurred in December 2001, which was officiated by Rev. Larry Fryer. Brown's longtime attorney, Albert "Buddy" Dallas, reported that the marriage between Brown and Hynie was not valid because Hynie was married at that time to Javed Ahmed, a Pakistani whom Hynie claimed married her for a Green Card in an immigration fraud. Although Hynie stated that her marriage to Javed Ahmed was later annulled, the annulment for Hynie's 1997 marriage to Ahmed did not occur until April 2004. Martin, J. (January 4, 2007). Tomi Rae defends her relationship with James Brown. WRDW-TV (Augusta, Georgia). Retrieved January 9, 2007. Gardner,L. (December 26, 2006). Tomi Rae Hynie: "It's a blatant lie". WRDW-TV (Augusta, Georgia). Retrieved January 8, 2007. In an interview on CNN with Larry King, Hynie produced a 2001 marriage certificate as proof of her marriage to James Brown, but she did not provide King with court records pointing to an annulment of her marriage to him or to Ahmed. Anderson, V. (January 5, 2007). Probate hearing may determine whether Hynie is James Brown's widow. The Atlanta-Journal Constitution. Retrieved January 8, 2007. According to Dallas, Brown was angry and hurt that Hynie concealed her prior marriage from him, and that Brown moved to file for annulment from Hynie. Singer James Brown files for annulment. Jet Magazine, 105(8), p. 18. Retrieved January 11, 2007 from the Biography Resource Center database. Dallas added that, although Hynie's marriage to Javed Ahmed was annulled after she married James Brown, the Brown-Hynie marriage was not valid under South Carolina law because Brown and Hynie did not remarry after the annulment. Brown widow: I've been locked out. (2006). CNN Entertainment News. Retrieved January 8, 2007. In August 2003, Brown took out a full-page public notice in Variety Magazine featuring Hynie, James II and himself on vacation at Disney World to announce that he and Hynie were going their separate ways. Public announcement of annulment in Variety Magazine. (July 22, 2003). The Smoking Gun. Retrieved January 8, 2007. Stritof, S. & Stritof, B. (2007). James Brown and Tomi Rae Hynie timeline: The puzzle of a complicated marriage relationship. About.com: Marriage. Retrieved January 14, 2007. Paternity of James Brown II In a separate CNN interview, Debra Opri, another Brown family attorney, revealed to Larry King that Brown wanted a DNA test performed after his death to confirm the paternity of James Brown II — not for Brown's sake, but for the sake of the other family members. Brown wanted paternity test. (January 8, 2007). The Herald Sun (Australia). REP YOURS ENDZ BLUD. SAFE HOLD IT BLESS. Retrieved January 8, 2007. In April 2007, Hynie selected a guardian ad litem whom she wants appointed by the court to represent her son, James Brown II, in the paternity proceedings. James Brown's partner selects guardian. (April 4, 2007). The Washington Post. Retrieved April 11, 2007.</ref> Legal issues Brown's personal life was marred by several brushes with the law. At the age of 16, was arrested for theft and served 3 years in prison. In 1988, Brown was arrested following an alleged high-speed car chase on Interstate 20 along the Georgia-South Carolina state border. He was convicted of carrying an unlicensed pistol and assaulting a police officer, along with various drug-related and driving offenses. Although he was sentenced to six years in prison, he was eventually released in 1991 after serving only three years of his sentence. Brown's FBI file, released to The Washington Post in 2007 under the Freedom of Information Act, In the Matter of James Joseph Brown, File No. SV-44B-3846. (1989). Criminal Investigative Division, Civil Rights Unit. U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved on June 3, 2007 (Abobe Acrobat Reader required for viewing). related Brown's claim that the high-speed chase did not occur as claimed by the police, and that local police shot at his car several times during an incident of police harassment and assaulted him after his arrest. Stephens, J. (April 3, 2007). FBI file recounts James Brown's side Of '88 police chase. The Washington Post. Retrieved June 4, 2007. Local authorities found no merit to Brown's accusations. In another incident, the police were summoned to Brown's residence on July 3, 2000 after he was accused of charging an electric company repairman with a steak knife when the repairman visited Brown's house to investigate a complaint about having no lights at the residence. Aiken County Sheriff's Office Incident Report, Case No. 0000030719. (July 3, 2000). The Smoking Gun. Retrieved January 8, 2007. In 2003, Brown was pardoned for past crimes that he was convicted of committing in South Carolina. South Carolina pardons James Brown for past crimes. (June 9, 2003). Jet Magazine, 36. Retrieved January 14, 2007 from the Lexis-Nexis Academic database. In January 2005, a woman named Jacque Hollander filed a lawsuit against James Brown, which stemmed from an alleged 1988 forcible rape. When the case was initially heard before a judge in 2002, Hollander's claims against Brown were dismissed by the court as the limitations period for filing the suit had expired. Hollander claimed that stress from the alleged assault later caused her to contract Grave's Disease, a thyroid condition. Hollander claimed that the incident took place in South Carolina while she was employed by Brown as a publicist. Hollander alleged that, during her ride in a van with Brown, Brown pulled over to the side of the road and sexually assaulted her while he threatened her with a shotgun. In her case against Brown, Hollander entered as evidence a DNA sample and a polygraph result, but the evidence was not considered due to the limitations defense. Hollander later attempted to bring her case before the Supreme Court but nothing became of her complaint. During the 1990s and 2000s, Brown was repeatedly arrested for domestic violence. Adrienne Rodriguez, his third wife, had him arrested four times between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s on charges of assault. In January 2004, Brown was arrested in South Carolina on a domestic violence charge after Tomi Rae Hynie accused him of pushing her to the floor during an argument at their home, where she suffered scratches and bruises to her right arm and hip. Later that year in June 2004, Brown pleaded no contest to the domestic violence incident, but served no jail time. Instead, Brown was required to forfeit a US$1,087 bond as punishment. James Brown pleads to domestic violence. (2004). The Smoking Gun. Retrieved January 8, 2007. Death and the aftermath Death James Brown memorial in Augusta, Georgia On December 23, 2006, James Brown, in ill health, showed up at his dentist's office in Atlanta, Georgia several hours later than his appointment for dental implant work. During that visit, Brown's dentist observed that Brown looked "very bad ... weak and dazed." Instead of performing the dental work, the dentist advised Brown to see a doctor right away about his medical condition.<ref name=jbdental>Smith, W. (December 26, 2006). [http://www.newyorkbeacon.com/News/Article/Article.asp?NewsID=74983&sID=4 James Brown, the undeniable Godfather of Soul" dead at 73.] The New York Beacon. Retrieved January 10, 2007. Brown checked in at the Emory Crawford Long Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia on December 24, 2006 for a medical evaluation of his condition, and he was admitted to the hospital for observation and treatment. James Brown hospitalized with pneumonia. (December 24, 2006). CNN Entertainment News. Retrieved January 9, 2007. According to Charles Bobbit, Brown's longtime personal manager and friend, Brown had been sick and suffering with a noisy cough since he returned from a November trip to Europe. Bobbit also added that it was characteristic of Brown to never tell or complain to anyone that he was sick, and that Brown frequently performed during illness. Although Brown had to cancel upcoming shows in Waterbury, Connecticut and Englewood, New Jersey, Brown was confident that the doctor would discharge him from the hospital in time to perform the New Year's Eve shows. For the New Year's celebrations, Brown was scheduled to perform at the Count Basie Theatre in New Jersey and at the B. B. King Blues Club in New York, in addition to performing a song live on CNN for the Anderson Cooper New Year's Eve special. James Brown hospitalized with pneumonia. (2006, December 24). CNN Entertainment News. Retrieved January 9, 2007. However, Brown remained hospitalized, and his medical condition worsened throughout that day. On December 25, 2006, Brown died at approximately 1:45 AM EST (06:45 UTC) from congestive heart failure resulting from complications of pneumonia, with his agent Frank Copsidas and his friend Charles Bobbit at his bedside. Soul "godfather" James Brown dies. (December 25, 2006). CNN Entertainment News. Retrieved January 9, 2007. According to Bobbit, Brown uttered "I'm going away tonight", and then Brown took three long, quiet breaths before expiring. James Brown, the "Godfather of Soul," dies at 73. (2006, December 25). CNN Entertainment News. Retrieved January 5, 2007. Memorial services Public memorial for Brown at Harlem's Apollo Theater, 2006 After Brown's death on Christmas day, Brown's relatives and friends, a host of celebrities and thousands of fans attended public memorial services at the Apollo Theater in New York on December 28, 2006 and at the James Brown Arena on December 30, 2006 in Augusta, Georgia. A separate, private memorial service was also held in North Augusta, South Carolina on December 29, 2006, which was attended by Brown's family and close friends. Celebrities who attended Brown's public and/or private memorial services included Michael Jackson, Joe Frazier, Dick Gregory, MC Hammer, Jesse Jackson, Bootsy Collins, LL Cool J, 50 Cent, and Don King, among others. Mourners pay respects to James Brown at Apollo Theater public viewing. (December 28, 2006). Fox News. Retrieved March 16, 2007. Private ceremony held Friday for friends and family of James Brown. (December 29, 2006). Fox News. Retrieved March 16, 2007. Michael Jackson attends James Brown funeral. (2006, December 30). Access Hollywood. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Anderson, V. (2006, December 30). Michael Jackson, McCartney had private viewing. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved March 23, 2007. All of the public and private memorial services were officiated by Rev. Al Sharpton. James Brown eulogized for impact on word: Family and friends attend a private South Carolina ceremony for the "Godfather of Soul". (2006, December 29). CBS News: The Show Buzz. Retrieved March 10, 2007. NYC & Ga. farewell for Godfather of Soul: Funeral procession and wake in Harlem; funeral in Georgia. (2006, December 28). CBS News: The Show Buzz. Retrieved March 10, 2007. Brown's public and private memorial ceremonies were elaborate, complete with costume changes for Brown and videos featuring him in concert performances. Brown's body, which was placed in a gold casket, was driven through the streets of New York to the Apollo Theater in a white, glass-encased horse-drawn carriage. Christensen, J. (2006, December 28). Picture of horse drawn carriage carrying James Brown's body in gold casket to the Apollo Theater in Harlem. Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Altaffer, M. (2006, December 28). Picture of pallbearers carrying James Brown's casket to Apollo Theater memorial service. Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved March 21, 2007. In Augusta, Georgia, the procession for Brown's public memorial visited Brown's statue as the procession made its way to the James Brown Arena. During the public memorial at the James Brown Arena, nachos and pretzels were served to mourners, as a video showed Brown's last performance in Augusta, Georgia and the Ray Charles version of "Georgia On My Mind" played soulfully in the background. Mourners pay respects to James Brown at Apollo Theater public viewing. (2006, December 28). Fox News. Retrieved March 16, 2007. Private ceremony held Friday for friends and family of James Brown. (2006, December 29). Fox News. Retrieved March 16, 2007. Farewell tour to James Brown ends with hometown memorial. (2006, December 30). Fox News. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Brown's last backup band, The Soul Generals, also played the music of Brown's hits during the memorial service at the James Brown Arena. The group was joined by Bootsy Collins on bass, with MC Hammer performing a dance in James Brown style. Barnett, R. (2006, December 30). Farewell tour to James Brown ends. USA Today. Retrieved March 16, 2007. Former Temptations lead singer Ali-Ollie Woodson performed "Walk Around Heaven All Day" at the memorial services. Wynn, M. & Edwards, J. (December 31, 2006). Article "Hardest Work Is Done, Publication: Augusta Chronicle. Retrieved February 1, 2009. Last will and testament James Brown signed his last will and testament on August 1, 2000, before Strom Thurmond, Jr., an attorney for Brown's estate. James Brown Jr. not included in will. WRDW-TV News (Augusta, Georgia). Retrieved January 12,lauren was his first wife and it did not work out 2007. The irrevocable trust, separate and apart from Brown's will, was created on Brown's behalf in 2000 by his attorney, Albert "Buddy" Dallas, who was named as one of three personal representatives of Brown's estate. Brown's will covered the disposition of his personal assets, such as clothing, cars and jewelry, while Brown's irrevocable trust covered the disposition of music rights, business assets of James Brown Enterprises and Brown's Beech Island estate in South Carolina. James Brown's road to wealth was rocky: Financial turmoil part of "Godfather" legend. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved March 21, 2007. During the reading of Brown's will on January 11, 2007, Thurmond revealed that Brown's six adult living children (Terry Brown, Larry Brown, Daryl Brown, Yamma Brown Lumar, Deanna Brown Thomas and Venisha Brown) were named in the will. Hynie and James II were not mentioned in the will as parties who could inherit Brown's property. James Brown's widow "not in will". BBC News (UK). Retrieved January 12, 2007. Brown's will was signed ten months before James II was born and more than a year before Brown's marriage to Tomi Rae Hynie. Like Brown's will, his irrevocable trust also did not mention Hynie and James II as recipients of Brown's property. The irrevocable trust was established and had not been amended since the birth of James II. Finn, N. (2007, January 18). James Brown's estate wills more drama. E!News. Retrieved March 21, 2007. On January 24, 2007, Brown's children filed a lawsuit against the personal representatives of Brown's estate. In their petition, Brown's children asked the court to remove the personal representatives of Brown's estate (including Brown's attorney and estate's trustee, Albert "Buddy" Dallas) and appoint a special administrator because of perceived impropriety and alleged mismanagement of Brown's assets. James Brown's children request trustees be removed. (2007, January 26). Star Pulse. Retrieved January 28, 2007. Emergency petition for termination of appointment and removal of personal representatives and for emergency order restraining all personal representatives. In the matter of James Brown, a/k/a James Joseph Brown. Case/Estate No. 2007-ES02-0056 (S.C. Probate Ct., filed January 24, 2007).] Retrieved January 28, 2007 (Adobe Acrobat Reader required for viewing). To challenge the validity of the will and irrevocable trust, Hynie also filed a lawsuit against Brown's estate on January 31, 2007. In her lawsuit against Brown's estate, Hynie asked the court to recognize her as Brown's widow, and she also asked the court to appoint a special administrator for the estate. Emergency petition for appointment of special administrator. In re estate of James Brown a/k/a James Joseph Brown, deceased, Case No. 2007-CP-02-0122 (S.C. Cir. Ct., filed January 31, 2007). FindLaw. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Burial at temporary site After the public and private memorial services in late December 2006, James Brown's body remained in his casket for a time in a temperature-controlled room at his estate. Brown's casket was later moved to an undisclosed location, while his children and Tomi Rae Hynie became embroiled in disputes about Brown's final resting place and matters related to probating his will. Deal reached on James Brown's burial place: Judge appoints administrator to oversee "Godfather of Soul's" property and trust. (2007, February 20). CBS News: The Show Buzz. Retrieved March 10, 2007. More than ten weeks after Brown's death and the public and private memorial services, Brown's children and Hynie decided on a temporary burial site for James Brown. Brown was buried on March 10, 2007 in a crypt at the home of Deanna Brown Thomas, one of Brown's daughters who also held a private ceremony for the temporary burial. Grossberg, J. (2007, March 13). Brown laid to rest (finally). E! Online. Retrieved April 14, 2007. The private ceremony for the temporary burial, officiated by Al Sharpton, was attended by Brown's family and a host of friends. According to Brown's family, Brown's body will remain buried at the temporary site while a public mausoleum is built for him and a decision has been made for Brown's final resting place. James Brown laid to rest in temporary tomb. (2007, March 10). CNN Entertainment News. Retrieved March 10, 2007. To turn Brown's estate into a visitor attraction, Brown's family plans to consult with the family of Elvis Presley for guidance about converting the estate into an attraction similar to Graceland. Godfather of Soul's body moved from home. CBC (iraq). Retrieved January 21, 2007. Dallas, Brown's long time attorney and one of the trustees for Brown's estate, did not attend the private service for the temporary burial. He expressed his disapproval and disappointment with the temporary burial arrangement with the comment "Mr. Brown's not deserving of anyone's backyard." According to Dallas, the trustees for Brown's estate "had made arrangements for Brown to be laid to rest at no cost at a 'very prominent memorial garden in Augusta.'" Goggins, K.A. (2007, March 11). James Brown placed in daughter's crypt, for now. The Washington Post, p. D03. Retrieved March 14, 2007. Honors, awards and dedications Life-sized bronze statue of James Brown on the 800 block of Broad Street in Augusta, Georgia James Brown received a variety of awards and honors throughout his lifetime and after his death. At one city, fans voted to honor James Brown by naming a bridge after the entertainer. In 1993, the City Council of Steamboat Springs, Colorado conducted a poll of its residents to choose a new name for the bridge that crossed the Yampa River on Shield Drive. The winning name with 7,717 votes was "James Brown Soul Center of the Universe Bridge". The bridge was officially dedicated in September 1993, and James Brown appeared at the ribbon-cutting ceremony for the event. Crowl, D. (2002, June 29). The godfather's bridge: James Brown snatched a piece of steamboat history nine years ago. Steamboat Pilot & Today. Retrieved January 12, 2007. Although a petition was started by a local group of ranchers to return the name of the bridge to "Stockbridge" for historical reasons, the ranchers backed off after citizens defeated their efforts because of the popularity of Brown's name. Brown returned to Steamboat Springs, Colorado on July 4, 2002 for an outdoor music festival, performing with other bands such as the String Cheese Incident. The String Cheese Independence Incident returns to Steamboat: Earl Scruggs and Family and Friends, Yonder Mountain String Band, James Brown & Corey Harris round out music acts. (2002, June 26). Steamboat Ski Two, U.S.A. Retrieved January 29, 2007. During his long career, James Brown received several prestigious music industry awards and honors. In 1983, Brown was inducted into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame. In addition, Brown was named as one of the first inductees into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame at its inaugural induction dinner in New York on January 23, 1986. However, the members of his original vocal group, The Famous Flames,Bobby Byrd, Johnny Terry, Bobby Bennett, and Lloyd Stallworth, were not. On February 25, 1992, Brown was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 34th annual Grammy Awards. Exactly a year later, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 4th annual Rhythm & Blues Foundation Pioneer Awards. A ceremony was held for Brown on January 10, 1997 to honor him with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. On June 15, 2000, Brown was honored as an inductee for the New York Songwriters Hall of Fame. On November 14, 2006, Brown was inducted into the UK Music Hall of Fame, and he was one of several inductees who performed at the ceremony. UK Music Hall of Fame 2006. (2006, March 11). Endemol UK Plc. Retrieved January 12, 2007. In recognition of his accomplishments as an entertainer, Brown was a recipient of Kennedy Center Honors on December 7, 2003. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked James Brown as #7 on its list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. Rubin, R. (2004, April 15). The Immortals: The first fifty – 7) James Brown. Rolling Stone Magazine (issue 946). Retrieved January 10, 2007. Brown was also honored in his hometown of Augusta, Georgia for his philanthropy and civic activities. On November 20, 1993, Mayor Charles DeVaney of Augusta held a ceremony to dedicate a section of 9th Street between Broad and Twiggs Streets, renamed "James Brown Boulevard", in the entertainer's honor. On May 6, 2005, as a 72nd birthday present for Brown, the city of Augusta unveiled a life-sized bronze James Brown statue on Broad Street. The James Brown review. (2006, December 30). The Augusta Chronicle. Retrieved January 12, 2007. The statue was to have been dedicated a year earlier, but the ceremony was put on hold because of a domestic abuse charge that Brown faced at the time. James Brown's legal troubles delay statue unveiling. (2004, May 1). The Augusta Chronicle. Retrieved January 14, 2007 from the Lexis-Nexis Academic database. In 2005, Charles "Champ" Walker and the We Feel Good Committee went before the County commission and received apporoval to change Augusta's slogan to "We Feel Good". Afterwards, Official renamed the city's civic center the James Brown Arena, and James Brown attended a ceremony for the unveiling of the namesake center on October 15, 2006. On December 30, 2006 during the public memorial service at the James Brown Arena, Dr. Shirley A.R. Lewis, president of Paine College, a historically black college in Augusta, Georgia, bestowed posthumously upon Brown an honorary doctorate in recognition and honor of his many contributions to the school in times of its need. Brown was scheduled originally to receive the honorary doctorate from Paine College during its May 2007 commencement. Remembering James Brown: Augusta memorial memorable. WKBF-TV (Augusta, Georgia). Retrieved January 10, 2007. James Brown receives posthumous degree. (2007, January 2). Diverse: Issues In Higher Education. Retrieved March 16, 2007. During the 49th Annual Grammy Awards presentation held on February 11, 2007, James Brown's famous cape was draped over a microphone at the end of a montage by Danny Ray (his M.C. for over 30 years), in honor of notable persons in the music industry, including Brown, who died during the previous year. Earlier that evening, Christina Aguilera delivered an impassioned performance of one of Brown's hits, "It's a Man's Man's Man's World" followed by a stading ovation, while Chris Brown performed a dance routine in honor of James Brown. Hasty, J. (2007, February 12). Grammy performances look forward and back. Billboard Magazine. Retrieved February 12, 2007. As a tribute to James Brown, the Rolling Stones covered the song, "I'll Go Crazy" from Brown's Live at the Apollo album, during its 2007 European tour. On September 12, 2007, barely nine months after James Brown's death, Bobby Byrd, the original leader and founder of The Famous Flames vocal group along with Brown, died of cancer at 73 years old. Rolling Stones show they are still greatest rock band. (2007, August 22). The Arizona Republic. Retrieved August 24, 2007. On December 22, 2007, the first annual "Tribute Fit For the King of King Records" in honor of James Brown was held at the Madison Theater in Covington, Kentucky. The tribute, organized by Bootsy Collins, featured appearances by Afrika Bambaataa, Chuck D of Public Enemy, The Soul Generals, Buckethead, Freekbass, Triage and many of Brown's surviving family members. Comedian Michael Coyer was the emcee for the event. During the show, the mayor of Cincinnati proclaimed December 22 as James Brown Day. Tunis, W. (2007, December 21). Feel good again: Show to pay tribute to the Godfather of Soul, a year after his death. Lexington Herald-Leader. Retrieved December 23, 2005. It has been said that a biopic is in the works about the godfather himself Spike Lee has signed on to direct, Brian Grazer has signed on to produce with Jez and John-Henry Butterworth writing the script. Celebs like Usher and Fergie are interested in being in the project. Discography Notable albums Four of James Brown's albums appeared on the Rolling Stone Magazine's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time: The RS 500 greatest albums of all time. (2003, November). Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved January 27, 2007. Live at the Apollo (1963) (#24) In the Jungle Groove (1986) (#330) Star Time (1991) (#79) 20 All-Time Greatest Hits! (1991) (#414) In addition, Brown's 1970 double album Sex Machine was ranked 96th in a 2005 survey held by British television station Channel 4 to determine the 100 greatest albums of all time. The 100 greatest albums: Results. Channel 4 (UK). Retrieved January 30, 2007. Other notable albums, originally released as double LP records, feature extensive playing by The J.B.'s and served as prolific sources of samples for later musical artists, including: Get On the Good Foot (1972) The Payback (1974) Hell (1974) The 1968 Live at the Apollo, Vol. II double LP album was notably influential on musicians at the time of its release. This classic album remains an example of Brown's energetic live performances and audience interaction, as well as providing a means of documenting the metamorphosis of his music from the R&B and soul styles into hard funk. Notable singles Until the early 1970s, Brown was famous mostly for his road show and singles, rather than his albums (with his live LPs as a major exception). Six of his hit singles appeared on the Rolling Stone Magazine's 2004 list of the 500 greatest songs of all time: The RS 500 greatest songs of all time. (2004, November). Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved January 27, 2007. "Papa's Got a Brand New Bag" (1965) (#72) "I Got You (I Feel Good)" (1965) (#78) "It's a Man's Man's Man's World" (1966) (#123) "Please, Please, Please" (1956) (#142) "Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud" (1968) (#305) "Get Up (I Feel Like Being a) Sex Machine" (1970) (#326) Complete singles reissue In 2006, Hip-O Select Records began a multi-volume reissue of James Brown's complete singles (both A-sides and B-sides) on CD. As of April 2009, seven volumes have been released: The Federal Years: 1956-1960; The Singles: 1960-1963; The Singles: 1964-1965; The Singles: 1966-1967; The Singles: 1967-1969; The Singles: 1969-1970 and The Singles: 1970-1972; . Filmography The T.A.M.I. Show (1964) (documentary) Ski Party (1965) The Phynx (1970) Black Caesar (1973) (soundtrack only) Slaughter's Big Ripoff (1974) (soundtrack only)The Blues Brothers (1980)Doctor Detroit (1983)Rocky IV (1985)When We Were Kings (1996) (documentary)Soulmates (1997)Blues Brothers 2000 (1998)Holy Man (1998)Undercover Brother (2002)The Tuxedo (2002)The Hire: Beat The Devil (2002) (short subject)Paper Chasers (2003) (documentary)Sid Bernstein Presents... (2005) (documentary)Glastonbury (2006) (documentary)Life on the Road with Mr. and Mrs. Brown (2007) (documentary; release pending)I Got The Feelin': James Brown in the '60s (3-DVD set featuring the film The Night James Brown Saved Boston, Live At The Boston Garden 1968, and Live At The Apollo '68.See also List of honorific titles in popular music References Footnotes Other References Sussman, M. (producer). (2006, December 25). Arts: Soul classics by James Brown (multimedia presentation). The New York Times. Retrieved January 9, 2007. Slide show: James Brown through the years. (2006, December 25). The New York Times. Retrieved January 9, 2007. Lethem, J. (2006, June 12). Being James Brown. Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved January 14, 2007. Rolling Stone Magazine audio interview with Jonathan Lethem about James Brown and his music. Rolling Stone Magazine. Retrieved January 9, 2007. External links Profile of James Brown at Soul Evolution The Times Obituary for James Brown James Brown, 1933-2006. News and multimedia archive from The Augusta Chronicle James Brown's Musicians Reflect On His Legacy - article from Down Beat Magazine'' Biography: James Brown and the Black Arts movement of the 60s and 70s (biography at Funky-Stuff.com). James Brown biography and concert review in cosmopolis.ch RBMA Radio On Demand - Across 135th Street - Volume 7 - Tribute to James Brown - Chairman Mao (RBMA, Egotrip) 1980 Interview with James Brown and the Rev. Al Sharpton by Jon Alpert on Democracy Now James Brown concert and interviews on NPR Music

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Interrogatories

In law, interrogatories (also known as Requests for Further Information) are a formal set of written questions propounded by one litigant and required to be answered by an adversary, in order to clarify matters of evidence and help to determine in advance what facts will be presented at any trial in the case. Purpose of Procedure The vast majority of such questions are to find background information about the litigants that is not specific to each case, so it is common to use pre-printed forms containing standard questions that are generally relevant to the type of case at hand, called form interrogatories. These may even be determined by statute or court rules. In civil cases, the issues to be decided can potentially be more complex than in criminal cases. For example if a person is charged with speeding, in a hypothetical case the prosecution have to prove that the person was the driver of the motor vehicle and that it was being driven in excess of the proper speed without any lawful excuse. Example One common civil claim brought is compensation arising out of a road accident. In reality a road traffic accident is rarely complicated. However to demonstrate the concept, this section assumes there is a car accident in a Common Law jurisdiction that does use complicated concepts ... In this hypothetical claim the injured person would usually rely on the fact that the driver to be held responsible has (in the injured person's opinion) committed the tort of negligence. If they did that, the law requires the injured person to show that the driver owed them a duty of care and breached it. In practical reality, the courts accept that drivers owe other road users and pedestrians a duty of care, and the case would come down to whether the driver drove in accordance with the standard of a reasonable driver, and whether the injured person's injuries are a foreseeable consequence of the driving. However, the manner in which the injured person could seek to prove those things is quite variable. In the simplest case the injured person could allege that the driver went too fast, failed to control the car properly or failed to keep lookout. The driver may have a defence to those allegations, perhaps if the accident occurred at low speed, and was unavoidable (maybe due to some third party intervention). The injured person may, however, argue that the driver was still responsible (perhaps the driver should have used the horn of the vehicle to alert the third party), or there may be other allegations. The pleadings of the parties are intended to let the other parties know what each side will seek to prove at trial, and what case they have to answer. However, in a complicated case, the pleadings may not give enough information. In the above example, the pleading may allege: The driver drove negligently. The details of the negligence are, failing to drive carefully driving too fast failing to make proper use of the car's controls failing to take reasonable steps to alert the third party so as to avoid the accident. The driver is told the broad outlines of the case, but still does not know what allegation is being made regarding alerting the third party. The driver can therefore issue an interrogatory to require the injured party to state exactly what it is that the driver did not do and should have done. In the hypothetical example, this would assist the litigation process, because for example, if the injured person states that the driver ought to have alerted the third party, the driver may be aware that the law imposes no such duty, and can issue a motion, (or application) to the court to have that part of the claim dismissed. Specific Jurisdictions England and Wales In England and Wales, this procedure is governed by Part 18 of the Civil Procedure Rules 1998. It is known as a Request for Further Information In the Request for Further Information procedure, use of standard pre-printed forms is not common, and any such request would almost certainly be looked upon critically by the courts, as use of standard forms rather than requests tailored specifically to the case is likely to offend against the 'Overriding Objective' in that it is unlikely to be proportionate to the case, and instead result in the parties or their lawyers having to spend time, money and resources in answering the questions. The way the rules work, this could easily result in the party making the request having to pay both their own costs and the costs of the opponent - even if they win the case at the end. In England and Wales, firstly the person wanting to know the information request it in writing, either in letter form, or more usually, on a blank document with the questions on one side of the page and space for the answers on the other side. A deadline is set for the opponent to answer the request. If they fail to answer, the person requesting can make an Application on Notice to the court and ask the procedural judge to make an order compelling the opponent to answer the questions. Whether the judge will make an order is discretionary and will be determined in accordance with the overriding objective, and in the context of the questions asked. In particular, the procedure is not intended to be used to ask questions that would ordinarily be dealt with at trial. United States In the United States, use of interrogatories is governed by the law where the case has been filed. All federal courts operate under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, which places various limitations on the use of this device, permitting individual jurisdictions to limit interrogatories to twenty-five questions per party. California, on the other hand, operates under the Civil Discovery Act in the California Code of Civil Procedure. The statutes allow up to thirty-five special interrogatories per party, but this limit may be exceeded simply by filing a declaration of necessity. See also Subpoena duces tecum Subpoena ad testificandum Request for admissions

