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Neil_Kinnock

Neil Gordon Kinnock, Baron Kinnock PC (born 28 March 1942) is a Welsh politician. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1970 to 1995, and was Leader of the Opposition and Labour Party leader from 1983 to 1992, when he resigned after being defeated in the 1992 general election. He served as a UK Commissioner of the European Commission from 1995 until 2004 and is now Chairman of the British Council and President of Cardiff University. Early life Kinnock, an only child, was born in Tredegar, Wales. His father was a coal miner who suffered from dermatitis and had to find work as a labourer; and his mother was a district nurse. In 1953, Kinnock went to the Lewis School, Pengam from where he won a place to University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, obtaining a degree (his second attempt) in industrial relations and history in 1965. A year later, Kinnock obtained a postgraduate diploma in education. Between August 1966 and May 1970, he worked as a tutor for a Workers' Educational Association (WEA). Member of Parliament In June 1969 he won the Labour Party nomination for the constituency of Bedwellty in Wales (later Islwyn). He was elected on 18 June 1970 and became a member of the National Executive Committee of the Labour Party in October 1978. On becoming an MP for the first time, his father said "Remember Neil, MP stands not just for Member of Parliament, but also for Man of Principle". Labour government policy at the time was in favour of devolution for Wales, but the wider party was split. Calling himself a 'unionist', Kinnock was one of six south Wales Labour MPs to campaign against devolution on centralist, essentially British-nationalist grounds. He dismissed the idea of a Welsh identity, saying that "between the mid-sixteenth century and the mid-eighteenth century Wales had practically no history at all, and even before that it was the history of rural brigands who have been ennobled by being called princes". In the Wales referendum, 1979, the proposal for devolution was rejected. Following Labour's defeat in the 1979 General Election, James Callaghan appointed Neil Kinnock to the Shadow Cabinet as Education spokesman. His ambition was noted by other MPs, and David Owen's opposition to the changes to the electoral college was thought to be motivated by the realisation that they would favour Kinnock's succession. He was known as a left-winger, and gained notoriety for his attacks on Margaret Thatcher's handling of the Falklands War. Leadership of the Labour Party First period (1983-1987) His first period as party leader - between the 1983 and 1987 elections - was dominated by his struggle with the hard left. Although Kinnock had come from the "Tribune" left of the party, he parted company with many of his previous allies after his appointment to the shadow cabinet. In 1981, Kinnock was alleged to have effectively scuppered Tony Benn's attempt to replace Denis Healey as Labour's deputy leader by first supporting the candidacy of the more traditionalist Tribunite John Silkin and then urging Silkin supporters to abstain on the second, run-off, ballot. All this meant that Kinnock had made plenty of enemies on the left by the time he was elected as leader, though a substantial number of former Bennites gave him strong backing. He was almost immediately in serious difficulty as a result of Arthur Scargill's decision to lead his union, the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) into a national strike (in opposition to pit closures) without a members' ballot. The NUM was widely regarded as the Labour movement's praetorian guard and the strike convulsed the Labour movement. Kinnock supported the aim of the strike - which he famously dubbed the "case for coal" - but, as an MP from a mining area, was bitterly critical of the tactics employed. In 1985, he made his criticisms public in a speech to Labour's conference widely regarded as the best he ever delivered, stating: The strike's defeat and the rise of the Militant tendency meant that 1985's Labour conference in Bournemouth should have been a disaster for Kinnock (as 1984's - in the middle of the strike - had been). Instead, by sheer force of personal will, Kinnock turned it into a triumph with a powerful attack on the Militant-dominated Liverpool City Council and the direct confrontation with Scargill referred to above. The passage of his speech referring to Militant and Liverpool is one of the most famous of any post-war British politician's: In 1986, the party's position appeared to strengthen further with excellent election results and a thorough rebranding of the party under the direction of Kinnock's director of communications Peter Mandelson. Labour, now sporting a continental social democratic style emblem of a rose, appeared to be able to run the governing Conservatives close, but Margaret Thatcher did not let Labour's makeover go unchallenged. The Conservatives' 1986 conference was well-managed, and effectively relaunched the Conservatives as a party of radical free-market liberalism. Labour suffered from a persistent image of extremism, especially as Kinnock's campaign to root out the Militants dragged on as figures on the hard left of the party tried to stop its progress. Opinion polls showed that voters favoured retaining Britain's nuclear weapons and believed that the Conservatives would be better than Labour at defending the country. Anthony King (ed.), British Political Opinion, 1937-2000: The Gallup Polls (Politico's, 2001), pp. 105-7. 1987 general election In early 1987, Labour lost a by-election in Greenwich to the Social Democratic Party's Rosie Barnes. As a result, Labour faced the 1987 election in some danger of coming third in the popular vote. In secret, Labour's aim became to secure second place with a good 35% of the vote - effectively cutting into the Tory majority but not yet in government. Labour fought a professional campaign that at one point scared the Tories into thinking they might lose. Mandelson and his team had revolutionised Labour's communications - a transformation symbolised by a party election broadcast popularly known as "Kinnock: The Movie". This was directed by Hugh Hudson and featured Kinnock's 1985 conference speech, and shots of him and Glenys walking on the Great Orme in Llandudno (so emphasising his appeal as a family man and associating him with images of Wales away from the coalmining communities where he grew up), and a speech to that year's Welsh Labour Party conference asking why he was the "first Kinnock in a thousand generations" to go to university. Former Delaware Senator, presidential candidate and future Vice President of the United States Joe Biden was so impressed with Kinnock's speech that he borrowed lines from it in his own campaign speeches in the summer of 1987. Biden sometimes attributed his words to Kinnock, but notably did not in a speech at a Democratic debate in Iowa in August 1987, a mistake that led to Biden's withdrawal from the race a month later. On polling day, Labour easily took second place, but with only 31 per cent to the SDP-Liberal Alliance's 22 per cent. Labour was still more than ten percentage points behind the Conservatives, who retained a three-figure majority in the House of Commons. However, the Conservative government's majority had come down from 144 in 1983 to 102. Labour won extra seats in Scotland, Wales and Northern England, but lost ground particularly in Southern England and London. Nevertheless, the party still made a net gain in seats. Second period (1987-1992) The second period of Kinnock's leadership was dominated by his drive to reform the party's policies and so win power. This began with an exercise dubbed the policy review, the most high-profile aspect of which was a series of consultations with the public known as "Labour Listens" in autumn 1987. In organisational terms, the party leadership continued to battle with the Militant Tendency, though by now Militant was in retreat in the party and was simultaneously attracted by the opportunities to grow outside Labour's ranks - opportunities largely created by Margaret Thatcher's hugely unpopular poll tax. After Labour Listens, the party went on, in 1988, to produce a new statement of aims and values - meant to supplement and supplant the formulation of Clause IV of the party's constitution (though, crucially, this was not actually replaced until 1995 under the leadership of Tony Blair) and was closely modelled on Anthony Crosland's social-democratic thinking - emphasising equality rather than public ownership. In 1988, Kinnock was challenged by Tony Benn for the party leadership. Later many identified this as a particularly low period in Kinnock's leadership - as he appeared mired in internal battles after five years of leadership and the Conservatives still dominating the scene. In the end, though, Kinnock won a decisive victory over Benn. The policy review - reporting in 1989 - saw Labour move ahead in the polls just as the poll tax row was destroying Conservative support, and Labour won big victories in local by-elections. Kinnock was also perceived as scoring in debates over Margaret Thatcher in the Commons - previously an area in which he was seen as weak - and finally Conservative MPs voted to remove Thatcher as their leader, after disagreements with her on Europe and the poll tax, installing John Major. Public reaction to Major's elevation was highly positive. A new Prime Minister and the fact that Kinnock became the longest-serving current leader of a major party reduced the impact of calls for "Time for a Change". 1992 general election, backbenches and retirement In the 1992 election, Labour made considerable progress - reducing the Conservative majority to just 21 seats. It came as a shock to many when the Conservatives remained in power, but the perceived triumphalism of a Labour party rally in Sheffield (together with Kinnock's performance on the podium) may have helped put voters off. (Although most of those directly involved in the campaign believe that the rally only really came to widespread attention following the election itself). On the day of the general election, The Sun ran a famous front page featuring Kinnock (headline: "If Kinnock wins today will the last person to leave Britain please turn out the lights") that he blamed in his resignation speech for losing Labour the election. Kinnock himself later claimed to have half-expected the loss and proceeded to turn himself into a media personality, even hosting a chat show on BBC Wales and twice appearing - with considerable success - on the topical panel show Have I Got News For You within a year of the defeat. Many years later, he returned to appear as a guest host of the programme. He remains on the Advisory Council of the Institute for Public Policy Research, which he helped set up in the 1980s. European Union Commissioner Kinnock was appointed one of Britain's two members of the European Commission, which he served first as Transport Commissioner under President Jacques Santer. He was obliged to resign as part of the forced, collective resignation of the Commission in 1999, but there was never the slightest suggestion that he himself had done anything corrupt. He was re-appointed to the Commission under new President Romano Prodi. He now became one of the Vice-Presidents of the European Commission. His term of office as a Commissioner was due to expire on 30 October 2004, but was delayed owing to the withdrawal of the new Commissioners. During this second term of office on the Commission, he was responsible for introducing new staff regulations for EU officials, a significant feature of which was substantial salary cuts for everyone employed after 1 May 2004, reduced pension prospects for many others, and gradually worsening employment conditions. This made him disliked by many EU staff members, although the pressure on budgets that largely drove these changes had actually been imposed on the Commission from above by the Member States in Council. In February 2004 it was announced that with effect from 1 November 2004 Kinnock would become head of the British Council. At the same time his son Stephen Kinnock was to become head of the British Council branch in St. Petersburg, Russia. At the end of October, it was announced that he would become a member of the House of Lords (intending to be a working peer), when he was able to leave his EU responsibilities. In 1977, he had remained in the House of Commons, with Dennis Skinner, while other MPs walked to the Lords to hear the Queen's speech opening the new parliament. He had dismissed going to the Lords in recent interviews. Kinnock explained his change of attitude, despite the continuing presence of 90 hereditary peers and appointment by patronage, by asserting that the Lords was a good base for campaigning. Life peerage He was introduced to the House of Lords on 31 January 2005, after being created Baron Kinnock, of Bedwellty in the County of Gwent. On assuming his seat he stated, "I accepted the kind invitation to enter the House of Lords as a working peer for practical political reasons." When his peerage was first announced, he said, "It will give me the opportunity... to contribute to the national debate on issues like higher education, research, Europe and foreign policy." His peerage meant that the Labour and Conservative parties were equal in numbers in the upper house of Parliament (since then, the number of Labour members has overtaken the number of Conservative members). Kinnock was a long-time critic of the House of Lords, and his acceptance of a peerage led him to be accused of hypocrisy, by Will Self Notably when Kinnock appeared, as the guest presenter, in an episode of Have I Got News For You, on Friday 3 December 2004 , among others. BBC Article on his Introduction to the House Biden incident Kinnock gained attention in the United States in 1987 when it was discovered that Delaware Senator Joe Biden had quoted one of Kinnock's speeches while forgetting to credit him during his 1988 presidential campaign. This led to Biden's withdrawing from the race. On 18 January 2009 Glenys Kinnock revealed on the BBC's Andrew Marr show that she and Neil Kinnock had received a personal invitation from Joe Biden to attend Barack Obama's presidential inauguration on 20 January 2009 at the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.. Personal life He is married to Glenys Kinnock, Labour Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for Wales from 1999 to the present, and MEP for South Wales East from 1994 to 1999. The two met while studying at University College, Cardiff and they married on 25 March 1967. Previously living together in Peterston-Super-Ely, a village near the western outskirts of Cardiff, in 2008 they moved to Tufnell Park, London, to be closer to their daughter and grandchildren Camden New Journal, 10 January 2008, p.10. They have two children, Stephen and Rachel. Stephen is married to Helle Thorning-Schmidt, who is the leader of the Danish Social Democrats political party. He is assistant director of the British Council, which is chaired by his father, in Sierra Leone. Rachel works in the Political Office at 10 Downing Street under Gordon Brown. In 1984 Neil Kinnock appeared in the video for the Tracey Ullman song "My Guy" as a someone with a clipboard canvassing on a council estate. The record reached #24 in the charts. Before university, Kinnock attended Lewis School, Pengam, which he later criticised for its record on corporal punishment (caning). On 26 April 2006, Neil Kinnock was given a six-month driving ban after being found guilty of two speeding offences along the M4 motorway, west of London. Kinnock is an agnostic. Satire Nicknamed "the Welsh Windbag" by Private Eye magazine, an image repeated on Spitting Image, and "Kinocchio" by the Conservatives, he had the task of leading the Labour Party during a protracted period out of government. Private Eye also ran a comic strip "Dan Dire: Pilot of the future?". This was based on the comic character Dan Dare, and one in which the hapless space pilot's aventures were based on the political misfortunes of Kinnock. Styles and Titles Mr Neil Kinnock (1942–1970) Mr Neil Kinnock MP (1970–1983) The Rt. Hon. Neil Kinnock MP (1983–1995) The Rt. Hon. Neil Kinnock (1995–2005) The Rt. Hon. Lord Kinnock PC (2005–) Further reading Martin Westlake and Ian St. John, Kinnock, Little Brown Book Group Limited, 2001. ISBN 0-316-84871-9. Peter Kellner, essay on Neil Kinnock in G. Rosen (ed.), Dictionary of Labour Biography, Politicos Publishing, 2001. ISBN 1902301188 Michael Leapman, Kinnock, Unwin Hyman, 1987. George Drower, Neil Kinnock: The Path to Leadership, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1984. Greg Rosen, Old Labour to New, Politicos Publishing, 2005 (an account of the Labour Party before, during and after the Kinnock years). ISBN 1842750453 Patrick Wintour and Colin Hughes, Labour Rebuilt, Fourth Estate, 1990 (an account of Kinnock's modernisation of the Labour Party). References http://www.spectator.co.uk/the-magazine/features/26842/reid-should-not-stand-in-browns-way.thtml Announcement of his introduction at the House of Lords House of Lords minutes of proceedings, 31 January 2005 Offices held

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Alfred_Nobel

(Stockholm, Sweden, 21 October 1833 – Sanremo, Italy, 10 December 1896) was a Swedish chemist, engineer, innovator, armaments manufacturer and the inventor of dynamite. He owned Bofors, a major armaments manufacturer, which he had redirected from its previous role as an iron and steel mill. In his last will, he used his enormous fortune to institute the Nobel Prizes. The synthetic element nobelium was named after him. Personal background Nobel was the third son of Immanuel Nobel (1801-1872) and Andriette Ahlsell Nobel (1805-1889). Born in Stockholm on 21 October 1833, he went with his family in 1842 to Saint Petersburg, where his father (who had invented modern plywood) started a "torpedo" works. Alfred studied chemistry with Professor Nikolay Nikolaevich Zinin. When Alfred was 18, he went to the United States to study chemistry for four years and worked for a short period under John Ericsson. Carlisle, Rodney (2004). Scientific American Invetions and Discoveries, p.256. John Wiley & Songs, Inc., New Jersey. ISBN 0471244104. In 1859, the factory was left to the care of the second son, Ludvig Nobel (1831-1888), who greatly enlarged it. Alfred, returning to Sweden with his father after the bankruptcy of their family business, devoted himself to the study of explosives, and especially to the safe manufacture and use of nitroglycerine (discovered in 1847 by Ascanio Sobrero, one of his fellow students under Théophile-Jules Pelouze at the University of Torino). A big explosion occurred on 3 September 1864 at their factory in Heleneborg in Stockholm, killing five people, among them Alfred's younger brother Emil. The foundations of the Nobel Prize were laid in 1895 when Alfred Nobel wrote his last will, leaving much of his wealth for its establishment. Since 1901, the prize has honored men and women for outstanding achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, and for work in peace. Though Nobel remained unmarried, his biographers note that he had at least three loves. Nobel's first love was in Russia with a girl named Alexandra, who rejected his proposal. In 1876 Bertha Kinsky became Alfred Nobel's secretary but after only a brief stay left him to marry her old flame, Baron Arthur Gundaccar von Suttner. Though her personal contact with Alfred Nobel had been brief, she corresponded with him until his death in 1896, and it is believed that she was a major influence in his decision to include a peace prize among those prizes provided in his will. Bertha von Suttner was awarded the 1905 Nobel Peace prize, 'for her sincere peace activities'. Nobel's third and long-lasting love was with a flower girl named Sofie Hess from Vienna. This liaison lasted for 18 years and in many of the exchanged letters, Nobel addressed his love as 'Madame Sofie Nobel'. After his death, according to his biographers - Evlanoff and Flour, and Fant - Nobel's letters were locked within the Nobel Institute in Stockholm and became the best-kept secret of the time. They were released only in 1955, to be included with the biographical data of Nobel. Sri Kantha has suggested that ' the one personal trait of Nobel that helped him to sharpen his creativity include his talent for information access, via his multi-lingual skills. Despite the lack of formal secondary and tertiary level education, Nobel gained proficiency in six languages: Swedish, French, Russian, English, German and Italian. He also developed literary skills to write poetry in English.' His Nemesis, a prose tragedy in four acts about Beatrice Cenci, partly inspired by Percy Bysshe Shelley's The Cenci, was printed while he was dying. The entire stock except for three copies was destroyed immediately after his death, being regarded as scandalous and blasphemous. The first surviving edition (bilingual Swedish-Esperanto) was published in Sweden in 2003. The play has been translated to Slovenian via the Esperanto version. Nobel was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1884, the same institution that would later select laureates for two of the Nobel prizes, and he received an honorary doctorate from Uppsala University in 1893. Alfred Nobel is buried in Norra begravningsplatsen in Stockholm. Dynamite and Gelignite Nobel found that when nitroglycerin was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like kieselguhr (diatomaceous earth) it became safer and more convenient to handle, and this mixture he patented in 1867 as 'dynamite'. Nobel demonstrated his explosive for the first time that year, at a quarry in Redhill, Surrey, England. Nobel later on combined nitroglycerin with another explosive, gun-cotton, and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a more powerful explosive than dynamite. 'Gelignite', or blasting gelatin, as it was named, was patented in 1876; and was followed by a host of similar combinations, modified by the addition of potassium nitrate and various other substances. The Prizes Alfred Nobel's death mask, at his residence Björkborn in Karlskoga, Sweden. A monument to Alfred Bernhard Nobel in Wagga Wagga, Australia The erroneous publication in 1888 of a premature obituary of Nobel by a French newspaper, condemning him for his invention of dynamite, is said to have brought about his decision to leave a better legacy after his death. The History Channel, Modern Marvels, episode 038 (originally aired 21 June 1999) The obituary stated Le marchand de la mort est mort ("The merchant of death is dead") and went on to say, "Dr. Alfred Nobel, who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before, died yesterday." Golden, F.: "The worst and the brightest", TIME magazine, 16 October 2000. On 27 November 1895, at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris, Nobel signed his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his estate to establish the Nobel Prizes, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality. He died of a stroke on 10 December 1896 at Sanremo, Italy. He left 31 million kronor to fund the prizes which, allowing for inflation, would be hundreds of millions of US dollars today. The first three of these prizes are awarded for eminence in physical science, chemistry and medical science or physiology; the fourth is for literary work "in an ideal direction" and the fifth is to be given to the person or society that renders the greatest service to the cause of international fraternity, in the suppression or reduction of standing armies, or in the establishment or furtherance of peace congresses. There is no prize awarded for mathematics. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize#Lack_of_a_Nobel_Prize_in_Mathematics http://www.snopes.com/science/nobel.asp The Formulation about the literary prize, "in an ideal direction" (i idealisk riktning in Swedish), is cryptic and has caused much confusion. For many years, the Swedish Academy interpreted "ideal" as "idealistic" (idealistisk) and used it as a reason not to give the prize to important but less romantic authors, such as Henrik Ibsen and Leo Tolstoy. This interpretation has since been revised, and the prize has been awarded to, for example, Dario Fo and José Saramago, who definitely do not belong to the camp of literary idealism. There was also quite a lot of room for interpretation by the bodies he had named for deciding on the physical sciences and chemistry prizes, given that he had not consulted them before making the will. In his one-page testament, he stipulated that the money go to discoveries or inventions in the physical sciences and to discoveries or improvements in chemistry. He had opened the door to technological awards, but had not left instructions on how to deal with the distinction between science and technology. Since the deciding bodies he had chosen were more concerned with the former, it is not surprising that the prizes went to scientists and not to engineers, technicians or other inventors. In a sense, the technological prizes announced recently by the World Technology Network (not funded by the Nobel foundation) indirectly fill this gap. In 2001, his great-grandnephew, Peter, asked the Bank of Sweden to differentiate its award to economists given "in Alfred Nobel's memory" from the five other awards. This has caused much controversy whether the prize for Economics is actually a "Nobel Prize" (see Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel). See also Nobel, Ontario Notes References Nobel, Alfred Bernhard in 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Schück, H, and Sohlman, R., (1929). The Life of Alfred Nobel. London: William Heineman Ltd. Alfred Nobel US Patent No 78,317, dated 26 May 1868 Evlanoff, M. and Fluor, M. Alfred Nobel - The Loneliest Millionaire. Los Angeles, Ward Ritchie Press, 1969. Sohlman, R. The Legacy of Alfred Nobel, transl. Schubert E. London: The Bodley Head, 1983 (Swedish original, Ett Testamente, published in 1950). Fant, K. Alfred Nobel - A Biography, transl. Ruuth M. New York: Arcade Publishing, 1993. Jorpes, J.E. Alfred Nobel. British Medical Journal, Jan.3, 1959, 1(5113): 1-6. Sri Kantha, S. Alfred Nobel's unusual creativity; an analysis. Medical Hypotheses, April 1999; 53(4): 338-344. Sri Kantha, S. Could nitroglycerine poisoning be the cause of Alfred Nobel's anginal pains and premature death? Medical Hypotheses, 1997; 49: 303-306. External links Alfred Nobel - Man behind the Prizes Biography at the Norwegian Nobel Institute Nobelprize.org "The Nobels in Baku" in Azerbaijan International, Vol 10.2 (Summer 2002), 56-59. The Nobel Prize in Postage Stamps A German branch or followup (German) be-x-old:Альфрэд Нобэль

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Mercury_(planet)