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Apostolic_succession

Apostolic Succession is transmitted in an episcopal consecration by the laying on of hands. Apostolic Succession is the doctrine in some of the more ancient Christian communions that the succession of bishops, in uninterrupted lines, is historically traceable back to the original twelve Apostles Oskar Sommel, Rudolf Stählin Christliche Religion, Frankfurt 1960, 19 Within Catholic Christianity it "is one of four elements which define the true Church of Jesus Christ" Oskar Sommel, Rudolf Stählin Christliche Religion, Frankfurt 1960, 19 and legitimizes the existing sacramental offices, as it is considered necessary for a bishop to perform legitimate or "valid" ordinations of priests, deacons, and other bishops. Apostolic succession is transmitted during episcopal consecrations (the ordination of bishops) by the laying on of hands of bishops previously consecrated within the apostolic succession. This lineage of ordination is traceable, according to the Catholic Church, to the original Twelve Apostles, thus making the Church the continuation of the early Apostolic Christian community. The Catholic Church, as well as the Eastern Orthodox churches, Oriental Orthodox churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, the churches of the Anglican Communion and the Old Catholic Church all claim apostolic succession, as do some Lutheran churches in some Scandinavian countries, the Mar Toma Christians in India, and the Polish National Catholic Church, with 60,000 members. Encyclopedia of American Religions, J. Gordon Melton, editor. 6th Ed., 1999. pp 93-94. While the Anglican claim of apostolic succession is recognized by some Eastern Orthodox churches, it is not officially recognized by the Catholic Church, based on Pope Leo XIII's papal bull Apostolicae Curae. However, since the promulgation of Apostolicae Curae, Anglican bishops have acquired Old Catholic lines of apostolic succession recognized by Rome. As a general rule, Protestantism rejects the doctrine of apostolic succession, and as such they have no traceable lineage to the Apostles like the more ancient Christians, such as those of the Catholic Church or the Eastern Orthodox churches. Due to the sacramental theology of these churches, only bishops and presbyters (priests) ordained by bishops in the apostolic succession can validly celebrate or "confect" several of the other sacraments, including the Eucharist, reconciliation of penitents, confirmation and anointing of the sick. Apostolic succession is an important dividing line to those who claim it: the lack of it is the main reason Protestant communities are not considered churches by the Orthodox churches and the Roman Catholic Church. "Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church", published July 10 2007.Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church Eastern Orthodox theology and ecclesiology teaches that each bishop is equal to the other bishops, even the Ecumenical Patriarch, who is first amongst equals. The Roman Catholic Church and many early Christian writers teach that Jesus gave Saint Peter a unique primacy among the apostles. Roman Catholics teach that this has been passed on in the office of the Papacy despite Saint Peter having been the Bishop of Antioch before completing his episcopacy in Rome. "If the very order of episcopal succession is to be considered, how much more surely, truly, and safely do we number them from Peter himself, to whom, as to one representing the whole Church, the Lord said, ‘Upon this rock I will build my Church’ . . . [Matthew 16:18]. Peter was succeeded by Linus, Linus by Clement, Clement by Anacletus, Anacletus by Evaristus . . . " (St. Augustine; Letters 53:1:2 [A.D. 412]). "The Lord says to Peter: ‘I say to you,’ he says, ‘that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell will not overcome it. ... ’ [Matt. 16:18]. On him [Peter] he builds the Church, and to him he gives the command to feed the sheep [John 21:17], and although he assigns a like power to all the apostles, yet he founded a single chair [cathedra], and he established by his own authority a source and an intrinsic reason for that unity. . . . If someone [today] does not hold fast to this unity of Peter, can he imagine that he still holds the faith? If he [should] desert the chair of Peter upon whom the Church was built, can he still be confident that he is in the Church?" (Cyprian of Carthage; The Unity of the Catholic Church 4; first edition [A.D. 251]). http://www.catholic.com/library/Peter_Successors.asp early Christian writings on papal succession Apostolicity as doctrinal continuity While many of the more ancient Churches within the historical episcopate state that Holy Orders are valid only through apostolic succession, most of the various Protestant denominations would deny the need of maintaining episcopal continuity with the early Church. They generally hold that one important qualification of the Apostles was that they were chosen directly by Jesus and that they witnessed the resurrected Christ. According to this understanding, the work of the twelve (and the Apostle Paul), together with the prophets of the twelve tribes of Israel, provide the doctrinal foundation for the whole church of subsequent history through the Scriptures of the Bible. To share with the apostles the same faith, to believe their word as found in the Scriptures, to receive the same Holy Spirit, is to them the only meaningful "continuity" with what they believe the early Christians to have believed, because it is in this sense only that men have fellowship with God in the truth (an extension of the new Reformation-era doctrines of sola fide and sola scriptura). The most meaningful apostolic succession for most Protestants, then, is a kind of "faithful succession" of apostolic teaching. There is, of course, much disagreement among various Protestant denominations about the exact content of apostolic teaching, ranging from fundamental doctrinal disagreements to lesser side-issues. In addition, some Protestants state that the teaching of apostolic succession, according to their interpretation, is not found in the Bible, so it isn't necessarily true. It is worth noting, however, that the First of the Epistles of Clement which is commonly dated to the first century and claims to be written by the Roman Church (the chair of St. Peter and the center of the unity of the Church, according to Catholic doctrine) which was established by the Apostles presents a belief in apostolic succession as do also the Epistles of Ignatius of Antioch, who was a personal disciple of the Apostles John and Paul. Also worth noting is the fact that others beside the twelve Apostles and Saint Paul are called "Apostles" in the New Testament. Also noteworthy is the fact that the Apostle Paul, though given spiritual authority directly by Christ, did not embark on his apostleship without conferring with those who were apostles before him as he notes in his Epistle to the Galatians. By contrast, some Protestant charismatic and restorationist movements include "apostles" among the offices that should be evident into modern times in "a true church", though they never trace an historical line of succession or attempt to confer, like Paul, with those who were "apostles" before them. It is frequently the case that the founders or senior leaders of a restorationist church grouping will be referred to as the apostles, and they may have been ordained by self-ordination, or merely appointed by a congregation. "Church planting", according to the Restorationist Movement, is seen as a key role of these present-day apostles, but the concept of apostolic succession which protected the faith and inter-communion of the original Church through the first three centuries of persecution and cross-cultural, translinguistic evangelism has been lost in these new movements. Those who hold to the importance of episcopal apostolic succession would counter the above by appealing to the New Testament, which, they say, implies a personal apostolic succession (from Paul to Timothy and Titus, for example) and which states that Jesus gave the Apostles a "blank check" to lead the Church as they saw fit under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. Matthew 18:18 and Acts Chapter 15, for example They appeal as well to other documents of the very early Church, especially the Epistle of St. Clement to the Church at Corinth, written around 96 AD In it, Clement defends the authority and prerogatives of a group of "elders" or "bishops" in the Corinthian Church which had, apparently, been deposed and replaced by the congregation on its own initiative. In this context, Clement explicitly states that the apostles both appointed bishops as successors and had directed that these bishops should in turn appoint their own successors; given this, such leaders of the Church were not to be removed without cause and not in this way. Further, proponents of the necessity of the personal apostolic succession of bishops within the Church point to the universal practice of the undivided early Church (up to 431 AD), from which, as organizations, the Latin Catholic and Eastern Orthodox (at that point in time one Church until 1054, see Great Schism), as well Oriental Orthodox and the Assyrian Churches have all directly descended. At the same time, no defender of the personal apostolic succession of bishops would deny the importance of doctrinal continuity in the Church. These churches hold that Christ entrusted the leadership of the community of believers, and the obligation to transmit and preserve the "deposit of faith" (the experience of Christ and his teachings contained in the doctrinal "tradition" handed down from the time of the apostles, the written portion of which is Scripture) to the apostles, and the apostles passed on this role by ordaining bishops after them. Catholic and Orthodox theology additionally hold that the power and authority to confect the Sacraments, or at least all of the sacraments aside from baptism and matrimony (the first of which may be administered by anyone, the second of which is administered by the couple to each other) is passed on only through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and an unbroken line of ordination of bishops to the Apostles is necessary for the valid celebration of the sacraments today. Roman Catholics recognize the validity of the apostolic successions of the bishops, and therefore the rest of the clergy, of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian, Old Catholic, and some Independent Catholic churches. Since 1896, Rome has not fully recognized all Anglican orders as valid. The Eastern Orthodox do universally recognize Roman Catholics, but have a different concept of the apostolic succession as it exists outside of Eastern Orthodoxy. This is also the case with Anglicans or any other group having apostolic succession. The validity of any priest's ordination is decided by each autocephalic Orthodox church.[4] Neither the Catholic Church nor the Orthodox churches recognize the validity of the apostolic succession of the clergy of the Protestant denominations, in large measure because of their theology of the Eucharist, as well as the abandonment of more traditional views of the Sacraments and sacramentalism. Traditional doctrine As a traditional ecclesiastical doctrine, apostolic succession provides an historical basis for the spiritual authority of the bishops of the Church (the episcopate). Apostolic succession is usually described as the official authority that has been passed down through unbroken lines of successive bishops beginning with the original Apostles selected by Jesus, or on a similar basis. Put another way, bishops (in churches subscribing to the doctrine) are only created bishops by other bishops; thus, every bishop today is the end of an unbroken line of bishops, extending all the way back to one (or more) of the Apostles, through which authority descends. This doctrine is claimed by the ancient Christian Churches (the Roman Catholic, the Eastern Orthodox, the Oriental Orthodox), and other ancient Churches, and as well as by the traditional Episcopal and other Anglican Churches, and by several of the Lutheran Churches; it is referenced favorably by other churches. Some Protestant churches do not accept this doctrine as it has been commonly described, but rather will redefine it in a different way. Such Protestant reform Churches define apostolic succession as a continuity of the "teaching" of the Apostles (see below). Papal primacy is an issue different though related to apostolic succession as described here. The Roman Catholic Church has traditionally claimed a unique leadership role for the apostle Peter, believed to have been named by Jesus as leader of the apostles and as a focus of their unity, became the first Bishop of Rome, whose successors accordingly became the leaders of the worldwide Church as well. Churches not in communion with Rome do not agree completely or at all with this Catholic interpretation. One reason for this is because Saint Peter was the Bishop of Antioch before he went to Rome. The literature on this traditional doctrine is substantial. Many inferences from it may be drawn. For example, the unbrokenness of apostolic succession may be significant because of the promise made by Jesus Christ that the "gates of hell" () would not prevail against the Church, and his promise that he himself would be with the apostles to "the end of the age" (). According to this interpretation, a complete disruption or end of such apostolic succession would mean that these promises were not kept; as would an apostolic succession which, while formally intact, completely abandoned the teachings of the apostles and their immediate successors, for example, if all the bishops of the world agreed to abrogate the Nicene Creed or to repudiate the Bible. Some Eastern Christians hold that the Roman church and, by extension, her Protestant offspring lost claim to apostolic succession by an illegitimate addition to the Nicene Creed (the Filioque clause) required by the Bishop of Rome just prior to the Great Schism in AD 1054. The rift resulted in the loss of apostolic succession in the western churches and the consequent doctrinal changes and excesses (e.g., Anselmian penal substitution, indulgences, etc.), resulting in the Protestant Reformation and the further splintering of Western Christendom. The early Creed of the Church, adopted by the first ecumenical Council of Nicaea in 325, affirms that the Church is "One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic." Virtually all Christian denominations consider Apostolic Succession important in some fashion, although their definitions of the concept may vary, in some cases vary greatly (see below). Churches claiming apostolic succession Churches that claim the historic episcopate include the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian, Independent Catholic, the Anglican Communion, and several Lutheran Churches (see below). The former churches teach that apostolic succession is maintained through the consecration of their bishops in unbroken personal succession back to the apostles or at least to leaders from the apostolic era. Apostolicity Catholic Encyclopedia article The Anglican and some Lutheran Churches do not specifically teach this but exclusively practice episcopal ordination. These churches generally hold that Jesus Christ founded a community of believers and selected the apostles to serve, as a group, as the leadership of that community. Roman Catholic Church On June 29 2007 the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, under the prefecture of Cardinal William Levada explained, why apostolic succession is of great importance to the Catholic Church "Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church", published July 10 2007.Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church The Vatican was asked, why the Second Vatican Council and all Catholic statements since the Council, do not consider Protestant Christian Communities as Churches. The Vatican responded that according to Catholic doctrine, these Communities do not enjoy apostolic succession in the sacrament of Orders, and are, therefore, deprived of a constitutive element of the Church. These ecclesial Communities which, specifically because of the absence of the sacramental priesthood, have not preserved the genuine and integral substance of the Eucharistic Mystery cannot, according to Catholic doctrine, be called "Churches" in the proper sense. "Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church", published July 10 2007.Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church In Roman Catholic theology, the doctrine of apostolic succession states that Christ gave the full sacramental authority of the church to the Twelve Apostles in the sacrament of Holy Orders, making them the first bishops. By conferring the fullness of the sacrament of Holy Orders on the apostles, they were given the authority to confer the sacrament of Holy Orders on others, thus consecrating more bishops in a direct lineage that can trace its origin back to the Twelve Apostles and Christ himself. This direct succession of bishops from the apostles to the present day bishops is referred to as apostolic succession. The Roman Catholic Church also holds that within the College of Apostles, Peter was picked out for the unique role of leadership and to serve as the source of unity among the apostles, a role among the bishops and within the church inherited by the pope as Peter's successor today. These churches hold that Christ entrusted the apostles with the leadership of the community of believers, and the obligation to transmit and preserve the "deposit of faith" (the experience of Christ and his teachings contained in the doctrinal "tradition" handed down from the time of the apostles and the written portion, which is Scripture). The apostles then passed on this office and authority by ordaining bishops to follow after them. Roman Catholic theology holds that the apostolic succession effects the power and authority to administer the sacraments except for baptism and matrimony. (Baptism may be administered by anyone and matrimony by the couple to each other). Authority to so administer such sacraments is passed on only through the sacrament of Holy Orders, a rite by which a priest is ordained (ordination can be conferred only by a bishop). The bishop, of course, must be from an unbroken line of bishops stemming from the original apostles selected by Jesus Christ. Thus, apostolic succession is necessary for the valid celebration of the sacraments today. The unbrokenness of apostolic succession is also significant because of Jesus Christ's promise that the "gates of hell" would not prevail against the Church, and his promise that he himself would be with the apostles to "the end of the age". According to this interpretation, a complete disruption or end of apostolic succession would mean that these promises were not kept as would happen also with an apostolic succession that, while formally intact, completely abandoned the teachings of the Apostles and their immediate successors, as, for example, if all the bishops of the world agreed to abrogate the Nicene Creed or to repudiate the Bible. In the early 18th century, Pope Benedict XIII, whose orders were descended from Scipione Rebiba, personally consecrated at least 139 bishops for various important European sees, including German, French, English and New World bishops. These bishops in turn consecrated bishops almost exclusively for their respective countries causing other episcopal lineages to die off. Roman Catholics recognize the validity of the apostolic successions of the bishops, and therefore the rest of the clergy, of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian, Old Catholic, and some Independent Catholic Churches. Rome does not fully recognize all Anglican orders as valid. This conflict stems over the Anglican Church's revision of its rite of ordination for its bishops during the 16th century. Most of today's Anglican bishops would trace their succession back through a bishop who was ordained with the revised form and thus would be viewed as invalid. However, a few Anglican bishops in Europe today can claim a line of succession through bishops who had only been ordained through the old rite. These bishops are viewed as valid by Rome. This validity was achieved through a number of different means, including ordinations by the schismatic Catholic bishops of the Old Catholic and Independent Catholic Churches who converted to Anglicanism. Orthodox Churches Orthodox Christians view Apostolic Succession as an important, God-ordained mechanism by which the structure and teaching of the Church are perpetuated. While Eastern Orthodox sources often refer to the bishops as "successors of the apostles" under the influence of Scholastic theology, strict Orthodox ecclesiology and theology holds that all legitimate bishops are properly successors of Peter See Meyendorff J., Byzantine Theology . This also means that presbyters (or "priests") are successors of the apostles. As a result, Orthodox theology makes a distinction between a geographical or historical succession and proper ontological or ecclesiological succession. Hence, the bishops of Rome and Antioch can be considered successors of Peter in an historical sense on account of Peter's presence in the early community. This does not imply that these bishops are more successors of Peter than all others in an ontological sense Cleenewerck, Laurent. His Broken Body. Washington, DC: EUC Press, 2007. p. 86-89 . According to ancient canons still observed with the Orthodox communion, bishop must be consecrated by at least three other bishops; so-called "single handed ordinations" do not exist. Moreover, bishops are never ordained "at large" but only for a specific Eucharist community, in due historical and sacramental succession. Eastern Orthodoxy is less concerned with the question of 'validity' than Roman Catholicism, which means that Orthodox bishops can consider the merits of individual cases. It should be noted, however, that the Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church has specifically stated that Roman Catholic orders are recognized, to the effect that Roman Catholic clergy seeking admission in the Moscow Patriarchate are received at their existing rank without re-ordination. The historic and normative practice of Eastern Orthodoxy has been to reordain clergymen coming from the Anglican / Episcopal communion, thus indicating the non-recognition of Anglican orders. Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches mutually recognize the validity of ordinations performed within the communion of the other Orthodox Church. Traditional Western Churches as seen by Eastern Churches The Eastern Orthodox have often permitted non-Orthodox clergy to be rapidly ordained within Orthodoxy as a matter of pastoral necessity and economia. In some cases, priests entering Eastern Orthodoxy from Oriental Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism have been received by "vesting" and have been allowed to function immediately within Eastern Orthodoxy as priests. Recognition of Roman Catholic orders is stipulated in 1997 by the Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church Cleenewerck, Laurent. His Broken Body. Washington, DC: EUC Press, 2007. p. 138 , but this position is not universal within the Eastern Orthodox communion. In addition to a line of historic transmission, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches additionally require that a hierarch maintain Orthodox Church doctrine, which they hold to be that of the Apostles, as well as communion with other Orthodox bishops. The Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church, which is one of the Oriental Orthodox churches, recognizes Roman Catholic episcopal consecrations without qualification (and that recognition is reciprocated). Anglican Communion The churches of the Anglican Communion claim to possess valid apostolic succession. Nevertheless, the Anglican churches' doctrines do not include that of the apostolic succession. When the Church of England broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century, it retained the episcopal polity and apostolic succession of the Roman Church. At first the Church of England continued to adhere to the doctrinal and liturgical norms of the Roman Church. However, in the years following the split, the Church of England was increasingly influenced by the protestant theology popular on the continent. During the reign of King Edward VI, changes were made to the rite of episcopal consecration. These changes became the grounds on which Pope Leo XIII, in his 1896 bull Apostolicae Curae, ruled that the Church of England had lost its valid apostolic succession due to the changes in the Edwardian ordinal. However, since the 1930s Old Catholic bishops (whom Rome recognizes as valid) have acted as co-consecrators in the ordination of Anglican bishops. By 1969, all Anglican bishops had acquired Old Catholic lines of apostolic succession fully recognized by Rome, according to Timothy Dufort. Timothy Dufort, The Tablet, May 29, 1982, pp. 536–538. Nevertheless, the ordination of women and active homosexuals to the Anglican priesthood and episcopacy have often been seen as evidence by some Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians that Anglican orders are invalid, on the basis that such actions allegedly constitute a break with apostolic tradition and this allegedly nullifies ordinations taking place in such an ecclesial communion. Orthodox judgments In the twentieth century there have been a variety of positions taken by the various Eastern Orthodox Churches on the validity of Anglican orders. In 1922 the Patriarch of Constantinople recognized them as valid. The Ecumenical Patriarch on Anglican Orders He wrote: "That the orthodox theologians who have scientifically examined the question have almost unanimously come to the same conclusions and have declared themselves as accepting the validity of Anglican Orders." Succeeding judgments, however, have been more conflicting. The Orthodox Churches require a totality of common teaching in order to recognize orders and in this broader view finds ambiguities in Anglican teaching and practice problematic. Accordingly, in practice Anglican clergy who convert to Orthodoxy are treated as if they had not been ordained and must be ordained in the Orthodox Church as would any lay person. The Orthodox Web Site for information about the faith, life and worship of the Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodox Churches do not recognize Anglican orders. Roman Catholic judgments In the Roman Catholic Church, Pope Leo XIII stated in his 1896 bull Apostolicae Curae that the Catholic Church believes specifically that the Anglican Church's consecrations are "absolutely invalid and utterly void" because of changes made to the rite of consecration under Edward VI, thus denying that Anglicans participate in the apostolic succession. A reply from the Archbishops of Canterbury and York (1896) was issued to counter Pope Leo's arguments: Saepius Officio: Answer of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to the Bull Apostolicae Curae of H. H. Leo XIII. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgbmxd/saepius.htm It was even suggested in their reply that if the Anglican orders were invalid, then the Roman orders were as well: For if the Pope shall by a new decree declare our Fathers of two hundred and fifty years ago wrongly ordained, there is nothing to hinder the inevitable sentence that by the same law all who have been similarly ordained have received no orders. And if our Fathers, who used in 1550 and 1552 forms which as he (the Pope) says are null, were altogether unable to reform them in 1662, (Roman) Fathers come under the self-same law. And if Hippolytus and Victor and Leo and Gelasius and Gregory have some of them said too little in their rites about the priesthood and the high priesthood, and nothing about the power of offering the sacrifice of the Body and Blood of Christ, the church of Rome herself has an invalid priesthood... Archbishops of England: Saepius Officio: Answer of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to the Bull Apostolicae Curae of H. H. Leo XIII It is Roman Catholic doctrine that the teaching of Apostolicae Curae is a truth to be "held definitively", as evidenced by commentary by then-Cardinal Ratzinger, currently Pope Benedict XVI: With regard to those truths connected to revelation by historical necessity and which are to be held definitively, but are not able to be declared as divinely revealed, the following examples can be given: the legitimacy of the election of the Supreme Pontiff or of the celebration of an ecumenical council, the canonizations of saints (dogmatic facts), the declaration of Pope Leo XIII in the Apostolic Letter Apostolicae Curae on the invalidity of Anglican ordinations... Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith: Doctrinal commentary on the concluding formula of the professio fidei "While firmly restating the judgment of Apostolicae Curae that Anglican ordination is invalid, the Catholic Church takes account of the involvement, in some Anglican episcopal ordinations, of bishops of the Old Catholic Church of the Union of Utrecht who are validly ordained. In particular and probably rare cases the authorities in Rome may judge that there is a 'prudent doubt' concerning the invalidity of priestly ordination received by an individual Anglican minister ordained in this line of succession." This was a statement issued by Cardinal Basil Hume to explain the conditional character of his ordination of Dr Graham Leonard, former Anglican bishop of the Diocese of London, to the priesthood Statement of Cardinal Hume on the Ordination of Anglican Bishop Graham Leonard as a Roman Catholic Priest , but is not widely endorsed, and many would say that such a statement is misleading. Since the issuance of Apostolicae Curae many Anglican jurisdictions have revised their ordinals, bringing them more in line with ordinals of the early Church. The Nag's Head Fable discrediting Matthew Parker's ordination was dismissed as an invention long before the issuance of Apostolicae Curae. Porvoo Communion of Churches Negotiated at Järvenpää, Finland, and inaugurated with a celebration of the eucharist at Porvoo Cathedral in 1992, this agreement of unity includes the mutual recognition of the traditional Apostolic Succession among the following Churches: Lutheran Churches: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Iceland, Church of Norway, Church of Sweden, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Lithuania; observers: Church of Denmark, Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia. Anglican Communion: Church of Ireland, Scottish Episcopal Church, Church of England, the Church in Wales, as well as the Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church, and the Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church. Lutheran Churches Wide variations exist within Lutheranism on this issue, Some Lutheran Churches in Scandianvian countries are favorable to the traditional doctrine of apostolic succession. Others, like the German Lutherans demphasized it after re-introducing the episcopacy. Christliche Religion, Oskar simmel, Rudolf Stählin Frankfurt 1960, 164 The six major Lutheran Churches of the Porvoo Communion (those of Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, and Lithuania) believe that they ordain their bishops in the apostolic succession in lines from the original Apostles. Introduction to the World of Autocephalous Churches in the Apostolic Succession. As well, the Old Catholic Church. Two other Lutheran Churches (those of Denmark and of Latvia) were observers at Porvoo. Several Churches within the historic episcopate believe the Church of Sweden and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland Ind-Movement: Introduction to the World of Autocephalous Churches in the Apostolic Succession have maintained apostolic succession, despite their Lutheranism. This view is not held by the Roman Catholic Church CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Apostolic Succession nor by all of Orthodoxy. One context for the wide differences among the Lutheran Churches is that by the Prussian Union of 1817 the government ordered the Lutheran Churches in Prussia to merge with non-Lutheran reform Churches in Prussia. Perhaps also many of the Lutheran Churches are relatively indifferent as a matter of doctrine to this particular issue of ecclesiastical governance, e.g., the conservative Missouri Synod generally places its church authority in the congregation rather than in the bishop, yet this church is in fellowship with other Lutheran Churches favoring episcopacy. The larger Evangelical Lutheran Church in America is led by the Presiding Bishop who is elected by the Churchwide Assembly for a six year term. The Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church recovered the apostolic succession from Old Catholic and Independent Catholic Churches, adopted a strict episcopal polity, and all of its clergy have been ordained (or re-ordained) into the historic apostolic succession. Similarly in German High Church Movement some religious brotherhoods like Hochkirchliche St. Johannes-Bruderschaft and Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar have got their own bishop to re-ordain in apostolic succession, while members do not form a separate body. The Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church has autonomous and congregationally oriented ministries and believes it consecrates deacons, priests and bishops in valid and historic apostolic succession. This must be done through the laying on of hands with word and sacrament during the celebration of Holy Communion. Only bishops may consecrate deacons, priests and other bishops into apostolic succession. The newly consecrated bishop's name is added to the apostolic lineage. Lutheran Evangelical Protestant Church Methodist Churches The Methodist Church of Great Britain is non-episcopal. Bishops in the United Methodist Church of the USA do not claim to be within the historic episcopate in the same way as Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox bishops. They do, however, claim a corporate ("connexional") and theological form of Apostolic succession, and are not adverse to ecumenical acts which would further establish their ministry within the historic episcopate, though such would have to be accomplished without repudiating or otherwise questioning the validity of their current orders and ministries. Methodist episcopal succession derives from John Wesley, who was an ordained presbyter of the Church of England but not himself a bishop and thus not officially authorized to consecrate others. Wesley justified his practice of ordaining bishops (which he called "General Superintendents") and Elders (i.e., presbyters) for Methodists in the newly independent United States in 1784 by appealing to a perceived need and by citing a minority opinion among the early Church Fathers and an ancient precedent from the Church of Alexandria, which held that presbyters ("priests" or "elders") could, at least collectively, indeed ordain other such presbyters and even consecrate, or "set apart" bishops in certain emergency situations. Grace Incarnate Ministries: Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession Based upon this argument, the United Methodist Church understands all of its Elders, not just its Bishops, as being part of an Apostolic succession of the entire body (or "conference") of ministers: In other words, Methodists understand apostolic succession as being rooted within the Presbyterate. This does not mean, however, that all elders may ordain; quite the contrary: only those elders who have been elected and consecrated as bishops can further the apostolic succession through the ordination of bishops, elders, and deacons within the United Methodist Church. In this way, the United Methodist episcopacy functions as if it were within the historic episcopate. Accepting, but moving beyond this position, a few Methodists do affirm that their bishops stand in a form of the historic, as well as theological, Apostolic Succession (i.e., in the Anglican fashion); their argument is that Wesley's ordinations, and therefore the subsequent line of Methodist bishops, are legitimate due to the critical nature of the circumstances extant at that time. Some Methodists even make an appeal to the "Erasmian consecration," which asserts that, while on a visit to London in 1763, the Greek Orthodox bishop of the Diocese of Arcadia, Crete, secretly consecrated Wesley to the episcopacy. That Wesley actually met with Bishop Erasmus during the bishop's visit to London is not questioned; what is questioned is that Erasmus did more than simply "confirm Wesley in his ministry among the Methodists in England and America." When Wesley was asked by a clergyman if Erasmus of Arcadia had consecrated him a bishop, he said: "I cannot answer you." Wesley Center Online: The Methodist Quarterly Review 1878 Another source states that when Wesley was asked if Erasmus had made him a bishop, he offered no personal response but, rather, took the unusual course of authorizing a representative to reply that he had not requested episcopal consecration within the Greek Orthodox line. Many take this as a sufficient denial, but those who believe that Wesley was actually consecrated make the following arguments to the contrary: Wesley personally remained silent on the subject, Wesley took the unusual step of having someone to speak on his behalf, and Wesley never actually denied being consecrated a bishop, what he denied was requesting consecration from Erasmus. Contrary to the "Erasmian consecration" stands the undeniable fact that, beginning with the American Revolution in the 1770s, Wesley did request episcopal consecration for several of his preachers and, indeed, for himself, so as to provide sacramental ministry for the Methodists in the break-away colonies. Opponents of the possibility that John Wesley had been consecrated a bishop by Erasmus of Arcadia argue that if Wesley had already been consecrated a bishop by Erasmus, he would have not requested such consecrations for others or for himself. The Greek Orthodox Bishop, Erasmus of Arcadia, is said to have ordained several Methodist lay preachers during Reverend John Wesley's absence from London in 1764, Hans Rollman: Early Methodism in Newfoundland notably, Reverend John Jones. The Methodist Archives Biograpical Index: Erasmus Nevertheless, the "Erasmian consecration" remained a very popular argument throughout much of the 1800s and, while still garnering a following among some proponents today, it is not accepted by a majority of Methodists nor even by most of those who affirm a form of Apostolicity for their bishops. Interestingly enough, Wesley's consecration as a bishop by Erasmus of Arcadia is affirmed by Unity Catholic Church, an Independent Catholic Church. Unity Catholic Church: Constitution Protestant Denominations against the traditional doctrine of Apostolic Succession Contra: Doctrinal continuity important, the Ecclesia not Institutional background Many Protestant denominations, especially those following the originators of Protestantism, e.g., John Calvin (1509-1564), denied that the apostolicity of the Church rested on an unbroken episcopacy. In general, while Protestant denominations seldom refer to traditional post-Apostolic (ante-Nicene) doctrine, they will accept such reject claims advanced by the Catholic Church and others, and continue to support their own (Protestant) understanding of Scripture. Among the non-Calvinistic (Reformed) Protestant sects, e.g., most of those following Martin Luther (1483-1546), many are, to a degree, similar; nonetheless, some Lutheran churches claim for their bishops the ecclesiastic authority of traditional Apostolic Succession (see "Lutheran churches"). Of course, the more moderate Protestant denominations claim such traditional authority as well, but with some re-definition of the terms used. None have a traceable lineage to the Apostles comparable to the traditional apostolic succession of the Catholic Church or the Eastern churches. A Protestant Reformation-era re-definition of Apostolic Succession Protestants may hold that one important qualification of the Apostles was that they were chosen directly by Jesus and that they witnessed the resurrected Christ. According to this understanding, the work of these twelve (and the Apostle Paul), together with the prophets of the twelve tribes of Israel, provide the doctrinal foundation for the whole church of subsequent history through the Scriptures of the Bible. These Protestants say that to share with the historic apostles the same faith, to believe their word as found in the Scriptures, to receive the same Holy Spirit, is the only sense in which "apostolic succession" is meaningful, because it is in this sense only that men have fellowship with God in the truth (an extension of the Reformation doctrines of sola fide and sola scriptura). The most meaningful apostolic succession for many Protestants, then, is construed as the "faithful succession" of apostolic teaching. Many Protestants point to the fact that when leadership in the Bible became disobedient or strayed from his command, God would then bestow that position upon an individual who was more obedient to his will regardless of any claim that any other person would have through tradition. An example of this would be when King Saul of Israel was removed by God due to his disobedience so that King David could assume the throne. Protestants see apostolic succession in much the same way. In the view of many Protestants apostolic succession is not a matter of tradition, rather it is a matter of God safe-guarding his church by means of bestowing authority to those whom best exemplify sound doctrine. In addition, many Protestant contras state that the teaching of Apostolic Succession did not arise until 170-200 A.D. However, the doctrine is mentioned and expounded upon by St. Ignatius of Antioch and Clement of Rome, both personal disciples of the Apostles John and Paul, respectively. Both became bishops, and later martyred. In the centuries following the Protestant Reformation, most debates about apostolic succession in the West concerned the Catholic Church's claim that apostolic succession, as traditionally defined, was essential for valid Christian ecclesiastical and sacramental ministry. Protestants denied this and asserted that the traditional definition of apostolic succession was not revealed in the Bible, but was formulated later by the post-apostolic church. In the 20th century, there has been more contact between Protestants and Christians from Eastern traditions which also claim apostolic succession. While those more ancient churches, such as various Eastern Orthodox churches, use the doctrine of apostolic succession in their apologetics against Protestantism, many Protestants now feel that the claims made by advocates of apostolic succession have been proven false by the fact that multiple churches claim to have apostolic succession, and the traditions and doctrines of these churches are, according to Protestants, at odds with each other. According to some Protestant apologists, apostolic succession is a failed theological hypothesis and continued debates about it are no more meaningful than debates about whether the Earth is flat. The following reasons cited by some Protestant apologists for the doctrine's failure: Different churches that claim apostolic succession insist that they alone are the true Church, and other churches in apostolic succession are false. For example, see "An Orthodox Response to the Recent Roman Catholic Declaration on the Church," available online at http://www.uocc.ca/PDF/faithandspirituality/An%20Orthodox%20Response%20to%20the%20Recent%20Roman%20Catholic.pdf. In this article, Metropolitan Kirill of the Russian Orthodox Church dismisses the Roman Catholic Church's claim to be the one true church and states, “The Orthodox Church is, according to Apostolic Succession, successor and heir to the old, undivided Church. Which is why everything contained in the Catholic document rightfully applies to the Orthodox Church.” Some apostolic churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church, do recognize the apostolic succession of other churches, but consider their holy orders illicit but essentially valid. Other apostolic churches, however, deny the validity of churches other than themselves. The doctrines of the various churches are often as different from each other as Protestant doctrines are from Catholic or Orthodox doctrines. For example, Oriental Orthodox churches define the union of divine and human natures in Christ differently from the dual-nature doctrine held by the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy, and reject Church councils that the other Churches regard as foundational to their religion. Oriental Orthodox, available online at http://orthodoxwiki.org/Oriental_Orthodox The Eastern Orthodox define the relationship of the Holy Spirit to other members of the Trinity differently than Roman Catholics (see Filoque). The Catholic Church has dogmatically proclaimed beliefs such as Papal Infallibility, and the Immaculate Conception of Mary, which are rejected with varying degrees of vehemence by other apostolic churches. The Syriac Orthodox Church rejects the doctrine of Transubstantiation, the dogma that the bread and wine used in the Eucharist is transformed into the literal body and blood of Christ during Mass, and believes that the bread and wine are only symbolic. Jacobite Syrian Christian Church :: Many of the practices of the various churches are mutually contradictory. Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches perform confirmation, which they call chrismation, on infants immediately after baptism, while the Catholic Church delays the rite until adolescence or adulthood. (Some Catholic Apologists have tried to minimize this difference by saying that either form is equally valid - however, this argument downplays the fact that Eastern Orthodox theologians are generally hostile to the practice of adolescent confirmation and consider it a deviation from ancient Christian practice.) The Roman Catholic Church insists (although not as a matter of faith) that in general, for the Latin Rite, priests be taken from the unmarried (though married priests are occasionally allowed if they were originally ordained in other non-apostolic sects and desire to live out their calling to ministry) while the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches (which are another branch of the worldwide Catholic Church) permit married men into the priesthood. Some Oriental Orthodox churches, like the Egyptian Copts, insist that parish priests be married. Universally, monastics, by virtue of vocation, and bishops, by virtue of tradition, are taken from widowers or the never-married in the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions. Encyclopedia Coptica: The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt Apostolic churches cannot agree on issues as basic as the contents of the Biblical canon. The Eastern Orthodox churches believe that the Septuagint is divinely-inspired and authoritative, while the Roman Catholic Church uses Hebrew manuscripts of the Old Testament, and to some extent, the Latin Vulgate, as its canon. The Ethiopian Copts include books in the Biblical canon that no other church recognizes, such as the Book of Enoch. Ethiopian Old Testament Canon, available online at http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/bible/ethold.stm The Ethiopian Copts, who have been geographically isolated since the early centuries of the Christian era, also show other doctrinal innovations that no other denomination accepts, except perhaps for some recent Messianic Jews. The Jewish Law is held in high regard by the Ethiopians, the Ark of the Covenant is revered, and Adoptionism is regarded as a valid Christology by this denomination. If apostolic succession gave bishops the power to remain in the true faith, then an isolated line of bishops should have produced virtually the same theological consensus as the general Church. This clearly did not happen in the case of the Ethiopian church. According to some Protestants, it is evident from these facts that claims regarding the necessity of apostolic succession to preserve Christian orthodoxy are false. Continued debates regarding the doctrine would therefore be meaningless. Catholic apologists retort that these arguments against apostolic succession overstate the Church's teachings about apostolic succession's effect on Christian unity and downplay the doctrine's sacramental aspects. Protestants wonder, however, what meaning such a doctrine might possibly have, if those with legitimate ministry, according to the doctrine, fail to preserve sound Christian teaching. Protestants sometimes also criticize the ancient churches in the apostolic succession for being linked to particular nations or ethnic groups. Most apostolic churches are explicitly ethnic or nationalistic in character, and their institutions' names reflect this. Examples include the Greek Orthodox Church, Polish National Catholic Church, and Coptic (Egyptian) Church. Even the Roman Catholic Church, which claims 1.1 billion members according to its own standards of computing church membership (these standards are far less restrictive than the methods employed by many Protestant churches), originated in Western Europe, was headquartered in Italy, held its Masses in Latin until recent times, and has been led mainly by Italian popes for most of its history. The spread of Catholicism to other regions of the globe is a relatively recent historical event. Other ancient churches note their nationalistic scope in their names - some examples include the Russian Orthodox Church, the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Polish National Catholic Church. While some of these churches have made substantial missionary efforts beyond their original countries, their entrenched traditions and terminology, according to Protestants, make it difficult for these churches to be truly universal in scope, which suggests that none of the apostolic churches are truly "catholic" or "universal" like they claim. Searching for the True Apostolic Church: What Evangelicals Should Know About Eastern Orthodoxy, available online at http://www.equip.org/atf/cf/%7B9C4EE03A-F988-4091-84BD-F8E70A3B0215%7D/DE177.pdf Such arguments are generally seen as polemical and empty by the apostolic churchesCitation Needed, as they see the Protestant denominations as trying to make-up for their relatively late origins in the 1500s A.D., 1,500 years after Christ and the Apostles lived. Protestants generally dismiss the claims of Catholics and others that their episcopal institutions, in their current forms, date directly back to Christ and are identical with the early Christian church, since it is clear that Catholicism and similar denominations have evolved considerably over time, with major parts of the traditions being instituted by later Popes and sometimes secular emperors. The dates when the Christian church fragmented into different denominations is not truly relevant to discussions of theology, and such criticisms of Protestantism pre-suppose an ecclessiology of the Church that is not plainly stated in the Bible - namely, the idea that the Church is identical with one authoritarian, episcopal institution rather than simply referring to the worldwide community of Christians, as most Protestants maintain. All Christians who have genuine relationship with God through Christ are part of the "True Church" in evangelical Protestant thought, and claims that one denomination is the "True Church" are merely propaganda that evolved over the centuries to support the authoritarian claims of human institutions. A traditionalist response to the redefinition Scripture and the understanding of the early Church Those traditionalists who hold to the importance of episcopal apostolic succession may counter the contra paragraphs above by appealing to the New Testament. These Scriptures imply a personal apostolic succession (e.g., from Paul to Timothy and Titus). Traditionalists say that in the New Testament Jesus gave the Apostles authority to lead the Church as they deemed proper under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. E.g., Matthew 18:18; and, Acts Chapter 15. Traditionalists may appeal as well to other documents of the very early Church, especially the Epistle of St. Clement to the Church at Corinth, written circa 96 AD. In it, Clement (who, notably, was a personal disciple of St. Paul the Apostle) defends the authority and prerogatives of a group of "elders" or "bishops" in the Corinthian Church which had, apparently, been deposed and replaced by the congregation on its own initiative. In this context, Clement explicitly states that the apostles both appointed bishops as successors and had directed that these bishops should in turn appoint their own successors; given this, such leaders of the Church were not to be removed without cause and not in this way. Clement was later martyred, and succeeded by Linus as Bishop of Rome. It should be noted, however, that Clement also speaks about elders and bishops being unanimously approved by their congregations at the time of their ordinations, which was the early Christian practice. This practice has not been maintained by most apostolic churches today, even though the election of bishops was mandated in Apostolic Constitutions, the earliest version of Church canon law. (The Eastern Orthodox Church does observe a ritualized practice of lay people shouting "Axios" when an new bishop is ordained, but the laity does not in fact have the power to refuse a new bishop's installation.) Further, proponents of the necessity of the personal apostolic succession of bishops point to the universal practice of the undivided early Church, from which, as ecclesiastical organizations, the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, as well Oriental Orthodox, and the Assyrian churches have all directly descended. Common ground One reason often given for traditional Apostolic Succession is the need for institutional continuity so that Christian doctrine, not only the written texts (pre-Gutenberg (1397-1468) an important consideration) but also their proper orthodox interpretation, could be better maintained. Many Protestants contra to traditionalist Apostolic Succession would not deny the importance of continuity and consistency in the true interpretation of Christian doctrine. At the same time, traditionalists defending Apostolic Succession would agree that ecclesiastics must remain orthodox in their teaching, or be disciplined or excommunicated. Charismatic and Restorationist new apostles It is worth noting that some Protestant charismatic and restorationist churches include "apostles" among the offices that should be evident into modern times in a true church, though they never trace an historical line of succession. It is frequently the case that the founders or senior leaders of a restorationist church grouping will be referred to as the apostles. Church planting is seen as a key role of these present-day apostles. Newer church bodies A few more recent churches such as the Syro-Chaldean Church of North America, now known as the Evangelical Apostolic Church of North America (Syro-Chaldean) derive their apostolicity and general theological outlook from the Aramaic Church of the East, though their membership is "American" rather than ethnically Assyrian. In the late 19th century the branch of the Church of the East in India, called the Syro Chaldean Church, sent a mission to England to be a "reconciliation" church, neither Protestant nor Roman Catholic, ordaining Vernon Hereford (Mar Jacbus) to be its first bishop. Bishops following established, in the United States, the Evangelical Apostolic Church of North America whose congregations are on the East Coast. The church is at once Evangelical, stressing personal commitment to Jesus Christ and, through its apostolic succession and rich liturgical expression, Catholic in the all-embracing meaning. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints--also, sometimes referred to as "Mormons" (more properly, Latter-day Saints)--adds to the traditional succession doctrine the idea that apostles, or their successors, are necessarily endowed with the gift of general revelation. Here, general revelation is distinct from particular revelation. An example of general revelation, or church-wide apostolic revelation, is depicted in where Peter had prayed and received revelation from God, for the entire Church, that the gospel could now go forward to the Gentiles as well as the Jews. In contrast to such general revelation, an individual may receive particular revelation only for that calling over which authority has been given. That is, all faithful are entitled to revelation concerning themselves; a head of household is entitled to revelation for his or her family; a bishop has the authority to receive revelation concerning the congregation over which he presides (a ward). While traditional Christianity embraces the idea of particular revelation, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is unique for believing general revelation is active today - and held by the apostles of their Church. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believes that Christ gave the apostles the authority to receive revelation for the church by the laying on of hands. It further teaches that the apostles passed this authority onto others by choosing and ordaining new apostles by the laying on of hands (such as Paul and Matthias). According to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, an apostasy occurred where the apostolic authority was taken from the earth at some time after the original apostles. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints refers to the resultant loss of revelation and falling away from the teachings of Jesus Christ as the Great Apostasy. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints maintains that the authority from God needed to be restored to the earth, which then took place when God the Father and His son, Jesus Christ, appeared to Joseph Smith, Jr. near Palmyra, New York in 1820 and called Smith as a prophet to restore Christ's church to the earth with correct doctrines and practices. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believes that near the time that Smith formally organized The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 1830, the apostles Peter, James and John appeared to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery, laid their hands on Smith and Cowdery and restored to them the apostolic authority to govern the church. , and that Smith was visited by other heavenly messengers at different times, each one conferring upon him the particular authority or keys for which they had stewardship. For example, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints maintains that John the Baptist restored the Aaronic Priesthood to Smith and Cowdery, Peter, James and John restored the Melchizedek Priesthood to them, with other heavenly messengers such as Moses and Elijah restoring to them the keys to the gathering of Israel and the sealing power of Elijah. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believes that Smith was given the authority like the apostles of old, to confer to others specific priesthood authority by the laying on of hands. It further believes that all of the various keys of this authority have been and are passed on to worthy, male members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints according to their particular offices. In this way, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints claims that apostolic authority was restored to the earth through the original twelve apostles and apostolic succession continues today through the ordination of new apostles as the older apostles pass away. Interpretation of "Gates of Hades" scripture Some churches believe the promise of Christ "to build His Church" against which "the gates of Hades shall not prevail" has remained in force throughout the centuries. The Roman Catholic Church holds that part of this protection of the Church is guaranteed to all churches who submit to the supreme headship of the Bishop of Rome. The Orthodox Churches of the East, however, see this protection as guaranteed through continuance of the bishops and the faithful in the communion of the Faith as they continue in the unity of the Faith according to the traditions of the Church as they have been passed down in the Church through consistent belief and practice. All the Churches in the Unity of the Faith, under the oversight of legitimate bishops who are in communion with one another, preserve the authentic apostolic tradition and do not subtract or add to it by creating new dogmas or denying the continuing work of the Holy Spirit in illuminating the one Deposit of Faith delivered once and for all to the saints. It may also be noted that, since it is the gates of Hades which are mentioned (rather than the Church's or Heaven's), the passage may suggest that "Hades" is on the defensive, fighting a losing battle against the Church's inroads. See also Catholic Church Pope Linus Petrine Primacy Twelve Apostles List of Bishops Valid but illicit Episcopi vagantes Independent Catholic churches Old Catholic New Apostolic Church References Sources and external links Methodist Episcopacy: In Search of Holy Orders (1990) by Gregory S. Neal Methodist Apostolicity by Gregory S. Neal "Was Wesley Ordained By Bishop Erasmus?" The Methodist Quarterly Review (1878) Against Heresies, Online-text, Irenaeus, Against Heresies Scott Hahn on the Papacy by Scott Hahn. Discusses "the chamberlain of the royal household of ancient Israel" or "Prime minister" of the "house of David" (Isaiah 22:22) vis-à-vis Dynastic Succession . Christian Cyclopedia article on Apostolic Succession Views on Apostolic Succession at WikiChristian Apostolicity in the Catholic Encyclopedia

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Hash_table

A small phone book as a hash table. In computer science, a hash table or hash map is a data structure that uses a hash function to efficiently map certain identifiers or keys (e.g., person names) to associated values (e.g., their telephone numbers). The hash function is used to transform the key into the index (the hash) of an array element (the slot or bucket) where the corresponding value is to be sought. Ideally the hash function should map each possible key to a different slot index; but this ideal is rarely achievable in practice. Most hash table designs assume that hash collisions — pairs of different keys with the same hash values — are normal occurrences, and accommodate them in some way. In a well-dimensioned hash table, the average cost (number of instructions) for each lookup is independent of the number of elements stored in the table. Many hash table designs also allow arbitrary insertions and deletions of key-value pairs, at constant average cost per operation. In many situations, hash tables turn out to be more efficient than search trees or any other table lookup structure. For this reason, they are widely used in all kinds of computer software, particularly for associative arrays, database indexing, caches, and sets. Hash tables should not be confused with the hash lists and hash trees used in cryptography and data transmission. Basic algorithm At the heart of the hash table is a simple array of items, this is often simply called the 'hash table'. Hash tables calculate an index from the data item's key and use this index to place the data in the table. The basic general algorithm for a look up is simply: where: is the hash function that returns an index within the array is an index into the array is the key data is the length of the array Perfect hash tables If all of the keys that will be used are known ahead of time, a perfect hash function can be used to create a perfect hash table, in which there will be no collisions. If minimal perfect hashing is used, every location in the hash table can be used as well. Perfect hashing allows for constant time lookups in the worst case. This is in contrast to most chaining and open addressing methods, where the time for lookup is low on average, but may be very large (proportional to the number of entries) for some sets of keys. Collision resolution Collisions are practically unavoidable when hashing a random subset of a large set of possible keys. For example, if 2500 keys are hashed into a million buckets, even with a perfectly uniform random distribution, according to the birthday paradox there is a 95% chance of at least two of the keys being hashed to the same slot. Therefore, most hash table implementations have some collision resolution strategy to handle such events. Some common strategies are described below. All these methods require that the keys (or pointers to them) be stored in the table, together with the associated values. Load factor The performance of most collision resolution methods does not depend directly on the number n of stored entries, but depends strongly on the table's load factor, the ratio n/s between n and the size s of its bucket array. With a good hash function, the average lookup cost is nearly constant as the load factor increases from 0 up to 0.7 or so. Beyond that point, the probability of collisions and the cost of handling them increases. On the other hand, as the load factor approaches zero, the size of the hash table increases with little improvement in the search cost, and memory is wasted. Separate chaining Hash collision resolved by separate chaining. In the strategy known as separate chaining, direct chaining, or simply chaining, each slot of the bucket array is a pointer to a linked list that contains the key-value pairs that hashed to the same location. Lookup requires scanning the list for an entry with the given key. Insertion requires appending a new entry record to either end of the list in the hashed slot. Deletion requires searching the list and removing the element. (The technique is also called open hashing or closed addressing, which should not be confused with "open addressing" or "closed hashing".) Chained hash tables with linked lists are popular because they require only basic data structures with simple algorithms, and can use simple hash functions that would be unsuitable for other methods. The cost of a table operation is that of scanning the entries of the selected bucket for the desired key. If the distribution of keys is sufficiently uniform, the average cost of a lookup depends only on the average number of keys per bucket — that is, on the load factor. Chained hash tables remain effective even when the number of entries n is much higher than the number of slots. Their performance degrades more gracefully (linearly) with the load factor. For example, a chained hash table with 1000 slots and 10,000 stored keys (load factor 10) will be 5 to 10 times slower than a 10,000-slot table (load factor 1); but still 1000 times faster than a plain sequential list, and possibly even faster than a balanced search tree. For separate-chaining, the worst-case scenario is when all entries were inserted into the same bucket, in which case the hash table is ineffective and the cost is that of searching the bucket data structure. If the latter is a linear list, the lookup procedure may have to scan all its entries; so the worst-case cost is proportional to the number n of entries in the table. The bucket chains are often implemented as ordered lists, sorted by the key field; this choice approximately halves the average cost of successful lookups, compared to an unordered list. However, if it is expected that some keys will be much more likely to come up than others, an unordered list with move-to-front heuristic may be more effective. More sophisticated data structures, such as balanced search trees, are worth considering only if the load factor is large (about 10 or more), or if the hash distribution is likely to be very non-uniform, or if one must guarantee good performance even in the worst-case. However, using a larger table and/or a better hash function may be even more effective in those cases. Chained hash tables also inherit the disadvantages of linked lists. When storing small keys and values, the space overhead of the next pointer in each entry record can be significant. An additional disadvantage is that traversing a linked list has poor cache performance, making the processor cache ineffective. Separate chaining with list heads Hash collision by separate chaining with head records in the bucket array. Some chaining implementations store the first record of each chain in the slot array itself. The purpose is to increase cache efficiency of hash table access. In order to save memory space, such hash tables are often designed to have about as many slots as stored entries, meaning that many slots will have two or more entries. Separate chaining with other structures Instead of a list, one can use any other data structure that supports the required operations. By using a self-balancing tree, for example, the theoretical worst-case time of a hash table can be brought down to O(log n) rather than O(n). However, this approach is worth the trouble and extra memory cost only if long delays must be avoided at all costs (e.g. in a real-time application), or if one expects to have many entries hashed to the same slot (e.g. if one expects extremely non-uniform or even malicious key distributions). The variant called array hashing uses a dynamic array to store all the entries that hash to the same bucket. Each inserted entry gets appended to the end of the dynamic array that is assigned to the hashed slot. This variation makes more effective use of CPU caching, since the bucket entries are stored in sequential memory positions. It also dispenses with the next pointers that are required by linked lists, which saves space when the entries are small, such as pointers or single-word integers. An elaboration on this approach is the so-called dynamic perfect hashing Erik Demaine, Jeff Lind. 6.897: Advanced Data Structures. MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Spring 2003. http://courses.csail.mit.edu/6.897/spring03/scribe_notes/L2/lecture2.pdf , where a bucket that contains k entries is organized as a perfect hash table with k2 slots. While it uses more memory (n2 slots for n entries, in the worst case), this variant has guaranteed constant worst-case lookup time, and low amortized time for insertion. Open addressing Hash collision resolved by open addressing with linear probing (interval=1). Note that "Ted Baker" has a unique hash, but nevertheless collided with "Sandra Dee" which had previously collided with "John Smith". In another strategy, called open addressing, all entry records are stored in the bucket array itself. When a new entry has to be inserted, the buckets are examined, starting with the hashed-to slot and proceeding in some probe sequence, until an unoccupied slot is found. When searching for an entry, the buckets are scanned in the same sequence, until either the target record is found, or an unused array slot is found, which indicates that there is no such key in the table. The name "open addressing" refers to the fact that the location ("address") of the item is not determined by its hash value. (This method is also called closed hashing; it should not be confused with "open hashing" or "closed addressing" which usually mean separate chaining.) Well known probe sequences include: linear probing in which the interval between probes is fixed (usually 1). quadratic probing in which the interval between probes increases by some constant (usually 1) after each probe. double hashing in which the interval between probes is computed by another hash function. A drawback of all these open addressing schemes is that the number of stored entries cannot exceed the number of slots in the bucket array. In fact, even with good hash functions, their performance seriously degrades when the load factor grows beyond 0.7 or so. For many applications, these restriction mandate the use of dynamic resizing, with its attendant costs. Open addressing schemes also put more stringent requirements on hash function: besides distributing the keys more uniformly over the buckets, the function must also minimize the clustering of hash values that are consecutive in the probe order. Even experienced programmers may find such clustering hard to avoid. Open addressing only saves memory if the entries are small (less than 4 times the size of a pointer) and the load factor is not too small. If the load factor is close to zero (that is, there are far more buckets than stored entries), open addressing is wasteful even if each entry is just two words. This graph compares the average number of cache misses required to lookup elements in tables with chaining and linear probing. As the table passes the 80%-full mark, linear probing's performance drastically degrades. Open addressing avoids the time overhead of allocating each new entry record, and can be implemented even in the absence of a memory allocator. It also avoids the extra indirection required to access the first entry of each bucket (which is usually the only one). It also has better locality of reference, particularly with linear probing. With small record sizes, these factors can yield better performance than chaining, particularly for lookups. Hash tables with open addressing are also easier to serialize, because they don't use pointers. On the other hand, normal open addressing is a poor choice for large elements, since these elements fill entire cache lines (negating the cache advantage), and a large amount of space is wasted on large empty table slots. If the open addressing table only stores references to elements (external storage), it uses space comparable to chaining even for large records but loses its speed advantage. Generally speaking, open addressing is better used for hash tables with small records that can be stored within the table (internal storage) and fit in a cache line. They are particularly suitable for elements of one word or less. In cases where the tables are expected to have high load factors, the records are large, or the data is variable-sized, chained hash tables often perform as well or better. Ultimately, used sensibly, any kind of hash table algorithm is usually fast enough; and the percentage of a calculation spent in hash table code is low. Memory usage is rarely considered excessive. Therefore, in most cases the differences between these algorithms is marginal, and other considerations typically come into play. Coalesced hashing A hybrid of chaining and open addressing, coalesced hashing links together chains of nodes within the table itself. Like open addressing, it achieves space usage and (somewhat diminished) cache advantages over chaining. Like chaining, it does not exhibit clustering effects; in fact, the table can be efficiently filled to a high density. Unlike chaining, it cannot have more elements than table slots. Robin Hood hashing One interesting variation on double-hashing collision resolution is that of Robin Hood hashing . The idea is that a key already inserted may be displaced by a new key if its probe count is larger than the key at the current position. The net effect of this is that it reduces worst case search times in the table. This is similar to Knuth's ordered hash tables except the criteria for bumping a key does not depend on a direct relationship between the keys. Since both the worst case and the variance on the number of probes is reduced dramatically an interesting variation is to probe the table starting at the expected successful probe value and then expand from that position in both directions. Cuckoo hashing Another alternative open-addressing solution is cuckoo hashing, which ensures constant lookup time in the worst case, and constant amortized time for insertions and deletions. Dynamic resizing In order to keep the load factor in a certain range, e.g. between 1/4 and 3/4, many table implementations may expand the table dynamically when items are inserted, and may shrink it when items are deleted. This is sometimes referred to as a rehash of the table. In Java's HashMap class, for example, the default load factor threshold for table expansion is 0.75. Resizing by copying all entries A common approach is to automatically trigger a complete resizing when the load factor exceeds some threshold rmax. Then a new larger table is allocated, all the entries of the old table are removed and inserted into this new table, and the old table is returned to the free storage pool. Symmetrically, when the load factor falls below a second threshold rmin, all entries are moved to a new smaller table. If the table size increases or decreases by a fixed percentage at each expansion, the total cost of these resizings, amortized over all insert and delete operations, is still a constant, independent of the number of entries n and of the number m of operations performed. For example, consider a table that was created with the minimum possible size and is doubled each time the load ratio exceeds some threshold. If m elements are inserted into that table, the total number of extra re-insertions that occur in all dynamic resizings of the table is at most m−1. In other words, dynamic resizing roughly doubles the cost of each insert or delete operation. Incremental resizing Some hash table implementations, notably in real-time systems, cannot pay the price of enlarging the hash table all at once, because it may interrupt time-critical operations. If one cannot avoid dynamic resizing, a solution is to perform the resizing gradually: During the resize, allocate the new hash table, but keep the old table unchanged. In each lookup or delete operation, check both tables. Perform insertion operations only in the new table. At each insertion also move k elements from the old table to the new table. When all elements are removed from the old table, deallocate it. To ensure that the old table will be completely copied over before the new table itself needs to be enlarged, it is necessary to increase the size of the table by a factor of at least (k + 1)/k during the resizing. Other solutions Linear hashing is a hash table algorithm that permits incremental hash table expansion. It is implemented using a single hash table, but with two possible look-up functions. Another way to decrease the cost of table resizing is to choose a hash function in such a way that the hashes of most values do not change when the table is resized. This approach, called consistent hashing, is prevalent in disk-based and distributed hashes, where resizing is prohibitively costly. Performance analysis In the simplest model, the hash function is completely unspecified and the table does not resize. For the best possible choice of hash function, a table of size n with open addressing will have no collisions and hold up to n elements, with a single comparison for successful lookup, and a table of size n with chaining and k keys will have the minimum max(0, k-n) collisions and O(1 + k/n) comparisons for lookup. For the worst choice of hash function, every insertion will cause a collision, and hash tables degenerate to linear search, with Ω(k) amortized comparisons per insertion and up to k comparisons for an successful lookup. Adding rehashing to this model is straightforward. As in a dynamic array, geometric resizing by a factor of b implies that only k/bi keys are inserted i or more times, so that the total number of insertions is bounded above by bk/(b-1), which is O(k). By using rehashing to maintain k < n, tables using both chaining and open addressing can have unlimited elements and perform successful lookup in a single comparison for the best choice of hash function. In more realistic models the hash function is a random variable over a probability distribution of hash functions, and performance is computed on average over the choice of hash function. When this distribution is uniform, the assumption is called "simple uniform hashing" and it can be shown that hashing with chaining requires Θ(1 + k/n) comparisons on average for an unsuccessful lookup, and hashing with open addressing requires Θ(1/(1 - k/n)). Doug Dunham. CS 4521 Lecture Notes. University of Minnesota Duluth. Theorems 11.2, 11.6. Last modified 21 April 2009. Both these bounds are constant if we maintain k/n < c using table resizing, where c is a fixed constant less than 1. Choosing a good hash function A good hash function is essential for good hash table performance. Choosing a good hash function is tricky; many poor choices are recommended in technical literature and implemented in existing software. However, since poor hashing usually degrades hash table performance by a constant factor, and hashing is often a small part of the overall computation, such problems commonly go undetected. A basic requirement is that the function should provide a uniform distribution of the distribution of hash values. A non-uniform distribution increases the number of collisions, and the cost of resolving them. Uniformity is sometimes difficult to ensure by design, but may be evaluated empirically by the chi-squared test. The distribution needs to be uniform only for the table sizes s that will occur in the application. In particular, if one uses dynamic resizing with exact doubling and halving of s, the hash function needs to be uniform only when s is a power of two. On the other hand, some hashing algorithms provide uniform hashes only when s is a prime number. Thomas Wang (1997), Prime Double Hash Table. Accessed April 11, 2009 For open addressing schemes, the hash function should also avoid clustering, the mapping of two or more keys to consecutive slots. Such clustering may cause the lookup cost to skyrocket, even if the load factor is low and collisions are infrequent. The very popular multiplicative hash advocated by Donald Knuth in The Art of Computer Programming is claimed to have particularly poor clustering behavior. Cryptographic hash functions are believed to provide good hash functions for any table size s, either by modulo reduction or by bit masking. They may also be appropriate if there is a risk of malicious users trying to sabotage a network service by submitting requests designed to generate a large number of collisions in the server's hash tables. However, these presumed qualities are hardly worth their much larger computational cost and algorithmic complexity, and the risk of sabotage can be avoided by cheaper methods (such as applying a secret salt to the data, or using a universal hash function). Some authors claim that good hash functions should have the avalanche effect; that is, a single-bit change in the input key should affect, on average, half the bits in the output. Some popular hash functions fail to pass this test. Bret Mulvey, Hash Functions. Accessed April 11, 2009 Features Advantages The main advantage of hash tables over other table data structures is speed. This advantage is more apparent when the number of entries is large (thousands or more). Hash tables are particularly efficient when the maximum number of entries can be predicted in advance, so that the bucket array can be allocated once with the optimum size and never resized. If the set of key-value pairs is fixed and known ahead of time (so insertions and deletions are not allowed), one may reduce the average lookup cost by a careful choice of the hash function, bucket table size, and internal data structures. In particular, one may be able to devise a hash function that is collision-free, or even perfect (see below). In this case the keys need not be stored in the table. Drawbacks Hash tables can be more difficult to implement than self-balancing binary search trees. Choosing an effective hash function for a specific application is more an art than a science. In open-addressed hash tables it is fairly easy to create a poor hash function. Although operations on a hash table take constant time on average, the cost of a good hash function can be significantly higher than the inner loop of the lookup algorithm for a sequential list or search tree. Thus hash tables are not effective when the number of entries is very small. (However, in some cases the high cost of computing the hash function can be mitigated by saving the hash value together with the key.) For certain string processing applications, such as spell-checking, hash tables may be less efficient than tries, finite automata, or Judy arrays. Also, If each key is represented by a small enough number of bits, then, instead of a hash table, one may use the key directly as the index into an array of values. Note that there are no collisions in this case. The entries stored in a hash table can be enumerated efficiently (at constant cost per entry), but only in some pseudo-random order. Therefore, there is no efficient way to efficiently locate an entry whose key is nearest to a given key. Listing all n entries in some specific order generally requires a separate sorting step, whose cost is proportional to log(n) per entry. In comparison, ordered search trees have lookup and insertion cost proportional to log(n), but allow finding the nearest key at about the same cost, and ordered enumeration of all entries at constant cost per entry. If the keys are not stored (because the hash function is collision-free), there may be no easy way to enumerate the keys that are present in the table at any given moment. Although the average cost per operation is constant and fairly small, the cost of a single operation may be quite high. In particular, if the hash table uses dynamic resizing, an insertion or deletion operation may occasionally take time proportional to the number of entries. This may be a serious drawback in real-time or interactive applications. Hash tables in general exhibit poor locality of reference—that is, the data to be accessed is distributed seemingly at random in memory. Because hash tables cause access patterns that jump around, this can trigger microprocessor cache misses that cause long delays. Compact data structures such as arrays, searched with linear search, may be faster if the table is relatively small and keys are integers or other short strings. According to Moore's Law, cache sizes are growing exponentially and so what is considered "small" may be increasing. The optimal performance point varies from system to system. Hash tables become quite inefficient when there are many collisions. While extremely uneven hash distributions are extremely unlikely to arise by chance, a malicious adversary with knowledge of the hash function may be able to supply information to a hash which creates worst-case behavior by causing excessive collisions, resulting in very poor performance (i.e., a denial of service attack). In critical applications, either universal hashing can be used or a data structure with better worst-case guarantees may be preferable. Crosby and Wallach's Denial of Service via Algorithmic Complexity Attacks. Uses Associative arrays Hash tables are commonly used to implement all sort of in-memory tables. They are used to implement associative arrays (arrays whose indices are arbitrary strings or other complicated objects), especially in interpreted programming languages like gawk and Perl. Database indexing Hash tables may also be used for disk-based persistent data structures and database indices, although balanced trees are more popular in these applications. Caches Hash tables can be used to implement caches, auxiliary data tables that are used to speed up the access to data that is primarily stored in slower media. In this application, hash collisions can be handled by discarding one of the two colliding entries — usually the one that is currently stored in the table. Sets Besides recovering the entry which has a given key, many hash table implementations can also tell whether such an entry exists or not. Those structures can therefore be used to implement a set data structure, which merely records whether a given key belongs to a specified set of keys. In this case, the structure can be simplified by eliminating all parts which have to do with the entry values. Hashing can be used to implement both static and dynamic sets. Unique data representation Hash tables can be used by some programs to avoid creating multiple character strings with the same contents. For that purpose, all strings in use by the program are stored in a single hash table, which is checked whenever a new string has to be created. This technique was introduced in Lisp interpreters under the name hash consing, and can be used with many other kinds of data (expression trees in a symbolic algebra system, records in a database, files in a file system, binary decision diagrams, etc.) Implementations In programming languages Many programming languages provide hash table functionality. either as built-in associative arrays or as standard library modules. In C++, for example, the hash_map and unordered_map classes provide hash tables for keys and values of arbitrary type. See the associative array article for a complete list. Independent packages Google Sparse Hash The Google SparseHash project contains several hash-map implementations in use at Google, with different performance characteristics, including an implementation that optimizes for space and one that optimizes for speed. The memory-optimized one is extremely memory-efficient with only 2 bits/entry of overhead. SunriseDD An open source C library for hash table storage of arbitrary data objects with lock-free lookups, built-in reference counting and guaranteed order iteration. The library can participate in external reference counting systems or use its own built-in reference counting. It comes with a variety of hash functions and allows the use of runtime supplied hash functions via callback mechanism. Source code is well documented. uthash This is an easy-to-use hash table for C structures. A number of language runtimes and/or standard libraries use hash tables to implement their support for associative arrays. Software written to minimize memory usage can conserve memory by keeping all allocated strings in a hash table. If an already existing string is found a pointer to that string is returned; otherwise, a new string is allocated and added to the hash table. (This is the normal technique used in Lisp for the names of variables and functions; see the documentation for the intern and intern-soft functions if you are using that language.) The data compression achieved in this manner is usually around 40%. See also Rabin-Karp string search algorithm Stable hashing Consistent hashing Extendible hashing Lazy deletion Pearson hashing Related data structures There are several data structures that use hash functions but cannot be considered special cases of hash tables: Bloom filter, a structure that implements an enclosing approximation of a set, allowing insertions but not deletions. Distributed hash table, a resilient dynamic table spread over several nodes of a network. References Further reading Michael T. Goodrich and Roberto Tamassia. Data Structures and Algorithms in Java, 4th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-73884-0. Chapter 9: Maps and Dictionaries. pp.369–418 External links A Hash Function for Hash Table Lookup by Bob Jenkins. Hash functions by Paul Hsieh Hashtables, Part 2 by Maciej Stachowiak Libhashish is one of the most feature rich hash libraries (built-in hash functions, several collision strategies, extensive analysis functionality, ...) NIST entry on hash tables Open addressing hash table removal algorithm from ICI programming language, ici_set_unassign in set.c (and other occurrences, with permission). The Perl Wikibook - Perl Hash Variables A basic explanation of how the hash table works by Reliable Software Lecture on Hash Tables Hash'em all! — free online text and file hashing with different algorithms qDecoder's C/C++ dynamic allocatable hash-table implementation — opensource library qDecoder's C/C++ static array-based hash-table implementation — opensource library Hash-tables in C — two simple and clear examples of hash tables implementation in C with linear probing and chaining C Hash Table Implementation of HashTable in C MIT's Introduction to Algorithms: Hashing 1 MIT OCW lecture Video MIT's Introduction to Algorithms: Hashing 2 MIT OCW lecture Video