Mercury (pronounced ) is the innermost and smallest planet in the Solar System, Pluto was once considered the smallest, but, as of 2008, it is classified as a dwarf planet. orbiting the Sun once every 88 days. The orbit of Mercury has the highest eccentricity of all the Solar System planets, and it has the smallest axial tilt. It completes three rotations about the axis for every two orbits. The perihelion of Mercury's orbit precesses around the Sun at an excess of 43 arcseconds per century; a phenomenon that was explained in the 20th century by Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. Mercury is bright when viewed from Earth, ranging from −2.0 to 5.5 in apparent magnitude, but is not easily seen as its greatest angular separation from the Sun is only 28.3°. Since Mercury is normally lost in the glare of the Sun, unless there is a solar eclipse, Mercury can only be viewed in morning or evening twilight. Comparatively little is known about Mercury; ground-based telescopes reveal only an illuminated crescent with limited detail. The first of two spacecraft to visit the planet was Mariner 10, which mapped only about 45% of the planet’s surface from 1974 to 1975. The second is the MESSENGER spacecraft, which mapped another 30% during its flyby of January 14, 2008. MESSENGER will make one more pass by Mercury in 2009, followed by orbital insertion in 2011, and will then survey and map the entire planet. Mercury is similar in appearance to the Moon: it is heavily cratered with regions of smooth plains, has no natural satellites and no substantial atmosphere. However, unlike the moon, it has a large iron core, which generates a magnetic field about 1% as strong as that of the Earth. It is an exceptionally dense planet due to the large relative size of its core. Surface temperatures range from about 90 to (−183 °C to 427 °C, −297 °F to 801 °F), with the subsolar point being the hottest and the bottoms of craters near the poles being the coldest. Recorded observations of Mercury date back to at least the first millennium BC. Before the 4th century BC, Greek astronomers believed the planet to be two separate objects: one visible only at sunrise, which they called Apollo; the other visible only at sunset, which they called Hermes. The English name for the planet comes from the Romans, who named it after the Roman god Mercury, which they equated with the Greek Hermes. The astronomical symbol for Mercury is a stylized version of Hermes' caduceus. Internal structure Mercury is one of four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, and is a rocky body like the Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with an equatorial radius of 2,439.7 km. Mercury is even smaller—albeit more massive—than the largest natural satellites in the Solar System, Ganymede and Titan. Mercury consists of approximately 70% metallic and 30% silicate material. Mercury's density is the second highest in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm³, only slightly less than Earth’s density of 5.515 g/cm³. If the effect of gravitational compression were to be factored out, the materials of which Mercury is made would be denser, with an uncompressed density of 5.3 g/cm³ versus Earth’s 4.4 g/cm³. Mercury’s density can be used to infer details of its inner structure. While the Earth’s high density results appreciably from gravitational compression, particularly at the core, Mercury is much smaller and its inner regions are not nearly as strongly compressed. Therefore, for it to have such a high density, its core must be large and rich in iron. Geologists estimate that Mercury’s core occupies about 42% of its volume; for Earth this proportion is 17%. Recent research strongly suggests Mercury has a molten core. Surrounding the core is a 500–700 km mantle consisting of silicates. Gallant, R. 1986. The National Geographic Picture Atlas of Our Universe. National Geographic Society, 2nd edition. Based on data from the Mariner 10 mission and Earth-based observation, Mercury’s crust is believed to be 100–300 km thick. One distinctive feature of Mercury’s surface is the presence of numerous narrow ridges, and these can extend up to several hundred kilometers. It is believed that these were formed as Mercury’s core and mantle cooled and contracted at a time when the crust had already solidified. Mercury's core has a higher iron content than that of any other major planet in the Solar System, and several theories have been proposed to explain this. The most widely accepted theory is that Mercury originally had a metal-silicate ratio similar to common chondrite meteors, thought to be typical of the Solar System's rocky matter, and a mass approximately 2.25 times its current mass. However, early in the solar system’s history, Mercury may have been struck by a planetesimal of approximately 1/6 that mass and several hundred kilometers across. The impact would have stripped away much of the original crust and mantle, leaving the core behind as a relatively major component. A similar process has been proposed to explain the formation of Earth’s Moon (see giant impact theory). Alternatively, Mercury may have formed from the solar nebula before the Sun's energy output had stabilized. The planet would initially have had twice its present mass, but as the protosun contracted, temperatures near Mercury could have been between 2,500 and 3,500 K (Celsius equivalents about 273 degrees less), and possibly even as high as 10,000 K. Much of Mercury’s surface rock could have been vaporized at such temperatures, forming an atmosphere of "rock vapor" which could have been carried away by the solar wind. A third hypothesis proposes that the solar nebula caused drag on the particles from which Mercury was accreting, which meant that lighter particles were lost from the accreting material. Each of these hypotheses predicts a different surface composition, and two upcoming space missions, MESSENGER and BepiColombo, both aim to make observations to test them. Surface geology Mercury’s surface is overall very similar in appearance to that of the Moon, showing extensive mare-like plains and heavy cratering, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years. Since our knowledge of Mercury's geology has been based on the 1975 Mariner flyby and terrestrial observations, it is the least understood of the terrestrial planets. As data from the recent MESSENGER flyby is processed this knowledge will increase. For example, an unusual crater with radiating troughs has been discovered which scientists are calling "the spider." Albedo features refer to areas of markedly different reflectivity, as seen by telescopic observation. Mercury possesses Dorsa (also called "wrinkle-ridges"), Moon-like highlands, Montes (mountains), Planitiae, or plains, Rupes (escarpments), and Valles (valleys). Mercury was heavily bombarded by comets and asteroids during and shortly following its formation 4.6 billion years ago, as well as during a possibly separate subsequent episode called the late heavy bombardment that came to an end 3.8 billion years ago. During this period of intense crater formation, the planet received impacts over its entire surface, facilitated by the lack of any atmosphere to slow impactors down. During this time the planet was volcanically active; basins such as the Caloris Basin were filled by magma from within the planet, which produced smooth plains similar to the maria found on the Moon. Data from the October 2008 flyby of MESSENGER gave researchers a greater appreciation for the jumbled nature of Mercury's surface. Mercury's surface is more heterogeneous than either Mars or earth's Moon, both of which contain significant stretches of similar geology, such as maria and plateaus. Jefferson Morris, "Laser Altimetry", Aviation Week & Space Technology Vol 169 No 18, 10 Nov. 2008, p. 18: "Mercury's crust is more analogous to a marbled cake than a layered cake." Impact basins and craters Craters on Mercury range in diameter from small bowl-shaped cavities to multi-ringed impact basins hundreds of kilometers across. They appear in all states of degradation, from relatively fresh rayed craters to highly degraded crater remnants. Mercurian craters differ subtly from lunar craters in that the area blanketed by their ejecta is much smaller, a consequence of Mercury's stronger surface gravity. The largest known craters are , with a diameter of 1,550 km, and the Skinakas Basin with an outer-ring diameter of 2,300 km. The impact that created the Caloris Basin was so powerful that it caused lava eruptions and left a concentric ring over 2 km tall surrounding the impact crater. At the antipode of the Caloris Basin is a large region of unusual, hilly terrain known as the "Weird Terrain". One hypothesis for its origin is that shock waves generated during the Caloris impact traveled around the planet, converging at the basin’s antipode (180 degrees away). The resulting high stresses fractured the surface. Alternatively, it has been suggested that this terrain formed as a result of the convergence of ejecta at this basin’s antipode. Overall, about 15 impact basins have been identified on the imaged part of Mercury. A notable basin is the 400 km wide, multi-ring, Tolstoj Basin which has an ejecta blanket extending up to 500 km from its rim and its floor has been filled by smooth plains materials. Beethoven Basin has a similar-sized ejecta blanket and a 625 km diameter rim. Like the Moon, the surface of Mercury has likely incurred the effects of space weathering processes, including Solar wind and micrometeorite impacts. Plains There are two geologically distinct plains regions on Mercury. Gently rolling, hilly plains in the regions between craters are Mercury's oldest visible surfaces, predating the heavily cratered terrain. These inter-crater plains appear to have obliterated many earlier craters, and show a general paucity of smaller craters below about 30 km in diameter. It is not clear whether they are of volcanic or impact origin. The inter-crater plains are distributed roughly uniformly over the entire surface of the planet. Smooth plains are widespread flat areas which fill depressions of various sizes and bear a strong resemblance to the lunar maria. Notably, they fill a wide ring surrounding the Caloris Basin. Unlike lunar maria, the smooth plains of Mercury have the same albedo as the older inter-crater plains. Despite a lack of unequivocally volcanic characteristics, the localisation and rounded, lobate shape of these plains strongly support volcanic origins. All the Mercurian smooth plains formed significantly later than the Caloris basin, as evidenced by appreciably smaller crater densities than on the Caloris ejecta blanket. The floor of the Caloris Basin is filled by a geologically distinct flat plain, broken up by ridges and fractures in a roughly polygonal pattern. It is not clear whether they are volcanic lavas induced by the impact, or a large sheet of impact melt. One unusual feature of the planet’s surface is the numerous compression folds, or rupes, which crisscross the plains. As the planet’s interior cooled, it may have contracted and its surface began to deform, creating these features. The folds can be seen on top of other features, such as craters and smoother plains, indicating that the folds are more recent. Mercury’s surface is flexed by significant tidal bulges raised by the Sun—the Sun’s tides on Mercury are about 17 times stronger than the Moon’s on Earth. Surface conditions and "atmosphere" (exosphere) The mean surface temperature of Mercury is 442.5 K, but it ranges from 100 K to 700 K, due to the absence of an atmosphere. On the dark side of the planet, temperatures average 110 K. The intensity of sunlight on Mercury’s surface ranges between 4.59 and 10.61 times the solar constant (1,370Wm−2). Despite the generally extremely high temperature of its surface, observations strongly suggest that ice exists on Mercury. The floors of deep craters at the poles are never exposed to direct sunlight, and temperatures there remain below 102 K; far lower than the global average. Water ice strongly reflects radar, and observations by the 70m Goldstone telescope and the VLA in the early 1990s revealed that there are patches of very high radar reflection near the poles. While ice is not the only possible cause of these reflective regions, astronomers believe it is the most likely. The icy regions are believed to contain about 1014–1015 kg of ice, and may be covered by a layer of regolith that inhibits sublimation. By comparison, the Antarctic ice sheet on Earth has a mass of about 4 kg, and Mars' south polar cap contains about 1016 kg of water. The origin of the ice on Mercury is not yet known, but the two most likely sources are from outgassing of water from the planet’s interior or deposition by impacts of comets. Mercury is too small for its gravity to retain any significant atmosphere over long periods of time; however, it does have a "tenuous surface-bounded exosphere" containing hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium and potassium. This exosphere is not stable—atoms are continuously lost and replenished from a variety of sources. Hydrogen and helium atoms probably come from the solar wind, diffusing into Mercury’s magnetosphere before later escaping back into space. Radioactive decay of elements within Mercury’s crust is another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium. MESSENGER found high proportions of calcium, helium, hydroxide, magnesium, oxygen, potassium, silicon and sodium. Water vapor is present, being released by a combination of processes such as: comets striking its surface, sputtering creating water out of hydrogen from the solar wind and oxygen from rock, and sublimation from reservoirs of water ice in the permanently shadowed polar craters. The detection of high amounts of water-related ions like O+, OH-, and H2O+ was a surprise. Because of the quantities of these ions that were detected in Mercury's space environment, scientists surmise that these molecules were blasted from the surface or exosphere by the solar wind. Sodium and potassium were discovered in the atmosphere during the 1980s, and are believed to result primarily from the vaporization of surface rock struck by micrometeorite impacts. Due to the ability of these materials to diffuse sunlight, Earth-based observers can readily detect their composition in the atmosphere. Studies indicate that, at times, sodium emissions are localized at points that correspond to the planet's magnetic dipoles. This would indicate an interaction between the magnetosphere and the planet's surface. Magnetic field and magnetosphere Despite its small size and slow 59-day-long rotation, Mercury has a significant, and apparently global, magnetic field. According to measurements taken by Mariner 10, it is about 1.1% as strong as the Earth’s. The magnetic field strength at the Mercurian equator is about 300 nT. Like that of Earth, Mercury's magnetic field is dipolar in nature. Unlike Earth, however, Mercury's poles are nearly aligned with the planet's spin axis. Measurements from both the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER space probes have indicated that the strength and shape of the magnetic field are stable. It is likely that this magnetic field is generated by way of a dynamo effect, in a manner similar to the magnetic field of Earth. This dynamo effect would result from the circulation of the planet's iron-rich liquid core. Particularly strong tidal effects caused by the planet's high orbital eccentricity would serve to keep the core in the liquid state necessary for this dynamo effect. Mercury’s magnetic field is strong enough to deflect the solar wind around the planet, creating a magnetosphere. The planet's magnetosphere, though small enough to fit within the Earth, is strong enough to trap solar wind plasma. This contributes to the space weathering of the planet's surface. Observations taken by the Mariner 10 spacecraft detected this low energy plasma in the magnetosphere of the planet's nightside. Bursts of energetic particles were detected in the planet's magnetotail, which indicates a dynamic quality to the planet's magnetosphere. Orbit and rotation Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets; its eccentricity is 0.21 with its distance from the Sun ranging from 46 to 70 million kilometers. It takes 88 days to complete an orbit. The diagram on the left illustrates the effects of the eccentricity, showing Mercury’s orbit overlaid with a circular orbit having the same semi-major axis. The higher velocity of the planet when it is near perihelion is clear from the greater distance it covers in each 5-day interval. The size of the spheres, inversely proportional to their distance from the Sun, is used to illustrate the varying heliocentric distance. This varying distance to the Sun, combined with a 3:2 spin-orbit resonance of the planet’s rotation around its axis, result in complex variations of the surface temperature. Mercury’s orbit is inclined by 7° to the plane of Earth’s orbit (the ecliptic), as shown in the diagram on the right. As a result, transits of Mercury across the face of the Sun can only occur when the planet is crossing the plane of the ecliptic at the time it lies between the Earth and the Sun. This occurs about every seven years on average. Mercury’s axial tilt is almost zero, with the best measured value as low as 0.027°. This is significantly smaller than that of Jupiter, which boasts the second smallest axial tilt of all planets at 3.1 degrees. This means that to an observer at Mercury’s poles the center of the Sun never rises more than 2.1′ above the horizon. At certain points on Mercury’s surface, an observer would be able to see the Sun rise about halfway, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day. This is because approximately four days prior to perihelion, Mercury’s angular orbital velocity exactly equals its angular rotational velocity so that the Sun’s apparent motion ceases; at perihelion, Mercury’s angular orbital velocity then exceeds the angular rotational velocity. Thus, the Sun appears to move in a retrograde direction. Four days after perihelion, the Sun’s normal apparent motion resumes at these points. Spin–orbit resonance For many years it was thought that Mercury was synchronously tidally locked with the Sun, rotating once for each orbit and keeping the same face directed towards the Sun at all times, in the same way that the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth. However, radar observations in 1965 proved that the planet has a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance, rotating three times for every two revolutions around the Sun; the eccentricity of Mercury’s orbit makes this resonance stable—at perihelion, when the solar tide is strongest, the Sun is nearly still in Mercury’s sky. The original reason astronomers thought it was synchronously locked was that whenever Mercury was best placed for observation, it was always nearly at the same point in its 3:2 resonance, hence showing the same face. This is because, coincidentally, Mercury's rotation period is almost exactly half of its synodic period with respect to Earth. Due to Mercury’s 3:2 spin–orbit resonance, a solar day (the length between two meridian transits of the Sun) lasts about 176 Earth days. A sidereal day (the period of rotation) lasts about 58.7 Earth days. Simulations indicate that the orbital eccentricity of Mercury varies chaotically from nearly zero (circular) to more than 0.45 over millions of years due to perturbations from the other planets. This is thought to explain Mercury’s 3:2 spin-orbit resonance (rather than the more usual 1:1), since this state is more likely to arise during a period of high eccentricity. Advance of perihelion During the 19th century, the French mathematician Le Verrier noticed that the slow precession of Mercury’s orbit around the Sun could not be completely explained by Newtonian mechanics and perturbations by the known planets. He proposed that another planet might exist in an orbit even closer to the Sun to account for this perturbation. (Other explanations considered included a slight oblateness of the Sun.) The success of the search for Neptune based on its perturbations of the orbit of Uranus led astronomers to place great faith in this explanation, and the hypothetical planet was even named Vulcan. However, no such planet was ever found. The precession of Mercury is 5600 arc seconds per century. Newtonian mechanics, taking into account all the effects from the other planets, predicts a precession of 5557 seconds of arc per century. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity provided the explanation for the observed precession. The effect is very small: the Mercurian relativistic perihelion advance excess is just 42.98 arcseconds per century, therefore it requires a little over twelve million orbits for a full excess turn. Similar, but much smaller effects, operate for other planets, being 8.62 arcseconds per century for Venus, 3.84 for Earth, 1.35 for Mars, and 10.05 for 1566 Icarus. Observation Mercury’s apparent magnitude varies between about −2.0—brighter than Sirius—and 5.5. Observation of Mercury is complicated by its proximity to the Sun, as it is lost in the Sun’s glare for much of the time. Mercury can be observed for only a brief period during either morning or evening twilight. The Hubble Space Telescope cannot observe Mercury at all, due to safety procedures which prevent its pointing too close to the Sun. Like the Moon, Mercury exhibits phases as seen from Earth, being "new" at inferior conjunction and "full" at superior conjunction. The planet is rendered invisible on both of these occasions by virtue of its rising and setting in concert with the Sun in each case. The first and last quarter phases occur at greatest elongation east and west, respectively, when Mercury's separation from the Sun ranges anywhere from 17.9° at perihelion to 27.8° at aphelion. (look at 1964 and 2013) —Numbers generated using the Solar System Dynamics Group, Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System. At greatest elongation west, Mercury rises at its earliest before the Sun, and at greatest elongation east, it sets at its latest after the Sun. Mercury attains inferior conjunction every 116 days on average, but this interval can range from 105 days to 129 days due to the planet’s eccentric orbit. Mercury can come as close as 77.3 million km to the Earth. In 871, the nearest approach was the first in about 41,000 years to be closer than 82.2 Gm, something that has happened 68 times since then, as of 2008. After much longer gaps, the next approach to within 82.1 Gm is in 2679, and to 82 Gm in 4487. But it will not be closer to Earth than 80 Gm until 28,622. Mercury Closest Approaches to Earth generated with:1. Solex 10 (Text Output file)2. Gravity Simulator charts3. JPL Horizons 1950-2200 In its period of retrograde motion as seen from Earth can vary from 8 to 15 days on either side of inferior conjunction. This large range arises from the planet’s high orbital eccentricity. Mercury is more often easily visible from Earth’s Southern Hemisphere than from its Northern Hemisphere; this is because its maximum possible elongations west of the Sun always occur when it is early autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, while its maximum possible eastern elongations happen during late winter in the Southern Hemisphere. In both of these cases, the angle Mercury strikes with the ecliptic is maximized, allowing it to rise several hours before the Sun in the former instance and not set until several hours after sundown in the latter in countries located at southern temperate zone latitudes, such as Argentina and New Zealand. By contrast, at northern temperate latitudes, Mercury is never above the horizon of a more-or-less fully dark night sky. Mercury can, like several other planets and the brightest stars, be seen during a total solar eclipse. Mercury is brightest as seen from Earth when it is at a gibbous phase, between either quarter phase and full. Although the planet is further away from Earth when it is gibbous than when it is a crescent, the greater illuminated area visible more than compensates for the greater distance. The opposite is true for Venus, which appears brightest when it is a thin crescent, because it is much closer to Earth than when gibbous. Studies of Mercury Ancient astronomers The earliest known recorded observations of Mercury are from the MUL.APIN tablets. These observations were most likely made by an Assyrian astronomer around the 14th century BC. The cuneiform name used to designate Mercury on the MUL.APIN tablets is transcribed as UDU.IDIM.GU4.UD ("the jumping planet"). Babylonian records of Mercury date back to the 1st millennium BC. The Babylonians called the planet Nabu after the messenger to the Gods in their mythology. The ancient Greeks of Hesiod's time knew the planet as Στίλβων (Stilbon), meaning "the gleaming", and Ἑρμάων (Hermaon). Later Greeks called the planet Apollo when it was visible in the morning sky and Hermes when visible in the evening. Around the 4th century BC, however, Greek astronomers came to understand that the two names referred to the same body. The Romans named the planet after the swift-footed Roman messenger god, Mercury (Latin Mercurius), which they equated with the Greek Hermes, because it moves across the sky faster than any other planet. In ancient China, Mercury was known as Ch'en-Hsing, the Hour Star. It was associated with the direction north and the phase of water in the Wu Xing. Hindu mythology used the name Budha for Mercury, and this god was thought to preside over Wednesday. The god Odin (or Woden) of Germanic paganism was associated with the planet Mercury and the name Wednesday was derived from Woden's day. The Maya may have represented Mercury as an owl (or possibly four owls; two for the morning aspect and two for the evening) that served as a messenger to the underworld. Ground-based telescopic research The first telescopic observations of Mercury were made by Galileo in the early 17th century. Although he observed phases when he looked at Venus, his telescope was not powerful enough to see the phases of Mercury. In 1631 Pierre Gassendi made the first observations of the transit of a planet across the Sun when he saw a transit of Mercury predicted by Johannes Kepler. In 1639 Giovanni Zupi used a telescope to discover that the planet had orbital phases similar to Venus and the Moon. The observation demonstrated conclusively that Mercury orbited around the Sun. A very rare event in astronomy is the passage of one planet in front of another (occultation), as seen from Earth. Mercury and Venus occult each other every few centuries, and the event of May 28 1737 is the only one historically observed, having been seen by John Bevis at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. The next occultation of Mercury by Venus will be on December 3, 2133. The difficulties inherent in observing Mercury mean that it has been far less studied than the other planets. In 1800 Johann Schröter made observations of surface features, claiming to have observed 20 km high mountains. Friedrich Bessel used Schröter's drawings to erroneously estimate the rotation period as 24 hours and an axial tilt of 70°. In the 1880s Giovanni Schiaparelli mapped the planet more accurately, and suggested that Mercury’s rotational period was 88 days, the same as its orbital period due to tidal locking. This phenomenon is known as synchronous rotation and is shown by Earth’s Moon. The effort to map the surface of Mercury was continued by Eugenios Antoniadi, who published a book in 1934 that included both maps and his own observations. Many of the planet's surface features, particularly the albedo features, take their names from Antoniadi's map. In June 1962 Soviet scientists at the Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the USSR Academy of Sciences lead by Vladimir Kotelnikov became first to bounce radar signal off Mercury and receive it, starting radar observations of the planet. Three years later radar observations by Americans Gordon Pettengill and R. Dyce using 300-meter Arecibo Observatory radio telescope in Puerto Rico showed conclusively that the planet’s rotational period was about 59 days. Mercury at Eric Weisstein's 'World of Astronomy' The theory that Mercury’s rotation was synchronous became widely held, and it was a surprise to astronomers when these radio observations were announced. If Mercury were tidally locked, its dark face would be extremely cold, but measurements of radio emission revealed that it was much hotter than expected. Astronomers were reluctant to drop the synchronous rotation theory and proposed alternative mechanisms such as powerful heat-distributing winds to explain the observations. Italian astronomer Giuseppe Colombo noted that the rotation value was about two-thirds of Mercury’s orbital period, and proposed that a different form of tidal locking had occurred in which the planet’s orbital and rotational periods were locked into a 3:2 rather than a 1:1 resonance. Data from Mariner 10 subsequently confirmed this view. This means that Schiaparelli's and Antoniadi's maps were not "wrong". Instead, the astronomers saw the same features during every second orbit and recorded them, but disregarded those seen in the meantime, when Mercury's other face was toward the Sun, since the orbital geometry meant that these observations were made under poor viewing conditions. Ground-based observations did not shed much further light on the innermost planet, and it was not until the first space probe flew past Mercury that many of its most fundamental properties became known. However, recent technological advances have led to improved ground-based observations. In 2000, high-resolution lucky imaging observations were conducted by the Mount Wilson Observatory 1.5 meter . They provided the first views that resolved surface features on the parts of Mercury which were not imaged in the Mariner mission. Later imaging has shown evidence of a huge double-ringed impact basin even larger than the Caloris Basin in the non-Mariner-imaged hemisphere. It has informally been dubbed the Skinakas Basin. Most of the planet has been mapped by the Arecibo radar telescope, with 5 km resolution, including polar deposits in shadowed craters of what may be water ice. Research with space probes Reaching Mercury from Earth poses significant technical challenges, since the planet orbits so much closer to the Sun than does the Earth. A Mercury-bound spacecraft launched from Earth must travel over 91 million kilometers into the Sun’s gravitational potential well. Mercury has an orbital speed of 48 km/s, while Earth’s orbital speed is 30 km/s. Thus the spacecraft must make a large change in velocity (delta-v) to enter into a Hohmann transfer orbit that passes near Mercury, as compared compared to the delta-v required for other planetary missions. The potential energy liberated by moving down the Sun’s potential well becomes kinetic energy; requiring another large delta-v change to do anything other than rapidly pass by Mercury. In order to land safely or enter a stable orbit the spacecraft would rely entirely on rocket motors. Aerobraking is ruled out because the planet has very little atmosphere. A trip to Mercury actually requires more rocket fuel than that required to escape the solar system completely. As a result, only two space probes have visited the planet so far. A proposed alternative approach would use a solar sail to attain a Mercury-synchronous orbit around the Sun. Mariner 10 The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA’s Mariner 10 (1974–75). The spacecraft used the gravity of Venus to adjust its orbital velocity so that it could approach Mercury, making it both the first spacecraft to use this gravitational “slingshot” effect and the first NASA mission to visit multiple planets. Mariner 10 provided the first close-up images of Mercury’s surface, which immediately showed its heavily cratered nature, and revealed many other types of geological features, such as the giant scarps which were later ascribed to the effect of the planet shrinking slightly as its iron core cools. Unfortunately, due to the length of Mariner 10's orbital period, the same face of the planet was lit at each of Mariner 10’s close approaches. This made observation of both sides of the planet impossible, and resulted in the mapping of less than 45% of the planet’s surface. On March 27, 1974, two days before its first flyby of Mercury, Mariner 10's instruments began registering large amounts of unexpected ultraviolet radiation in the vicinity of Mercury. This led to the tentative identification of Mercury's moon. Shortly afterward, the source of the excess UV was identified as the star 31 Crateris, and Mercury's moon passed into astronomy's history books as a footnote. The spacecraft made three close approaches to Mercury, the closest of which took it to within 327 km of the surface. At the first close approach, instruments detected a magnetic field, to the great surprise of planetary geologists—Mercury’s rotation was expected to be much too slow to generate a significant dynamo effect. The second close approach was primarily used for imaging, but at the third approach, extensive magnetic data were obtained. The data revealed that the planet’s magnetic field is much like the Earth’s, which deflects the solar wind around the planet. However, the origin of Mercury’s magnetic field is still the subject of several competing theories. Just a few days after its final close approach, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel. Since its orbit could no longer be accurately controlled, mission controllers instructed the probe to shut itself down on March 24, 1975. Mariner 10 is thought to be still orbiting the Sun, passing close to Mercury every few months. MESSENGER A second NASA mission to Mercury, named MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging), was launched on August 3 2004, from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station aboard a Boeing Delta 2 rocket. It made a fly-by of the Earth in August 2005, and of Venus in October 2006 and June 2007 in order to place it onto the correct trajectory to reach an orbit around Mercury. A first fly-by of Mercury occurred on January 14, 2008, and a second on October 6. A third is scheduled for September 29, 2009. Most of the hemisphere not imaged by Mariner 10 has been or will be mapped during these fly-bys. The probe will then enter an elliptical orbit around the planet in March 2011; the nominal mapping mission is one terrestrial year. The mission is designed to shed light on six key issues: Mercury’s high density, its geological history, the nature of its magnetic field, the structure of its core, whether it really has ice at its poles, and where its tenuous atmosphere comes from. To this end, the probe is carrying imaging devices which will gather much higher resolution images of much more of the planet than Mariner 10, assorted spectrometers to determine abundances of elements in the crust, and magnetometers and devices to measure velocities of charged particles. Detailed measurements of tiny changes in the probe’s velocity as it orbits will be used to infer details of the planet’s interior structure. BepiColombo The European Space Agency is planning a joint mission with Japan called BepiColombo, which will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere . A Russian Soyuz rocket will launch the bus carrying the two probes in 2013 from ESA's Guiana Space Center to take advantage of its equatorial location. As with MESSENGER, the BepiColombo bus will make close approaches to other planets en route to Mercury for orbit-changing gravitational assists, passing the Moon and Venus and making several approaches to Mercury before entering orbit. A combination of chemical and ion engines will be used, the latter thrusting continuously for long intervals. The spacecraft bus will reach Mercury in 2019. The bus will release the magnetometer probe into an elliptical orbit, then chemical rockets will fire to deposit the mapper probe into a circular orbit. Both probes will operate for a terrestrial year. The mapper probe will carry an array of spectrometers similar to those on MESSENGER, and will study the planet at many different wavelengths including infrared, ultraviolet, X-ray and gamma ray. Apart from intensively studying the planet itself, mission planners hope to use the probe's proximity to the Sun to test the predictions of General Relativity theory with improved accuracy. The mission is named after Giuseppe (Bepi) Colombo, the scientist who first determined the nature of Mercury’s spin-orbit resonance and who was involved in the planning of Mariner 10’s gravity-assisted trajectory to the planet in 1974. Notes 1/30 of a degree is the fractional equivalent to 2.1 arcminutes. Some sources precede the cuniform transcription with "MUL". "MUL" is a cuneiform sign that was used in the Sumerian language to designate a star or planet, but it is not considered part of the actual name. The "4" is a reference number in the Sumero-Akkadian transliteration system to designate which of several syllables a certain cuneiform sign is most likely designating. References External links Mercury — About Space Atlas of Mercury — NASA Nine Planets Information NASA’s Mercury fact sheet Mercury Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration ‘BepiColombo’, ESA’s Mercury Mission Merkur(dt.) ‘Messenger’, NASA’s Mercury Mission SolarViews.com — Mercury Planets — Mercury A kid’s guide to Mercury. Mercury World Book Online Reference Center Astronomy Cast: Mercury Geody Mercury World’s search engine that supports NASA World Wind, Celestia, and other applications. A Day On Mercury flash animation Mercury articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries be-x-old:Мэркурый (плянэта)

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Expressive_aphasia

Expressive aphasia, known as Broca's aphasia in clinical neuropsychology and agrammatic aphasia in cognitive neuropsychology, is an aphasia caused by damage to or developmental issues in anterior regions of the brain, including (but not limited to) the left inferior frontal region known as Broca's area (Brodmann area 44 and Brodmann area 45). Presentation Sufferers of this form of aphasia exhibit the common problem of agrammatism. For them, speech is difficult to initiate, non-fluent, labored, and halting. Similarly, writing is difficult as well. Intonation and stress patterns are deficient. Language is reduced to disjointed words and sentence construction is poor, omitting function words and inflections (bound morphemes). A person with expressive aphasia might say "Son ... University ... Smart ... Boy ... Good ... Good ... " For example, in the following passage, a Broca's aphasic patient is trying to explain how he came to the hospital for dental surgery: Yes... ah... Monday... er... Dad and Peter H... (his own name), and Dad.... er... hospital... and ah... Wednesday... Wednesday, nine o'clock... and oh... Thursday... ten o'clock, ah doctors... two... an' doctors... and er... teeth... yah. In extreme cases, patients may be only able to produce a single word. The most famous case of this was Paul Broca's patient Leborgne, nicknamed "Tan", after the only syllable he could say. Even in such cases, over-learned and rote-learned speech patterns may be retained —for instance, some patients can count from one to ten, but cannot produce the same numbers in ordinary conversation. While word comprehension is generally preserved, meaning interpretation dependent on syntax and phrase structure is substantially impaired. This can be demonstrated by using phrases with unusual structures. A typical Broca's aphasic patient will misinterpret "the dog is bitten by the man" by switching the subject and object. Patients who recover go on to say that they knew what they wanted to say but could not express themselves. Residual deficits will often be seen. Classification and diagnosis Expressive aphasia is also a classification of non-fluent aphasia, as opposed to fluent aphasia. Diagnosis is done on a case by case basis, as lesions often affect surrounding cortex and deficits are not well conserved between patients. Famous Sufferers Ram Dass Bob Woodruff See also Broca's area aphasia Dysnomia Anomia Compare with receptive aphasia (Wernicke's aphasia). References External links Aphasia Center of California in Oakland, CA, U.S.

Expressive_aphasia |@lemmatized expressive:3 aphasia:13 know:3 broca:6 clinical:1 neuropsychology:2 agrammatic:1 cognitive:1 cause:1 damage:1 developmental:1 issue:1 anterior:1 region:2 brain:1 include:1 limited:1 left:1 inferior:1 frontal:1 area:4 brodmann:2 presentation:1 sufferer:2 form:1 exhibit:1 common:1 problem:1 agrammatism:1 speech:2 difficult:2 initiate:1 non:2 fluent:3 labor:1 halt:1 similarly:1 write:1 well:2 intonation:1 stress:1 pattern:2 deficient:1 language:1 reduce:1 disjoint:1 word:4 sentence:1 construction:1 poor:1 omit:1 function:1 inflection:1 bound:1 morphemes:1 person:1 might:1 say:4 son:1 university:1 smart:1 boy:1 good:2 example:1 following:1 passage:1 aphasic:2 patient:7 try:1 explain:1 come:1 hospital:2 dental:1 surgery:1 yes:1 ah:3 monday:1 er:3 dad:2 peter:1 h:1 name:1 wednesday:2 nine:1 clock:2 oh:1 thursday:1 ten:2 doctor:2 two:1 teeth:1 yah:1 extreme:1 case:5 may:2 able:1 produce:2 single:1 famous:2 paul:1 leborgne:1 nickname:1 tan:1 syllable:1 could:2 even:1 learn:2 rote:1 retain:1 instance:1 count:1 one:1 cannot:1 number:1 ordinary:1 conversation:1 comprehension:1 generally:1 preserve:1 mean:1 interpretation:1 dependent:1 syntax:1 phrase:2 structure:2 substantially:1 impaired:1 demonstrate:1 use:1 unusual:1 typical:1 misinterpret:1 dog:1 bite:1 man:1 switch:1 subject:1 object:1 recover:1 go:1 want:1 express:1 residual:1 deficit:2 often:2 see:2 classification:2 diagnosis:2 also:2 oppose:1 basis:1 lesion:1 affect:1 surround:1 cortex:1 conserve:1 ram:1 das:1 bob:1 woodruff:1 dysnomia:1 anomia:1 compare:1 receptive:1 wernicke:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 center:1 california:1 oakland:1 ca:1 u:1 |@bigram expressive_aphasia:3 broca_aphasia:1 dental_surgery:1 fluent_aphasia:2 wernicke_aphasia:1 external_link:1

Draw_poker

Draw poker is any poker variant in which each player is dealt a complete hand before the first betting round, and then develops the hand for later rounds by replacing, or "drawing", cards. The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general game play of poker, and with hand values (both high and low variations). They also make no assumptions about what betting structure is used. In home games, it is typical to use an ante, and betting always begins with the player to the dealer's left. In casino play, it is more common to use blinds; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left, thus draw games are very positional. Some sample deals below will assume that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples, Bob, who is sitting to her left, Carol to his left, and David to Carol's left. Standard five-card draw This is often the first poker variant learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now quite rare in casino and tournament play. Two to eight players can play. Other draw games Gardena jackpots ("Jacks to open" or simply "Jackpots") Played as above, with standard hand values, and with a single joker in the deck acting as a bug. It is always played with an ante and no blinds. On the first betting round, no player is allowed to open the betting unless his hand already contains a pair of jacks or a better hand. Other players who checked on the first round may subsequently call or raise if someone else opens. If no player opens, a new deal begins and everyone antes again into the same pot. The player who opened the betting keeps his discarded cards near him on the table so that he can prove, if necessary, that he had a sufficient opening hand. For example, a player with the K, J, 9, and 7 of clubs and the J of hearts has a pair of jacks and may open. He may wish to "break openers" in this case by discarding the jack of hearts in an attempt to make the club flush, so he keeps the discarded jack to prove that he was entitled to open The game is named after the city of Gardena, California, where this game was especially popular from the 1930s to 1970s (though it was always secondary to lowball). At that time, there were more public poker tables in that small city than in all the rest of the United States. Public poker rooms are still a big industry there, though Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and other locations now have many more poker rooms than they did at that time. Because "Jacks to open" was the primary form of high-hand draw poker played there, traditional draw poker was often described by the retronym "Guts to open". In home games, it is common that when a deal is "passed out" (that is, when no one opens), the players re-ante, and the qualifier to open is raised to a pair of queens. If that deal is passed out, the qualifier is raised to kings, and finally to aces. This is called "progressive" jackpots. California lowball This was the primary poker game played in California during the heyday of Gardena in the 1970s. It is still played today, though its popularity has somewhat lessened since the introduction of stud poker and community card poker to the state. Played as above, using ace-to-five low hand values, with a single joker in the deck. Always played with blinds rather than antes, so players may not check on the first betting round (but may on the second round). A player with a 7-high hand or better who checks after the draw forfeits his right to win any money placed in the pot after the draw. (In other words, you may not check a "seven" unless you intend to fold when someone else bets). Another common rule in low-limit games is that a player who checks on the second betting round may not subsequently raise on that round. This latter rule is never used in games with a pot limit or no limit betting structure. Badugi Sometimes spelled as Padooki or Badougi, Badugi is a four card ace-to-five low lowball variant where traditional poker hand rankings are changed. A Badugi is a four card hand where all the cards are of different ranks and suits. Any cards which match another card in rank or suit does not play and the first criteria for evaluating hands is the number of cards which are playing. The following is the ranking of several example of hands from best to worst: Ace of spades, 2 of clubs, 3 of hearts, 4 of diamonds: 4 card 4 high best possible Badugi 4 of spades, 6 of hearts, 8 of diamonds, J of clubs: 4 card J high Badugi Ten of clubs, J of hearts, Q of diamonds, K of spades: 4 card worst possible Badugi Ace of hearts, Ace of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of spades: 3 card hand, 5 high Ace of clubs, Ace of spades, 4 of spades, 6 of spades: 2 card hand, 4 high Badugi is usually played triple-draw, with a 1-1-2-2 betting structure, although it is sometimes played in pot limit or 1/2 pot limit structures. Other forms of lowball Five-card draw, with no joker, and deuce-to-seven low hand values is called "Kansas City" or "Low Poker" or even "Billy Baxter" draw in honor of the player who dominated the world championship in the event for many years. The 7-high rule and the no check-and-raise rule do not apply. In the eastern United States, the United Kingdom, and elsewhere, ace-to-six low hand values are common. California high/low split Played as above, with a single joker, used as a bug. High hand and low hand (using the ace-to-five low values) split the pot. An 8-high or better low is required to win low. If no hand qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot. Played cards speak, that is, players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win. Because ace-to-five low values are used, a hand such as a low straight or flush can win both high and low, called "scooping" or "hogging" the pot. High/low with declare This is common in home games but is rarely found in casinos today. Played as are other versions of five-card draw, but after the second betting round and before the showdown, there is a simultaneous declaration phase. Each player takes two chips from his stack and takes them under the table, bringing up a closed fist that contains either no chips (indicating that the player intends to win the low half of the pot), one chip (indicating that the player intends to win the high half), or two chips (indicating that he intends to scoop). When everyone has brought up the closed fist, the players all open their hands simultaneously to reveal their choices. If any player shows two chips, and his hand is the best low and the best high, he scoops the pot. Otherwise, half of the pot goes to the player with the highest hand who declared high, and the other half to the player with the lowest hand of those who declared low. There is no qualifying hand to win either high or low, and if no one declares in one direction, the full pot is awarded in the other (for example, if all players declare low, the low hand wins the whole pot rather than half). A player who declares for a scoop must win both ends outright, with no ties. For example, if a player declares scoop, has the lowest hand clearly but ties for high, he wins nothing. The other player with the same high hand wins the high half of the pot and the next-lowest hand wins low (assuming he declared low--if no other player declared low, the high hand who declared high wins the whole pot). This game can be played with deuce-to-seven low or ace-to-six low hand values, but in that case it is nearly impossible to scoop (though you can still win the whole pot if everyone declares the same direction). Double-draw and Triple-draw Any game above can be played with two or three draw phases and therefore three or four betting rounds. Triple draw lowball, either ace-to-five or deuce-to-seven, has gained some popularity among serious players. The 2004 World Series of Poker included a deuce-to-seven triple-draw lowball event, and the 2007 World Series of Poker featured one event as well. Four-before Another variation that can be applied to any game above, but that is especially suited to lowball. On the initial deal, only four cards are dealt to each player. A betting round follows, then each player draws one more card than he discards, completing his hand to five cards. Then the final betting round and showdown. Note that it is impossible to be dealt a "pat" hand, that is, a hand (such as a straight or flush) that is complete before the draw. Johnson (and "Jacks back") Played with one joker which acts as a bug. Must be played with antes and no blinds. Each player is dealt five cards. The first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, who may check or open with anything. If any player opens, the game continues as traditional five-card draw poker. If the first round is passed out (that is, no one opens), then the player to the dealer's left may now open if he chooses, but the game has switched to California lowball. On the rare occasion that the deal is passed out yet again, players re-ante and deal again. This game plays well head-up (that is, with only two players). When the game is played that a pair of jacks or better is required to open on the first high-hand round, the game is called "Jacks back". Q-Ball This is a lowball game designed by Michael Wiesenberg that combines some of the variations mentioned above. It is generally played with three blinds--one unit from the dealer, one unit to his left, and two units for the second player to the dealer's left. The deck contains one joker. Each player is dealt three cards, followed by a round of betting beginning with the player immediately after the big blind who may call the big blind, raise, or fold (there is no checking on the first round). Next, each player is dealt a fourth card, followed by a second round of betting starting with the still-active player to the dealer's left. No checking is allowed on this round either, despite the fact that there is no bet facing the first player; the first player must open or fold. Each player is then dealt a fifth card, followed by a third betting round beginning on the dealer's left. At this point, checking is allowed. Finally, each player draws as in normal draw poker, followed by a fourth betting round and showdown. Ace-to-five low values are used. Played at fixed limit, it is recommended that the betting structure be 1-2-2-4; that is, the second and third betting rounds should allow a bet of twice the amount of the first round, and the final bet should allow four times the amount of the first round. "Home" games These are somewhat less-serious games that are typically played only in home games at small stakes. This does not necessarily mean that there is less opportunity for skillful play, just that the games are seen as more social than competitive. To help grow the betting pot in a home game, one can add a variant known as the "kill card" to the rules. Kill cards work best with stud games or shared card games as no one player can control when the "kill card" is played. Shotgun ("Roll 'em out" and "Skinny Minnie") This is a draw game that plays much like a stud game. First five cards are dealt to each player, followed by a betting round, and a draw. Now, in place of a second round and showdown, there is a rollout phase, which begins with the players arranging their five cards in any chosen order, placing them face down in front of themselves. Each player's top card is now revealed, followed by a betting round. Then each player reveals his next card, followed by a betting round. Then a third card is revealed, followed by a betting round, a fourth card, a betting round, and finally a showdown. Players may not change the order of their cards at any time during the rollout phase. This game can be played for high or low, but plays best at high-low split, in which case it is called "Skinny Minnie". Spit in the ocean This might be classified as a hybrid draw/Community card game, but it is placed here because it plays mostly as a draw game. On the initial deal, each player is dealt four cards, and then a single card is dealt to the center of the table face up. This card plays as if it were the fifth card in every player's hand. It is also a wild card, and every other card of its rank is also wild. The first betting round is then played, followed by a draw in which each player replaces cards from his hand with an equal number, so that each player still has only four cards in hand. A final betting round is followed by a showdown. High-hand values are used. (An alternative is to deal similar to a regular draw poker hand, during which any player can shout "Spit!", whereupon the next card is dealt face up, after which dealing resumes until all players have five cards. In some variants, only the "spit" card can be used as a wild card.) Here's a sample deal: Alice deals four cards to each player, then deals the next card face up to the center of the table. it is the 6 of diamonds, and this makes all 6-spot cards wild. Bob opens for $1, Carol raises to $2, David folds, Alice and Bob call. Bob discards two cards, and receives two replacements. Carol draws one card, and Alice draws one. Bob checks, Carol bets $2, Alice raises to $4, Bob folds, Carol reraises to $6, and Alice calls. The cards in Carol's hand are Q-Q-6-4. Because the 6 in her hand and the one on the board are wild, her hand is four queens. Alice's hand contains K-J-9-7, all spades. With the shared wild card, this gives her a flush, which loses to Carol's four queens. The game is mentioned in the Ray Stevens song "Shriner's Convention". Anaconda ("Pass the trash") Seven cards are dealt to each player. Before the first betting round, each player examines his hand, and removes exactly three cards from his hand and places them on the table to his left. After each person has thus discarded, he picks up the cards discarded by his right-hand neighbor and places them in his hand (thus, each player will have given three cards to his left-hand neighbor). It is important that each player discard before looking at the cards he is to receive. After the first pass, there is a betting round. Then a second pass occurs, each player passing two cards to his right. A second betting round is followed by a third pass, each player passing one card to his left. Finally, a fourth betting round and a showdown, in which the player with the best five-card high hand he can make out of the seven in his hand wins the pot. In some casual games, the showdown is replaced by a rollout phase, as described above in "Shotgun". This makes a total of eight betting rounds in the game, which generally destroys any chance for skillful play in the later rounds. Ad hoc variants Any of the above games can be modified in many ways upon player whim, by designating additional wild cards, betting rounds, more or fewer cards, altered hand values, and any other change agreed upon by all players prior to each deal. You can announce such a game by using the name of an existing game and specifying the variations, for example "Three-card Triple-draw California lowball, Kings wild". Many times this will result in a game that does not play well, but occasionally will produce a game that is well-suited to a particular group of players. Here are some general guidelines: If you wish to designate some normal suited cards as wild, it is advisable to choose cards that would otherwise be bad for the game being played. For example, deuces wild for high-hand games, kings wild for lowball, 9-spots wild for high-low split (where an 8-high or lower is necessary to win low). High-low split games play best with more than four players. When playing high-low split, it is necessary to have either a declaration phase or a qualifier (but not both). The most common form is 8-high or better to qualify low, but also common is any pair/no pair (that is, a pair or better is required to win high, and no pair or better low is required to win low), and 9-high for low. Designating more than four wild cards (or possibly six) will result in considerable confusion and many ties. Two to five betting rounds makes a good game. One round or more than five rounds reduces the amount of skill involved. Sometimes there is no betting round before the draw; players pick up their cards, discard and draw, and then the betting starts. Giving each player more than eight or nine cards can often make a bad game. In Anaconda, each player will have seen up to thirteen cards.

Draw_poker |@lemmatized draw:34 poker:19 variant:6 player:75 deal:23 complete:3 hand:57 first:19 betting:27 round:45 develop:1 late:2 replace:2 card:75 description:1 assume:3 familiar:1 general:2 game:47 play:41 value:11 high:38 low:44 variation:4 also:4 make:7 assumption:1 structure:5 use:12 home:7 typical:1 ante:7 bet:17 always:4 begin:8 dealer:8 leave:7 casino:3 common:8 blind:8 thus:4 left:8 big:4 subsequent:1 positional:1 sample:2 four:14 alice:7 example:7 bob:6 sit:1 carol:8 david:2 standard:2 five:18 often:3 learn:1 although:2 quite:1 rare:2 tournament:1 two:11 eight:3 gardena:3 jackpot:3 jack:9 open:19 simply:2 single:4 joker:6 deck:3 act:2 bug:3 allow:5 unless:2 already:1 contain:3 pair:8 good:7 check:9 may:11 subsequently:2 call:9 raise:8 someone:2 else:2 new:1 everyone:3 pot:19 keep:2 discarded:2 near:1 table:6 prove:2 necessary:3 sufficient:1 opening:1 k:3 j:6 club:7 heart:6 wish:2 break:1 opener:1 case:3 discard:7 attempt:1 flush:4 entitle:1 name:2 city:4 california:6 especially:2 popular:1 though:4 secondary:1 lowball:11 time:5 public:2 small:2 rest:1 united:3 state:3 room:2 still:5 industry:1 las:1 vega:1 atlantic:1 location:1 many:5 primary:2 form:3 traditional:3 describe:2 retronym:1 gut:1 pass:7 one:18 qualifier:3 queen:3 king:3 finally:4 ace:14 progressive:1 heyday:1 today:2 popularity:2 somewhat:2 lessen:1 since:1 introduction:1 stud:3 community:2 rather:2 second:9 better:1 forfeit:1 right:3 win:19 money:1 place:6 word:1 seven:7 intend:5 fold:5 another:3 rule:5 limit:6 latter:1 never:1 badugi:7 sometimes:3 spell:1 padooki:1 badougi:1 ranking:2 change:3 different:1 rank:3 suit:4 match:1 criterion:1 evaluate:1 number:2 following:1 several:1 best:9 worst:2 spade:8 diamond:5 possible:2 ten:1 q:4 usually:1 triple:5 deuce:4 kansa:1 even:1 billy:1 baxter:1 honor:1 dominate:1 world:3 championship:1 event:3 year:1 apply:2 eastern:1 kingdom:1 elsewhere:1 six:3 split:6 require:4 qualifies:1 take:3 whole:4 speak:1 declare:12 whether:1 half:7 show:2 straight:2 scoop:6 hog:1 rarely:1 find:1 version:1 showdown:8 simultaneous:1 declaration:2 phase:6 chip:5 stack:1 bring:2 closed:2 fist:2 either:5 indicate:3 simultaneously:1 reveal:4 choice:1 otherwise:2 go:1 qualify:2 direction:2 full:1 award:1 must:3 end:1 outright:1 tie:3 clearly:1 nothing:1 next:5 nearly:1 impossible:2 double:1 three:7 therefore:1 gain:1 among:1 serious:2 series:2 include:1 feature:1 well:4 initial:2 follow:12 final:3 note:1 pat:1 johnson:1 back:2 dealt:4 anything:1 continue:1 choose:2 switch:1 occasion:1 yet:1 head:1 ball:1 design:1 michael:1 wiesenberg:1 combine:1 mention:2 generally:2 unit:3 immediately:1 fourth:4 start:2 active:1 checking:2 despite:1 fact:1 face:5 fifth:2 third:4 point:1 normal:2 fixed:1 recommend:1 twice:1 amount:3 less:2 typically:1 stake:1 necessarily:1 mean:1 opportunity:1 skillful:2 see:2 social:1 competitive:1 help:1 grow:1 add:1 know:1 kill:3 work:1 share:2 control:1 shotgun:2 roll:1 em:1 skinny:2 minnie:2 much:1 like:1 rollout:3 arrange:1 chosen:1 order:2 front:1 top:1 spit:3 ocean:1 might:1 classify:1 hybrid:1 mostly:1 center:2 every:2 wild:13 replaces:1 equal:1 alternative:1 similar:1 regular:1 shout:1 whereupon:1 resume:1 spot:2 receive:2 replacement:1 reraises:1 board:1 contains:1 give:3 lose:1 ray:1 stevens:1 song:1 shriner:1 convention:1 anaconda:2 trash:1 examine:1 remove:1 exactly:1 person:1 pick:2 neighbor:2 important:1 look:1 pas:3 occurs:1 casual:1 total:1 destroy:1 chance:1 ad:1 hoc:1 modify:1 way:1 upon:2 whim:1 designate:3 additional:1 alter:1 agree:1 prior:1 announce:1 exist:1 specify:1 result:2 occasionally:1 produce:1 particular:1 group:1 guideline:1 suited:1 advisable:1 would:1 bad:2 deuces:1 possibly:1 considerable:1 confusion:1 reduce:1 skill:1 involve:1 nine:1 thirteen:1 |@bigram betting_round:21 ante_bet:1 ante_blind:2 someone_else:2 las_vega:1 california_lowball:3 stud_poker:1 ace_spade:2 deuce_seven:4 straight_flush:2 round_showdown:5 card_dealt:1 ad_hoc:1

Lie_group

In mathematics, a Lie group (: similar to "Lee") is a group which is also a differentiable manifold, with the property that the group operations are compatible with the smooth structure. Lie groups are named after the nineteenth century Norwegian mathematician Sophus Lie, who laid the foundations of the theory of continuous transformation groups. Lie groups represent the best-developed theory of continuous symmetry of mathematical objects and structures, which makes them indispensable tools for many parts of contemporary mathematics, as well as for modern theoretical physics. They provide a natural framework for analysing the continuous symmetries of differential equations (Differential Galois theory), in much the same way as permutation groups are used in Galois theory for analysing the discrete symmetries of algebraic equations. An extension of Galois theory to the case of continuous symmetry groups was one of Lie's principal motivations. The circle of center 0 and radius 1 in the complex plane is a Lie group with complex multiplication. Overview Lie groups are smooth manifolds and, therefore, can be studied using differential calculus, in contrast with the case of more general topological groups. One of the key ideas in the theory of Lie groups, from Sophus Lie, is to replace the global object, the group, with its local or linearised version, which Lie himself called its "infinitesimal group" and which has since become known as its Lie algebra. Lie groups play an enormous role in modern geometry, on several different levels. Felix Klein argued in his Erlangen program that one can consider various "geometries" by specifying an appropriate transformation group that leaves certain geometric properties invariant. Thus Euclidean geometry corresponds to the choice of the group E(3) of distance-preserving transformations of the Euclidean space R3, conformal geometry corresponds to enlarging the group to the conformal group, whereas in projective geometry one is interested in the properties invariant under the projective group. This idea later led to the notion of a G-structure, where G is a Lie group of "local" symmetries of a manifold. On a "global" level, whenever a Lie group acts on a geometric object, such as a Riemannian or a symplectic manifold, this action provides a measure of rigidity and yields a rich algebraic structure. The presence of continuous symmetries expressed via a Lie group action on a manifold places strong constraints on its geometry and facilitates analysis on the manifold. Linear actions of Lie groups are especially important, and are studied in representation theory. In the 1950s, Claude Chevalley realised that many foundational results concerning Lie groups can be developed completely algebraically, giving rise to the theory of algebraic groups defined over an arbitrary field. This insight opened new possibilities in pure algebra, by providing a uniform construction for most finite simple groups, as well as in algebraic geometry. The theory of automorphic forms, an important branch of modern number theory, deals extensively with analogues of Lie groups over adele rings. Definitions and examples A real Lie group is a group which is also a finite-dimensional real smooth manifold, and in which the group operations of multiplication and inversion are smooth maps. First examples The 2×2 real invertible matrices form a group under multiplication, denoted by GL2(R): This is a four-dimensional noncompact real Lie group. This group is disconnected; it has two connected components corresponding to the positive and negative values of the determinant. The rotation matrices form a subgroup, denoted by SO2(R), is a Lie group in its own right: it is a one-dimensional compact connected Lie group which is diffeomorphic to the circle. Using the rotation angle as a parameter, this group can be parametrized as follows: Addition of the angles corresponds to multiplication of the elements of SO2(R), and taking the opposite angle corresponds to inversion. Thus both multiplication and inversion are differentiable maps. The orthogonal group also forms an interesting example of a Lie group. All of the previous examples of Lie groups fall within the class of classical groups Related concepts A complex Lie group is defined in the same way using complex manifolds rather than real ones (example: SL2(C)), and similarly one can define a p-adic Lie group over the p-adic numbers. Hilbert's fifth problem asked whether replacing differentiable manifolds with topological or analytic ones can yield new examples. The answer to this question turned out to be negative: in 1952, Gleason, Montgomery and Zippin showed that if G is a topological manifold with continuous group operations, then there exists exactly one analytic structure on G which turns it into a Lie group (see also Hilbert-Smith conjecture). If the underlying manifold is allowed to be infinite dimensional (for example, a Hilbert manifold) then one arrives at the notion of an infinite-dimensional Lie group. It is possible to define analogues of many Lie groups over finite fields, and these give most of the examples of finite simple groups. The language of category theory provides a concise definition for Lie groups: a Lie group is a group object in the category of smooth manifolds. This is important, because it allows generalization of the notion of a Lie group to Lie supergroups. More examples of Lie groups Lie groups occur in abundance throughout mathematics and physics. Matrix groups or algebraic groups are (roughly) groups of matrices (for example, orthogonal and symplectic groups), and these give most of the more common examples of Lie groups. Examples Euclidean space Rn with ordinary vector addition as the group operation becomes an n-dimensional noncompact abelian Lie group. The circle group S1 consisting of angles mod 2π under addition or complex numbers with absolute value 1 under multiplication is a one-dimensional compact connected abelian Lie group. The group GLn(R) of invertible matrices (under matrix multiplication) is a Lie group of dimension n2, called the general linear group. It has a closed connected subgroup SLn(R), the special linear group, consisting of matrices of determinant 1 which is also a Lie group. The orthogonal group On(R), consisting of all n × n orthogonal matrices with real entries is an n(n − 1)/2-dimensional Lie group. This group is disconnected, but it has a connected subgroup SOn(R) of the same dimension consisting of orthogonal matrices of determinant 1, called the special orthogonal group (for n = 3, the rotation group). The Euclidean group En(R) is the Lie group of all Euclidean motions, i.e., isometric affine maps, of n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn. The unitary group U(n) consisting of n × n unitary matrices (with complex entries) is a compact connected Lie group of dimension n2. Unitary matrices of determinant 1 form a closed connected subgroup of dimension n2 − 1 denoted SU(n), the special unitary group. Spin groups are double covers of the special orthogonal groups, used for studying fermions in quantum field theory (among other things). The symplectic group Sp2n(R) consists of all 2n × 2n matrices preserving a nondegenerate skew-symmetric bilinear form on R2n (the symplectic form). It is a connected Lie group of dimension 2n2 + n. The fundamental group of the symplectic group is Z and this fact is related to the theory of Maslov index. The 3-sphere S3 forms a Lie group by identification with the set of quaternions of unit norm, called versors. The only other spheres that admit the structure of a Lie group are the 0-sphere S0 (real numbers with absolute value 1) and the circle S1 (complex numbers with absolute value 1). For example, for even n > 1, Sn is not a Lie group because it does not admit a nonvanishing vector field and so a fortiori cannot be parallelizable as a differentiable manifold. Of the spheres only S0, S1, S3, and S7 are parallelizable. The latter is carries the structure of a Lie quasigroup (a nonassociative group), which can be identified with the set of unit octonions. The group of upper triangular n by n matrices is a solvable Lie group of dimension n(n + 1)/2. The Lorentz group and the Poincare group are the groups of linear and affine isometries of the Minkowski space (interpreted as the spacetime of the special relativity). They are Lie groups of dimensions 6 and 10. The Heisenberg group is a connected nilpotent Lie group of dimension 3, playing a key role in quantum mechanics. The group U(1)×SU(2)×SU(3) is a Lie group of dimension 1+3+8=12 that is the gauge group of the Standard Model in particle physics. The dimensions of the factors correspond to the 1 photon + 3 vector bosons + 8 gluons of the standard model. The (3-dimensional) metaplectic group is a double cover of SL2(R) playing an important role in the theory of modular forms. It is a connected Lie group that cannot be faithfully represented by matrices of finite size, i.e., a nonlinear group. The exceptional Lie groups of types G2, F4, E6, E7, E8 have dimensions 14, 52, 78, 133, and 248. There is also a group E7½ of dimension 190. Constructions There are several standard ways to form new Lie groups from old ones: The product of two Lie groups is a Lie group. Any topologically closed subgroup of a Lie group is a Lie group. This is known as Cartan's theorem. The quotient of a Lie group by a closed normal subgroup is a Lie group. The universal cover of a connected Lie group is a Lie group. For example, the group R is the universal cover of the circle group S1. In fact any covering of a differentiable manifold is also a differentiable manifold. The universal cover bit is important so that the universal cover has a group structure (compatible with its other structures). Related notions Some examples of groups that are not Lie groups are: Infinite dimensional groups, such as the additive group of an infinite dimensional real vector space. These are not Lie groups as they are not finite dimensional manifolds Some totally disconnected groups, such as the Galois group of an infinite extension of fields, or the additive group of the p-adic numbers. These are not Lie groups because their underlying spaces are not real manifolds. (Some of these groups are "p-adic Lie groups"). In general, only topological groups having similar local properties to Rn for some positive integer n can be Lie groups (of course they must also have a differentiable structure) Early history According to the most authoritative source on the early history of Lie groups (Hawkins, p.1), Sophus Lie himself considered the winter of 1873–1874 as the birth date of his theory of continuous groups. Hawkins, however, suggests that it was "Lie's prodigious research activity during the four-year period from the fall of 1869 to the fall of 1873" that led to the theory's creation (ibid). Some of Lie's early ideas were developed in close collaboration with Felix Klein. Lie met with Klein every day from October 1869 through 1872: in Berlin from the end of October 1869 to the end of February 1870, and in Paris, Göttingen and Erlangen in the subsequent two years (ibid, p.2). Lie stated that all of the principal results were obtained by 1884. But during the 1870s all his papers (except the very first note) were published in Norwegian journals, which impeded recognition of the work throughout the rest of Europe (ibid, p.76). In 1884 a young German mathematician, Friedrich Engel, came to work with Lie on a systematic treatise to expose his theory of continuous groups. From this effort resulted the three-volume Theorie der Transformationsgruppen, published in 1888, 1890, and 1893. Lie's ideas did not stand in isolation from the rest of mathematics. In fact, his interest in the geometry of differential equations was first motivated by the work of Carl Gustav Jacobi, on the theory of partial differential equations of first order and on the equations of classical mechanics. Much of Jacobi's work was published posthumously in the 1860s, generating enormous interest in France and Germany (Hawkins, p.43). Lie's idée fixe was to develop a theory of symmetries of differential equations that would accomplish for them what Évariste Galois had done for algebraic equations: namely, to classify them in terms of group theory. Additional impetus to consider continuous groups came from ideas of Bernhard Riemann, on the foundations of geometry, and their further development in the hands of Klein. Thus three major themes in 19th century mathematics were combined by Lie in creating his new theory: the idea of symmetry, as exemplified by Galois through the algebraic notion of a group; geometric theory and the explicit solutions of differential equations of mechanics, worked out by Poisson and Jacobi; and the new understanding of geometry that emerged in the works of Plücker, Möbius, Grassmann and others, and culminated in Riemann's revolutionary vision of the subject. Although today Sophus Lie is rightfully recognized as the creator of the theory of continuous groups, a major stride in the development of their structure theory, which was to have a profound influence on subsequent development of mathematics, was made by Wilhelm Killing, who in 1888 published the first paper in a series entitled Die Zusammensetzung der stetigen endlichen Transformationsgruppen (The composition of continuous finite transformation groups) (Hawkins, p.100). The work of Killing, later refined and generalized by Élie Cartan, led to classification of semisimple Lie algebras, Cartan's theory of symmetric spaces, and Hermann Weyl's description of representations of compact and semisimple Lie groups using highest weights. Weyl brought the early period of the development of the theory of Lie groups to fruition, for not only did he classify irreducible representations of semisimple Lie groups and connect the theory of groups with quantum mechanics, but he also put Lie's theory itself on firmer footing by clearly enunciating the distinction between Lie's infinitesimal groups (i.e., Lie algebras) and the Lie groups proper, and began investigations of topology of Lie groups (Borel (2001), ). The theory of Lie groups was systematically reworked in modern mathematical language in a monograph by Claude Chevalley. The concept of a Lie group, and possibilities of classification Lie groups may be thought of as smoothly varying families of symmetries. Examples of symmetries include rotation about an axis. What must be understood is the nature of 'small' transformations, e.g., rotations through tiny angles, that link nearby transformations. The mathematical object capturing this structure is called a Lie algebra (Lie himself called them "infinitesimal groups"). It can be defined because Lie groups are manifolds, so have tangent spaces at each point. The Lie algebra of any compact Lie group (very roughly: one for which the symmetries form a bounded set) can be decomposed as a direct sum of an abelian Lie algebra and some number of simple ones. The structure of an abelian Lie algebra is mathematically uninteresting (since the Lie bracket is identically zero); the interest is in the simple summands. Hence the question arises: what are the simple Lie algebras of compact groups? It turns out that they mostly fall into four infinite families, the "classical Lie algebras" An, Bn, Cn and Dn, which have simple descriptions in terms of symmetries of Euclidean space. But there are also just five "exceptional Lie algebras" that do not fall into any of these families. E8 is the largest of these. Properties The diffeomorphism group of a Lie group acts transitively on the Lie group Every Lie group is parallelizable, and hence an orientable manifold (there is a bundle isomorphism between its tangent bundle and the product of itself with the tangent space at the identity) Types of Lie groups and structure theory Lie groups are classified according to their algebraic properties (simple, semisimple, solvable, nilpotent, abelian), their connectedness (connected or simply connected) and their compactness. Compact Lie groups are all known: they are finite central quotients of a product of copies of the circle group S1 and simple compact Lie groups (which correspond to connected Dynkin diagrams). Any simply connected solvable Lie group is isomorphic to a closed subgroup of the group of invertible upper triangular matrices of some rank, and any finite dimensional irreducible representation of such a group is 1 dimensional. Solvable groups are too messy to classify except in a few small dimensions. Any simply connected nilpotent Lie group is isomorphic to a closed subgroup of the group of invertible upper triangular matrices with 1's on the diagonal of some rank, and any finite dimensional irreducible representation of such a group is 1 dimensional. Like solvable groups, nilpotent groups are too messy to classify except in a few small dimensions. Simple Lie groups are sometimes defined to be those that are simple as abstract groups, and sometimes defined to be connected Lie groups with a simple Lie algebra. For example, SL2(R) is simple according to the second definition but not according to the first. They have all been classified (for either definition). Semisimple Lie groups are Lie groups whose Lie algebra is a product of simple Lie algebras. Sigurdur Helgason, "Differential Geometry, Lie Groups, and Symmetric Spaces", Academic Press, 1978, page 131. They are central extensions of products of simple Lie groups. The identity component of any Lie group is an open normal subgroup, and the quotient group is a discrete group. The universal cover of any connected Lie group is a simply connected Lie group, and conversely any connected Lie group is a quotient of a simply connected Lie group by a discrete normal subgroup of the center. Any Lie group G can be decomposed into discrete, simple, and abelian groups in a canonical way as follows. Write Gcon for the connected component of the identity Gsol for the largest connected normal solvable subgroup Gnil for the largest connected normal nilpotent subgroup so that we have a sequence of normal subgroups 1 ⊆ Gnil ⊆ Gsol ⊆ Gcon ⊆ G Then G/Gcon is discrete Gcon/Gsol is a central extension of a product of simple connected Lie groups. Gsol/Gnil is abelian. A connected abelian Lie group is isomorphic to a product of copies of R and the circle group S1. Gnil/1 is nilpotent, and therefore its ascending central series has all quotients abelian. This can be used to reduce some problems about Lie groups (such as finding their unitary representations) to the same problems for connected simple groups and nilpotent and solvable subgroups of smaller dimension. The Lie algebra associated to a Lie group To every Lie group, we can associate a Lie algebra, whose underlying vector space is the tangent space of G at the identity element, which completely captures the local structure of the group. Informally we can think of elements of the Lie algebra as elements of the group that are "infinitesimally close" to the identity, and the Lie bracket is something to do with the commutator of two such infinitesimal elements. Before giving the abstract definition we give few examples: The Lie algebra of the vector space Rn is just Rn with the Lie bracket given by [A, B] = 0. (In general the Lie bracket of a connected Lie group is always 0 if and only if the Lie group is abelian.) The Lie algebra of the general linear group GLn(R) of invertible matrices is the vector space Mn(R) of square matrices with the Lie bracket given by [A, B] = AB − BA. If G is a closed subgroup of GLn(R) then the Lie algebra of G can be thought of informally as the matrices m of Mn(R) such that 1 + εm is in G, where ε is an infinitesimal positive number with ε2 = 0 (of course, no such real number ε exists). For example, the orthogonal group On(R) consists of matrices A with AAT = 1, so the Lie algebra consists of the matrices m with (1 + εm)(1 + εm)T = 1, which is equivalent to m + mT = 0 because ε2 = 0. Formally, when working over the reals, as here, this is accomplished by considering the limit as ε→0; but the "infinitesimal" language generalizes directly to Lie groups over general rings. The concrete definition given above is easy to work with, but has some minor problems: to use it we first need to represent a Lie group as a group of matrices, but not all Lie groups can be represented in this way, and it is not obvious that the Lie algebra is independent of the representation we use. To get round these problems we give the general definition of the Lie algebra of any Lie group (in 4 steps): Vector fields on any smooth manifold M can be thought of as derivations X of the ring of smooth functions on the manifold, and therefore form a Lie algebra under the Lie bracket [X, Y] = XY − YX, because the Lie bracket of any two derivations is a derivation. If G is any group acting smoothly on the manifold M, then it acts on the vector fields, and the vector space of vector fields fixed by the group is closed under the Lie bracket and therefore also forms a Lie algebra. We apply this construction to the case when the manifold M is the underlying space of a Lie group G, with G acting on G = M by left translations Lg(h)=gh. This shows that the space of left invariant vector fields (vector fields satisfying Lg*Xh=Xgh for every h in G, where Lg* denotes the differential of Lg) on a Lie group is a Lie algebra under the Lie bracket of vector fields. Any tangent vector at the identity of a Lie group can be extended to a left invariant vector field by left translating the tangent vector to other points of the manifold, specifically the left invariant extension of an element v of the tangent space at the identity is the vector field defined by v^g=Lg*v. This identifies the tangent space Te at the identity with the space of left invariant vector fields, and therefore makes the tangent space at the identity into a Lie algebra, called the Lie algebra of G, usually denoted by a Fraktur Thus the Lie bracket on is given explicitly by [v,w]=[v^,w^]e. This Lie algebra is finite-dimensional and it has the same dimension as the manifold G. The Lie algebra of G determines G up to "local isomorphism", where two Lie groups are called locally isomorphic if they look the same near the identity element. Problems about Lie groups are often solved by first solving the corresponding problem for the Lie algebras, and the result for groups then usually follows easily. For example, simple Lie groups are usually classified by first classifying the corresponding Lie algebras. We could also define a Lie algebra structure on Te using right invariant vector fields instead of left invariant vector fields. This leads to the same Lie algebra, because the inverse map on G can be used to identify left invariant vector fields with right invariant vector fields, and acts as −1 on the tangent space Te. The Lie algebra structure on Te can also be described as follows: the commutator operation (x, y) → xyx−1y−1 on G × G sends (e, e) to e, so its derivative yields a bilinear operation on TeG. This bilinear operation is actually the zero map, but the second derivative, under the proper identification of tangent spaces, yields an operation that satisfies the axioms of a Lie bracket, and it is equal to twice the one defined through left-invariant vector fields. Homomorphisms and isomorphisms If G and H are Lie groups, then a Lie-group homomorphism f : G → H is a smooth group homomorphism. (It is equivalent to require only that f be continuous rather than smooth.) The composition of two such homomorphisms is again a homomorphism, and the class of all Lie groups, together with these morphisms, forms a category. Two Lie groups are called isomorphic if there exists a bijective homomorphism between them whose inverse is also a homomorphism. Isomorphic Lie groups are essentially the same; they only differ in the notation for their elements. Every homomorphism f : G → H of Lie groups induces a homomorphism between the corresponding Lie algebras and . The association G is a functor (mapping between categories satisfying certain axioms). One version of Ado's theorem is that every finite dimensional Lie algebra is isomorphic to a matrix Lie algebra. For every finite dimensional matrix Lie algebra, there is a linear group (matrix Lie group) with this algebra as its Lie algebra. So every abstract Lie algebra is the Lie algebra of some (linear) Lie group. The global structure of a Lie group is not determined by its Lie algebra; for example, if Z is any discrete subgroup of the center of G then G and G/Z have the same Lie algebra (see the table of Lie groups for examples). A connected Lie group is simple, semisimple, solvable, nilpotent, or abelian if and only if its Lie algebra has the corresponding property. If we require that the Lie group be simply connected, then the global structure is determined by its Lie algebra: for every finite dimensional Lie algebra over F there is a simply connected Lie group G with as Lie algebra, unique up to isomorphism. Moreover every homomorphism between Lie algebras lifts to a unique homomorphism between the corresponding simply connected Lie groups. The exponential map The exponential map from the Lie algebra Mn(R) of the general linear group GLn(R) to GLn(R) is defined by the usual power series: for matrices A. If G is any subgroup of GLn(R), then the exponential map takes the Lie algebra of G into G, so we have an exponential map for all matrix groups. The definition above is easy to use, but it is not defined for Lie groups that are not matrix groups, and it is not clear that the exponential map of a Lie group does not depend on its representation as a matrix group. We can solve both problems using a more abstract definition of the exponential map that works for all Lie groups, as follows. Every vector v in determines a linear map from R to taking 1 to v, which can be thought of as a Lie algebra homomorphism. Because R is the Lie algebra of the simply connected Lie group R, this induces a Lie group homomorphism c : R → G so that c(s + t) = c(s) c(t) for all s and t. The operation on the right hand side is the group multiplication in G. The formal similarity of this formula with the one valid for the exponential function justifies the definition exp(v) = c(1) This is called the exponential map, and it maps the Lie algebra into the Lie group G. It provides a diffeomorphism between a neighborhood of 0 in and a neighborhood of e in G. This exponential map is a generalization of the exponential function for real numbers (because R is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of positive real numbers with multiplication), for complex numbers (because C is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of non-zero complex numbers with multiplication) and for matrices (because Mn(R) with the regular commutator is the Lie algebra of the Lie group GLn(R) of all invertible matrices). Because the exponential map is surjective on some neighbourhood N of e, it is common to call elements of the Lie algebra infinitesimal generators of the group G. The subgroup of G generated by N is the identity component of G. The exponential map and the Lie algebra determine the local group structure of every connected Lie group, because of the Baker-Campbell-Hausdorff formula: there exists a neighborhood U of the zero element of , such that for u, v in U we have exp(u) exp(v) = exp(u + v + 1/2 [u, v] + 1/12 [[u, v], v] − 1/12 [[u, v], u] − ...) where the omitted terms are known and involve Lie brackets of four or more elements. In case u and v commute, this formula reduces to the familiar exponential law exp(u) exp(v) = exp(u + v). The exponential map from the Lie algebra to the Lie group is not always onto, even if the group is connected (though it does map onto the Lie group for connected groups that are either compact or nilpotent). For example, the exponential map of SL2(R) is not surjective. Infinite dimensional Lie groups Lie groups are finite dimensional by definition, but there are many groups that resemble Lie groups, except for being infinite dimensional. There is very little "general theory" of such groups, but some of the examples that have been studied include: The group of diffeomorphisms of a manifold. Quite a lot is known about the group of diffeomorphisms of the circle. Its Lie algebra is (more or less) the Witt algebra, which has a central extension called the Virasoro algebra, used in string theory and conformal field theory. Very little is known about the diffeomorphism groups of manifolds of larger dimension. The diffeomorphism group of spacetime sometimes appears in attempts to quantize gravity. The group of smooth maps from a manifold to a finite dimensional Lie group is called a gauge group (with operation of pointwise multiplication), and is used in quantum field theory and Donaldson theory. If the manifold is a circle these are called loop groups, and have central extensions whose Lie algebras are (more or less) Kac-Moody algebras. There are infinite dimensional analogues of general linear groups, orthogonal groups, and so on. One important aspect is that these may have simpler topological properties: see for example Kuiper's theorem. Just as calculus in finite-dimensional real vector spaces can be extended to calculus in Banach spaces, the definition of finite-dimensional smooth manifolds can be extended to give a definition of Banach analytic manifolds. Similarly, the standard finite-dimensional definition of Lie groups can be extended to give a definition of Banach analytic Lie groups. In this case, we have a Banach analytic manifold which simultaneously has a group structure such that multiplication and inversion are analytic maps. Some of the theorems of finite-dimensional Lie groups do not carry over to the Banach analytic case, and in particular the relation between Lie groups and Lie algebras is much more subtle in the infinite dimensional case. However, it is true that "for infinite dimensional Lie groups modeled on Banach spaces there is a well-developed theory ... which is closely parallel to the theory of finite dimensional Lie groups." Andrew Pressley and Graeme Segal, Loop Groups, Oxford Science Publications, 1986, page 26. See also Lie subgroup E8 Adjoint representation Homogeneous space List of Lie group topics List of simple Lie groups Moufang polygon Riemannian manifold Representations of Lie groups Table of Lie groups Notes References . . . Chapters 1-3 ISBN 3-540-64242-0, Chapters 4-6 ISBN 3-540-42650-7, Chapters 7-9 ISBN 3-540-43405-4 . . . . The 2003 reprint corrects several typographical mistakes. .

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Essex

Essex () is a county in the East of England. The county town is Chelmsford, and the highest point of the county is Chrishall Common near the village of Langley, close to the Hertfordshire border, which reaches . History In pre-Roman Britain the territories of Suffolk and Essex were home to the Trinovantes tribe, which had grown wealthy through intensive trade with the Roman Empire, contemporary to the decline of Atlantic Sea trade as roads and better in-land trade-routes were established in Romanized Gaul. Catuvellaunian and Trinovantian territory was the first to be annexed by the Roman Emperor Claudius in AD 43 when he began his invasion of Britain (Cunliffe, 2001). The name Essex originates in the Anglo-Saxon period of the early Middle Ages and has its root in the Old English Ēastseaxe (i.e. the "east Saxons"), the eastern kingdom of the Saxons. The East Saxon lands bordered those of the Angle peoples of East Anglia (the latter comprising Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire). The Kingdom of Essex was traditionally founded by Aescwine in 527 AD, occupying territory to the north of the River Thames, incorporating much of what would later become Middlesex and Hertfordshire, though its territory was later restricted to lands east of the River Lee. Vision of Britain - Essex ancient county boundaries map Colchester in the north east of the county is Britain's oldest recorded town, dating back to before the Roman conquest, when it was known as Camulodunum, and was sufficiently well-developed to have its own mint. Subsequently the Kingdom of Essex was subsumed into the Kingdom of England and Essex eventually became the historic county. Essex County Council was formed in 1889. However, the County Borough of West Ham, and from 1915 the County Borough of East Ham, formed part of the county but were not under county council control. Vision of Britain - Essex admin county (historic map) A few parishes were transferred to other counties at this time; parts of Haverhill, Kedington, and Ballingdon-with-Brundon went to Suffolk, and Great & Little Chishill and Heydon to Cambridgeshire.Southend-on-Sea also formed a county borough from 1914 to 1974. Vision of Britain - Southend-on-Sea MB/CB The boundary with Greater London was established in 1965 when East Ham and West Ham county boroughs and the Barking, Chingford, Dagenham, Hornchurch, Ilford, Leyton, Romford, Walthamstow and Wanstead and Woodford districts were transferred to form the London boroughs of Barking, Havering, Newham, Redbridge and Waltham Forest. Essex became part of the East of England Government Office Region in 1994 and was statistically counted as part of that region from 1999, having previously been part of the South East England region. In 1998 the districts of Southend-on-Sea and Thurrock separated from the shire county of Essex becoming unitary districts. Governance The county is divided into a number of local government districts. They are Harlow, Epping Forest, Brentwood, Basildon, Castle Point, Rochford, Maldon, Chelmsford, Uttlesford, Braintree, Colchester, Tendring, Thurrock, and Southend-on-Sea. Essex County Council - District or Borough Councils The last two boroughs are unitary authorities which form part of the county for various functions such as Lord Lieutenant but do not come under county council control. OPSI - The Essex (Boroughs of Colchester, Southend-on-Sea and Thurrock and District of Tendring) (Structural, Boundary and Electoral Changes) Order 1996 Essex Police also covers the two unitary authorities. OPSI - The Essex (Police Area and Authority) Order 1997 The ceremonial county, an area including the unitary authorities ennumerated above, is bounded: to the south by the River Thames and its estuary (a boundary shared with Kent); to the southwest by Greater London; to the west by Hertfordshire with the boundary largely defined by the River Lee and the Stort; to the northwest by Cambridgeshire; to the north by Suffolk, a boundary mainly defined by the River Stour; and, to the east, by the North Sea. County Council The county council was formed in 1889, and sits at County Hall, in the centre of Chelmsford. Before 1938, it regularly met in London near Moorgate, which was easier to access than any place in the county. It currently has 75 elected councillors. Before 1965 the number of councillors reached over 100. County Hall, which dates largely from the mid-1930s, and is decorated with fine artworks of that period, mostly the gift of the family who owned the textile firm, Courtaulds, was recently (2007) made a listed building. Essex County Council is currently controlled by the Conservative Party. The chairman of the county council 2006-08 was Gerard McEwen of Norton Mandeville near Ongar, and since May 2008, Elizabeth ("Bonnie") Hart, of Hockley. In November 2008 the council advertised in the European Journal for a private sector 'delivery partner' to provide a wide range - and potentially all - of its services. The value of such a contract could amount to £5.4 billion. The arguments advanced in favour of such a step include better service quality and greater efficiency. However, critics including the council's opposition leader have complained of zero consultation before launching this procurement. The council nevertheless hopes to choose a partner before the elections scheduled for June 2009. The council has until recently had a strategic partnership with British Telecom which has generated a debate locally about the effectiveness of such arrangements. In January 2009 the council's cabinet decided to terminate this contract early. The trade union Unison has questioned the council's competence in managing major private sector contracts. Press reports indicate that BT are considering taking legal action against the council. Unison estimate that the cost to the taxpayer of early termination could be as much as £50m. http://www.kablenet.com/kd.nsf/Frontpage/5597D65667799300802575550042691B?OpenDocument, accessed 6 February 2009 The political composition of the county council is as follows. Year Conservatives Labour Liberal Democrats Residents' association Independent2008 52 13 8 1 1 Population and settlement The plaza of the new town of Basildon. The pattern of settlement in the county is diverse. The London Green Belt has effectively prevented the further sprawl of London into the county, although it contains the new towns of Basildon and Harlow, originally developed to resettle Londoners following the destruction of London housing in World War II but since much expanded. Epping Forest also acts as a protected barrier to the further spread of London. Because of its proximity to London and the economic magnetism which that city exerts, many of Essex's settlements, particularly those on or within driving distance of railway stations, function as dormitory towns or villages where London workers raise their families. Essex is known for being the origin of the political term Essex man, and of the Essex girl joke. The village of Finchingfield in north Essex. Part of the south east of the county, already containing the major population centres of Southend and Thurrock, is within the Thames Gateway and designated for further development. Parts of the south west of the county such as Buckhurst Hill and Loughton are contiguous with Greater London and are included in the Greater London Urban Area. A small part of the south west of the county (Sewardstone), is the only settlement outside Greater London to be covered by a London postal district postcode (E4). To the north of the Green Belt, with the exception of major towns such as Colchester and Chelmsford, the county is rural, with many small towns, villages and hamlets largely built in the traditional materials of timber and brick, with clay tile or thatched roofs. See also List of places in Essex Transport London Stansted Airport at Stansted Mountfitchet, in the north west of the county. The main airport in Essex is London Stansted Airport, serving destinations in Europe and North America; Southend Airport, once one of Britain's busiest airports, is undergoing redevelopment, but still has limited passenger flights to destinations such as the Channel Islands. There are several smaller airfields, some of which owe their origins to air force bases built during World War I or World War II. These are popular for pleasure flights or to learn to fly; examples include Clacton Airfield, Earls Colne and Stapleford Aerodrome. The Port of Tilbury is one of Britain's three major ports, while the port of Harwich links the county to the Hook of Holland and Esbjerg. A service to Cuxhaven closed in December 2005. Plans have been put forward to build the UK's largest container terminal at Shell Haven in Thurrock and although opposed by the local authority and environmental and wildlife organisations now seem increasingly likely to be developed. Portswatch: Current Port Proposals: London Gateway (Shell Haven) Retrieved 2009-04-15. Thurrock Council. (2003-02-26). Shell Haven public inquiry opens. Retrieved 2009-04-15. Dredging News Online. (2008-05-18). Harbour Development, Shell Haven, UK. Retrieved 2009-04-15. Queen Elizabeth II Bridge spanning the Thames from West Thurrock in Essex to Dartford in Kent. Despite the road crossing to Dartford in Kent across the River Thames, a pedestrian ferry to Gravesend, Kent still operates from Tilbury during limited hours, and there are foot ferries operating across some of the county's rivers and estuaries during the summer months. The M25 motorway and M11 motorway both cross the county, and the A12 and A13 trunk roads are important radial routes from London. There is an extensive public transport network. The main rail routes include two lines from the City of London to Southend-on-Sea, operated by c2c from Fenchurch Street (including a route via Tilbury) and National Express East Anglia from Liverpool Street, the Great Eastern Main Line from Liverpool Street connecting Harwich and onwards into Suffolk and Norfolk, and the West Anglia Main Line from Liverpool Street linking to Stansted and onwards into Cambridgeshire. The Epping Forest district is served by the London Underground Central Line. The routes operated by National Express East Anglia (formerly known as 'one') and c2c, are both owned by National Express. There are also a number of branch lines including; the Sunshine Coast Line linking Colchester to the seaside resorts ofClacton-on-Sea and Walton-on-the-Naze. And the Crouch Valley Line linking Wickford to a number of riverside communities via South Woodham Ferrers and Burnham-on-Crouch to Southminster. Economy This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Essex at current basic prices published (pp.240–253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of Pounds Sterling. Year Regional Gross Value Added Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Agriculture includes hunting and forestry Industry includes energy and construction Services includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured 1995 11,422 282 3,424 7,716 2000 14,998 205 4,335 10,458 2003 18,588 258 5,158 13,172 Industry and commerce The Lakeside Shopping Centre at Thurrock was one of England's first out-of-town shopping centres, which remains popular despite congestion on the nearby M25 motorway and direct competition from Bluewater Shopping Centre. Industry is largely limited to the south of the county, with the majority of the land elsewhere being given over to agriculture. Harlow is a centre for electronics, science and pharmaceutical companies, while Chelmsford is the home of Marconi (now called telent plc and owned by Ericsson of Sweden since 2005), and Brentwood home to the Ford Motor Company's European HQ. Loughton is home to a production facility for British and foreign banknotes. Chelmsford has been an important location for electronics companies since the industry was born, and is also the location for a number of insurance and financial services organisations, and is the home of the soft drinks producer Britvic. Other businesses in the county are dominated by light engineering and the service sector. Colchester is a garrison town, and the local economy is helped by the army's personnel living there. Education Education in Essex is substantially provided by three authorities being Essex County Council and the two unitary authorities, Southend-on-Sea and Thurrock. In all there are some 90 state secondary schools provided by these authorities, the majority of which are comprehensive, although one in Uttlesford, two in Chelmsford, two in Colchester and four in Southend-on-Sea are clearly selective. There are also two Public Schools providing secondary education in Essex. Essex County Council. (2006). Secondary School Information. Retrieved 2009-04-15. Independant Schools Directory. (2009). Independent Schools in Essex. Retrieved 2009-04-15. County emblems Depiction of the first king of the East Saxons, Æscwine, his shield showing the three seaxes emblem attributed to him (from John Speed's 1611 Saxon Heptarchy). The County's coat of arms comprises three Saxon seax knives (although looking rather more like scimitars) arranged on a red background; the three-seaxe device is also used as the official logo of Essex County Council having been granted as such in 1932. Robert Young. (2009). Civic Heraldry of England and Wales. Essex. Retrieved 2009-04-16. The emblem was attributed to Anglo-Saxon Essex in Early Modern historiography. The earliest reference the arms of the East Saxon kings was by Richard Verstegan, the author of A Restitution of Decayed Intelligence (Antwerp, 1605), claiming that "Erkenwyne king of the East-Saxons did beare for his armes, three [seaxes] argent, in a field gules". There is no earlier evidence substantiating Verstegan's claim, which is an anachronism for the Anglo-Saxon period seeing that heraldry only evloved in the 12th century, well after the Norman conquest. John Speed in his Historie of Great Britaine (1611) follows Verstegan in his descriptions of the arms of Erkenwyne, but he qualifies the statement by adding "as some or our heralds have emblazed". The traditional county flower of Essex is the cowslip (Primula veris), locally known as the paigle or peggle, and frequently mentioned in the writings of Essex bucolic authors such as Samuel Bensusan and C. H. Warren. In 2002, the Common Poppy (Papaver rhoeas) was named the county wildflower after a poll of residents (which excluded the cowslip) by the plant conservation charity Plantlife. Essex Life. (2009-04). County Set of Essex flowers. (p.13). Archant Life Limited. Samuel Bensusan and others have suggested that if Essex had a county bird, it would be the lapwing (known locally as the peewit) whose lonely cry characterises the Essex marshes known as saltings. Most English counties have nicknames for people from that county, such as a Tyke from Yorkshire and a Yellowbelly from Lincolnshire; the traditional nickname for a person from Essex is an Essex Calf, so named because the county was famous for rearing beef cattle for sale in London meat markets; calves from the county were famed for their large size and known as 'Essex lions'. Grose, Francis and Egan, Pierce. (1823). Grose's Classical dictionary of th vulgar tongue, revised and corrected, with the addition of numerous slang phrases, collected from tried authorites. London: Printed for Sherwood, Neely, and Jones. Retrieved 2009-04-16. Culture The V Festival is a popular annual music festival held in Hylands Park, Chelmsford. In the 1980s and 1990s the term Essex Girl became a popular pejorative punch-line in British popular culture. The term being similar to the American, Jersey Girl. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1645138,00.html Essex has been the birthplace and crucible of some of the most influential rock artists in the history of music including Heavy Metal band, Iron Maiden http://www.sortmusic.com/_i/iron-maiden-biography,len.html ,Depeche Mode http://www.tunegenie.com/bio/MN0000239921/depeche-mode/?b=kvgs , Blur http://www.sortmusic.com/_b/blur-biography,len.html and is birthplace of U2's Dave "The Edge" Evans. http://www.personal.psu.edu/dpm206/Assignment5.html Cultural references "Essex Dogs" was the title of a 1997 Blur song. http://artists.letssingit.com/blur-lyrics-essex-dogs-nrnm75q "Essex Boys" was the title of a 2000 film starring Sean Bean about the demise of a group of Essex gangaters. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0191996/ Essex Wives was an 2002 LWT reality TV series starring Jodie Marsh http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0486529/ Architecture Over 14,000 buildings have listed status in the county, and around 1000 of those are recognised as of Grade I or II* importance. Bettley, James. (2008). Essex Explored: Essex Architecture. Essex County Council. Retrieved 2009-04-15. The buildings range from the 7th century Saxon church of St Peter-on-the-Wall, to the Royal Corinthian Yacht Club which was the United Kingdom's entry in the "International Exhibition of Modern Architecture" held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1932. Rivers River Blackwater / River Brain / River Can / River Chelmer / River Colne / River Crouch / River Lee / River Roding / River Stort / River Stour / River Thames Places of interest Abberton Reservoir Arena Essex Raceway Ashingdon (The site of the Battle of Ashingdon in 1016) Audley End Image:HH icon.png Colchester Castle Image:CL icon.PNG Clacton-On-Sea Colne Valley Railway Image:HR icon.png East Anglian Railway Museum Image:Museum icon (red).png Epping Forest Great Bentley (Largest village green in England) Harlow New Town Hedingham Castle Image:CL icon.PNG Ingatestone Hall Kelvedon Hatch (Secret Nuclear Bunker) Maldon Historic market town site of the Battle of Maldon Mangapps Railway Museum Image:HR icon.pngImage:Museum icon (red).png (Burnham-on-Crouch) Marsh Farm Country Park Mistley towers St Peter-on-the-Wall Image:AP Icon.PNG Thaxted University of Essex (Wivenhoe Park, Colchester) Waltham Abbey Image:AP Icon.PNG Colchester Zoo North Weald Airfield Saffron Walden Image:Museum icon (red).png Southend Pier Orsett Hall Twinning Sopot, Poland Jiangsu, People's Republic of China Picardy, France Thuringia, Germany Henrico County, Virginia See also 1884 Colchester earthquake Crossing the Lines Earl of Essex Essex County Cricket Club - 2006 pro40 champions Essex girl GHQ Line - World War II fortification List of railway stations in Essex Secondary schools in Essex Town of Essex in Connecticut, USA (voted "best small town in America") Notes and references External links Map of the road transport infrastructure of Essex. Visit Essex Website Area 33 (Essex) Round Table Essex Guides and Directories Essex County Council BBC Essex Evening Echo (for south of county) Evening Gazette (for north of county) Essex Photos Essex Rail Users Federation Essex County Council YouTube channel Essex County Council Media video clips from YouTube