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Jack_Kerouac

Jack Kerouac (; March 12, 1922 – October 21, 1969) was an American author, poet and painter. Alongside William S. Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg, he is considered a pioneer of the Beat Generation. Kerouac's work was very popular, but received little critical acclaim during his lifetime. Today, he is considered an important and influential writer who inspired others, including Hunter S. Thompson, Tom Robbins, Lester Bangs, Richard Brautigan, Ken Kesey, Haruki Murakami, and writers of the New Journalism. Kerouac's best-known books are On the Road, The Dharma Bums, Big Sur, The Subterraneans, and Visions of Cody. Biography Family and childhood Jack Kerouac was born Jean Louis Kerouac, in Lowell, Massachusetts, to French-Canadian parents, Léo-Alcide Kerouac and Gabrielle-Ange Lévesque, natives of the province of Quebec, Canada. Like many other Québécois of their generation, the Lévesques and Kerouacs were part of the Quebec emigration to New England to find employment. His father was related to Brother Marie-Victorin (né Conrad Kirouac), one of Canada's most prominent botanists and his mother was second cousin to future Quebec premier René Lévesque. Kerouac often gave conflicting stories about his family history and the origins of his surname. Though his father was born to a family of potato farmers in the village of Saint-Hubert-de-Rivière-du-Loup, he often claimed aristocratic descent, sometimes from a Breton noble granted land after the Battle of Quebec, whose sons all married Native Americans. However, research has shown him to be the descendant of a middle-class merchant settler, whose sons married French Canadians. He also had various stories on the etymology of his surname, usually tracing it back to Irish, Breton, or other Celtic roots. In one interview he claimed it was the name of a dead Celtic language and in another said it was from the Irish for "language of the water" and related to "Kerwick". Kerouac, derive from Kervoac, is the name of one hamlet situated in Brittany in Lanmeur, near Morlaix. Kerouac did not start to learn English until the age of six, and at home, he and his family spoke French. When he was four, he was profoundly affected by the death of his nine-year-old brother, Gérard, from rheumatic fever, an event later described in his novel Visions of Gerard. Some of Kerouac's poetry was written in French, and in letters written to friend Allen Ginsberg towards the end of his life, he expressed his desire to speak his parents' native tongue again. Recently, it was discovered that Kerouac first started writing On the Road in French, a language in which he also wrote two unpublished novels. The writings are in dialectal Quebec French, and predate the first plays of Michel Tremblay by a decade. Kerouac's athletic prowess led him to become a 100-meter hurdler on his local high school track team, and his skills as a running back in American football earned him scholarship offers from Boston College, Notre Dame and Columbia University. He entered Columbia University after spending a year at Horace Mann School, where he earned the requisite grades to matriculate to Columbia. Kerouac cracked a tibia playing football during his freshman season, and he argued constantly with coach Lou Little who kept him benched. While at Columbia, Kerouac wrote several sports articles for the student newspaper, the Columbia Daily Spectator. Early adulthood When his football career at Columbia soured, especially because of conflict with Lou Little, Kerouac dropped out of the university, though he continued to live for a period on New York City's Upper West Side with his girlfriend, Edie Parker. It was during this time that he met the people -- now famous -- with whom he would always be associated, the subjects injected into many of his novels: the so-called Beat Generation, including Allen Ginsberg, Neal Cassady, John Clellon Holmes, Herbert Huncke and William S. Burroughs. Kerouac joined the United States Merchant Marine in 1942, and in 1943 joined the United States Navy, but was honorably discharged during World War II on psychiatric grounds (he was of "indifferent character" with a diagnosis of "schizoid personality"). In 1944, Kerouac was arrested as a material witness in the murder of David Kammerer, who had been stalking Kerouac's friend Lucien Carr since Carr was a teenager in St. Louis. (William Burroughs was himself a native of St. Louis, and it was through Carr that Kerouac came to know both Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg.) When Kammerer's obsession with Carr turned aggressive, Carr stabbed him to death and turned to Kerouac for help. Together, they disposed of evidence. As advised by Burroughs, they turned themselves in. Kerouac's father refused to pay his bail. Kerouac then agreed to marry Edie Parker if she'd pay it. Their marriage was annulled a year later, and Kerouac and Burroughs briefly collaborated on a novel about the Kammerer killing entitled And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks. Though the book was not published during the lifetimes of either Kerouac or Burroughs, an excerpt eventually appeared in Word Virus: A William S. Burroughs Reader (and as noted below, the novel was finally published late 2008). Kerouac also later wrote about the killing in his novel Vanity of Duluoz. |Jack Kerouac lived above this flower shop in Ozone Park. Later, he lived with his parents in the Ozone Park neighborhood of Queens, after they, too, moved to New York. He wrote his first novel, The Town and the City, and, according to at least John Clellon Holmes, began the famous On the Road around 1949 while living there. His friends jokingly called him "The Wizard of Ozone Park," a spoof of Thomas Edison's "Wizard of Menlo Park" nickname while simultaneously alluding to the title character of the film The Wizard of Oz and a shortened form of the word "ozone". Beginning of the original typed roll where Kerouac wrote On the Road. The first sentence is: "I first met met Neal not long after my father died..." Later it would be replaced by the definitive one: "I first met Dean not long after my wife and I split up". Early career 1950–1957 Kerouac tended to write constantly, carrying a notebook with him everywhere. Letters to friends and family members tended to be long and rambling, including great detail about his daily life and thoughts. Prior to becoming a writer, he tried a varied list of careers. He was a sports reporter for The Lowell Sun; a temporary worker in construction and food service; a United States Merchant Marine and he joined the United States Navy twice. The Town and the City was published in 1950 under the name "John Kerouac," and, though it earned him a few respectable reviews, the book sold poorly. Heavily influenced by Kerouac's reading of Thomas Wolfe, it reflects on the generational epic formula and the contrasts of small town life versus the multi-dimensional, and larger, city. The book was heavily edited by Robert Giroux; some 400 pages were taken out. For the next six years, Kerouac wrote constantly. Building upon previous drafts tentatively titled "The Beat Generation" and "Gone on the Road," Kerouac completed what is now known as On the Road in April 1951 while living at 454 West 20th Street in Manhattan with his second wife, Joan Haverty. The book was largely autobiographical and describes Kerouac's road-trip adventures across the United States and Mexico with Neal Cassady in the late-40's, as well his relationships with other Beat writers and friends. He completed the first version of the novel during a three-week extended session of spontaneous confessional prose. Before beginning, Kerouac cut sheets of tracing paper into long strips, wide enough for a type-writer, and taped them together into a long roll he then fed into the machine. This allowed him to type continuously without the interruption of reloading pages. The resulting manuscript contained no chapter or paragraph breaks and was much more explicit than what would eventually be printed. Though "spontaneous", Kerouac had prepared long in advance before beginning to write. In fact, according to his Columbia professor and mentor Mark Van Doren, he had outlined much of the work in his journals over the several preceding years. Though the work was completed quickly, Kerouac had a long and difficult time finding a buyer. Publishers rejected the manuscript due to its experimental writing style and its sympathetic tone towards minorities and marginalized social groups of post-War America. Many editors were also uncomfortable with the idea of publishing a book that contained what were, for the era, graphic descriptions of drug-use and homosexual behavior, a move that could result in obscenity charges being filed, a fate that later befell Burroughs' Naked Lunch and Ginsberg's Howl. In late 1951, Joan Haverty left and divorced Kerouac while pregnant. In February 1952, she gave birth to Kerouac's only child Jan Kerouac, though he refused to acknowledge her as his own until a blood test confirmed it 9 years later. For the next several years Kerouac continued writing and traveling, taking extensive trips throughout the U.S. and Mexico and often fell into bouts of depression and heavy drug and alcohol use. During this period he finished drafts for what would become 10 more novels, including The Subterraneans, Doctor Sax, Tristessa, and Desolation Angels, which chronicle many of the events of these years. In 1954, Kerouac discovered Dwight Goddard's A Buddhist Bible at the San Jose Library, which marked the beginning of his immersion into Buddhism. In 1955 Kerouac wrote a biography of Siddhartha Gautama, entitled Wake Up, which was unpublished during his lifetime but eventually serialised in Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 1993-95. It was published by Viking in September 2008. House in Orlando, Florida where Kerouac lived and wrote The Dharma Bums In 1957, after being rejected by several other firms, On the Road was finally purchased by Viking Press, which demanded major revisions prior to publication. Many of the more sexually explicit passages were removed and, fearing libel suits, pseudonyms were used for the books "characters." These revisions have often led to criticisms as to the actual spontaneity of Kerouac's style. Later career 1957–1969 In July 1957, Kerouac moved to a small house at 1418½ Clouser Avenue in the College Park section of Orlando, Florida, to await the release of On the Road. A few weeks later, the review appeared in the New York Times proclaiming Kerouac the voice of a new generation. Kerouac was hailed as a major American writer. His friendship with Allen Ginsberg, William S. Burroughs and Gregory Corso, among others, became a notorious representation of the Beat Generation. His fame would come as an unmanageable surge that would ultimately be his undoing. Kerouac's novel is often described as the defining work of the post-World War II Beat Generation and Kerouac came to be called "the king of the beat generation," a term that he never felt comfortable with. He once observed, "I'm not a beatnik, I'm a Catholic." The success of On the Road brought Kerouac instant fame. He soon found he had little taste for celebrity status. After nine months, he no longer felt safe in public. He was badly beaten by three men outside the San Remo Bar in New York one night. Neal Cassady, possibly as a result of his new notoriety as the central character of the book, was set up and arrested for selling marijuana. Suiter 2002, pg. 237 Berrigan 1968, pg. 19-20 Publishers were eager for a quick "sequel" to capitalize on On the Road'''s success. In response, Kerouac chronicled parts of his own experience with Buddhism, as well as some of his adventures with Gary Snyder and other San Francisco-area poets, in The Dharma Bums, set in California and Washington and published in 1958. It was written in Orlando between November 26 and December 7, 1957. Suiter 2002, pg. 233 To begin writing Dharma Bums, Kerouac typed onto a ten-foot length of teletype paper, to avoid interrupting his flow for paper changes, as he had done six years previously for On the Road. Kerouac was demoralized by criticism of Dharma Bums from such respected figures in the American field of Buddhism as Zen teacher Ruth Fuller Sasaki and Alan Watts. He wrote to Snyder, referring to a meeting with D. T. Suzuki, that "even Suzuki was looking at me through slitted eyes as tho I was a monstrous imposter". He passed up the opportunity to reunite with Snyder in California, and explained to Whalen, "I'd be ashamed to confront you and Gary now I've become so decadent and drunk and dontgiveashit. I'm not a Buddhist any more." Suiter 2002, pp. 242-243 Kerouac also wrote and narrated a "Beat" movie entitled Pull My Daisy in 1959. Originally to be called "The Beat Generation", the title was changed at the last moment when MGM released a film by the same name which sensationalized "beatnik" culture. John Antonelli's 1985 documentary Kerouac, the Movie begins and ends with footage of Kerouac reading from On the Road and Visions of Cody on The Tonight Show with Steve Allen in 1957. Kerouac appears intelligent but shy. "Are you nervous?" asks Steve Allen. "Naw", says Kerouac, sweating and fidgeting. Kerouac developed something of a friendship with the scholar Alan Watts (cryptically named Arthur Wayne in Kerouac's novel Big Sur, and Alex Aums in Desolation Angels). Kerouac moved to Northport, New York in March 1958, six months after releasing On the Road, to care for his aging mother Gabrielle and to hide from his new-found celebrity status. Politics Kerouac was a politically conservative Catholic, especially under the influence of his mother. He supported the Vietnam War and was friendly with William F. Buckley. http://www.beatmuseum.org/kerouac/jackkerouac.html Death Kerouac died on October 21, 1969 at St. Anthony's Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida, one day after being rushed with severe abdominal pain from his St. Petersburg home by ambulance. Lowell, Massachusetts Grave site, Lowell Massachusetts His death, at the age of 47, resulted from an internal hemorrhage (bleeding esophageal varices) caused by cirrhosis, the result of a lifetime of heavy drinking. At the time of his death, he was living with his third wife, Stella, and his mother, Gabrielle. Kerouac is buried in his home town of Lowell and was honored posthumously with a Doctor of Letters degree from his hometown's University of Massachusetts Lowell on June 2, 2007. In 2007, to coincide with the 50th anniversary of On the Road's publishing, Viking issued two new editions: On the Road: The Original Scroll, and On the Road: 50th Anniversary Edition. By far the more significant is Scroll, a transcription of the original draft typed as one long paragraph on sheets of tracing paper which Kerouac taped together to form a scroll. The text is more sexually explicit than Viking allowed to be published in 1957, and also uses the real names of Kerouac's friends rather than the fictional names he later substituted. Indianapolis Colts owner Jim Irsay paid $2.43 million for the original scroll and is allowing an exhibition tour that will conclude at the end of 2009. The other new issue, 50th Anniversary Edition, is a reissue of the 40th anniversary issue under an updated title. In March 2008, Penguin Books announced that the Kerouac/Burroughs manuscript, And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks would be published for the first time in November 2008. Previously, a fragment of the manuscript had been published in the Burroughs compendium, Word Virus. Grove Press published the first American edition of the novel on Nov. 1, 2008. Works, style, and innovations Style Kerouac is generally considered to be the father of the Beat movement, although he actively disliked such labels, and, in particular, regarded the subsequent Hippie movement with some disdain. Kerouac's method was heavily influenced by the prolific explosion of Jazz, especially the Bebop genre established by Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Miles Davis, Thelonious Monk, and others. Later, Kerouac would include ideas he developed in his Buddhist studies, beginning with Gary Snyder. He called this style Spontaneous Prose, a literary technique akin to stream of consciousness. Although Kerouac’s prose were spontaneous and purportedly without edits, he primarily wrote autobiographical novels (or Roman à clef) based upon actual events from his life and the people with whom he interacted. Jack Kerouac's poem in the center of his namesake alley. Many of his books exemplified this approach including On the Road, Visions of Cody, Visions of Gerard, Big Sur, and The Subterraneans. The central features of this writing method were the ideas of breath (borrowed from Jazz and from Buddhist meditation breathing), improvising words over the inherent structures of mind and language, and not editing a single word (much of his work was edited by Donald Merriam Allen, a major figure in Beat Generation poetry who also edited some of Ginsberg's work as well). Connected with his idea of breath was the elimination of the period, preferring to use a long, connecting dash instead. As such, the phrases occurring between dashes might resemble improvisational jazz licks. When spoken, the words might take on a certain kind of rhythm, though none of it pre-meditated. Kerouac greatly admired Gary Snyder, many of whose ideas influenced him. The Dharma Bums contains accounts of a mountain climbing trip Kerouac took with Snyder, and also whole paragraphs from letters Snyder had written to Kerouac. Suiter 2002, pg. 186 While living with Snyder outside Mill Valley, California in 1956, Kerouac was working on a book centering around Snyder, which he was thinking of calling Visions of Gary. Suiter 2002, pg. 189 (This eventually became Dharma Bums, which Kerouac described as "mostly about [Snyder]".) Suiter 2002, pg. 228 That summer, Kerouac took a job as a fire lookout on Desolation Peak in the North Cascades in Washington, after hearing Snyder's and Philip Whalen's accounts of their own lookout stints. Kerouac described the experience in his novel Desolation Angels. He would go on for hours, often drunk, to friends and strangers about his method. Allen Ginsberg, initially unimpressed, would later be one of its great proponents, and indeed, he was apparently influenced by Kerouac's free flowing prose method of writing in the composition of his masterpiece "Howl". It was at about the time that Kerouac wrote The Subterraneans that he was approached by Ginsberg and others to formally explicate exactly how he wrote it; how he did Spontaneous Prose. Among the writings he set down specifically about his Spontaneous Prose method, the most concise would be Belief and Technique for Modern Prose, a list of thirty "essentials." Scribbled secret notebooks, and wild typewritten pages, for your own joy Submissive to everything, open, listening Try never get drunk outside your own house Be in love with your life Something that you feel will find its own form Be crazy dumbsaint of the mind Blow as deep as you want to blow Write what you want bottomless from bottom of the mind The unspeakable visions of the individual No time for poetry but exactly what is Visionary tics shivering in the chest In tranced fixation dreaming upon object before you Remove literary, grammatical and syntactical inhibition Like Proust be an old teahead of time Telling the true story of the world in interior monolog The jewel center of interest is the eye within the eye Write in recollection and amazement for yourself Work from pithy middle eye out, swimming in language sea Accept loss forever Believe in the holy contour of life Struggle to sketch the flow that already exists intact in mind Don't think of words when you stop but to see picture better Keep track of every day the date emblazoned in yr morning No fear or shame in the dignity of yr experience, language & knowledge Write for the world to read and see yr exact pictures of it Bookmovie is the movie in words, the visual American form In praise of Character in the Bleak inhuman Loneliness Composing wild, undisciplined, pure, coming in from under, crazier the better You're a Genius all the time Writer-Director of Earthly movies Sponsored & Angeled in Heaven Some believed that at times Kerouac's writing technique did not produce lively or energetic prose. Truman Capote famously said about Kerouac's work, "That's not writing, it's typing." Despite such criticism, it should be kept in mind that what Kerouac said about writing and how he wrote are sometimes seen to be separate. According to Carolyn Cassady and other people who knew him he rewrote and rewrote. Some claim his own style was in no way spontaneous. However it should be taken into account that throughout most of the '50s, Kerouac was constantly trying to have his work published, and consequently he often revised and re-arranged manuscripts in an often futile attempt to interest publishers, as is clearly documented in his collected letters (which are in themselves wonderful examples of his style). The Subterraneans and Visions of Cody are possibly the best examples of Kerouac's free-flowing spontaneous prose method. Although the body of Kerouac's work has been published in English, recent research has suggested that, aside from already known correspondence and letters written to friends and family, he also wrote unpublished works of fiction in French. A manuscript entitled Sur le Chemin (On the road) completed in five days in Mexico during December 1952 is a telling example of Kerouac's attempts at writing in Joual He refers to it in a letter addressed to Neil Cassady (who is commonly known as his inspiration for the character of Dean Moriarty) written on January 10, 1953 , a dialect typical of the French-Canadian working class of the time, which can be summarized as a form of expression utilising both old patois and modern French mixed with modern English words (windshield being a modern English expression used casually by some French Canadians even today). Set in 1935, mostly on the American east coast, The short manuscript (50 pages), explores some of the recurring themes of Kerouac's literature by way of a narrative very close to, if not identical to the spoken word. It tells the story of a group of men who agree to meet in New York, including a young 13-year-old Kerouac whom he refers to as Ti-Jean. Ti-Jean and his father Leo (Kerouac's father's real name) leave Boston by car, traveling to assist friends looking for a place to stay in the city. The story actually follows two cars and their passengers, one driving out of Denver and the other from Boston until they eventually meet in a dingy bar in New York's Chinatown. In it, Kerouac's "French" is written in a form which has little regard for grammar or spelling, relying often on phonetics in order to render an authentic reproduction of his French-Canadian vernacular. Kerouac does not only use Joual freely but frequently confuses grammatical word genders and verb tenses, a phenomenon typical to the francophone speech pattern of the assimilated French Canadians of the American east coast at the time. The novel starts: Dans l'mois d'Octobre 1935, y'arriva une machine du West, de Denver, sur le chemin pour New York. Dans la machine était Dean Pomeray, un soûlon; Dean Pomeray Jr., son ti fils de 9 ans et Rolfe Glendiver, son step son, 24. C'était un vieille Model T Ford, toutes les trois avaient leux yeux attachez sur le chemin dans la nuit à travers la windshield. Even though this work shares the same title as one of his best known English novels, it is rather the original French version of a short text that would later become Old bull in the Bowery (also unpublished) once translated to English prose by Kerouac himself. Sur le Chemin is Kerouac's second known French manuscript, the first being La nuit est ma Femme written in early 1951 and completed a few days before he began the original English version of On the Road. Influences Kerouac's technique was heavily influenced by Jazz, especially Bebop, and later, Buddhism, as well as the famous "Joan Anderson letter" authored by Neal Cassady. The Diamond Sutra was the most important Buddhist text for Kerouac, and "probably one of the three or four most influential things he ever read." Suiter 2002, pg. 191 In 1955, he began an intensive study of this sutra, in a repeating weekly cycle, devoting one day to each of the six Pāramitās, and the seventh to the concluding passage on Samādhi. This was his sole reading on Desolation Peak, and he hoped by this means to condition his mind to emptiness, and possibly to have a vision. Suiter 2002, pg. 210 Legacy Kerouac is considered by some as the "King of the Beats," a title with which Kerouac himself was deeply uncomfortable. Kerouac's plainspeak manner of writing prose, although having somewhat belied his considerable enjoyment of scholarship but while being more so reflective of his belief his works were picaresque, as well as his nearly long-form free verse style of novelistic "neologism", inspired countless beat writers and neo-beat writers and artists, such as painter George Condo, as well as poets and philosophers such as Roger Craton and filmmaker John McNaughton, etc. In 1974 the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics was opened in his honor by Allen Ginsberg and Anne Waldman at Naropa University, a private Buddhist University in Boulder, Colorado. The school offers an MFA in Writing & Poetics, a BA in Writing and Literature, a Summer Writing Program, and MFA in Creative Writing. From 1978 to 1992, Joy Walsh published 28 issues of a magazine devoted to Kerouac, Moody Street Irregulars. In 1997, the house on Clouser Avenue where The Dharma Bums was written was purchased by a newly formed non-profit group entitled The Jack Kerouac Writers in Residence Project of Orlando, Inc. This group continues to this day to provide aspiring writers to live in the same house Kerouac was inspired in, with room and board covered, for three months. In 2007, Kerouac was awarded a posthumous honorary degree from the University of Massachusetts Lowell. Discography Studio albumsPoetry for the Beat Generation (with Steve Allen) (1959)Blues and Haikus (1959)Readings By Jack Kerouac On The Beat Generation (1989) Compliation albumsThe Jack Kerouac Collection (1990) [Box] (Audio CD Collection of 3 studio albums) References Further reading Amburm, Ellis. Subterranean Kerouac: The Hidden Life of Jack Kerouac. St. Martin's Press, 1999. ISBN 0-312-20677-1 Amram, David. Offbeat: Collaborating with Kerouac. Thunder's Mouth Press, 2002.ISBN 1-56025-362-2 Bartlett, Lee (ed.) The Beats: Essays in Criticism. London: McFarland, 1981. Beaulieu, Victor-Lévy. Jack Kerouac: A Chicken Essay. Coach House Press, 1975. Brooks, Ken. The Jack Kerouac Digest. Agenda, 2001. Cassady, Carolyn. Neal Cassady Collected Letters, 1944-1967. Penguin, 2004. ISBN 0-14-200217-8 Cassady, Carolyn. Off the Road: Twenty Years with Cassady, Kerouac and Ginsberg. Black Spring Press, 2007. Challis, Chris. Quest for Kerouac. Faber & Faber, 1984. Charters, Ann. Kerouac. San Francisco: Straight Arrow Books, 1973. Charters, Ann (ed.) The Portable Beat Reader. New York: Penguin, 1992. Charters, Ann (ed.) The Portable Jack Kerouac. New York: Penguin, 1995. Christy, Jim. The Long Slow Death of Jack Kerouac. ECW Press, 1998. Clark, Tom. Jack Kerouac. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1984. Coolidge, Clark. Now It's Jazz: Writings on Kerouac & the Sounds. Living Batch, 1999. Cook, Bruce. The Beat Generation. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971. ISBN 0-684-12371-1 Dagier, Patricia; Quéméner, Hervé. Jack Kerouac: Au Bout de la Route ... La Bretagne. An Here, 1999. Dagier, Patricia ; Quéméner Hervé. Jack Kerouac, Breton d'Amérique. Editions Le Télégramme, 2009. Edington, Stephen. Kerouac's Nashua Roots. Transition, 1999. Ellis, R.J., Liar! Liar! Jack Kerouac - Novelist. Greenwich Exchange, 1999. French, Warren. Jack Kerouac. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1986. Gaffié, Luc. Jack Kerouac: The New Picaroon. Postillion Press, 1975. Giamo, Ben. "Kerouac, The Word and The Way". Southern Illinois U.P., 2000. Gifford, Barry. "Kerouac's Town". Creative Arts, 1977. Gifford, Barry; Lee, Lawrence. "Jack's Book: An Oral Biography of Jack Kerouac". St. Martin's Press, 1978. ISBN 0-14-005269-0 Goldstein, N.W., "Kerouac's On the Road." Explicator 50.1. 1991. Haynes, Sarah, Exploration of Jack Kerouac's Buddhism:Text and Life" Heller, Christine Jack Kerouac and Gary Snyder: Chasing Zen Clouds Hemmer, Kurt. "Encyclopedia of Beat Literature: The Essential Guide to the Lives and Works of the Beat Writers". Facts on File, Inc., 2007. Hipkiss, Robert A., "Jack Kerouac: Prophet of the New Romanticism". Regents Press, 1976. Holmes, John Clellon. "Visitor: Jack Kerouac in Old Saybrook". tuvoti, 1981. Holmes, John Clellon. "Gone In October: Last Reflections on Jack Kerouac". Limberlost, 1985. Holton, Robert. "On the Road: Kerouac's Ragged American Journey". Twayne, 1999. Hrebeniak, Michael. "Action Writing: Jack Kerouac"s Wild Form," Carbondale IL., Southern Illinois UP, 2006. Huebel, Harry Russell. "Jack Kerouac". Boise State U.P., 1979. Hunt, Tim. "Kerouac's Crooked Road". Hamden: Archon Books, 1981. Jarvis, Charles. "Visions of Kerouac". Ithaca Press, 1973. Johnson, Joyce. "Minor Characters: A Young Woman's Coming-Of-Age in the Beat Orbit of Jack Kerouac". Penguin Books, 1999. Johnson, Joyce. "Door Wide Open: A Beat Love Affair in Letters, 1957-1958". Viking, 2000. Johnson, Ronna C., "You're Putting Me On: Jack Kerouac and the Postmodern Emergence". College Literature. 27.1 2000. Jones, James T., "A Map of Mexico City Blues: Jack Kerouac as Poet". Southern Illinois U.P., 1992. Jones, James T., "Jack Kerouac's Duluoz Legend". Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999. Jones, Jim. "Use My Name: Kerouac's Forgotten Families". ECW Press, 1999. Jones, Jim. "Jack Kerouac's Nine Lives". Elbow/Cityful Press, 2001. Kealing, Bob. "Kerouac in Florida: Where the Road Ends". Arbiter Press, 2004. Kerouac, Joan Havery. "Nobody's Wife: The Smart Aleck and the King of the Beats". Creative Arts, 2000. Maher Jr., Paul. "Kerouac: The Definitive Biography". Lanham: Taylor Trade P, July 2004 ISBN 0-87833-305-3 McNally, Dennis. "Desolate Angel: Jack Kerouac, the Beat Generation, and America". Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81222-3 Miles, Barry. "Jack Kerouac: King of the Beats". Virgin, 1998. Montgomery, John. "Jack Kerouac: A Memoir ...". Giligia Press, 1970. Montgomery, John. "Kerouac West Coast". Fels & Firn Press, 1976. Montgomery, John. "The Kerouac We Knew". Fels & Firn Press, 1982. Montgomery, John. "Kerouac at the Wild Boar". Fels & Firn Press, 1986. Mortenson, Erik R., "Beating Time: Configurations of Temporality in Jack Kerouac's On the Road". College Literature 28.3. 2001. Motier, Donald. "Gerard: The Influence of Jack Kerouac's Brother on his Life and Writing". Beaulieu Street Press, 1991. Nicosia, Gerald. "Memory Babe: A Critical Biography of Jack Kerouac". Berkeley: U of Cal P, 1994. ISBN 0-520-08569-8 Parker, Brad. "Jack Kerouac: An Introduction". Lowell Corporation for the Humanities, 1989. Sandison, David. "Jack Kerouac". Hamlyn, 1999. Swartz, Omar. "The View From On the Road: The Rhetorical Vision of Jack Kerouac". Southern Illinois U.P., 1999. Swick, Thomas. "South Florida Sun Sentinel". February 22, 2004. Article: "Jack Kerouac in Orlando". Theado, Matt. "Understanding Jack Kerouac". Columbia: University of South Carolina, 2000. Turner, Steve. "Angelheaded Hipster: A Life of Jack Kerouac". Viking Books, 1996. ISBN 0-670-87038-2 Walsh, Joy, editor. Moody Street Irregulars: A Jack Kerouac Newsletter Weinreich, Regina. "The Spontaneous Prose of Jack Kerouac". Southern Illinois U.P., 1987. Wills, David, editor. "Beatdom Magazine". Mauling Press, 2007. External links "About the Beat Generation", by Jack Kerouac — a definition of the Beat Generation in Kerouac's own words Analysis of Kerouac's life and works from a Roman Catholic perspective Jack Kerouac's childhood home in Queens, NY Citynoise.org, March 3, 2009 Dharma Beat — A Jack Kerouac website with articles on Kerouac and a Links page Kerouac Alley — contains quotations, a multimedia directory, and a collection of links On the Road Again: Friends and scholars recall the man behind the myth of Jack Kerouac. Compiled by Meghan O'Rourke, Slate'', September 4, 2007 Beatdom: a literary journal devoted to the Beat Generation The Beat Handbook Lowell Celebrates Kerouac! be-x-old:Джэк Кэруак

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Electronic_paper

iLiad e-book reader equipped with e-paper display Electronic paper, also called e-paper, is a display technology designed to mimic the appearance of ordinary ink on paper. Unlike a conventional flat panel display, which uses a backlight to illuminate its pixels, electronic paper reflects light like ordinary paper and is capable of holding text and images indefinitely without drawing electricity, while allowing the image to be changed later. To build e-paper, several different technologies exist, some using plastic substrate and electronics so that the display is flexible. E-paper is considered more comfortable to read than conventional displays. This is due to the stable image, which does not need to be refreshed constantly, the wider viewing angle, and the fact that it reflects ambient light rather than emitting its own light. While it is lightweight and durable, it still lacks good color reproduction. The contrast ratio in common devices as of 2008 might be described as similar to dirty newspaper, though newly-developed implementations are slightly better . Applications include e-book readers capable of displaying digital versions of books and e-paper magazines, electronic pricing labels in retail shops, time tables at bus stations, Photo electronic billboards, and the mobile phone Motorola FONE F3. Electronic paper should not be confused with digital paper, which is a pad to create handwritten digital documents with a digital pen. Technology Gyricon Electronic paper was first developed in the 1970s by Nick Sheridon at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center. The first electronic paper, called Gyricon, consisted of polyethylene spheres between 75 and 106 micrometres across. Each sphere is a janus particle composed of negatively charged black plastic on one side and positively charged white plastic on the other (each bead is thus a dipole Crowley, J. M.; Sheridon, N. K.; Romano, L. "Dipole moments of gyricon balls" Journal of Electrostatics 2002, 55, (3-4), 247. ). The spheres are embedded in a transparent silicone sheet, with each sphere suspended in a bubble of oil so that they can rotate freely. The polarity of the voltage applied to each pair of electrodes then determines whether the white or black side is face-up, thus giving the pixel a white or black appearance. New Scientist. Paper goes electric (1999) At the FPD 2008 exhibition, Japanese company Soken has demonstrated a wall with electronic wall-paper using this technology. Techon.Soken electronic wall-paper Electrophoretic Scheme of an electrophoretic display. Scheme of an electrophoretic display using color filters. An electrophoretic display is an information display that forms visible images by rearranging charged pigment particles using an applied electric field. In the simplest implementation of an electrophoretic display, titanium dioxide particles approximately one micrometre in diameter are dispersed in a hydrocarbon oil. A dark-colored dye is also added to the oil, along with surfactants and charging agents that cause the particles to take on an electric charge. This mixture is placed between two parallel, conductive plates separated by a gap of 10 to 100 micrometres. When a voltage is applied across the two plates, the particles will migrate electrophoretically to the plate bearing the opposite charge from that on the particles. When the particles are located at the front (viewing) side of the display, it appears white, because light is scattered back to the viewer by the high-index titania particles. When the particles are located at the rear side of the display, it appears dark, because the incident light is absorbed by the colored dye. If the rear electrode is divided into a number of small picture elements (pixels), then an image can be formed by applying the appropriate voltage to each region of the display to create a pattern of reflecting and absorbing regions. Electrophoretic displays are considered prime examples of the electronic paper category, because of their paper-like appearance and low power consumption. Examples of commercial electrophoretic displays include the high-resolution active matrix displays used in the Amazon Kindle, Sony Librie, Sony Reader, and iRex iLiad e-readers. These displays are constructed from an electrophoretic imaging film manufactured by E Ink Corporation. The Motorola MOTOFONE F3 was the first mobile phone to use the technology, in an effort to help eliminate glare from direct sunlight during outdoor use. Electrophoretic displays can be manufactured using the Electronics on Plastic by Laser Release (EPLaR) process developed by Philips Research to enable existing AM-LCD manufacturing plants to create flexible plastic displays. In the 1990s another type of electronic paper was invented by Joseph Jacobson, who later co-founded the E Ink Corporation which formed a partnership with Philips Components two years later to develop and market the technology. In 2005, Philips sold the electronic paper business as well as its related patents to Prime View International. This used tiny microcapsules filled with electrically charged white particles suspended in a colored oil. Comiskey, B.; Albert, J. D.; Yoshizawa, H.; Jacobson, J. "An electrophoretic ink for all-printed reflective electronic displays" Nature 1998, 394, (6690), 253-255. In early versions, the underlying circuitry controlled whether the white particles were at the top of the capsule (so it looked white to the viewer) or at the bottom of the capsule (so the viewer saw the color of the oil). This was essentially a reintroduction of the well-known electrophoretic display technology, but the use of microcapsules allowed the display to be used on flexible plastic sheets instead of glass. One early version of electronic paper consists of a sheet of very small transparent capsules, each about 40 micrometres across. Each capsule contains an oily solution containing black dye (the electronic ink), with numerous white titanium dioxide particles suspended within. The particles are slightly negatively charged, and each one is naturally white. The microcapsules are held in a layer of liquid polymer, sandwiched between two arrays of electrodes, the upper of which is made transparent. The two arrays are aligned so that the sheet is divided into pixels, which each pixel corresponding to a pair of electrodes situated either side of the sheet. The sheet is laminated with transparent plastic for protection, resulting in an overall thickness of 80 micrometres, or twice that of ordinary paper. Appearance of pixels The network of electrodes is connected to display circuitry, which turns the electronic ink 'on' and 'off' at specific pixels by applying a voltage to specific pairs of electrodes. Applying a negative charge to the surface electrode repels the particles to the bottom of local capsules, forcing the black dye to the surface and giving the pixel a black appearance. Reversing the voltage has the opposite effect - the particles are forced from the surface, giving the pixel a white appearance. A more recent incarnation New Scientist. Roll the presses (2001) of this concept requires only one layer of electrodes beneath the microcapsules. Electrowetting The technology is based on controlling the shape of a confined water/oil interface by an applied voltage. With no voltage applied, the (coloured) oil forms a flat film between the water and a hydrophobic (water-repellent), insulating coating of an electrode, resulting in a coloured pixel. When a voltage is applied between the electrode and the water, the interfacial tension between the water and the coating changes. As a result the stacked state is no longer stable, causing the water to move the oil aside. This results in a partly transparent pixel, or, in case a reflective white surface is used under the switchable element, a white pixel. Because of the small size of the pixel, the user only experiences the average reflection, which means that a high-brightness, high-contrast switchable element is obtained, which forms the basis of the reflective display. Displays based on electro-wetting have several attractive features. The switching between white and coloured reflection is fast enough to display video content. Furthermore, it is a low-power and low-voltage technology, and displays based on the effect can be made flat and thin. The reflectivity and contrast are better or equal to those of other reflective display types and are approaching those of paper. In addition, the technology offers a unique path toward high-brightness full-colour displays, leading to displays that are four times brighter than reflective LCDs and twice as bright as other emerging technologies. LiquaVista electrowetting display technologies http://www.liquavista.com Instead of using red, green and blue (RGB) filters or alternating segments of the three primary colours, which effectively result in only one third of the display reflecting light in the desired colour, electro-wetting allows for a system in which one sub-pixel is able to switch two different colours independently. This results in the availability of two thirds of the display area to reflect light in any desired colour. This is achieved by building up a pixel with a stack of two independently controllable coloured oil films plus a colour filter. The colours used are cyan, magenta and yellow, which is a so-called subtractive system, comparable to the principle used in inkjet printing for example. Compared to LCD another factor two in brightness is gained because no polarisers are required. The Hindu : Technology for reflective full-colour display Electrofluidic Electrofluidic displays are a novel variation of an electrowetting display. Electrofluidic displays place an aqueous pigment dispersion inside a tiny reservoir. The reservoir comprises <5-10% of the viewable pixel area and therefore the pigment is substantially hidden from view. Voltage is used to electromechanically pull the pigment out of the reservoir and spread it as a film directly behind the viewing substrate. As a result, the display takes on color and brightness similar to that of conventional pigments printed on paper. When voltage is removed liquid surface tension causes the pigment dispersion to rapidly recoil into the reservoir. As reported in the May 2009 Issue of Nature Photonics, the technology can potentially provide >85% white state reflectance for electronic paper. The core technology was invented at the Novel Devices Laboratory at the University of Cincinnati. The technology is currently being commercialized by Gamma Dynamics. Other technologies Electronic paper has also been produced using technologies such as cholesteric LCD (Ch-LC). Other research efforts into e-paper have involved using organic transistors embedded into flexible substrates, Huitema, H. E. A.; Gelinck, G. H.; van der Putten, J. B. P. H.; Kuijk, K. E.; Hart, C. M.; Cantatore, E.; Herwig, P. T.; van Breemen, A. J. J. M.; de Leeuw, D. M. "Plastic transistors in active-matrix displays" Nature 2001, 414, (6864), 599. Gelinck, G. H. et al. "Flexible active-matrix displays and shift registers based on solution-processed organic transistors" Nature Materials 2004, 3, (2), 106-110. including attempts to build them into conventional paper. Andersson, P.; Nilsson, D.; Svensson, P. O.; Chen, M.; Malmström, A.; Remonen, T.; Kugler, T.; Berggren, M. "Active Matrix Displays Based on All-Organic Electrochemical Smart Pixels Printed on Paper" Adv Mater 2002, 14, (20), 1460-1464. Simple color e-paper New Scientist. Read all about it consists of a thin colored optical filter added to the monochrome technology described above. The array of pixels is divided into triads, typically consisting of the standard cyan, magenta and yellow, in the same way as CRT monitors (although using subtractive primary colors as opposed to additive primary colors). The display is then controlled like any other electronic color display. Disadvantages Electronic paper technologies have a very low refresh rate comparing with LCD technologies. This prevents producers from implementing sophisticated interactive applications (using fast moving menus, mouse pointers or scrolling) like those which are possible on handheld computers. This has a major impact on the e-paper capacity to display zoomed version of large text or images on a small display. Applications Several companies are simultaneously developing electronic paper and ink. While the technologies used by each company provide many of the same features, each has its own distinct technological advantages. All electronic paper technologies face the following general challenges: A method for encapsulation An ink or active material to fill the encapsulation Electronics to activate the ink Electronic ink can be applied to both flexible and rigid materials. In the case of flexible displays, the base requires a thin, flexible material tough enough to withstand considerable wear, such as extremely thin plastic. The method of how the inks are encapsulated and then applied to the substrate is what distinguishes each company from each other. These processes are complex and are carefully guarded industry secrets. The manufacture of electronic paper promises to be less complicated and less costly than traditional LCD manufacture. There are many approaches to electronic paper, with many companies developing technology in this area. Other technologies being applied to electronic paper include modifications of liquid crystal displays, electrochromic displays, and the electronic equivalent of an Etch A Sketch at Kyushu University. Advantages of electronic paper includes low power usage (power is only drawn when the display is updated), flexibility and better readability than most displays. Electronic ink can be printed on any surface, including walls, billboards, product labels and T-shirts. The ink's flexibility would also make it possible to develop rollable displays for electronic devices. The ideal electronic paper product is a digital book that can typeset itself and could be read as if it were made of regular paper, yet programmed to download and display the text from any book. Another possible use is in the distribution of an electronic version of a daily paper. Commercial applications The Motorola F3 uses an e-paper display instead of an LCD. Education: digital schoolbooks In January 2007, the Dutch specialist in e-Paper edupaper.nl started a pilot project in a secondary school in Maastricht, using e-Paper as digital schoolbooks to reduce costs and students' daily burden of books. e-Books In September 2006 Sony released the PRS-500 Sony Reader e-book reader. On October 2, 2007, Sony announced the PRS-505, an updated version of the Reader. In November 2008, Sony released the PRS-700BC which incorporated a backlight and a touchscreen. In November 2006, the iRex iLiad was ready for the consumer market. Consumers could initially read e-Books in PDF and HTML formats, and in July 2007 support for the popular Mobipocket PRC format was added, but price was still a problem. With the introduction of the competing Cybook, prices have decreased almost 50%. In late 2007, Amazon began producing and marketing the Amazon Kindle, an e-book with an e-paper display. In February 2009, Amazon released the Kindle 2 and in May 2009 the larger Kindle DX was announced. Newspapers In February 2006, the Flemish daily De Tijd distributed an electronic version of the paper to select subscribers in a limited marketing study, using a pre-release version of the iRex iLiad. This was the first recorded application of electronic ink to newspaper publishing. In September 2007, the French daily Les Échos announced the official launch of an electronic version of the paper on a subscription basis. Two offers are available, combining a one year subscription and a reading device. One interesting point of the offer is the choice of a light (176g) reading device (adapted for Les Echos by Ganaxa) or the iRex iLiad. Two different processing platforms are used to deliver readable information of the daily, one based on the newly developed GPP electronic ink platform from Ganaxa, and the other one developed internally by Les Echos. Since January 2008, the Dutch daily NRC Handelsblad is distributed for the iRex iLiad reader. Digital Photo Frame In the future as electronic paper displays improve and full high quality color is possible, the technology may become incorporated in digital photo frame products. Existing digital photo frames require a constant power supply and have a limited viewing angle and physical thickness that is inferior to a conventional photograph. A digital photo frame using e-paper technology would address all of these shortcomings. A well-designed digital photo frame using an electronic ink display could, in theory, run for months or years from batteries, because such a device would require electricity only to briefly boot up to connect to a USB memory stick (or other storage device) and change the display before powering off all components. Displays embedded in smart cards Flexible display cards enable financial payment cardholders to generate a one-time password to reduce online banking and transaction fraud. Electronic paper could offer a flat and thin alternative to existing key fob tokens for data security. The world’s first ISO compliant smart card with an embedded display was developed by Smartdisplayer using SiPix Imaging’s electronic paper. Cell phone displays Motorola's low-cost mobile phone, the Motorola F3, also uses an alphanumeric black/white electrophoretic display. See also E-book List of e-book readers Display examples Further reading New Scientist - Electric paper (2003) New Scientist - E-paper may offer video images (2003) New Scientist - Paper comes alive (2003) New Scientist - Most flexible electronic paper yet revealed (2004) New Scientist - Roll-up digital displays move closer to market (2005) Electronista - Seiko Epson develops ultra-dense e-paper display (11-2007) Unidym Press Room - Unidym and Samsung Electronics demonstrate the world's first colour carbon-nanotube-based electrophoretic display (10-2008) References External links Epaper Central - Electronic Paper News, Information, and Analysis Electronic Paper:Merging between Traditional Publishing & e-Publishing Wired article on E Ink-Philips partnership, and background . Retrieved on 2007-08-26. MIT ePaper Project Xerox PARC epaper project Gamma Dynamics - Commercializing a New Pigment-Based Electrowetting Display Office of Tomorrow The Online Magazine for displays The Future of Electronic Paper - Past, present and future of e-paper including an interview with Nick Sheridon, Father of E-paper at Xerox Fujitsu Develops World's First Film Substrate-based Bendable Color Electronic Paper featuring Image Memory Function.