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Ionosphere

Relationship of the atmosphere and ionosphere The ionosphere is the uppermost part of the atmosphere, distinguished because it is ionized by solar radiation. It plays an important part in atmospheric electricity and forms the inner edge of the magnetosphere. It has practical importance because, among other functions, it influences radio propagation to distant places on the Earth. Geophysics The ionosphere is a shell of electrons and electrically charged atoms and molecules that surrounds the Earth, stretching from a height of about 50 km to more than 1000 km. It owes its existence primarily to ultraviolet radiation from the sun. The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere is called the troposphere and it extends from the surface up to about 10 km (6 miles). The atmosphere above 10 km is called the stratosphere, followed by the mesosphere. It is in the stratosphere that incoming solar radiation creates the ozone layer. At heights of above 80 km (50 miles), in the thermosphere, the atmosphere is so thin that free electrons can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive ion. The number of these free electrons is sufficient to affect radio propagation. This portion of the atmosphere is ionized and contains a plasma which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electrons and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electromagnetic force, but they are too energetic to stay fixed together in an electrically neutral molecule. Solar radiation at ultraviolet (UV) and shorter X-Ray wavelengths is considered to be ionizing since photons at these frequencies are capable of dislodging an electron from a neutral gas atom or molecule during a collision. At the same time, however, an opposing process called recombination begins to take place in which a free electron is "captured" by a positive ion if it moves close enough to it. As the gas density increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process accelerates since the gas molecules and ions are closer together. The point of balance between these two processes determines the degree of ionization present at any given time. The ionization depends primarily on the Sun and its activity. The amount of ionization in the ionosphere varies greatly with the amount of radiation received from the sun. Thus there is a diurnal (time of day) effect and a seasonal effect. The local winter hemisphere is tipped away from the Sun, thus there is less received solar radiation. The activity of the sun is associated with the sunspot cycle, with more radiation occurring with more sunspots. Radiation received also varies with geographical location (polar, auroral zones, mid-latitudes, and equatorial regions). There are also mechanisms that disturb the ionosphere and decrease the ionization. There are disturbances such as solar flares and the associated release of charged particles into the solar wind which reaches the Earth and interacts with its geomagnetic field. The ionospheric layers Solar radiation, acting on the different compositions of the atmosphere with height, generates layers of ionization: D layer The D layer is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth. Ionization here is due to Lyman series-alpha hydrogen radiation at a wavelength of 121.5 nanometre (nm) ionizing nitric oxide (NO). In addition, when the sun is active with 50 or more sunspots, hard X-rays (wavelength < 1 nm) ionize the air (N2, O2). During the night cosmic rays produce a residual amount of ionization. Recombination is high in the D layer, thus the net ionization effect is very low and as a result high-frequency (HF) radio waves are not reflected by the D layer. The frequency of collision between electrons and other particles in this region during the day is about 10 million collisions per second. The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below, with progressively smaller absorption as the frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday. The layer reduces greatly after sunset, but remains due to galactic cosmic rays. A common example of the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant AM broadcast band stations in the daytime. During solar proton events, ionization can reach unusually high levels in the D-region over the high and polar latitudes. Such events are known as Polar Cap Absorption (or PCA) events, because the increased ionization significantly enhances the absorption of radio signals passing through the region. In fact, absorption levels can increase by many tens of dB during intense events, which is enough to absorb most (if not all) transpolar HF radio signal transmissions. Such events typically last less than 24 to 48 hours. E layer The E layer is the middle layer, 90 km to 120 km above the surface of the Earth. Ionization is due to soft X-ray (1-10 nm) and far ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation ionization of molecular oxygen (O2). Normally this layer can only reflect radio waves having frequencies lower than about 10 MHz and has a negative effect on frequencies above 10 MHz due to its partial absorption of these waves. However during intense Sporadic E events it can reflect frequencies as high as 250 MHz The vertical structure of the E layer is primarily determined by the competing effects of ionization and recombination. At night the E layer begins to disappear because the primary source of ionization is no longer present. This results in an increase in the height where the layer maximizes because recombination is faster in the lower layers. Diurnal changes in the high altitude neutral winds also plays a role. The increase in the height of the E layer maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the layer. This region is also known as the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer or simply the Heaviside layer. Its existence was predicted in 1902 independently and almost simultaneously by the American electrical engineer Arthur Edwin Kennelly (1861-1939) and the British physicist Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925). However, it was not until 1924 that its existence was detected by Edward V. Appleton. ES The Es layer or sporadic E-layer. Sporadic E propagation is characterized by small clouds of intense ionization, which can support radio wave reflections from 25 – 225 MHz. Sporadic-E events may last for just a few minutes to several hours and make radio amateurs very excited, as propagation paths which are generally unreachable, can open up. There are multiple causes of sporadic-E that are still being pursued by researchers. This propagation occurs most frequently during the summer months with major occurrences during the summer, and minor occurrences during the winter. During the summer, this mode is popular due to its high signal levels. The skip distances are generally around 1000km (620 miles). VHF TV and FM broadcast DX'ers also get excited as their signals can be bounced back to earth by Es. Distances for short hop events can be as close as 500 miles or up to 1,400 (or more) for a long, single hop. Douple-hop reception over 2,000 miles is possible, too. F layer The F layer or region, also known as the Appleton layer, is 120 km to 400 km above the surface of the Earth. It is the top most layer of the ionosphere. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV, 10–100 nm) solar radiation ionizes atomic oxygen. The F layer consists of one layer at night, but in the presence of sunlight (during the day), it divides into two layers, labeled F1 and F2. These F layers are responsible for most skywave propagation of radio waves, facilitating high frequency (HF, or shortwave) radio communications over long distances. They are thickest and most effective in refracting radio signals on the side of the earth facing the sun. From 1972 to 1975 NASA launched the AEROS and AEROS B satellites to study the F region. p.12 AEROS Ionospheric model An ionospheric model is a mathematical description of the ionosphere as a function of location, altitude, day of year, phase of the sun spot cycle and geomagnetic activity. Models are usually expressed as computer programs. The model may be based on basic physics of the interactions of the ions and electrons with the neutral atmosphere and sun light, or it may be a statistical description based on a large number of observations or a combination of physics and observations. One of the most widely used models is the International Reference Ionosphere (IRI 2007), which is based on data. The International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) is an international project sponsored by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and the International Union of Radio Science (URSI). he major data sources are the worldwide network of ionosondes, the powerful incoherent scatter radars (Jicamarca, Arecibo, Millstone Hill, Malvern, St. Santin), the ISIS and Alouette topside sounders, and in situ instruments on several satellites and rockets. IRI is updated yearly. IRI will be established in 2009 by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as standard TS16457. IRI is accurate in describing the variation of the electron density from bottom of the ionosphere to the altitude of maximum density than in describing the total electron content (TEC). Anomalies to the ideal model The statements above assumed that each layer was smooth and uniform. In reality the ionosphere is a lumpy, cloudy layer with irregular patches of ionization. Winter anomaly At mid-latitudes, the F2 layer daytime ion production is higher in the summer, as expected, since the sun shines more directly on the earth. However, there are seasonal changes in the molecular-to-atomic ratio of the neutral atmosphere that cause the summer ion loss rate to be even higher. The result is that the increase in the summertime loss overwhelms the increase in summertime production, and total F2 ionization is actually lower in the local summer months. This effect is known as the winter anomaly. The anomaly is always present in the northern hemisphere, but is usually absent in the southern hemisphere during periods of low solar activity. Equatorial anomaly Electric currents created in sunward ionosphere. Within approximately ± 20 degrees of the magnetic equator, is the equatorial anomaly. It is the occurrence of a trough of concentrated ionization in the F2 layer. The Earth's magnetic field lines are horizontal at the magnetic equator. Solar heating and tidal oscillations in the lower ionosphere move plasma up and across the magnetic field lines. This sets up a sheet of electric current in the E region which, with the horizontal magnetic field, forces ionization up into the F layer, concentrating at ± 20 degrees from the magnetic equator. This phenomenon is known as the equatorial fountain. Equatorial electrojet The worldwide solar-driven wind results in the so-called Sq (solar quiet) current system in the E region of the Earth's ionosphere (100-130 km altitude). Resulting from this current is an electrostatic field directed E-W (dawn-dusk) in the equatorial day side of the ionosphere. At the magnetic dip equator, where the geomagnetic field is horizontal, this electric field results in an enhanced eastward current flow within ± 3 degrees of the magnetic equator, known as the equatorial electrojet. Ionospheric perturbations X-rays: sudden ionospheric disturbances (SID) When the sun is active, strong solar flares can occur that will hit the Earth with hard X-rays on the sunlit side of the Earth. They will penetrate to the D-region, release electrons which will rapidly increase absorption causing a High Frequency (3-30 MHz) radio blackout. During this time Very Low Frequency (3 - 30 kHz) signals will become reflected by the D layer instead of the E layer, where the increased atmospheric density will usually increase the absorption of the wave, and thus dampen it. As soon as the X-rays end, the sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) or radio black-out ends as the electrons in the D-region recombine rapidly and signal strengths return to normal. Protons: polar cap absorption (PCA) Associated with solar flares is a release of high-energy protons. These particles can hit the Earth within 15 minutes to 2 hours of the solar flare. The protons spiral around and down the magnetic field lines of the Earth and penetrate into the atmosphere near the magnetic poles increasing the ionization of the D and E layers. PCA's typically last anywhere from about an hour to several days, with an average of around 24 to 36 hours. Geomagnetic storms A geomagnetic storm is a temporary intense disturbance of the Earth's magnetosphere. During a geomagnetic storm the F2 layer will become unstable, fragment, and may even disappear completely. In the Northern and Southern pole regions of the Earth aurora will be observable in the sky. Lightning Lightning can cause ionospheric perturbations in the D-region one of two ways. The first is through VLF frequency radio waves launched into the magnetosphere. These so-called "whistler" mode waves can interact with radiation belt particles and cause them to precipitate onto the ionosphere, adding ionization to the D-region. These disturbances are called Lightning-induced Electron Precipitation (LEP) events. Additional ionization can also occur from direct heating/ionization as a result of huge motions of charge in lightning strikes. These events are called Early/Fast. In 1925, C. F. Wilson proposed a mechanism by which electrical discharge from lightning storms could propagate upwards from clouds to the ionosphere. Around the same time, Robert Watson-Watt, working at the Radio Research Station in Slough, UK, suggested that the ionospheric sporadic E layer (Es) appeared to be enhanced as a result of lightning but that more work was needed. In 2005, C. Davis and C. Johnson, working at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Oxfordshire, UK, demonstrated that the Es layer was indeed enhanced as a result of lightning activity. Their subsequent research has focussed on the mechanism by which this process can occur. Radio application DX communication, popular among amateur radio enthusiasts, is a term given to communication over great distances. Thanks to the property of ionized atmospheric gases to refract high frequency (HF, or shortwave) radio energy, the ionosphere can be utilized to "bounce" a transmitted signal back to earth. The signal may then be reflected back into the ionosphere for a second bounce, or hop. Mechanism of refraction When a radio wave reaches the ionosphere, the electric field in the wave forces the electrons in the ionosphere into oscillation at the same frequency as the radio wave. Some of the radio-frequency energy is given up to this resonant oscillation. The oscillating electrons will then either be lost to recombination or will re-radiate the original wave energy. Total refraction can occur when the collision frequency of the ionosphere is less than the radio frequency, and if the electron density in the ionosphere is great enough. The critical frequency is the limiting frequency at or below which a radio wave is refracted by an ionospheric layer at vertical incidence. If the transmitted frequency is higher than the plasma frequency of the ionosphere, then the electrons cannot respond fast enough, and they are not able to re-radiate the signal. It is calculated as shown below: where N = electron density per cm3 and fcritical is in MHz. The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is defined as the upper frequency limit that can be used for transmission between two points at a specified time. where = angle of attack, the angle of the wave relative to the horizon, and sin is the sine function. The cutoff frequency is the frequency below which a radio wave fails to penetrate a layer of the ionosphere at the incidence angle required for transmission between two specified points by refraction from the layer. Other applications The open system electrodynamic tether, which uses the ionosphere, is being researched. The space tether uses plasma contactors and the ionosphere as parts of a circuit to extract energy from the Earth's magnetic field by electromagnetic induction. Measurements Ionograms Ionograms show the virtual heights and critical frequencies of the ionospheric layers and which are measured by an ionosonde. An ionosonde sweeps a range of frequencies, usually from 0.1 to 30 MHz, transmitting at vertical incidence to the ionosphere. As the frequency increases, each wave is refracted less by the ionization in the layer, and so each penetrates further before it is reflected. Eventually, a frequency is reached that enables the wave to penetrate the layer without being reflected. For ordinary mode waves, this occurs when the transmitted frequency just exceeds the peak plasma, or critical, frequency of the layer. Tracings of the reflected high frequency radio pulses are known as ionograms. Reduction rules are given in:"URSI Handbook of Ionogram Interpretation and Reduction", edited by W.R.Piggott and Karl Rawer, Elsevier Amsterdam 1961. Translations in Chinese, French, Japanese, Russian were edited by national organisations. Incoherent scatter radars Incoherent scatter radars operate above the critical frequencies. Therefore the technique allows to probe the ionosphere, unlike ionosondes, also above the electron density peaks. The thermal fluctuations of the electron density scattering the transmitted signals lack coherence, which gave the technique its name. Their power spectrum contains information not only on the density, but also on the ion and electron temperatures, ion masses and drift velocities. Solar flux Solar flux is a measurement of the intensity of solar radio emissions at a frequency of 2800 MHz made using a radio telescope located in Ottawa, Canada. Known also as the 10.7 cm flux (the wavelength of the radio signals at 2800 MHz), this solar radio emission has been shown to be proportional to sunspot activity. However, the level of the sun's ultraviolet and X-ray emissions is primarily responsible for causing ionization in the earth's upper atmosphere. We now have data from the GOES spacecraft that measures the background X-ray flux from the sun, a parameter more closely related to the ionization levels in the ionosphere. The A and K indices are a measurement of the behavior of the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. The K index uses a scale from 0 to 9 to measure the change in the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. A new K index is determined at the Table Mountain Observatory, north of Boulder, Colorado. The geomagnetic activity levels of the earth are measured by the fluctuation of the Earth's magnetic field in units called teslas (or in non-SI gauss, especially in older literature). The Earth's magnetic field is measured around the planet by many observatories. The data retrieved is processed and turned into measurement indices. Daily measurements for the entire planet are made available through an estimate of the ap index, called the planetary A-index (PAI). Scientific research on ionospheric propagation Scientists also are exploring the structure of the ionosphere by a wide variety of methods, including passive observations of optical and radio emissions generated in the ionosphere, bouncing radio waves of different frequencies from it, incoherent scatter radars such as the EISCAT, Sondre Stromfjord, Millstone Hill, Arecibo, and Jicamarca radars, coherent scatter radars such as the Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN) radars, and using special receivers to detect how the reflected waves have changed from the transmitted waves. A variety of experiments, such as HAARP (High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program), involve high power radio transmitters to modify the properties of the ionosphere. These investigations focus on studying the properties and behavior of ionospheric plasma, with particular emphasis on being able to understand and use it to enhance communications and surveillance systems for both civilian and military purposes. HAARP was started in 1993 as a proposed twenty year experiment, and is currently active near Gakona, Alaska. The SuperDARN radar project researches the high- and mid-latitudes using coherent backscatter of radio waves in the 8 to 20 MHz range. Coherent backscatter is similar to Bragg scattering in crystals and involves the constructive interference of scattering from ionospheric density irregularities. The project involves more than 11 different countries and multiple radars in both hemispheres. Scientists are also examining the ionosphere by the changes to radio waves from satellites and stars passing through it. The Arecibo radio telescope located in Puerto Rico, was originally intended to study Earth's ionosphere. History In 1899, Nikola Tesla moved from New York to Colorado Springs, Colorado, where he would have room for his high-voltage, high-frequency experiments. Upon his arrival he told reporters that he was conducting wireless telegraphy experiments transmitting signals from Pikes Peak to Paris. Tesla biography at magnetricity.com Tesla's diary contains explanations of his experiments concerning the ionosphere. Tesla, Nikola, "The True Wireless". Electrical Experimenter, May 1919. (also at pbs.org) Guglielmo Marconi received the first trans-Atlantic radio signal on December 12, 1901, in St. John's, Newfoundland (now in Canada) using a 152.4 m (500 ft) kite-supported antenna for reception. The transmitting station in Poldhu, Cornwall used a spark-gap transmitter to produce a signal with a frequency of approximately 500 kHz and a power of 100 times more than any radio signal previously produced. The message received was three dits, the Morse code for the letter S. To reach Newfoundland the signal would have to bounce off the ionosphere twice. Dr. Jack Belrose has recently contested this, however, based on theoretical and experimental work. John S. Belrose, "Fessenden and Marconi: Their Differing Technologies and Transatlantic Experiments During the First Decade of this Century". International Conference on 100 Years of Radio -- 5-7 September 1995. However, Marconi did achieve transatlantic wireless communications beyond a shadow of doubt in Glace Bay one year later. In 1902, Oliver Heaviside proposed the existence of the Kennelly-Heaviside Layer of the ionosphere which bears his name. Heaviside's proposal included means by which radio signals are transmitted around the Earth's curvature. Heaviside's proposal, coupled with Planck's law of black body radiation, may have hampered the growth of radio astronomy for the detection of electromagnetic waves from celestial bodies until 1932 (and the development of high frequency radio transceivers). Also in 1902, Arthur Edwin Kennelly discovered some of the ionosphere's radio-electrical properties. In 1912, the U.S. Congress imposed the Radio Act of 1912 on amateur radio operators, limiting their operations to frequencies above 1.5 MHz (wavelength 200 meters or smaller). The government thought those frequencies were useless. This led to the discovery of HF radio propagation via the ionosphere in 1923. In 1926, Scottish physicist Robert Watson-Watt introduced the term ionosphere in a letter published only in 1969 in Nature: Edward V. Appleton was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1947 for his confirmation in 1927 of the existence of the ionosphere. Lloyd Berkner first measured the height and density of the ionosphere. This permitted the first complete theory of short wave radio propagation. Maurice V. Wilkes and J. A. Ratcliffe researched the topic of radio propagation of very long radio waves in the ionosphere. Vitaly Ginzburg has developed a theory of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas such as the ionosphere. In 1962 the Canadian satellite Alouette 1 was launched to study the ionosphere. Following its success were Alouette 2 in 1965 and the two ISIS satellites in 1969 and 1971, all for measuring the ionosphere. References Corum, J. F., and Corum, K. L., "A Physical Interpretation of the Colorado Springs Data". Proceedings of the Second International Tesla Symposium. Colorado Springs, Colorado, 1986. Davies, K., 1990. Peter Peregrinus Ltd, London. ISBN 0-86341-186-X Ionospheric Radio. Grotz, Toby, "The True Meaning of Wireless Transmission of power". Tesla : A Journal of Modern Science, 1997. Hargreaves, J. K., "The Upper Atmosphere and Solar-Terrestrial Relations". Cambridge University Press, 1992, Kelley, M. C, and Heelis, R. A., "The Earth's Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics". Academic Press, 1989. Leo F. McNamara. (1994) ISBN 0-89464-804-7 Radio Amateurs Guide to the Ionosphere. D. Bilitza, "International Reference Ionosphere 2000," Radio Science, 36, 2, pp 261-275, 2001. See also Geophysics Van Allen radiation belt Radio Fading Line-of-sight propagation List of telecommunications transmission terms Ionospheric absorption Related Tether propulsion Canadian Geospace Monitoring Pioneer Venus project Nozomi New Horizons Soft gamma repeater TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics) International Geophysical Year Upper Atmospheric Lightning Lists List of astronomical topics List of electronics topics External links Gehred, Paul, and Norm Cohen, SWPC's Radio User's Page. Amsat-Italia project on Ionospheric propagation (ESA SWENET website) KN4LF Solar Space Weather & Geomagnetic Data Archive KN4LF 160 Meter Radio Propagation Theory Notes Layman Level Explanations Of "Seemingly" Mysterious 160 Meter (MF/HF) Propagation Occurrences USGS Geomagnetism Program Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ionosphere and magnetosphere Current Space Weather Conditions Current Solar X-Ray Flux Super Dual Auroral Radar Network European Inchorent Scatter radar system Millstone Hill incoherent scatter radar

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Apollo

In Greek and Roman mythology, Apollo (in Greek, Ἀπόλλων—Apóllōn or Ἀπέλλων—Apellōn), is one of the most important and many-sided of the Olympian deities. The ideal of the kouros (a beardless youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun; truth and prophecy; archery; medicine and healing; music, poetry, and the arts; and more. Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto, and has a twin sister, the chaste huntress Artemis. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu. Apollo was worshipped in both ancient Greek and Roman religion, as well as in the modern Hellenic neopaganism. As the patron of Delphi (Pythian Apollo), Apollo was an oracular god — the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle. Medicine and healing were associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius. Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly plague as well as one who had the ability to cure. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over colonists, and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the Muses (Apollon Musagetes) and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and poetry. Hermes created the lyre for him, and the instrument became a common attribute of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called paeans. In Hellenistic times, especially during the third century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, god of the sun, and his sister Artemis similarly equated with Selene, goddess of the moon. For the iconography of the Alexander–Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. "Helios," in Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 2, pp. 117–23; cf. Yalouris 1980, no. 42. In Latin texts, however, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with Sol among the Augustan poets of the first century, not even in the conjurations of Aeneas and Latinus in Aeneid XII (161–215). Joseph Fontenrose, "Apollo and Sol in the Latin poets of the first century BC", Transactions of the American Philological Association 30 (1939), pp 439–55; "Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid", American Journal of Philology 61 (1940) pp 429–44; and "Apollo and Sol in the Oaths of Aeneas and Latinus" Classical Philology 38.2 (April 1943), pp. 137–138. Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the third century CE. Etymology The etymology of Apollo is uncertain. Several instances of popular etymology are attested from ancient authors. Thus, Plato in Cratylus connects the name with "redeem", with "purification", and with "simple", The ἁ suggestion is repeated by Plutarch in Moralia in the sense of "unity". in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with "ever-shooting". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric απελλα, which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκος ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. It is also possible Burkert so holds; Greek Religion p.144 that apellai derives from an old form of Apollo which can be equated with Appaliunas, an Anatolian god whose name possibly means "father lion" or "father light". The Greeks later associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb απολλυμι (apollymi) meaning "to destroy". Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Apollo It has also been suggested de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006) "Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend". (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology) Mackenzie, Donald A. (2005) "Myths of Babylonia and Assyria" (Gutenberg) that Apollo comes from the Hurrian and Hittite divinity, Aplu, who was widely evoked during the "plague years". Aplu, it is suggested, comes from the Akkadian Aplu Enlil, meaning "the son of Enlil", a title that was given to the god Nergal, who was linked to Shamash, Babylonian god of the sun. Origins of cult It appears that both Greek and Etruscan Apollo came to the Aegean during the Iron Age (i.e. from c.1100 BCE to c. 800 BCE) from Anatolia. Homer pictures him on the side of the Trojans, against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War and he has close affiliations with a Luwian deity, Apaliunas, who in turn seems to have traveled west from further east. The Late Bronze Age (from 1700–1200 BCE) Hittite and Hurrian Aplu, Croft, John (2003) wrote in the Ancient Near East mail list hosted by the University of Chicago that "Apollo does not have a Greek provenance but an Anatolian one. Luwian Apaliuna seems to have travelled west from further East. Hurrian Aplu was a god of the plague, and resembles the mouse god Apollo Smitheus. Hurrian Aplu itself seems derived from the Babylonian "Aplu" meaning a "son of" — a title that was given to the Babylonian plague God, Nergal (son of Enlil)" like the Homeric Apollo, was a god of plagues, and resembles the mouse god Apollo Smintheus. Here we have an apotropaic situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it, merging over time through fusion with the Mycenaean healer-god Paieon (PA-JA-WO in Linear B); Paean, in Homer's Iliad, was the Greek healer of the wounded gods Ares and Hades. In other writers, the word becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing, but it is now known from Linear B that Paean was originally a separate deity. Homer illustrated Paieon the god as well as the song both of apotropaic thanksgiving or triumph, See Paean. and Hesiod also separated the two; in later poetry Paean was invoked independently as a god of healing. It is equally difficult to separate Paean or Paeon in the sense of "healer" from Paean in the sense of "song." Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods, Dionysus, Helios, Asclepius.. About the fourth century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won. Apollo's links with oracles again seem to be associated with wishing to know the outcome of an illness. He is a god of music and the lyre. Healing belongs to his realm: he was the father of Asclepius, the god of medicine. The Muses are part of his retinue, so that music, history, poetry and dance all belong to him. Cult sites Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Burkert 1985:143. Theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia are met with throughout the Greek world. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Oracular shrines Apollo had a famous oracle in Delphi, and other notable ones in Clarus and Branchidae. His oracular shrine in Abae in Phocis, where he bore the toponymic epithet Abaeus (, Apollon Abaios) was important enough to be consulted by Croesus (Herodotus, 1.46). His oracular shrines include: In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. Lucian (attrib.), De Dea Syria 35–37. In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War In Bassae in the Peloponnese In Abae in Phocis In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton. At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank. In Segesta in Sicily Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo. In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring. in Labadea, east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle. Festivals The chief Apollonian festivals were the Boedromia, Carneia, Carpiae, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia. Attributes and symbols Apollo Citharoedus ("Apollo with a kithara"), Musei Capitolini, Rome Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games. The palm was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows, snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice and griffins, mythical eagle–lion hybrids of Eastern origin. As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention a Minor Asian god called Appaliunas or Apalunas in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of Lykegenes can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology). In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase. Apollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony. Roman Apollo The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus. Livy 1.56. On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BC, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare". Livy 3.63.7, 4.25.3. During the Second Punic War in 212 BC, the Ludi Apollinares ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. Livy 25.12. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. Suetonius, Augustus 18.2; Cassius Dio 51.1.1–3. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Cassius Dio 53.1.3. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era. Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae 5050, translated by In art Apollo (the "Adonis" of Centocelle), Roman after a Greek original (Ashmolean Museum) In art, Apollo is depicted as a handsome beardless young man, often with a kithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the nineteenth century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 350 and 325 BC. The lifesize so-called "Adonis" (shown at left) found in 1780 on the site of a villa suburbana near the Via Labicana in the Roman suburb of Centocelle and now in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. It was probably never intended as a cult object, but was a pastiche of several fourth-century and later Hellenistic model types, intended to please a Roman connoisseur of the second century AD, and to be displayed in his villa. Apollo with a radiant halo in a Roman floor mosaic, El Djem, Tunisia, late 2nd century In the late second century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus (right), he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the third century BCE to depict Alexander the Great (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980). Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed. Mythology Birth When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "terra firma", or the mainland, or any island. In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of Delos, which was neither mainland nor a real island, and she gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo. It is also stated that Hera kidnapped Ilithyia, the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards (8 m) long, of amber. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of Ortygia and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day () of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition— or of the month Bysios— according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. Youth Four days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon Python, which lived in Delphi beside the Castalian Spring. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophesies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. In order to protect his mother, Apollo begged Hephaestus for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi. Children of the Gods by Kenneth McLeish, page 32. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of Gaia. Hera then sent the giant Tityos to kill Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to Tartarus. There he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of , where a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver. Admetus When Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius, with a lightning bolt for resurrecting Hippolytus from the dead (transgressing Themis by stealing Hades's subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the Cyclops, who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labor as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, Leto. During this time he served as shepherd for King Admetus of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus. Apollo helped Admetus win Alcestis, the daughter of King Pelias and later convinced the Fates to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but Heracles managed to "persuade" Thanatos, the god of death, to return her to the world of the living. Trojan War Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the Trojan War in retribution for Agamemnon's insult to Chryses, a priest of Apollo whose daughter Chryseis had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad. When Diomedes injured Aeneas (Iliad), Apollo rescued him. First, Aphrodite tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy. Apollo aided Paris in the killing of Achilles by guiding the arrow of his bow into Achilles' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering Troilus, the god's own son by Hecuba, on the very altar of the god's own temple. Niobe A queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, Niobe boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children (Niobids), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared (Chloris, usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to Mount Sipylos in Asia Minor and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river Achelous. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them. Consorts and children Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. ""The love-stories themselves were not told until later." (Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951:140. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favourites of painters since the Renaissance, so that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination. Female lovers In explanation of the connection of Apollon with daphne, the Laurel whose leaves his priestess employed at Delphi, it was told by Libanius, a fourth-century CE teacher of rhetoric, Libanius, Narrationes. that Apollo chased a nymph, Daphne, daughter of Peneus, who had scorned him. In Ovid's telling for a Roman audience, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a man's weapon suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with an arrow with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother Earth, or, alternatively, her father — a river god — to help her and he changed her into the Laurel tree, sacred to Apollo. Apollo had an affair with a human princess named Leucothea, daughter of Orchamus and sister of Clytia. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day. Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dived into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets. By Cyrene, Apollo had a son named Aristaeus, who became the patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives. With Hecuba, wife of King Priam of Troy, Apollo had a son named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilles. Apollo also fell in love with Cassandra, daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her. Coronis, daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths, was another of Apollo's liaisons. Pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did. In Euripides' play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess. One of his other liaisons was with Acantha, the spirit of the acanthus tree. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb. Male lovers Apollo and HyacinthusJacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving Apollo, the eternal beardless kouros himself, had the most prominent male relationships of all the Greek Gods. That might be expected from a god who was god of the palaestra, the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed in the nude. Many of Apollo's male lovers suffer tragic deaths resulting from accidents. Hyacinth (or Hyacinthus) was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a Spartan prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head and killing him instantly. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said to be filled with grief and in anger at Zephyrus, transformed him into the wind so that he could never touch or speak to anyone again. Out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with άί άί, meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta. Another male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the tree named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. Birth of Hermes Hermes was born on Mount Cyllene in Arcadia. The story is told in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes. His mother, Maia, had been secretly impregnated by Zeus. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to Thessaly, where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first lyre. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre. Other stories Apollo gave the order through the Oracle at Delphi, for Orestes to kill his mother, Clytemnestra, and her lover, Aegisthus. Orestes was punished fiercely by the Erinyes (the Furies, female personifications of vengeance) for this crime. Relentlessly pursued by the Furies, Orestes asked for the intercession of Athena, who decreed that he be tried by a jury of his peers, with Apollo acting as his attorney. In the Odyssey, Odysseus and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as Tiresias and Circe had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had Zeus destroy the ship and all the men, except Odysseus. Apollo also had a lyre-playing contest with Cinyras, his son, who committed suicide when he lost. Apollo killed the Aloadae when they attempted to storm Mt. Olympus. It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the Hyperboreans during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride. Apollo turned Cephissus into a sea monster. Musical contests Pan Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the kithara, to a trial of skill. Tmolus, the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey. Marsyas The Flaying of Marsyas by Titian, c.1570–76. Apollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: Marsyas was a satyr who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the Muses. After they each performed, both were deemed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the lyre, this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo flayed Marsyas alive in a cave near Celaenae in Phrygia for his hubris to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river Marsyas. Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive. Man Myth and Magic by Richard Cavendish Graeco–Roman epithets and cult titles Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of epithets applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature, chief among them Phoebus ("shining one"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light. In Apollo's role as healer, his appellations included Akesios, Iatros, and Acestor Euripides, Andromache 901 meaning "healer". He was also called Alexicacus ("restrainer of evil") and Apotropaeus ("he who averts evil"), and was referred to by the Romans as Averruncus ("averter of evils"). As a plague god and defender against rats and locusts, Apollo was known as Smintheus ("mouse-catcher") and Parnopius ("grasshopper"). The Romans also called Apollo Culicarius ("driving away midges"). In his healing aspect, the Romans referred to Apollo as Medicus ("the Physician"), and a temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus at Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona. As a sun-god he was worshiped as Aegletes, the radiant god. Apollonius of Rhodes, iv. 1730 Apollodorus, i. 9. § 26 As a god of archery, Apollo was known as Aphetoros ("god of the bow") and Argurotoxos ("with the silver bow"). The Romans referred to Apollo as Articenens ("carrying the bow") as well. As a pastoral shepherd-god, Apollo was known as Nomios ("wandering"). As the protector of roads and homes he was Agyieus. Apollo was also known as Archegetes ("director of the foundation"), who oversaw colonies. He was known as Klarios, from the Doric klaros ("allotment of land"), for his supervision over cities and colonies. He was known as Delphinios ("Delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", in his association with Delphoi (Delphi). At Delphi, he was also known as Pythios ("Pythian"). An aitiology in the Homeric hymns connects the epitheton to dolphins. Kynthios, another common epithet, stemmed from his birth on Mt. Cynthus. He was also known as Lyceios or Lykegenes, which either meant "wolfish" or "of Lycia", Lycia being the place where some postulate that his cult originated. Specifically as god of prophecy, Apollo was known as Loxias ("the obscure"). He was also known as Coelispex ("he who watches the heavens") to the Romans. Apollo was attributed the epithet Musagetes as the leader of the muses, and Nymphegetes as "nymph-leader". Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora. This surname, which has the same meaning as akestor and alezikakos, characterized the god as the averter of evil. "Acesius". Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London, 1880. Acraephius or Acraephiaeus was his epithet worshipped in the Boeotian town of Acraephia, reputedly founded by his son, Acraepheus. Actiacus was his epithet in Actium, one of the principal places of his worship. Ovid, Metamorphoses xiii. 715 Strabo, x. p. 451 Celtic epithets and cult titles Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character. Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Miranda J. Green, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997 Apollo Atepomarus ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre) under this name. Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII, 1863–1986 Pagan Celtic Britain, A. Ross, 1967 The Gods of the Celts, M.J. Green, 1986, London Apollo Belenus ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, North Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria. Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae, J. Zwicker, 1934–36, Berlin Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum V, XI, XII, XIII Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule, Ogam (vol 6), J. Gourcest, 1954 Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est, Revue archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est (vol 2), E. Thevonot, 1951 Temoignages du culte de l'Apollon gaulois dans l'Helvetie romaine, Revue celtique (vol 51), 1934 Apollo Cunomaglus ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine in Wiltshire. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Whilshire 1956–1971, Society of Antiquaries of London Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo The Celtic Heritage in Hungary, M. Szabo, 1971, Budapest Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus. Apollo Moritasgus ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. <Alesia, archeologie et histoire, J. Le Gall, 1963, Paris Apollo Vindonnus ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Chatillon-sur-Seine in Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. Apollo Virotutis ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy (Haute-Savoie) and at Jublains (Maine-et-Loire) Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII Reception Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's Apollon musagète (1927–1928). The name Apollo was given to NASA's Apollo Lunar program in the 1960s. The statue of Apollo from the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (currently in the Olympia Archaeological Museum) was depicted on the obverse of the Greek 1000 drachmas banknote of 1987–2001. Bank of Greece. Drachma Banknotes & Coins: 1000 drachmas. – Retrieved on 27 March 2009. Media 1. Apollo and Hyacinthus, read by Timothy Carter References Further reading Primary sources Homer, Iliad ii.595–600 (c. 700 BCE) Sophocles, Oedipus Rex Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Tales 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE) Apollodorus, Library 1.3.3 (140 BCE) Ovid, Metamorphoses 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE) Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (160–176 CE) Philostratus the Elder, Images i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) Philostratus the Younger, Images 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 14 (170 CE) First Vatican Mythographer, 197. Thamyris et Musae Secondary sources M. Bieber, 1964. Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art (Chicago) Walter Burkert, 1985. Greek Religion (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 passim Robert Graves, 1960. The Greek Myths, revised edition (Penguin) Miranda J. Green, Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997 Karl Kerenyi, Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität rev. ed. 1953. Karl Kerenyi , 1951 The Gods of the Greeks Pauly–Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft: II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert). Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo. William Smith (lexicographer), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, article on Apollo, N. Yalouris, 1980. The Search for Alexander (Boston) Exhibition. Notes External links Apollo at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada

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Nerve_agent

Nerve agents, also referred to as nerve gases though these chemicals are liquid at room temperature, are a class of phosphorus-containing organic chemicals (organophosphates) that disrupt the mechanism by which nerves transfer messages to organs. The disruption is caused by blocking acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that normally relaxes the activity of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. As chemical weapons, they are classified as weapons of mass destruction by the United Nations according to UN Resolution 687 (passed in April 1991) and their production and stockpiling was outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993; the Chemical Weapons Convention officially took effect on April 291997. Poisoning by a nerve agent leads to contraction of pupils, profuse salivation, convulsions, involuntary urination and defecation and eventual death by asphyxiation as control is lost over respiratory muscles. Some nerve agents are readily vaporized or aerosolized and the primary portal of entry into the body is the respiratory system. Nerve agents can also be absorbed through the skin, requiring that those likely to be subjected to such agents wear a full body suit in addition to a respirator. Biological effects As their name suggests, nerve agents attack the nervous system of the human body. All such agents function the same way: by interrupting the breakdown of the neurotransmitters that signal muscles to contract, preventing them from relaxing. Initial symptoms following exposure to nerve agents (like sarin) are a runny nose, tightness in the chest and constriction of the pupils. Soon after, the victim will then have difficulty breathing and will experience nausea and drooling. As the victim continues to lose control of his or her bodily functions, he or she will involuntarily salivate, lacrimate, urinate, defecate and experience gastrointestinal pain and vomiting. Blisters and burning of the eyes and/or lungs may also occur. A Tutorial to Chemical and Biological Agents Effects of Chemical Agents This phase is followed by twitching and jerking and ultimately the victim will become comatose and suffocate as a consequence of convulsive spasms. The effects of nerve agents are very long lasting and cumulative (increased successive exposures) and survivors of nerve agent poisoning almost invariably suffer chronic neurological damage. Mechanism of action When a normally functioning motor nerve is stimulated it releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which transmits the impulse to a muscle or organ. Once the impulse is sent, the enzyme acetylcholineesterase immediately breaks down the acetylcholine in order to allow the muscle or organ to relax. Nerve agents disrupt the nervous system by inhibiting the function of acetylcholinesterase by forming a covalent bond with the site of the enzyme where acetylcholine normally undergoes hydrolysis (breaks down). The result is that acetylcholine builds up and continues to act so that any nerve impulses are continually transmitted and muscle contractions do not stop. This same action also occurs at the gland and organ levels, resulting in uncontrolled drooling, tearing of the eyes (lacrimation) and excess production of mucus from the nose (rhinorrhea). Antidotes Atropine and related anticholinergic drugs act as antidotes to nerve agent poisoning because they block acetylcholine receptors, but they are poisonous in their own right. (Some synthetic anticholinergics, such as biperiden may counteract the central symptoms of nerve agent poisoning better than atropine, since they pass the blood-brain barrier better than atropine.) While these drugs will save the life of a person affected with nerve agents, that person may be incapacitated briefly or for an extended period, depending on the amount of exposure. The endpoint of atropine administration is the clearing of bronchial secretions. Atropine for field use by military personnel is often loaded in an autoinjector, for ease of use in stressful conditions. Pralidoxime chloride, also known as 2-PAM chloride, is also used as an antidote. Rather than counteracting the initial effects of the nerve agent on the nervous system like atropine, pralidoxime chloride reactivates the poisoned enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) by scavenging the phosphoryl rest attached on the functional hydroxyl group of the enzyme. Though safer to use, it takes longer to act. Recent scientific breakthroughs have seen antidotes being produced in the milk of genetically modified goats. Goats Can Foil Gas Attack Classes There are two main classes of nerve agents. The members of the two classes share similar properties and are given both a common name (such as sarin) and a two-character NATO identifier (such as GB). G-Series The G-series is thus named because German scientists first synthesized them. All of the compounds in this class were discovered and synthesized during or soon after World War II, led by Dr. Gerhard Schrader (later under the employment of IG Farben). This series is the first and oldest family of nerve agents. The first nerve agent ever synthesised was GA (tabun) in 1936. GB (sarin) was discovered next in 1939, followed by GD (soman) in 1944 and finally the more obscure GF (cyclosarin) in 1949. GB was the only G agent that was fielded by the USA as a munition, specifically in rockets, aerial bombs, howitzer rounds and gun rounds. V-Series Chemical form of the nerve agent VX Dr. Ranajit Ghosh, a chemist at the Plant Protection Laboratories of Imperial Chemical Industries was investigating a class of organophosphate compounds (organophosphate esters of substituted aminoethanethiols). Like the earlier investigator of organophosphate, Dr. Schrader, Dr. Ghosh found that they were quite effective pesticides. In 1954, ICI put one of them on the market under the trade name Amiton. It was subsequently withdrawn, as it was too toxic for safe use. The toxicity did not go unnoticed and some of the more toxic materials had in fact been sent to the British Armed Forces research facility at Porton Down for evaluation. After the evaluation was complete, several members of this class of compounds would become a new group of nerve agents, the V agents (depending on the source, the V stands for Victory, Venomous, or Viscous). The best known of these is probably VX, with the Russian V-gas coming a close second (Amiton is largely forgotten as VG). This class of compounds is also sometimes known as Tammelin's esters, after Lars-Erik Tammelin of the Swedish Institute of Defense Research. Dr. Tammelin was also conducting research on this class of compounds in 1952, but for obvious reasons he did not publicize his work widely. The V-series is the second family of nerve agents and contains five well known members: VE, VG, VM, VR and VX, along with several more obscure analogues. The most studied agent in this family, VX, was invented in the 1950s at Porton Down in the United Kingdom. The other agents in this series have not been studied extensively and information about them is limited. It is known, however, that the V-series agents are about 10 times more toxic than the G-agent sarin (GB). All of the V-agents are persistent agents, meaning that these agents do not degrade or wash away easily and can therefore remain on clothes and other surfaces for long periods. In use, this allows the V-agents to be used to blanket terrain to guide or curtail the movement of enemy ground forces. The consistency of these agents is similar to oil; as a result, the contact hazard for V-agents is primarily - but not exclusively - dermal. VX was the only V-series agent that was fielded by the USA as a munition, consisting of rockets, artillery shells, airplane spray tanks and landmines. FM 3-8 Chemical Reference handbook; US Army; 1967 "U.S. Army Destroys Entire Stockpile of VX Spray Tanks" http://www.cma.army.mil/fndocumentviewer.aspx?docid=003677713, U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, December 26, 2007, accessed January 4, 2007 Novichok agents The Novichok (Russian for "newcomer") agents are a series of organophosphate compounds that were developed in the Soviet Union from the 1970s to the 1990s. The goal of this program was to develop and manufacture highly deadly chemical weapons that were unknown to the West. These new agents were designed to be undetectable by standard NATO chemical detection equipment and to defeat chemical protective gear. In addition to the newly developed "third generation" weapons, binary versions of several Soviet agents were developed and are designated as "Novichok" agents. Insecticides A number of insecticides, the phenothiazines, organophosphates such as dichlorvos, malathion and parathion, are nerve agents. The metabolism of insects is sufficiently different from mammals that these compounds have little effect on humans and other mammals at proper doses; but there is considerable concern about the effects of long-term exposure to these chemicals by farm workers and animals alike. At high enough doses, however, acute toxicity and death can occur through the same mechanism as other nerve agents. Organophosphate pesticide poisoning is a major cause of disability in many developing countries and is often the preferred method of suicide. "Overcoming apathy in research on organophosphate poisoning", BMJ (former British Medical Journal) 2004;329:1231-1233 (20 November) History The discovery of nerve agents This first class of nerve agents, the so-called G-Series, was accidentally discovered in Germany on December 23, 1936 by a research team headed by Dr. Gerhard Schrader. Since 1934, Schrader had been in charge of a laboratory in Leverkusen to develop new types of insecticides for IG Farben. While working toward his goal of improved insecticide, Schrader experimented with numerous fluorine-containing compounds, eventually leading to the preparation of tabun. In experiments, tabun was extremely potent against insects: as little as 5 ppm of tabun killed all the leaf lice he used in his initial experiment. In January 1937, Schrader observed the effects of nerve agents on human beings first-hand when a drop of tabun spilled onto a lab bench. Within minutes he and his laboratory assistant began to experience miosis (constriction of the pupils of the eyes), dizziness and severe shortness of breath. It took them three weeks to recover fully. In 1935 the Nazi government had passed a decree that required all inventions of possible military significance to be reported to the Ministry of War, so in May 1937 Schrader sent a sample of tabun to the chemical warfare (CW) section of the Army Weapons Office in Berlin-Spandau. Dr. Schrader was summoned to the Wehrmacht chemical lab in Berlin to give a demonstration, after which Schrader's patent application and all related research was classified. Colonel Rüdiger, head of the CW section, ordered the construction of new laboratories for the further investigation of tabun and other organophosphate compounds and Schrader soon moved to a new laboratory at Wuppertal-Elberfeld in the Ruhr valley to continue his research in secret throughout World War II. The compound was initially codenamed Le-100 and later Trilon-83. Sarin was discovered by Schrader and his team in 1938 and named after their initials: Schrader, Ambrose, Rudriger and van der Linde. It was codenamed T-144 or Trilon-46. It was found to be more than ten times as potent as tabun. Soman was discovered by Dr. Richard Kuhn in 1944 as he worked with the existing compounds, the name is derived from either the Greek 'to sleep' or the Latin 'to bludgeon', it was codenamed T-300. Cyclosarin was also discovered during WWII but the details were lost and it was 'discovered' again in 1949. The G-series naming system was created by the United States when it uncovered the German activities, labeling tabun as GA (German Agent A), sarin as GB and soman as GD. , Frederick Sidell Ethyl sarin was tagged GE and cyclosarin as GF. During World War II In 1939, a pilot plant for tabun production was set up at Munster-Lager, on Luneberg heath near the German Army proving grounds at Raubkammer. In January 1940, construction began on a secret plant, code named "Hochwerk" (High factory), for the production of tabun at Dyherrnfurth an der Oder (now Brzeg Dolny in Poland), on the Oder River 40 km (24.9 miles) from Breslau (now Wrocław) in Silesia. The plant was large, covering an area of 2.4 by 0.8 km (1.5 by 0.5 miles) and was completely self-contained, synthesizing all intermediates as well as the final product, tabun. The factory even had an underground plant for filling munitions, which were then stored at Krappitz (now Krapkowice) in Upper Silesia. The plant was operated by Anorgana GmbH, a subsidiary of IG Farben, as were all other chemical weapon agent production plants in Germany at the time. Because of the plant's deep secrecy and the difficult nature of the production process, it took from January 1940 until June 1942 for the plant to become fully operational. Many of tabun's chemical precursors were so corrosive that reaction chambers not lined with quartz or silver soon became useless. Tabun itself was so hazardous that the final processes had to be performed while enclosed in double glass-lined chambers with a stream of pressurized air circulating between the walls. 3,000 German nationals were employed at Hochwerk, all equipped with respirators and clothing constructed of a poly-layered rubber/cloth/rubber sandwich that was destroyed after the tenth wearing. Despite all precautions, there were over 300 accidents before production even began and at least 10 workers died during the 2.5 years of operation. Some incidents cited in A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare are as follows: Four pipe fitters had liquid tabun drain onto them; they died before their rubber suits could be removed. A worker had 2 liters of tabun pour down the neck of his rubber suit; he died within 2 minutes. Seven workers were hit in the face with a stream of tabun of such force that the liquid was forced behind their respirators; only two survived despite heroic resuscitation measures. The plant produced between 10,000 and 30,000 tons of tabun before its capture by the Soviet Army. In 1940 the German Army Weapons Office ordered the mass production of sarin for wartime use. A number of pilot plants were built and a high-production facility was under construction (but was not finished) by the end of World War II. Estimates for total sarin production by Nazi Germany range from 500 kg to 10 tons. During that time, German intelligence believed that the Allies also knew of these compounds, assuming that because these compounds were not discussed in the Allies' scientific journals information about them was being suppressed. Though sarin, tabun and soman were incorporated into artillery shells, the German government ultimately decided not to use nerve agents against Allied targets. The Allies didn't learn of these agents until shells filled with them were captured towards the end of the war. This is detailed in Joseph Borkin's book The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben: The secret gets out Towards the end of World War II and during the occupation of Germany, the Allies recovered weapons containing the three German nerve agents of the day, prompting further research into nerve agents by the former Allies. The Red Army captured a factory producing tabun at Dyhernfurth in early 1945, they dismantled the entire site and took it back to Russia. Stocks of tabun, sarin and soman were discovered by all the Allies within Germany; the Anglo-American advance seizing around 250,000 tons of chemical weapons, the subset of nerve agents (totaling around 30,000 tons) was split with the British taking 14,000 tons of tabun-filled bombs and the Americans taking the balance of sarin-filled devices. The fourth G-series nerve agent, cyclosarin, although discovered by German scientists studying organophosphates during WWII was seemingly not found by the Allies, but independently rediscovered in 1949. In 1952, researchers in Porton Down, England invented the VX nerve agent, inspired by the commercial pesticide Amiton, later reclassified as VG. The UK soon unilaterally abandoned the chemical weapons and chemical weapons research. In 1958 the British government traded their VX technology with the United States of America in exchange for information on thermonuclear weapons; by 1961 the US was producing large amounts of VX and performed its own nerve agent research. The four agents (VE, VG, VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve agents. Since World War II Victims of the Halabja chemical weapons attack. Since World War II, Iraq's use of mustard gas against Iranian troops and Kurds (Iran-Iraq war of 1981–1988) has been the only large-scale use of any chemical weapons. On the scale of the single Kurdish village of Halabja within its own territory, Iraqi forces did expose the populace to some kind of chemical weapons, possibly mustard gas and most likely nerve agents. In the Gulf War, no nerve agents (nor other chemical weapons) were used, but a number of U.S. and UK personnel were exposed to them when the Khamisiyah chemical depot was destroyed. This and the widespread use of anticholinergic drugs as a protective treatment against any possible nerve gas attack, have been proposed as a possible cause of Gulf War syndrome. One of the most widely publicised uses of nerve agents was the 1995 terrorist attack in which operatives of the Aum Shinrikyo religious group released sarin into the Tokyo subway system. Ocean disposal of chemical weapons In 1972, The United States Congress banned the practice of disposing chemical weapons into the ocean. However 32,000 tons of nerve and mustard agents had already been dumped into the ocean waters off the United States by the U.S. Army. According to a 1998 report created by William Brankowitz, a deputy project manager in the U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, the Army created at least 26 chemical weapons dump sites in the ocean off at least 11 states on both the west and east coasts. Additionally, due to poor records, they currently only know the rough whereabouts of half of them. It is unknown how these dumps of chemical weapons have affected the ocean ecology. The steel containers they are contained within face a variable rate of decay and no one is really certain where or how deep they were dumped. If a nerve agent leaks into the ocean, it can last up to six weeks, during which time it will kill every susceptible organism it touches before it breaks down into its nonlethal chemical components. Footnotes References Borkin, Joseph (1978). The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben. Nw York: Free Press. 1978. ISBN 0-02-904630-0, available for download in Australia (as it is out-of-print) see this link. E-Medicine. (June 29, 2004). CBRNE - Nerve Agents, V-series: Ve, Vg, Vm, Vx. Retrieved Oct. 23, 2004. E-Medicine. (June 30, 2004). CBRNE - Nerve Agents, G-series: Tabun, Sarin, Soman. Retrieved Oct. 23, 2004. Mitretek Systems. (May 2004). Short History of the Development of Nerve Gases. Retrieved Oct. 23, 2004. Paxman, J.; Harris, R. (2002). A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare (2002 Rando edition). Random House Press. ISBN 0-8129-6653-8. United States Senate, 103d Congress, 2d Session. (May 25, 1994). The Riegle Report. Retrieved Nov. 6, 2004. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons - Nerve Agents History of fluorophosphates as related to the development of nerve agents in Germany, Great Britain and the U.S.A. Buckley NA, Roberts D, Eddleston M. Overcoming apathy in research on organophosphate poisoning. BMJ. 2004 Nov 20;329(7476):1231–3. Review. PMID 15550429 External links ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Cholinesterase Inhibitors, Including Pesticides and Chemical Warfare Nerve Agents U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Nervegas: America's Fifteen-year Struggle for Modern Chemical Weapons Army Chemical Review History Note: The CWS Effort to Obtain German Chemical Weapons for Retaliation Against Japan CBIAC Newsletter Goats' Milk Used in Production of Anti-nerve Gas Agents Video footage of nerve gas tests on animals

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contract:1 prevent:1 initial:4 symptom:2 follow:4 exposure:4 like:3 sarin:14 runny:1 nose:2 tightness:1 chest:1 constriction:2 soon:5 victim:4 difficulty:1 breathing:1 experience:3 nausea:1 drooling:2 continue:3 bodily:1 involuntarily:1 salivate:1 lacrimate:1 urinate:1 defecate:1 gastrointestinal:1 pain:1 vomiting:1 blister:1 burning:1 eye:3 lung:1 may:6 occur:3 tutorial:1 phase:1 twitch:1 jerking:1 ultimately:2 become:4 comatose:1 suffocate:1 consequence:1 convulsive:1 spasm:1 long:4 lasting:1 cumulative:1 increase:1 successive:1 survivor:1 poison:3 almost:1 invariably:1 suffer:1 chronic:1 neurological:1 damage:1 action:2 functioning:1 motor:1 stimulate:1 release:2 transmit:2 impulse:3 send:3 acetylcholineesterase:1 immediately:1 break:3 order:3 allow:2 inhibit:1 form:4 covalent:1 bond:1 site:3 undergoes:1 hydrolysis:1 result:3 build:2 act:3 continually:1 stop:1 gland:1 level:1 uncontrolled:1 tearing:1 lacrimation:1 excess:1 mucus:1 rhinorrhea:1 antidote:4 atropine:6 related:3 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retaliation:1 japan:1 cbiac:1 newsletter:1 anti:1 video:1 footage:1 test:1 |@bigram nerve_agent:41 respiratory_muscle:1 almost_invariably:1 neurotransmitter_acetylcholine:1 covalent_bond:1 nerve_impulse:1 muscle_contraction:1 acetylcholine_receptor:1 genetically_modify:1 goat_goat:1 ig_farben:5 go_unnoticed:1 http_www:1 soviet_union:1 protective_gear:1 acute_toxicity:1 shortness_breath:1 van_der:1 upper_silesia:1 thermonuclear_weapon:1 mustard_gas:2 aum_shinrikyo:1 external_link:1 cholinesterase_inhibitor:1

Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy

The tertiary sector of economy (also known as the service sector or the service industry) is one of the three economic sectors, the others being the secondary sector (approximately manufacturing) and the primary sector (extraction such as mining, agriculture and fishing). The general definition of the Tertiary sector is producing a service instead of just a end product, in the case of the secondary sector. Sometimes an additional sector, the "quaternary sector", is defined for the sharing of information (which normally belongs to the tertiary sector). Overview The tertiary sector is defined by exclusion of the two other sectors. INSEE, definition of "secteur tertiaire" Services are defined in conventional economic literature as "intangible goods". The tertiary sector of economy involves the provision of services to businesses as well as final consumers. Services may involve the transport, distribution and sale of goods from producer to a consumer as may happen in wholesaling and retailing, or may involve the provision of a service, such as in pest control or entertainment. Goods may be transformed in the process of providing a service, as happens in the restaurant industry or in equipment repair. However, the focus is on people interacting with people and serving the customer rather than transforming physical goods. Components The service sector consists of the "soft" parts of the economy such as insurance, government, tourism, banking, retail, education, and social services. In soft-sector employment, people use time to deploy knowledge assets, collaboration assets, and process-engagement to create productivity (effectiveness), performance improvement potential (potential) and sustainability. The tertiary sector is the most common workplace. Typically the output of this sector is content (information), service, attention, advice, experiences, and/or discussion (also known as "intangible goods"). Other examples of service sector employment include: Franchising News media Education Hospitality industry (e.g. restaurants, hotels, casinos) Consulting Legal practice Healthcare/hospitals Waste disposal Real estate Personal services Business services Public utilities are often considered part of the tertiary sector as they provide services to people, while creating the utility's infrastructure is often considered part of the secondary sector, even though the same business may be involved in both aspects of the operation. To do fact-based work in this area it is necessary to utilize the extensive data collection that takes place using classification systems such as the United Nations's International Standard Industrial Classification standard, the United States' Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code system and its new replacement, the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS), and similar systems in the EU and elsewhere. The term service economy, in contrast, refers to a model wherein as much economic activity as possible is treated as a service. For example IBM treats its business as a service business. Although it still manufactures high-end computers, it sees the physical goods as a small part of the "business solutions" industry. They have found that the price elasticity of demand for "business solutions" is much less than that for hardware. There has been a corresponding shift to a subscription pricing model. Rather than receiving a single payment for a piece of manufactured equipment, many manufacturers are now receiving a steady stream of revenue for ongoing contracts. Theory of progression Economies tend to follow a developmental progression that takes them from a heavy reliance on agriculture and mining, toward the development of manufacturing (e.g. automobiles, textiles, shipbuilding, steel) and finally toward a more service based structure. Whereas the first economy to follow this path in the modern world was the United Kingdom, the speed at which other economies have later made the transition to service-based, sometimes called post-industrial, has accelerated over time. Historically, manufacturing tended to be more open to international trade and competition than services. As a result, there has been a tendency for the first economies to industrialize to come under competitive attack by those seeking to industrialize later, e.g. because production, especially labour, costs are lower in those industrializing later. The resultant shrinkage of manufacturing in the leading economies might explain their growing reliance on the service sector. However, currently and prospectively, with dramatic cost reduction and speed and reliability improvements in the transportation of people and the communication of information, the service sector now includes some of the most intensive international competition, despite residual protectionism. Issues for service providers Service providers face obstacles selling services that goods-sellers rarely face. Services are not tangible, making it difficult for potential customers to understand what they will receive and what value it will hold for them. Indeed some, such as consulting and investment services, offer no guarantees of the value for price paid. Since the quality of most services depends largely on the quality of the individuals providing the services, it is true that "people costs" are a high component of service costs. Whereas a manufacturer may use technology, simplification, and other techniques to lower the cost of goods sold, the service provider often faces an unrelenting pattern of increasing costs. Differentiation is often difficult. How does one choose one investment adviser over another, since they (and hotel providers, leisure companies, and consultants, as well as many others) often seem to provide identical services? Charging a premium for services is usually an option only for the most established firms, who charge extra based upon brand recognition. See also Three-sector hypothesis Primary sector of industry Secondary sector of industry Quaternary sector of industry Quinary sector of industry Industrial policy References External links "The (new) service economy is not the same as the service sector", described at "Science of service systems, service sector, service economy" at the Coevolving Innovations web site

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General_Synod

The General Synod is the title of the governing body of some church organizations. Anglican Communion Church of England In the Church of England, the General Synod, which was established in 1970 (replacing the Church Assembly), is the legislative body of the Church. Episcopal Church of the United States In the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, the equivalent is General Convention. Other member churches General Synods of other churches within the Anglican Communion Anglican Church of Australia Anglican Church of Canada Church of Ireland Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia Scottish Episcopal Church Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (Anglican Church in Hong Kong) Other Churches The United Church of Christ in the United States also calls their main governing body a General Synod. It meets every two years and consists of over 600 delegates from various congregations and conferences. The Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church has as its highest Church court the General Synod. The ARP General Synod meets yearly (in recent years, it has, almost without exception, been held at Bonclarken). The delegates to the General Synod of the ARP Church are the elder representatives elected from each church's Session and all ministers from all presbyteries that comprise the Church (excluding ministers and elders from the independent ARP Synods of Mexico and Pakistan). Other uses In the North American Lutheran tradition, General Synod refers to a church body (denomination) which existed from 1820-1918. See General Synod (Lutheran). External links Queen's Speech at inauguration of seventh General Synod Church of England's General Synod website List of current members* United Church of Christ General Synod 25 (2005) Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church Government See also How the Church of England is organised List of Church of England Measures General Assembly

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Demographics_of_Grenada

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Grenada, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Though most of Grenada's population is of African descent, there is some trace of the early Arawak and Carib Indians. A few Indo-Grenadians and a small community of the descendants of early European settlers reside in Grenada. About 50% of Grenada's population is under the age of 30. English is the official language; only a few people still speak French patois. A more significant reminder of Grenada's historical link with France is the strength of the Roman Catholic Church to which about 60% of Grenadians belong. The Anglican Church is the largest Protestant denomination. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 89,018 (July 2000 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 38% (male 17,106; female 16,634) 15-64 years: 58% (male 27,267; female 24,356) 65 years and over: 4% (male 1,653; female 2,002) (2000 est.) Population growth rate -0.36% (2000 est.) Birth rate 20.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate 8.02 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate -16.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.12 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 64.52 years male: 62.74 years female: 66.31 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 2.42 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality noun: Grenadian(s) adjective: Grenadian Ethnic groups blacks 82% Mulatto 12% Indo-Grenadians 3% and whites 2.9%, trace Arawak/Carib Amerindian Religions Roman Catholic 53%, Anglican 13.8%, other Protestant 33%, Buddhism 0.2% Languages English (official), English Creole, French, Patois Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 98% female: 98% (1970 est.)