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Horse_breeding

Mares and foals Horse breeding refers to reproduction in horses, and particularly the human-directed process of selective breeding of animals, particularly purebred horses of a given breed. While feral and wild horses breed successfully without human assistance, planned matings can be used to produce specifically desired characteristics in domesticated horses. Furthermore, modern breeding management and technologies can increase the rate of conception, a healthy pregnancy, and successful foaling. Terminology The male parent of a horse, a stallion, is commonly known as the sire and the female parent, the mare, is called the dam. Both are genetically important, as each parent provides half of the genetic makeup of the ensuing offspring, called a foal. (Contrary to popular misuse, the word "colt" refers to a young male horse only; "filly" is a young female.) Though many horse owners may simply breed a family mare to a local stallion in order to produce a companion animal, most professional breeders use selective breeding to produce individuals of a given phenotype, or breed. Alternatively, a breeder could, using individuals of differing phenotypes, create a new breed with specific characteristics. A horse is "bred" where it is foaled. Thus a foal conceived in England but foaled in the US is regarded as being bred in the United States. Montgomery, E.S, “The Thoroughbred”, Arco, New York, 1973 ISBN 0-668-02824-6 AJC & VRC, "Australian Stud Book", Vol. 31, Ramsay Ware Stockland Pty. Ltd., North Melbourne, 1980 The "breeder" is the owner of a mare when it gives birth. He may not have had anything to do with the mating of the mare. Montgomery, E.S, “The Thoroughbred”, Arco, New York, 1973 ISBN 0-668-02824-6 Stratton, Charles, The International Horseman’s Dictionary, Lansdowne Press, Melbourne, 1978, ISBN: 0 7018 0590 0 In horse breeding, the term "half-brother" or "half-sister" only describes horses which have the same dam, but different sires. Summerhayes, RS, Encyclopaedia for Horsemen, Warne & Co, London & New York, 1966 Horses with the same sire but different dams are simply said to be "by the same sire", and no sibling relationship is implied. de Bourg, Ross, “The Australian and New Zealand Thoroughbred”, Nelson, West Melbourne, 1980, ISBN 0 17 005860 3 "Full" (or "own") siblings have both the same dam and the same sire. Three-quarter siblings are horses out of the same dam, and are by sires that are either half-brothers (i.e. same dam) or who are by the same sire. Napier, Miles, “Blood Will Tell”, JA Allen & Co, London, 1977 Thoroughbreds and Arabians are also classified through the "distaff" or direct female line, known as their "family" or "tail female" line, tracing back to their taproot foundation bloodstock or the beginning of their respective stud books. The female line of descent always appears at the bottom of a tabulated pedigree and is therefore often known as the bottom line. Napier, Miles, “Blood Will Tell”, JA Allen & Co, London, 1977 "Linebreeding" technically is the duplication of fourth generation or more distant ancestors. de Bourg, Ross, “The Australian and New Zealand Thoroughbred”, Nelson, West Melbourne, 1980, ISBN 0 17 005860 3 However, the term is often used more loosely, describing horses with duplication of ancestors closer than the fourth generation. It also is sometimes used as a euphemism for the practice of inbreeding, a practice that is generally frowned upon by horse breeders, though used by some in an attempt to fix certain traits. Estrous cycle of the mare Also see Equine anatomy-Reproductive system The estrous cycle (also spelled oestrous) controls when a mare is sexually receptive toward a stallion, and helps to physically prepare the mare for conception. It generally occurs during the spring and summer months, although some mares may be sexually receptive into the late fall, and is controlled by the photoperiod (length of the day), the cycle first triggered when the days begin to lengthen. The estrous cycle lasts about 19–22 days, with the average being 21 days. As the days shorten, the mare returns to a period when she is not sexually receptive, known as anestrus. Anestrus - occurring in the majority of, but not all, mares - prevents the mare from conceiving in the winter months, as that would result in her foaling during the harshest part of the year, a time when it would be most difficult for the foal to survive. This cycle contains 2 phases: Estrus, or Follicular, phase: 5–7 days in length, when the mare is sexually receptive to a stallion. Estrogen is secreted by the follicle. Ovulation occurs in the final 24–48 hours of estrus. Diestrus, or Luteal, phase: 14–15 days in length, the mare is not sexually receptive to the stallion. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone. Depending on breed, on average, 16% of mares have double ovulations, allowing them to twin, this does not affect the length of time of estrus or diestrus. Effects on the reproductive system during the estrous cycle Changes in hormone levels can have great effects on the physical characteristics of the reproductive organs of the mare, thereby preparing, or preventing, her from conceiving. Uterus: increased levels of estrogen during estrus cause edema within the uterus, making it feel heavier, and the uterus loses its tone. This edema decreases following ovulation, and the muscular tone increases. High levels of progesterone do not cause edema within the uterus. The uterus becomes flaccid during anestrus. Cervix: the cervix starts to relax right before estrus occurs, with maximal relaxation around the time of ovulation. The secretions of the cervix increase. High progesterone levels (during diestrus) cause the cervix to close and become toned. Vagina: the portion of the vagina near the cervix becomes engorged with blood right before estrus. The vagina becomes relaxed and secretions increase. Vulva: relaxes right before estrus begins. Becomes dry, and closes more tightly, during diestrus. Hormones involved in the estrous cycle, during foaling, and after birth The cycle is controlled by several hormones which regulate the estrous cycle, the mare's behavior, and the reproductive system of the mare. The cycle begins when the increased day length causes the pineal gland to reduce the levels of melatonin, thereby allowing the hypothalamus to secrete GnRH. GnRH (Gonadotropin releasing hormone): secreted by the hypothalamus, causes the pituitary to release of 2 gonadotrophins: LH and FSH. LH (Luteinizing hormone): levels are highest 2 days following ovulation, then slowly decrease over 4–5 days, dipping to their lowest levels 5–16 days after ovulation. Stimulates the follicle to mature, which then in turn secretes estrogen. Unlike most mammals, the mare does not have an increase of LH right before ovulation. FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone): secreted by the pituitary, causes the ovarian follicle to develop. Levels of FSH rise slightly at the end of estrus, but have their highest peak about 10 days before the next ovulation. FSH is inhibited by inhibin (see below), at the same time LH and estrogen levels rise, which prevents immature follicles from continuing their growth. Mares may however have multiple FSH waves during a single estrous cycle, and diestrus follicles resulting from a diestrus FSH wave are not uncommon, particularly in the height of the natural breeding season. Estrogen: secreted by the developing follicle, it causes the pituitary gland to secrete more LH (therefore, these 2 hormones are in a positive feedback loop). Additionally, it causes behavioral changes in the mare, making her more recpetive toward the stallion, and causes physical changes in the cervix, uterus, and vagina to prepare the mare for conception (see above). Estrogen peaks 1–2 days before ovulation, and decreases within 2 days following ovulation. Inhibin: secreted by the developed follicle right before ovulation, "turns off" FSH, which is no longer needed now that the follicle is larger. Progesterone: prevents conception and decreases sexual receptibility of the mare to the stallion. Progesterone is therefore lowest during the estrus phase, and increases during diestrus. It decreases 12-15 days after ovulation, when the corpus luteum begins to decrease in size. Prostaglandin: secreted by the endrometrium 13–15 days following ovulation, causes luteolysis and prevents the corpus luteum from secreting progesterone eCG - equine chorionic gonadotropin - (also called PMSG (pregnant mare serum gonadotropin): chorionic gonadotropins secreted if the mare conceives. First secreted by the endometrial cups around the 36th day of gestation, peaking around day 60, and decreasing after about 120 days of gestation. Also help to stimulate the growth of the fetal gonads. Prolactin: stimulates lactation Oxytocin: stimulates the uterus to contract Breeding and gestation While horses in the wild mate and foal in mid to late spring, many horses domestically bred for competitive purposes, especially horse racing and various futurities, are usually born as close to January first in the northern hemisphere (or August first in the southern hemisphere) as possible, so as to be at an advantage in size and maturity when competing against other horses in the same age group. When an early foal is desired, barn managers will put the mare "under lights" by keeping the barn lights on in the winter to simulate a longer day, thus bringing the mare into estrus sooner than she would in nature. Mares signal estrus and ovulation by urination in the presence of a stallion, raising the tail and revealing the vulva. A stallion, approaching with a high head, will usually nicker, nip and nudge the mare, as well as sniff her urine to determine her readiness for mating. Once fertilized, the oocyte (egg) remains in the oviduct for approximately 5.5 more days, and then descends into the uterus. The initial single cell combination is already dividing and by the time of entry into the uterus, the egg might have already reached the blastocyst stage. The gestation period lasts for about eleven months, or about 340 days (normal average range 320-370 days). During the early days of pregnancy, the conceptus is mobile, moving about in the uterus until about day 16 when "fixation" occurs. Shortly after fixation, the embryo proper (so called up to about 35 days) will become visible on trans-rectal ultrasound (about day 21) and a heartbeat should be visible by about day 23. After the formation of the endometrial cups and early placentation is initiated (35–40 days of gestation) the terminology changes, and the embryo is referred to as a fetus. True implantation - invasion into the endometrium of any sort - does not occur until about day 35 of pregnancy with the formation of the endometrial cups, and true placentation (formation of the placenta) is not initiated until about day 40-45 and not completed until about 140 days of pregnancy. The fetus gender can be determined by day 70 of the gestation using ultrasound. Halfway through gestation the fetus is the size of between a rabbit and a beagle. The most dramatic fetal development occurs in the last 3 months of pregnancy when 60% of fetal growth occurs. Care of the pregnant mare Domestic mares receive specific care and nutrition to ensure that they and their foals are healthy. Mares are given vaccinations against diseases such as the Rhinopneumonitis (EHV-1) virus (which can cause abortions) as well as vaccines for other conditions that may occur in a given region of the world. Pre-foaling vaccines are recommended 4–6 weeks prior to foaling to maximize the immunoglobulin content of the colostrum in the first milk. Vaccination and Passive Transfer - AAEP Deworming the mare a few weeks prior to foaling is also important, as the mare is the primary source of parasites for the foal. http://www.aaep.org/health_articles_view.php?id=140 "Expectant Mare: Assuring the Health and Well-Being of the Pregnant Mare " Mares can be used for riding or driving during most of their pregnancy, and it's healthy for them to have exercise. But only moderate exercise, especially when they become heavy in foal. Exercise in excessively high temperatures has been suggested as being detrimental to pregnancy maintenance during the embryonic period Mortensen C, Choi YH, Hinrichs K, Ing N, Kraemer D, Vogelsang S, Vogelsang M. 2006. Effects of exercise on embryo recovery rates and embryo quality in the horse. Animal Repro. Sci. 94:395-397 - it should however be noted that ambient temperatures encountered during the research were in the region of 100 degrees F and the same results may not be encountered in regions with lower ambient temperatures. During the last 3–4 months of gestation, rapid growth of the fetus increases the pregnant mare's nutritional requirements. Energy requirements during these last few months, and during the first few months of lactation are similar to those of a horse in full training. Trace minerals such as Copper are extremely important, particularly during the tenth month of pregnancy, for proper skeletal formation. http://horse.purinamills.com/products/pregnantlactatingmare.asp "Nutritional Management of Pregnant and Lactating Mares" Many feeds designed for pregnant and lactating mares provide the careful balance required of increased protein, increased calories through extra fat as well as vitamins and minerals. During the first several months of pregnancy, the nutritional requirements do not increase significantly since the rate of growth of the fetus is very slow. However, during this time, the mare should be provided supplemental vitamins and minerals, particularly if forage quality is questionable. Overfeeding the pregnant mare, particularly during early gestation, should be avoided, as excess weight may contribute to difficulties foaling or fetal/foal related problems. Foaling Mares due to foal are usually separated from other horses, both for the benefit of the mare and the safety of the soon-to-be-delivered foal. In addition, separation allows the mare to be monitored more closely by humans for any problems that may occur while giving birth. In the northern hemisphere a special foaling stall that is large and clutter free is frequently used, particularly by major breeding farms. Originally, this was due in part to a need for protection from the harsh winter climate present when mares foal early in the year, but even in moderate climates, such as Florida, foaling stalls are still common because they allow closer monitoring of mares. Smaller breeders often use a small pen with a large shed for foaling, or they may remove a wall between two box stalls in a small barn to make a large stall. In the milder climates seen in much of the southern hemisphere, most mares foal outside, often in a paddock built specifically for foaling, especially on the larger stud farms. Foaling video on an Australian stud farm Many farms worldwide employ technology to alert human managers when the mare is about to foal, including webcams, closed-circuit television, or assorted types of devices that alert a handler via a remote alarm when a mare lays down in a position to foal. On the other hand, some breeders, particularly those in remote areas or with extremely large numbers of horses, may allow mares to foal out in a field amongst a herd, but may also see higher rates of foal and mare mortality in doing so. Most mares foal at night or early in the morning, and prefer to give birth alone when possible. Labor is rapid, often no more than 30 minutes, and from the time the feet of the foal appear to full delivery is often only about 15 to 20 minutes. Once the foal is born, the mare will lick the newborn foal to clean it and help blood circulation. In a very short time, the foal will attempt to stand and get milk from its mother. A foal should stand and nurse within the first hour of life. To create a bond with her foal, the mare licks and nuzzles the foal, enabling her to distinguish hers from others. Some mares are aggressive when protecting their foals, and may attack other horses or unfamiliar humans that come near their newborns. After birth, a foal's navel is dipped in antiseptic to prevent infection, it is sometimes given an enema to help clear the meconium from its digestive tract, and the newborn is monitored to ensure that it stands and nurses without difficulty. While most horse births happen without complications, many owners have first aid supplies prepared and a veterinarian on call in case of a birthing emergency. People who supervise foaling should also watch the mare to be sure that she passes the placenta in a timely fashion, and that it is complete with no fragments remaining in the uterus, where retained fetal membranes could cause a serious inflammatory condition (endometritis) and/or infection. If the placenta is not removed from the stall after it is passed, a mare will often eat it, an instinct from the wild, where blood would attract predators. Foal care A Foal with its mother, or dam Foals develop rapidly, and within a few hours a wild foal can travel with the herd. In domestic breeding, the foal and dam are usually separated from the herd for a while, but within a few weeks are typically pastured with the other horses. A foal will begin to eat hay, grass and grain alongside the mare at about 4 weeks old; by 10–12 weeks the foal requires more nutrition than the mare's milk can supply. Foals are typically weaned at 4–8 months of age, although in the wild a foal may nurse for a year. How breeds develop Beyond the appearance and conformation of a specific type of horse, breeders aspire to improve physical performance abilities. This concept, known as matching "form to function," has led to the development of not only different breeds, but also families or bloodlines within breeds that are specialists for excelling at specific tasks. For example, the Arabian horse of the desert naturally developed speed and endurance to travel long distances and survive in a harsh environment, and domestication by humans added a trainable disposition to the animal's natural abilities. In the meantime, in northern Europe, the locally adapted heavy horse with a thick, warm coat was domesticated and put to work as a farm animal that could pull a plow or wagon. This animal was later adapted through selective breeding to create a strong but ridable animal suitable for the heavily-armored knight in warfare. Then, centuries later, when people in Europe wanted faster horses than could be produced from local horses through simple selective breeding, they imported Arabians and other oriental horses to breed as an outcross to the heavier, local animals. This led to the development of breeds such as the Thoroughbred, a horse taller than the Arabian and faster over the distances of a few miles required of a European race horse or light cavalry horse. Another cross between oriental and European horses produced the Andalusian, a horse developed in Spain that was powerfully built, but extremely nimble and capable of the quick bursts of speed over short distances necessary for certain types of combat as well as for tasks such as bullfighting. Later, the people who settled the Americas needed a hardy horse that was capable of working with cattle. Thus, Arabians and Thoroughbreds were crossed on Spanish horses, both domesticated animals descended from those brought over by the Conquistadors, and feral horses such as the Mustangs, descended from the Spanish horse, but adapted by natural selection to the ecology and climate of the west. These crosses ultimately produced new breeds such as the American quarter horse and the Criollo of Argentina. In modern times, these breeds themselves have since been selectively bred to further specialize at certain tasks. One example of this is the American quarter horse. Once a general-purpose working ranch horse, different bloodlines now specialize in different events. For example, larger, heavier animals with a very steady attitude are bred to give competitors an advantage in events such as team roping, where a horse has to start and stop quickly, but also must calmly hold a full-grown steer at the end of a rope. On the other hand, for an event known as cutting, where the horse must separate a cow from a herd and prevent it from rejoining the group, the best horses are smaller, quick, alert, athletic and highly trainable. They must learn quickly, have conformation that allows quick stops and fast, low turns, and the best competitors have a certain amount of independent mental ability to anticipate and counter the movement of a cow, popularly known as "cow sense." Another example is the Thoroughbred. While most representatives of this breed are bred for horse racing, there are also specialized bloodlines suitable as show hunters or show jumpers. The hunter must have a tall, smooth build that allows it to trot and canter smoothly and efficiently. Instead of speed, value is placed on appearance and upon giving the equestrian a comfortable ride, with natural jumping ability that shows bascule and good form. A show jumper, however, is bred less for overall form and more for power over tall fences, along with speed, scope, and agility. This favors a horse with a good galloping stride, powerful hindquarters that can change speed or direction easily, plus a good shoulder angle and length of neck. A jumper has a more powerful build than either the hunter or the racehorse. History of horse breeding The history of horse breeding goes back millennia. Though the precise date is in dispute, humans could have domesticated the horse as far back as approximately 4500 BCE. However, evidence of planned breeding has a more blurry history. One of the earliest people known to document the breedings of their horses were the Bedouin of the Middle East, the breeders of the Arabian horse. While it is difficult to determine how far back the Bedouin passed on pedigree information via an oral tradition, there were written pedigrees of Arabian horses by A.D. 1330. The Akhal-Teke of West-Central Asia is another breed with roots in ancient times that was also bred specifically for war and racing. The nomads of the Mongolian steppes bred horses for several thousand years as well. The types of horses bred varied with culture and with the times. The uses to which a horse was put also determined its qualities, including smooth amblers for riding, fast horses for carrying messengers, heavy horses for plowing and pulling heavy wagons, ponies for hauling cars of ore from mines, packhorses, carriage horses and many others. Medieval Europe bred large horses specifically for war, called destriers. These horses were the ancestors of the great heavy horses of today, and their size was preferred not simply because of the weight of the armor, but also because a large horse provided more power for the knight’s lance. Weighing almost twice as much as a normal riding horse, the destrier was a powerful weapon in battle. On the other hand, during this same time, lighter horses were bred in northern Africa and the Middle East by Muslim warriors, who preferred a faster, more agile horse. The lighter horse suited the raids and battles of the Bedouins, allowing them to outmaneuver rather than overpower the enemy. When Muslim warriors and European knights collided in warfare, the heavy knights were frequently outmaneuvered. The Europeans, however, soon made up for the lack of speed of their native breeds by incorporating genetic traits from captured oriental horses such as the Arabian, Barb to their stables. This cross-breeding led both to a nimbler war horse, such as today's Percheron, but also to created a type of horse known as a Courser, a predecessor to the Thoroughbred, which was used as a message horse. During the Renaissance, horses were bred not only for war, but for haute ecole riding, derived from the most athletic movements required of a war horse, and popular among the elite nobility of the time. Breeds such as the Lipizzan were developed from Spanish-bred horses for this purpose, and also became the preferred mounts of cavalry officers, who were derived mostly from the ranks of the nobility. It was during this time that gunpowder was developed, and so the light cavalry horse, a faster and quicker war horse, was bred for a “shoot and run” tactic rather than the close hand-to-hand fighting seen in the Middle Ages. After Charles II retook the British throne in 1660, horse racing, which had been banned by Cromwell, was revived. The Thoroughbred was developed 40 years later, bred to be the ultimate racehorse, through the lines of 3 foundation Arabian stallions. In the 1700s, James Burnett, Lord Monboddo noted the importance of selecting appropriate parentage to achieve desired outcomes of successive generations. Monboddo worked more broadly in the abstract thought of species relationships and evolution of species. The Thoroughbred breeding hub in Lexington, Kentucky was developed in the late 1700s, and became a mainstay in American racehorse breeding. The 17th and 18th centuries saw more of a need for fine carriage horses in Europe, bringing in the dawn of the warmblood. The warmblood breeds have been exceptionally good at adapting to changing times, and from their carriage horse beginnings they easily transitioned during the 1900s into a sport horse type. Today’s warmblood breeds, although still used for competitive driving, are more often seen competing in the show jumping or dressage arenas. The Thoroughbred continues to dominate the horseracing world, although its lines have been more recently used to improve warmblood breeds and to develop sport horses. The predecessor of the American Quarter Horse was developed in the 1700s, mainly for quarter racing (racing ¼ of a mile). The breed was later adapted for work in the west, and “cow sense” was particularly bred for as their use for herding cattle increased. However, because there was also a need for animals suitable for sprint racing, the modern Quarter Horse has two distinct types: the sleeker racing type and the stock horse type. The racing type most resembles the finer-boned ancestors of the first racing Quarter Horses, and the type is still used for ¼-mile races. The stock horse type, used in western events, is bred for a shorter stride, docile temperament, and cow sense. The need for horses for heavy draft and carriage work continued until the industrial revolution and the advent of the automobile and the tractor. After this time, draft and carriage horse numbers dropped significantly, though light riding horses remained popular for recreational pursuits. Draft horses today are used on a few small farms, but today are seen mainly for pulling and plowing competitions rather than farm work. Heavy harness horses are now used as an outcross with lighter breeds, such as the Thoroughbred, to produce the modern warmblood breeds popular in Olympic and sport horse disciplines. Deciding to breed a horse Breeding a horse is an endeavor where the owner, particularly of the mare, will usually need to invest considerable time and money. For this reason, a horse owner needs to consider several factors, including: Does the proposed breeding animal have valuable genetic qualities to pass on? Is the proposed breeding animal in good physical health, fertile, and able to withstand the vigors of reproduction? For what purpose will the foal be used? Is there a market for the foal in the event that the owner does not wish to keep the foal for its entire life? What is the anticipated economic benefit, if any, to the owner of the ensuing foal? What is the anticipated economic benefit, if any, to the owner(s) of the sire and dam or the foal? Does the owner of the mare have the expertise to properly manage the mare through gestation and parturition? Does the owner of the potential foal have the expertise to properly manage and train a young animal once it is born? There are value judgements involved in considering whether an animal is suitable breeding stock, hotly debated by breeders. Additional personal beliefs may come into play when considering a suitable level of care for the mare and ensuing foal, the potential market or use for the foal, and other tangible and intangible benefits to the owner. If the breeding endeavor is intended to make a profit, there are additional market factors to consider, which may vary considerably from year to year, from breed to breed, and by region of the world. In many cases, the low end of the market is saturated with horses, and the law of supply and demand thus allows little or no profit to be made from breeding unregistered animals or animals of poor quality, even if registered. The minimum cost of breeding for a mare owner includes the stud fee, and the cost of proper nutrition, management and veterinary care of the mare throughout gestation, parturition, and care of both mare and foal up to the time of weaning. Veterinary expenses may be higher if specialized reproductive technologies are used or health complications occur. Making a profit in horse breeding is often difficult. While some owners of only a few horses may keep a foal for purely personal enjoyment, many individuals breed horses in hopes of making some money in the process. A general rule of thumb is that a foal intended for sale should be worth three times the cost of the stud fee if it were sold at the moment of birth. From birth forward, the costs of care and training are added to the value of the foal, with a sale price going up accordingly. If the foal wins awards in some form of competition, that may also enhance the price. On the other hand, without careful thought, foals bred without a potential market for them may wind up being sold at a loss, and in a worst-case scenario, sold for "salvage" value -- a euphemism for sale to slaughter as horsemeat. Therefore, a mare owner must consider their reasons for breeding, asking hard questions of themselves as to whether their motivations are based on either emotion or profit and how realistic those motivations may be. Choosing breeding stock A stallion with a proven competition record is one criterion for being a suitable sire. The stallion should be chosen to complement the mare, with the goal of producing a foal that has the best qualities of both animals, yet avoids having the weaker qualities of either parent. Generally, the stallion should have proven himself in the discipline or sport the mare owner wishes for the "career" of the ensuing foal. Mares should also have a competition record showing that they also have suitable traits, though this does not happen as often. Some breeders consider the quality of the sire to be more important than the quality of the dam. However, other breeders maintain that the mare is the most important parent. Because stallions can produce far more offspring than mares, a single stallion can have a greater overall impact on a breed. However, the mare may have a greater influence on an individual foal because its physical characteristics influence the developing foal in the womb and the foal also learns habits from its dam when young. Foals may also learn the "language of intimidation and submission" from their dam, and this imprinting may affect the foal's status and rank within the herd. McGreevy, Paul. EQUINE BEHAVIOUR - A Guide For Veterinarians and Equine Scientists. (full citation needed) Many times, a mature horse will achieve status in a herd similar to that of its dam; the offspring of dominant mares become dominant themselves. A purebred horse is usually worth more than a horse of mixed breeding, though this matters more in some disciplines than others. The breed of the horse is sometimes secondary when breeding for a sport horse, but some disciplines may prefer a certain breed or a specific phenotype of horse. Sometimes, purebred bloodlines are an absolute requirement: For example most Racehorses in the world must be recorded with a breed registry in order to race. Bloodlines are often considered, as some bloodlines are known to cross well with others. If the parents have not yet proven themselves by competition or by producing quality offspring, the bloodlines of the horse are often a good indicator of quality and possible strengths and weaknesses. Some bloodlines are known not only for their athletic ability, but could also carry a conformational or genetic defect, poor temperament, or for a medical problem. Some bloodlines are also fashionable or otherwise marketable, which is an important consideration should the mare owner wish to sell the foal. Horse breeders also consider conformation, size and temperament. All of these traits are heritable, and will determine if the foal will be a success in its chosen discipline. The offspring, or “get,” of a stallion are often excellent indicators of his ability to pass on his characteristics, and the particular traits he actually passes on. Some stallions are fantastic performers but never produce offspring of comparable quality. Others sire fillies of great abilities but not colts. At times, a horse of mediocre ability sires foals of outstanding quality. Mare owners also look into the question of if the stallion is fertile and has successfully "settled" (i.e. impregnated) mares. A stallion may not be able to breed naturally, or old age may decrease his performance. Mare care boarding fees and semen collection fees can be a major cost. Costs related to breeding Breeding a horse can be an expensive endeavor, whether breeding a backyard competition horse or the next Olympic medalist. Costs may include: The stud and booking fee Fees for collecting, handling, and transporting semen (if AI is used and semen is shipped) Mare exams: to determine if she is healthy enough to breed, to determine when she ovulates, and (if AI is used) to inseminate her Mare transport, care, and board if the mare is bred live cover at the stallion's residence Veterinary bills to keep the pregnant mare healthy while in foal Possible veterinary bills during pregnancy or foaling should something go wrong Veterinary bills for the foal for its first exam a few days following foaling Stud fees are determined by the quality of the stallion, his performance record, the performance record of his get (offspring), as well as the sport and general market that the animal is standing for. The highest stud fees are generally for racing Thoroughbreds, which may charge from two to three thousand dollars for a breeding to a new or unproven stallion, to several hundred thousand dollars for a breeding to a proven producer of stakes winners. Sport horse stallions generally range from $1000 to $3000, although the top stallions may reach $4000 for one breeding. The lowest stud fees may only be $100–$200, but there are trade-offs: the horse will probably be unproven, and probably much less athletic than a horse with a stud fee that is a bit higher. As a stallion's career, either performance or breeding, improves, his stud fee tends to increase in proportion. If one or two offspring are especially successful, winning several stakes races or an Olympic medal, the stud fee will generally greatly increase. Younger, unproven stallions will generally have a lower stud fee earlier on in their careers. To help decrease the risk of financial loss should the mare die or abort the foal while pregnant, many studs have a live foal guarantee (LFG) - also known as "no foal, free return" or "NFFR" - allowing the owner to have a free breeding to their stallion the next year. However, this is not offered for every breeding. Covering the mare roght|An artificial vagina, used to collect semen There are two general ways to "cover" or breed the mare: Live cover: the mare is brought to the stallion's residence and is covered "live" in the breeding shed. She may also be turned out in a pasture with the stallion for several days to breed naturally ('pasture bred'). The former situation is often preferred, as it provides a more controlled environment, allowing the breeder to ensure that the mare was covered, and places the handlers in a position to remove the horses from one another should one attempt to kick or bite the other. Artificial Insemination (AI): the mare is inseminated by a veterinarian or an equine reproduction manager, using either fresh, cooled or frozen semen. After the mare is bred or artificially inseminated, she should be checked using ultrasound 14–16 days later to see if she “took”, and is pregnant. A second check is usually performed at 28 days. If the mare is not pregnant, she may be bred again during her next cycle. It is considered safe to breed a mare to a stallion of much larger size. Because of the mare’s type of placenta and its attachment and blood supply, the foal will be limited in its growth within the uterus to the size of the mare's uterus, but will grow to its genetic potential after it is born. Test breedings have been done with draft horse stallions bred to small mares with no increase in the number of difficult births. Stanford, Dr. David, Woodside Equine Clinic, Ashland, VA Live cover When breeding live cover, the mare is usually boarded at the stud. She is "teased" several times with a stallion that will not breed to her, usually with the stallion being presented to the mare over a barrier. Her reaction to the teaser, whether hostile or passive, is noted. A mare that is in heat will generally tolerate a teaser (although this is not always the case), and may present herself to him, holding her tail to the side. A veterinarian may also determine if the mare is ready to be bred, by ultrasound or palpating daily to determine if ovulation has occurred. When it has been determined that the mare is ready, both the mare and intended stud will be cleaned. The mare will then be presented to the stallion, usually with one handler controlling the mare and one or more handlers in charge of the stallion. Multiple handlers are preferred, as the mare and stallion can be easily separated should there be any trouble. The Jockey Club, the organization that oversees the Thoroughbred industry in the United States, requires all registered foals to be bred through live cover. Artificial insemination, listed below, is not permitted. Section V, Rule 1, Part D, The American Stud Book Principle Rules and Requirements. The Jockey Club, 2009. Accessed 2009-04-05. By contrast, the standardbred industry allows registered foals to be bred by live cover, or by artificial insemination (AI) with fresh or frozen (not dried) semen. No other artificial fertility treatment is allowed. In addition, foals bred via AI may only be registered if the stallion's sperm was collected during his lifetime, and used no later than the calendar year of his death or castration. Rule 26, Section 6, Rules and Regulations of the United States Trotting Association 2005. United States Trotting Association, 2005. Accessed 2006-08-27. Artificial insemination Horse semen being collected for use in artificial insemination. Artificial insemination (AI) has several advantages over live cover, and has a very similar conception rate: The mare and stallion never have to come in contact with each other, which therefore reduces breeding accidents, such as the mare kicking the stallion. AI opens up the world to international breeding, as semen may be shipped across continents to mares that would otherwise be unable to breed to a particular stallion. A mare also does not have to travel to the stallion, so the process is less stressful on her, and if she already has a foal, the foal does not have to travel. AI allows more mares to be bred from one stallion, as the ejaculate may be split between mares. AI reduces the chance of spreading sexually transmitted diseases between mare and stallion. AI allows mares or stallions with health issues, such as sore hocks which may prevent a stallion from mounting, to continue to breed. Frozen semen may be stored and used to breed mares even after the stallion is dead, allowing his lines to continue. However, the semen of some stallions does not freeze well. Some breed registries may not permit the registration of foals resulting from the use of frozen semen after the stallion's death, although other large registries accept such usage and provide registrations. The overall trend is toward permitting use of frozen semen after the death of the stallion. A stallion is usually trained to mount a phantom (or dummy) mare, although a live mare may be used, and he is most commonly collected using an artificial vagina (AV) which is heated to simulate the vagina of the mare. The AV has a filter and collection area at one end to capture the semen, which can then be processed in a lab. The semen may be chilled or frozen and shipped to the mare owner or used to breed mares "on-farm". When the mare is in heat, the person inseminating introduces the semen directly into her uterus using a syringe and pipette. The Thoroughbred industry does not allow AI or surrogate dams. Advanced Reproductive Techniques Often an owner does not want to take a valuable competition mare out of training to carry a foal. This presents a problem, as the mare will usually be quite old by the time she is retired from her competitive career, at which time it is more difficult to impregnate her. Other times, a mare may have physical problems that prevent or discourage breeding. However, there are now several options for breeding these mares. These options also allow a mare to produce multiple foals each breeding season, instead of the usual one. Therefore, mares may have an even greater value for breeding. Embryo Transfer: This relatively new method involves flushing out the mare's fertilized embryo a few days following insemination, and transferring to a surrogate mare, which has been synchronized to be in the same phase of the estrous cycle as the donor mare. http://www.aaep.org/health_articles_view.php?id=143 "Embryo Transfer" Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT): The mare's ovum and the stallion's sperm are deposited in the oviduct of a surrogate dam. This technique is very useful for subfertile stallions, as fewer sperm are needed, so a stallion with a low sperm count can still successfully breed. Egg Transfer: An oocyte is removed from the mare's follicle and transferred into the oviduct of the recipient mare, who is then bred. This is best for mares with physical problems, such as an obstructed oviduct, that prevent breeding. See also Domestication of the horse Evolution of the horse Foal List of horse breeds Natural selection External links HorseRepro.com - A site is dedicated to the education of veterinary students, the public and veterinarians on all facets of horse reproduction. Equine-Reproduction.com - A web site dedicated to providing detailed information on horse breeding with many useful articles How To Tell if a Mare is in Heat Signs a Mare will Foal Foaling Kit & Checklist References Riegal, Ronald J. DMV, and Susan E. Hakola DMV. Illustrated Atlas of Clinical Equine Anatomy and Common Disorders of the Horse Vol. II''. Equistar Publication, Limited. Marysville, OH. Copyright 2000.

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Apatosaurus

Apatosaurus (), including the popular, but obsolete synonym Brontosaurus, is a genus of sauropod dinosaur that lived about 150 million years ago, during the Jurassic Period (Kimmeridgian and Tithonian ages). It was one of the largest land animals that ever existed, with an average length of 23 meters (75 ft) and a mass of at least 23 metric tons (25 short tons). The name Apatosaurus means 'deceptive lizard', so-given because the chevron bones were similar to those of a prehistoric marine lizard, Mosasaurus. The composite term Apatosaurus comes from the Greek names apate ()/apatelos () meaning 'deception'/'deceptive' and sauros () meaning 'lizard'. The cervical vertebrae were less elongated and more heavily constructed than those of Diplodocus and the bones of the leg were much stockier (despite being longer), implying a more robust animal. The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion. Like most sauropods, Apatosaurus had only a single large claw on each forelimb, with the first three toes on the hind limb possessing claws. Fossils of this animal have been found in Nine Mile Quarry and Bone Cabin Quarry in Wyoming and at sites in Colorado, Oklahoma and Utah, USA. Description Life restoration of Apatosaurus Apatosaurus was a tremendously large long-necked quadrupedal animal with a long whip-like tail. Its forelimbs were slightly longer than its hindlimbs. One measurement places the total length of Apatosaurus at 26 meters (85 ft) and its weight at 24-32 tons, roughly the weight of four elephants. Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. (2008) Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages Supplementary Information The skull was small in comparison with the size of the animal. The jaws were lined with spatulate teeth, which resembled chisels, suited to an herbivorous diet. Classification and species Apatosaurus is a member of the family Diplodocidae, a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth, including Diplodocus, Supersaurus, Suuwassea, and Barosaurus. Within the subfamily Apatosaurinae, Apatosaurus may be most closely related to Suuwassea, Supersaurus and Eobrontosaurus. Taylor, M.P. and Naish, D. (2005). "The phylogenetic taxonomy of Diplodocoidea (Dinosauria: Sauropoda)." PaleoBios, 25(2): 1–7. (download here) Harris, J.D. (2006). "The significance of Suuwassea emiliae (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) for flagellicaudatan intrarelationships and evolution." Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, 4(2): 185–198. In 1877, Othniel Charles Marsh published the name of the type species Apatosaurus ajax. He followed this in 1879 with a description of another, more complete specimen, which he thought represented a new genus and named Brontosaurus excelsus. In 1903, Elmer Riggs pointed out that Brontosaurus excelsus was in fact so similar to Apatosaurus ajax that it belonged in the same genus, and which Riggs re-classified as Apatosaurus excelsus. According to the rules of the ICZN (which governs the scientific names of animals), the name Apatosaurus, having been published first, had priority as the official name; Brontosaurus was a junior synonym and therefore discarded from formal use. Apatosaurus ajax is the type species of the genus, and was named by the paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh in 1877 after Ajax, the hero from Greek mythology. It is the holotype for the genus and two partial skeletons have been found, including part of a skull. Apatosaurus excelsus (originally Brontosaurus) was named by Marsh in 1879. It is known from six partial skeletons, including part of a skull, which have been found in the United States, in Colorado, Oklahoma, Utah, and Wyoming. Apatosaurus louisae was named by William Holland in 1915 in honor of Mrs. Louise Carnegie, wife of Andrew Carnegie who funded field research to find complete dinosaur skeletons in the American West. Apatosaurus louisae is known from one partial skeleton which was found in Colorado in the United States. Apatosaurus parvus was originally known as Elosaurus parvus, but was reclassified as a species of Apatosaurus in 1994. Carpenter, K. and McIntosh, J. (1994). "Upper Jurassic sauropod babies from the Morrison Formation", In: K. Carpenter, K. F. Hirsch, and J. R. Horner (eds.), Dinosaur Eggs and Babies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 265–278 This synonymy was upheld in 2004. Upchurch, Paul; Tomida, Yukimitsu; and Barrett, Paul M. (2004). "A new specimen of Apatosaurus ajax (Sauropoda: Diplodocidae) from the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic) of Wyoming, USA." National Science Museum monographs 26: i-118 ISSN:13429574 Cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Lovelace, Hartman, and Wahl, 2008. Robert T. Bakker made A. yahnahpin the type species of a new genus, Eobrontosaurus in 1998, so it is now properly Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin. It was named by Filla, James and Redman in 1994. One partial skeleton has been found in Wyoming. However, recently it has been argued that Eobrontosaurus belongs within Camarasaurus. History 1896 diagram of the Apatosaurus excelsus skeleton by O.C. Marsh Othniel Charles Marsh, a Professor of Paleontology at Yale University, described and named an incomplete (and juvenile) skeleton of Apatosaurus ajax in 1877. Two years later, Marsh announced the discovery of a larger and more complete specimen at Como Bluff Wyoming—which, because of discrepancies including the size difference, Marsh incorrectly identified as belonging to an entirely new genus and species. He dubbed the new species Brontosaurus excelsus, meaning "thunder lizard", from the Greek brontē/βροντη meaning 'thunder' and sauros/σαυρος meaning 'lizard', and from the Latin excelsus, "to exceed in number", referring to the greater number of sacral vertebrae than in any other genus of sauropod known at the time. Original (outdated) Apatosaurus excelsus skeletal mount at the AMNH The finds—the largest dinosaur ever discovered at the time and nearly complete, lacking only a head, feet, and portions of the tail—were then prepared for what was to be the first ever mounted display of a sauropod skeleton, at Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History in 1905. The missing bones were created using known pieces from close relatives of Brontosaurus. Sauropod feet that were discovered at the same quarry were added, as well as a tail fashioned to appear as Marsh believed it should, as well as a composite model of what he felt the skull of this massive creature might look like. This was not a delicate Diplodocus-style skull (which would later turn out to be more accurate McIntosh, J.S. and Berman, D.S. (1975). "Description of the palate and lower jaw of the sauropod dinosaur Diplodocus (Reptilia: Saurischia) with remarks on the nature of the skull of Apatosaurus." Journal of Paleontology, 49(1): 187–199. ), but was composed of "the biggest, thickest, strongest skull bones, lower jaws and tooth crowns from three different quarries", Bakker, Robert (1994). "The Bite of the Bronto" Earth 3:(6):26–33. primarily those of Camarasaurus, the only other sauropod for which good skull material was known at the time. This method of reconstructing incomplete skeletons based on the more complete remains of related dinosaurs continues in museum mounts and life restorations to this day. Despite the much-publicized debut of the mounted skeleton, which cemented the name Brontosaurus in the public consciousness, Elmer Riggs had published a paper in the 1903 edition of Geological Series of the Field Columbian Museum which argued that Brontosaurus was not different enough from Apatosaurus to warrant its own genus, and created the combination Apatosaurus excelsus: ...In view of these facts the two genera may be regarded as synonymous. As the term "Apatosaurus" has priority, "Brontosaurus" will be regarded as a synonym. Despite this, at least one paleontologist—Robert Bakker — argued in the 1990s that A. ajax and A. excelsus are in fact sufficiently distinct that the latter continues to merit a separate genus. Bakker, R.T. (1998). "Dinosaur mid-life crisis: the Jurassic-Cretaceous transition in Wyoming and Colorado". In: S.G. Lucas, J.I. Kirkland, & J.W. Estep (eds.) Lower and Middle Cretaceous Terrestrial Ecosystems; New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 14: 67–77. This idea has not been accepted by many palaeontologists. Upchurch, P., Barrett, P.M. and Dodson, P. (2004). "Sauropoda". In Weishampel, D.B., Osmólska, H., and Dodson, P. (eds.), The Dinosauria (2nd edition). University of California Press, Berkeley 259–322. McIntosh, J.S. (1995). "Remarks on the North American sauropod Apatosaurus Marsh". Sixth Symposium on Mesozoic Terrestrial Ecosystems and Biota, Short Papers, A. Sun and Y. Wang (eds.), China Ocean Press, Beijing 119–123 Palaeobiology Apatosaurus femur in Cosmocaixa, Barcelona Early on, it was believed that Apatosaurus was too massive to support its own weight on dry land, so it was theorized that the sauropod must have lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in a swamp. Recent findings do not support this. In fact, like its relative Diplodocus, Apatosaurus was a grazing animal with a very long neck and a long tail that served as a counterweight. One study found that diplodocid necks were less flexible than previously believed, and that sauropods like Apatosaurus were adapted to low browsing or ground feeding. Fossilized footprints indicate that it probably lived in herds. In 2008, footprints of juvenile Apatosaurus were reported from Quarry Five in Morrison, Colorado. Discovered in 2006 by Matthew Mossbrucker, these footprints show that juveniles could run on their hind legs in a manner similar to that of the modern basilisk lizard. Posture In the early 20th century, diplodocids like Apatosaurus were often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air, allowing them to graze from tall trees. More recently, scientists have argued that the heart would have had trouble sustaining sufficient blood pressure to oxygenate the brain. Furthermore, more recent studies have shown that the structure of the neck vertebrae would not have permitted the neck to bend far upwards. However, subsequent studies demonstrated that all tetrapods appear to hold their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal, alert posture, and argued that the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown, unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from other animals. Apatosaurus like Diplodocus would have held its neck at about a 45 degree angle with the head pointed downwards in a resting posture. Taylor, M.P., Wedel, M.J., and Naish, D. (2009). "Head and neck posture in sauropod dinosaurs inferred from extant animals". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 54 (2), 2009: 213-220abstract Physiology With such a large body mass, combined with a long neck, physiologists encounter problems determining how these animals managed to breathe. Beginning with the assumption that Apatosaurus, like crocodilians, did not have a diaphragm, the dead-space volume (the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth, trachea and air tubes after each breath) has been estimated at about 184 liters for a 30 ton specimen. Its tidal volume (the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath) has been calculated based on the following respiratory systems: 904 liters if avian 225 liters if mammalian 19 liters if reptilian. On this basis, its respiratory system could not have been reptilian, as its tidal volume would not have been able to replace its dead-space volume. Likewise, the mammalian system would only provide a fraction of new air on each breath. Therefore, it must have had either a system unknown in the modern world or one like birds, i.e. multiple air sacs and a flow-through lung. Furthermore, an avian system would only need a lung volume of about 600 liters compared to a mammalian requirement of 2,950 liters, which would exceed the available space. The overall thoracic volume of Apatosaurus has been estimated at 1,700 liters allowing for a 500-liter, four-chambered heart (like birds, not three-chambered like reptiles) and a 900-liter lung capacity. That would allow about 300 liters for the necessary tissue. Assuming Apatosaurus had an avian respiratory system and a reptilian resting-metabolism, it would need to consume only about 262 liters (69 gallons) of water per day. Paladino, F.V., Spotila, J.R., and Dodson, P. (1997). "A Blueprint for Giants: Modeling the Physiology of Large Dinosaurs." In Farlow, J.O. and Brett-Surman, M.K. (eds.), The Complete Dinosaur, Indiana University Press, 491–504. doi0253333490. It is not known how Apatosaurs ate enough food to satisfy their enormous bodies. It is likely that they ate constantly, pausing only to cool off, drink or to remove parasites. It is surmised that they slept standing upright. They likely relied on their enormous size and herd behavior to deter predators. Tail An article that appeared in the November 1997 issue of Discover Magazine reported research into the mechanics of Apatosaurus tails by Nathan Myhrvold, a computer scientist from Microsoft. Myhrvold carried out a computer simulation of the tail, which in diplodocids like Apatosaurus was a very long, tapering structure resembling a bullwhip. This computer modeling suggested that sauropods were capable of producing a whip-like cracking sound of over 200 decibels, comparable to the volume of a cannon. Zimmer, C. (1997). "Dinosaurs in Motion." Discover, 1 Nov 1997. Accessed 27 Jul 2008. In popular culture Illustration from the early 20th century The length of time taken for Marsh's misclassification to be brought to public notice meant that the name Brontosaurus, associated as it was with one of the largest dinosaurs, became so famous that it persisted long after the name had officially been abandoned in scientific use. The terms brontosaurus, brontosaurs, and brontosaurians (no capital 'B'; no italics) are often used to refer generically to any of the sauropod dinosaurs. As late as 1989, the U.S. Post Office issued four "dinosaur" stamps, Tyrannosaurus, Stegosaurus, "Pteradon" (misspelling of Pteranodon, which is a pterosaur and not a dinosaur) and Brontosaurus. The inclusion of these last two led to complaints of "fostering scientific illiteracy." " Topics of The Times; Leapin' Lizards!" The New York Times, 1989-10-11. Last accessed 2008-06-08. The Post Office defended itself (in Postal Bulletin 21744) thus: Although now recognized by the scientific community as Apatosaurus, the name "Brontosaurus" was used for the stamp because it is more familiar to the general population. Stephen Jay Gould supported this position in his essay "Bully for Brontosaurus", though he echoed Riggs' original argument that "Brontosaurus" is a synonym for "Apatosaurus". Nevertheless, he noted that the creature has developed and continues to maintain an independent existence in the popular imagination. Gould, S.J. (1991). Bully for Brontosaurus: Reflections in Natural History, W. W. Norton & Co., 540pp. Since the beginning of film history, Brontosaurus has been depicted in cinema; the 1925 silent film The Lost World featured, using special effects by Willis O'Brien, a battle between a Brontosaurus and an Allosaurus. King Kong (1933) featured a Brontosaurus, as did the 2005 remake, described using the fictional scientific name "Brontosaurus baxteri", or Baxter's Thunder-Lizard, after a character in the film. The brontosaur of the 2005 film is noticeably different from the modern view of Apatosaurus, with a square head, low-hanging tail, and snake-like neck reminiscent of 1930s period depictions of the species in art. Also, the animated movie The Land Before Time and its sequels feature an Apatosaurus called Littlefoot and his family. When George Lucas made his special edition of Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope in 1997, he added some large, long-necked animals based on the Brachiosaurus digital model from Jurassic Park. At an early stage he altered the CG department's suggested name 'Bronto,' taken from 'Brontosaurus,' to 'Ronto'. See also Eobrontosaurus, a closely related genus Bully for Brontosaurus: Reflections in Natural History, a book by Stephen Jay Gould Dinny the Dinosaur, a well-known Brontosaurus sculpture References External links The Great Brontosaurus Hoax Why is "Brontosaurus" now called Apatosaurus? UnMuseum Article "Whatever Happened to the Brontosaurus?" Brontosaurus species Skeletal drawings of diplodocids including Apatosaurus ajax, A. excelsus, and A. louisae from SkeletalDrawing.com

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Outline_of_chemistry

Chemistry is the science of matter at the atomic to molecular scale, dealing primarily with collections of atoms, such as molecules, crystals, and metals. Chemistry deals with the composition and statistical properties of such structures, as well as their transformations and interactions to become materials encountered in everyday life. Chemistry also deals with understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms with the purpose of applying that knowledge at the macroscopic level. According to modern chemistry, the physical properties of materials are generally determined by their structure at the atomic scale, which is itself defined by interatomic forces. The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry: Essence of chemistry Main article: Chemistry Chemical compound Chemical formula Chemical reaction Chemical substance Branches of chemistry Analytical chemistry Electrochemistry Spectroscopy Inorganic chemistry Solid state chemistry Organic chemistry Stereochemistry Physical chemistry Kinetics Thermochemistry Computational chemistry Quantum chemistry Biochemistry History of chemistry Main article: History of chemistry 1661 - The Sceptical Chymist, by Robert Boyle. Chemistry is born, by being defined distinct from alchemy. General chemistry concepts Standard periodic table of the chemical elements Concepts, by subject area Apparatus : Bunsen burner -- Calorimeter -- Colorimeter -- Burette -- Thermometer Atomic structure : Atom -- Ion -- Electron -- Proton -- Neutron -- Atomic orbital -- Molecular orbital -- Chemical element -- Valence -- Atomic nucleus -- Isotope Bonding : Chemical bond -- Ionic bond -- Covalent bond -- Metallic bond -- Hydrogen bond -- Intermolecular force -- Dipole -- Electron pair -- Unpaired electron Chemical reaction -- Chemical formula -- Structural formula -- Mole -- Stoichiometry -- Chemical nomenclature -- Chemical equilibrium -- Reversible reaction -- Electrophile -- Nucleophile -- Redox Chemical techniques : Titration -- Distillation -- Chromatography -- Reflux -- Buffer solution -- Filtration -- Hydrolysis -- Condensation reaction Important Chemical substances: Matter -- Water -- Ammonia -- Benzene -- Phenol Mixtures and Solutions: Concentration -- Vapour pressure -- Raoult's law -- Partial pressure -- solvation Periodic table : Periodicity -- Group 1 elements -- Group 2 elements -- Transition metal -- Group 5 elements -- Group 6 elements -- Halogen -- Noble gas -- s block -- d block -- p block -- f block Properties : pH -- electronegativity Structure : Gas -- Liquid -- Molecule -- Solid -- Isomer -- Allotropy -- Crystal -- Complex (chemistry) -- Ligand -- Chemical compound -- Stereochemistry Concepts by branch of chemistry Analytical chemistry : Electrochemistry : Electrochemical cell -- Oxidation -- Reduction -- Electrode potential -- Oxidation number -- Electrolysis -- Electrolytic cell -- Electrolyte -- Nernst equation Spectroscopy : atomic absorption spectroscopy -- Auger electron spectroscopy -- electromagnetic spectroscopy -- fluorescence spectroscopy -- infrared spectroscopy -- mass spectrometer -- Mossbauer spectroscopy -- nuclear magnetic resonance -- neutron activation analysis -- Raman spectroscopy -- UV/Vis spectrophotometry -- X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy -- Inorganic chemistry : Alkali -- Acid -- Base -- Metals -- Nonmetals -- Salt -- pH Solid state chemistry Organic chemistry : Functional group -- Hydrocarbon -- Alkane -- Alkene -- Halogenoalkane - Alcohol -- Ether -- Aldehyde -- Ketone - Carboxylic acid -- Ester -- Alicyclic compound -- Amine -- Amide -- Amino acid -- Polymer -- Polymerization -- Organic nomenclature -- Arene -- Phenol -- Peptide Stereochemistry : Optical isomerism -- Chirality Physical chemistry : Kinetics: Catalyst -- Enzyme -- Arrhenius equation Thermochemistry : Enthalpy -- Activation energy -- Entropy Computational chemistry : Molecular modeling -- Molecular dynamics -- Molecular mechanics -- Quantum methods -- Combinatorial chemistry -- Cheminformatics -- Bioinformatics Quantum chemistry : Slater determinant - Self-consistent field -- Hartree-Fock -- Moller-Plesset - Electron correlation - Semiempirical methods Biochemistry : Protein -- Carbohydrate -- Fat -- Nucleic Acid Some famous chemists For more chemists, see: Nobel Prize in Chemistry and List of chemists Marie Curie John Dalton Humphry Davy Eleuthère Irénée du Pont George Eastman Michael Faraday Dmitriy Mendeleyev Alfred Nobel Wilhelm Ostwald Louis Pasteur Linus Pauling Joseph Priestley Karl Ziegler Chemistry lists Main article: List of chemistry topics List of alkanes List of alloys List of biochemistry topics List of CAS numbers by chemical compound List of elements by atomic number List of Extremely Hazardous Substances List of important publications in chemistry List of inorganic compounds Inorganic compounds by element List of organic compounds List of purification methods in chemistry List of scientific journals in chemistry Solubility table Unsolved problems in chemistry See also List of basic physics topics External links International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page, see especially the "Gold Book" containing definitions of standard chemical terms Interactive Mind Map of Chemistry / Chemical energetics

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Assembly_line

Modern car assembly line. An assembly line is a manufacturing process in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added to a product in a sequential manner using optimally planned logistics to create a finished product much faster than with handcrafting-type methods. The assembly line developed by Ford Motor Company between 1908 and 1915 made assembly lines famous in the following decade through the social ramifications of mass production, such as the affordability of the Ford Model T and the introduction of high wages for Ford workers. However, the various preconditions for the development at Ford stretched far back into the 19th century, from the gradual realization of the dream of interchangeability, to the concept of reinventing workflow and job descriptions using analytical methods. Ford was the first company to build large factories around the concept. Mass production via assembly lines is widely considered to be the catalyst which initiated the modern consumer culture by making possible low unit-cost for manufactured goods. It is often said that Ford's production system was ingenious because it turned Ford's own workers into new customers. Put another way, Ford innovated its way to a lower price point and by doing so turned a huge potential market into a reality. Not only did this mean that Ford enjoyed much larger demand, but the resulting larger demand also allowed further economies of scale to be exploited, further depressing unit price, which tapped yet another portion of the demand curve. This bootstrapping quality of growth made Ford famous and set an example for other industries. Concept Consider the assembly of a car: assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine, install the hood, and install the wheels (in that order, with arbitrary interstitial steps). A car on the assembly line can have only one of the three steps done at once. After the moves on to wheel installation, the second car to hood installation, and a third car begins to have its engine installed. If engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheel installation takes 10 minutes, then finishing all three cars when only one car can be operated at once would take 105 minutes. On the other hand, using the assembly line, the total time to complete all three cars is 75 minutes. This is possible because there are three different installation stations, an engine station, a hood station and a wheels station. By having three stations, a total of three different cars can be operated on at the same time, albeit involving different steps. After finishing on the first car, the engine installation crew can move to the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the second car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and then the wheels station, to be fitted with the hood and the wheels respectively. After the engine has been installed on the second car, the second car moves to the hood and then the wheels assembly (5 minutes after the wheels assembly is done with the first car). At the same time, the third car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car’s engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the hood and then the wheels installation facilities; meanwhile, subsequent cars (if any) can be moved to the engine installation station. Because it takes 20 minutes to finish work on the engine while it takes only 15 minutes to complete the installation of both the hood and the wheels, the bottleneck is at the engine installation. Hence, cars will come off the assembly line at 20-minute intervals. Assembly lines don't increase the speed of producing a single unit, but only increases rate when there is a stream of units to be produced. In the example above, a car will still require 35 minutes to be made; however, when there is a stream of cars it will only take 20 minutes to have each new car coming off the assembly line. History 1913 Ford Model T assembly line. Overview: a culmination of many efforts The assembly line concept was not "invented" at one time by one person. It has been independently redeveloped throughout history based on logic. Its exponentially larger development at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th occurred among various people over decades, as other aspects of technology allowed. The development of toolpath control via jigs, fixtures, and machine tools (such as the screw-cutting lathe and milling machine) during the 19th century provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making interchangeable parts a practical reality. Before the 20th century, most manufactured products were made individually by hand. A single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts. They would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together (the English System). The assembly line evolved from these artisanal shops as division of labor and specialization took place. Electrification saw further advances in elementary assembly line production in the early 20th century. As electricity was increasingly used in factories as a more reliable, smoother and more precise form of power than previously available, it provided the means for the evolution of production through the automation of the assembly line. With the creation of unit drive motors, factories could be reorganized and the modern assembly line took shape with the optimal ordering and location of different parts of the production process. Large efficiency gains from assembly line production could then be realized. The transition from prototypical to the modern assembly line thus took place as creativity and logic took advantage of the opportunities that technological changes presented. The prototypical forms of assembly lines in various industries, are outlined below. The Terracotta Army (circa 215 BC) The Terracotta Army commissioned by the first Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi is a collection of about 8000 life-sized clay soldiers and horses buried with the emperor. The figures had their separate body parts manufactured by different workshops that were later assembled to completion. Notably, each workshop inscribed its name on the part they manufactured to add traceability for quality construction. Venetian Arsenal (1500s) At the peak of its efficiency in the early 16th century, the Venetian Arsenal employed some 16,000 people who apparently were able to produce nearly one ship each day, and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly-built galley with standardized parts on an assembly-line basis not seen again until the Industrial Revolution. Block production at Portsmouth: Brunel, Maudslay, et al. (1800-1820s) Probably the first linear and continuous assembly line of post-Renaissance times were the Portsmouth Block Mills created in 1801 by Marc Isambard Brunel (father of Isambard Kingdom Brunel), with the help of Henry Maudslay and others, for the production of blocks for the Royal Navy. This assembly line was so successful it remained in use until the 1960s, with the workshop still visible at HM Dockyard in Portsmouth, and still containing some of the original machinery. Eli Whitney (1780s-1820s) Eli Whitney is sometimes credited with developing the armory system of manufacturing in 1801, using the ideas of division of labor, engineering tolerance, and interchangeable parts to create assemblies from parts in a repeatable manner. But Whitney's contribution was mostly as a popularizer rather than "the inventor" of repeatability. He was probably inspired by several others (including Honoré Blanc), or at least by the contemporary zeitgeist that was building around such ideas. Thomas Jefferson had tried to bring a French mechanic (who was almost certainly Blanc) and his methods to America in 1785, but the project never went anywhere. . A few years later, Whitney and his American contemporaries succeeded in introducing the relevant concepts (interchangeable parts, toolpath control via machine tools and jigs, transfer of skill to the equipment, allowing use of semi-skilled or unskilled machine operators) to American firearm manufacture. Meatpacking industry (1860s) The meatpacking industry of Chicago is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines (or dis-assembly lines) to be utilized in the United States starting in 1867. Workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task. Henry Ford and others have written about the influence of this slaughterhouse practice on the later developments at Ford Motor Company (see below at Ford Motor Company (1908-1915)). Firearms, clocks, et al. (1860s-1890s) The Industrial Revolution in Western Europe and North America, but perhaps most especially in Great Britain and New England, led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention. Many industries, notably textiles, firearms, clocks and watches, Georgano 1985. buttons, horse-drawn vehicles, railroad cars and locomotives, sewing machines, and bicycles, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named. Ransom E. Olds (1890s-1900s) Ransom Olds patented the assembly line concept, which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901, becoming the first company in America to mass-produce automobiles. http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/assbline.htm This development is often overshadowed by the independent redevelopment of assembly-line work at Ford Motor Company a few years later (see below), which introduced the ramifications of the method to a wider audience. Ford Motor Company (1908-1915) The assembly line developed for the Ford Model T had immense influence on the world. Despite oversimplistic attempts to attribute it to one man or another, it was in fact a composite development based on logic that took 7 years and plenty of intelligent men. The principal leaders are discussed below. The basic kernel of an assembly line concept was introduced to Ford Motor Company by William "Pa" Klann upon his return from visiting a Chicago slaughterhouse and viewing what was referred to the "disassembly line", where animals were butchered as they moved along a conveyor. The efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over caught his attention. He reported the idea to Peter E. Martin, soon to be head of Ford production, who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed. Others at Ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to Henry Ford, but Pa Klann's slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the Henry Ford Museum and elsewhere, making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. The process was an evolution by trial and error of a team consisting primarily of Peter E. Martin, the factory superintendent; Charles E. Sorensen, Martin's assistant; C. Harold Wills, draftsman and toolmaker; Clarence W. Avery; and Charles Ebender. Some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of machine tool placement that Walter Flanders had been doing at Ford up to 1908. In 1922 Ford (via his ghostwriter Crowther) said of his 1913 assembly line, "I believe that this was the first moving line ever installed. The idea came in a general way from the overhead trolley that the Chicago packers use in dressing beef." , p. 81. Charles E. Sorensen, in his 1956 memoir My Forty Years with Ford, presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual “inventors” as a gradual, logical development of industrial engineering: "What was worked out at Ford was the practice of moving the work from one worker to another until it became a complete unit, then arranging the flow of these units at the right time and the right place to a moving final assembly line from which came a finished product. Regardless of earlier uses of some of these principles, the direct line of succession of mass production and its intensification into automation stems directly from what we worked out at Ford Motor Company between 1908 and 1913. Henry Ford is generally regarded as the father of mass production. He was not. He was the sponsor of it." . As a result of these developments in method, Ford's cars came off the line in three minute intervals. This was much faster than previous methods, increasing production by eight to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower. It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colors available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926. In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay. Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism," and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the take-off of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods. Ford at one point considered suing other car companies because they used the assembly line in their production, but decided against, realizing it was essential to creation and expansion of the industry as a whole. In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide. Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany 1925; in 1921, Citroen was the first native European manufacturer to adopt it. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke by not being able to compete; by 1930, 250 companies which did not had disappeared. Sociological problems Sociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long. Alienation and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His Industry, Robert Blauner, in Technology and Culture, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Summer, 1965), pp. 518-519 Because workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day, repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety. Industrial noise also proved dangerous. When it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. Charles Piaget, a skilled worker at the LIP factory, recalled that beside being prohibited from speaking, the semi-skilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move. Leçons d'autogestion (Autogestion Lessons), interview with Charles Piaget Industrial ergonomics later tried to minimize physical trauma. See also Production line Industrial engineering References Bibliography Various republications, including ISBN 9781406500189. Original is public domain in U.S. . . Various republications, including ISBN 9780814332795. We-Min Chow (1990). Assembly Line Design. External links Homepage for assembly line optimization research Assembly line optimization problems

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Normative_ethics

Normative ethics is the branch of philosophical ethics that investigates the set of questions that arise when we think about the question “how ought one act morally speaking?” Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts. Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people’s moral beliefs. To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief. Hence, normative ethics is sometimes said to be prescriptive, rather than descriptive. However, on certain versions of the meta-ethical view called moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time. Broadly speaking, normative ethics can be divided into the sub-disciplines of moral theory and applied ethics. In recent years the boundaries between these sub-disciplines have increasingly been dissolving as moral theorists become more interested in applied problems and applied ethics is becoming more profoundly philosophically informed. Traditional moral theories were concerned with finding moral principles which allow one to determine whether an action is right or wrong. Classical theories in this vein include utilitarianism, Kantianism, and some forms of contractarianism. These theories offered an overarching moral principle to which one could appeal in resolving difficult moral decisions. In the 20th century, moral theories have become more complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds of moral status. This trend may have begun in 1930 with D. W. Ross in his book, The Right and the Good. Here Ross argues that moral theories cannot say in general whether an action is right or wrong but only whether it tends to be right or wrong according to a certain kind of moral duty such as beneficence, fidelity, or justice (he called this concept of partial rightness prima facie duty). Subsequently, philosophers have questioned whether even prima facie duties can be articulated at a theoretical level, and some philosophers have urged a turn away from general theorizing altogether, while others have defended theory on the grounds that it need not be perfect in order to capture important moral insight. In the middle of the century there was a long hiatus in the development of normative ethics during which philosophers largely turned away from normative questions towards meta-ethics. Even those philosophers during this period who maintained an interest in prescriptive morality, such as R. M. Hare, attempted to arrive at normative conclusions via meta-ethical reflection. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by the intense linguistic turn in analytic philosophy and in part by the pervasiveness of logical positivism. In 1971, John Rawls bucked the trend against normative theory in publishing A Theory of Justice. This work was revolutionary, in part because it paid almost no attention to meta-ethics and instead pursued moral arguments directly. In the wake of A Theory of Justice and other major works of normative theory published in the 1970s, the field has witnessed an extraordinary Renaissance that continues to the present day. Normative ethical theories Consequentialism (Teleology) argues that the morality of an action is contingent on the action's outcome or result. Some consequentialist theories include: Utilitarianism, which holds that an action is right if it leads to the most value for the greatest number of people (Maximizes value for all people). Egoism, the belief that the moral person is the self-interested person, holds that an action is right if it maximizes good for the self. Situation Ethics, which holds that the correct action to take is the one which creates the most loving result, and that love should always be our goal. Deontology argues that decisions should be made considering the factors of one's duties and other's rights. Some deontological theories include: Immanuel Kant's Categorical Imperative, which roots morality in humanity's rational capacity and asserts certain inviolable moral laws. The Contractarianism of John Rawls or Thomas Hobbes, which holds that the moral acts are those that we would all agree to if we were unbiased. Natural rights theories, such that of Thomas Aquinas or John Locke, which hold that human beings have absolute, natural rights. Virtue ethics, which was advocated by Aristotle, focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on the specific actions he or she performs. There has been a significant revival of virtue ethics in the past half-century, through the work of such philosophers as G. E. M. Anscombe, Philippa Foot, and Rosalind Hursthouse. See also Norm (philosophy)

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Cholistan_Desert

Derawar Fort in Cholistan. Cholistan Desert (, also locally known as Rohi) sprawls thirty kilometers from Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan and covers an area of 16,000 km². It adjoins the Thar desert extending over to Sindh and into India. The word Cholistan is derived from the Turkish word Chol, which means Desert. Cholistan thus means Land of the Desert. The people of Cholistan lead a semi-nomadic life, moving from one place to another in search of water and fodder for their animals. The dry bed of the Hakra River runs through the area, along which many settlements of the Indus Valley Civilisation have been found. The Desert also has an Annual Jeep Rally, known as Annual Cholistan Jeep Rally. History Nearly 300 Harappan sites (cf. Indus Valley Civilisation) have been found in the Hakra valley cf. Ancient Cholistan , mostly by M. R. Mughal, which account for 20% of all Harappan sites now . Cholistan has changed amazingly over the history. The desert was under perennial regular irrigated cultivation till 1200 BCE and under seasonal regular irrigated cultivation till about 600 BC . The area turned into arid and desolate desert with drying up of River Hakra. These days again, the desert is undergoing a process of profound change because of canal system originating from the River Sutlaj. But one can still find people living in houses made of mud and straw almost as they might have been living 200 years ago. Literary reference Suzanne Fisher Staples's children's novel Shabanu: Daughter of the Wind (1989) is set in the Cholistan desert. References Mughal, M.R. 1997. Ancient Cholistan. Lahore: Feroz and Sons. External links About Cholistan, Pakistan