Demographics_of_Grenada |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:13 grenada:5 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 though:1 african:1 descent:1 trace:2 early:2 arawak:2 carib:2 indian:1 indo:2 grenadian:5 small:1 community:1 descendant:1 european:1 settler:1 reside:1 age:3 english:3 official:2 language:2 people:1 still:1 speak:1 french:2 patois:2 significant:1 reminder:1 historical:1 link:1 france:1 strength:1 roman:2 catholic:2 church:2 belong:1 anglican:2 large:1 protestant:2 denomination:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:11 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 black:1 mulatto:1 white:1 amerindian:1 religion:1 buddhism:1 creole:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 arawak_carib:2 protestant_denomination:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 literacy_definition:1

Concrete

1930s vibrated concrete, manufactured in Croydon and installed by the LMS railway after an art deco refurbishment in Meols. concrete plant facility (background) with concrete delivery trucks Concrete is a construction material composed of cement (commonly Portland cement) as well as other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a coarse aggregate such as gravel, limestone, or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as sand), water, and chemical admixtures. The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or condensed), the past participle of "concresco", from "com-" (together) and "cresco" (to grow). Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water and placement due to a chemical process known as hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, eventually creating a stone-like material. Concrete is used to make pavements, architectural structures, foundations, motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and footings for gates, fences and poles. Concrete is used more than any other man-made material in the world. The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, by Bjorn Lomborg, p 138. As of 2006, about 7.5 cubic kilometres of concrete are made each year—more than one cubic metre for every person on Earth. Concrete powers a US $35-billion industry which employs more than two million workers in the United States alone. More than of highways in the United States are paved with this material. The People's Republic of China currently consumes 40% of the world's cement/concrete production. Reinforced concrete and Prestressed concrete are the most widely used modern kinds of concrete functional extensions. History Aqueduct of Segovia Many ancient civilizations used forms of concrete using dried mud, straw, and other materials. Concrete may have been poured to build the Great Pyramids about 5,000 years ago, according to controversial research, which suggests the ancient Egyptans predated the Romans by thousands of years as the inventors of concrete. Perfection of the technology was left to the Roman Empire. http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/12/08/pyramids_arc.html During the Roman Empire, Roman concrete was made from quicklime, pozzolanic ash/pozzolana, and an aggregate of pumice; it was very similar to modern Portland cement concrete. The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures has ensured that many survive almost intact to the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example of the longevity of concrete, which allowed the Romans to build this and similar structures across the Roman Empire. Many Roman aqueducts have masonry cladding to a concrete core, a technique they used in structures such as the Pantheon, the dome of which is concrete. The secret of concrete was lost for 13 centuries until 1756, when the British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. Portland cement was first used in concrete in the early 1840s. This version of history has been challenged however, as the Canal du Midi was constructed using concrete in 1670. http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/2/0/1/2/p20122_index.html Recently, the use of recycled materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants. This has a significant impact by reducing the amount of quarrying and landfill space required, and, as it acts as a cement replacement, reduces the amount of cement required to produce a solid concrete. As cement production creates massive quantities of carbon dioxide, cement-replacement technology such as this will play an important role in future attempts to cut carbon dioxide emissions. Concrete additives have been used since Roman and Egyptian times, when it was discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set under water. Similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant http://www.djc.com/special/concrete/10003364.htm . In modern times, researchers have experimented with the addition of other materials to create concrete with improved properties, such as higher strength or electrical conductivity. Composition Cement and sand ready to be mixed. There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of the main ingredients below. The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete will be mixed and delivered, and how it will be placed to form this structure. Cement Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, and plaster. English engineer Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824; it was named because of its similarity in colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium, silicon and aluminium. Portland cement and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay, and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum). The manufacturing of Portland cement creates about 5 percent of human CO2 emissions. Water Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and allows it to flow more easily. Less water in the cement paste will yield a stronger, more durable concrete; more water will give an easier-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Missing File Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure. Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual sand and gravel particles, and other components of the concrete, to form a solid mass. Reaction: Cement chemist notation: C3S + H2O → CSH(gel) + CaOH Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)•(SiO2)•(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2 Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)•2(SiO2)•4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2 Aggregates Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel and crushed stone are mainly used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from construction, demolition and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial replacements of natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted. Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular among landscape designers. Reinforcement Installing rebar in a floor slab during a concrete pour Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete solves these problems by adding either metal reinforcing bars, glass fiber, or plastic fiber to carry tensile loads. Chemical admixtures Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement, and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. The most common types of admixtures are: Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials used are CaCl2 and NaCl. Retarders slow the hydration of concrete, and are used in large or difficult pours where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable. A typical retarder is table sugar, or sucrose (C12H22O11). Air entrainments add and distribute tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which will reduce damage during freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the concrete's durability. However, entrained air is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of air may result in 5% decrease in compressive strength. Plasticizers (water-reducing admixtures) increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. Superplasticizers (high-range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of plasticizers which have fewer deleterious effects when used to significantly increase workability. Alternatively, plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete (and have been called water reducers due to this application) while maintaining workability. This improves its strength and durability characteristics. Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics. Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete. Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete. Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste, and reduce dewatering – the tendency for the water to separate out of the paste. Mineral admixtures and blended cements Blocs of concrete in Belo Horizonte. There are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties. These very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended cements). Fly ash: A by product of coal fired electric generating plants, it is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, silicious fly ash is pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by product of steel production, is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties. Silica fume: A by-product of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher surface to volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticizers for workability. High Reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with strength and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark gray or black in color, high reactivity metakaolin is usually bright white in color, making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete where appearance is important. Concrete production The processes used vary dramatically, from hand tools to heavy industry, but result in the concrete being placed where it cures into a final form. When initially mixed together, Portland cement and water rapidly form a gel, formed of tangled chains of interlocking crystals. These continue to react over time, with the initially fluid gel often aiding in placement by improving workability. As the concrete sets, the chains of crystals join up, and form a rigid structure, gluing the aggregate particles in place. During curing, more of the cement reacts with the residual water (Hydration). This curing process develops physical and chemical properties. Among other qualities, mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric stability. Mixing concrete Cement being mixed with sand and water to form concrete. Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high quality concrete. Therefore, equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing concrete materials containing the largest specified aggregate to produce uniform mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the work. Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting concrete. Premixed Cement Paste The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures, e.g. accelerators or retarders, plasticizers, pigments, or fumed silica. The latter is added to fill the gaps between the cement particles. This reduces the particle distance and leads to a higher final compressive strength and a higher water impermeability. The use of micro- and nanosilica in concrete The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water, and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment. Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete High-Energy Mixed Concrete (HEM concrete) is produced by means of high-speed mixing of cement, water and sand with net specific energy consumption at least 5 kilojoules per kilogram of the mix. It is then added to a plasticizer admixture and mixed after that with aggregates in conventional concrete mixer. This paste can be used itself or foamed (expanded) for lightweight concrete. - Method for producing construction mixture for concrete Sand effectively dissipates energy in this mixing process. HEM concrete fast hardens in ordinary and low temperature conditions, and possesses increased volume of gel, drastically reducing capillarity in solid and porous materials. It is recommended for precast concrete in order to reduce quantity of cement, as well as concrete roof and siding tiles, paving stones and lightweight concrete block production. Workability Pouring a concrete floor for a commercial building, (slab-on-grade) Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration), and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures. Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures will increase concrete workability. Excessive water will lead to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate with an undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot be readily made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water. Workability can be measured by the Concrete Slump Test, a simplistic measure of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod in order to consolidate the layer. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material will slump a certain amount due to gravity. A relatively dry sample will slump very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as six or seven inches (150 to 175 mm). Slump can be increased by adding chemical admixtures such as mid-range or high-range water reducing agents (super-plasticizers) without changing the water/cement ratio. It is bad practice to add excessive water upon delivery to the jobsite, however in a properly designed mixture it is important to reasonably achieve the specified slump prior to placement as design factors such as air content, internal water for hydration/strength gain, etc. are dependent on placement at design slump values. High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted. Curing A concrete slab ponded while curing. Concrete columns curing while wrapped in plastic. In all but the least critical applications, care needs to be taken to properly cure concrete, and achieve best strength and hardness. This happens after the concrete has been placed. Cement requires a moist, controlled environment to gain strength and harden fully. The cement paste hardens over time, initially setting and becoming rigid though very weak, and gaining in strength in the days and weeks following. In around 3 weeks, over 90% of the final strength is typically reached though it may continue to strengthen for decades. Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained significant strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased by keeping it damp for a longer period during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement which increases shrinkage and cracking. During this period concrete needs to be in conditions with a controlled temperature and humid atmosphere. In practice, this is achieved by spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water, thereby protecting concrete mass from ill effects of ambient conditions. The pictures to the right show two of many ways to achieve this, ponding – submerging setting concrete in water, and wrapping in plastic to contain the water in the mix. Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability, and avoids cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing, or overheating due to the exothermic setting of cement (the Hoover Dam used pipes carrying coolant during setting to avoid damaging overheating). Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength, poor abrasion resistance and cracking. Properties Strength Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength. It is fair to assume that a concrete samples tensile strength is about 10%-15% of its compressive strength. As a result, without compensating, concrete would almost always fail from tensile stresses – even when loaded in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete elements subjected to tensile stresses must be reinforced with materials that are strong in tension. Reinforced concrete is the most common form of concrete. The reinforcement is often steel, rebar (mesh, spiral, bars and other forms). Structural fibers of various materials are available. Concrete can also be prestressed (reducing tensile stress) using internal steel cables (tendons), allowing for beams or slabs with a longer span than is practical with reinforced concrete alone. Inspection of concrete structures can be non-destructive if carried out with equipment such as a Schmidt hammer, which is used to estimate concrete strength. The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by the water-cementitious ratio (w/cm), the design constituents, and the mixing, placement and curing methods employed. All things being equal, concrete with a lower water-cement (cementitious) ratio makes a stronger concrete than that with a higher ratio. The total quantity of cementitious materials (Portland cement, slag cement, pozzolans) can affect strength, water demand, shrinkage, abrasion resistance and density. All concrete will crack independent of whether or not it has sufficient compressive strength. In fact, high Portland cement content mixtures can actually crack more readily due to increased hydration rate. As concrete transforms from its plastic state, hydrating to a solid, the material undergoes shrinkage. Plastic shrinkage cracks can occur soon after placement but if the evaporation rate is high they often can actually occur during finishing operations, for example in hot weather or a breezy day. In very high-strength concrete mixtures (greater than 10,000 psi) the crushing strength of the aggregate can be a limiting factor to the ultimate compressive strength. In lean concretes (with a high water-cement ratio) the crushing strength of the aggregates is not so significant. The internal forces in common shapes of structure, such as arches, vaults, columns and walls are predominantly compressive forces, with floors and pavements subjected to tensile forces. Compressive strength is widely used for specification requirement and quality control of concrete. The engineer knows his target tensile (flexural) requirements and will express these in terms of compressive strength. Wired.com reported on April 13, 2007 that a team from the University of Tehran, competing in a contest sponsored by the American Concrete Institute, demonstrated several blocks of concretes with abnormally high compressive strengths between 50,000 and 60,000 PSI at 28 days. The blocks appeared to use an aggregate of steel fibres and quartz – a mineral with a compressive strength of 160,000 PSI, much higher than typical high-strength aggregates such as granite (15,000-20,000 PSI). Reactive Powder Concrete, also known as Ultra-High Performance Concrete, can be even stronger, with strengths of up to 800 MPa (116,000 PSI). These are made by eliminating large aggregate completely, carefully controlling the size of the fine aggregates to ensure the best possible packing, and incorporating steel fibers (sometimes produced by grinding steel wool) into the matrix. Reactive Powder Concretes may also make use of silica fume as a fine aggregate. Commercial Reactive Powder Concretes are available in the 25,000-30,000 PSI strength range. Elasticity The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the aggregates and the cement matrix and their relative proportions. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops. The elastic modulus of the hardened paste may be in the order of 10-30 GPa and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The concrete composite is then in the range of 30 to 50 GPa. The American Concrete Institute allows the modulus of elasticity to be calculated using the following equation: (psi) where weight of concrete (pounds per cubic foot) and where compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (psi) This equation is completely empirical and is not based on theory. Note that the value of Ec found is in units of psi. For normalweight concrete (defined as concrete with a wc of 150 pcf) Ec is permitted to be taken as . Expansion and shrinkage Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. However, if no provision is made for expansion, very large forces can be created, causing cracks in parts of the structure not capable of withstanding the force or the repeated cycles of expansion and contraction. As concrete matures it continues to shrink, due to the ongoing reaction taking place in the material, although the rate of shrinkage falls relatively quickly and keeps reducing over time (for all practical purposes concrete is usually considered to not shrink due to hydration any further after 30 years). The relative shrinkage and expansion of concrete and brickwork require careful accommodation when the two forms of construction interface. Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is initially placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal loading it will never expand to its originally placed volume. Cracking Salginatobel Bridge All concrete structures will crack to some extent. One of the early designers of reinforced concrete, Robert Maillart, employed reinforced concrete in a number of arched bridges. His first bridge was simple, using a large volume of concrete. He then realized that much of the concrete was very cracked, and could not be a part of the structure under compressive loads, yet the structure clearly worked. His later designs simply removed the cracked areas, leaving slender, beautiful concrete arches. The Salginatobel Bridge is an example of this. Concrete cracks due to tensile stress induced by shrinkage or stresses occurring during setting or use. Various means are used to overcome this. Fiber reinforced concrete uses fine fibers distributed throughout the mix or larger metal or other reinforcement elements to limit the size and extent of cracks. In many large structures joints or concealed saw-cuts are placed in the concrete as it sets to make the inevitable cracks occur where they can be managed and out of sight. Water tanks and highways are examples of structures requiring crack control. Shrinkage cracking Shrinkage cracks occur when concrete members undergo restrained volumetric changes (shrinkage) as a result of either drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects. Restraint is provided either externally (i.e. supports, walls, and other boundary conditions) or internally (differential drying shrinkage, reinforcement). Once the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, a crack will develop. The number and width of shrinkage cracks that develop are influenced by the amount of shrinkage that occurs, the amount of restraint present and the amount and spacing of reinforcement provided. Plastic-shrinkage cracks are immediately apparent, visible within 0 to 2 days of placement, while drying-shrinkage cracks develop over time. Autogenous shrinkage also occurs when the concrete is quite young and results from the volume reduction resulting from the chemical reaction of the Portland cement. Tension cracking Concrete members may be put into tension by applied loads. This is most common in concrete beams where a transversely applied load will put one surface into compression and the opposite surface into tension due to induced bending. The portion of the beam that is in tension may crack. The size and length of cracks is dependent on the magnitude of the bending moment and the design of the reinforcing in the beam at the point under consideration. Reinforced concrete beams are designed to crack in tension rather than in compression. This is achieved by providing reinforcing steel which yields before failure of the concrete in compression occurs and allowing remediation, repair, or if necessary, evacuation of an unsafe area. Creep Creep is the term used to describe the permanent movement or deformation of a material in order to relieve stresses within the material. Concrete which is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep. Short-duration forces (such as wind or earthquakes) do not cause creep. Creep can sometimes reduce the amount of cracking that occurs in a concrete structure or element, but it also must be controlled. The amount of primary and secondary reinforcing in concrete structures contributes to a reduction in the amount of shrinkage, creep and cracking. Liquid concrete A concrete transport truck is feeding concrete to a concrete pumper, which is pumping it to where a slab is being poured. After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to where it is needed. Physical properties The coefficient of thermal expansion of Portland cement concrete is 0.000008 to 0.000012 (per degree Celsius) (8-12 1/MK). The density varies, but is around 150 pounds per cubic foot (2400 kg/m³). Damage modes Fire Due to its low thermal conductivity, a layer of concrete is frequently used for fireproofing of steel structures. However, concrete itself may be damaged by fire. Up to about 300 °C, the concrete undergoes normal thermal expansion. Above that temperature, shrinkage occurs due to water loss; however, the aggregate continues expanding, which causes internal stresses. Up to about 500 °C, the major structural changes are carbonation and coarsening of pores. At 573 °C, quartz undergoes rapid expansion due to Phase transition, and at 900 °C calcite starts shrinking due to decomposition. At 450-550 °C the cement hydrate decomposes, yielding calcium oxide. Calcium carbonate decomposes at about 600 °C. Rehydration of the calcium oxide on cooling of the structure causes expansion, which can cause damage to material which withstood fire without falling apart. Concrete in buildings that experienced a fire and were left standing for several years shows extensive degree of carbonation. Concrete exposed to up to 100 °C is normally considered as healthy. The parts of a concrete structure that is exposed to temperatures above approximately 300 °C (dependent of water/cement ratio) will most likely get a pink color. Over approximately 600 °C the concrete will turn light grey, and over approximately 1000 °C it turns yellow-brown. Norwegian Building Research Institute, publication 24. Fire-damage to buildings. One rule of thumb is to consider all pink colored concrete as damaged that should be removed. Fire will expose the concrete to gases and liquids that can be harmful to the concrete, among other salts and acids that occur when gasses produced by fire come into contact with water. Aggregate expansion Various types of aggregate undergo chemical reactions in concrete, leading to damaging expansive phenomena. The most common are those containing reactive silica, that can react (in the presence of water) with the alkalis in concrete (K2O and Na2O, coming principally from cement). Among the more reactive mineral components of some aggregates are opal, chalcedony, flint and strained quartz. Following the reaction (Alkali Silica Reaction or ASR), an expansive gel forms, that creates extensive cracks and damage on structural members. On the surface of concrete pavements the ASR can cause pop-outs, i.e. the expulsion of small cones (up to 3 cm about in diameter) in correspondence of aggregate particles. When some aggregates containing dolomite are used, a dedolomitization reaction occurs where the magnesium carbonate compound reacts with hydroxyl ions and yields magnesium hydroxide and a carbonate ion. The resulting expansion may cause destruction of the material. Far less common are pop-outs caused by the presence of pyrite, an iron sulfide that generates expansion by forming iron oxide and ettringite. Other reactions and recrystallizations, e.g. hydration of clay minerals in some aggregates, may lead to destructive expansion as well. Sea water effects Concrete exposed to sea water is susceptible to its corrosive effects. The effects are more pronounced above the tidal zone than where the concrete is permanently submerged. In the submerged zone, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate ions precipitate a layer of brucite, about 30 micrometers thick, on which a slower deposition of calcium carbonate as aragonite occurs. These layers somewhat protect the concrete from other processes, which include attack by magnesium, chloride and sulfate ions and carbonation. Above the water surface, mechanical damage may occur by erosion by waves themselves or sand and gravel they carry, and by crystallization of salts from water soaking into the concrete pores and then drying up. Pozzolanic cements and cements using more than 60% of slag as aggregate are more resistant to sea water than pure Portland cement. Bacterial corrosion Bacteria themselves do not have noticeable effect on concrete. However, anaerobic bacteria (Thiobacillus) in untreated sewage tend to produce hydrogen sulfide, which is then oxidized by aerobic bacteria present in biofilm on the concrete surface above the water level to sulfuric acid which dissolves the carbonates in the cured cement and causes strength loss. Concrete floors lying on ground that contains pyrite are also at risk. Using limestone as the aggregate makes the concrete more resistant to acids, and the sewage may be pretreated by ways increasing pH or oxidizing or precipitating the sulfides in order to inhibit the activity of sulfide utilizing bacteria. Chemical damage Carbonation Carbonation-initiated deterioration of concrete (at Hippodrome Wellington) Carbon dioxide from air can react with the calcium hydroxide in concrete to form calcium carbonate. This process is called carbonation, which is essentially the reversal of the chemical process of calcination of lime taking place in a cement kiln. Carbonation of concrete is a slow and continuous process progressing from the outer surface inward, but slows down with increasing diffusion depth. Carbonation has two effects: it increases mechanical strength of concrete, but it also decreases alkalinity, which is essential for corrosion prevention of the reinforcement steel. Below a pH of 10, the steel's thin layer of surface passivation dissolves and corrosion is promoted. For the latter reason, carbonation is an unwanted process in concrete chemistry. Carbonation can be tested by applying Phenolphthalein solution, a pH indicator, over a fresh fracture surface, which indicates non-carbonated and thus alkaline areas with a violet color. Chlorides Chlorides, particularly calcium chloride, have been used to shorten the setting time of concrete. However, calcium chloride and (to a lesser extent) sodium chloride have been shown to leach calcium hydroxide and cause chemical changes in Portland cement, leading to loss of strength, ;Kejin Wanga, Daniel E. Nelsena and Wilfrid A. Nixon, "Damaging effects of deicing chemicals on concrete materials", Cement and Concrete Composites Vol. 28(2), pp 173-188. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2005.07.006 as well as attacking the steel reinforcement present in most concrete. Sulphates Sulphates in solution in contact with concrete can cause chemical changes to the cement, which can cause significant microstructural effects leading to the weakening of the cement binder. Distillate Water Distillate water can wash out calcium content in concrete, leaving the concrete in brittle condition. Source of distillate water such as steam or hot water. Leaching Leaching is a self healing of cracks with chemical process in concrete. Physical damage Damage can occur during the casting and de-shuttering processes. For instance, the corners of beams can be damaged during the removal of shuttering because they are less effectively compacted by means of vibration (improved by using form-vibrators). Other physical damage can be caused by the use of steel shuttering without base plates. The steel shuttering pinches the top surface of a concrete slab due to the weight of the next slab being constructed. Types of concrete A highway paved with concrete. Regular concrete paving blocks Concrete in sidewalk stamped with contractor name and date it was laid Mix Design Modern concrete mix designs can be complex. The design of a concrete, or the way the weights of the components of a concrete is determined, is specified by the requirements of the project and the various local building codes and regulations. The design begins by determining the "durability" requirements of the concrete. These requirements take into consideration the weather conditions that the concrete will be exposed to in service, and the required design strength. The compressive strength of a concrete is determined by taking standard molded, standard-cured cylinder samples. Many factors need to be taken into account, from the cost of the various additives and aggregates, to the trade offs between, the "slump" for easy mixing and placement and ultimate performance. A mix is then designed using cement (Portland or other cementitious material), coarse and fine aggregates, water and chemical admixtures. The method of mixing will also be specified, as well as conditions that it may be used in. This allows a user of the concrete to be confident that the structure will perform properly. Various types of concrete have been developed for specialist application and have become known by these names. Regular concrete Regular concrete is the lay term describing concrete that is produced by following the mixing instructions that are commonly published on packets of cement, typically using sand or other common material as the aggregate, and often mixed in improvised containers. This concrete can be produced to yield a varying strength from about 10 MPa (1450 psi) to about 40 MPa (5800 psi), depending on the purpose, ranging from blinding to structural concrete respectively. Many types of pre-mixed concrete are available which include powdered cement mixed with an aggregate, needing only water. Typically, a batch of concrete can be made by using 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts dry sand, 3 parts dry stone, 1/2 part water. The parts are in terms of weight – not volume. For example, of concrete would be made using cement, water, dry sand, dry stone (1/2" to 3/4" stone). This would make of concrete and would weigh about . The sand should be mortar or brick sand (washed and filtered if possible) and the stone should be washed if possible. Organic materials (leaves, twigs, etc) should be removed from the sand and stone to ensure the highest strength. High-strength concrete High-strength concrete has a compressive strength generally greater than 6,000 pounds per square inch (40 MPa = 5800 psi). High-strength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which might reduce the strength at the cement-aggregate bond. Low W/C ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes significantly less workable, which is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense rebar cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability, superplasticizers are commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate must be selected carefully for high-strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be strong enough to resist the loads imposed on the concrete and cause failure to start in the aggregate rather than in the matrix or at a void, as normally occurs in regular concrete. In some applications of high-strength concrete the design criterion is the elastic modulus rather than the ultimate compressive strength. Stamped concrete Stamped concrete is an architectural concrete which has a superior surface finish. After a concrete floor has been laid, floor hardeners (can be pigmented) are impregnated on the surface and a mould which may be textured to replicate a stone / brick or even wood is stamped on to give a superior textured surface finish. After sufficient hardening the surface is cleaned and generally sealed to give a protection. The wear resistance of stamped concrete is generally excellent and hence found in applications like parking lots, pavements, walkways etc. High-performance concrete High-performance concrete (HPC) and Ultra-high-performance concrete are relatively new terms used to describe concrete that conforms to a set of standards above those of the most common applications, but not limited to strength. While all high-strength concrete is also high-performance, not all high-performance concrete is high-strength. Notable concrete-mixtures are: Ductal, concrete mixed with titanium oxide, ... Some examples of such standards currently used in relation to HPC are: Ease of placement Compaction without segregation Early age strength Long-term mechanical properties Permeability Density Heat of hydration Toughness Volume stability Long life in severe environments Depending on its implementation, environmental Time:Cementing the future Self-consolidating concretes During the 1980s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and France developed concretes that are self-compacting, known as self-consolidating concrete in the United States. This self-consolidating concrete (SCCs) is characterized by: extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 650-750 mm on a flow table, rather than slump(height) no need for vibrators to compact the concrete placement being easier. no bleed water, or aggregate segregation Increased Liquid Head Pressure, Can be detrimental to Safety and workmanship SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced wear and tear on formwork. As of 2005, self-consolidating concretes account for 10-15% of concrete sales in some European countries. In the US precast concrete industry, SCC represents over 75% of concrete production. 38 departments of transportation in the US accept the use of SCC for road and bridge projects. This emerging technology is made possible by the use of polycarboxylates plasticizer instead of older naphthalene based polymers, and viscosity modifiers to address aggregate segregation. Vacuum concretes The use of steam to produce a vacuum inside of concrete mixing truck to release air bubbles inside the concrete is being researched. The idea is the steam will remove the air that is trapped inside the concrete. The steam will condense into water and will create low pressure, pulling out air from the concrete. This will make the concrete stronger due to there being less air in the mixture. Shotcrete Shotcrete (also known by the trade name Gunite) uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto (or into) a frame or structure. Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it eliminates the need for formwork. It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunneling. Shotcrete is also used for applications where seepage is an issue to limit the amount of water entering a construction site due to a high water table or other subterranean sources. This type of concrete is often used as a quick fix for weathering for loose soil types in construction zones. There are two application methods for shotcrete. dry-mix – the dry mixture of cement and aggregates is filled into the machine and conveyed with compressed air through the hoses. The water needed for the hydration is added at the nozzle. wet-mix – the mixes are prepared with all necessary water for hydration. The mixes are pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for spraying. For both methods additives such as accelerators and fiber reinforcement may be used. American Shotcrete Association Homepage Pervious concrete Pervious concrete contains a network of holes or voids, to allow air or water to move through the concrete. This allows water to drain naturally through it, and can both remove the normal surface-water drainage infrastructure, and allow replenishment of groundwater when conventional concrete does not. It is formed by leaving out some or all of the fine aggregate (fines). The remaining large aggregate then is bound by a relatively small amount of Portland Cement. When set, typically between 15% and 25% of the concrete volume is voids, allowing water to drain at around 5 gal/ft²/ min or 200 L/m²/min) through the concrete. Installation Pervious is installed by being poured into forms, then screeded off, to level (not smooth) the surface, then packed or tamped into place. Due to the low water content and air permeability, within 5-15 minutes of tamping, the concrete must be covered with a 6-mil poly plastic, or it will dry out prematurely and not properly hydrate and cure. Characteristics Pervious can significantly reduce noise, by allowing air to be squeezed between vehicle tires and the roadway to escape. This product cannot be used on major U.S. state highways currently due to the high psi ratings required by most states. Pervious has been tested up to 4500psi so far. Cellular concrete Aerated concrete produced by the addition of an air entraining agent to the concrete (or a lightweight aggregate like expanded clay pellets or cork granules and vermiculite) is sometimes called Cellular concrete, lightweight aerated concrete, variable density concrete, foamed concrete and lightweight or ultra-lightweight concrete http://www.litebuilt.com/ http://www.ecosmarte.com.au/construction/lightconcrete.htm . Not to be confused with Aerated autoclaved concrete which is manufactured off site using an entirely different method. In the 1977 seminal work on A Pattern Language Towns, Buildings and Construction, architect Christopher Alexander wrote in pattern 209 on Good Materials: "Regular concrete is too dense. It is heavy and hard to work. After it sets one cannot cut into it, or nail into it. And it's surface is ugly, cold, and hard in feeling unless covered by expensive finishes not integral to the structure.And yet concrete, in some form, is a fascinating material. It is fluid, strong, and relatively cheap. It is available in almost every part of the world. A University of California professor of engineering sciences, P. Kumar Mehta, has even just recently found a way of converting abandoned rice husks into Portland cement. Is there any way of combining all these good qualities of concrete and also having a material which is light in weight, easy to work, with a pleasant finish? There is. It is possible to use a whole range of ultra-lightweight concretes which have a density and compressive strength very similar to that of wood. They are easy to work with, can be nailed with ordinary nails, cut with a saw, drilled with wood-working tools, easily repaired.We believe that ultra-lightweight concrete is one of the most fundamental bulk materials of the future. The variable density is normally described in KG per M3, where regular concrete is 2400 kg/M3. Variable density can be as low as 300 kg/m3 http://www.litebuilt.com/table1.html although at this density it would have no structural integrity at all and would function as a filler or insulation use only. The variable density reduces strength http://www.litebuilt.com/table2.html to increase thermal http://www.litebuilt.com/table3.html and acoustical insulation by replacing the dense heavy concrete with air or a light material such as clay, cork granules and vermiculite. There are many competing products that use a foaming agent that resembles shaving cream to mix air bubbles in with the concrete. All accomplish the same outcome: to displace concrete with air. Cork-cement composites Waste Cork granules are obtained during production of bottle stoppers from the treated bark of Cork oak. Gibson, L.J. & Ashby, M.F. 1999. Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties; 2nd Edition (Paperback), Cambridge Uni. Press. pp.453-467. These granules have a density of about 300 kg/m³, lower than most lightweight aggregates used for making lightweight concrete. Cork granules do not significantly influence cement hydration, but cork dust may. Karade S.R., Irle M.A., Maher K. 2006. Influence of granule properties and concentration on cork-cement compatibility. Holz als Roh- und Werkstoff. 64: 281–286 (DOI 10.1007/s00107-006-0103-2). Cork cement composites have several advantages over standard concrete, such as lower thermal conductivities, lower densities and good energy absorption characteristics. These composites can be made of density from 400 to 1500 kg/m³, compressive strength from 1 to 26 MPa, and flexural strength from 0.5 to 4.0 MPa. Roller-compacted concrete Roller-compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work. The concrete is placed on the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large heavy rollers typically used in earthwork. The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures over time into a strong monolithic block. Roller-Compacted Concrete (RCC) Pavements | Portland Cement Association (PCA) Roller-compacted concrete is typically used for concrete pavement, but has also been used to build concrete dams, as the low cement content causes less heat to be generated while curing than typical for conventionally placed massive concrete pours. Glass concrete The use of recycled glass as aggregate in concrete has become popular in modern times, with large scale research being carried out at Columbia University in New York. This greatly enhances the aesthetic appeal of the concrete. Recent research findings have shown that concrete made with recycled glass aggregates have shown better long term strength and better thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of the glass aggregates. K.H. Poutos, A.M. Alani, P.J. Walden, C.M. Sangha. (2008). Relative temperature changes within concrete made with recycled glass aggregate. Construction and Building Materials, Volume 22, Issue 4, Pages 557-565. Asphalt concrete Strictly speaking, asphalt is a form of concrete as well, with bituminous materials replacing cement as the binder. Rapid strength concrete This type of concrete is able to develop high resistance within few hours after being manufactured. This feature has advantages such as removing the formwork early and to move forward in the building process at record time, repair road surfaces that become fully operational in just a few hours. Rubberized concrete While "rubberized asphalt concrete" is common, rubberized Portland cement concrete ("rubberized PCC") is still undergoing experimental tests, as of 2009 Crumb Rubber Concrete - Precast Solutions Magazine Fall 2004 Emerging Construction Technologies ASU researcher puts recalled Firestone tires to good use Experimental Study on Strength, Modulus of Elasticity, and Damping Ratio of Rubberized Concrete . Polymer concrete Polymer concrete is concrete which uses polymers to bind the aggregate. Polymer concrete can gain a lot of strength in a short amount of time. For example, a polymer mix may reach 5000 psi in only four hours. Polymer concrete is generally more expensive than conventional concretes. Geopolymer or green concrete Geopolymer concrete is a greener alternative to ordinary Portland cement made from inorganic aluminosilicate (Al-Si) polymer compounds that can utilise 100% recycled industrial waste (e.g. fly ash and slag) as the manufacturing inputs resulting in up to 80% lower carbon dioxide emissions. Greater chemical and thermal resistance, and better mechanical properties, are said to be achieved by the manufacturer at both atmospheric and extreme conditions. Zeobond is one such manufacturer that has built and operates the world’s first geopolymer concrete plant for the local Australian market with several additional plants coming online in Asia and North America in 2008. According to this manufacturer its E-Crete branded concrete can be used in all applications where concrete is used today. Similar concretes have not only been used in Ancient Rome (see Roman concrete) as mentioned but also in the former Soviet Union in the 1950s and 1960s. Buildings in Ukraine are still standing after 45 years so that this kind of formulation has a sound track record. Green Cement ABC Catalyst program first broadcast 22 May 2008. Limecrete Limecrete or lime concrete is concrete where cement is replaced by lime. An Investigation Into The Feasibility Of Timber And Limecrete Composite Flooring Refractory Cement High-temperature applications, such as masonry ovens and the like, generally require the use of a refractory cement; concretes based on Portland cement can be damaged or destroyed by elevated temperatures, but refractory concretes are better able to withstand such conditions. Innovative mixtures On-going research into alternative mixtures and constituents has identified potential mixtures that promise radically different properties and characteristics. One university has identified a mixture with much smaller crack propagation that does not suffer the usual cracking and subsequent loss of strength at high levels of tensile strain. Researchers have been able to take mixtures beyond 3 percent strain, past the more typical 0.1% point at which failure occurs. Self-healing concrete for safer, more durable infrastructure Physorg.com April 22nd, 2009 Other institutions have identified magnesium silicate (talc) as an alternative ingredient to replace Portland cement in the mix. This avoids the usual high-temperature production process that is very energy and greenhouse-gas intensive and actually absorbs carbon dioxide while it cures. Revealed: The cement that eats carbon dioxide Alok Jha, The Guardian, 31 December 2008 Eco-Cement TecEco Pty Concrete handling / Safety precautions Handling of wet concrete must always be done with proper protective equipment. Contact with wet concrete can cause skin burns due to the caustic nature of the mix with cement and water. Concrete testing Compression testing of a concrete cylinder Same cylinder after failure Engineers usually specify the required compressive strength of concrete, which is normally given as the 28 day compressive strength in megapascals (MPa) or pounds per square inch (psi). Twenty eight days is a long wait to determine if desired strengths are going to be obtained, so three-day and seven-day strengths can be useful to predict the ultimate 28-day compressive strength of the concrete. A 25% strength gain between 7 and 28 days is often observed with 100% OPC (ordinary Portland cement) mixtures, and up to 40% strength gain can be realized with the inclusion of pozzolans and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash and/or slag cement. Strength gain depends on the type of mixture, its constituents, the use of standard curing, proper testing and care of cylinders in transport, etc. It is imperative to accurately test the fundamental properties of concrete in its fresh, plastic state. Concrete is typically sampled while being placed, with testing protocols requiring that test samples be cured under laboratory conditions (standard cured). Additional samples may be field cured (non-standard) for the purpose of early 'stripping' strengths, that is, form removal, evaluation of curing, etc. but the standard cured cylinders comprise acceptance criteria. Concrete tests can measure the "plastic" (unhydrated) properties of concrete prior to, and during placement. As these properties affect the hardened compressive strength and durability of concrete (resistance to freeze-thaw), the properties of workability (slump/flow), temperature, density and age are monitored to ensure the production and placement of 'quality' concrete. Tests are performed per ASTM International, European Committee for Standardization or Canadian Standards Association. As measurement of quality must represent the potential of concrete material delivered, placed and properly cured, it is imperative that concrete technicians performing concrete tests are certified to do so according to these standards. Structural design, material design and properties are often specified in accordance with national/regional design codes such as American Concrete Institute. Compressive-strength tests are conducted using an instrumented hydraulic ram to compress a cylindrical or cubic sample to failure. Tensile strength tests are conducted either by three-point bending of a prismatic beam specimen or by compression along the sides of a cylindrical specimen. Concrete recycling Concrete recycling is an increasingly common method of disposing of concrete structures. Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but recycling is increasing due to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws, and economic benefits. Concrete, which must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks, and rocks. Reinforced concrete contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with magnets and recycled elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is not allowed in many jurisdictions. On March 3, 1983, a government funded research team (the VIRL research.codep) approximated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of concrete based waste. Recycling concrete provides environmental benefits, conserving landfill space and use as aggregate reduces the need for gravel mining. Use of concrete in infrastructure The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by Giovanni Paolo Panini The Baths of Caracalla, in 2003 Mass concrete structures These include gravity dams such as the Itaipu, Hoover Dam and the Three Gorges Dam and large breakwaters. Concrete that is poured all at once in one block (so that there are no weak points where the concrete is "welded" together) is used for tornado shelters. Concrete Textures When one thinks of concrete, oftentimes the image of a dull, gray concrete wall comes to mind. Nevertheless, with the use of formliner, concrete can be cast and molded into different textures. Sound/retaining walls, bridges, office buildings and more serve as the optimal canvases for concrete art. For example, the Pima Freeway/Loop 101 retaining and sound walls in Scottsdale, Arizona, feature desert flora and fauna, a 67-foot lizard and 40-foot cacti along the 8-mile stretch. The project, titled "The Path Most Traveled," is one example of how concrete can be shaped using elastomeric formliner. Reinforced concrete structures Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcing that is designed and placed in structural members at specific positions to cater for all the stress conditions that the member is required to accommodate. Prestressed concrete structures Prestressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete which builds in compressive stresses during construction to oppose those found when in use. This can greatly reduce the weight of beams or slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the reinforcement. For example a horizontal beam will tend to sag down. If the reinforcement along the bottom of the beam is prestressed, it can counteract this. In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using steel or polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned concrete, after casting. Concrete Paving to Lower City Temperatures Using light-colored concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50% more light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature. A low albedo value, characteristic of black asphalt, absorbs a large percentage of solar heat and contributes to the warming of cities. By paving with light colored concrete, in addition to replacing asphalt with light-colored concrete, communities can lower their average temperature. Many U.S. cities show that pavement comprise approximately 30-40% of their surface area. This directly impacts the temperature of the city, as demonstrated by the urban heat island effect. In addition to decreasing the overall temperature of parking lots and large paved areas by paving with light-colored concrete, there are supplemental benefits. One example is 10-30% improved nighttime visibility. The potential of energy saving within an area is also high. With lower temperatures, the demand for air conditioning decreases, saving vast amounts of energy. Atlanta has tried to mitigate the heat-island effect. City officials noted that when using heat-reflecting concrete, their average city temperature decreased by 6 °F. New York City offers another example. The Design Trust for Public Space in New York City found that by slightly raising the albedo value in their city, beneficial effects such as energy savings could be achieved. It was concluded that this could be accomplished by the replacement of black asphalt with light-colored concrete. See also <table>Anthropic rock Biorock Building construction Bundwall Brutalist architecture, encouraging visible concrete surfaces Cement Cement accelerator Concrete moisture meters Geopolymer, a class of synthetic aluminosilicate materials Hempcrete, a mixture with hemp hurds Mudcrete, a soil-cement mixture Papercrete, a paper-cement mixture Portland cement, the classical concrete cement Concrete canoe Concrete curing Concrete mixer Concrete masonry unit Concrete recycling Concrete step barrier Fireproofing Foam Index Formliner Formwork Controlled permeability formwork<td valign=top> KU Mix LiTraCon High performance fiber reinforced cementitious composites High Reactivity Metakaolin Mortar Plasticizer Prefabricated Pykrete, a composite material of ice and cellulose Silica fume Slab-on-grade foundations Types of concrete Asphalt concrete Aerated Autoclaved Concrete Decorative concrete Fibre reinforced concrete Lunarcrete Prestressed concrete Precast concrete Ready-mix concrete Reinforced concrete Salt-concrete Seacrete Terrazzo concrete</td></table> References External links Related article and publications Refractory Concrete Information related to heat resistant concrete; recipes, ingredients mixing ratio, work with and applications. The effect of curing on the tensile strength of medium to high strength concrete The History of Concrete Concrete carbonation chemistry at the TU Dresden Howard Kanare - Problems With Moisture in Concrete Concrete Moisture Testing - Relative Humidity vs. Calcium Chloride Free Concrete Books : Standard Practice for Concrete Pavements Concrete Repair High Performance Concrete Structural Roller Compacted Concrete Concrete Crack Repair