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History_of_Djibouti

The Republic of Djibouti gained its independence on June 27, 1977. It is the successor to French Somaliland (later called the French Territory of the Afars and Issas), which was created in the first half of the 19th century as a result of French interest in the Horn of Africa. The beginning The history of Djibouti, recorded in poetry and songs of its nomadic peoples, goes back thousands of years to a time when Djiboutians traded hides and skins for the perfumes and spices of ancient Egypt, India, and China. Through close contacts with the Arabian peninsula for more than one-thousand years, the Somali and Afar tribes in this region became among the first on the African continent to adopt Islam. French Interest Place Menelik, Djibouti, c1905. It was Rochet d'Hericourt's exploration into Shoa (1839-42) that marked the beginning of French interest in the African shores of the Red Sea. Further exploration by Henri Lambert, French Consular Agent at Aden, and Captain Fleuriot de Langle led to a treaty of friendship and assistance between France and the sultans of Raheita, Tadjoura, and Gobaad, from whom the French purchased the anchorage of Obock in 1862. French Somaliland Growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. In 1884-85, France expanded its protectorate to include parts of Somaliland. Léonce Lagarde was installed as governor of this protectorate. Boundaries of the protectorate, marked out in 1897 by France and Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, were reaffirmed by agreements with Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1945 and 1954. The administrative capital was moved from Obock in 1896. The city of Djibouti, which had a harbor with good access that attracted trade caravans crossing East Africa as well as Somali settlers from the south, became the new administrative capital. The Franco-Ethiopian railway, linking Djibouti to the heart of Ethiopia, began in 1897 and reached Addis Ababa in June 1917, increasing the volume of trade passing through the port. World War II After the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the mid-1930s, constant border skirmishes occurred between French forces in French Somaliland and Italian forces in Italian East Africa. In June 1940, during the early stages of World War II, France fell and the colony was then ruled by the pro-Axis Vichy (French) government. British and Commonwealth forces fought the neighboring Italians during the East African Campaign. In 1941, the Italians were defeated and the Vichy forces in French Somaliland were isolated. The Vichy French administration continued to hold out in the colony for over one year after the Italian collapse. In December 1942, after a 101-day long British blockade, Governor Pierre Nouailhetas surrendered French Somaliland. Time Magazine, Story of a Siege Free French and Allied forces then occupied the French colony. Time Magazine, Mighty Invasion Before the war ended, the colony fell under the Provisional Government of the French Republic. A local battalion from French Somaliland participated in the Liberation of Paris in 1944.Manyo rocks out lound one of the greatest to ever walk on this earth. Even though he has many temptations sometime he falls but he gets back up and fights to see another day. He thanks God for his continuos success Amen Reform On July 22 1957, the colony was reorganized by the French Fourth Republic to give the people of French Somaliland considerable self-government. On the same day, a decree applying the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of June 23 1956, established a territorial assembly that elected eight of its members to an executive council. Members of the executive council were responsible for one or more of the territorial services and carried the title of minister. The council advised the French-appointed governor general. In a September 1958 constitutional referendum, French Somaliland opted to join the French community as an overseas territory. This act entitled the region to representation by one deputy and one senator in the French Parliament, and one counselor in the French Union Assembly. On October 5 1958, the French Fifth Republic was formed. The first elections to the territorial assembly were held on November 23 1958, under a system of proportional representation. In the next assembly elections (1963), a new electoral law was enacted. Representation was abolished in exchange for a system of straight plurality vote based on lists submitted by political parties in seven designated districts. Ali Aref Bourhan, allegedly of Turkish origin, was selected to be the president of the executive council. French President Charles de Gaulle's August 1966 visit to Djibouti was marked by 2 days of public demonstrations by Somalis demanding independence. On September 21 1966, Louis Saget, appointed governor general of the territory after the demonstrations, announced the French Government's decision to hold a referendum to determine whether the people would remain within the French Republic or become independent. In March 1967, 60% chose to continue the territory's association with France. French Territory of the Afars and Issas In July of that year, a directive from Paris formally changed the name of the region to the French Territory of the Afars and Issas. The directive also reorganized the governmental structure of the territory, making the senior French representative, formerly the governor general, a high commissioner. In addition, the executive council was redesignated as the council of government, with nine members. Independence In 1975, the French Government began to accommodate increasingly insistent demands for independence. In June 1976, the territory's citizenship law, which favored the Afar minority, was revised to reflect more closely the weight of the Issa Somali. The electorate voted for independence in a May 1977 referendum, and the Republic of Djibouti was established June that same year. Hassan Gouled Aptidon became the country's first president. In 1981, Aptidon turned the country into a one party state by declaring that his party, the Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès (RPP) (People's Rally for Progress), was the sole legal one. A civil war broke out in 1991, between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. Aptidon resigned as president 1999, at the age of 83, after being elected to a fifth term in 1997. His successor was his nephew, Ismail Omar Guelleh. On May 12, 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD, led by Ahmed Dini Ahmed, an Afar nationalist and former Gouled political ally. The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on February 7, 2000 in Paris. Ahmed Dini Ahmed represented the FRUD. In the presidential election held April 8, 2005 Ismail Omar Guelleh was re-elected to a second 6-year term at the head of a multi-party coalition that included the FRUD and other major parties. A loose coalition of opposition parties again boycotted the election. Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with an Afar career diplomat as Foreign Minister and other cabinet posts roughly divided. However, Issas are predominate in the government, civil service, and the ruling party. That, together with a shortage of non-government employment, has bred resentment and continued political competition between the Issa Somalis and the Afars. In March 2006, Djibouti held its first regional elections and began implementing a decentralization plan. The broad pro-government coalition, including FRUD candidates, again ran unopposed when the government refused to meet opposition preconditions for participation. A nationwide voter registration campaign is now underway in advance of the scheduled 2008 parliamentary elections. External links Background Note: Djibouti History of Djbouti Footnotes

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Koto_(instrument)

Japanese 13-stringed koto The koto (琴 or 箏) is a traditional Japanese stringed musical instrument derived from the Chinese guzheng. The koto is the national instrument of Japan. Koto are about long, and made from kiri wood (Paulownia tomentosa). They have 13 strings that are strung over 13 movable bridges along the length of the instrument. Players can adjust the string pitches by moving these bridges before playing, and use three finger picks (on thumb, index finger, and middle finger) to pluck the strings. One of the characters for koto, 箏, is also read as sō in certain contexts. Though often called by a number of other names, these terms almost always refer to similar, but different instruments, such as the Chinese guzheng (箏) or guqin (琴, called kin in Japanese). History The koto was first introduced to Japan in the 7th and 8th century from China. It originated in its earliest form in the 5th century. It was a very popular instrument in China. The first known version had five strings, which eventually progressed to seven strings. It had twelve strings when it was introduced to Japan in the early Nara Period (710-784) and increased to thirteen strings). This particular instrument is known throughout Asia but in different forms: the Japanese so or koto which is a distant relative to the qin, the Korean komungo, and the Vietnamese dan tranh. This variety of instrument came in two basic forms, a type that had bridges and those types without bridges. The type that was most known in China was the qin. It is similar to many other instruments in Asia after the original guzheng, from China, was introduced to many parts of the world. Originally, the word koto was a generic term for any and all Japanese string instruments when the so, or koto, was imported to Japan. Regardless, over time the definition of koto could not describe the wide variety of these string instruments and the names were changed. The Azuma goto or yamatogoto became the wagon, the kin no koto became the kin, and the sau no koto was changed to the so or koto. The modern koto originates from the so, or gakuso, used in Japanese court music. It was a popular instrument among the wealthy; the instrument koto was considered a romantic one. Some literary and historical records solo pieces for koto existed centuries before sokyoku or the music of the solo koto genre was established. According to Japanese literature, the koto was used as imagery and other extra music significance. In one part of “The Tales of Genji (Genji monogatari),” Genji falls deeply in love with a mysterious woman, who he has never seen before, after he hears her playing koto from a distance. The history of the koto, or so, in Japan, dates back to the 16th Century. At this time a Buddhist priest by the name of Kenjun (1547-1636), who lived in northern Kyūshū, began to compose for the koto, calling the style “tsukushi goto.” Perhaps the most important influence on the development of koto was the man Yatsuhashi Kengyo (1614-1685). He was a gifted blind musician from Kyoto who changed the limited selection of six songs to a brand new style of koto music which he called kumi uta. Yatsuhashi changed the Tsukushi goto tunings, which were based on gagaku ways of tuning; and with this change, a new style of koto was born. Yatsuhashi Kengyo is now known as the “Father of Modern Koto.” The Japanese developments in the bridgeless zithers include the one-stringed koto (ichigenkin) and two-stringed koto (nigenkin or yakumo goto) around the 1920s, Morita Goro created a new version of the two-stringed goto. On this goto, one would push down buttons above the metal strings like the western autoharp. It was named the taisho goto after the Taisho Era. At the beginning of the Meiji Period (1868-1912), western music was introduced to Japan. Miyagi Michio (1894- 1956), a blind composer, innovator, and performer, was the first Japanese composer to combine western music and traditional koto music. Michio is largely regarded as being responsible for keeping the koto alive when traditional Japanese arts were being forgotten and replaced by Westernization. He wrote over 300 new works for the instrument. He also invented the popular 17 string base koto, created new playing techniques, advanced tradition forms, and most importantly increased the koto's popularity. He performed abroad and in 1828 his combination of koto and shakuhachi, Haru no Umi (Spring Sea) has been transcribed for numerous instruments. Haru no Umi is even played to welcome each New Year in Japan. Since Miyagi’s time, many composers such as Sawai Tadao (1937-1997) have furthered Miyagi’s vision by continuing to perform and compose works that continue to advance the instrument in new directions. Thanks to artist such as these, the thousand year old Japanese koto is still important and thriving. Construction A koto is typically made of Paulownia wood. The treatment of the wood before making the koto varies tremendously: one koto maker seasons the wood for perhaps a year on the roof of the house. Some wood may have very little treatment. Kotos may or may not be adorned, some adornments include inlays of ivory and ebony, tortoise shell, metal figures, etc. The bridges (ji) used to be made of ivory, but nowadays are typically made of plastic, and occasionally made of wood. For some very low notes, there are small bridges made, as well as specialty bridges with three different heights, depending on the need of the tuning. When a small bridge is unavailable for some very low notes, some players may, as an emergency measure, use a bridge upside down. Of course, such an arrangement is unstable, and the bridge would have a tendency to fall down. Bridges have been known to break during playing, and with some older instruments which have the surface where the bridges rest being worn due to much use, the bridges may fall during playing, especially when pressing strings. There are, of course, various sorts of patch materials sold to fill the holes which cause the legs of a bridge to rest on an unstable area. The strings are made from a variety of materials. Various types of plastic strings are popular. Silk strings are still made. Silk strings are usually yellow in color, but they cost more and are not as durable, but claimed to be more musical. The strings are tied with a half hitch to a roll of paper or cardboard, about the size of a cigarette butt, strung through the holes at the head of the koto, threaded through the holes at the back, tightened, and tied with a special knot. Strings can be tightened by a special machine, but often are tightened by hand, and then tied. One can tighten by pulling the string from behind, or sitting at the side of the koto, although the latter is much harder and requires much arm strength. Some instruments may have tuning pins (like a piano) installed, to make tuning easier. Koto today A koto player today. The influence of Western pop music has made the koto less prominent in Japan, although it is still developing as an instrument. Works are being written for 20- and 25-stringed kotos and 17-string bass kotos, and a new generation of players such as Japanese performers Kazue Sawai and Michiyo Yagi (who studied under Sawai), and American performer Reiko Obata are finding places for the koto in today's jazz, experimental music and even pop. June Kuramoto, of the jazz fusion group Hiroshima, was one of the first koto performers to popularize the koto in a non-traditional fusion style. Reiko Obata, founder of East West Jazz band, is the first to perform and record an album of jazz standards featuring koto. Obata also produced the first-ever English language koto instructional DVD "You Can Play Koto." David Bowie used a koto in the instrumental piece "Moss Garden" on his album "Heroes". Paul Gilbert, a popular shred guitarist, recorded his wife, Emi playing the koto on his song "Koto Girl" from the album Alligator Farm. JRock / Visual Kei band Kagrra, are well known for using traditional Japanese musical instruments in many of their songs, an example being "Utakata" (うたかた), a song where the koto has a prominent place. Jazz pianist Dave Brubeck composed "Koto Song" that, while not featuring the koto itself, is played to allow the piano to emulate its sound. Winston Tong, singer with Tuxedomoon, uses it on his 15-minute song, "The Hunger" from his debut solo album Theoretically Chinese. Well-known solo performers outside of Japan include koto master and award-winning recording artist Elizabeth Falconer, who also studied for a decade at the esteemed Sawai Koto School in Tokyo, as well as koto master Linda Kako Caplan, Canadian Daishihan (Grandmaster) and a member of Fukuoka's Chikushi Koto School for over two decades. David Horvitz pioneered the instrument into the contemporary indie rock scene playing on Xiu Xiu's new album, The Air Force. The 17-string bass koto, called jūshichi-gen in Japanese, has become more prominent over the years. The members of the band Rin' are perhaps some of the more famous jūshichi-gen players in the modern (pop/rock) music scene. There are also 20-string, 21-string, and 25-string kotos. The influence of the koto on Western music is also evident in jazz. The "in-sen" scale, a five note scale, was first introduced to jazz by John Coltrane and McCoy Tyner (another koto player) and is based on the tuning of the koto. The rock band Queen used a (toy) koto in "The Prophet's Song" on their 1975 album A Night at the Opera. Guitar virtuso Paul Gilbert has a song called Koto Girl. Dr. Dre's 1999 album Chronic 2001 prominently features a synthesized koto on two of its tracks - "Still D.R.E." and "The Message". Bibliography The Koto: A Traditional Instrument in Contemporary Japan, by Henry Johnson (Hotei, 2004) The Kumiuta and Danmono Traditions of Japanese Koto Music, by Willem Adriaansz (University of California Press, 1973) See also 17-string koto Guzheng Gayageum Đàn tranh Se (instrument) SILENZIOSA LUNA - 沈黙の月 References Johnson, H. (2004). The Koto: A Traditional Instrument in Contemporary Japan. Amsterdam: Hotei. Malm, W. P. (2000) Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Kodansha International. Sachs, C. (1940). The History of Musical Instruments. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company. Inc. Publishers. Richard Louis Edmonds, et al. "Japan." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. July 30, 2008. External links Koto, early 17th century, Japan at The Metropolitan Museum of Art Reiko Obata Japanese-American koto performer of traditional and jazz koto. Producer and instructor on "You Can Play Koto" DVD. East West Jazz Jazz ensemble featuring Reiko Obata on koto Chieko Mori young Composer and Koto virtuoso Article on Koto Master Chikushi Katsuko Linda Kako Caplan - The World of Japanese Koto and Shamisen - Linda Kako Caplan - The World of Japanese Koto and Shamisen: textbooks, CD and online video resources for koto, plus useful links and general info on the instruments Koto no Koto - Koto no koto: the website with all the info you need about US and Canadian teachers, recordings, and the instrument. Enjoy Japanese Music - Website of the koto/shakuhachi duo EN. O-koto Culture of Japan Play the "Sakura" tune on a virtual koto. www.corle.ic.cz another virtual koto. Kobo-YUIone of very few hand-made Koto shop Kobo-YUI blog(ENG)one of few Koto makers of today

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Don_Rosa

Keno Don Hugo Rosa (generally just called Don Rosa) (born June 29, 1951) is an American comic book writer and illustrator best known for his stories about Scrooge McDuck, Donald Duck and other Disney characters. He was born in Louisville, Kentucky, United States. His most famous work is The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck. History The name Rosa (meaning "rose" or "pink") originates from Italy. His grandfather, Gioachino Rosa, lived in Maniago, a small village at the foot of the Alps in Northern Italy, in the province of Pordenone. Gioachino Rosa emigrated to Kentucky, United States in 1915 just after the birth of his son Hugo Rosa. Hugo Rosa was later married in Kentucky. His wife was born to a German American father and a mother with both Scottish and Irish ancestry. Hugo Rosa and his wife became parents to Keno Don Hugo Rosa on June 29, 1951. The boy was named after both his father and grandfather. Gioachino was called 'Keno' for short. Childhood Don Rosa had always been fond of making cartoons. Don began drawing comics before being able to write. But he was always mostly focused on the story. The drawings were just mere illustrations to get the story told. Until high school his featured characters were mostly small men called Holey and Joe. His favourite comic books while growing up were reportedly Uncle Scrooge by Western Publishing and the Superman titles by DC Comics. He entered the University of Kentucky in 1969. He graduated in 1973 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in civil engineering. First cartoons His first real cartoon was a comic strip featuring his own character, Lancelot Pertwillaby. He created the strip in 1971 for The Kentucky Kernel, a college newspaper of the University of Kentucky which wanted the strip to focus on political satire. Rosa later talked them into letting him feature adventures starring Lancelot Pertwillaby and drew the story Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes. (The title is a reference to Lost in the Andes!, a Donald Duck story by Carl Barks, first published in April, 1949.) The so-called Pertwillaby Papers included 127 published episodes by the time Rosa graduated. Meanwhile Rosa participated in a fanzine. His contribution was An Index of Uncle Scrooge Comics. According to his introduction: "Scrooge being my favorite character in comic history and Barks my favourite pure cartoonist, I'll try not to get carried away too much." After receiving his bachelor degree, Rosa continued to draw comics as a side job. He did not earn very much though from his creations. His main source of income came from working in the Keno Rosa Tile Company, a company founded by his paternal grandfather and which had by that time been taken over by Hugo Rosa. Rosa authored and illustrated the monthly "Information Center" column in the fanzine "The Rocket's Blast Comicollector" from 1974 to 1979. He also revived the Pertwillaby Papers from 1976 to 1978. Rosa took a chance at more professional cartooning with his creation of the comic strip character Captain Kentucky for the Saturday edition of the local newspaper Louisville Times. Captain Kentucky was the superhero alter ego of Lancelot Pertwillaby. Publication started on October 6, 1979. The comic strip ended on August 15, 1982 after the publication of 150 episodes. After three years with Captain Kentucky, Don decided that it was not worth the effort. He retired from cartooning and did not draw a single line for the next four years. Years later, as his fame grew, his non-Disney work was published by the Norwegian publisher Gazette Bok in 2001, in the two hard-cover books The Pertwillaby Papers and The Adventures of Captain Kentucky. Marriage Rosa married schoolteacher Ann Payne in 1980. They have no children. Working for Gladstone In 1985, he discovered a Gladstone Publishing comic book in the window of a small comic shop. This was the first American comic book that contained Disney-characters after the 1970s. Since early childhood Don Rosa had been fascinated by Disney stories about Donald Duck and Scrooge McDuck. Artist Carl Barks was an especially big idol for him and would remain so for the rest of his career. He immediately called the editor, Byron Erickson, and told him that he was the only American who was born to write and draw Scrooge McDuck comics. Byron agreed to let him send a story, and Don Rosa started drawing his first Duck story: Son of the Sun the very next day. Son of the Sun was a huge success and was nominated for a Harvey Award. The plot of the story was exactly the same as his earlier story Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes. As Don Rosa formulated it, he was just "(...) turning that old Pertwillaby Papers adventure back into the story it originally was in my head, starring Scrooge, Donald, the nephews, and Flintheart Glomgold." Don Rosa did a few more comics for Gladstone till 1989. He then stopped working for them because the policies of their licensor Disney did not allow for the return of original art for a story to its creators. This was unacceptable to Don Rosa, since a part of his income came from selling the originals. Without that extra money, he could not make a living drawing comic books. After making some stories for the Dutch publisher Oberon, the publishers of an American Disney children's magazine called DuckTales (based on of the animated series of the same name) offered him employment. They even offered him a much higher salary than the one he received at Gladstone. Don made just one script (Back in Time for a Dime). The publishers never asked him to make more, and due to problems with receiving the payment, he didn't care. Working for Egmont After working with the DuckTales magazine, Rosa found out that the Danish publisher Egmont (at that time called Gutenberghus) had been publishing reprints of his stories and wanted more of them. Don joined Egmont in 1990 along with Byron Erickson, the former editor at Gladstone and has been working there as a freelancer since then. In 1991 he started creating The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck, a twelve chapter story about his favorite character. The series was a huge success, and in 1995 he won an Eisner Award for best continuing series. After the end of the original series, Don started producing additional "missing" chapters. Some of the extra chapters were turned down by Egmont because they were not interested in any more episodes. Fortunately, the French publisher Picsou was eager to publish the stories. From 1999, Don started working freelance for Picsou as well. Some of these chapters were recently compiled as the Life and times of Scrooge McDuck Companion. On strike During early summer 2002, Don Rosa suddenly laid down work. As an artist he could not live under the conditions Egmont was offering him, but he did not want to give up making Scrooge McDuck comics either. So his only choice was to put down work for a while and try to come to an agreement with Egmont. His main issues were that he had no control over his works. Don had discovered far too often that his stories were printed with incorrect pages of art, improper colors, poor lettering, or pixelated computer conversions of the illustrations. Another matter was that his name was used in promotion of books and collections of stories without his agreement and without sending royalties to him. He came to an agreement with Egmont in December of the same year, which gave him a bit more control over the stories and the manner in which they were publicized. Retirement In 2008, Rosa underwent eye surgery. interview by Frank Stajano. On June 2, 2008, during an interview at the Danish Komiks.dk fair, Don stated that he would not do any more Disney comic, citing three reasons Statement from Danish writer Lars Jensen, and specifications by Sigvald Grøsfjeld jr., owner and maintainer of http://duckman.pettho.com/ : eye troubles, finding out how low his pay as a professional Disney artist was (he made more money from selling his personal comic collection than in 6 years of working for Egmont), and repeated copyright/royalties issues with many international publishers. Don remains popular with readers across Europe but considers himself rather obscure in his native United States. His work Don Rosa's Comics and Stories #1 In Europe, Don Rosa is recognized as one of the best Disney comics creators ever. Carl Barks and Don Rosa are some of the few artists who have their name written on the covers of Disney magazines when their stories are published. His stories are very easily recognized due to his unique drawing style, his pictures being extremely detailed. Rosa enjoys including subtle references to his favorite works of fiction as well as his own previous work. He normally uses about 12 frames per page, instead of the more common 8. He needs to use the extra frames because his stories usually are too long to be published if he does not minimize them. Don Rosa has a huge following in Finland, and in 1999, he created a special 32-page Donald, Scrooge, Gearloose & nephews strip for his Finnish fans; Sammon Salaisuus (translates to The secret of the Sampo, but it is officially named The Quest for Kalevala Scoop - Where the Magic of Collecting Comes Alive! - Don Rosa and The Quest for Kalevala in English), based on the Finnish national epic, the Kalevala. It was published in many other countries as well. The cover for the comic book was a spoof of a famous painting by Akseli Gallen-Kallela. Drawing style With a bachelor of arts degree in civil engineering as his only real drawing education, Don Rosa has some unusual drawing methods, as he writes himself: "I suspect nothing I do is done the way anyone else does it." Because of being self-taught in making comics, Rosa relies mostly on the skills he learned in engineering school -- which means using technical pens and templates a lot. He applies forms of plastic artifacts to draw curves, circles and ovals. He usually draws just under a page per day, but that depends on the amount of detail he puts in the picture. Rosa's drawing style is considered much more detailed and "dirtier" than that of most other Disney artists, living or dead, and often likened to that of underground artists, of which he is most frequently compared to Robert Crumb. Interview with Don Rosa, by Didier Ghez, June 1996 When Rosa was first told of this similarity, he felt rather estranged, because he had never even read an underground comic before and also because he soon found out about underground-related themes he would never tackle, and he went on to explain these similarities to underground artists with a similar background of making comics as a hobby: "I think that both my style and that of Robert Crumb are similar only because we both grew up making comics for our personal enjoyment, without ever taking drawing seriously, and without ever trying to attain a style that would please the average comics publisher. We drew comics for fun!" Rosa's First Steps, translated back from Greek original article in Komix magazine #172, September 2002, translated by Kriton Kyrimis Carl Barks Don Rosa's greatest idol when it comes to comics has always been Carl Barks. Rosa builds almost all his stories on characters and locations that Barks invented. Many of Rosa's stories contain references to some fact pointed out in a Barks story. Rosa has even created sequels of old Barks stories. For example, his Return To Xanadu is a sequel to Tralla La, where the Ducks return to the same hidden country. To add more to his admiration and consistency to Barks and Barks' stories, Rosa makes all his ducks' stories set in the 50s. This is because Barks writes most of the stories about Scrooge, Donald and all people of Duckburg in the 50's (it also conveniently resolves continuity errors, such as Scrooge's age). As explained in text pages in the Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck and its companion volume, Rosa does intense research of time periods to ensure not only that he gets the physical details right, but also to ensure that all characters could have been present. Barks either created most of the characters used by Rosa or is credited for greatly developing their personalities. Rosa thus feels obliged to make his stories factually consistent. He has spent a lot of time in making lists of facts and anecdotes pointed out in different stories by his mentor. Especially The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck was based mostly on the earlier works of Barks. Rosa admitted however that a scene of the first chapter was inspired by a story by Tony Strobl. As most of the characters Rosa uses were created by Barks, and because Rosa considers Scrooge rather than Donald to be the main character of the Duck universe, he does not regard himself as a pure Disney artist, nor the characters really as Disney's. Rosa prefers to say that the characters he uses are Barks's, while "Disney only happen to own the licenses" upon these characters except Donald (even Huey, Dewey, and Louie were created by a licensed artist as well, Al Taliaferro). Because of his idolization of Barks, he repeatedly discourages his fans to use an absolutist way of saying his clearly different drawing style would be better than Barks's, and he found that notion confirmed when Barks himself spoke about Rosa's style in a critical tone. Beside Rosa's constant effort to remain faithful to the universe Barks created, there is also a number of notable differences between the two artists. The most obvious of these is Rosa's much more detailed drawing style, often with many background gags, which has been credited as having a distinctive underground appearance to them (see section Drawing style above). While Barks himself discouraged the use of extreme grimacing and gesturing in any other panel for comical or dramatic effect "Those sight gags are quite limited. You know, there are only so many things you can do with a human body or a duck body and then you start repeating yourself, otherwise you'd kill him.", www.cbarks.com: The artistry: Comics writing, "Avoid excessive distortion of beak and brows. Tilting eyes is key to most expressions. [...] Use this eye tilting cautiously! It's awfully easy to tilt these eyes too far!", Barks model sheet #1, 1950, "Using the hands to 'talk' with is fine sometimes. But this kind of emphasizing is wearing on the reader! [...] Overacting can be overdone. Save big takes for direst calamities!", Barks model sheet #2, 1950 , Rosa's stories are rich with colorful and bizarre facial renditions and physical slapstick. Barks had over 600 Duck stories to his name while Rosa only created 85 until his eye trouble set in, but whereas Barks made many short one and two-pagers centered around a subtle, compact gag, Rosa's oeuvre consists almost exclusively of long adventure stories. D.U.C.K. Most Don Rosa stories have the letters D.U.C.K. hidden somewhere in the first panel. Rosa's covers also usually have D.U.C.K. in them. This is an acronym for Dedicated to Unca Carl from Keno. Because Disney would not allow for personal signatures in the comics, and thought that D.U.C.K. looked too much like one, Don Rosa has made a habit of hiding the letters in various unlikely places. Many of his readers have made a sport out of finding them. The D.U.C.K. list He has also been nominated for 2007 Harvey Awards in five categories (more than any other creator for this year) for Uncle Scrooge comics: Best Writer, Best Artist, Best Cartoonist, Best Cover Artist, and Special Award for Humor in Comics. The Harvey Awards D.U.C.K. is in most cases hidden in the very first image, on the first page of the story. D.U.C.K. is also often hidden in Rosa's cover-art, which he makes for his own stories and reprints of old Carl Barks stories. Ironically, almost every time Don Rosa gets an article about him in the weekly Disney comics (at least in European editions), the D.U.C.K.-dedication is mentioned. Mickeys Another curiosity is his Hidden Mickeys. Don Rosa is only interested in creating stories featuring the Duck family, but he often hides small Mickey Mouse heads or figures in the pictures, sometimes in a humiliating or unwanted situation. An example of this is in the story The Terror of the Transvaal where a flat Mickey can be seen under an elephant's foot. This is mostly a gag done for the fun of it. Rosa has admitted to neither liking nor disliking Mickey Mouse, but being indifferent to him. In the story Attack of the Hideous Space-Varmints, the asteroid with Uncle Scrooge's money bin on it crashes into the Moon among with two missiles, creating a large Mickey Mouse head on the surface. When Huey, Dewey and Louie tell Scrooge that the missiles hit the dark side of the Moon, Scrooge is thankful no one is going to see it - "For a minute there, I thought we were going to have some legal problems." In the second Rosa story featuring The Three Caballeros, Donald Duck is shocked by the sight of a capybara standing on its hind legs, with shrubs, leaves and fruit in front of its body, coincidentally making it look like Mickey Mouse. José Carioca and Panchito Pistoles, never having seen Mickey Mouse, ask Donald what is wrong, but Donald replies he is just tired. Later in the same story the Caballeros free several animals from a poacher and one panel shows the animals flee. Mickey can be seen among them. In The Quest for Kalevala this running gag can be seen on the original, Akseli Gallen-Kallela -inspired cover art. In the original work, Louhi is depicted as bare-chested, but the Disneyfied version has been drawn a top, of fabric patterned with Mickey Mouse heads. Awards His work has won Rosa a good deal of recognition in the industry, including nominations for the Comics' Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Heidi MacDonald of Comics Buyer's Guide also mentioned Rosa's 1994 story Guardians of the Lost Library as "possibly the greatest comic book story of all time". In 1995 he was awarded the Eisner Award for "Best Serialized Story" for The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck His story The Black Knight GLORPS Again! has recently been nominated for the Eisner Award 2007 in the category Best Short Story. The D.U.C.K.man - A site dedicated to the greatest living Duck-artist: Don Rosa He has also been nominated for 2007 Harvey Awards in five categories (more than any other creator for this year) for Uncle Scrooge comics: Best Writer, Best Artist, Best Cartoonist, Best Cover Artist, and Special Award for Humor in Comics. The Harvey Awards Biographical Works In 1997 the Italian publishing house Editrice ComicArt published a lavish volume about Don Rosa's biography and work related to the Disney characters. It was titled "Don Rosa e il Rinascimento Disneyano" and written by famous Disney and Rosa scholars, Alberto Becattini, Leonardo Gori and Francesco Stajano. This work not only discusses all of Rosa's creative life up to 1997, but it also gives a comprehensive biography, lists up to that date his Disney work (for updated list, refer to List of Disney comics by Don Rosa) and presents an extensive interview with Rosa. Collections The Don Rosa Archives - The Pertwillaby Papers The Don Rosa Archives - The Adventures of Captain Kentucky The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck Companion Barks/Rosa Collection Vol. 1-3 See also List of Disney comics by Don Rosa Carl Barks References External links DuckMaster Artwork and details presented by Don Rosa excerpt from interview in Comics Journal #183 Duckhunt Duckstories Don Rosa and Carl Barks database Article about his work Timeline Detailed profile of Don Rosa Different information by Don Rosa Another Detailed profile of Don Rosa Comic Book Awards Almanac Rosa's two non-Disney hardcover books Launching the two non-Disney hardcover books

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Beastie_Boys

Adam Horovitz/Ad-Rock Adam Yauch/MCA Michael Diamond/Mike D Beastie Boys are an American hip hop group from New York City consisting of Michael "Mike D" Diamond, Adam "MCA" Yauch, and Adam "Ad-Rock" Horovitz. Since around the time of the Hello Nasty album, the DJ for the group has been Michael "Mix Master Mike" Schwartz, who was first featured in the song "Three MC's and One DJ". Beastie Boys | hiphop.sh Beastie Boys began as a hardcore punk group in 1979, and appeared on the compilation cassette New York Thrash with Riot Fight and Beastie. They switched to hip-hop with the release of their 12" single "Cooky Puss", which was followed by a string of successful 12" singles and their debut album Licensed to Ill (1986), which enjoyed international critical acclaim and commercial success. The group is well-known for its eclecticism, jocular and flippant attitude toward interviews and interviewers, obscure cultural references and kitschy lyrics, and for performing in outlandish matching suits. They are one of the longest-lived hip-hop acts and continue to enjoy commercial and critical success in 2009, more than 20 years after the release of their debut album. On September 27, 2007, they were nominated for induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. On February 3, 2009, the group released a digitally remastered version of their seminal album Paul's Boutique for its 20th anniversary. Paul's Boutique History Early days: 1979–1983 Beastie Boys came together in 1979 as a punk band called The Young Aborigines. In 1981 Adam Yauch (MCA) joined the group, and from the suggestion of their guitarist John Berry, they changed the band's name to Beastie Boys. The name "Beastie" is sometimes thought originally to have stood for "Boys Entering Anarchistic States Towards Internal Excellence," and that the initials B.B. intended to mimic Washington DC hardcore punk band Bad Brains, The Beastie Boys by Thomas Forget but these were actually afterthoughts once the band's name was already Beastie Boys, according to Mike D and MCA. Charlie Rose Show, August 28, 2007 The band's original line-up consisted of Adam Yauch (MCA) on bass, Kate Schellenbach on drums, John Berry on guitar, and Michael Diamond (Mike D) on vocals. Their first gig was at Berry's house on Yauch's 17th birthday. The band quickly earned support slots for Bad Brains, Urban Blight (http://www.myspace.com/urbanblightnyc) the Dead Kennedys BeastieMania.com - Gigography , the Misfits BeastieMania.com - Gigography and Reagan Youth at venues such as CBGB and Max's Kansas City, playing at the latter venue on its closing night. That same year, the Beastie Boys recorded the 7" EP Pollywog Stew at 171A studios, an early recorded example of New York hardcore. John Berry left the group (later forming Thwig, Big Fat Love, and the San Francisco booze rock band Bourbon Deluxe) and was replaced by Adam Horovitz (Ad-rock)—who had previously played in the punk band, The Young and the Useless in 1983. The band also performed its first rap track, "Cooky Puss," based on a prank call by the group to Carvel Ice Cream. It became a hit in New York underground dance clubs upon its release. Licensed to Ill: 1984–1987 It was during this period that Def Jam record producer Rick Rubin signed on and the Beastie Boys changed from a punk rock outfit to a three-man rap crew. The band released the 12" EP, Rock Hard, in 1984—the second record released by Def Jam that credited Rubin as producer. Soon after Rubin's arrival, Schellenbach developed creative differences with the band, citing her friction with Rubin. It was believed that Rubin objected to Schellenbach's place in the band as she did not fit the hip hop image to which the band aspired. Schellenbach went on to join Luscious Jackson in 1991. In 1985, the band opened for John Lydon's post-Sex Pistols band Public Image Ltd. Fader magazine 2 sur Flickr : partage de photos ! , as well as supporting Madonna on her North American Virgin tour. Later in the year, the group was on the Raising Hell tour with Run DMC, Whodini, LL Cool J, and the Timex Social Club. With their exposure on this tour, the track "Hold It Now, Hit It" made Billboard's national R&B and Dance charts. The track "She's on It" from the Krush Groove soundtrack continued in a rap/metal vein while a double A-side 12," "Paul Revere/The New Style," was released at the end of the year. The band recorded Licensed to Ill in 1986 and released the album at the end of the year. It was a smash success, and was favorably reviewed by Rolling Stone magazine with the now-famous headline, "Three Idiots Create a Masterpiece." Licensed to Ill became the best selling rap album of the 1980s and the first rap album to go #1 on the Billboard album chart, where it stayed for five weeks. It also reached #2 on the Urban album charts. It was Def Jam's' fastest selling debut record to date and sold over five million copies. The first single from the album, "Fight for Your Right," () reached #7 on the Billboard Hot 100, and the video (directed by Ric Menello) became an MTV staple. The band took the Licensed to Ill tour around the world the following year. It was a tour clouded in controversy featuring female members of the crowd dancing in cages and a giant motorized inflatable penis similar to one used by The Rolling Stones in the 1970s. The tour was troubled by lawsuits and arrests, with the band accused of provoking the crowd. This culminated in their notorious gig at the Royal Court Theatre, Liverpool, England on May 30, 1987 that erupted into a riot approximately 10 minutes after the Beasties hit the stage and the arrest of Adam Horovitz by Merseyside Police on assault charges. After the success of Licensed to Ill, the Beasties parted ways with Def Jam and ended their relationship with Rick Rubin to sign with Capitol Records. A bootleg album entitled "Original Ill" features original demos of all the tracks from the final version of Licensed to Ill plus deleted tracks "I'm Down" (A Beatles Song) and "The Scenario" was released in 1998. Paul's Boutique / Check Your Head: 1988–1992 The group matured with their second album, Paul's Boutique, produced by the Dust Brothers and Matt Dike. Recorded in 1988, this extremely sample-heavy opus is still considered one of the strongest works by the Beasties, and Rolling Stone ranked it #156 on its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/6599020/156_pauls_boutique . It is also considered a landmark in hip hop recordings due to its intricate use of multi-layering Paul's Boutique: Information and Much More from Answers.com and large array of samples. The album was released in 1989 by Capitol Records, after the falling out between the Boys and Def Jam. It failed to match the sales of Licensed to Ill, reaching #14 on the Billboard 200 and #10 on the Billboard R&B charts. The lead single, "Hey Ladies", reached #36 on the Billboard 100 and #10 on the R&B charts. Rolling Stone would describe the album as "the Pet Sounds/The Dark Side of the Moon of hip hop." Paul's Boutique would eventually sell a million albums, despite the initially weak commercial reception. The band digitally remastered and released the album through their own website. The follow-up album, Check Your Head, was recorded in the band's own "G-Son" studio in Atwater Village, California and released on its Grand Royal record label. The band was influenced to play instruments on this album by Dutch group Urban Dance Squad; with Mike D on drums, Yauch on bass, Horovitz on guitar and Mark Ramos Nishita ("Keyboard Money Mark") on keyboards. Mario Caldato Jr. ("Mario C") engineered the record and would become a longtime collaborator. Check Your Head was released in 1992 and went double platinum in the U.S., reaching a peak of #10 on the Billboard 200. The single "So What'cha Want" reached #93 on the Billboard 100 and made both the urban and modern rock charts while the album's first single "Pass the Mic" became a hit in dance clubs. The album also introduced a more experimental direction, with funk and jazz inspired songs including "Lighten Up" and "Something's Got To Give." Hardcore punk even made its reappearance with "Time For Livin'." Beastie Boys signed an eclectic roster of artists to the Grand Royal label including Luscious Jackson, Sean Lennon and promising Australian artist Ben Lee. Beastie Boys owned Grand Royal Records until 2001 when it was then sold for financial reasons. Grand Royal's first independent release was Luscious Jackson's album In Search of Manny in 1993. The Beastie Boys also published Grand Royal Magazine, with the first edition in 1993 featuring a cover story on Bruce Lee, artwork by George Clinton, and interviews with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and A Tribe Called Quest MC Q-Tip. The 1995 issue of the magazine contained a memorable piece on the "mullet." The Oxford English Dictionary cites this as the first published use of the term, along with the lyrics from the Beasties' 1994 song "Mullet Head." The OED says that the term was "apparently coined, and certainly popularized, by U.S. hip-hop group the Beastie Boys." http://www.andover.edu/library/courseguides/ay2005/SS/Etymology/mulletoed.pdf Grand Royal Magazine is also responsible for giving British band Sneaker Pimps their name. Ill Communication: 1993–1996 Ill Communication, released in 1994, saw the Beastie Boys' return to the top of the charts when the album debuted at #1 on the Billboard Top 200 & peaked at #2 on the R&B/ hip hop album chart. The single "Sabotage" () became a hit on the modern rock charts and the music video, directed by Spike Jonze, received extensive play on MTV. "Get It Together" reached Top 10 of the Billboard dance charts and also became an urban hit while "Sure Shot" was a dance hit. Some Old Bullshit, featuring the band's early independent material, made #50 on the Billboard independent charts. Beastie Boys headlined at Lollapalooza—an American travelling music festival—in 1994, together with The Smashing Pumpkins. In addition, the band performed three concerts (in Los Angeles, New York City, and Washington D.C.) to raise money for the Milarepa Fund and dedicated the royalties from "Shambala" and "Bodhisattva Vow" from the Ill Communication album to the cause. The Milarepa Fund aims to raise awareness of Tibetan human rights issues and the exile of the Dalai Lama. In 1996, Yauch organized the Tibetan Freedom Concert, a two-day festival at Golden Gate Park in San Francisco that attracted 100,000 people. In 1995, the popularity of Beastie Boys was underlined when tickets for an arena tour went on sale in the U.S. and sold out within a few minutes. One dollar from each ticket sold went to local charities. The Beastie Boys toured South America and Southeast Asia for the first time. The band also released Aglio e Olio, a collection of eight songs lasting for just eleven minutes harking back to their punk roots, in 1995. The In Sound From Way Out!, a collection of previously released jazz/funk instrumentals, was released on Grand Royal in 1996 with the title and artwork a homage to an album by electronic pop music pioneers Perrey and Kingsley. Hello Nasty: 1998–2001 Beastie Boys returned to New York City in 1997 to produce and record the album Hello Nasty. The album displayed a substantial shift in musical feel, with the addition of Mix Master Mike, who added to the Beasties' sound with his kinetic DJ style. Released July 14, 1998, Hello Nasty earned first week sales of 698,527 in the U.S. and went straight to #1 in the U.S., the UK, Germany, Australia, The Netherlands, New Zealand, and Sweden. The album achieved #2 rank in the charts in Canada and Japan, and reached Top Ten chart positions in Austria, Switzerland, Ireland, Belgium, Finland, France and Israel. During 1998, rumors, seemingly generated by comments from the band, pointed to a possibility that they were to release a country album. Both Michael Diamond and Adam Yauch are credited with interview comments that piqued interest in whether or not an album would be released. Since they had long been notorious for pranking the media, it was difficult for anyone to take these comments seriously until tracks became available, most notably on The Sounds of Science anthology album. Adam Yauch published the following in the liner notes: "At some point after Ill Communication came out, Mike got hit in the head by a large foreign object and lost all of his memory. As it started coming back he believed he was a country singer named Country Mike. The psychologists told us that if we didn't play along with Mike's fantasy, he would be in grave danger. Finally he came back to his senses. These songs are just a few of many we made during that tragic period of time." How much is fact or fiction is difficult to determine, but when the album surfaced on eBay fans scrambled to get their hands on what had proven to be a rare album. Beastie Boys won two Grammy Awards in 1999, receiving the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album for Hello Nasty as well as the Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance "Intergalactic" This was the first and, as of 2008, only time that a band had won awards in both rap and alternative categories. Also at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards they won the highly coveted Video Vanguard Award for their contribution to music videos. The following year at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards they also won the award for Best Hip Hop Video for their hit song "Intergalactic." Beastie Boys used both appearances at the Video Music Awards to make politically-charged speeches of considerable length to the sizable MTV audiences. At the 1998 ceremony, Yauch addressed the issue of Muslim people being stereotyped as terrorists and that most people of the Muslim faith are not terrorists http://www.mtv.com/ontv/vma/1998/ . These comments were made in the wake of the U.S. Embassy bombings that had occurred in both Kenya and Tanzania only a month earlier. At the 1999 ceremony in the wake of the horror stories that were coming out of Woodstock 99, Adam Horovitz addressed the need for bands and festivals to pay much more attention to the security detail at their concerts. Beastie Boys started an arena tour in 1998. Through Ian C. Rogers, the band made live downloads of their performances available for their fans but were temporarily thwarted when Capitol Records removed them from its website. The Beastie Boys was one of the first bands who made mp3 downloads available on their website; they got a high level of response and public awareness as a result including a published article in The Wall Street Journal on the band's efforts. The 1999 Tibetan Freedom Concerts featured shows in East Troy, Wisconsin, Sydney, Tokyo, and Amsterdam. On September 28, 1999, Beastie Boys joined Elvis Costello to play "Radio Radio" on the 25th anniversary of Saturday Night Live. Beastie Boys released The Sounds of Science, a two-CD anthology of their works in 1999. This album reached #19 on the Billboard 200, #18 in Canada, #6 on the Internet sales charts, and #14 on the R&B/Hip Hop charts. The one new song, the single "Alive", reached #11 on the Billboard's Modern Rock chart. In the years following the release of Hello Nasty the group launched their official website which underwent several transformations eventually culminating in one of the most popular recording artist related websites on the internet. In 2000, Beastie Boys had planned to co-headline the "Rhyme and Reason Tour" with Rage Against the Machine and Busta Rhymes, but the tour was canceled when drummer Mike D suffered a serious injury due to a bicycle accident. The official diagnosis was fifth-degree acromioclavicular joint dislocation; he needed surgery and extensive rehabilitation. By the time he recovered, Rage Against the Machine had disbanded. Under the name "Country Mike," Mike D recorded an album, Country Mike's Greatest Hits, and gave it to friends and family for Christmas in 2000. Adam "Ad-Rock" Horovitz's side project BS 2000 released Simply Mortified in 2001. In 2002, it was discovered that Mike D and Rick Rubin were reuniting to produce Mike's other side project, World of Hustle. To the 5 Boroughs: 2002–2006 The band increased its level of political activism after the September 11th terrorist attacks in 2001, organizing and headlining the New Yorkers Against Violence Concert in October 2001. Funds from the concert went towards the New York Women's Foundation Disaster Relief Fund and the New York Association for New Americans (NYANA). In 2002, Beastie Boys started building a new studio facility, Oscilloscope, in downtown Manhattan, New York and started work on a new album. The band released a protest song, "In A World Gone Mad", against the 2003 Iraq war as a free download on several websites, including the Milarepa website, the MTV website, MoveOn.org, and Win Without War. It became the most downloaded track during April 2003. The 19th and 20th Tibetan Freedom Concerts were held in Tokyo and Taipei, Beastie Boys' first Taiwan appearance. Beastie Boys also headlined the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival. Their single, "Ch-Check It Out," debuted on The O.C. in "The Vegas" episode from Season 1 which aired April 28, 2004. To the 5 Boroughs was released worldwide on June 15, 2004. It was the first album the Beastie Boys produced themselves and reached #1 on the Billboard album charts, #2 in the UK and Australia, and #3 in Germany. The first single from the album, "Ch-Check It Out", reached #1 in Canada and the US Modern Rock Tracks, #2 on the world internet download charts, and #3 on a composite world modern rock chart. The album was the cause of some controversy with allegations that it installed spyware when inserted into the CD drive of a computer. Beastie Boys CD Virus The band has denied this allegation, defending that there is no copy protection software on the albums sold in the U.S. and UK. While there is Macrovision CDS-200 copy protection software installed on European copies of the album, this is standard practice for all European releases on EMI/Capitol Records released in Europe, and it does not install spyware or any form of permanent software. The band stated in mid-2006 that they were writing material for their next album and would be producing it themselves. CANOE - JAM! Music: Beasties reinvent the concert film http://www.albumvote.co.uk/news/news.php?id=1585 The Mix-Up: 2007–2008 Speaking to British music weekly NME (April 26, 2007), World exclusive - Beastie Boys name new album | News | NME.COM Diamond revealed that a new album was to be called The Mix-Up. Despite initial confusion balls regarding whether the album would have lyrics as opposed to being purely instrumental, the Mic-To-Mic blog reported that Capitol Records had confirmed it would be strictly instrumental and erroneously reported a release date scheduled for July 10, 2007 Mic to Mic: Beastie Boys "The Mix-Up" due July 10 June 26 (The album was eventually released June 26, as originally reported). On May 1, 2007, this was further cemented by an e-mail BeastieBoys.com: Official Beastie Boys Web Site sent to those on the Beastie Boys' mailing list - explicitly stating that the album would be all instrumental: The band subsequently confirmed this in public, playing several tracks from the album at the 2007 Virgin Festival at Pimlico Race Course in Baltimore, Maryland. To support the release, a string of live dates was announced BeastieBoys.com: Official Beastie Boys Web Site that focused on festivals as opposed to a traditional tour, including the likes of Sónar Sónar. Home (Spain), Roskilde (Denmark), Hurricane Hurricane Festival /Southside Southside Festival (Germany), Bestival Bestival 2007 (Isle Of Wight), Electric Picnic Electric Picnic (Ireland) and Open'er Festival o p e n ' e r f e s t i v a l (Poland). Beastie Boys performed at the UK leg of Live Earth July 7, 2007 at Wembley Stadium, London with Sabotage, So What'cha Want, Intergalactic, and Sure Shot. Live Earth on MSN: The Concerts For A Climate In Crisis They worked with Reverb, a non-profit environmental organization, on their 2007 summer tour. | R E V E R B | Beastie Boys were featured on the cover of Beyond Race magazine for the publication's summer 2007 issue. They won a Grammy for The Mix-Up in the "Best Pop Instrumental Album" category at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards in 2008. Hot Sauce Committee: 2009–present In February 2009 Bassist Adam "MCA" Yauch revealed their forthcoming new album has taken the rap collective in a "bizarre" new direction. They had tentatively named the record Tadlock's Glasses, after a former tour bus driver, who was once presented with a pair of glasses by Elvis Presley. The band are set to tour in the summer. Speaking to BBC Five Live at the Independent Spirit Awards in Los Angeles, Yauch said the collective are currently putting the finishing touches to their new album. The record comes nearly two years after their Grammy Award-winning instrumental LP The Mix-Up. Of the proposed title he explained: "We had a bus driver years ago who used to drive Elvis' back up singers. His name was Tadlock and Elvis gave him a pair of glasses which he was very proud of. So for some reason that title - Tadlock's Glasses - has just been bouncing around." No firm release date has been set for the record. The group will tour the UK later this year in support of the new record. The group has also been announced to headline this year's Osheaga Festival in Montreal, alongside fellow headliners Coldplay. The festival will also include performances by the Arctic Monkeys, The Roots, Jason Mraz, Rufus Wainwright and The Ting Tings, amongst others. On May 25, The Beastie Boys announced through their mailing list (and also on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon) that the name of their new album would now be Hot Sauce Committee. Influence Their fusion of hip hop and punk rock genres could be seen as a precursor to the rapcore and nu metal genres of the late 1990s which included bands such as Limp Bizkit, Korn & Rage Against the Machine. However, in their 1999 single Alive (taken from The Sounds of Science) Ad Rock distances the group from this genre through the line; "Created a monster with these rhymes I write, goatee metal rap please say goodnight." The band, along with co-producers The Dust Brothers were leaders in the use of sampling techniques, with Paul's Boutique being notable for its effective use of samples. The Dust Brothers in turn sampled So What'cha Want on the song E-Pro from Beck's 2005 Guero album. Furthermore, although rarely credited, Beastie Boys were one of the first groups to identify themselves as "gangsters", and one of the first popular rap groups to talk about violence, drug and alcohol use, possibly an influence from their time as a hardcore punk group. According to "Rolling Stone" magazine, their 1986 album Licensed to Ill is filled with enough references to guns, drugs, and empty sex (including the pornographic deployment of a Wiffle-ball bat in "Paul Revere") to qualify as a gangsta-rap cornerstone." In their early underground days, the seminal gangsta rap group N.W.A rapped over Beastie Boys tracks for songs such as "My Posse" and "Ill-Legal," and Beastie Boys' influence can be seen significantly in all of N.W.A's early albums. Their 1989 album Paul's Boutique included the similarly-themed tracks "Car Thief," "Looking Down the Barrel of a Gun" and "High Plains Drifter." Beastie Boys have had four albums reach the top of the Billboard album charts (Licensed to Ill, Ill Communication, Hello Nasty and To The 5 Boroughs) since 1986. In the November 2004 issue, Rolling Stone Magazine named "Sabotage" the 475th song on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list. In their April 2005 Rolling Stone Magazine ranked them #77 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. On September 27, 2007, it was announced that Beastie Boys were one of the nine nominees for the 2008 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Inductions. Future Rock Hall - the 2008 Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Nominees A controversial concert in Columbus, Georgia in 1987 led to the passage of a lewdness ordinance in that city. Anti-lewdness ordinance started in Columbus, GA after Beastie Boys show 19 years ago [Archive] - Beastie Boys Message Board Sal Governale, a comedian on the staff of the Howard Stern Show, indicated on air on July 25, 2007, that he was the president of the Beastie Boys fan club in the 1980s on the Prodigy computer network. http://www.howardstern.com/rundown.hs. Sampling lawsuit In 2003, Beastie Boys were involved in the landmark sampling decision, Newton v. Diamond. In that case, a federal judge ruled that the band was not liable for sampling James Newton's "Choir" in their track, "Pass the Mic." The sample used is the six-second flute stab. In short, the Beasties cleared the sample but only obtained the rights to use the sound recording and not the composition rights to the song "Choir." In the decision, the judge found that "when viewed in relation to Newton's composition as a whole, the sampled portion is neither quantitatively nor qualitatively significant... Because Beastie Boys' use of the sound recording was authorized, the sole basis of Newton's infringement action is his remaining copyright interest in the 'Choir' composition. We hold today that Beastie Boys' use of a brief segment of that composition, consisting of three notes separated by a half-step over a background C note, is not sufficient to sustain a claim for copyright infringement." Sampling Law (Annex): Newton v. Diamond (2003) Members Regular members (as of 2005) Michael Diamond, a.k.a. Mike D - vocals, drums Adam Yauch, a.k.a. MCA - vocals, bass guitar Adam Horovitz, a.k.a. Ad-Rock - vocals, guitar Michael Schwartz, a.k.a. Mix Master Mike - turntables, samples Other contributing members Wendell Fite, aka DJ Hurricane (DJ) Lou Fox, aka DJ Underwears 1979-1981 Mario Caldato Junior, aka Mario C (producer/engineer) Mark Ramos-Nishita, aka Money Mark (keyboards, vocals, carpentry) Eric Bobo (percussion) John King and Mike Simpson (DJ EZ-Mike) a.k.a. The Dust Brothers (producers) Pat Keane a.k.a BIG red Chris Bradds, guitar Rick Rubin (producer and original DJ) Amery Smith, a.k.a. AWOL (drums) Alfredo Ortiz (percussion) Doctor Dré (DJ in early years) (not to be confused with the Los Angeles rapper and producer Dr. Dre) Marcell Hall, a.k.a. Biz Markie, (vocals, 1992–1999) Discography Albums Licensed to Ill (1986) Paul's Boutique (1989) Check Your Head (1992) Ill Communication (1994) Hello Nasty (1998) To the 5 Boroughs (2004) The Mix-Up (2007) Hot Sauce Committee (2009) References External links Beastie Boys official website Beastiemania website Beastie Boys bio The 411 on The Beastie Boys Beastie Boys on Shockhound.com Listen to Beastie Boys Best Album and Get a Collector's Trading Card