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IEEE_1394

The 6-circuit and 4-circuit alpha FireWire 400 connectors The alternative Ethernet-style cabling used by 1394c The IEEE 1394 interface is a serial bus interface standard for high-speed communications and isochronous real-time data transfer, frequently used by personal computers, as well as in digital audio, digital video, automotive, and aeronautics applications. The interface is also known by the brand names of FireWire (Apple Inc.), i.LINK (Sony), and Lynx (Texas Instruments). IEEE 1394 replaced parallel SCSI in many applications, because of lower implementation costs and a simplified, more adaptable cabling system. The 1394 standard also defines a backplane interface, though this is not as widely used. IEEE 1394 has been adopted as the High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance (HANA) standard connection interface for A/V (audio/visual) component communication and control. About HANA FireWire is also available in wireless, fiber optic, and coaxial versions using the isochronous protocols. Since the mid 1990s, consumer grade camcorders had included a four-circuit 1394 interface, though, except for premium models, such inclusion is becoming less common. It remains the primary transfer mechanism for almost all high end professional audio and video equipment. Since 2003 many computers intended for home or professional audio/video use have built-in FireWire/i.LINK ports, especially prevalent with Sony and Apple's computers and the older iPods. The legacy (alpha) 1394 port is also available on premium retail motherboards. History and development 4-circuit (left) and 6-circuit (right) FireWire 400 alpha connectors a pair of 6-circuit alpha connectors on the edge of an expansion card FireWire is Apple Inc.'s name for the IEEE 1394 High Speed Serial Bus. It was initiated by Apple (in 1986 1394 Trade Association: 1394 Technology ) and developed by the IEEE P1394 Working Group, largely driven by contributions from Apple, although major contributions were also made by engineers from Texas Instruments, Sony, Digital Equipment Corporation, IBM, and INMOS/SGS Thomson (now STMicroelectronics). Apple intended FireWire to be a serial replacement for the parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) bus while also providing connectivity for digital audio and video equipment. Apple's development began in the late 1980s, later presented to the IEEE, and was completed in 1995. As of 2007, IEEE 1394 is a composite of four documents: the original IEEE Std. 1394-1995, the IEEE Std. 1394a-2000 amendment, the IEEE Std. 1394b-2002 amendment, and the IEEE Std. 1394c-2006 amendment. On June 12, 2008, all these amendments as well as errata and some technical updates were incorporated into a superseding standard IEEE Std. 1394-2008. Sony's implementation of the system, known as "i.LINK" used a smaller connector with only the four signal circuits, omitting the two circuits which provide power to the device in favor of a separate power connector. This style was later added into the 1394a amendment. This port is sometimes labeled "S100" or "S400" to indicate speed in Mbit/s. The system is commonly used for connection of data storage devices and (digital video) cameras, but is also popular in industrial systems for machine vision and professional audio systems. It is preferred over the more common USB for its greater effective speed and power distribution capabilities, and because it does not need a computer host. Perhaps more importantly, FireWire makes full use of all SCSI capabilities and has high sustained data transfer rates, a feature especially important for audio and video editors. Benchmarks show that the sustained data transfer rates are higher for FireWire than for USB 2.0, especially on Apple Mac OS X with more varied results on Microsoft Windows. FireWire - USB Comparison Go External: FireWire 800 However, the royalty which Apple Inc. and other patent holders initially demanded from users of FireWire (US$0.25 per end-user system) and the more expensive hardware needed to implement it (US$1–$2), both of which have since been dropped, have prevented FireWire from displacing USB in low-end mass-market computer peripherals, where product cost is a major constraint. Technical specifications FireWire can connect up to 63 peripherals in a tree topology (as opposed to Parallel SCSI's electrical bus topology). It allows peer-to-peer device communication — such as communication between a scanner and a printer — to take place without using system memory or the CPU. FireWire also supports multiple hosts per bus. It is designed to support Plug and play and hot swapping. The copper cable it uses (1394's most common implementation) can be up to long and is more flexible than most Parallel SCSI cables. In its six-circuit or nine-circuit variations, it can supply up to 45 watts of power per port at up to 30 volts, allowing moderate-consumption devices to operate without a separate power supply. FireWire devices implement the ISO/IEC 13213 "configuration ROM" model for device configuration and identification, to provide plug-and-play capability. All FireWire devices are identified by an IEEE EUI-64 unique identifier (an extension of the 48-bit Ethernet MAC address format) in addition to well-known codes indicating the type of device and the protocols it supports. Operating system support Full support for IEEE 1394a and 1394b is available for Microsoft Windows XP, FreeBSD FreeBSD firewire(4) man page , Linux Linux FireWire wiki , Apple Mac OS 8.6 through to Mac OS 9 FireWire 2.2.2 and 2.3.3: Information and Download , and Mac OS X as well as NetBSD and Haiku. Historically, performance of 1394 devices may have decreased after installing Windows XP Service Pack 2, but were resolved in Hotfix 885222 http://support.microsoft.com/kb/885222/ and in SP3. Some FireWire hardware manufacturers also provide custom device drivers which replace the Microsoft OHCI host adapter driver stack, enabling S800-capable devices to run at full 800 Mbit/s transfer rates on older versions of Windows (XP SP2 w/o Hotfix 885222) and Windows Vista. At the time of its release, Microsoft Windows Vista supported only 1394a, with assurances that 1394b support would come in the next service pack. EETimes.com - Microsoft to support 1394b standard Service Pack 1 for Microsoft Windows Vista has since been released, however the addition of 1394b support is not mentioned anywhere in the release documentation. Notable Changes in Windows Vista Service Pack 1 Release Notes for Windows Vista Service Pack 1 Hotfixes and Security Updates included in Windows Vista Service Pack 1 Cable TV system support Cable TV providers (in the US, with digital systems) must, upon request of a customer, provide a high-definition capable cable box with a functional FireWire interface. This applies only to customers leasing high-definition capable cable boxes from said cable provider after April 1, 2004. The relevant law is CFR 76.640 Section 4 Subsections i and ii. http://www.fcc.gov/mb/engineering/part76.pdf page 145 The interface can be used to display or record Cable TV, including HDTV programming. AVS Forum - How-To: Mac OS X Firewire HDTV recording Node hierarchy FireWire devices are organized at the bus in a tree topology. Each device has a unique self-id. One of the nodes is elected root node and always has the highest id. The self-ids are assigned during the self-id process, which happens after each bus reset. The order in which the self-ids are assigned is equivalent to traversing the tree in a depth-first, post-order manner. Standards and versions The previous standards and its three published amendments are now incorporated into a superseding standard, IEEE 1394-2008. The features individually added gives a good history on the development path. FireWire 400 (IEEE 1394-1995) A 6-circuit FireWire 400 alpha connector The original release of IEEE 1394-1995 specified what is now known as FireWire 400. It can transfer data between devices at 100, 200, or 400 Mbit/s half-duplex data rates (the actual transfer rates are 98.304, 196.608, and 393.216 Mbit/s, i.e. 12.288, 24.576 and 49.152 megabytes per second respectively). These different transfer modes are commonly referred to as S100, S200, and S400. Cable length is limited to , although up to 16 cables can be daisy chained using active repeaters; external hubs, or internal hubs are often present in FireWire equipment. The S400 standard limits any configuration's maximum cable length to . The 6-circuit connector is commonly found on desktop computers, and can supply the connected device with power. The 6-circuit powered connector, now referred to as an alpha connector, adds power output to support external devices. Typically a device can pull about 7 to 8 watts from the port; however, the voltage varies significantly from different devices. FireWire Developer Note Voltage is specified as unregulated and should nominally be about 25 volts (range 24 to 30). Apple's implementation on laptops is typically related to battery power and can be as low as 9 V and more likely about 12 V. Improvements (IEEE 1394a-2000) An amendment, IEEE 1394a, was released in 2000 , which clarified and improved the original specification. It added support for asynchronous streaming, quicker bus reconfiguration, packet concatenation, and a power-saving suspend mode. 1394a also standardized the 4-circuit alpha connector developed by Sony and already widely in use on consumer devices such as camcorders, laptops, and other small FireWire devices. The 4-circuit connector is fully data-compatible with 6-circuit alpha interfaces but lacks power connectors. FireWire 800 (IEEE 1394b-2002) A 9-circuit beta connector. IEEE 1394b-2002 introduced FireWire 800 (Apple's name for the 9-circuit "S800 bilingual" version of the IEEE 1394b standard) This specification and corresponding products allow a transfer rate of 786.432 Mbit/s full-duplex via a new encoding scheme termed beta mode. It is backwards compatible to the slower rates and 6-circuit alpha connectors of FireWire 400. However, while the IEEE 1394a and IEEE 1394b standards are compatible, FireWire 800's connector, referred to as a beta connector, is different from FireWire 400's alpha connectors, making legacy cables incompatible. A bilingual cable allows the connection of older devices to the newer port. In 2003, Apple was the first to introduce commercial products with the new connector. The full IEEE 1394b specification supports data rates up to 3200 Mbit/s over beta-mode or optical connections up to in length. Standard Category 5e unshielded twisted pair supports at S100. The original 1394 and 1394a standards used data/strobe (D/S) encoding (renamed to alpha mode) on the circuits, while 1394b adds a data encoding scheme called 8B10B referred to as beta mode. FireWire S1600 and S3200 In December 2007, the 1394 Trade Association announced that products will be available before the end of 2008 using the S1600 and S3200 modes that, for the most part, had already been defined in 1394b and was further clarified in IEEE Std. 1394-2008. The 1.6 Gbit/s and 3.2 Gbit/s devices use the same 9-circuit beta connectors as the existing FireWire 800 and will be fully compatible with existing S400 and S800 devices. It will compete with the forthcoming USB 3.0. . FireWire S800T (IEEE 1394c-2006) FireWire is enhanced to share gigabit Category 5e cable IEEE 1394c-2006 was published on June 8 2007. It provided a major technical improvement, namely new port specification that provides 800 Mbit/s over the same RJ45 connectors with Category 5e cable, which is specified in IEEE 802.3 clause 40 (gigabit Ethernet over copper twisted pair) along with a corresponding automatic negotiation that allows the same port to connect to either IEEE Std 1394 or IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) devices. Though the potential for a combined Ethernet and FireWire RJ45 port is intriguing, , there are no products or chipsets which include this capability. Future enhancements (including P1394d) A project named IEEE P1394d was formed by the IEEE on March 9 2009 to add single mode fiber as an additional transport medium to FireWire. http://standards.ieee.org/board/nes/0309nesrec.pdf Other future iterations of FireWire are expected bring a bump in speed to 6.4 Gbit/s and additional connectors such as the small multimedia interface. Comparison to USB Firewire (which started development in 1986 1394 Trade Association: 1394 Technology ) had implementations predating USB. However USB reached industry standardisation (1994) before the IEEE-1394-1995 specification was released (1995). At this time USB 1.0 had a signaling speed of 1.5 Mbit/s( compared to 400 Mbit/s) of IEEE-1394a (FireWire 400) but cheaper implementations. Although high-speed USB 2.0 nominally runs at a higher signaling rate (480 Mbit/s) than FireWire 400, data transfers over S400 FireWire interfaces generally outperform similar transfers over USB 2.0 interfaces. Typical USB PC-hosts rarely exceed sustained transfers of 280 Mbit/s, with 240 Mbit/s being more typical. This is likely due to USB's reliance on the host-processor to manage low-level USB protocol, whereas FireWire delegates the same tasks to the interface hardware (requiring less or no CPU usage). For example, the FireWire host interface supports memory-mapped devices, which allows high-level protocols to run without loading the host CPU with interrupts and buffer-copy operations. Besides throughput, other differences are that it uses simpler bus networking, provides more power over the chain, more reliable data transfer, and uses fewer CPU resources. http://www.qimaging.com/support/pdfs/firewire_usb_technote.pdf FireWire 800 is substantially faster than Hi-Speed USB, both in theory and in practice. Alternative uses for IEEE 1394 Aircraft IEEE 1394b is used in military aircraft, where weight savings are desired. Developed for use as the data bus on the F-22 Raptor, it is also used on the F-35 Lightning II. "The Electric Jet." Philips, E. H. Aviation Week & Space Technology. February 5, 2007. NASA's Space Shuttle also uses IEEE 1394b to monitor debris (foam, ice) which may hit the vehicle during launch. This standard should not be confused with the unrelated MIL-STD-1394B. Automobiles IDB-1394 Customer Convenience Port (CCP) is the automotive version of the 1394 standard. IDB Forum Networking over FireWire FireWire can be used for ad-hoc (terminals only, no routers except where a FireWire hub is used) computer networks. Specifically, RFC 2734 specifies how to run IPv4 over the FireWire interface, and RFC 3146 specifies how to run IPv6. Mac OS X, Linux, FreeBSD, Windows ME, Windows 2000, Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003 all include support for networking over FireWire FreeBSD 7.1 fwip(4) man page . A network can be set up between two computers using a single standard FireWire cable, or by multiple computers through use of a hub. This is similar to Ethernet networks with the major differences being transfer speed, circuit length, and the fact that standard FireWire cables can be used for point-to-point communication. On December 4, 2004, Microsoft announced Discontinued Support for IP over 1394 that it would discontinue support for IP networking over the FireWire interface in all future versions of Microsoft Windows. Consequently, support for this feature is absent from both Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008. IP networking over the IEEE 1394 bus is not supported in Windows Vista and in all later versions of Windows New Networking Features in Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista The PlayStation 2 console had an i.LINK-branded 1394 connector. This was used for networking until the release of an Ethernet adapter late in the console's lifespan, but very few software titles supported the feature. IIDC IIDC (Instrumentation & Industrial Digital Camera) is the FireWire data format standard for live video, and is used by Apple's iSight A/V camera. The system was designed for machine vision systems, libdc1394: IIDC/DCAM specifications but is also used for other computer vision applications and for some webcams. Although they are easily confused since they both run over FireWire, IIDC is different from, and incompatible with, the ordinary DV (Digital Video) camcorder protocol. DV Digital Video () is a standard protocol used by some digital camcorders. Formerly, all DV cameras had a FireWire interface (usually a 4-circuit), but recently many consumer brands have switched to USB. Labeling of the port varies by manufacturer, with Sony using either its i.LINK trademark or the letters 'DV'. Many digital video recorders have a "DV-input" FireWire connector (usually an alpha connector) which can be used to record video from a directly-connected DV camcorder ("computer-free"). The protocol also allows remote control (play, rewind, etc.) of connected devices. Security issues Devices on a FireWire bus can communicate by direct memory access(DMA), where a device can use hardware to map internal memory to FireWire's "Physical Memory Space". The SBP-2 (Serial Bus Protocol 2) used by FireWire disk drives uses this capability to minimize interrupts and buffer copies. In SBP-2, the initiator (controlling device) sends a request by remotely writing a command into a specified area of the target's FireWire address space. This command usually includes buffer addresses in the initiator's FireWire "Physical Address Space", which the target is supposed to use for moving I/O data to and from the initiator. is a practical attempt to hack windows using firewire vulnerabilities On many implementations, particularly those like PCs and Macs using the popular OHCI, the mapping between the FireWire "Physical Memory Space" and device physical memory is done in hardware, without operating system intervention. While this enables high-speed and low-latency communication between data sources and syncs without unnecessary copying (such as between a video camera and a software video recording application, or between a disk drive and the application buffers), this can also be a security risk if untrustworthy devices are attached to the bus. For this reason, high-security installations will typically either purchase newer machines which map a virtual memory space to the FireWire "Physical Memory Space" (such as a Power Mac G5, or any Sun workstation), disable the OHCI hardware mapping between FireWire and device memory, physically disable the entire FireWire interface, or do not have FireWire at all. This feature can also be used to debug a machine whose operating system has crashed, and in some systems for remote-console operations. On FreeBSD, the dcons driver provides both, using gdb as debugger. Under Linux, firescope LKML: Andi Kleen: [ANNOUNCE] firescope for i386/x86-64 released and fireproxy Index of /~bk/firewire exist. See also High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance aka HANA HAVI, FireWire to control Audio and Video hardware. Universal Serial Bus (USB) mLAN Yamaha's FireWire-based music networking system List of device bandwidths References External links 1394 Trade Association 1394 Standards Orientation, Introduction. High-Definition Audio-Video Network Alliance (HANA) Standard using IEEE 1394 FireWire for interconnecting A/V components Apple FireWire Technology

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windows_server:2 ip_networking:2 vista_windows:1 playstation_console:1 dv_camera:1 external_link:1

Casablanca

Casablanca (in Arabic: الدار البيضاء ad-Dār al-Bayḍāʼ as well as کازابلانکا Kāzāblānkā; Spanish for white (blanca) house (casa) ; nicknamed by locals: Caza; Antique and original name in Amazigh: Anfa /) is a city in western Morocco, located on the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Greater Casablanca region. With a population of 3.1 million (3.85 million in "greater Casablanca" according to the September 2005 census), Casablanca is Morocco's largest city as well as its chief port. It's also the biggest city in the Maghreb and the sixth biggest city in the entire continent of Africa. Casablanca is considered the economic capital of Morocco because it is the heart of Moroccan business; the political capital is Rabat. It is also the primary naval base for the Royal Moroccan Navy. Casablanca is the leading city hosting headquarters and main industrial facilities for the leading Moroccan and international companies based in Morocco. Industrial statistics show Casablanca retains its historic position as the main industrial zone of the country. The Port of Casablanca is considered as Morocco's chief port and as one of the largest artificial ports in the world. Casablanca - Encyclopedia of the Orient It is also the largest port of the Maghreb and North Africa. Discovering Casablanca - The Africa Travel Association History Before the French Protectorate The area which is today Casablanca was settled by Berbers by at least the 7th century. Casablanca - Jewish Virtual Library A small independent kingdom, in the area then named Anfa, arose in the area around that time in response to Arab Muslim rule, and continued until it was conquered by the Almoravids in 1068. During 14th century, under the Merinids, Anfa rose in importance as a port. In the early 15th century, the town became an independent state once again, and emerged as a safe harbour for pirates and privateers, leading to it being targeted by the Portuguese, who destroyed the town in 1468. The Portuguese used the ruins of Anfa to build a military fortress in 1515. The town that grew up around it was called "Casa Branca", meaning "White House" in Portuguese. Between 1580-1640, Casa Blanca was part of Spain, and later it became part of Portugal again. The European Colonists eventually abandoned the area completely in 1755 following an earthquake which destroyed most of the town. The town was finally reconstructed by sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah (1756-1790), the grandson of Moulay Ismail and ally of George Washington. The town was called الدار البيضاء ad-Dār al-Bayḍāʼ (white house) in Arabic and Casa Blanca in Spanish. In the 19th century, the area's population began to grow as Casablanca became a major supplier of wool to the booming textile industry in Britain and shipping traffic increased (the British, in return, began importing Morocco's now famous national drink, gunpowder tea). By the 1860s, there were around 5,000 residents, and the population grew to around 10,000 by the late 1880s. Pennel, CR: Morocco from Empire to Independence, Oneworld, Oxford, 2003, p 121 Casablanca remained a modestly-sized port, with a population reaching around 12,000 within a few years of the French conquest and arrival of French colonialists in the town, at first administrators within a sovereign sultanate, in 1906. By 1921, this was to rise to 110,000, Pennel, CR: Morocco from Empire to Independence, Oneworld, Oxford, 2003, p 149 largely through the development of bidonvilles. French rule In June 1907, the French attempted to build a light railway near the port and passing through a graveyard. Residents attacked the French workers, and riots ensued. French troops were landed in order to restore order, which was achieved only after severe damage to the town. The French then took control of Casablanca. This effectively began the process of colonizations, although French control of Casablanca was not formalised until 1910. The famous 1942 film Casablanca underlined the city's colonial status at the time -- depicting it as the scene of a power struggle between competing European powers, carried out with little reference to the local population. The film's vast cosmopolitan cast of characters (American, French, German, Czech, Norse, Bulgarian, Russian and some other nationalities) includes only a single (uncredited) Arab character, "Abdul" the doorman whose role is marginal. During the 1940s and 1950s, Casablanca was a major centre of anti-French rioting. A terrorist bomb on Christmas Day of 1953 caused many casualties. The Casablanca Conference Casablanca was an important strategic port during World War II and hosted the Casablanca Conference in 1943, in which Churchill and Roosevelt discussed the progress of the war. Casablanca was the site of a large American air base, which was the staging area for all American aircraft for the European Theater of Operations during World War II. Since independence Morocco regained independence from France on the 2nd of March, 1956. In 1930, Casablanca hosted a Grand Prix. The race was held at the new Anfa Racecourse. In 1958, the race was held at Ain-Diab circuit - (see Moroccan Grand Prix). In 1983, Casablanca hosted the Mediterranean Games. The city is now developing a tourism industry. Casablanca has become the economic and business capital of Morocco, while Rabat is the political capital. In March 2000, women's groups organised demonstrations in Casablanca proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country. 40,000 women attended, calling for a ban on polygamy and the introduction of divorce law (divorce being a purely religious procedure at that time). Although the counter-demonstration attracted half a million participants, the movement for change started in 2000 was influential on King Mohammed VI, and he enacted a new Mudawana, or family law, in early 2004, meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists. On May 16, 2003, 33 civilians were killed and more than 100 people were injured when Casablanca was hit by a multiple suicide bomb attack carried out by Moroccans and claimed by some to have been linked to al-Qaeda. A string of suicide bombings struck the city in early 2007. A suspected militant blew himself up at a Casablanca internet cafe on March 11, 2007. On April 10, three suicide bombers blew themselves up during a police raid of their safe house. Terror Cell: 'Police Hold Fifth Man' April 12, 2007 Two days later, police set up barricades around the city and detained two more men who had escaped the raid. Casablanca on alert after suicide bombings April 12 2007 On April 14, two brothers blew themselves up in downtown Casablanca, one near the American Consulate, and one a few blocks away near the American Language Center. Only one person was injured aside from the bombers, but the Consulate was closed for more than a month. U.S. Shuts Morocco Consulate After Bomb April 15, 2007 Climate Casablanca has a mild Mediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Casablanca's climate is strongly influenced by the cool currents of the Atlantic Ocean which tends to moderate temperature swings and produce a remarkably mild climate with little seasonal temperature variation and a lack of extreme heat and extreme cold. Economy The Greater Casablanca region is considered the locomotive of the development of the Moroccan economy. It attracts 32% of the country’s production units and 56% of industrial labor. The region uses 30% of the national electricity production. With MAD 93 billion, the region contributes to 44% of the Industrial production of the Kingdom. 33% of national industrial exportations, MAD 27 billions, which is comparably with US $ 3.6 billion, come from the Greater Casablanca. 30% of Moroccan banking network is concentrated in Casablanca. One of the most important Casablancan exports is phosphorate. Other industries include fishing, fish canning, sawmilling, furniture making, building materials, glass, textiles, electronics, leather work, processed food, beer, spirits, soft drinks, and cigarettes. The Casablanca and Mohammedia seaports activity represent 50% of the international commercial flows of Morocco. Almost the entire Casablanca coast is under project, mainly the construction of huge entertainment centres between the port and Hassan 2nd Mosque, the Anfa Resort project near Megarama cinema which is a business, distraction and living centre, Morocco Mall, a giant distraction mall, and finally a complete renovation of the walkway coast to be finished in June 2009. The Sindbad park is planned to be totally renewed by rides, games and distraction services. Demographics The population of Grand Casablanca was estimated in 2005 at 3.85 million. 98% of them live in urban areas. Around 25% of them are under 15 and 9% are over 60 years old. The population of the city is about 11% of the total population of Morocco. Greater Casablanca is also the largest urban area in the Maghreb. Casablanca.ma The number of inhabitants is however disputed by the locals, who point to a number between 5 and 6 million, citing recent drought years as a reason for many people moving into the city to find work. Judaism in Casablanca There was a Sephardic Jewish community in Anfa up to its destruction by the Portuguese in 1468. Jews were slow to return to the town, but by 1750 the Rabbi Elijah Synagogue was built as the first Jewish temple in Casablanca. It was destroyed along with much of the town in the earthquake of 1755. By the beginning of the 20th century, Casablanca was home to about 6,000 Jews - more than a quarter of the population. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Casablanca has been associated with Judaism more than any other city in North Africa. The Jewish population snowballed in the mid 20th century, partly because of the development of social support structures for Jewish incomers and partly, after the European Holocaust, because of an increased desire of some Jews for the protection of a large Jewish community. Between the 1940s and 1960s, the Jewish population of Casablanca was around 70,000. Emigration to France, Canada, the United States and Israel from Casablanca has been substantial since then, however. Large numbers of expatriates retain Moroccan citizenship and a Moroccan identity. Fewer than 5,000 Jews remain in the city today. Here is a list of a few synagogues in Casablanca: Council of Moroccan Jewish Communities, (Conseil des Communautés Israélites du Maroc), 1, rue Adrienne Lecouver Synagogue Beth-El - 67, Verlet-Hanus Synagogue Téhila Le David - Bd du 11 Janvier Synagogue Benarrosh - Rue de Lusitania Synagogue Em-Habanime - Rue de Lusitania An Israeli theatre play, extremely popular in the 1950s and 1960's and later made into a film, was called Casablan, depicting the difficult life in a Jaffa slum of the eponymous young Morrocan Jewish immigrant, evidently originating from Casablanca see Hebrew Wikipedia http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%96%D7%91%D7%9C%D7%9F Notable physical landmarks The French period New Town of Casablanca was designed by the French architect Henri Prost and was a model of a new town at that time. The main streets of the New Town (Ville Nouvelle in French) radiate south and east from Place des Nations Unies, where the main market of Anfa had been. The New Town is possibly the most impressive in Morocco. Former administrative buildings and modern hotels populate the area. Their style is a combination of Hispano-Mauresque and Art Deco styles. Casablanca is home to the Hassan II Mosque, designed by the French architect Michel Pinseau. It is situated on a promontory looking out to the Atlantic, which can be seen through a gigantic glass floor with room for 25,000 worshippers. A further 80,000 can be accommodated in the mosque's courtyard. Its minaret is the world's tallest at 210 metres. Work on the mosque was started in 1980, and was intended to be completed for the 60th birthday of the former Moroccan king, Hassan II, in 1989. However, the building was not inaugurated until 1993. Authorities spent an estimated $800 million in the construction of the building. The Parc de la Ligue Arabe (formally called Lyautey) is the city's largest public park. On its edge is situated the Cathédrale Sacré-Coeur, which is disused, but is a splendid example of Mauresque architecture. The Old Medina (the part of town pre-dating the French protectorate) attracts fewer tourists than the medinas of other Moroccan towns, such as Fes and Marrakech. However, it has undergone some restoration in recent years. Included in this project have been the western walls of the medina, its skala, or bastion, and its colonial-period clock tower. The city is served by Anfa Airport and Mohammed V International Airport, and its port is one of the largest artificial ports in the world. List of notable landmarks Port of Casablanca Cathédrale Sacré-Coeur (Catholic Cathedral) City Hall (Casablanca) Casablanca Technopark Casablanca Twin Center Hassan II Mosque Lycée Lyautey Mohammed V International Airport Transport Trains Casablanca is served by two rail stations run by the national rail service, the ONCF. The main long haul station is Casa-Voyageurs, from which trains run south to Marrakech or El Jadida and north to Rabat, and then on either to Tangier or Meknes, Fes ,Taza and Oujda. A dedicated airport shuttle service to Mohammed V International Airport also has its primary in-city stop at this station, for connections on to further destinations. The second station, Casa-Port, serves primarily commuter trains running the Casablanca - Kenitra corridor, with some connecting trains with running on to Gare de Casa-Voyageurs. www.oncf.ma Coaches CTM coaches (intercity buses) and various private lines run services to most notable Moroccan towns as well as a number of European cities. These run from the Gare Routière on Rue Léon l'Africain in downtown Casablanca. Air Casablanca's main airport is Mohammed V International Airport, Morocco's busiest airport. Regular domestic flights serve Marrakech, Rabat, Agadir, Oujda, and Tangier, Laayoune as well as other cities. Casablanca is well served by international flights to Europe, especially French and Spanish airports, and has regular connections to North American, Middle Eastern and sub-Saharan African destinations. New York, Dakar and Dubai are important primary destinations. The older, smaller Casablanca Anfa airport to the west of the city which served certain destinations including Damascus, and Tunis is scheduled to close to civilian traffic in 2006. Taxis Registered taxis in Casablanca are coloured blue and known as petits taxis (small taxis), or coloured white and known as grands taxis (big taxis). As is standard Moroccan practice, petits taxis, typically small-four door Fiat Uno or similar cars, provide metered cab service in the central metropolitan areas. Grands taxis, generally older Mercedes-Benz sedans, provide shared mini-bus like service within the city on pre-defined routes, or shared inter-city service. Grands Taxis may also be hired for private service by the hour or day, although typically only foreigners do so. Metro (planned) An underground railway system is currently being projected, which when constructed will potentially offer some relief to the problems of traffic congestion and poor air quality. The metro will not be ready before 2017, having a length of 10 kilometers (6 miles) and costing 1,000 dirhams http://www.casablanca.ma/index/docs/deplacement_urbain_casa.pdf . However, it should be noticed that none of the preparatory works for this project have started. And, no discussion of it is observed in the media. The anecdote among Casablanca population is that "water is too near below, that they cannot dig tunnels." Tram (planned) A tram system is currently in the project phase. Casablanca's administrative divisions Casablanca is a commune, part of the Region of the Greater Casablanca. The commune is divided into 8 districts (prefectures عمالات), which are themselves divided into 16 subdivisions (arrondissements دوائر) and 1 municipality (بلدية). Districts + Administrative divisions of the Casablanca City La Préfecture de Casablanca (in French) Districts (fr: Préfectures d'arrondissement, ar: عمالة دوائر) Subdivisions (fr: Arrondissements, ar: دوائر) Municipalities (fr: Municipalités, ar: بلديات ) Superficy Population (2004)عين الشق Aïn Chockعين الشق Aïn Chock 28.89 km² inhabitantsعين السبع الحي المحمدي Aïn Sebaâ-Hay Mohammadiعين السبع Aïn Sebaâ 26.7 km² inhabitantsالحي المحمدي Hay Mohammadi الصخور السوداء / روش نوار Roches Noires (Assoukhour Assawda) أنفا Anfaأنفا Anfa 37.5 km² inhabitantsالمعاريف Maârif سيدي بليوط Sidi Belyout بن مسيك Ben M'sickبن مسيك Ben M'sick 10.27 km². inhabitantsسباته Sbata سيدي) برنوصي) (Sidi) Bernoussiسيدي) برنوصي) (Sidi) Bernoussi 38.59 km² inhabitantsسيدي مومن Sidi Moumen الفداء - مرس السلطان Al Fida-Mers Sultanالفداء Al Fidaالمشور Mechouar17.9 km² inhabitantsمرس السلطان Mers Sultan الحي الحسني Hay Hassaniالحي الحسني Hay Hassani 25.91 km² inhabitantsمولاي رشيد Moulay Rachidمولاي رشيد Moulay Rachid 13.38 km² inhabitantsسيدي عثمان Sidi Othmane Neighborhoods (the list of neighborhoods is indicative and not complete) Ain Sebaa Belvédère 2 Mars Bouchentouf Bourgogne Centre Ville (downtown) Californie C.I.L. Derb Gallef Derb Sultan Al Fida Derb TAZI Hay Dakhla ("Derb Lihoudi") (quartier Martinet) El Hank El Hay El Mohammadi Hay Farah Gauthier Habous Hay Moulay Rachid La Gironde La Colline Laimoun (Hay Hassani) Lissasfa Maarif Old Madina (Mdina Qdima) Mers Sultan Nisaam Oasis Oulfa Polo Racine Riviera Roches Noires Sbaata Sidi Bernoussi Sidi Moumen Sidi Maarouf Sidi Othman International relations Sister cities Algiers, Algeria Dubai, United Arab Emirates Bordeaux, France (1988) Chicago, U.S. (1982) Jakarta, Indonesia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Kuala Lumpur fact file, Asian-Pacific City Summit. Retrieved on December 31, 2007. Montreal, Canada Shanghai, People's Republic of China (1986) Izmir, Turkey (1999) Sosnowiec, Poland Partner cities Paris, France (since 2004) Education Colleges and Universities University of Casablanca University of Hassan II (Ain Chock) École Hassania des Travaux Publics ISCAE K through 12 American Academy Casablanca Casablanca American School George Washington Academy Nelson C. Brown High School Babar land Lycée Lyautey Sports Raja Casablanca Wydad Casablanca People born in Casablanca Salaheddine Bassir - Moroccan footballer. Larbi Benbarek - Moroccan footballer. Jean-Paul Bertrand-Demanes - French footballer. Merieme Chadid - Moroccan astronomer. Jean-Charles de Castelbajac - French fashion designer. Nawal El Moutawakel - Olympic champion. Shatha Hassoun - Moroccan/Iraqi singer. Hicham Mesbahi - Moroccan boxer. Mostafa Nissaboury - Moroccan poet. Hakim Noury - Moroccan film director. Maurice Ohana - French composer. Jean Reno - French Hollywood actor. Alain Souchon - French songwriter. Sidney Taurel - Naturalized American CEO of Eli Lilly and Company from 1998 to 2008 Richard Virenque - French cyclist. Abdallah Zrika - Moroccan poet. Gad Elmaleh - Moroccan-French One man show humorist/Actor. Casablanca in fiction Casablanca is the setting of Casablanca (film) the 1942 starring Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman. The film has achieved worldwide popularity since then, having also won three Oscars and been nominated in five additional categories. The city is featured in The Mysterious Caravan, Volume 54 in the original Hardy Boys series. Casablanca is one of the key locations in the 2006 video game Dreamfall, as it is where the primary protagonist of the game, Zoë Castillo, lives. A Night in Casablanca (1946) was the twelfth Marx Brothers' movie. The film stars Groucho Marx, Chico Marx, and Harpo Marx. It was directed by Archie Mayo and written by Joseph Fields and Roland Kibbee. The film contains the song "Who's Sorry Now?" with music by Ted Snyder and lyrics by Bert Kalmar and Harry Ruby. It is sung in French by Lisette Verea playing the part of Beatrice Rheiner, and then later sung in English (see image). Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 is played twice, once by Chico on piano as an intro to the Beer Barrel Polka, and again by Harpo on the harp. Images References Bahiyyih Maroon, “Leisure Space: Thematic Style and Cultural Exclusion in Casablanca,” pp. 137–151 in The Themed Space: Locating Culture, Nation, and Self, ed. Scott A. Lukas (Lanham, MD, Lexington Books, 2007), ISBN 0-7391-2142-1 See also History of Casablanca External links Official web site of Casablanca Online Casablanca Map - Indik.ma The Portal of Casablanca Official Casablanca Tourism Website Casablanca entry in Lexicorient Tourist map US Consulate General France Consulate General Casablanca at the Magic Morocco Casablanca photo gallery Casablanca in modern photos