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Netball

Netball is a non-contact team sport originating from the United States similar to, and derived from, basketball. Invented in 1895 by Clara Gregory Baer, a pioneer in women's sport, netball is now pre-eminently played as a women's team sport in Australia and New Zealand and is popular in the West Indies, Sri Lanka, and the United Kingdom. Over 20 million people play netball in more than 70 countries. Game Plan 2007-2011, International Federation of Netball Associations History Links to basketball Netball traces its roots to basketball. Basketball was devised in 1891 by James Naismith for his students in the School for Christian Workers (later called the YMCA). Female teachers got curious and started to formulate a version for girls. The outfits of women at this time prohibited them from effectively executing important basketball moves such as running and dribbling, so the game had to be modified to accommodate these restrictions. Women’s basketball was thus born. Zoning rules inadvertently added In 1895, Clara Baer, a gym teacher from New Orleans, asked Naismith for a copy of the basketball rules. Baer identified Naismith's unclear pencil markings showing the areas players should best patrol as the areas within which women players could move, and consequently introduced "zoning areas". This was the start of netball’s formalization. These zoning rules, along with many other provisions (such as elimination of the dribbling rule), were all included in the first draft of Rules for Women’s Basketball. In 1901, this set of rules was ratified and netball officially became a competitive sport. However, it was several years before regular competitions were held. Introduction to the Commonwealth A netball sculpture at Invercargill Airport, Southland. Netball was first played in England in 1895 at Madame Osterburg's College and soon spread throughout Australia, the then-British colonies of Jamaica and Antigua, and indeed most British Commonwealth territories. It did not yet have hard-and-fast rules. So loose were the regulations, in fact, that some games were played by nine players in each team, while some were played with only five players in each. The nets used were also ineffective—they were not open at both ends, so after each goal was scored, the umpire had to retrieve the ball from the top of the post. Netball has been played at the Commonwealth Games since 1998 after becoming a recognised Olympic sport in 1995. World's oldest netball club On the 6th June 1907 an exhibition of "Net Ball" was organised between the "Ladies" and "Gentlemen" of the Regent Street Polytechnic as part of a garden party to celebrate the opening of their sports ground in Chiswick (West London). Poly Netball Club can trace an unbroken heritage back to this match and are therefore seen as the world's oldest netball club. Guinness Book of World Records Netball rules standardised and the International Federation established In 1960, representatives from England, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the West Indies met to discuss standardising the rules of the sport. This led to the establishment of The International Federation of Women's Basketball and Netball (which later became the International Federation of Netball Associations). New Zealand was the last country to adopt netball as the name for the sport in 1970. Netball New Zealand Formal rules were established at this inaugural meeting and it was decided to hold World Championship tournaments every four years. Establishment of the World Championships Liz Ellis kissing the Netball World Championships trophy after the 2007 final. The first Netball World Championship was held in 1963 and was hosted by England. Since then there have been eleven more tournaments. Australia has dominated the World Championships, winning 9 championships in 1963, 1971, 1975, 1979 (Joint Winner), 1983, 1991, 1995, 1999 and 2007. New Zealand has won 4 championships in 1967, 1979 (Joint Winner), 1987 and 2003. Trinidad & Tobago were joint winners of the 1979 Championships. Fiji was scheduled to host the 2007 World Netball Championship, but was stripped of its hosting privileges as a result of the December 2006 coup. The 2007 Netball World Championships were held in New Zealand instead. Netball becomes a recognised Olympic sport In 1995 netball became a recognised Olympic sport, making its inclusion in future Olympics possible, and in turn has been included in the Commonwealth Games since then. Netball gains semi-professional status With the introduction of the ANZ Championship in 2008, an elite netball competition contested between five teams each from both Australia and New Zealand, netball became a semi-professional sport. This allowed players to focus on netball and work either part time or not at all. Description and rules Objective The objective of a game of netball is for players to pass the ball to a teammate within the opposition's goal circle and score goals. The team with the most goals at the end of a game is the winner. Court and its dimensions A netball court is divided into thirds. Like basketball, netball is played on either a hard or soft court with scoring hoops or "rings" at both ends. The court is slightly larger than a basketball court, being 30.5 m long and 15.25 m wide. The longer sides are called "side lines" and the shorter sides are called "goal lines"or "back lines". Court markings are no more than 50 mm wide. The court is divided into thirds which regulate where individuals of each position are allowed to move. A 90cm-diameter "centre circle" is located in the centre of the court. At each end of the court there is a 4.9 m-radius semi-circular "shooting circle" or "goal circle" from within which all scoring shots must be taken. The goal posts are 3.05 m high from the top of the ring to the ground and have no backboards. The rings have an internal diameter of 380 mm and are located 150 mm forward from the post and are made of 15 mm diameter steel. Both the height and diameter of the rings are smaller than basketball hoops. It is possible to play netball using a basketball hoop but if there is any contact between the ball and the backboard, the ball is considered out of play. If a goal is scored off the backboard it does not count. Some versions of the rules allow a goal to be scored from a backboard rebound if a player who can catch the ball throws the ball in without touching the ground. Ball The ball resembles a basketball but is lighter, smaller, slightly softer in construction, and generally white. A netball will often have patterns engraved or stitched into its design similar to a volleyball. Gilbert is the official ball supplier of the International Federation of Netball Associations. Positions There are seven players on each team, who are given nominated, named positions (some junior/training variants have only five players per team). Each player must wear a "bib" showing one of the abbreviations below, indicating that player's position. Each player is only allowed in certain areas of the court: a player in a section of court that is not part of their playing area is deemed "offside". The positions are described below: +Netball positions Position Name Abbreviation Player to mark Areas permitted Goal Shooter GS Goal Keeper Attacking third, including the goal circle Goal Attack GA Goal Defence Attacking and centre thirds, including the goal circle Wing Attack WA Wing Defence Attacking and centre thirds, but not the goal circle Centre C Centre Attacking, centre, and defending thirds, but not the goal circles Wing Defence WD Wing Attack Centre and defending thirds, but not the goal circle Goal Defence GD Goal Attack Centre and defending thirds, including the goal circle Goal Keeper GK Goal Shooter Defending third, including the goal circle Scoring goals By the combination of the above, only the Goal Attack and Goal Shooter are able to score goals directly. The job of the Goal Defence and Goal Keeper is to block the Goal Attack and Goal Shooter from shooting. A ball that passes through the hoop, but has been thrown either from outside the circle or by a player not the GA or GS, is deemed a "no goal". Furthermore, a shooter (GA or GS) may not shoot for a goal if a "free pass" has been awarded for an infringement such as stepping, offside, or using the post. Starting and restarting play A netball game in Australia. At the beginning of every quarter or after a goal is scored, play starts from the centre of the court with a "centre pass". These passes alternate between the teams, regardless of which team scored the last goal. A centre pass is made by a player in the "centre" position who must have one foot grounded within the centre circle. As the game restarts, only the player in the 'Centre' position from each team are allowed in the centre third of the court. When the umpire blows the whistle to restart play, players in the positions "Goal Attack", "Goal Defence", "Wing Attack" and "Wing Defence" can move into the centre third, where the centre pass must be caught. If the ball touches the ground outside the court boundaries, then a member of the team that was not the last to touch the ball before it went out is able to throw the ball back into the court to restart play. Stepping, footwork, and passing Netball rules do not permit players to let their landing foot touch the ground again if it is lifted at all while in possession of the ball, so players can take 1.5 steps while holding the ball. Players are entitled to balance on the other foot if the landing foot is lifted. Consequently, the only way to move the ball towards the goal is to throw the ball to a team-mate. The ball cannot be held by a player for more than three seconds at any time, and players may not tap the ball to themselves more than twice ("replay"). The player cannot catch the ball, drop it and pick it up again; this is called a replayed ball. The duration before it is called a drop is determined by the umpire. These rules, combined with the restrictions on where one player of a particular position can move, ensure that everyone on the team is regularly involved in play. Contact and obstruction Contact is only permitted provided it does not impede with an opponent or the general play and players must be at least three feet (90 centimetres) away from a player with the ball while attempting to defend. If impeding contact is made, a penalty is given to the team of the player who was contacted, and the player who contacted must stand "out of play", meaning they cannot participate in play until the player taking the penalty has passed the ball. Playing time A game is played in four quarters, each one lasting fifteen minutes, with intervals of three minutes between the first and second quarters, and between the third and fourth quarters. There is also an interval of five minutes at half time. If a player has an injury, a team-mate or umpire calls time, and the time keeper pauses the timer. When the game starts and the player has swapped places with another player, or is healthy, play is resumed and the timer is restarted. Worldwide popularity Netball is a popular participant sport, particularly in countries of the Commonwealth of Nations such as New Zealand, Australia, Malawi, Jamaica, and the United Kingdom. Over 20 million people play netball in more than 70 countries. Netball is commonly played by Commonwealth children during their years at school. Oceania In Australia and New Zealand, netball is the most popular sport played by women. 2008 saw the inaugural ANZ Championship, a Trans-Tasman semi-professional competition that is broadcast on television in both New Zealand and Australia. West Indies Approximately 10,000 people play netball in Jamaica, and it remains the favored women's sport in that country with Dayna Kalpagos (Australian) the key player in the league. Antigua and Barbuda is also very active in the netball, with cricket being the only sport more popular. Physical appeal Netball requires speed, strategy, team work and co-ordination, thus its appeal is not limited to women. Representative men's teams exist, but attract less attention. At primary home level, mixed teams are not uncommon. As adults, men and women can compete with each other on reasonably fair terms as the restrictions on defence, limitations of numbers and positions of male players, and the women's greater familiarity with the game, prevent those men of superior strength and size gaining an overly large advantage. Major competitions Netball World Championships The most important competition in netball is the Netball World Championship which is held every four years. The Australian national netball team are the current world champions having won the 2007 Championship in New Zealand. Past winners include the Silver Ferns of New Zealand and the Calypso Girls of Trinidad and Tobago, though England, the Proteas of South Africa and the Sunshine Girls of Jamaica have all also placed. See list of national netball teams for a complete list of national netball teams. World Youth Netball Championships The next World Youth Netball Championships will take place in July 2009 in the Cook Islands. Cook Islands Herald The 2005 Youth Championship was held in Miami, Florida and was won by New Zealand. Cardiff University Commonwealth Games As netball is popular in the Commonwealth, it is has been included in the Commonwealth Games since 1998. Australia have taken gold home twice since then, the Silver Ferns once. England and Jamaica are the two other teams that have placed. Asian Netball Championship The Asian Netball Championship is a competition held between Asian countries. It occurs every four years. The last winners in 2005 were the Singaporean team, with a win over the Malaysian team with a score of 53-39 in the final. South Pacific Games Netball is one of the sport at the Pacific Games (formerly known as the South Pacific Games). The Pacific Games is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics, (albeit on a much smaller scale), with participation exclusively from countries around the South Pacific. It is held every four years and began in 1963. The Nations Cup The Nations Cup (also known as the 4 Nations Netball Cup, the 5 Nations Netball Cup) is an international organised by Netball Singapore. In 2007, the competition included the Singapore national netball team, Canada, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka and Trinidad & Tobago. The 2008 Nations Cup will be between the Botswana national netball team, Barbados, Northern Ireland, the Samoa national netball team and Singapore. Netball Singapore ANZ Championship The ANZ Championship is the elite netball competition contested between five teams each from both Australia and New Zealand. It began in April 2008, succeeding Australia's Commonwealth Bank Trophy and New Zealand's National Bank Cup as the highest level of competitive netball in those countries.. Domestic competitions Australasia Commonwealth Bank Trophy - Australia (to 2007) National Bank Cup - NZ (to 2007) Fisher and Paykel Series England and Wales The Super League Singapore Netball Super League Australian variations for children Fun Net Fun Net is Netball Australia's play based motor skills program for 5-7 year olds. The emphasis is on the acquisition of basic motor skills, in a fun environment of games and activities. The length of the Fun Net program can be run between 8-16 weeks, although this is flexible depending on school, association and individual needs. The goal posts are only 2.4m high and a smaller size 4 netball is used. Netta Netta is a basic introduction into the professional aspect of netball for children aged seven years or older. A size 4 ball is used to develop correct passing and catching skills with up to six seconds allowed between catching and passing the ball, instead of the three seconds permitted in the adult game. All players rotate positions throughout the game so that they can experience the differences between each position. The program of Netta allows children to acquire important skills necessary in the game of netball in a fun and exciting environment. The aim of Netta is to ensure each child leaves with the confidence and skills ready to play Netball. High Five High five netball ensures that children gain experience at all positions on the court. There are five positions and the players must swap around these positions during the game, allowing them to try out every position. High Five has also been adopted by a number of adult mixed and ladies social netballleagues in London and is known as "versatility" See also Netball World Championships List of netball players List of national netball teams Korfball, a similar but distinct game played primarily in the Netherlands and Belgium. Funnel ball, a playground game with a similar concept which has a four funnel fiberglass goal References External links International Netball Federation Limited International Netball Netball Images Netball Online Netball Resources website Netball@TeamFindr Sport is Good: Netball The Rules of Netball

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Ohio-class_submarine

The Ohio class is a class of nuclear-powered submarines used by the United States Navy. The United States has 18 Ohio-class submarines: 14 nuclear-powered SSBNs, each armed with 24 Trident II SLBMs; they are also known as "Trident" submarines, and provide the sea-based leg of the nuclear triad of the United States strategic nuclear weapons arsenal 4 nuclear-powered SSGNs, each capable of carrying 154 Tomahawk cruise missiles with conventional warheads The 14 Trident II SSBNs together carry around fifty percent of the total U.S. strategic warhead inventory. The exact number varies in an unpredictable and highly classified manner, at or below a maximum set by various strategic arms limitation treaties. Although the missiles have no pre-set targets when the submarine goes on patrol, the platform, when required, is capable of rapid targeting using secure and constant at-sea communications links. The Ohio class is the largest type of submarine ever constructed for the U.S. Navy, and are second only to the Russian Typhoon-class in displacement and size (the new Russian Borei class submarine has bigger displacement when submerged, but not when surfaced). The Ohio-class submarines were specifically designed for extended deterrence patrols. Each submarine is complemented by two crews, Blue and Gold, with each crew operating on a 100-day interval. To decrease the time in port for crew turnover and replenishment, three large logistics hatches are fitted to provide large diameter resupply and repair openings. These hatches allow sailors to rapidly transfer supply pallets, equipment replacement modules and machinery components, significantly reducing the time required for replenishment and maintenance. The class design allows the vessel to operate for over fifteen years between overhauls. The boats are purported to be as stealthy at their cruising speed of as previous subs were at a dead crawl of , although exact information remains classified. History The first eight Ohio-class submarines were originally equipped with 24 Trident-I (C4) submarine-launched ballistic missiles. Beginning with the ninth Trident submarine, USS Tennessee, the remaining ships were equipped with the upgraded Trident-II (D5) variant as they were constructed. The Trident-II missile carries eight multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), in sum delivering more deterrence than the Trident-I and with much greater accuracy. Starting with USS Alaska in 2000, the navy began converting the remaining C4-equipped submarines to D5 missiles; this was completed in mid-2008. The first eight boats were homeported in Bangor, Washington to replace the Polaris (A3) carrying submarines that were then being decommissioned. The remaining ten boats were originally homeported in Kings Bay, Georgia, replacing the Atlantic-based Poseidon and Trident Backfit submarines. During the conversion of the first four hulls to SSGNs (see below), five boats, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Nebraska, Maine, and Louisiana, were shifted from Kings Bay to Bangor. Further shifts are occurring as the United States' strategic needs change. SSBN/SSGN conversions Ohio SSGN conversion After the end of the Cold War, plans called for Ohio to be retired in 2002, followed by three of her sisters. However, Ohio, Michigan, Florida, and Georgia instead were slated for modification, to remain in service as conventional, guided missile submarines (SSGNs). Beginning in 2002 through 2010, 22 of the 24 88-inch (2.2 m) diameter Trident missile tubes will be modified to contain large vertical launch systems (VLS), one configuration of which may be a cluster of seven Tomahawk cruise missiles. In this configuration, the number of cruise missiles carried could be a maximum of 154, the equivalent of what is typically deployed in a surface battle group. Other payload possibilities include new generations of supersonic and hypersonic cruise missiles, and Submarine Launched Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (SLIRBM) GlobalSecurity: Submarine Launched Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile , unmanned air vehicles (UAVs), the ADM-160 MALD, sensors for anti-submarine warfare or intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance missions, counter-mine warfare payloads such as the AN/BLQ-11 Long Term Mine Reconnaissance System (LMRS), and the broaching universal buoyant launcher (BUBL) and stealthy affordable capsule system (SACS) specialized payload canisters. The missile tubes also have room for stowage canisters that can extend the forward deployment time for special forces. The other two Trident tubes are converted to swimmer lockout chambers. For special operations, the Advanced SEAL Delivery System and the Dry Deck Shelter can be mounted on lock out chamber and the boat will be able to host up to 66 special operations sailors or Marines, such as Navy SEALs. Improved communications equipment installed during the upgrade allows the SSGNs to serve as a forward-deployed, clandestine Small Combatant Joint Command Center. On 26 September 2002, the Navy awarded the Electric Boat company a $442.9 million contract to begin the first phase of the SSGN submarine conversion program. Those funds covered only the initial phase of conversion for the first two boats on the schedule. Advanced procurement was funded at $355 million in fiscal year 2002, $825 million in the FY 2003 budget and, through the five-year defense budget plan, at $936 million in FY 2004, $505 million in FY 2005, and $170 million in FY 2006. Thus, the total cost to refit the four boats is just under $700 million per vessel. In November 2002, the USS Ohio entered drydock, beginning her 36-month refueling and missile conversion overhaul. Electric Boat announced on 9 January 2006 that the conversion had been completed. The converted Ohio rejoined the fleet in February 2006, followed by the USS Florida in April 2006. The converted USS Michigan was delivered in November 2006. The converted Ohio went to sea for the first time in October 2007. The Georgia returned to the fleet in March 2008 at Kings Bay. These four SSGNs are expected to remain in service until about 2023-2026. Next class of SSBN The Department of Defense anticipates a continued need for a sea-based strategic nuclear force. The current Ohio class Trident SSBNs are expected to retire its first vessel by 2029 meaning a platform must already be sea worthy by that time. A replacement may cost over $4billion per unit compared to the Ohio's $2billion per unit. The Navy is exploring two options. The first is a variant of the Virginia class nuclear attack submarines and the second is a dedicated SSBN either a new hull or an overhaul of the current Ohio class. With the cooperation of both Electric Boat and Newport News in 2007 the Navy had already begun a cost control study. Then in December 2008 the Navy awarded Electric Boat a contract for the missile compartment design of the Ohio class replacement worth up to $592 million. Newport News is expected to receive close to 4% of that project. Though the Navy has yet to confirm an Ohio class replacement program Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates as of April 2009 confirms that the Navy should begin such a program in 2010. Newport News contract awarded: Daily Press - Peter Frost The new vessel is scheduled to enter the design phase by 2014. It is anticipated that if a new hull design is used the program must be initiated by 2016 in order to meet the 2029 deadline. Global Security information on Ohio class replacement Popular culture Artist concept of an Ohio class SSGN launching Tomahawk missiles. As ballistic missile submarines, the Ohio-class has occasionally played a pivotal role in fiction books and films. plays a pivotal role in the film Crimson Tide, when an attack interrupts an incoming message regarding the potential launch of the submarines SLBMs, ultimately resulting in mutiny centered around the captain and executive officer. Crimson Tide at the Internet Movie Database The sinking of the fictional USS Montana is the inciting incident in James Cameron's 1989 film The Abyss. The characters, including a team of Navy SEALS attempt a rescue mission, but the crew of the Montana is found to have died in the sinking. During the mission, one of the SEALS explains the Montana's missile complement, stating she has, "24 Trident missiles, 8 MIRV's per nuke. Your MIRV is a tactical nuke, 50 kilotons nominal yield. Say 5 times Hiroshima." Another character replies, "Jesus, it's World War III in a can..." Later, the SEALS remove one of the MIRV warheads and "hotwire" it to destroy the (alleged) Soviet submarines operating in the area. In Tom Clancy's novels, these missile submarines play important roles. Ships of the class Guided Missile Submarines Ballistic Missile Submarines See also Yankee Notch - 1983 conversion of former Soviet SSBN class to take up to 40 missiles similar to Tomahawks Intercontinental ballistic missile Submarine-launched ballistic missile Nuclear warfare Nuclear strategy References The Hunt for Red October, by Tom Clancy (1984) Submarines, War Beneath The Waves, From 1776 To The Present Day, by Robert Hutchinson External links FAS page on the SSBN 726 class FAS page on the SSGN 726 class

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Nicaragua

Nicaragua () officially the Republic of Nicaragua (, ), is a representative democratic republic. It is the largest state in Central America with an area of 130,000 km2. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west of the country, the Caribbean Sea to the east. Falling within the tropics, Nicaragua sits 11 degrees north of the Equator, in the Northern Hemisphere. Nicaragua's capital city is Managua. The origin of the name 'Nicaragua' is unclear; one theory is that it was coined by Spanish colonists based upon the name of the local chief at that time, Nicarao; another is that it may have meant 'surrounded by water' in an indigenous language (this could either be a reference to its two large freshwater lakes, Lake Nicaragua and Lake Managua, or to the fact that it is bounded on the east and the west by oceans). Half its population are living in poverty. History Pre-Columbian history 6000 year old human footprints preserved in volcanic mud near the lake, they are called "Huellas de Acahualinca" in Managua, Nicaragua. In Pre-Columbian times, in what is now known as Nicaragua, the Indigenous people were part of the Intermediate Area located between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions and within the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian area. It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. This is confirmed by the ancient footprints of Acahualinca, along with other archaeological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone like the ones found on the island of Zapatera and petroglyphs found on Ometepe island. At the end of the 15th century, western Nicaragua was inhabited by several indigenous peoples related by culture and language to the Mayans. They were primarily farmers who lived in towns, organized into small kingdoms. Meanwhile, the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by other peoples, mostly chibcha related groups, that had migrated from what is now Colombia. They lived a less sedentary life based on hunting and gathering. The people of eastern Nicaragua appear to have traded with, and been influenced by, the native peoples of the Caribbean, as round thatched huts and canoes, both typical of the Caribbean, were common in eastern Nicaragua. In the west and highland areas, occupying the territory between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Coast, the Niquirano were governed by chief Nicarao, or Nicaragua, a rich ruler who lived in Nicaraocali, now the city of Rivas. The Chorotega lived in the central region of Nicaragua. These two groups had intimate contact with the Spanish conquerors, paving the way for the racial mix of native and European stock now known as mestizos. However, within three decades an estimated Indian population of one million plummeted, as approximately half of the indigenous people in western Nicaragua died from the rapid spread of new diseases brought by the Spaniards, something the indigenous people of the Caribbean coast managed to escape due to the remoteness of the area. The Spanish conquest Colonial architecture of the city of Granada, Nicaragua In 1502, Christopher Columbus was the first European known to have reached what is now Nicaragua as he sailed south along the Central America isthmus. On his fourth voyage Columbus sailed alongside and explored the Mosquito Coast on the east of Nicaragua. The first attempt to conquer what is now known as Nicaragua was by Gil González Dávila, whose Central American exploits began with his arrival in Panama in January 1520. González claimed to have converted some 30,000 indigenous peoples and discovered a possible transisthmian water link. After exploring and gathering gold in the fertile western valleys González was attacked by the indigenous people, some of whom were commanded by Nicarao and an estimated 3,000 led by chief Diriangén. González later returned to Panama where governor Pedrarias Dávila attempted to arrest him and confiscate his treasure, some 90,000 pesos of gold. This resulted in González fleeing to Santo Domingo. It was not until 1524 that the first Spanish permanent settlements were founded. Conquistador Francisco Hernández de Córdoba founded two of Nicaragua's principal towns in 1524: Granada on Lake Nicaragua was the first settlement and León east of Lake Managua came after. Córdoba soon found it necessary to prepare defenses for the cities and go on the offensive against incursions by the other conquistadores. Córdoba was later publicly beheaded following a power struggle with Pedrarias Dávila, his tomb and remains were discovered some 500 years later in the Ruins of León Viejo. The inevitable clash between the Spanish forces did not impede their devastation of the indigenous population. The Indian civilization was destroyed. The series of battles came to be known as The War of the Captains. Duncan, David Ewing, Hernando de Soto - A Savage Quest in the Americas - Book II: Consolidation, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, 1995 By 1529, the conquest of Nicaragua was complete. Several conquistadores came out winners, and some were executed or murdered. Pedrarias Dávila was a winner; although he had lost control of Panama, he had moved to Nicaragua and established his base in León. Through adroit diplomatic machinations, he became the first governor of the colony. The land was parceled out to the conquistadores. The area of most interest was the western portion. Many indigenous people were soon enslaved to develop and maintain "estates" there. Others were put to work in mines in northern Nicaragua, few were killed in warfare, and the great majority were sent as slaves to other New World Spanish colonies, for significant profit to the new landed aristocracy. Many of the indigenous people died as a result of disease and neglect by the Spaniards who controlled everything necessary for their subsistence. From colony to nation Corn Island off the Atlantic Coast was originally a British protectorate until it was ceded along with the rest of the Mosquito Coast to Nicaragua In 1536, the Viceroyalty of New Spain was established. By 1570, the southern part of New Spain was designated the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The area of Nicaragua was divided into administrative "parties" with León as the capital. In 1610, the Momotombo volcano erupted, destroying the capital. It was rebuilt northwest of what is now known as the Ruins of Old León. Nicaragua became a part of the Mexican Empire and then gained its independence as a part of the United Provinces of Central America in 1821 and as an independent republic in its own right in 1838. The Mosquito Coast based on the Caribbean coast was claimed by the United Kingdom and its predecessors as a protectorate from 1655 to 1850; this was delegated to Honduras in 1859 and transferred to Nicaragua in 1860, though it remained autonomous until 1894. Jose Santos Zelaya, president of Nicaragua from 1893-1909, managed to negotiate for the annexation of this region to the rest of Nicaragua. In his honour the entire region was named Zelaya. Founding members of the Deutsche Club in Nicaragua Much of Nicaragua's independence was characterized by rivalry between the liberal elite of León and the conservative elite of Granada. The rivalry often degenerated into civil war, particularly during the 1840s and 1850s. Initially invited by the Liberals in 1855 to join their struggle against the Conservatives, a United States adventurer named William Walker (later executed in Honduras) set himself up as president of Nicaragua, after conducting a farcical election in 1856. Honduras and other Central American countries united to drive him out of Nicaragua in 1857, after which a period of three decades of Conservative rule ensued. Herring, Hubert, A History of Latin America - from the Beginnings to the Present - Chapter 28, Central America and Panama - Nicaragua, 1838-1909, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1968 In the 1800s Nicaragua experienced a wave of immigration, primarily from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium moved to Nicaragua to set up businesses with money they brought from Europe. They established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations, and also newspapers, hotels and banks. Throughout the late nineteenth century the United States (and several other European powers) considered a scheme to build a canal across Nicaragua linking the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic. A bill was put before the U.S. Congress in 1899 to build the canal, but it was not passed, and instead the construction of the Panama Canal began. United States involvement (1909 - 1933) Augusto C. Sandino In 1909, the United States provided political support to conservative-led forces rebelling against President Zelaya. U.S. motives included differences over the proposed Nicaragua Canal, Nicaragua's potential as a destabilizing influence in the region, and Zelaya's attempts to regulate foreign access to Nicaraguan natural resources. On November 18, 1909, U.S. warships were sent to the area after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) were executed by order of Zelaya. The U.S. justified the intervention by claiming to protect U.S. lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year. In August 1912 the President of Nicaragua, Adolfo Díaz, requested that the Secretary of War, General Luis Mena, resign for fear that he was leading an insurrection. Mena fled Managua with his brother, the Chief of Police of Managua, to start an insurrection. When the U.S. Legation asked President Díaz to ensure the safety of American citizens and property during the insurrection he replied that he could not and that... U.S. Marines occupied Nicaragua from 1912 to 1933, except for a nine month period beginning in 1925. From 1910 to 1926, the conservative party ruled Nicaragua. The Chamorro family, which had long dominated the party, effectively controlled the government during that period. In 1914, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed, giving the U.S. control over the proposed canal, as well as leases for potential canal defenses. Following the evacuation of U.S. marines, another violent conflict between liberals and conservatives took place in 1926, known as the Constitutionalist War, which resulted in a coalition government and the return of U.S. Marines. From 1927 until 1933, Gen. Augusto C. Sandino led a sustained guerrilla war first against the Conservative regime and subsequently against the U.S. Marines, who withdrew upon the establishment of a new Liberal government. Sandino was the only Nicaraguan general to refuse to sign the el tratado del Espino Negro agreement and then headed up to the northern mountains of Las Segovias, where he fought the US Marines for over five years. The revolt finally forced the United States to compromise and leave the country. When the Americans left in 1933, they set up the Guardia Nacional (National Guard), a combined military and police force trained and equipped by the Americans and designed to be loyal to U.S. interests. Anastasio Somoza García, a close friend of the American government, was put in charge. He was one of the three rulers of the country, the others being Sandino and the President Juan Bautista Sacasa. After the US Marines withdrew from Nicaragua in January 1933, Sandino and the newly-elected Sacasa government reached an agreement by which he would cease his guerrilla activities in return for amnesty, a grant of land for an agricultural colony, and retention of an armed band of 100 men for a year. But a growing hostility between Sandino and Somoza led Somoza to order the assassination of Sandino. Fearing future armed opposition from Sandino, Somoza invited him to a meeting in Managua, where Sandino was assassinated on February 21 of 1934 by the National Guard. Hundreds of men, women, and children were executed later. The Somoza Dynasty (1936 - 1979) Anastasio Somoza García and his sons Luis Somoza Debayle (left) and Anastasio Somoza Debayle (right) Nicaragua has experienced several military dictatorships, the longest one being the rule of the Somoza family for much of the 20th century. The Somoza family came to power as part of a US-engineered pact in 1927 that stipulated the formation of the Guardia Nacional, or the National Guard, to replace the U.S. marines that had long reigned in the country. Lying for Empire: How to Commit War Crimes With a Straight Face" David Model, Common Courage Press, 2005 Somoza slowly eliminated officers in the National Guard who might have stood in his way, and then deposed Sacasa and became president on January 1, 1937 in a rigged election. Somoza was 35 at the time. Nicaragua declared war on Germany on May 7, 1918, during World War I. No troops were sent to the war but Somoza did seize the occasion to confiscate attractive properties held by German-Nicaraguans, the best-known of which was the Montelimar estate which today operates as a privately-owned luxury resort and casino . In 1945 Nicaragua was the first country to ratify the UN Charter. Throughout his years as dictator, "Tacho" Somoza 'ruled Nicaragua with a strong arm'. He had three main sources for his power: control of Nicaraguan economy, military support, and support from the U.S. Street scene of Managua city centre prior to the 1972 earthquake Somoza used the National Guard to force Sacasa to resign, and took control of the country in 1937, destroying any potential armed resistance. Not only did he have military control, but he controlled the National Liberal Party (LPN), which in turn controlled the legislature and judicial systems, giving him complete political power. Despite his complete control, on September 21, 1956, Somoza was shot by Rigoberto López Pérez, a 27-year-old liberal Nicaraguan poet. Somoza was attending a PLN party to celebrate his nomination for the Presidency. He died eight days later, unable to recover from his fatal wound. After his father's death, Luis Somoza Debayle, the eldest son of the late dictator, was appointed President by the congress and officially took charge of the country. He is remembered by some for being moderate, but was in power only for a few years and then died of a heart attack. Then came president René Schick whom most Nicaraguans viewed "as nothing more than a puppet of the Somozas". Somoza's brother, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, a West Point graduate, succeeded his father in charge of the National Guard, controlled the country, and officially took the presidency after Schick. Nicaragua experienced economic growth during the 1960s and 1970s largely as a result of industrialization, and became one of Central America's most developed nations despite its political instability. Due to its stable and high growth economy, foreign investments grew, primarily from U.S. companies such as Citigroup, Sears, Westinghouse and Coca Cola. However, the capital city of Managua suffered a major earthquake in 1972 which destroyed nearly 90% of the city creating major losses. It leveled a 600-square block area in the heart of Managua. Some Nicaraguan historians see the 1972 earthquake that devastated Managua as the final 'nail in the coffin' for Somoza. Instead of helping to rebuild Managua, Somoza siphoned off relief money to help pay for National Guard luxury homes, while the homeless poor had to make do with hastily constructed wooden shacks. The mishandling of relief money also prompted Pittsburgh Pirates star Roberto Clemente to personally fly to Managua on 31 December 1972, but he died enroute in an airplane accident. Even the economic elite were reluctant to support Somoza, as he had acquired monopolies in industries that were key to rebuilding the nation, and did not allow the elite to share the profits that would result. In 1973 (the year of reconstruction) many new buildings were built, but the level of corruption in the government prevented further growth. Strikes and demonstrations developed as citizens became increasingly angry and politically mobilized. The elite were angry that Somoza was asking them to pay new emergency taxes to further his own ends. As a result, more of the young elite joined the Sandinista Liberation Front (FSLN). The ever increasing tensions and anti-government uprisings slowed growth in the last two years of the Somoza dynasty. Nicaraguan Revolution In 1961 Carlos Fonseca, turned back to the historical figure of Sandino, and along with 2 others founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). The FSLN was a tiny party throughout most of the 1960s, but Somoza's utter hatred of it and his heavy-handed treatment of anyone he suspected to be a Sandinista sympathizer gave many ordinary Nicaraguans the idea that the Sandinistas were much stronger. After the 1972 earthquake and Somoza's brazen corruption, mishandling of relief, and refusal to rebuild Managua, the ranks of the Sandinistas were flooded with young disaffected Nicaraguans who no longer had anything to lose. These economic problems propelled the Sandinistas in their struggle against Somoza by leading many middle- and upper-class Nicaraguans to see the Sandinistas as the only hope for removing the brutal Somoza regime. In December 1974, a group of FSLN held some Managuan partygoers hostage until the Somozan government met their demands for a large ransom and free transport to Cuba. Somoza granted this, then subsequently sent his National Guard out into the countryside to look for the so-called 'terrorists'. While searching, the National Guard pillaged villages and imprisoned, tortured, raped, and executed hundreds of villagers. This invariably led to the Roman Catholic Church withdrawing any and all support of the Somoza regime. On January 10, 1978, Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, the editor of the national newspaper La Prensa and ardent opponent of Somoza, was assassinated. This is believed to have led to the extreme general disappointment with Somoza. The planners and perpetrators of the murder were at the highest echelons of the Somoza regime and included the dictator's son, “El Chiguin”, the President of Housing, Cornelio Hueck, the Attorney General, and Pedro Ramos, a close Cuban ally who commercialized blood plasma. The Sandinistas, supported by some of the populace, elements of the Catholic Church, and regional and international governments such as President Jimmy Carter of the United States, took power in July 1979. A group of prominent citizens, known as Los Doce, denounced the Somoza regime and said that "there can be no dialogue with Somoza...because he is the principal obstacle to all rational understanding...through the long dark history of Somocismo, dialogues with the dictatorship have only served to strengthen it..." Somoza fled the country and eventually ended up in Paraguay, where he was assassinated in September 1980, allegedly by members of the Argentinian Revolutionary Workers Party. To begin the task of establishing a new government, they created a Council (or ) of National Reconstruction, made up of five members Sandinista militants Daniel Ortega and Moises Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez Mercado (a member of Los Doce "the Twelve"), businessman Alfonso Robelo Callejas, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro). The latter two later resigned from the junta refusing to take part in the marxist-leninist policies of the Sandinista Movement, this gave Violeta Barrios de Chamorro a growing level of support by a large percentage of the Nicaraguan population who also opposed the socialist regime. The preponderance of power, however, remained with the Sandinistas and their mass organizations, including the Sandinista Workers' Federation (), the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Nicaraguan Women's Association (), and the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (). On the Atlantic Coast a small uprising also occurred in support of the Sandinistas. This event is often overlooked in histories about the Sandinista revolution. A group of Creoles led by a native of Bluefields, Dexter Hooker (aka Commander Abel), raided a Somoza-owned business to gain access to food, guns and money before heading off to join Sandinista fighters who had liberated the city of El Rama. The 'Black Sandinistas' returned to Bluefields on July 19, 1979 and took the city without a fight. However, the Black Sandinistas were challenged by a group of mestizo Sandinista fighters. The ensuing standoff between the two groups, with the Black Sandinistas occupying the National Guard barracks (the cuartel) and the mestizo group occupying the Town Hall (Palacio) gave the revolution on the Atlantic Coast a racial dimension which was absent from other parts of the country. The Black Sandinistas were assisted in their power struggle with the Palacio group by the arrival of the Simon Bolivar International Brigade from Costa Rica. One of the brigade's members, an African-Costa Rican called Marvin Wright (aka Kalalu) became known for the rousing speeches he would make, which included elements of black power ideology in his attempts to unite all the black militias that had formed in Bluefields. The introduction of a racial element into the revolution was not welcomed by the Sandinista National Directorate which expelled Kalalu and the rest of the brigade from Nicaragua and sent them to Panama. Baracco, L. (2007) Wadabagei: A Journal of the Caribbean and its Diaspora, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 4-23. Sandinistas and the Contras Upon assuming office in 1981, U.S. President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Cuba in supporting Marxist revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador. His administration authorized the CIA to have their paramilitary officers from their elite Special Activities Division begin financing, arming and training rebels, some of whom were the remnants of Somoza's National Guard, as anti-Sandinista guerrillas that were branded "counter-revolutionary" by leftists ( in Spanish). This was shortened to Contras, a label the anti-socialist forces chose to embrace. Eden Pastora and many of the indigenous guerrilla forces, who were not associated with the "Somozistas," also resisted the Sandinistas. The Contras operated out of camps in the neighboring countries of Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. As was typical in guerrilla warfare, they were engaged in a campaign of economic sabotage in an attempt to combat the Sandinista government and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua's Corinto harbour, an action condemned by the World Court as illegal. Summary of the Order of the International Court of Justice of 10 May 1984 Nicaragua v. United States The U.S. also sought to place economic pressure on the Sandinistas, and the Reagan administration imposed a full trade embargo. U.S. support for this Nicaraguan insurgency continued in spite of the fact that impartial observers from international groupings such as the European Economic Community, religious groups sent to monitor the election, and observers from democratic nations such as Canada and the Republic of Ireland concluded that the Nicaraguan general elections of 1984 were completely free and fair. The Reagan administration disputed these results however, despite the fact that the government of the United States never had any observers in Nicaragua at the time. The elections were not also recognized as legitimate because the Nicaraguan Democratic Coordinator, considered the main opposition group, and the only group of democratic opposition in the country did not participate in the elections. The Nicaraguan Democratic Coordinator did not participate in the elections due to the government's lack of response to its document "A Step Toward Democracy, Free Elections" issue in 1982. The document was asking the government to re-establish all civil rights: freedom of speech, freedom of organization, release of all political prisoners, cease of hostilities against the opposition, lifting the censorship on the media and abolishing all the laws violating humans rights. Election archive The library of Congress Country Studies After the U.S. Congress prohibited federal funding of the Contras in 1983, the Reagan administration continued to back the Contras by covertly selling arms to Iran and channeling the proceeds to the Contras (the Iran-Contra Affair). When this scheme was revealed, Reagan admitted that he knew about the Iranian "arms for hostages" dealings but professed ignorance about the proceeds funding the Contras; for this, National Security Council aide Lt. Col. Oliver North took much of the blame. Senator John Kerry's 1988 U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra-drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems." According to the National Security Archive, Oliver North had been in contact with Manuel Noriega, a Panamanian general and the de facto military dictator of Panama from 1983 to 1989 when he was overthrown and captured by a U.S. invading force. Panama Noriega's Money Machine MICHAEL S. SERRILL, Reported by Jonathan Beaty and Ricardo Chavira/Washington, '50th birthday last week' written February 1989 He was taken to the United States, tried for drug trafficking, and imprisoned in 1992. Noriega suffers mild stroke, hospitalized in Miami CNN December 2004 In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, linking the origins of crack cocaine in California to the Contras. Restored version of the original "Dark Alliance" web page, San Jose Mercury News, now hosted by narconews.com Freedom of Information Act inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials, including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via drug trafficking to fund the Contras. Sen. John Kerry's report in 1988 led to the same conclusions; however, major media outlets, the Justice Department, and Reagan denied the allegations. The International Court of Justice, in regard to the case of Nicaragua v. United States of America in 1984, found; "the United States of America was under an obligation to make reparation to the Republic of Nicaragua for all injury caused to Nicaragua by certain breaches of obligations under customary international law and treaty-law committed by the United States of America". http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/70/6483.pdf But was rejected citing the 'Connally Amendment', which excludes from the International court of Justice's jurisdiction "disputes with regard to matters that are essentially within the jurisdiction of the United States of America, determined by the United States of America" International and Comparative Law Quarterly (1958), 7:758-762 Cambridge University Press Copyright © British Institute of International and Comparative Law 1958 1990s and the post-Sandinista era Multi-party democratic elections were held in 1990, which saw the defeat of the Sandinistas by a coalition of anti-Sandinista (from the left and right of the political spectrum) parties led by Violeta Chamorro, the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro. The defeat shocked the Sandinistas as numerous pre-election polls had indicated a sure Sandinista victory and their pre-election rallies had attracted crowds of several hundred thousand people. The unexpected result was subject to a great deal of analysis and comment, and was attributed by commentators such as Noam Chomsky and S. Brian Willson to the U.S./Contra threats to continue the war if the Sandinistas retained power, the general war-weariness of the Nicaraguan population, and the abysmal Nicaraguan economic situation. Violeta Barrios de Chamorro in 1990 became the first female president democratically elected in the Americas. P. J. O'Rourke countered the US centered criticism in "Return of the Death of Communism", "the unfair advantages of using state resources for party ends, about how Sandinista control of the transit system prevented UNO supporters from attending rallies, how Sandinista domination of the army forced soldiers to vote for Ortega and how Sandinista bureaucracy kept $3.3 million of U.S. campaign aid from getting to UNO while Daniel Ortega spent millions donated by overseas people and millions and millions more from the Nicaraguan treasury ..." "The Return of the Death of Communism: Nicaragua, February 1990," a chapter in Give War a Chance... by P. J. O'Rourke. Grove Press; reprint edition (November 2003, ISBN 0-8021-4031-9). Exit polls of Nicaraguans reported Chamorro's victory over Ortega was achieved with only 55%. Violeta Chamorro was the first woman to be popularly elected as President of a Latin American nation and first woman president of Nicaragua. Exit polling convinced Daniel Ortega that the election results were legitimate, and were instrumental in his decision to accept the vote of the people and step down rather than void the election. Nonetheless Ortega vowed that he would govern "desde abajo" (from below), in other words due to his widespread control of institutions and Sandinista individuals in all government agencies, he would still be able to maintain control and govern even without being president. Chamorro received an economy entirely in ruins. The per capita income of Nicaragua had been reduced by over 80% during the 1980s, and a huge government debt which ascended to US$12 billion primarily due to financial and social costs of the Contra war with the Sandinista-led government. Much to the surprise of the U.S. and the contra forces, Chamorro did not dismantle the Sandinista People's Army, though the name was changed to the Nicaraguan Army. Chamorro's main contribution to Nicaragua was the disarmament of groups in the northern and central areas of the country. This provided stability that the country had lacked for over ten years. In subsequent elections in 1996 Daniel Ortega and the Sandinistas of the FSLN were again defeated, this time by Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutional Liberal Party (PLC). In the 2001 elections the PLC again defeated the FSLN, with Enrique Bolaños winning the Presidency. However, President Bolaños subsequently brought forward allegations of money laundering, theft and corruption against former President Alemán. The ex-president was sentenced to 20 years in prison for embezzlement, money laundering, and corruption. The Liberal members who were loyal to Alemán and also members of congress reacted angrily, and along with Sandinista parliament members stripped the presidential powers of President Bolaños and his ministers, calling for his resignation and threatening impeachment. President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega, in 2008 The Sandinistas alleged that their support for Bolaños was lost when U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell told Bolaños to keep his distance from the FSLN. This "slow motion coup" was averted partially due to pressure from the Central American presidents who would fail to recognize any movement that removed Bolaños; the U.S., the OAS, and the European Union also opposed the "slow motion coup". The proposed constitutional changes that were going to be introduced in 2005 against the Bolaños administration were delayed until January 2007 after the entrance of the new government. Though one day before they were to be enforced, the National Assembly postponed their enforcement until January 2008. Before the general elections on 5 November 2006, the National Assembly passed a bill further restricting abortion in Nicaragua 52-0 (9 abstaining, 29 absent). President Enrique Bolaños supported this measure, and signed the bill into law on 17 November 2006, as a result Nicaragua is one of three countries in the world where abortion is illegal with no exceptions, along with El Salvador and Chile. Legislative and presidential elections took place on November 5, 2006. Daniel Ortega returned to the presidency with 37.99% of the vote. This percentage was enough to win the presidency outright, due to a change in electoral law which lowered the percentage requiring a runoff election from 45% to 35% (with a 5% margin of victory). Politics Politics of Nicaragua takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Nicaragua is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Currently, Nicaragua's major political parties have been discussing the possibility of going from a presidential system to a parliamentary system. This way, there would be a clear differentiation between the head of government (Prime Minister) and the head of state (President). Departments and municipalities Departments of Nicaragua Nicaragua is a unitary republic. For administrative purposes it is divided into 15 departments (departamentos) and two self-governing regions (autonomous communities) based on the Spanish model. The departments are then subdivided into 153 municipios (municipalities). The two autonomous regions are 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Norte' and 'Región Autónoma Atlántico Sur', often referred to as RAAN and RAAS, respectively; until they were granted autonomy in 1985 they formed the single department of Zelaya. <table><ol> <li>Boaco (Boaco) <li>Carazo (Jinotepe) <li>Chinandega (Chinandega) <li>Chontales (Juigalpa) <li>Estelí (Estelí) <li>Granada (Granada) <li>Jinotega (Jinotega) <li>León (León) <li>Madriz (Somoto)</ol><li>Managua (Managua) <li>Masaya (Masaya) <li>Matagalpa (Matagalpa) <li>Nueva Segovia (Ocotal) <li>Rivas (Rivas) <li>Río San Juan (San Carlos) <li>RAAN (Bilwi) <li>RAAS (Bluefields)</table> Geography Nicaragua occupies a landmass of 129,494 km², comparable to that of Greece or New York state. Nearly one fifth of the territory is designated as protected areas like national parks, nature reserves, and biological reserves. The country is bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Nicaragua has three distinct geographical regions: the Pacific Lowlands, the Amerrique Mountains (North-Central Highlands), and the Mosquito Coast (Atlantic Lowlands). Pacific lowlands Turtles are common in many beaches of Nicaragua when on a yearly basis they collectively arrive at the same time on the same beach to lay their eggs. They are protected by the Nicaraguan government in National Parks Located in the west of the country, these lowlands consist of a broad, hot, fertile plain. Punctuating this plain are several large volcanoes of the Marrabios mountain range, including Mombacho just outside Granada, and Momotombo near León. The lowland area runs from the Gulf of Fonseca to Nicaragua's Pacific border with Costa Rica south of Lake Nicaragua. Lake Nicaragua is the largest freshwater lake in Central America (20th largest in the world), and is home to the world's only freshwater sharks (Nicaraguan shark). The Pacific lowlands region is the most populous, with over half of the nation's population. The capital city of Managua is the most populous and it is the only city with over 1.5 million inhabitants. Nicaragua is known as the land of lakes and volcanoes, pictured is Concepción volcano located in Maderas. In addition to its beach and resort communities, the Pacific Lowlands is also the repository for much of Nicaragua's Spanish colonial heritage. Cities such as León and Granada abound in colonial architecture and artifacts; Granada, founded in 1524, is the oldest colonial city in the Americas. North-Central Highlands Guardabarranco (Turquoise-browed Motmot): the national bird. This is an upland region away from the Pacific coast, with a cooler climate than the Pacific Lowlands. About a quarter of the country's agriculture takes place in this region, with coffee grown on the higher slopes. Oaks, pines, moss, ferns and orchids are abundant in the cloud forests of the region. Bird life in the forests of the central region includes Resplendent Quetzal, goldfinches, hummingbirds, jays and toucanets. Toucan is a common bird in Nicaragua´s Rainforests Atlantic lowlands This large rainforest region, irrigated by several large rivers and very sparsely populated. The Rio Coco is the largest river in Central America, it forms the border with Honduras. The Caribbean coastline is much more sinuous than its generally straight Pacific counterpart; lagoons and deltas make it very irregular. Nicaragua's Bosawas Biosphere Reserve is located in the Atlantic lowlands, it protects 1.8 million acres (7,300 km²) of Mosquitia forest - almost seven percent of the country's area - making it the largest rainforest north of the Amazon in Brazil. Nicaragua's tropical east coast is very different from the rest of the country. The climate is predominantly tropical, with high temperature and high humidity. Around the area's principal city of Bluefields, English is widely spoken along with the official Spanish. The population more closely resembles that found in many typical Caribbean ports than the rest of Nicaragua. A great variety of birds can be observed including eagles, turkeys, toucans, parakeets and macaws. Animal life in the area includes different species of monkeys, ant-eaters, white-tailed deer and tapirs. Wildlife and Biodiversity Rainforest in Nicaragua covers more than 2,000,000 ha, particularly on the Atlantic lowlands. As well as the Bosawas Biosphere Reserve (in the north) there is the Indio Maiz Biological Reserve (in the south), which protects 2,500 km² of the Atlantic Rainforest. These two areas are very rich in biodiversity. There are 5 species of felines, including jaguar and cougar; 3 species of primates, spider monkey, howler monkey and capuchin monkey; 1 species of tapir, called Danto by the Nicaraguans; 3 species of anteaters and many more. Economy Exports Nicaragua is primarily an agricultural country; agriculture constitutes 60% of its total exports which annually yield approximately US $300 million. In addition, Nicaragua's Flor de Caña rum is renowned as among the best in Latin America, and its tobacco and beef are also well regarded. Nicaragua's agrarian economy has historically been based on the export of cash crops such as bananas, coffee, sugar, beef and tobacco. Light industry (maquila), tourism, banking, mining, fisheries, and general commerce are expanding. Nicaragua also depends heavily on remittances from Nicaraguans living abroad, which totaled $655.5 million in 2006. Components of the economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2008 was estimated at $17.37 billion USD. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 56.9%, followed by the industrial sector at 26.1% (2006 est.). Agriculture represents only 17% of GDP (2008 est.). Nicaraguan labor force is estimated at 2.322 million of which 29% is occupied in agriculture, 19% in the industry sector and 52% in the service sector (est. 2008). Poverty Nicaragua is the second poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, measured in GDP per capita. According to the CIA Fact Book, inflation averaged 8.1% from 2000 through 2006. As of 2007, Nicaragua's inflation stands at 9.8%. The World Bank also indicates moderate economic growth at an average of 5% from 1995 through 2004. In 2005 the economy grew 4%, with overall GDP reaching $4.91 billion. In 2006, the economy expanded by 3.7% as GDP reached $5.3 billion. As of 2008, it stands at $6.5 billion. According to the PNUD, 48% of the population in Nicaragua live below the poverty line http://www.pnud.org.ni/noticias/343 , 79.9% of the population live with less than $2 per day http://hdrstats.undp.org/indicators/24.html , unemployment is 3.9%, and another 46.5% are underemployed (2008 est.). As in many other developing countries, a large segment of the economically poor in Nicaragua are women. In addition, a relatively high proportion of Nicaragua's homes have a woman as head of household: 39% of urban homes and 28% of rural homes. According to UN figures, 80% of the indigenous people (who make up 5% of the population) live on less than $1 per day. Infrastructure During the war between the US-backed Contras and the elected government of the Sandinistas in the 1980s, much of the country's infrastructure was damaged or destroyed. Inflation averaged 30% throughout the 1980s. After the United States imposed a trade embargo in 1985, which lasted 5 years, Nicaragua's inflation rate rose dramatically. The 1985 annual rate of 220% tripled the following year and rose to more than 13,000% in 1988, the highest rate for any country in the Western Hemisphere in that year. The country is still a recovering economy and it continues to implement further reforms, on which aid from the IMF is conditional. In 2005 finance ministers of the leading eight industrialized nations (G8) agreed to forgive some of Nicaragua's foreign debt, as part of the HIPC program. According to the World Bank Nicaragua's GDP was around $4.9 US billion dollars. Recently, in March 2007, Poland and Nicaragua signed an agreement to write off 30.6 million dollars which was borrowed by the Nicaraguan government in the 1980s. Since the end of the war almost two decades ago, more than 350 state enterprises have been privatized. Inflation reduced from 33,500% in 1988 to 9.45% in 2006, and the foreign debt was cut in half. According to the World Bank, Nicaragua ranked as the 62nd best economy for starting a business making it the second best in Central America, after Panama. Nicaragua's economy is "62.7% free" with high levels of fiscal, government, labor, investment, financial, and trade freedom. It ranks as the 61st freest economy, and 14th (out of 29) in the Americas. Coinage A 1000 Córdoba banknote, which was re-printed with a value of 200,000 Córdobas during the inflationary period of the late 1980s. During the era of the Spanish colonial rule-and for more than 50 years afterwards-Nicaragua used Spanish coins that were struck for use in the "New World". The first unique coins for Nicaragua were issued in 1878 in the peso denomination. The cordoba became Nicaragua's currency in 1912 and was initially equal in value to the U.S. dollar. The Nicaraguan unit of currency is the Córdoba (NIO) and was named after Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, its national founder. The front of each of Nicaragua's circulating coins features the national coat of arms. The five volcanoes represent the five Central American countries at the time of Nicaragua's independence, while the rainbow at the top symbolizes peace and the cap in the center is a symbol of freedom. The design is contained within a triangle to indicate equality. The back of each coin features the denomination, with the inscription "En Dios Confiamos" (In God We Trust). Tourism Pacific beaches in San Juan del Sur, Nicaragua Tourism in Nicaragua is currently the second largest industry in the nation, over the last 7 years tourism has grown about 70% nationwide with rates of 10%-16% annually. Nicaragua has seen positive growth in the tourism sector over the last decade and is expected to become the first largest industry in 2007. The increase and growth led to the income from tourism to rise more than 300% over a period of 10 years. The growth in tourism has also positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. Despite the positive growth throughout the last decade, Nicaragua remains the least visited nation in the region. Travelotica.com Nicaragua Travel Guide TransitionsAbroad.com Living Abroad in Nicaragua: Nicaragua’s Evolution Every year about 60,000 U.S. citizens visit Nicaragua, primarily business people, tourists, and those visiting relatives. Some 5,300 people from the U.S. reside in the country now. The majority of tourists that visit Nicaragua are from the U.S., Central or South America, and Europe. According to the Ministry of Tourism of Nicaragua (INTUR), the colonial city of Granada is the preferred spot for tourists. Also, the cities of León, Masaya, Rivas and the likes of San Juan del Sur, San Juan River, Ometepe, Mombacho Volcano, the Corn Islands, and others are main tourist attractions. In addition, ecotourism and surfing attract many tourists to Nicaragua. According to TV Noticias (news program) on Canal 2, a Nicaragua television station, the main attractions in Nicaragua for tourists are the beaches, scenic routes, the architecture of cities such as León and Granada and most recently ecotourism and agritourism, particularly in Northern Nicaragua. Demographics Population Growth of the Nicaraguan population. (1961-2003) According to the CIA World Factbook, Nicaragua has a population of 5,570,129; comprising mainly 69% mestizo, 17% white, 9% black and 5% amerindian; this fluctuates with changes in migration patterns. The population is 54% urban. The most populous city in Nicaragua is the capital, Managua, with a population of 1.2 million (2005). As of 2005, over 4.4 million inhabitants live in the Pacific, Central and North regions, 2.7 in the Pacific region alone, while inhabitants in the Caribbean region reached an estimated 700,000. There is a growing expatriate community the majority of whom move for business, investment or retirement from United States, Canada, Europe, Taiwan, and other countries; the majority have settled in Managua, Granada and San Juan del Sur. Many Nicaraguans live abroad, outside of Nicaragua. Ethnic groups Nicaraguan boys in the American Nicaraguan School. Nicaraguan women at a concert in Managua. An Afro-Nicaraguan. The majority of the Nicaraguan population, (86% or approximately 4.8 million people), is either Mestizo or White. 69% are Mestizos (mixed Amerindian and White) and 17% are White with the majority being of Spanish, German, Italian, or French ancestry. Mestizos and Whites mainly reside in the western region of the country. About 9% of Nicaragua's population is black, or Afro-Nicaragüense, and mainly reside on the country's sparsely populated Caribbean or Atlantic coast. The black population is mostly composed of black English-speaking Creoles who are the descendents of escaped or shipwrecked slaves; many carry the name of Scottish settlers who brought slaves with them, such as Campbell, Gordon, Downs and Hodgeson. Although many Creoles supported Somoza because of his close association with the US, they rallied to the Sandinista cause in July 1979 only to reject the revolution soon afterwards in response to a new phase of 'mestizoisation' and imposition of central rule from Managua. Baracco, L. (2005) Nicaragua: The Imagining of a Nation. From Nineteenth-Century Liberals to Twentieth-Century Sandinistas (New York, Algora Publishing). See especially chapter 6 'From Acquiescence to Ethnic Militancy: Costeno Responses to Sandinista Anti-Imperialist Nationalism'. Nicaragua has the largest Afro Latin American population in Central America with the second largest percentage. There is also a smaller number of Garifuna, a people of mixed Carib and Arawak descent. In the mid-1980s, the government divided the department of Zelaya - consisting of the eastern half of the country - into two autonomous regions and granted the black and indigenous people of this region limited self-rule within the Republic. The remaining 5% of Nicaraguans are Amerindians, the unmixed descendants of the country's indigenous inhabitants. Nicaragua's pre-Columbian population consisted of many indigenous groups. In the western region the Nicarao people, after whom the country is named, were present along with other groups related by culture and language to the Mayans. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua was inhabited by indigenous peoples who were mostly chibcha related groups that had migrated from South America, primarily present day Colombia and Venezuela. These groups include the Miskitos, Ramas and Sumos. In the nineteenth century, there was a substantial indigenous minority, but this group was also largely assimilated culturally into the mestizo majority. Immigration Palestinian Nicaraguans celebrating the 10th anniversary of the Nicaraguan revolution in Managua waving Palestinian and Sandinista flags. In the 1800s Nicaragua experienced several waves of immigration, primarily from Europe. In particular, families from Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Belgium immigrated to Nicaragua, particularly the departments in the Central and Pacific region. As a result, the Northern cities of Esteli, Jinotega and Matagalpa have significant communities of fourth generation Germans. They established many agricultural businesses such as coffee and sugar cane plantations, newspapers, hotels and banks. Also present is a small Middle Eastern-Nicaraguan community of Syrians, Armenians, Palestinian Nicaraguans, Jewish Nicaraguans, and Lebanese people in Nicaragua with a total population of about 30,000. There is also an East Asian community mostly consisting of Chinese, Taiwanese, and Japanese. The Chinese Nicaraguan population is estimated at around 12,000. The Chinese arrived in the late 1800s but were unsubstantiated until the 1920s. Relative to its overall population, Nicaragua has never experienced any large scale wave of immigrants. The total number of immigrants to Nicaragua, both originating from other Latin American countries and all other countries, never surpassed 1% of its total population prior to 1995. The 2005 census showed the foreign-born population at 1.2%, having risen a mere .06% in 10 years. Diaspora The Civil War forced many Nicaraguans to start lives outside of their country. Although many Nicaraguans returned after the end of the war, many people emigrated during the 1990s and the 2000s due the unemployment and the poverty. The majority of the Nicaraguan Diaspora is in Costa Rica and the United States, and today one in six Nicaraguans live in these two countries http://www.thedialogue.org/PublicationFiles/The%20Nicaragua%20case_M%20Orozco2%20REV.pdf . It's hard to estimate the number of Nicaraguans living abroad because many of them are illegals. The table shows current statistics for certain countries: CountryCount Costa Rica236,000-750,000 http://www.facesofcostarica.com/economics/gonzalez.htm United States300,000 http://www.thedialogue.org/PublicationFiles/The%20Nicaragua%20case_M%20Orozco2%20REV.pdf Mexico2,522 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_Mexico Honduras23,000 http://www.thedialogue.org/PublicationFiles/The%20Nicaragua%20case_M%20Orozco2%20REV.pdf El Salvador100,000 http://www.thedialogue.org/PublicationFiles/The%20Nicaragua%20case_M%20Orozco2%20REV.pdf Nicaraguans living abroadAt least 1,000,000 http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTLACREGTOPGENDER/Resources/migracionresumido.pdf Culture Nicaraguan women wearing the Mestizaje costume, which is a traditional costume worn to dance the Mestizaje dance. The costume demonstrates the Spanish influence on Nicaraguan clothing. Nicaraguan culture has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by European culture but enriched with Amerindian sounds and flavors. Nicaraguan culture can further be defined in several distinct strands. The Pacific coast has strong folklore, music and religious traditions, deeply influenced by Europeans. It was colonized by Spain and has a similar culture to other Spanish-speaking Latin American countries. The Caribbean coast of the country, on the other hand, was once a British protectorate. English is still predominant in this region and spoken domestically along with Spanish and indigenous languages. Its culture is similar to that of Caribbean nations that were or are British possessions, such as Jamaica, Belize, The Cayman Islands, etc. The indigenous groups that were present in the Pacific coast have largely been assimilated into the mestizo culture, however, the indigenous people of the Caribbean coast have maintained a distinct identity. Celebrating the annual "Alegria por la vida" Carnaval in Managua, Nicaragua An example of typical Nicaraguan handicrafts which are sold in markets all over the country Nicaraguan music is a mixture of indigenous and European, especially Spanish, influences. Musical instruments include the marimba and others common across Central America. The marimba of Nicaragua is uniquely played by a sitting performer holding the instrument on his knees. He is usually accompanied by a bass fiddle, guitar and guitarrilla (a small guitar like a mandolin). This music is played at social functions as a sort of background music. The marimba is made with hardwood plates, placed over bamboo or metal tubes of varying lengths. It is played with two or four hammers. The Caribbean coast of Nicaragua is known for a lively, sensual form of dance music called Palo de Mayo which is very much alive all throughout the country. It is especially loud and celebrated during the Palo de Mayo festival in May The Garifuna community exists in Nicaragua and is known for its popular music called Punta. Distinctive traditional costumes and dance from a very renowned folk dance from Nicaragua, El Güegüense. Literature of Nicaragua can be traced to pre-Columbian times with the myths and oral literature that formed the cosmogonic view of the world that indigenous people had. Some of these stories are still known in Nicaragua. Like many Latin American countries, the Spanish conquerors have had the most effect on both the culture and the literature. Nicaraguan literature has historically been an important source of poetry in the Spanish-speaking world, with internationally renowned contributors such as Rubén Darío who is regarded as the most important literary figure in Nicaragua, referred to as the "Father of Modernism" for leading the modernismo literary movement at the end of the 19th century. Other literary figures include Ernesto Cardenal, Gioconda Belli, Claribel Alegría and Jose Coronel Urtecho, among others. El Güegüense is a satirical drama and was the first literary work of pre-Columbian Nicaragua. It is regarded as one of Latin America's most distinctive colonial-era expressions and as Nicaragua's signature folkloric masterpiece combining music, dance and theater. The theatrical play was written by an anonymous author in the 16th century, making it one of the oldest indigenous theatrical/dance works of the Western Hemisphere. The story was published in a book in 1942 after many centuries. Language A sign in Bluefields in English (top), Spanish (middle) and Miskito (bottom). Central American Spanish is spoken by about 90% of the country's population. In Nicaragua the Voseo form is common, as also in Argentina, Uruguay and coastal Colombia. In the Caribbean coast many Afro-Nicaraguans and creoles speak English and creole English as their first language. Also in the Caribbean coast, many Indigenous people speak their native languages, such as the Miskito, Sumo, Rama and Garifuna language. In addition, many ethnic groups in Nicaragua have maintained their ancestral languages, while also speaking Spanish or English; these include Chinese, Arabic, German, and Italian. Nicaragua was home to 3 extinct languages, one of which was never classified. Nicaraguan Sign Language is also of particular interest to linguists. Religion {| class="toc" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=2 width=200px style="float:right; margin: 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em 1em; padding: 0.5e text-align:left;clear:all; margin-left:3px; font-size:90%" |colspan=2 style="background:#black; color:white;" align=center bgcolor="black" | Religious Affiliation in Nicaragua |- {{#if:Image:IglesiaManagua.png| |- ! style="background:#efefef;" align=center | Religion ! style="background:#efefef;" align=center | Percentage |- |Roman Catholic |align=right|58.5% |- |Evangelical |align=right|21.6% |- |Moravian |align=right|1.6% |- |Jehovah's Witnesses |align=right|0.9% |- |None |align=right|15.7% |- |Other1 |align=right|1.6% |- |colspan=2 style="background:#efefef;" align=left|1 Includes Buddhism, Islam, and Judaism among other religions. |- |colspan=2 style="background:#e9e9e9;" align=center|Source: 2005 Nicaraguan Census |- |}Religion is a significant part of the culture of Nicaragua and is referred to in the constitution. Religious freedom, which has been guaranteed since 1939 and religious tolerance are promoted by both the Nicaraguan government and the constitution. Nicaragua has no official religion. However, Catholic Bishops are expected to lend their authority to important state occasions, and their pronouncements on national issues are closely followed. They can also be called upon to mediate between contending parties at moments of political crisis. The largest denomination, and traditionally the religion of the majority, is Roman Catholic. However, the numbers of practicing Roman Catholics have been declining, while members of evangelical Protestant groups and Mormons have been rapidly growing in numbers since the 1990s. There are also strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast. Roman Catholicism came to Nicaragua in the sixteenth century with the Spanish conquest and remained, until 1939, the established faith. Protestantism and other Christian denominations came to Nicaragua during the nineteenth century, but only gained large followings in the Caribbean Coast during the twentieth century. Popular religion revolves around the saints, who are perceived as intermediaries between human beings and God. Most localities, from the capital of Managua to small rural communities, honor patron saints, selected from the Roman Catholic calendar, with annual fiestas. In many communities, a rich lore has grown up around the celebrations of patron saints, such as Managua's Saint Dominic (Santo Domingo), honored in August with two colorful, often riotous, day-long processions through the city. The high point of Nicaragua's religious calendar for the masses is neither Christmas nor Easter, but La Purísima, a week of festivities in early December dedicated to the Immaculate Conception, during which elaborate altars to the Virgin Mary are constructed in homes and workplaces. Cuisine A dish containing gallopinto, tajadas, fried cheese and cabbage. The Cuisine of Nicaragua is a mixture of criollo food and dishes of pre-Columbian origin. The Spaniards found that the Creole people had incorporated local foods available in the area into their cuisine. Traditional cuisine changes from the Pacific to the Caribbean coast; while the Pacific coast's main staple revolves around local fruits and corn, the Caribbean coast cuisine makes use of seafood and the coconut. As in many other Latin American countries, corn is a main staple. Corn is used in many of the widely consumed dishes, such as the nacatamal, and indio viejo. Corn is also an ingredient for drinks such as pinolillo and chicha as well as sweets and desserts. In addition to corn, rice and beans are eaten very often. Gallopinto, Nicaragua's national dish, is made with white rice and red beans that are cooked separately and then fried together. The dish has several variations including the addition of coconut oil and/or grated coconut on the Caribbean coast. Most Nicaraguans begin their day with Gallopinto. Many of Nicaragua's dishes include indigenous fruits and vegetables such as jocote, mango, papaya, tamarindo, pipian, banana, avocado, yuca, and herbs such as cilantro, oregano and achiote. Nicaraguans also eat guinea pigs and tapirs, http://www.vivatravelguides.com/central-america/nicaragua/nicaragua-articles/gallo-pinto/ iguanas and turtle eggs. Sports Batter of the Fieras del San Fernando, a Nicaraguan professional baseball team. Baseball is the most popular sport played in Nicaragua. Although some professional Nicaraguan baseball teams have folded in the recent past, Nicaragua enjoys a strong tradition of American-style Baseball. Baseball was introduced to Nicaragua at different years during the 19th century. In the Caribbean coast locals from Bluefields were taught how to play baseball in 1888 by Albert Addlesberg, a retailer from the United States. Baseball did not catch on in the Pacific coast until 1891 when a group of mostly students originating from universities of the United States formed "La Sociedad de Recreo" (Society of Recreation) where they played various sports, baseball being the most popular among them. There are five teams that compete amongst themselves: Indios del Boer (Managua), Chinandega, Tiburones (Sharks) of Granada, Leon and Masaya. Players from these teams comprise the National team when Nicaragua competes internationally. The country has had its share of MLB players (including current Texas Rangers Pitcher Vicente Padilla and Boston Red Sox pitcher Devern Hansack), but the most notable is Dennis Martínez, who was the first baseball player from Nicaragua to play in Major League Baseball. He became the first Latin-born pitcher to throw a perfect game, the 13th in major league history, for the Montreal Expos against the Dodgers at Dodger Stadium in 1991. Boxing is the second most popular sport in Nicaragua. The country has had world champions such as Alexis Argüello and Ricardo Mayorga among others. Recently, football has gained some popularity, especially with the younger population. The Dennis Martínez National Stadium has served as a venue for both baseball and soccer but the first ever national football stadium in Managua is currently under construction. Education Literacy Campaign Propaganda Poster Education is free for all Nicaraguans. Elementary education is free and compulsory, however, many children in rural areas are unable to attend due to lack of schools and other reasons. Communities located on the Caribbean coast have access to education in their native languages. The majority of higher education institutions are located in Managua, higher education has financial, organic and administrative autonomy, according to the law. Also, freedom of subjects is recognized. Nicaragua's higher education system consists of 48 universities, and 113 colleges and technical institutes in the areas of electronics, computer systems and sciences, agroforestry, construction and trade-related services. The educational system includes 1 U.S. accredited English-language university, 3 Bilingual university programs, 5 Bilingual secondary schools and dozens of English Language Institutes. In 2005, almost 400,000 (7%) of Nicaraguans held a university degree. 18% of Nicaragua's total budget is invested in primary, secondary and higher education. University level institutions account for 6% of 18%. As of 1979, the educational system was one of the poorest in Latin America. Under the Somoza dictatorships, limited spending on education and generalized poverty, which forced many adolescents into the labor market, constricted educational opportunities for Nicaraguans. One of the first acts of the newly elected Sandinista government in 1980 was an extensive and successful literacy campaign, using secondary school students, university students and teachers as volunteer teachers: it reduced the overall illiteracy rate from 50.3% to 12.9% within only five months. This was one of a number of large scale programs which received international recognition for their gains in literacy, health care, education, childcare, unions, and land reform. In September 1980, UNESCO awarded Nicaragua the “Nadezhda K. Krupskaya” award for the literacy campaign. This was followed by the literacy campaigns of 1982, 1986, 1987, 1995 and 2000, all of which were also awarded by UNESCO. See also References Christopher Andrew, Vasili Mitrokhin. The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World, Basic Books, September 20, 2005. Matilde Zimmermann. Sandinista, Duke University Press, 2000. The Encyclopedia of World History, Sixth addition, Ed. Peter N. Stearns, 2001. p. 954 Bibliography External links Government Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Nicaragua at UCB Libraries GovPubs Maps from WorldAtlas.com Nicaraguaportal: Official informations of the Honorary Consulate of Nicaragua Travel be-x-old:Нікарагуа i nees info

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Marbury_v._Madison

Marbury v. Madison, is a landmark case in United States law. It formed the basis for the exercise of judicial review in the United States under Article III of the Constitution. This case resulted from a petition to the Supreme Court by William Marbury, who had been appointed by President John Adams as Justice of the Peace in the District of Columbia but whose commission was not subsequently delivered. Marbury petitioned the Supreme Court to force Secretary of State James Madison to deliver the documents, but the court, with John Marshall as Chief Justice, denied Marbury's petition, holding that the statute upon which he based his claim, the Judiciary Act of 1789, was unconstitutional. Marbury v. Madison was the first time the Supreme Court declared something "unconstitutional," and established the concept of judicial review in the U.S. (the idea that courts may oversee and nullify the actions of another branch of government). The landmark decision helped define the "checks and balances" of the American form of government. Background of the case William Marbury In the presidential election of 1800, Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams, becoming the third President of the United States. Although the election was decided on February 17, 1801, Jefferson did not take office until March 4, 1801. Until that time, the lame-duck Adams and the Federalist-controlled 6th Congress were still in power. Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1801. This act modified the Judiciary Act of 1789, establishing ten new district courts, expanding the number of circuit courts from three to six, and adding additional judges to each circuit, giving the President the authority to appoint Federal judges and justices of the peace. The act also reduced the number of Supreme Court justices from six to five, effective upon the next vacancy in the Court. Federal Judicial History, The Judiciary Act of 1801— Historical Note 2 Stat.89 Judiciary Act of 1801 On March 3, just before his term was to end, Adams, in an attempt to stymie the incoming Democratic-Republican–controlled Congress and administration, appointed 16 Federalist circuit judges and 42 Federalist justices of the peace to offices created by the Judiciary Act of 1801. These appointees, the infamous "Midnight Judges", were all located in the Washington and Alexandria area. One of these appointees was William Marbury, a native of Maryland and a prosperous financier. An ardent Federalist, Marbury was active in Maryland politics and a vigorous supporter of the Adams presidency. He had been appointed to the position of justice of the peace in the District of Columbia. The term for a justice of the peace was five years, and they were "authorized to hold courts and cognizance of personal demands of the value of 20 dollars". Ch.6, Sec. 4, Judiciary Act of 1801 On the following day, the appointments were approved en masse by the Senate; however, to go into effect, the commissions had to be delivered to those appointed. This task fell to John Marshall, who, even though recently appointed Chief Justice of the United States, continued as the acting Secretary of State at President Adams' personal request. While a majority of the commissions were delivered, it proved impossible for all of them to be delivered before Adams' term as president expired. As these appointments were routine in nature, Marshall assumed the new Secretary of State James Madison would see they were delivered, since "they had been properly submitted and approved, and were, therefore, legally valid appointments." Sec. 3d, Marbury v. Madison,AMDOCS: www.vlib.us. On March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson was sworn in as President. As soon as he was able, President Jefferson ordered Levi Lincoln, who was the new administration's Attorney General and acting Secretary of State until the arrival of James Madison, not to deliver the remaining appointments. Without the commissions, the appointees were unable to assume the offices and duties to which they had been appointed. In Jefferson's opinion, the undelivered commissions, not having been delivered on time, were void. The newly sworn-in Democratic-Republican congress immediately set about voiding the Judiciary Act of 1801 with their own Judiciary Act of 1802 which reversed the act of 1801 so that the Judicial branch once again operated under the dictates of the original Judiciary Act of 1789. In addition, it replaced the Court's two annual sessions with one session to begin on the first Monday in February, and "canceled the Supreme Court term scheduled for June of that year [1802] ... seeking to delay a ruling on the constitutionality of the repeal act until months after the new judicial system was in operation." Federal Judicial History, The Judiciary Act of 1802— Historical Note2 Stat. 156 Status of the judicial power before Marbury Secretary of State James Madison was ordered by Jefferson to withhold the commissions. 150pxl|Sir Edward Coke The power of judicial review was created in Marbury though the general idea has ancient roots. The idea that courts could nullify statutes originated in Chief Justice Edward Coke's 1610 opinion in Dr. Bonham’s Case, 8 Co. Rep. 107a. That decision arose under a statute of Parliament enabling the London College of Physicians to levy fines against anyone who violated their rules. The College accused a doctor of practicing without a license and fined him accordingly. Coke found that their statutory powers violated "common right or reason" because "no person should be a judge in his own case." Coke's decision in the Bonham case, retrieved 2/12/07. The U.S. Supreme Court has stated that Bonham's Case did not set a precedent in the United States to make common law supreme over statutory law: [N]otwithstanding what was attributed to Lord COKE in Bonham's Case, 8 Reporter, 115, 118a, the omnipotence of parliament over the common law was absolute, even against common right and reason. The actual and practical security for English liberty against legislative tyranny was the power of a free public opinion represented by the commons. Hurtado v. California, The idea that courts could declare statutes void waxed and then waned in England, but it was well known in the American colonies and in the bars of young states, where Coke's books were very influential. The doctrine was specifically enshrined in some state constitutions, and by 1803 it had been employed in both State and Federal courts in actions dealing with state statutes, but only insofar as the statutes conflicted with the language of state constitutions. (See, e.g., Bayard v. Singleton, 1 NC (Martin) 5 (1787); Whittington v. Polk, 1 H. & J. 236 (Md.Gen. 1802) (Samuel Chase, J.); State v. Parkhurst, 9 N.J.L. 427 (N.J. 1802); Respublica v. Duquet, 2 Yeates 493 (Pa. 1799); Williams Lindsay v. East Bay Street Com’rs, 2 Bay (S.C.L.) 38 S.C.Const.App. 1796)(Thomas Waties, J.).; Ware v. Hylton, 3 Dallas (3 U.S.) 199 (1796); Calder v. Bull, 3 Dallas (3 U.S.) 386 (1798); Cooper v. Telfair, 4 Dallas (4 U.S.) 14 (1800); Vanhorne’s Lessee v. Dorrance, 28 F. Cas. 1012, 2 Dallas (2 U.S.) 304; 1 L. Ed. 391; C. Pa. 1795).) Some legal scholars argue that the legal basis and concept of judicial review predate the case, and that Marbury merely formalized it. For example, Saikrishna Prakash and John Yoo point out, with respect to the ratification of the Constitution, that "no scholar to date has identified even one participant in the ratification fight who argued that the Constitution did not authorize judicial review of Federal statutes. This silence in the face of the numerous comments on the other side is revealing." However, it is important to note that nothing in the text of the Constitution explicitly authorized the power of judicial review, despite persistent fears voiced by Anti-federalists over the power of the new Federal court system. The concept was also laid out by Alexander Hamilton in Federalist No. 78: Relevant law The issue There are three ways a case can be heard in the Supreme Court: (1) filing directly in the Supreme Court; (2) filing in a lower federal court, such as a district court, and appealing all the way up to the Supreme Court; (3) filing in a state court, appealing all the way up through the state's highest courts, and then appealing to the Supreme Court on an issue of federal law. The first is an exercise of the Court's original jurisdiction; the second and third are exercises of the Supreme Court's appellate jurisdiction. Because Marbury filed his petition for the writ of mandamus directly in the Supreme Court, the Court needed to be able to exercise original jurisdiction over the case in order to have the power to hear it. Marbury's argument is that in the Judiciary Act of 1789, Congress granted the Supreme Court original jurisdiction over petitions for writs of mandamus. This raises several issues that the Supreme Court had to address: Does Article III of the Constitution create a "floor" for original jurisdiction, which Congress can add to, or does it create an exhaustive list that Congress can't modify at all? If Article III's original jurisdiction is an exhaustive list, but Congress tries to modify it anyway, who wins that conflict, Congress or the Constitution? And, more importantly, who is supposed to decide who wins? In its answer to this last question, the Supreme Court formalizes the notion of judicial review. In short, the constitutional issue on which Marbury v. Madison was decided was whether Congress could expand the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The decision An engraving of Justice Marshall made by Charles-Balthazar-Julien Fevret de Saint-Mémin in 1808. On February 24, 1803, the Court rendered a unanimous (4-0) decision, Due to illness, Justices William Cushing and Alfred Moore did not sit for oral argument or participate in the Court's decision. that Marbury had the right to his commission but the court did not have the power to force Madison to deliver the commission. Chief Justice Marshall wrote the opinion of the court. Marshall presented the case as raising three distinct questions: Did Marbury have a right to the commission? Do the laws of the country give Marbury a legal remedy? Is asking the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus the correct legal remedy? Marshall quickly answered the first two questions affirmatively. He found that the failure to deliver the commission was "violative of a vested legal right." In deciding whether Marbury had a remedy, Marshall stated: "The Government of the United States has been emphatically termed a government of laws, and not of men. It will certainly cease to deserve this high appellation if the laws furnish no remedy for the violation of a vested legal right." One of the key legal principles on which Marbury relies is the notion that for every violation of a vested legal right, there must be a legal remedy. Marshall next described two distinct types of Executive actions: political actions, where the official can exercise discretion, and purely ministerial functions, where the official is legally required to do something. Marshall found that delivering the appointment to Marbury was a purely ministerial function required by law, and therefore the law provided him a remedy. A federal court has a "special obligation to 'satisfy itself not only of its own jurisdiction, but also that of the lower courts in a cause under review.'" Bender v. Williamsport Area Sch. Dist., 475 U.S. 534, 541 (1986) (quoting Mitchell v. Maurer, 293 U.S. 237, 244 (1934)); accord Steel Co. v. Citizens for a Better Env't, 523 U.S. 83, 94 (1998) If a court does not have the power to hear a case, it will not issue dicta. Consequently, with exceptions not applicable here, a federal court must decide whether it has jurisdiction before discussing the merits of the case. See Irving v. United States, 162 F.3d 154, 160 (1st Cir. 1998) (en banc), admonishing that the federal courts "have an affirmative obligation to examine jurisdictional concerns on their own initiative" even if the parties have neglected them; Berner v. Delahanty, 129 F.3d 20, 23 (1st Cir. 1997), noting "that a court should first confirm the existence of rudiments such as jurisdiction . . . before tackling the merits of a controverted case"). Chief Justice Marshall, however, did not address jurisdictional issues until addressing the first two questions presented above. Because of the canon of constitutional avoidance (i.e., where a statute can fairly be interpreted so as to avoid a constitutional issue, it should be so interpreted), courts generally deal with the constitutional issues only if necessary. In this case, the jurisdictional issue was a constitutional one. Supreme Court History: The Court and Democracy, Marbury v. Madison, pbs.org, retrieved 2/12/07 In analyzing the third question, Marshall first examined the Judiciary Act of 1789 and determined that the Act purported to give the Supreme Court original jurisdiction over writs of mandamus. Marshall then looked to Article III of the Constitution, which defines the Supreme Court's original and appellate jurisdictions (see Relevant Law above). Marbury had argued that the Constitution was only intended to set a floor for original jurisdiction that Congress could add to. Marshall disagreed and held that Congress does not have the power to modify the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction. Consequently, Marshall found that the Constitution and the Judiciary Act conflict. This conflict raised the important question of what happens when an Act of Congress conflicts with the Constitution. Marshall answered that Acts of Congress that conflict with the Constitution are not law and the Courts are bound instead to follow the Constitution, affirming the principle of judicial review. In support of this position Marshall looked to the nature of the written Constitution—there would be no point of having a written Constitution if the courts could just ignore it. "To what purpose are powers limited, and to what purpose is that limitation committed to writing, if these limits may, at any time, be passed by those intended to be restrained?" 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) at 176. Marshall also argued that the very nature of the judicial function requires courts to make this determination. Since it is a court's duty to decide cases, courts have to be able to decide what law applies to each case. Therefore, if two laws conflict with each other, a court must decide which law applies. Id. at 177. Finally, Marshall pointed to the judge's oath requiring them to uphold the Constitution, and to the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution, which lists the "Constitution" before the "laws of the United States." Part of the core of this reasoning is found in the following statements from the decision: "In denying his request, the Court held that it lacked jurisdiction because Section 13 of the Judiciary Act passed by Congress in 1789, which authorized the Court to issue such a writ, was unconstitutional and thus invalid." Marbury v. Madison. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Marbury never became a Justice of the Peace in the District of Columbia. Reaction Jefferson disagreed with Marshall's reasoning in this case, saying that if this view of judicial power became accepted, it would be "placing us under the despotism of an oligarchy." Criticisms A minority of legal scholars have raised questions about the logic Marshall used in determining the Judiciary Act unconstitutional, and hence the legitimacy of judicial review. They reason that Marshall selectively quoted the Judiciary Act, interpreting it to grant the Supreme Court the power to hear writs of mandamus on original jurisdiction. Working Paper 230. These scholars argue that there is little connection between the notion of original jurisdiction and the Supreme Court, and note that the Act seems to affirm the Court's power to exercise only appellate jurisdiction. Full text of the Judiciary Act of 1789 Furthermore, it has been argued that the Supreme Court should have been able to issue the writ on original jurisdiction based on the fact that Article III of the Constitution granted it the right to review on original jurisdiction "all cases affecting . . . public ministers and consuls," and that James Madison, Secretary of State at the time and defendant of the suit, should have fallen into that category of a "public minister [or] consul." Questions have also frequently been raised about the logic of Marshall's argument for judicial review, for example by Alexander Bickel in his book The Least Dangerous Branch. Bickel argues that Marshall's argument implies an unrealistically mechanical view of jurisprudence, one which suggests that the Court has an absolute duty to strike down every law it finds violative of the Constitution. Under Marshall's conception of the judicial process in Marbury, judges themselves have no independent agency and can never take into account the consequences of their actions when deciding cases—a notion that has been attacked by Richard Posner. More generally, Marshall's argument for the notion of a judicial obligation to strike down laws "repugnant to the constitution" presupposes some sort of underlying meaning to the text of the U.S. Constitution which judges can divine, a notion contested by scholars Paul Brest and Duncan Kennedy, among others, as well as Posner. Marbury can also be criticized on grounds that it was improper for the Court to consider any issues beyond jurisdiction. After concluding that the Court lacked jurisdiction in the case, the further review regarding the substantive issues presented was arguably improper. Also, it has been argued that Justice Marshall should have recused himself on the grounds that he was still acting Secretary of State at the time the commissions were to be delivered and it was his brother, James Marshall, who was charged with delivering a number of the commissions. Because the Constitution lacks a clear statement authorizing the Federal courts to nullify the acts of coequal branches, critics contend that the argument for judicial review must rely on a significant gloss on the Constitution's terms. Despite such criticisms of Marbury v. Madison, judicial review has been accepted in the American legal community. See also List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 5 Hylton v. United States Notes and references Further reading (One introduction to the case) (Claims that it is a mistake to read the case as claiming a judicial power to tell the President or Congress what they can or cannot do under the Constitution.) External links The 200th Anniversary of Marbury v. Madison: The Reasons We Should Still Care About the Decision, and The Lingering Questions It Left Behind The Establishment of Judicial Review The 200th Anniversary of Marbury v. Madison: The Supreme Court's First Great Case Case Brief for Marbury v. Madison at Lawnix.com

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NSAP_address

Network Service Access Point (NSAP) addresses, defined in ISO/IEC 8348, are identifying labels for network endpoints used in OSI networking. These are roughly comparable to IP addresses used in the IP protocol; they can specify a piece of equipment connected to the ATM network. A specific stream (analogous to a 'port' or 'socket' used with TCP or UDP) is specified by using a TSAP, or Transport Service Access Point. ATM can also use a Presentation and Session AP (PSAP and SSAP respectively), but these may also be left blank; this is up to the application. NSAP addresses are allocated by the ISO, through a system of delegated authorities, which are generally national standards organizations. One of the schemes to generate NSAPs uses E.164 which is the addressing format describing phone numbers. NSAP addresses do not specify where a network terminal is located. Routing equipment must translate NSAP addresses to SNPAs (SubNetwork Point of Attachment) to route OSI packets; VCI (Virtual Circuit Identifier) numbers are an example of a datalink layer SNPAs in ATM; when OSI packets are sent encapsulated in IP packets the IP address is considered an SNPA. Currently SDH/SONET networks are a major part of the network infrastructure and NSAPs are used extensively. They are usually assigned by the Network Management/NOC personnel and agreed upon within an organisation to be unique (to that organisation and based on geographical location using country code phone prefixes) and are required before any operational connectivity is established at the commissioning stage. NSAP addresses are used in the following OSI-based network technologies: ATM switched virtual circuit networks X.25 (see ITU-T X.121 for addressing in public data networks) Frame relay IS-IS SDH & SONET networks. NSAP-style addresses are used in the IS-IS routing protocol.

NSAP_address |@lemmatized network:11 service:2 access:2 point:3 nsap:6 address:10 define:1 iso:2 iec:1 identify:1 label:1 endpoint:1 use:9 osi:4 networking:1 roughly:1 comparable:1 ip:4 protocol:2 specify:3 piece:1 equipment:2 connect:1 atm:4 specific:1 stream:1 analogous:1 port:1 socket:1 tcp:1 udp:1 tsap:1 transport:1 also:2 presentation:1 session:1 ap:1 psap:1 ssap:1 respectively:1 may:1 leave:1 blank:1 application:1 allocate:1 system:1 delegated:1 authority:1 generally:1 national:1 standard:1 organization:1 one:1 scheme:1 generate:1 nsaps:2 us:1 e:1 format:1 describe:1 phone:2 number:2 terminal:1 locate:1 rout:2 must:1 translate:1 snpas:2 subnetwork:1 attachment:1 route:1 packet:3 vci:1 virtual:2 circuit:2 identifier:1 example:1 datalink:1 layer:1 send:1 encapsulate:1 consider:1 snpa:1 currently:1 sdh:2 sonet:2 major:1 part:1 infrastructure:1 extensively:1 usually:1 assign:1 management:1 noc:1 personnel:1 agree:1 upon:1 within:1 organisation:2 unique:1 base:2 geographical:1 location:1 country:1 code:1 prefix:1 require:1 operational:1 connectivity:1 establish:1 commissioning:1 stage:1 following:1 technology:1 switch:1 x:2 see:1 itu:1 public:1 data:1 frame:1 relay:1 style:1 |@bigram nsap_address:5 iso_iec:1 ip_address:2 tcp_udp:1 ip_packet:1

Natural_logarithm

The natural logarithm, formerly known as the hyperbolic logarithm, is the logarithm to the base e, where e is an irrational constant approximately equal to 2.718281828. It is also sometimes referred to as the Napierian logarithm, although the original meaning of this term is slightly different. In simple terms, the natural logarithm of a number x is the power to which e would have to be raised to equal x — for example the natural log of e itself is 1 because e1 = e, while the natural logarithm of 1 would be 0, since e0 = 1. The natural logarithm can be defined for all positive real numbers x as the area under the curve y = 1/t from 1 to x, and can also be defined for non-zero complex numbers as explained below. Graph of the natural logarithm function. The function slowly grows to positive infinity as x increases and slowly goes to negative infinity as x approaches 0 ("slowly" as compared to any power law of x). The natural logarithm function, if considered as a real-valued function of a real variable, can also be defined as the inverse function of the exponential function, leading to the identities: In other words, the logarithm function is a bijection from the set of positive real numbers to the set of all real numbers. More precisely it is an isomorphism from the group of positive real numbers under multiplication to the group of real numbers under addition. Represented as a function: Logarithms can be defined to any positive base other than 1, not just e, and are useful for solving equations in which the unknown appears as the exponent of some other quantity. History The first mention of the natural logarithm was by Nicholas Mercator in his work Logarithmotechnia published in 1668, although the mathematics teacher John Speidell had already in 1619 compiled a table on the natural logarithm . It was formerly also called hyperbolic logarithm . Notational conventions Mathematicians, statisticians, and some engineers generally understand either "log(x)" or "ln(x)" to mean loge(x), i.e., the natural logarithm of x, and write "log10(x)" if the base 10 logarithm of x is intended. Some engineers, biologists, and some others generally write "ln(x)" (or occasionally "loge(x)") when they mean the natural logarithm of x, and take "log(x)" to mean log10(x). In most commonly-used programming languages, including C, C++, SAS, MATLAB, Fortran, and BASIC, "log" or "LOG" refers to the natural logarithm. In hand-held calculators, the natural logarithm is denoted ln, whereas log is the base 10 logarithm. In theoretical computer science, information theory and cryptography "log(x)" generally means "log2(x)" (although this is often written as lg(x) instead). Origin of the term natural logarithm Initially, it might seem that since our numbering system is base 10, this base would be more "natural" than base e. But mathematically, the number 10 is not particularly significant. Its use culturally—as the basis for many societies’ numbering systems—likely arises from humans’ typical number of fingers. Other cultures have based their counting systems on such choices as 5, 8, 12, 20, and 60. Loge is a “natural” log because it automatically springs from, and appears so often in, mathematics. For example, consider the problem of differentiating a logarithmic function: If the base b equals e, then the derivative is simply 1/x, and at x = 1 this derivative equals 1. Another sense in which the base e logarithm is the most natural is that it can be defined quite easily in terms of a simple integral or Taylor series and this is not true of other logarithms. Further senses of this naturalness make no use of calculus. As an example, there are a number of simple series involving the natural logarithm. In fact, Pietro Mengoli and Nicholas Mercator called it logarithmus naturalis a few decades before Newton and Leibniz developed calculus. Definitions Ln(x) defined as the area under the curve f(x) = 1/x. Formally, ln(a) may be defined as the area under the graph of 1/x from 1 to a, that is as the integral, This defines a logarithm because it satisfies the fundamental property of a logarithm: This can be demonstrated by letting as follows: The number e can then be defined as the unique real number a such that ln(a) = 1. Alternatively, if the exponential function has been defined first using an infinite series, the natural logarithm may be defined as its inverse function, i.e., ln(x) is that function such that . Since the range of the exponential function on real arguments is all positive real numbers and since the exponential function is strictly increasing, this is well-defined for all positive x. Properties Derivative, Taylor series The derivative of the natural logarithm is given by The Taylor polynomials for (1+x) only provide accurate approximations in the range -1 < x ≤ 1. Note that, for x > 1, the Taylor polynomials of higher degree are worse approximations. This leads to the Taylor series for around ; also known as the Mercator series At right is a picture of and some of its Taylor polynomials around . These approximations converge to the function only in the region -1 < x ≤ 1; outside of this region the higher-degree Taylor polynomials are worse approximations for the function. Substituting x-1 for x, we obtain an alternative form for ln(x) itself, namely "Logarithmic Expansions" at Math2.org By using the Euler transform on the Mercator series, one obtains the following, which is valid for any x with absolute value greater than 1: This series is similar to a BBP-type formula. Also note that is its own inverse function, so to yield the natural logarithm of a certain number y, simply put in for x. The natural logarithm in integration The natural logarithm allows simple integration of functions of the form g(x) = f '(x)/f(x): an antiderivative of g(x) is given by ln(|f(x)|). This is the case because of the chain rule and the following fact: In other words, and Here is an example in the case of g(x) = tan(x): Letting f(x) = cos(x) and f'''(x)= - sin(x): where C is an arbitrary constant of integration. The natural logarithm can be integrated using integration by parts: Numerical value To calculate the numerical value of the natural logarithm of a number, the Taylor series expansion can be rewritten as: To obtain a better rate of convergence, the following identity can be used. {| |- | | |- | | |} provided that y = (x−1)/(x+1) and x > 0. For ln(x) where x > 1, the closer the value of x is to 1, the faster the rate of convergence. The identities associated with the logarithm can be leveraged to exploit this: {| |- | | |- | | |- | | |- | | |} Such techniques were used before calculators, by referring to numerical tables and performing manipulations such as those above. High precision To compute the natural logarithm with many digits of precision, the Taylor series approach is not efficient since the convergence is slow. An alternative is to use Newton's method to invert the exponential function, whose series converges more quickly. An alternative for extremely high precision calculation is the formula where M denotes the arithmetic-geometric mean and with m chosen so that p bits of precision is attained. (For most purposes, the value of 256 for m is sufficient.) In fact, if this method is used, Newton inversion of the natural logarithm may conversely be used to calculate the exponential function efficiently. (The constants ln 2 and can be pre-computed to the desired precision using any of several known quickly converging series.) Computational complexity The computational complexity of computing the natural logarithm (using the arithmetic-geometric mean) is O(M(n) ln n). Here n is the number of digits of precision at which the natural logarithm is to be evaluated and M(n) is the computational complexity of multiplying two n-digit numbers. Complex logarithms The exponential function can be extended to a function which gives a complex number as ex for any arbitrary complex number x; simply use the infinite series with x complex. This exponential function can be inverted to form a complex logarithm that exhibits most of the properties of the ordinary logarithm. There are two difficulties involved: no x has ex = 0; and it turns out that e2πi = 1 = e0. Since the multiplicative property still works for the complex exponential function, ez = ez+2nπi, for all complex z and integers n. So the logarithm cannot be defined for the whole complex plane, and even then it is multi-valued – any complex logarithm can be changed into an "equivalent" logarithm by adding any integer multiple of 2πi at will. The complex logarithm can only be single-valued on the cut plane. For example, ln i = 1/2 πi or 5/2 πi or −3/2 πi, etc.; and although i4 = 1, 4 log i can be defined as 2πi, or 10πi or −6 πi'', and so on. See also John Napier - inventor of logarithms Logarithmic integral function Nicholas Mercator - first to use the term natural log Polylogarithm Von Mangoldt function The number e References External links Demystifying the Natural Logarithm (ln) | BetterExplained

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Argument_from_authority

Argument from authority or appeal to authority is a logical fallacy, where it is argued that a statement is correct because the statement is made by a person or source that is commonly regarded as authoritative. The most general structure of this argument is: Source A says that p. Source A is authoritative. Therefore, p is true. This is a fallacy because the truth or falsity of the claim is not necessarily related to the personal qualities of the claimant, and because the premisses can be true, and the conclusion false (an authoritative claim can turn out to be false). It is also known as argumentum ad verecundiam () or ipse dixit (Latin: he himself said it). The Nizkor Project, Appeal to Authority On the other hand, arguments from authority are an important part of informal logic. Since we cannot have expert knowledge of many subjects, we often rely on the judgments of those who do. There is no fallacy involved in simply arguing that the assertion made by an authority is true, the fallacy only arises when it is claimed or implied that the authority is infallible in principle and can hence be exempted from criticism: It can be true, the truth can merely not be proven, or made probable by attributing it to the authority, and the assumption that the assertion was true might be subject to criticism and turn out to have actually been wrong. If a criticism appears that contradicts the authority's statement, then merely the fact that the statement originated from the authority is not an argument for ignoring the criticism. Forms There are two basic forms of appeal to authority, based on the authority being trusted. The more relevant the expertise of an authority, the more compelling the argument. Nonetheless, authority is never absolute, so all appeals to authority which assert that the authority is necessarily infallible are fallacious. The first form of the appeal to authority is when a source presenting a position on a subject mentions some authority who also holds that position, but who is not actually an authority in that area. For instance, the statement "Arthur C. Clarke released a report showing it is necessary to floss three times daily" should not convince many people of anything about flossing, as Clarke, a science fiction writer, was not a known expert on dental care. Much advertising relies on this logical fallacy in the form of endorsements and sponsorships. A sportsperson or actor, for example, is no more likely than average to have an specialist knowledge of watches or perfume, but their endorsement of a particular brand of watch or perfume is very valuable in advertising terms. Alternatively they may not be experts in the relevant part of the field (for example, an expert in litigation may not be an expert on trust law or commercial law even though they are indeed a civil lawyer). In some cases, the advertisers use an actor's well-known role to imply that the person has authority in an area; an actor who plays a doctor on television may appear in their white coat, and endorse a drug or health product. The second form, citing a source who is actually an authority in the relevant field, carries more subjective, cognitive weight. A person who is recognized as an expert authority often has greater experience and knowledge of their field than the average person, so their opinion is more likely than average to be correct. In practical subjects such as car repair, an experienced mechanic who knows how to fix a certain car will be trusted to a greater degree than someone who is not an expert in car repair. There are many cases where one must rely on an expert, and cannot be reasonably expected to have the same experience, knowledge and skill that that person has. Many trust a surgeon without ever needing to know all the details about surgery themselves. Nevertheless, experts can still be mistaken, wilfully deceptive, subject to pressure from peers or employers, or have unusual views (or views that are widely criticized by other experts) within their field, and hence their expertise does not always guarantee that their arguments are valid. In some cases, the appeal to authority plays on the Western culture's respect for credentials. For example, suppose a complex nutritional system and diet guide is endorsed or ghostwritten and credited to a qualified doctor. While a doctor does receive general training on nutrition and diet, they may not be an expert on nutrition and diet, a field for which an expert will often possess PhDs in nutrition and certification as a dietician. The same technique is used with the PhD degree; an advertiser may reinforce their claims about a product by appending an endorsement from John Doe, PhD, but without stating what area the PhD is in. If the product being endorsed is foot powder, and Dr. Doe studied podiatry, the endorsement carries some weight, but if he studied film criticism, he may have no more than average knowledge of the product and its merits. In mathematics, the second form, especially when the appellant is himself the authority, is wryly referred to as "proof by tenure". Appeal to authority as logical fallacy A (fallacious) appeal to authority argument has the basic form: A makes claim B; there is something positive about A that (fallaciously) is used to imply that A has above-average or expert knowledge in the field, or has an above-average authority to determine the truth or rightness of such a matter therefore claim B is true, or has its credibility unduly enhanced as a result of the proximity and association. The first statement is called a 'factual claim' and is the pivot point of much debate. The last statement is referred to as an 'inferential claim' and represents the reasoning process. There are two types of inferential claim, explicit and implicit. The converse, that (fallaciously) relies on something negative about the source and claims that therefore the conclusion is probably false, is called an ad hominem argument. Examples of appeals to authority Arguments Referring to the philosophical beliefs of Aristotle: "If Aristotle said it was so, it is so." Referring to the philosophical beliefs of Jesus, Muhammad, or any other religious figure: "If (religious figure) said it was so, it is so." Such an appeal may be based upon the belief that the speaker in question is holy and, by extension, inerrant. Alternately, the figure may be considered to be an expert on the given subject: "Buddha was a great moral teacher and he said that euthanasia is wrong, so it must be wrong." Referring to a sacred text: "If (the text) said it was so, it is so." Like in the previous example, such an appeal may be based upon the belief that the sacred text in question is inerrant. This argument may also present a false dilemma situation, where the text can be interpreted in multiple dissimilar ways. Referring to a famous text or work: "Democracy in America criticized American political party division, so we ought to promote bipartisanship." Quoting a well-known personage: "As Samuel Johnson said, patriotism is the last refuge of the scoundrel." Implying that, therefore, patriotism is always bad. (The term "patriot" was used at the time by radical followers of John Wilkes, whom the conservative Johnson opposed); or "There is no need to critically examine Plan A because [person's name] is in favour of it, and [person's name] is [experienced, knowledgeable, respected] in this field." Referring to what one is told by one's teacher and/or parent: "My teacher said so, therefore it must be so." Believing something because it is attributed to an honored profession, as in: "This doctor recommends (brand-name) aspirin" or "Bankers recommend that people have six months' wages in a savings account". Appealing to some reference or citation from a famous book or author without considering the actual truth of the citation. References in no way ensure, without any doubt, that the claim is true. References simply show where the information or claim possibly originated and to avoid plagiarism. Appeals to various well known opinion poll firms that are assumed to have collected the best data from a large enough sample, and that there were no leading questions. The nature of the fallacy An appeal to authority cannot guarantee the truth of the conclusion, given the nature of truth and the Consensus theory of truth, because the fact that an authority says something does not necessarily make it so. The fact that, objectively, a proposition is in fact true or that it has good unrelated arguments supporting it will be what makes authorities believe it to be true. The fallacy comes in when the opposite situation occurs, with authority opinions leading to the belief itself. Thus, an appeal to authority confuses cause and effect. As with all logical fallacies, the fact that an argument is an appeal to authority does not make its conclusion untrue (this line of thought is sometimes known as the logical fallacy fallacy) and does not make it unreasonable to believe the truth of the argument. It also must be noted that a rigorous concept of truth is a complex subject. In informal logic, the fact that a majority of experts in a given field believe X- for example, the fact that nearly all medical scientists think that HIV causes AIDS and reject AIDS denialism- makes it more reasonable for a person without knowledge in the field to believe X. The bandwagon fallacy is very similar to the appeal to authority, given that it- with popular opinion being cited in support of an idea rather than popular opinion coming to believe an idea based on the ideas own inherent truth -- confuses cause and effect in the same way. In normal conversation, these two fallacies frequently intermingle. For example, consider the statement: "Basically everyone, economic experts included, supports the financial bailout and so must I." Epistemology without appeal to authority A philosophy which denies and rejects harshly the existence of any authority, proof, disproof, or justification, even only with probability, and holds everything open to criticism, including observation (that is, it even rejects the inference "X was observed directly → X is necessarily true" as an appeal to authority), logics and its own very basic positions, such as criticism itself, is pancritical rationalism. Without the need ever to appeal to authority for justification, the pancritical rationalist is able to hold his position with complete integrity, since he is not guilty of relativism or dogmatism. References External link The Fallacy Files: Appeal to Misleading Authority See also Question Authority Credentialism Logical fallacy Precedent

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Battle_of_Blenheim

The Battle of Blenheim (referred to in some countries as the Second Battle of Höchstädt), fought on 13 August 1704, was a major battle of the War of the Spanish Succession. Louis XIV of France sought to knock Emperor Leopold out of the war by seizing Vienna, the Habsburg capital, and gain a favourable peace settlement. The dangers to Vienna were considerable: the Elector of Bavaria and Marshal Marsin's forces in Bavaria threatened from the west, and Marshal Vendôme's large army in northern Italy posed a serious danger with a potential offensive through the Brenner Pass. Vienna was also under pressure from Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt from its eastern approaches. Realising the danger, the Duke of Marlborough resolved to alleviate the peril to Vienna by marching his forces south from Bedburg and help maintain Emperor Leopold within the Grand Alliance. A combination of deception and brilliant administration – designed to conceal his true destination from friend and foe alike – enabled Marlborough to march 250 miles (400 km) unhindered from the Low Countries to the River Danube in five weeks. After securing Donauwörth on the Danube, the English Duke sought to engage the Elector's and Marsin's army before Marshal Tallard could bring reinforcements through the Black Forest. However, with the Franco-Bavarian commanders reluctant to fight until their numbers were deemed sufficient, the Duke enacted a policy of spoliation in Bavaria designed to force the issue. The tactic proved unsuccessful, but when Tallard arrived to bolster the Elector's army, and Prince Eugene arrived with reinforcements for the Allies, the two armies finally met on the banks of the Danube in and around the small village of Blindheim. Blenheim has gone down in history as one of the turning points of the War of the Spanish Succession. The overwhelming Allied victory ensured the safety of Vienna from the Franco-Bavarian army, thus preventing the collapse of the Grand Alliance. Bavaria was knocked out of the war, and Louis's hopes for a quick victory came to an end. France suffered over 30,000 casualties including the commander-in-chief, Marshal Tallard, who was taken captive to England. Before the 1704 campaign ended, the Allies had taken Landau, and the towns of Trier (Trèves) and Trarbach on the Moselle in preparation for the following year's campaign into France itself. Background By 1704, the War of the Spanish Succession was in its fourth year. The previous year had been one of success for France and her allies, most particularly on the Danube, where Marshal Villars and the Elector of Bavaria had created a direct threat to Vienna, the Habsburg capital. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 124 Vienna had been saved by dissension between the two commanders, leading to the brilliant Villars being replaced by the less dynamic Marshal Marsin. Nevertheless, by 1704, the threat was still real: Rákóczi's Hungarian revolt was already threatening the Empire's eastern approaches, and Marshal Vendôme's forces threatened an invasion from northern Italy. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 285 In the courts of Versailles and Madrid, Vienna's fall was confidently anticipated, an event which would almost certainly have led to the collapse of the Grand Alliance. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 125 To isolate the Danube from any Allied intervention, Marshal Villeroi's 46,000 troops were expected to pin the 70,000 Dutch and English troops around Maastricht in the Low Countries, while General de Coigny protected Alsace against surprise with a further corps. The only forces immediately available for Vienna's defence were Prince Louis of Baden's force of 36,000 stationed in the Lines of Stollhofen The Lines of Stollhofen are a military chain of posts designed for the defence of the Rhine Valley. The lines ranged between Stollhofen, a small village on the Rhine, to the Black Forest. The barrier was designed to stop the French marching down the Rhine from Strasbourg. to watch Marshal Tallard at Strasbourg; there was also a weak force of 10,000 men under Count Styrum observing Ulm. Both the Imperial Austrian Ambassador in London, Count Wratislaw, and the Duke of Marlborough realised the implications of the situation on the Danube. The Dutch, however, who clung to their troops for their country's protection, were against any adventurous military operation as far south as the Danube and would never willingly permit any major weakening of the forces in the Spanish Netherlands. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 127 Marlborough, realising the only way to ignore Dutch wishes was by the use of secrecy and guile, set out to deceive his Dutch allies by pretending to simply move his troops to the Moselle – a plan approved of by The Hague – but once there, he would slip the Dutch leash and link up with Austrian forces in southern Germany. "My intentions", wrote the Duke from The Hague on 29 April to his governmental confidant, Sidney Godolphin, "are to march with the English to Coblenz and declare that I intend to campaign on the Moselle. But when I come there, to write to the Dutch States that I think it absolutely necessary for the saving of the Empire to march with the troops under my command and to join with those that are in Germany … in order to make measures with Prince Lewis of Baden for the speedy reduction of the Elector of Bavaria." Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 18 Prelude Protagonists march to the Danube A scarlet caterpillar, upon which all eyes were at once fixed, began to crawl steadfastly day by day across the map of Europe, dragging the whole war with it. – Winston Churchill. Spencer: Blenheim: Battle for Europe, p. 136 The Duke of Marlborough's march from Bedburg (near Cologne) to the Danube. His 250 mile (400 km) march to save Vienna falling into enemy hands was a masterpiece of deception, meticulous planning and organisation. Marlborough's march commenced on 19 May from Bedburg, north-west of Cologne. The army (assembled by the Duke's brother, General Charles Churchill) consisted of 66 squadrons, 31 battalions and 38 guns and mortars totalling 21,000 men (16,000 of whom were British troops). Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 128. The initial force of 21,000 men were accompanied by 1,700 supply carts drawn by 5,000 draught horses. The artillery needed as many more. This force was to be augmented en route such that by the time Marlborough reached the Danube, it would number 40,000 (47 battalions, 88 squadrons). Whilst Marlborough led his army, General Overkirk would maintain a defensive position in the Dutch Republic in case Villeroi mounted an attack. The Duke had assured the Dutch that if the French were to launch an offensive he would return in good time, but Marlborough calculated that as he marched south, the French commander would be drawn after him. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 19 In this assumption Marlborough was correct: Villeroi shadowed the Duke with 30,000 men comprising of 60 squadrons and 42 battalions. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 129. Barnett and Coxe states 45 squadrons and 36 battalions. The Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722) by Sir Godfrey Kneller. The military dangers in such an enterprise were numerous: Marlborough’s lines of communication along the Rhine would be hopelessly exposed to French interference, for Louis’ generals controlled the left bank of the river and its central reaches. Such a long march would almost certainly involve a high wastage of men and horses through exhaustion and disease. However, Marlborough was convinced of the urgency – "I am very sensible that I take a great deal upon me," he had earlier written to Godolphin, "but should I act otherwise, the Empire would be undone …" Whilst Allied preparations had progressed, the French were striving to maintain and re-supply Marshal Marsin. Marsin had been operating with the Elector of Bavaria against the Imperial commander, Prince Louis of Baden, and was somewhat isolated from France: his only lines of communication lay through the rocky passes of the Black Forest. However, on 14 May, with considerable skill Marshal Tallard managed to bring 10,000 reinforcements and vast supplies and munitions through the difficult terrain, whilst outmanoeuvring Baron Thüngen, the Imperial general who sought to block his path. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 20. Falkner gives a total of 8,000 Tallard then returned with his own force to the Rhine, once again side-stepping Thüngen's efforts to intercept him. The whole operation was an outstanding military achievement. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 20, although Chandler p. 131 states that many men were lost on the return journey through desertion. On 26 May, Marlborough reached Coblenz, where the Moselle meets the Rhine. If he intended an attack along the Moselle the Duke must now turn west, but, instead, the following day the army crossed to the right bank of the Rhine, (pausing to add 5,000 waiting Hanoverians and Prussians). Tincey: Blenheim 1704: The Duke of Marlborough's Masterpiece, p. 31 "There will be no campaign on the Moselle", wrote Villeroi who had taken up a defensive position on the river, "the English have all gone up into Germany." Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 22 A second possible objective now occurred to the French – an Allied incursion into Alsace and an attack on the city of Strasbourg. Marlborough skillfully encouraged this apprehension by constructing bridges across the Rhine at Philippsburg, a ruse that not only encouraged Villeroi to come to Tallard's aid in the defence of Alsace, but one that ensured the French plan to march on Vienna remained paralysed by uncertainty. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 89 With Villeroi shadowing Marlborough's every move, Dutch anticipation of an immediate French counter-offensive against their weakened position in the Netherlands thus proved illusory. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 129 In any case, Marlborough had promised to return to the Netherlands if a French attack developed there, transferring his troops down the Rhine on barges at a rate of 80 miles (130 km) a day. Encouraged by this sense of security the States-General promptly agreed to release the Danish contingent of seven battalions and 22 squadrons as a reinforcement. Marlborough reached Ladenburg, in the plain of the Neckar and the Rhine, and there halted for three days to rest his cavalry and allow the guns and infantry to close up. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 91 On 6 June he arrived at Wiesloch, south of Heidelberg. The following day, the Allied army swung away from the Rhine towards the hills of the Swabian Jura and the Danube beyond. At last Marlborough's destination was established without doubt. Strategy Prince Eugene of Savoy (1663–1736) by Jacob van Schuppen. Prince Eugene met Marlborough for the first time in 1704. It was the start of a lifelong personal and professional friendship. On 10 June, the Duke met for the first time the President of the Imperial War Council, Prince Eugene – accompanied by Count Wratislaw – at the village of Mundelsheim, half-way between the Danube and the Rhine. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 23 By the 13 June, the Imperial Field Commander, Prince Louis of Baden, had joined them in Großheppach. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 25. Eugene had doubts about Baden's reliability, for he was a close friend of the Elector of Bavaria. It was even suspected that Baden was secretly corresponding with his old comrade. The three generals commanded a force of nearly 110,000 men. At conference it was decided that Eugene would return with 28,000 men to the Lines of Stollhofen on the Rhine to keep an eye on Villeroi and Tallard, and prevent them going to the aid of the Franco-Bavarian army on the Danube. Meanwhile, Marlborough's and Baden's forces would combine, totalling 80,000 men, for the march on the Danube to seek out the Elector and Marsin before they could be reinforced. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 132 Knowing Marlborough's destination, Tallard and Villeroi met at Landau in Alsace on 13 June to rapidly construct an action plan to save Bavaria, but the rigidity of the French command system was such that any variations from the original plan had to be sanctioned by Versailles. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 133 The Count of Mérode-Westerloo, commander of the Flemish troops in Tallard's army wrote – "One thing is certain: we delayed our march from Alsace for far too long and quite inexplicably." Approval from Louis arrived on 27 June: Tallard was to reinforce Marsin and the Elector on the Danube via the Black Forest, with 40 battalions and 50 squadrons; Villeroi was to pin down the Allies defending the Lines of Stollhofen, or, if the Allies should move all their forces to the Danube, he was to join with Marshal Tallard; and General de Coignies with 8,000 men, would protect Alsace. On 1 July Tallard’s army of 35,000 re-crossed the Rhine at Kehl and began its march. Meanwhile, on 22 June, Marlborough's forces linked up with Baden's Imperial forces at Launsheim. A distance of 250 miles (400 km) had been covered in five weeks. Lynn p. 287. Lynn states that the march-rate was not unprecedented for the period, averaging 7.5 miles (12 km) per day. What stands out was the total distance, and the fine condition of the troops when they arrived. Thanks to a carefully planned time-table, the effects of wear and tear had been kept to a minimum. Captain Parker described the march discipline – "As we marched through the country of our Allies, commissars were appointed to furnish us with all manner of necessaries for man and horse … the soldiers had nothing to do but pitch their tents, boil kettles and lie down to rest." Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 131. The Allied march had not been without loss: French spies reported that 900 sick had been left at Kassel. In response to Marlborough's manoeuvres, the Elector and Marsin, conscious of their numerical disadvantage with only 40,000 men, moved their forces to the entrenched camp at Dillingen on the north bank of the Danube. Marlborough could not attack Dillingen because of a lack of siege guns – he was unable to bring any from the Low Countries, and Baden had failed to supply any despite assurances to the contrary. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 26 Allied assault on the Schellenberg – taken by coup de main on 2 July – provided the Allies with an excellent river crossing. The Allies, nevertheless, needed a base for provisions and a good river crossing. On 2 July, therefore, Marlborough stormed the key fortress of Schellenberg on the heights above the town of Donauwörth. Count Jean d'Arco had been sent with 12,000 men from the Franco-Bavarian camp to hold the town and grassy hill, but after a ferocious and bloody battle, inflicting enormous casualties on both sides, Schellenberg finally succumbed, forcing Donauwörth to surrender shortly afterwards. The Elector, knowing his position at Dillingen was now not tenable, took up a position behind the strong fortifications of Augsburg. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 40 Tallard's march, meanwhile, presented a dilemma for Eugene. If the Allies were not to be outnumbered on the Danube, Eugene realised he must either try to cut Tallard off before he could get there, or, he must hasten to reinforce Marlborough. Henderson: Prince Eugen of Savoy, p. 103 However, if he withdrew from the Rhine to the Danube, Villeroi might also make a move south to link up with the Elector and Marsin. Eugene compromised: leaving 12,000 troops behind guarding the Lines of Stollhofen, he marched off with the rest of his army to forestall Tallard. Lacking in numbers, Eugene could not seriously disrupt Tallard's march; nevertheless, the French Marshal's progress was proving pitifully slow. Tallard's force had suffered considerably more than Marlborough's troops on their march – many of his cavalry horses were suffering from glanders, and the mountain passes were proving tough for the 2,000 wagons of provisions. Local German peasants, angry at French plundering, compounded Tallard's problems, leading Mérode-Westerloo to bemoan – "the enraged peasantry killed several thousand of our men before the army was clear of the Black Forest." Additionally, Tallard had insisted on besieging the little town of Villingen for six days (16–22 July), but abandoned the enterprise on discovering the approach of Eugene. The Elector in Augsburg was informed on 14 July that Tallard was on his way through the Black Forest. This good news bolstered the Elector's policy of inaction, further encouraging him to wait for the reinforcements. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 139 But this reticence to fight induced Marlborough to undertake a controversial policy of spoliation in Bavaria, burning buildings and crops throughout the rich lands south of the Danube. This had two aims: firstly to put pressure on the Elector to fight or come to terms before Tallard arrived with reinforcements; and secondly, to ruin Bavaria as a base from which the French and Bavarian armies could attack Vienna, or pursue the Duke into Franconia if, at some stage, he had to withdraw northwards. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 41 But this destruction, coupled with a protracted siege of Rain (9–16 July), had cause Prince Eugene to lament "… since the Donauwörth action I cannot admire their performances," and later to conclude "If he has to go home without having achieved his objective, he will certainly be ruined." Spencer: Blenheim: Battle for Europe, p. 215 Nevertheless, strategically the Duke had been able to place his numerically stronger forces between the Franco-Bavarian army and Vienna. Final positioning Manoeuvres before the battle 9–13 August. Marshal Tallard, with 34,000 men, reached Ulm, joining with the Elector and Marsin in Augsburg on the 5 August (although Tallard was not impressed to find that the Elector had dispersed his army in response to Marlborough's campaign of ravaging the region). Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 44. Lynn states Tallard reached Augsburg on 3 August. Also on the 5 August Eugene reached Höchstädt, riding that same night to meet with Marlborough at Schrobenhausen. Marlborough knew it was necessary that another crossing point over the Danube would be required in case Donauwörth fell to the enemy. On 7 August, therefore, the first of Baden's 15,000 Imperial troops (the remainder following two days later) left Marlborough's main force to besiege the heavily defended city of Ingolstadt, 20 miles (~30 km) farther down the Danube. Holmes: Marlborough: England's Fragile Genius p. 279. Many reliable historians argue (as did Mérode-Westerloo at the time) that this was largely a device to get the 'cautious and obstructive Margrave out of the way'. However, Marlborough had assured Heinsius that the siege made perfect sense, and there is no direct evidence that they deliberatly contrived his absence. With Eugene's forces at Höchstädt on the north bank of the Danube, and Marlborough's at Rain on the south bank, Tallard and the Elector debated their next move. Tallard preferred to bide his time, replenish supplies and allow Marlborough's Danube campaign to flounder in the colder weeks of Autumn; the Elector and Marsin, however, newly reinforced, were keen to push ahead. The French and Bavarian commanders eventually agreed on a plan and decided to attack Eugene's smaller force. On 9 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces began to cross to the north bank of the Danube. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 47 On 10 August, Eugene sent an urgent dispatch reporting that he was falling back to Donauwörth – "The enemy have marched. It is almost certain that the whole army is crossing the Danube at Lauingen … The plain of Dillingen is crowded with troops … Everything, milord, consists in speed and that you put yourself forthwith in movement to join me tomorrow, without which I fear it will be too late." By a series of brilliant marches Marlborough concentrated his forces on Donauwörth and, by noon 11 August, the link-up was complete. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 141 During 11 August, Tallard pushed forward from the river crossings at Dillingen; by 12 August, the Franco-Bavarian forces were encamped behind the small river Nebel near the village of Blenheim on the plain of Höchstädt. That same day Marlborough and Eugene carried out their own reconnaissance of the French position from the church spire at Tapfheim, and moved their combined forces to Münster – five miles (8 km) from the French camp. A French reconnaissance under the Marquis de Silly went forward to probe the enemy, but were driven off by Allied troops who had deployed to cover the pioneers of the advancing army, labouring to bridge the numerous streams in the area and improve the passage leading westwards to Höchstädt. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 842. The French had captured four prisoners. Under examination they declared that the whole Allied army was going to move off towards Nördlingen the next morning. Marlborough quickly moved forward two brigades under the command of General Wilkes and Brigadier Rowe to secure the narrow strip of land between the Danube and the wooded Fuchsberg hill, at the Schwenningen defile. Coxe: Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough: vol.i. p. 188 Tallard's army numbered 56,000 men and 90 guns; the army of the Grand Alliance, 52,000 men and 66 guns. Some Allied officers who were acquainted with the superior numbers of the enemy, and aware of their strong defensive position, ventured to remonstrate with Marlborough about the hazards of attacking; but the Duke was resolute – "I know the danger, yet a battle is absolutely necessary, and I rely on the bravery and discipline of the troops, which will make amends for our disadvantages". Marlborough and Eugene decided to risk everything, and agreed to attack on the following day. Battle The battlefield The battlefield stretched for nearly . The extreme right flank of the Franco-Bavarian army was covered by the Danube; to the extreme left flank lay the undulating pine-covered hills of the Swabian Jura. A small stream, the Nebel, (the ground either side of which was soft and marshy and only fordable intermittently), fronted the French line. The French right rested on the village of Blenheim near where the Nebel flows into the Danube; the village itself was surrounded by hedges, fences, enclosed gardens, and meadows. Between Blenheim and the next village of Oberglau the fields of wheat had been cut to stubble and were now ideal to deploy troops. From Oberglau to the next hamlet of Lutzingen the terrain of ditches, thickets and brambles was potentially difficult ground for the attackers. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 106 Initial manoeuvres The position of the forces at noon, 13 August. Marlborough took control of the left arm of the Allied forces including the attacks on Blenheim and Oberglau, whilst Eugene commanded the right including the attacks on Lutzingen. At 02:00 on 13 August, 40 squadrons were sent forward towards the enemy, followed at 03:00, in eight columns, by the main Allied force pushing over the Kessel. At about 06:00 they reached Schwenningen, two miles (3 km) from Blenheim. The British and German troops who had held Schwenningen through the night joined the march, making a ninth column on the left of the army. Marlborough and Eugene made their final plans. The Allied commanders agreed that Marlborough would command 36,000 troops and attack Tallard's force of 33,000 on the left (including capturing the village of Blenheim), whilst Eugene, commanding 16,000 men would attack the Elector and Marsin's combined forces of 23,000 troops on the right wing; if this attack was pressed hard the Elector and Marsin would have no troops to send to aid Tallard on their right. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 57 Lieutenant-General John Cutts would attack Blenheim in concert with Eugene's attack. With the French flanks busy, Marlborough could cross the Nebel and deliver the fatal blow to the French at their centre. However, Marlborough would have to wait until Eugene was in position before the general engagement could begin. For Tallard, the very last thing he was expecting that morning was to be attacked by the Allies – deceived by intelligence gathered from prisoners taken by de Silly the previous day, and assured in their strong natural position, Tallard and his colleagues were convinced that Marlborough and Eugene were about to retreat north-eastwards towards Nördlingen. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 108. Several sources (Churchill, Chandler) suggest that Marlborough had planted this corroborative 'evidence' on Tallard. Tallard wrote a report to this effect to King Louis that morning, but hardly had he sent the messenger when the Allied army began to appear opposite his camp. "I could see the enemy advancing ever closer in nine great columns", wrote Mérode-Westerloo, " ... filling the whole plain from the Danube to the woods on the horizon." Barnett: Marlborough, p. 109 Signal guns were fired to bring in the foraging parties and picquets as the French and Bavarian troops tried to draw into battle-order to face the unexpected threat. At about 08:00 the French artillery on their right wing opened fire, answered by Colonel Blood's batteries. Churchill states 08:30 The guns were heard by Baden in his camp before Ingolstadt, "The Prince and the Duke are engaged today to the westward," he wrote to the Emperor. "Heaven bless them." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 848 An hour later Tallard, the Elector, and Marsin climbed Blenheim's church tower to finalise their plans. It was settled that the Elector and Marsin would hold the front from the hills to Oberglau, whilst Tallard would defend the ground between Oberglau and the Danube. The French commanders were, however, divided as to how to utilise the Nebel: Tallard's tactic – opposed by Marsin and the Elector who felt it better to close their infantry right up to the stream itself – was to lure the allies across before unleashing their cavalry upon them, causing panic and confusion; whilst the enemy was struggling in the marshes, they would be caught in crossfire from Blenheim and Oberglau. The plan was sound if all its parts were implemented, but it allowed Marlborough to cross the Nebel without serious interference and fight the battle he had in mind. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 58 Deployment The Franco-Bavarian commanders deployed their forces. In the village of Lutzingen, Count Maffei positioned five Bavarian battalions with a great battery of 16 guns at the village's edge. In the woods to the left of Lutzingen, seven French battalions under the Marquis de Rozel moved into place. Between Lutzingen and Oberglau the Elector placed 27 squadrons of cavalry – Count d'Arco commanded 14 Bavarian squadrons and Count Wolframsdorf had 13 more in support nearby. To their right stood Marsin's 40 French squadrons and 12 battalions. The village of Oberglau was packed with 14 battalions commanded by the Marquis de Blainville (including the effective Irish Brigade known as the 'Wild Geese'). Six batteries of guns were ranged alongside the village. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 61 On the right of these French and Bavarian positions, between Oberglau and Blenheim, Tallard deployed 64 French and Walloon squadrons (16 drawn from Marsin) supported by nine French battalions standing near the Höchstädt road. In the cornfield next to Blenheim stood three battalions from the Regiment de Roi. Nine battalions occupied the village itself, commanded by the Marquis de Clérambault. Four battalions stood to the rear and a further 11 were in reserve. These battalions were supported by Hautefeuille's 12 squadrons of dismounted dragoons. By 11:00 Tallard, the Elector, and Marsin were in place. Many of the Allied generals were hesitant to attack such a relatively strong position. The Earl of Orkney later confessed that, "had I been asked to give my opinion, I had been against it." Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 62 Prince Eugene was expected to be in position by 11:00, but due to the difficult terrain and enemy fire, progress was slow. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 63 Lord Cutts’ column – who by 10:00 had expelled the enemy from two water mills upon the Nebel – had already deployed by the river against Blenheim, enduring over the next three hours severe fire from a heavy six-gun battery posted near the village. The rest of Marlborough’s army, waiting in their ranks on the forward slope, were also forced to bear the cannonade from the French artillery, suffering 2,000 casualties before the attack could even be begun. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 852 Meanwhile engineers repaired a stone bridge across the Nebel, and constructed five additional bridges or causeways across the marsh between Blenheim and Oberglau. Marlborough's anxiety was finally allayed when, just past noon, Colonel Cadogan reported that Eugene's Prussian and Danish infantry were in place – the order for the general advance was given. At 13:00, Cutts was ordered to attack the village of Blenheim whilst Prince Eugene was requested to assault Lutzingen on the Allied right flank. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 66 Blenheim Part of the Battle of Blenheim tapestry at Blenheim Palace by Judocus de Vos. In the background is the village of Blenheim; in the middle ground are the two water mills that Rowe had to take to gain a bridgehead over the Nebel. The foreground shows a British grenadier with a captured French colour. Cutts ordered Brigadier-General Archibald Rowe's brigade to attack. The British infantry rose from the edge of the Nebel, and silently marched towards Blenheim, a distance of some 150 yards (~130 metres). John Ferguson's British brigade supported Rowe’s left, and moved in perfect order towards the barricades between the village and the river, defended by Hautefeuille's dragoons. As the range closed to within , the French fired a deadly volley. Rowe had ordered that there should be no firing from his men until he struck his sword upon the palisades, but as he stepped forward to give the signal, he fell mortally wounded. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 853. Two of Rowe’s staff officers were killed trying to carry him away: Lieutenant-Colonel Dalyell and Major Campbell. The survivors of the leading companies closed up the gaps in their torn ranks and rushed forward. Small parties penetrated the defences, but repeated French volleys forced the British back towards the Nebel, sustaining heavy casualties. As the attack faltered, eight squadrons of elite Gens d'Armes, commanded by the veteran Swiss officer, Beat-Jacques von Zurlauben, fell upon the British troops, cutting at the exposed flank of Rowe's own regiment. Churchill and Coxe states only three squadrons of Gens d'Armes. Rowe’s own regiment lost their colours, but they were soon retrieved by the Hessians. However, Wilkes’ Hessian brigade, lying nearby in the marshy grass at the water's edge, stood firm and repulsed the Gens d'Armes with steady fire, enabling the British and Hessians to re-order and launch another attack. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 68 Although the Allies were again repulsed, these persistent attacks on Blenheim eventually bore fruit, panicking Clérambault into making the worst French error of the day. Chandler: A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe, p. 145 Without consulting Tallard, Clérambault ordered his reserve battalions into the village, upsetting the balance of the French position and nullifying the French numerical superiority. "The men were so crowded in upon one another", wrote Mérode-Westerloo, "that they couldn’t even fire – let alone receive or carry out any orders." Marlborough, spotting this error, now countermanded Cutts’ intention to launch a third attack, and ordered him simply to contain the enemy within Blenheim; no more than 5,000 Allied soldiers were able to pen in twice the number of French infantry and dragoons. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 70 Lutzingen … Prince Eugene and the Imperial troops had been repulsed three times – driven right back to the woods – and had taken a real drubbing. – Mérode-Westerloo. Spencer: Blenheim: Battle for Europe, p. 270 Memorial for the Battle of Blenheim 1704, Lutzingen, Germany. On the Allied right, Eugene's Prussian and Danish forces were desperately fighting the numerically superior forces of the Elector and Marsin. The Prince of Anhalt-Dessau led forward four brigades across the Nebel to assault the well-fortified position of Lutzingen. Here, the Nebel was less of an obstacle, but the great battery positioned on the edge of the village enjoyed a good field of fire across the open ground stretching to the hamlet of Schwennenbach. As soon as the infantry crossed the stream, they were struck by Maffei's infantry, and salvoes from the Bavarian guns positioned both in front of the village and in enfilade on the wood-line to the right. Despite heavy casualties the Prussians attempted to storm the great battery, whilst the Danes, under Count Scholten, attempted to drive the French infantry out of the copses beyond the village. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 71 With the infantry heavily engaged, Eugene's cavalry picked its way across the Nebel. After an initial success, his first line of cavalry, under the Imperial General of Horse, Prince Maximilian of Hanover, were pressed by the second line of Marsin's cavalry, and were forced back across the Nebel in confusion. Nevertheless, the exhausted French were unable to follow up their advantage, and the two cavalry forces tried to regroup and reorder their ranks. Tincey: Blenheim 1704: The Duke of Marlborough's Masterpiece, p. 67 However, without cavalry support, and threatened with envelopment, the Prussian and Danish infantry were in turn forced to pull back across the Nebel. Panic gripped some of Eugene’s troops as they crossed the stream. Ten infantry colours were lost to the Bavarians, and hundreds of prisoners taken; it was only through the leadership of Eugene and the Prussian Prince that the Imperialist infantry were prevented from abandoning the field. Spencer: Blenheim: Battle for Europe, p. 268 After rallying his troops near Schwennenbach – well beyond their starting point – Eugene prepared to launch a second attack, led by the second-line squadrons under the Duke of Württemberg-Teck. Yet again they were caught in the murderous cross-fire from the artillery in Lutzingen and Oberglau, and were once again thrown back in disarray. The French and Bavarians, however, were almost as disordered as their opponents, and they too were in need of inspiration from their commander, the Elector, who was seen – " … riding up and down, and inspiring his men with fresh courage." Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 73 Anhalt-Dessau’s Danish and Prussian infantry attacked a second time but could not sustain the advance without proper support. Once again they fell back across the stream. Centre and Oberglau … they began to pass [the marshes and the Nebel] as fast as the badness of the ground would permit them. – Churchill's chaplain. Spencer: Blenheim: Battle for Europe, p. 258 Marshal Tallard (1652–1728). He should not have allowed Clérambault to shut most of the infantry of the French right wing into Blenheim, leaving him short of infantry support when it most mattered. Whilst these events around Blenheim and Lutzingen were taking place, Marlborough was preparing to cross the Nebel. The centre, commanded by the Duke's brother, General Charles Churchill, consisted of 18 battalions of infantry arranged in two lines: seven battalions in the front line to secure a foothold across the Nebel, and 11 battalions in the rear providing cover from the Allied side of the stream. Between the infantry were placed two lines, 72 squadrons of cavalry. The first line of foot was to pass the stream first and march as far to the other side as could be conveniently done. This line would then form and cover the passage of the horse, leaving gaps in the line of infantry large enough for the cavalry to pass through and take their position in front. Marlborough ordered the formation forward. Once again Zurlauben's Gens d'Armes charged, looking to rout Lumley's British cavalry who linked Cutts' column facing Blenheim with Churchill's infantry. As these elite French cavalry attacked, they were faced by five British squadrons under Colonel Francis Palmes. To the consternation of the French, the Gens d'Armes were pushed back in terrible confusion, pursued well beyond the Maulweyer stream that flows through Blenheim. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 76. In his account after the battle, Tallard explains his defeat – "first, because the Gendarmerie were not able to break the five English squadrons." "What? Is it possible?" exclaimed the Elector, "the gentlemen of France fleeing?" Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 856 Palmes, however, attempted to follow up his success but was repulsed in some confusion by other French cavalry, and musketry fire from the edge of Blenheim. Nevertheless, Tallard was alarmed by the repulse of the elite Gens d'Armes and urgently rode across the field to ask Marsin for reinforcements; but on the basis of being hard pressed by Eugene – whose second attack was in full flood – Marsin refused. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 77 As Tallard consulted with Marsin, more of his infantry was being taken into Blenheim by Clérambault. Fatally, Tallard, aware of the situation, did nothing to rectify this grave mistake, leaving him with just the nine battalions of infantry near the Höchstädt road to oppose the massed enemy ranks in the centre. Zurlauben tried several more times to disrupt the Allies forming on Tallard's side of the stream; his front-line cavalry darting forward down the gentle slope towards the Nebel. But the attacks lacked co-ordination, and the Allied infantry's steady volleys disconcerted the French horsemen. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 78 During these skirmishes Zurlauben fell mortally wounded, and died two days later. The time was just after 15:00. Allied attack on Oberglau. The Danish cavalry, under the Duke of Württemberg-Öels (not to be confused with the Duke of Württemberg who fought with Eugene), had made slow work of crossing the Nebel near Oberglau; harassed by Marsin's infantry near the village, the Danes were driven back across the stream. Count Horn's Dutch infantry managed to push the French back from the water's edge, but it was apparent that before Marlborough could launch his main effort against Tallard, Oberglau would have to be secured. Count Horn directed the Prince of Holstein-Beck to take the village, but his two Dutch brigades were cut down by the French and Irish troops, capturing and mortally wounding the Prince during the action. Spencer: Blenheim: Battle for Europe, p. 264 The battle was now in the balance. If Holstein-Beck's Dutch column were destroyed, the Allied army would be split in two: Eugene's wing would be isolated from Marlborough's, passing the initiative to the Franco-Bavarian forces now engaged across the whole plain. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 80. Tallard later recorded – "At this moment I saw the hope of victory." Seeing the opportunity, Marsin ordered his cavalry to change from facing Eugene, and turn towards their right and the open flank of Churchill's infantry drawn up in front of Unterglau. Marlborough (who had crossed the Nebel on a makeshift bridge to take personal control), ordered Hulsen's Hanoverian battalions to support the Dutch infantry. A Dutch cavalry brigade under Averock was also called forward but soon came under pressure from Marsin's more numerous squadrons. Marlborough now requested Eugene to release Count Hendrick Fugger and his Imperial Cuirassier brigade to help repel the French cavalry thrust. Despite his own desperate struggle, the Imperial Prince at once complied, demonstrating the high degree of confidence and mutual co-operation between the two generals. Chandler: A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe, p. 161 Although the Nebel stream lay between Fugger's and Marsin's squadrons, the French were forced to change front to meet this new threat, thus forestalling the chance for Marsin to strike at Marlborough's infantry. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 81 Fugger's cuirassiers charged and, striking at a favourable angle, threw back Marsin's squadrons in disorder. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 858 With support from Colonel Blood's batteries, the Hessian, Hanoverian and Dutch infantry – now commanded by Count Berensdorf – succeeded in pushing the French and Irish infantry back into Oberglau so that they could not again threaten Churchill's flank as he moved against Tallard. The French commander in the village, the Marquis de Blainville, numbered amongst the heavy casualties. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 82 Breakthrough The [French] foot remained in the best order I ever saw, till they were cut to pieces almost in rank and file. – Lord Orkney. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 86 Breakthrough: Position of the battle at 17:30. By 16:00, with the enemy troops besieged in Blenheim and Oberglau, the Allied centre of 81 squadrons (nine squadrons had been transferred from Cutts' column), supported by 18 battalions was firmly planted amidst the French line of 64 squadrons and nine battalions of raw recruits. There was now a pause in the battle: Marlborough wanted to concert the attack upon the whole front, and Eugene, after his second repulse, needed time to reorganize. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 860 Just after 17:00 all was ready along the Allied front. Marlborough’s two lines of cavalry had now moved to the front of the Duke’s line of battle, with the two supporting lines of infantry behind them. Mérode-Westerloo attempted to extricate some French infantry crowded in Blenheim, but Clérambault ordered the troops back into the village. The French cavalry exerted themselves once more against the first line – Lumley's English and Scots on the Allied left, and Hompesch's Dutch and German squadrons on the Allied right. Tallard's squadrons, lacking infantry support, were tired and ragged but managed to push the Allied first line back to their infantry support. With the battle still not won, Marlborough had to rebuke one of his cavalry officers who was attempting to leave the field – "Sir, you are under a mistake, the enemy lies that way … " Now, at the Duke’s command, the second Allied line under von Bulow and the Count of Ost-Friese was ordered forward, and, driving through the centre, the Allies finally put Tallard's tired horse to rout. With their cavalry in headlong flight, the remaining nine French infantry battalions fought with desperate valour, trying to form square. But it was futile. The French battalions were overwhelmed by Colonel Blood’s close-range artillery and platoon fire. Mérode-Westerloo later wrote – "[They] died to a man where they stood, stationed right out in the open plain – supported by nobody." The majority of Tallard's retreating troops headed for Höchstädt but most did not make the safety of the town, plunging instead into the Danube where upwards of 3,000 French horsemen drowned; Churchill states up to 2,000 others were cut down by the pursuing cavalry. The Marquis de Gruignan attempted a counter-attack, but he was easily brushed aside by the triumphant Allies. After a final rally behind his camp's tents, shouting entreaties to stand and fight, Marshal Tallard was caught up in the rout and pushed towards Sonderheim. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 90 Surrounded by a squadron of Hessian troops, Tallard surrendered to Lieutenant-Colonel de Boinenburg, the Prince of Hesse-Kassel's aide-de-camp, and was sent under escort to Marlborough. Tincey: Blenheim 1704: The Duke of Marlborough's Masterpiece, p. 85 The Duke welcomed the French commander – "I am very sorry that such a cruel misfortune should have fallen upon a soldier for whom I have the highest regard." With salutes and courtesies, the Marshal was escorted to Marlborough’s coach. Fall of Blenheim … our men fought in and through the fire … until many on both sides were burned to death. – Private Deane, 1st Regiment Foot Guards. Spencer: Blenheim: Battle for Europe, p. 294 Pursuit Meanwhile the Allies had once again attacked the Bavarian stronghold at Lutzingen. Eugene, however, became exasperated with the performance of his Imperial cavalry whose third attack had failed: he had already shot two of his troopers to prevent a general flight. Then, declaring in disgust that he wished to "fight among brave men and not among cowards", Eugene went into the attack with the Prussian and Danish infantry, as did the Dessauer, waving a regimental colour to inspire his troops. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 86 This time the Prussians were able to storm the great Bavarian battery, and overwhelm the guns' crews. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 91 Beyond the village, Scholten’s Danes defeated the French infantry in a desperate hand-to-hand bayonet struggle. Danish infantry suffered 2,401 casualties fighting for possession of the woods beyond Lutzingen (Falkner) When they saw that the centre had broken, the Elector and Marsin decided the battle was lost and, like the remnants of Tallard's army, fled the battlefield (albeit in better order than Tallard's men). Attempts to organise an Allied force to prevent Marsin’s withdrawal failed owing to the exhaustion of the cavalry, and the growing confusion in the field. Marlborough now had to turn his attention from the fleeing enemy to direct Churchill to detach more infantry to storm Blenheim. Orkney's infantry, Hamilton's British brigade and St Paul's Hanoverians moved across the trampled wheat to the cottages. Fierce hand-to-hand fighting gradually forced the French towards the village centre, in and around the walled churchyard which had been prepared for defence. Hay and Ross's dismounted dragoons were also sent, but suffered under a counter-charge delivered by the regiments of Artois and Provence under command of Colonel de la Silvière. Colonel Belville's Hanoverians were fed into the battle to steady the resolve of the dragoons, and once more went to the attack. The Allied progress was slow and hard, and like the defenders, they suffered many casualties. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 95 Diorama of the battle in the Höchstädt museum. In the middle ground the Allied cavalry are breaking through, pushing Tallard's squadrons from the battlefield. The foreground depicts the fierce fighting in and around Blenheim. Many of the cottages were now burning, obscuring the field of fire and driving the defenders out of their positions. Hearing the din of battle in Blenheim, Tallard sent a message to Marlborough offering to order the garrison to withdraw from the field. "Inform Monsieur Tallard," replied the Duke, "that, in the position in which he is now, he has no command." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 865 Nevertheless, as dusk came the Allied commander was anxious for a quick conclusion. The French infantry fought tenaciously to hold on to their position in Blenheim, but their commander was nowhere to be found. Clérambault’s insistence on confining his huge force in the village was to seal his fate that day. Spencer: Blenheim: Battle for Europe, p. 291 Realising his tactical mistake had contributed to Tallard's defeat in the centre, Clérambault deserted Blenheim and the 27 battalions defending the village, and reportedly drowned in the Danube whilst making his escape. By now Blenheim was under assault from every side by three British generals: Cutts, Churchill, and Orkney. The French had repulsed every attack with heavy slaughter, but many had seen what had happened on the plain and what its consequences to them would be; their army was routed and they were cut off. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, p. 867 Orkney, attacking from the rear, now tried a different tactic – "… it came into my head to beat parley," he later wrote, "which they accepted of and immediately their Brigadier de Nouville capitulated with me to be prisoner at discretion and lay down their arms." Threatened by Allied guns, other units followed their example. However, it was not until 21:00 that the Marquis de Blanzac, who had taken charge in Clérambault's absence, reluctantly accepted the inevitability of defeat, and some 10,000 of France's best infantry had laid down their arms. Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 98 During these events Marlborough was still in the saddle conducting the pursuit of the broken enemy. Pausing for a moment he scribbled a note on the back of an old tavern bill addressed to his wife, Sarah: "I have no time to say more but to beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has had a glorious victory." Barnett: Marlborough, p. 121. The message was carried to London by Colonel Daniel Parke. Aftermath French losses were immense: over 30,000 killed, wounded and missing. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 122 Moreover, the myth of French invincibility had been destroyed and Louis’s hopes of an early and victorious peace had been wrenched from his grasp. Mérode-Westerloo summarised the case against Tallard's army: "The French lost this battle for a wide variety of reasons. For one thing they had too good an opinion of their own ability … Another point was their faulty field dispositions, and in addition there was rampant indiscipline and inexperience displayed … It took all these faults to lose so celebrated a battle." Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 149 It was a hard-fought contest, leading Prince Eugene to observe – "I have not a squadron or battalion which did not charge four times at least." Falkner: Blenheim 1704, p. 103 Nevertheless, the Battle of Blenheim was probably the most decisive victory of the war; Marlborough and Eugene, working indivisibly together, had saved the Habsburg Empire and thereby preserved the Grand Alliance from collapse. McKay: Prince Eugene of Savoy, p. 88 Munich, Augsburg, Ingolstadt, Ulm and all remaining territory of Bavaria soon fell to the Allies. By the Treaty of Ilbersheim, signed 7 November 1704, Bavaria was placed under Austrian military rule, allowing the Habsburgs to utilise its resources for the rest of the conflict. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 293 The remnants of the Elector of Bavaria's and Marshal Marsin's wing limped back to Strasbourg, losing another 7,000 men through desertion. Despite being offered the chance to remain as ruler of Bavaria (under strict terms of an alliance with Austria), the Elector left his country and family in order to continue the war against the Allies from the Spanish Netherlands where he still held the post of governor-general. Their commander-in-chief that day, Marshal Tallard – who, unlike his subordinates, had not been ransomed or exchanged – was taken to England and imprisoned in Nottingham until his release in 1711. Tincey: Blenheim 1704: The Duke of Marlborough's Masterpiece, p. 88 The 1704 campaign lasted considerably longer than usual as the Allies sought to wring out maximum advantage. Realising that France was too powerful to be forced to make peace by a single victory, however, Eugene, Marlborough and Baden met to plan their next moves. For the following year the Duke proposed a campaign along the valley of the River Moselle to carry the war deep into France. This required the capture of the major fortress of Landau which guarded the Rhine, and the towns of Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle itself. Trier was taken on 26 October and Landau fell on 23 November to the Margrave of Baden and Prince Eugene; with the fall of Trarbach on 20 December, the campaign season for 1704 came to an end. Marlborough returned to England on 14 December (O.S) to the acclamation of Queen Anne and the country. In the first days of January the 110 cavalry standards and the 128 infantry colours that were taken during the battle were borne in procession to Westminster Hall. Churchill states 171 standards and 129 colours. But there was still more to come. In February 1705, Queen Anne, who had made Marlborough a Duke in 1702, granted him the Park of Woodstock and promised a sum of £240,000 to build a suitable house as a gift from a grateful crown in recognition of his victory – a victory which British historian Sir Edward Creasy considered one of the pivotal battles in history, writing – "Had it not been for Blenheim, all Europe might at this day suffer under the effect of French conquests resembling those of Alexander in extent and those of the Romans in durability." Edward Shepherd Creasy, The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, 1851 To this day, Blenheim Palace is the only British residence denominated a "palace" which does not belong to royalty. It is still the seat of the Duke of Marlborough. Cultural references Joseph Addison's poem The Campaign Robert Southey's anti-war poem After Blenheim 216. After Blenheim. R. Southey. The Golden Treasury External Links Battle of Blenheim animated battle map by Jonathan Webb See also Blenheim order of battle Bristol Blenheim HMS Blenheim Notes References Barnett, Correlli. Marlborough. Wordsworth Editions Limited (1999). ISBN 1-84022-200-X Chandler, David G. A Guide to the Battlefields of Europe. Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1998. ISBN 1-85326-694-9 Chandler, David G. Marlborough as Military Commander. Spellmount Ltd (2003). ISBN 1-86227-195-X Churchill, Winston. Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, vol. ii. University of Chicago Press, (2002). ISBN 0-226-10633-0 Coxe, William. Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough: vol.i. London, (1847) Falkner, James. Blenheim 1704: Marlborough's Greatest Victory. Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 2004. ISBN 1-84415-050-X Henderson, Nicholas: Prince Eugen of Savoy. Weidenfield & Nicolson (1966). ISBN 1-84212-597-4 Holmes, Richard (2008). Marlborough: England's Fragile Genius. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-722571-2 Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. Longman (1999). ISBN 0-582-05629-2 McKay, Derek. Prince Eugene of Savoy. Thames and Hudson Ltd., (1977). ISBN 0-50087-007-1 Spencer, Charles. Blenheim: Battle for Europe. Phoenix (2005). ISBN 0-304-36704-4 Tincey, John. Blenheim 1704: The Duke of Marlborough's Masterpiece. Osprey Publishing Ltd, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-771-9 Weighley, Russell. The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo. Indiana University Press. 1991. ISBN 0-7126-5856-4

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Ballad_of_the_Green_Berets

"Ballad of the Green Berets" is a patriotic song in the ballad style about the Green Berets, an elite special force in the U.S. Army. It is one of the very few songs of the 1960s to cast the military in a positive light and yet it became a major hit, reaching number one on the Billboard Charts for five weeks in 1966. It was also a multi-market smash, reaching #1 on Billboard's Easy Listening chart, and #2 on Billboard's Country survey. The song was written by Robin Moore and Staff Sgt. Barry Sadler, while the latter was recuperating from a leg wound suffered as a medic in the Vietnam War. Moore also wrote a non-fiction book, The Green Berets, about the force. Popularity The recording of the song was the number one hit in the United States for five weeks in 1966 and was the number twenty-one song of 1960s, despite the later unpopularity of the Vietnam War. Refer to United States Army Special Forces in popular culture It has sold over nine million singles and albums. It was the top single of a year in which the British Invasion, led by the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, dominated the U.S. charts. It is currently used as one of the four primary marching tunes of the Fightin' Texas Aggie Band. In film The song is heard in a choral rendition by Ken Darby in the 1968 John Wayne film The Green Berets, which was based on Moore's book. The score of the movie was never released as an album until Film Score Monthly released it in 2005. A film tie-in featuring artwork from the film and a cover version by Ennio Morricone was released in Europe, though the other tracks on the album were soundtracks from A Fistful of Dollars and For a Few Dollars More. The song appears in the films More American Graffiti and Canadian Bacon. It can be heard in the gun show scene from the 2002 film Showtime, and in the film Jesus' Son, in a scene that features a hitch-hiking Jack Black. Covers and derivatives There are many cover versions of the song including in different languages rewritten to reference local units, these include The Royal Netherlands Army's Korps Commandotroepen (KCT) use the original lyrics. The only difference is that in the chorus, instead of singing "These are men, America's best", they sing "These are men, The Netherlands' best". Also in the final chorus, referring to the son of a deceased Green Beret, they sing "Make him one of The Netherlands' best". This version of the original ballad is sung to recruits who have successfully completed the harsh Basic Commando Training (ECO), and who receive their Green Beret. Rhodesian singer-songwriter John Edmond recorded the "Ballad of the Green Berets" with reference to the soldiers of the Rhodesian Light Infantry (RLI), commando-style fireforce units of Rhodesian Security Forces who wore berets of green color. Also, in South Africa, the "Ballad of the Green Berets" was recorded as the "Ballad of the Maroon Berets". The Maroon beret is a symbol of the South African Special Forces Brigade and the South African 44 Parachute Regiment. The Swedish version "Balladen om den blå baskern" is a salute to the Swedish soldiers serving in the United Nations' peace-keeping forces (the Blue Berets). The Croatian Bojna za specijalna djelovanja (BSD) use the lyrics, but instead of "These are men, America's best" they sing "These are men, Croatia's best" and in the final chorus, referring to the son of a killed Green Beret, they also sing "Make him one of Croatia's best". It is unclear when exactly is the song first sung by new recruits, but it is assumed to be sometime after completing training. A German version (Hundert Mann und ein Befehl), sung by Freddy Quinn and later again by Heidi Bruhl had considerable success in Germany. The German version is a song against the war. It rejects any sacrifice, not only for the son, but not even for the father. Freddy Quinn sings the song from the point of view of the reluctant but forced soldier, Heidi Bruhl from the point of view of the crying girlfriend of the soldier. Parodies In 1966, The Beach Bums, an ad hoc group featuring a young Bob Seger, recorded "The Ballad of the Yellow Beret". The song was a clear send-up of "The Ballad of the Green Berets", chronicling the adventures of a draft dodger. The record was withdrawn after a cease and desist letter from Sadler. The Residents parodied the song on their Third Reich & Roll album. Another parody was used on Saturday Night Live in 1986, "Ollie North, The Mute Marine" as a satire of Oliver North and his refusal at that point to speak up about his participation in the Iran-Contra Affair. The parody may seem odd to contemporary viewers, since North's outspoken defense of the operation in 1987 is now far better remembered. The song is used to humorous effect in Michael Moore's film Canadian Bacon as ill-informed Americans prepare for an invasion by Canada. In the movie Wag the Dog, the fictitious unit 303 Special Forces has a song created titled 'The Men of the 303' that is played to the same tune. In the film Caddyshack, Carl Spackler, played by Bill Murray, mumbles the song under his breath while he is connecting the wires to the plunger as he prepares for his final battle with his gopher nemesis. "New Super Yellow Hydraulic Banana Teeny Bopper Blue" by Jamie Brockett parodies both the song and the social acceptance of it at the time. Not a parody, but in an episode of Cheers, Cliff aborts his plans to emigrate to Canada with his love interest when Sam, Woody, and Frasier appeal to his patriotic side by singing this song. External links Track listings of the album "Ballads of The Green Berets" by SSgt. Barry Sadler

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