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Chemical_thermodynamics

J. Willard Gibbs - founder of chemical thermodynamics Chemical thermodynamics is the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics involves not only laboratory measurements of various thermodynamic properties, but also the application of mathematical methods to the study of chemical questions and the spontaneity of processes. The structure of chemical thermodynamics is based on the first two laws of thermodynamics. Starting from the first and second laws of thermodynamics, four equations called the "fundamental equations of Gibbs" can be derived. From these four, a multitude of equations, relating the thermodynamic properties of the thermodynamic system can be derived using relatively simple mathematics. This outlines the mathematical framework of chemical thermodynamics. History In 1865, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius, in his Mechanical Theory of Heat, suggested that the principles of thermochemistry, e.g. such as the heat evolved in combustion reactions, could be applied to the principles of thermodynamics. Clausius, R. (1865). The Mechanical Theory of Heat – with its Applications to the Steam Engine and to Physical Properties of Bodies. London: John van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row. MDCCCLXVII. Building on the work of Clausius, between the years 1873-76 the American mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs published a series of three papers, the most famous one being the paper On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances. In these papers, Gibbs showed how the first two laws of thermodynamics could be measured graphically and mathematically to determine both the thermodynamic equilibrium of chemical reactions as well as their tendencies to occur or proceed. Gibbs’ collection of papers provided the first unified body of thermodynamic theorems from the principles developed by others, such as Clausius and Sadi Carnot. During the early 20th century, two major publications successfully applied the principles developed by Gibbs to chemical processes, and thus established the foundation of the science of chemical thermodynamics. The first was the 1923 textbook Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall. This book was responsible for supplanting the chemical affinity for the term free energy in the English-speaking world. The second was the 1933 book Modern Thermodynamics by the methods of Willard Gibbs written by E. A. Guggenheim. In this manner, Lewis, Randall, and Guggenheim are considered as the founders of modern chemical thermodynamics because of the major contribution of these two books in unifying the application of thermodynamics to chemistry. Overview The primary objective of chemical thermodynamics is the establishment of a criterion for the determination of the feasibility or spontaneity of a given transformation. Klotz, I. (1950). Chemical Thermodynamics. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc. In this manner, chemical thermodynamics is typically used to predict the energy exchanges that occur in the following processes: Chemical reactions Phase changes The formation of solutions The following state functions are of primary concern in chemical thermodynamics: Internal energy (U) Enthalpy (H). Entropy (S) Gibbs free energy (G) Most identities in chemical thermodynamics arise from application of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, particularly the law of conservation of energy, to these state functions. Chemical energy Chemical energy is the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances. Breaking or making of chemical bonds involves energy, which may be either absorbed or evolved from a chemical system. Energy that can be released (or absorbed) because of a reaction between a set of chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants. This change in energy is called the change in internal energy of a chemical reaction. Where is the internal energy of formation of the reactant molecules that can be calculated from the bond energies of the various chemical bonds of the molecules under consideration and is the internal energy of formation of the product molecules. The internal energy change of a process is equal to the heat change if it is measured under conditions of constant volume, as in a closed rigid container such as a bomb calorimeter. However, under conditions of constant pressure, as in reactions in vessels open to the atmosphere, the measured heat change is not always equal to the internal energy change, because pressure-volume work also releases or absorbs energy. (The heat change at constant pressure is called the enthalpy change; in this case the enthalpy of formation). Another useful term is the heat of combustion, which is the energy released due to a combustion reaction and often applied in the study of fuels. Food is similar to hydrocarbon fuel and carbohydrate fuels, and when it is oxidized, its caloric content is similar (though not assessed in the same way as a hydrocarbon fuel — see food energy). In chemical thermodynamics the term used for the chemical potential energy is chemical potential, and for chemical transformation an equation most often used is the Gibbs-Duhem equation. Chemical reactions In most cases of interest in chemical thermodynamics there are internal degrees of freedom and processes, such as chemical reactions and phase transitions, which always create entropy unless they are at equilibrium, or are maintained at a "running equilibrium" through "quasi-static" changes by being coupled to constraining devices, such as pistons or electrodes, to deliver and receive external work. Even for homogeneous "bulk" materials, the free energy functions depend on the composition, as do all the extensive thermodynamic potentials, including the internal energy. If the quantities { Ni }, the number of chemical species, are omitted from the formulae, it is impossible to describe compositional changes. Gibbs function For a "bulk" (unstructured) system they are the last remaining extensive variables. For an unstructured, homogeneous "bulk" system, there are still various extensive compositional variables { Ni } that G depends on, which specify the composition, the amounts of each chemical substance, expressed as the numbers of molecules present or (dividing by Avogadro's number), the numbers of moles For the case where only PV work is possible in which μi is the chemical potential for the i-th component in the system The expression for dG is especially useful at constant T and P, conditions which are easy to achieve experimentally and which approximates the condition in living creatures Chemical affinity While this formulation is mathematically defensible, it is not particularly transparent since one does not simply add or remove molecules from a system. There is always a process involved in changing the composition; e.g., a chemical reaction (or many), or movement of molecules from one phase (liquid) to another (gas or solid). We should find a notation which does not seem to imply that the amounts of the components ( Ni } can be changed independently. All real processes obey conservation of mass, and in addition, conservation of the numbers of atoms of each kind. Whatever molecules are transferred to or from should be considered part of the "system". Consequently we introduce an explicit variable to represent the degree of advancement of a process, a progress variable ξ for the extent of reaction (Prigogine & Defay, p. 18; Prigogine, pp. 4-7; Guggenheim, p. 37.62), and to the use of the partial derivative ∂G/∂ξ (in place of the widely used "ΔG", since the quantity at issue is not a finite change). The result is an understandable expression for the dependence of dG on chemical reactions (or other processes). If there is just one reaction If we introduce the stoichiometric coefficient for the i-th component in the reaction which tells how many molecules of i are produced or consumed, we obtain an algebraic expression for the partial derivative where, (De Donder; Progoine & Defay, p. 69; Guggenheim, pp. 37,240), we introduce a concise and historical name for this quantity, the "affinity", symbolized by A, as introduced by Théophile de Donder in 1923. The minus sign comes from the fact the affinity was defined to represent the rule that spontaneous changes will ensue only when the change in the Gibbs free energy of the process is negative, meaning that the chemical species have a positive affinity for each other. The differential for G takes on a simple form which displays its dependence on compositional change If there are a number of chemical reactions going on simultaneously, as is usually the case a set of reaction coordinates { ξj }, avoiding the notion that the amounts of the components ( Ni } can be changed independently. The expressions above are equal to zero at thermodynamic equilibrium, while in the general case for real systems, they are negative because all chemical reactions proceeding at a finite rate produce entropy. This can be made even more explicit by introducing the reaction rates dξj/dt. For each and every physically independent process (Prigogine & Defay, p. 38; Prigogine, p. 24) This is a remarkable result since the chemical potentials are intensive system variables, depending only on the local molecular milieu. They cannot "know" whether the temperature and pressure (or any other system variables) are going to be held constant over time. It is a purely local criterion and must hold regardless of any such constraints. Of course, it could have been obtained by taking partial derivatives of any of the other fundamental state functions, but nonetheless is a general criterion for (−T times) the entropy production from that spontaneous process; or at least any part of it that is not captured as external work. (See Constraints below.) We now relax the requirement of a homogeneous “bulk” system by letting the chemical potentials and the affinity apply to any locality in which a chemical reaction (or any other process) is occurring. By accounting for the entropy production due to irreversible processes, the inequality for dG is now replace by an equality or Any decrease in the Gibbs function of a system is the upper limit for any isothermal, isobaric work that can be captured in the surroundings, or it may simply be dissipated, appearing as T times a corresponding increase in the entropy of the system and/or its surrounding. Or it may go partly toward doing external work and partly toward creating entropy. The important point is that the extent of reaction for a chemical reaction may be coupled to the displacement of some external mechanical or electrical quantity in such a way that one can advance only if the other one also does. The coupling may occasionally be rigid, but it is often flexible and variable. Solutions In solution chemistry and biochemistry, the Gibbs free energy decrease (∂G/∂ξ, in molar units, denoted cryptically by ΔG) is commonly used as a surrogate for (−T times) the entropy produced by spontaneous chemical reactions in situations where there is no work being done; or at least no "useful" work; i.e., other than perhaps some ± PdV. The assertion that all spontaneous reactions have a negative ΔG is merely a restatement of the fundamental thermodynamic relation, giving it the physical dimensions of energy and somewhat obscuring its significance in terms of entropy. When there is no useful work being done, it would be less misleading to use the Legendre transforms of the entropy appropriate for constant T, or for constant T and P, the Massieu functions −F/T and −G/T respectively. Non equilibrium Generally the systems treated with the conventional chemical thermodynamics are either at equilibrium or near equilibrium. Ilya Prigogine developed the thermodynamic treatment of open systems that are far from equilibrium. In doing so he has discovered phenomena and structures of completely new and completely unexpected types. His generalized, nonlinear and irreversible thermodynamics has found surprising applications in a wide variety of fields. The non equilibrium thermodynamics has been applied for explaining how ordered structures e.g. the biological systems, can develop from disorder. Even if Onsager's relations are utilized, the classical principles of equilibrium in thermodynamics still show that linear systems close to equilibrium always develop into states of disorder which are stable to perturbations and cannot explain the occurrence of ordered structures. Prigogine called these systems dissipative systems, because they are formed and maintained by the dissipative processes which take place because of the exchange of energy between the system and its environment and because they disappear if that exchange ceases. They may be said to live in symbiosis with their environment. The method which Prigogine used to study the stability of the dissipative structures to perturbations is of very great general interest. It makes it possible to study the most varied problems, such as city traffic problems, the stability of insect communities, the development of ordered biological structures and the growth of cancer cells to mention but a few examples. System constraints In this regard, it is crucial to understand the role of walls and other constraints, and the distinction between independent processes and coupling. Contrary to the clear implications of many reference sources, the previous analysis is not restricted to homogenous, isotropic bulk systems which can deliver only PdV work to the outside world, but applies even to the most structured systems. There are complex systems with many chemical "reactions" going on at the same time, some of which are really only parts of the same, overall process. An independent process is one that could proceed even if all others were unaccountably stopped in their tracks. Understanding this is perhaps a “thought experiment” in chemical kinetics, but actual examples exist. A gas reaction which results in an increase in the number of molecules will lead to an increase in volume at constant external pressure. If it occurs inside a cylinder closed with a piston, the equilibrated reaction can proceed only by doing work against an external force on the piston. The extent variable for the reaction can increase only if the piston moves, and conversely, if the piston is pushed inward, the reaction is driven backwards. Similarly, a redox reaction might occur in an electrochemical cell with the passage of current in wires connecting the electrodes. The half-cell reactions at the electrodes are constrained if no current is allowed to flow. The current might be dissipated as joule heating, or it might in turn run an electrical device like a motor doing mechanical work. An automobile lead-acid battery can be recharged, driving the chemical reaction backwards. In this case as well, the reaction is not an independent process. Some, perhaps most, of the Gibbs free energy of reaction may be delivered as external work. The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and phosphate can drive the force times distance work delivered by living muscles, and synthesis of ATP is in turn driven by a redox chain in mitochondria and chloroplasts, which involves the transport of ions across the membranes of these cellular organelles. The coupling of processes here, and in the previous examples, is often not complete. Gas can leak slowly past a piston, just as it can slowly leak out of a rubber balloon. Some reaction may occur in a battery even if no external current is flowing. There is usually a coupling coefficient, which may depend on relative rates, which determines what percentage of the driving free energy is turned into external work, or captured as "chemical work"; a misnomer for the free energy of another chemical process. See also Thermodynamic databases for pure substances References Further reading Library of Congress Catalog No. 60-5597 Library of Congress Catalog No. 67-29540 Library of Congress Catalog No. 67-20003 External links Chemical Thermodynamics - University of North Carolina Chemical energetics (Introduction to thermodynamics and the First Law) Thermodynamics of chemical equilibrium (Entropy, Second Law and free energy) Chemical Energy and Work - UC Berkeley video lecture

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Antimony

Antimony ( (UK) or (US)) is a chemical element with the symbol Sb (, meaning "mark") and atomic number 51. A metalloid, antimony has four allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is a blue-white metalloid. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Antimony is used in flame-proofing, paints, ceramics, enamels, a wide variety of alloys, electronics, and rubber. Properties Antimony in its elemental form is a silvery white, brittle, fusible, crystalline solid that exhibits poor electrical and heat conductivity properties and vaporizes at low temperatures. A metalloid, antimony resembles a metal in its appearance and in many of its physical properties, but does not chemically react as a metal. It is also attacked by oxidizing acids and halogens. Antimony and some of its alloys are unusual in that they expand on cooling. Antimony is geochemically categorized as a chalcophile, occurring with sulfur and the heavy metals lead, copper, and silver. The abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated at 0.2 to 0.5 parts per million. Applications Antimony is increasingly being used in the semiconductor industry in the production of diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. As an alloy, this metalloid greatly increases lead's hardness and mechanical strength. The most important use of antimony is as a hardener in lead for storage batteries. Uses include: Batteries antifriction alloys small arms, buckshot, and tracer ammunition cable sheathing matches medicines, antiprotozoan drugs plumbing soldering - some "lead-free" solders contain 5% Sb main and big-end bearings in internal combustion engines (as alloy) used in the past to treat Schistosomiasis; today Praziquantel is universally used used in type metal, e.g. for linotype printing machines used in pewter Antimony compounds in the form of oxides, sulfides, sodium antimonate, and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, ceramic enamels, glass, paints, and pottery. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame-retardant formulations. These flame-retardant applications include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. It is also used in the fiberglass composites industry as an additive to polyester resins for such items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn while a flame is held to it but will extinguish itself as soon as the flame is removed. Antimony sulfide is also one of the ingredients of safety matches. In the 1950s, tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy were used for the emitters and collectors of NPN alloy junction transistors. The natural sulfide of antimony, stibnite, was known and used in Biblical times, as medicine and in Islamic/Pre-Islamic times as a cosmetic. The Sunan Abi Dawood reports, “Muhammad said: 'Among the best types of collyrium use is antimony (ithmid) for it clears the vision and makes the hair sprout.'” Sunan Abu-Dawud (Ahmad Hasan translation), Book 32, Number 4050: http://www.muslimaccess.com/sunnah/hadeeth/abudawud/032.html Stibnite is still used in some developing countries as medicine. Antimony has been used for the treatment of schistosomiasis. Antimony attaches itself to sulfur atoms in certain enzymes which are used by both the parasite and human host. Small doses can kill the parasite without causing damage to the patient. Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations like Anthiomaline or Lithium antimony thiomalate, which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Tartar emetic is another antimony preparation which is used as an anti-schistosomal drug. Treatments chiefly involving antimony have been called antimonials. Antimony-based drugs such as allopurinol and Meglumine, are also considered the drugs of choice for the treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals. Unfortunately, as well as having low therapeutic indices, the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow, where some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside, and so cure of the disease - especially the visceral form - is very difficult. A coin made of antimony was issued in the Keichow Province of China in 1931. The coins were not popular, being too soft and they wore quickly when in circulation. After the first issue no others were produced. Etymology The ancient words for antimony mostly have, as their chief meaning, kohl, the sulfide of antimony. Pliny the Elder, however, distinguishes between male and female forms of antimony; his male form is probably the sulfide, the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, is probably native metallic antimony. Pliny, Natural history, 33.33; W.H.S. Jones, the Loeb Classical Library translator, supplies a note suggesting the identifications. The Egyptians called antimony mśdmt; in hieroglyphics, the vowels are uncertain, but there is an Arabic tradition that the word is mesdemet. Albright, p.230; Sarton p.541, quotes Meyerhof, the translator of the book he is reviewing. The Greek word, stimmi, is probably a loan word from Arabic or Egyptian, and is used by the Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC; later Greeks also used stibi, as did Celsus and Pliny, writing in Latin, in the first century AD. Pliny also gives the names stimi [sic], larbaris, alabaster, and the "very common" platyophthalmos, "wide-eye" (from the effect of the cosmetic). Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as stibium. The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the cosmetic, can appear as ithmid, athmoud, othmod, or uthmod. Littré suggests the first form, which is the earliest, derives from stimmida, (one) accusative for stimmi. LSJ, s.v., vocalisation, spelling, and declension vary; Endlich, p.28; Celsus, 6.6.6 ff; Pliny Natural History 33.33; Lewis and Short: Latin Dictionary. OED, s. "antimony". The use of Sb as the standard chemical symbol for antimony is due to the 18th century chemical pioneer, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who used this abbreviation of the name stibium. The medieval Latin form, from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek, take their names, is antimonium. The origin of this is uncertain; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from anti-monachos or French antimoine, still has adherents; this would mean "monk-killer", and is explained by many early alchemists being monks, and antimony being poisonous. The use of a symbol resembling an upside down "female" symbol for antimony could also hint at a satirical pun in this origin So does the hypothetical Greek word antimonos, "against one", explained as "not found as metal", or "not found unalloyed". See, for example, Diana Fernando, Alchemy : an illustrated A to Z (1998) and Kirk-Othmer (below) respectively. Fernando even derives it from the story of how "Basil Valentine" and his fellow monastic alchemists poisoned themselves by working with antimony; antimonium is found two centuries before his time. "Popular etymology" from OED; as for antimonos, the pure negative would be more naturally expressed by a- "not". Lippmann conjectured a Greek word, anthemonion, which would mean "floret", and he cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence. Lippman, p.643-5 The early uses of antimonium include the translations, in 1050-1100, by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises. Lippman, p.642, writing in 1919, says "zuerst". Several authorities believe that antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid; Meyerhof as quoted in Sarton, p.541, asserts that ithmid or athmoud became corrupted in the medieval "traductions barbaro-latines".; the OED asserts that some Arabic form is the origin, and if ithmid is the root, posits athimodium, atimodium, atimonium, as intermediate forms. other possibilities include Athimar, the Arabic name of the metal, and a hypothetical *as-stimmi, derived from or parallel to the Greek. Endlich, p.28; one of the advantages of as-stimmi would be that it has a whole syllable in common with antimonium. History One of the alchemical symbols for antimony. Antimony's sulfide compound, antimony (III) trisulfide, Sb2S3 was recognized in antiquity, at least as early as 3000 BC. Pastes of Sb2S3 powder in fat Priesner and Figala or in other materials have been used since that date as eye cosmetics in the Middle East and farther afield; in this use, Sb2S3 is called kohl. It was used to darken the brows and lashes, or to draw a line around the perimeter of the eye. An artifact made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Tello, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq), and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt. Kirk-Othmer, entry "Antimony" There is some uncertainty as to the description of the artifact from Tello. Although it is sometimes reported to be a vase, a recent detailed discussion of reports it to be rather a fragment of indeterminate purpose. The fragment was presented in a lecture in 1892. One contemporary commented, "we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase, and therefore this remarkable 'find' must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable." Moorey 1994:241 Antimony was first isolated by Geber (721-815), a Persian (or Arab) alchemist. George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science (cf. Dr. A. Zahoor and Dr. Z. Haq (1997), Quotations From Famous Historians of Science, Cyberistan) The first European description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the book De la pirotechnia of 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio, written in Italian. This book precedes the more famous 1556 book in Latin by Agricola, De re metallica, even though Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony. Another alchemical symbol for antimony A text describing the preparation of metallic antimony that was published in Germany in 1604 purported to date from the early fifteenth century, and if authentic it would predate Biringuccio. The book, in German, was the Triumph Wagen Antimonii (Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), and its putative author was a certain Benedictine monk, writing under the name Basilius Valentinus. Already in 1710 Wilhelm Gottlob Freiherr von Leibniz, after careful inquiry, concluded that the work was spurious, that there was no monk named Basilius Valentinus, and the book's author was its ostensible editor, Johann Thölde (ca. 1565-ca. 1624). There is now agreement among professional historians that the Triumph Wagen was written after the middle of the sixteenth century and that Thölde was likely its author. E.g., Claus Priesner and Karin Figala, eds. (1998), Alchemie: Lexikon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft (Munich: Beck), s.v. "Basilius Valentinus." Harold Jantz was perhaps the only modern scholar to deny Thölde's authorship, but he too agrees that the work dates from after 1550: see his catalogue of German Baroque literature, available online at . An English translation of the Triumph Wagen appeared in English in 1660, under the title The Triumphant Chariot of Antimony. The work remains of great interest, chiefly because it documents how followers of the renegade German physician, Philippus Theophrastus Paracelsus von Hohenheim (of whom Thölde was one), came to associate the practice of alchemy with the preparation of chemical medicines. According to the traditional history of Middle Eastern alchemy, pure antimony was well known to Geber, sometimes called "the Father of Chemistry", in the 8th century. Here there is still an open controversy: Marcellin Berthelot, who translated a number of Geber's books, stated that antimony is never mentioned in them, but other authors claim that Berthelot translated only some of the less important books, while the more interesting ones (some of which might describe antimony) are not yet translated, and their content is completely unknown. The first natural occurrence of pure antimony ('native antimony') in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783. The type-sample was collected from the Sala Silver Mine in the Bergslagen mining district of south central Sweden. Sources Native massive antimony with oxidation products Antimony output in 2005 World production trend of antimony Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in over 100 mineral species. Antimony is sometimes found native, but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite (Sb2S3) which is the predominant ore mineral. Commercial forms of antimony are generally ingots, broken pieces, granules, and cast cake. Other forms are powder, shot, and single crystals. In 2005, China was the top producer of antimony with about 84% world share followed at a distance by South Africa, Bolivia and Tajikistan, reports the British Geological Survey. Country Tonnes % of total126,00084.06,0004.05,2253.54,0732.73,0002.0Top 5144,29896.2Total world150,000100.0 Chiffres de 2003, métal contenue dans les minerais et concentrés, source: L'état du monde 2005 The largest mine in China is Xikuangshan mine in Hunan Province. See also Antimonide minerals, Antimonate minerals. Precautions Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic. Clinically, antimony poisoning is very similar to arsenic poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes headache, dizziness, and depression. Larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in a few days. See also arsenic poisoning. Antimony leaches from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into bottled water, but at levels below drinking water guidelines. The guidelines are: World Health Organization: 20 µg l–1 Japan: 15 µg l–1 H. Wakayama, Table 2, p. 84 United States Environmental Protection Agency, Health Canada and the Ontario Ministry of Environment: 6 µg l–1 German Federal Ministry of Environment: 5 µg l–1 Shotyk et al., 2006 The acidic nature of the drink is sufficient to dissolve small amounts of antimony trioxide contained in the packaging of the drink; modern manufacturing methods prevent this occurrence. The longer the beverage has been bottled and the higher the temperature, the more antimony is leached. Compounds Important compounds of antimony include: Antimony pentafluoride SbF5 Antimony trioxide Sb2O3 Stibine (antimony trihydride SbH3) Indium antimonide (InSb) Fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF6) See also Antimonial Phase change memory Naturalis Historia Pliny the Elder References Bibliography W. F. Albright "Notes on Egypto-Semitic Etymology. II", The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 34, No. 4. (Jul., 1918), pp. 215–255. JSTOR link. esp p.230 Endlich, F.M. "On Some Interesting Derivations of Mineral Names", The American Naturalist, Vol. 22, No. 253. (Jan., 1888), pp. 21–32. JSTOR link. p.28 Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th ed. 2004. Entry for antimony. Lippmann, E O von [Edmund Oscar]. 1919. Entstehung und Ausbreitung der Alchemie, teil 1. Berlin: Julius Springer. In German. Moorey, PRS. 1994. Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence. New York: Clarendon Press. Priesner, Claus and Figala, Karin, eds. 1998. Alchemie. Lexikon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft. München: C.H. Beck. 412 p. In German. Sarton, George. 1935. Review of Al-morchid fi'l-kohhl, ou Le guide d'oculistique, translated by Max Meyerhof. Isis (February 1935), 22(2):539-542 (The journal Isis is in the JSTOR archive.) In French. Shotyk, William; Krachler, Michael; Chen, Bin. Contamination of Canadian and European bottled waters with antimony from PET containers J. Environ. Monit 2006, 8:288-292 DOI: 10.1039/b517844b Los Alamos National Laboratory – Antimony Public Health Statement for Antimony Wakayama, Hiroshi, "Revision of Drinking Water Standards in Japan", Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (Japan), 2003 External links National Pollutant Inventory - Antimony and compounds WebElements.com – Antimony

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Internal_Revenue_Service

The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) is the United States federal government agency that collects taxes and enforces the internal revenue laws. It is an agency within the U.S. Department of the Treasury and is responsible for interpretation and application of Federal tax law. The official U.S. Treasury regulations provide (in part): History Bureau of Internal Revenue In July 1862, during the Civil War, President Lincoln and Congress created the office of Commissioner of Internal Revenue and enacted an income tax to pay war expenses (see Revenue Act of 1862). The position of Commissioner exists today as the head of the Internal Revenue Service. Frank M. Thorn was the Commissioner of the Bureau of Internal Revenue in the 1880s. This organization was created to enforce these taxes named for the internal revenue to be collected (and was formerly called the "Bureau of Internal Revenue"), in contrast to U.S. government institutions that collected external revenue through duties and tariffs. The IRS has its National Capital offices in the greater Washington, D.C. area, and in particular does most of its computer programming in Maryland. It operates various service centers around the country (currently ten; these are the locations to which taxpayers mail their returns); these centers do the actual tax processing; different types of tax processing take place in various centers (such as the distinction between individual and business tax processing). The IRS also operates three computer centers in various locations around the country. Name change and reorganization As early as the year 1918, the Bureau of Internal Revenue began using the name "Internal Revenue Service" on at least one tax form. Form 1040, Individual Income Tax Return for year 1918, as republished in historical documents section of Publication 1796 (Rev. February 2007), Internal Revenue Service, U.S. Department of the Treasury. Form 1040s for years 1918, 1919, and 1920 bore the name "Internal Revenue Service". For the 1921 tax year, the name was dropped, then was re-added for the 1929 tax year. In 1953 the name change to the "Internal Revenue Service" was formalized in Treasury Decision 6038. 1953-2 C.B. 443 (August 21, 1953), filed with Division of the Federal Register on August 26, 1953. Compare Treas. Departament Order 150-29 (July 9, 1953). In the 1950s, career professional employees replaced the patronage system. Currently, only the IRS Commissioner and Chief Counsel are selected by the President and confirmed by the United States Senate. Reorganization of the late 1990s A bipartisan commission was created with several mandates, among them to increase customer service and improve collections. http://www.house.gov/natcommirs/main.htm Official web site of the National Commission on Restructuring the Internal Revenue Service Congress later enacted the Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998. Pub. L. No. 105-206, 112 Stat. 685 (July 22, 1998). As a result of that Act the IRS now functions under four major operating divisions: Large & Mid-Size Business (LMSB), Small Business / Self-Employed (SB/SE), Wage and Investment (W&I), and Tax Exempt & Government Entities (TE/GE). The IRS also includes a criminal law enforcement division. While there is some evidence that customer service has improved, lost tax revenues in 2001 were over $290 billion. http://www.treas.gov/press/releases/reports/otptaxgapstrategy%20final.pdf U.S. Department of the Treasury, Press Release, September 26, 2006 Flooding at IRS headquarters building IRS building on Constitution Avenue in Washington, D.C.. The main headquarters building of the IRS is located at 1111 Constitution Avenue, NW in Washington, D.C., near the Old Post Office. The IRS headquarters building was closed in June 2006 as a result of heavy flooding. According to a July 12, 2006 letter from Senator Max Baucus (Dem.-Montana), a ranking member of the U.S. Senate Finance Committee, the sub-basement of the building was filled with water to a depth of twenty feet, and electrical and maintenance equipment in the sub-basement was about 95% damaged or destroyed. The IRS and the General Services Administration announced that the building would remain closed through late 2006. The employees who worked in the building numbering over two thousand had been temporarily transferred to other offices at 15 other buildings in the Washington, D.C. area. Computerworld reported that some IRS employees were also allowed to telecommute while the building was closed. IRS flood spurs telecommuting, Computerworld, June 30, 2006 On December 8, 2006, the IRS said in a press release that "the phased move-in of more than 2,000 IRS employees" had begun. IRS Headquarters Reopens; First Employees Return Today, Internal Revenue Service, December 8, 2006 Most staff would have returned by December 19 but "a small number of employees will return after January 1." Commissioner Douglas H. Shulman is the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Tax collection statistics Summary of Collections before Refunds by Type of Return, Fiscal Year 2006: Type of Return Number of Returns Gross Collections (Rounded to the nearest million US$) Individual Income Tax 133,917,068 1,236,259,000,000 Corporate Income Tax 2,453,741 380,925,000,000 Employment Taxes 31,182,071 814,819,000,000 Gift Tax 255,651 1,970,000,000 Excise Taxes 942,145 57,990,000,000 Estate Tax 58,279 26,717,000,000 Total 168,808,955 2,518,680,000,000 During Fiscal Year (FY) 2006, the IRS collected more than $2.2 trillion in tax net of refunds, about 44 percent of which was attributable to the individual income tax. This is partially due to the nature of the individual income tax category; containing taxes collected from working class, small business, self employed, and capital gains. Of the Individual Income Tax, the top 5% of income earners pay 60% of this amount. 'SOI Tax Stats - Individual Income Tax Rates and Tax Shares'. Yearly statistics, www.irs.org, Various dates. 'New IRS Data Reveals That the Rich Really Do Pay Tax - Lots of It' by John Gaver. Press Release, Actionamerica.org, 9 October, 2007. Recently, the IRS has altered its policies. The current Service plus Enforcement equals Compliance motto has led to more investigations of abusive tax schemes. As of 2007, the agency estimates it is owed $300 billion more than it collects. IRS Commissioner Assailed on 'Tax Gap' by Jack Speer. Morning Edition, National Public Radio, 21 March 2007. Outsourcing collection In September 2006, the IRS started to outsource the collection of taxpayers debts to private debt collection agencies. Opponents to this change note that the IRS will be handing over personal information to these debt collection agencies, who are being paid between 22% and 24% of the amount collected. Opponents are also worried about the agencies' being paid on percent collected because it will encourage the collectors to use pressure tactics to collect the maximum amount. IRS spokesman Terry Lemons responds to these critics saying the new system "is a sound, balanced program that respects taxpayers' rights and taxpayer privacy." Other state and local agencies also use private collection agencies. http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20060823/ap_on_go_ot/irs_debt_collection_2 D. Caterinicchia, IRS moves ahead on debt-collection plan Administrative functions In addition to collection of revenue and pursuing tax cheaters, the IRS issues administrative rulings such as revenue rulings and private letter rulings. In addition the Service publishes the Internal Revenue Bulletin containing the various IRS pronouncements. The controlling authority of regulations and revenue rulings allows taxpayers to rely on them. A private letter ruling is good for the taxpayer to whom it is issued, and gives some explanation of the Service's position on a particular tax issue. As is the case with all administrative pronouncements, taxpayers sometimes litigate the validity of the pronouncements, and courts sometimes determine a particular rule to be invalid where the agency has exceeded its grant of authority. The IRS also issues formal pronouncements called Revenue Procedures that among other things tell taxpayers how to correct prior tax errors. More formal rulemaking to give the Service's interpretation of a statute or when the statute itself directs that the Secretary of the Treasury shall provide, IRS undergoes the formal regulation process with a Notice of proposed rulemaking (NPRM) published in the Federal Register announcing the proposed regulation, the date of the in person hearing and the process for interested parties to have their views heard either in person at the hearing in Washington, D.C., or by mail. Following the statutory period provided in the Administrative Procedure Act (an abiding interest of U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia's dissenting opinions) the Service decides on the final regulations "as is," or as reflecting changes, or sometimes withdraws the proposed regulations. Generally, taxpayers may rely on proposed regulations until final regulations become effective. For example, human resource professionals are relying on the October 4, 2005 Proposed Regulations (citation 70 F.R. 57930-57984) Federal Register (Volume 70, Number 191), October 4, 2005 for the Section 409A on deferred compensation (the so-called Enron rules on deferred compensation to add teeth to the old rules) because regulations have not been finalized. Criticism Allegations of abuse The IRS, and in particular the Criminal Investigation Division (CID), has on more than one occasion been accused of abusive behavior. Statements given in hearings before the Senate Finance Committee criticize the IRS: Congress passed the Taxpayer Bill of Rights III on July 22, 1998, which shifted the burden of proof from the taxpayer to the IRS in certain limited situations. The IRS retains the legal authority to enforce liens and seize assets without obtaining judgment in court. See . For case law on section 6331, see Brian v. Gugin, 853 F. Supp. 358, 94-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,278 (D. Idaho 1994), aff’d, 95-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,067 (9th Cir. 1995). IRS building on Constitution Avenue in Washington, D.C.. Michael Minns was the defense lawyer in a case against the IRS on behalf of James and Pamela Moran after an initial indictment and what Minns asserts was an IRS smear campaign that virtually canvassed the taxpayers' own hometown and surrounding area. Katharhynn Heidelberg, " Attorney: IRS should apologize," Montrose Daily Press (Montrose, Colorado), December 28, 2007, at . The original indictment was associated with the Morans' involvement with a tax shelter provider, Anderson's Ark & Associates. The Morans were eventually acquitted in the case. Katharhynn Heidelberg, "Morans Acquitted on All Counts," Montrose Daily Press (Montrose, Colorado), December 21, 2007, at . Minns also had previously asserted that the behavior of two IRS attorneys, Kenneth McWade and William A. Sims, constituted legal misconduct and recommended them for disbarment. Following an investigation, the law licenses of the IRS attorneys were duly suspended for a two-year period after a federal court ruling found that the two had indeed defrauded the courts in connection with 1,300 tax shelter cases. In 2003, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit concluded that the IRS lawyers had corruptly agreed with certain taxpayers that no tax collection actions would be taken against them - in return for testimony against other taxpayers. The court also asked why the IRS had not punished the two. David Cay Johnston, August 21, 2004, "2 Ex-IRS Lawyers' Licenses Suspended for Misconduct," New York Times, at . See also Taxation in the United States Federal tax revenue by state Not-for-profit corporation United States of America non-profit laws 501(c)(3) 527 group Misclassification of employees as independent contractors United States Department of Justice Tax Division Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público FairTax References Notes Further reading External links IRSclub Official Website Internal Revenue Service Official website Internal Revenue Service Careers Web Official IRS careers website IRS Appeals - Resolving Tax Disputes Official IRS Appeals Office Website Tax Protester FAQ by Dan Evans rebuts claims of the illegitimacy of the income tax and the IRS Internal Revenue Service, article in Encarta Encyclopedia

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Ophiuchus

Ophiuchus ( Óphiúchus, genitive Ophiuchi ; Greek Ὀφιοῦχος) is a large constellation located around the celestial equator. Its name is Greek for 'snake-holder', and it is commonly represented as a man grasping the snake that is represented by the constellation Serpens. Ophiuchus was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It was formerly referred to as Serpentarius (), a Latin word meaning the same as its current name. Ophiuchus is a zodiacal constellation (meaning that the Sun passes through it during the course of the year), but unlike the other twelve, it does not lend its name to an astrological sign. As of 2008, the Sun passes through Ophiuchus between November 30 and December 17. Location It is located between Aquila, Serpens and Hercules, northwest of the center of the Milky Way. The southern part lies between Scorpius to the west and Sagittarius to the east. It is best visible in the northern summer and located opposite Orion in the sky. Ophiuchus is depicted as a man grasping a serpent; the interposition of his body divides the snake constellation Serpens into two parts, Serpens Caput and Serpens Cauda, which are nonetheless counted as one constellation. Johannes Kepler's drawing depicting the location of the stella nova in the foot of Ophiuchus. Notable features Stars The brightest stars in Ophiuchus include α Ophiuchi, called Rasalhague (at the figure's head), and η Ophiuchi. RS Ophiuchi is part of a class called recurrent novae, whose brightness increase at irregular intervals by hundreds of times in a period of just a few days. It is thought to be at the brink of becoming a type-1a supernova. Star 'soon to become supernova'. BBC News, 2006-07-23 Barnard's Star, one of the nearest stars to the Solar System (the only stars closer are the Alpha Centauri binary star system and Proxima Centauri), lies in Ophiuchus. (It is located to the left of β and just north of the V-shaped group of stars in an area that was once occupied by the now-obsolete constellation of Taurus Poniatovii, Poniatowski's Bull.) In 2005, astronomers using data from the Green Bank Telescope discovered a superbubble so large that it extends beyond the plane of the galaxy. It is called the Ophiuchus Superbubble. In April 2007, astronomers announced that the Swedish-built Odin satellite had made the first detection of clouds of molecular oxygen in space, following observations in the constellation Ophiuchus. Molecular Oxygen Detected For The First Time In The Interstellar Medium The supernova of 1604 was first observed on October 9, 1604, near θ Ophiuchi. Johannes Kepler saw it first on October 16 and studied it so extensively that the supernova was subsequently called Kepler's Supernova. He published his findings in a book titled De stella nova in pede Serpentarii (On the New Star in Ophiuchus' Foot). Galileo used its brief appearance to counter the Aristotelian dogma that the heavens are changeless. In approximately 40,000 years Voyager 1 probe will pass within 1.6 light years of the star AC+79 3888, which is located in Ophiuchus. Voyager - Mission - Interstellar Mission Deep-sky objects Ophiuchus contains several star clusters, such as IC 4665, NGC 6633, M9, M10, M12, M14, M19, M62, and M107, as well as the nebula IC 4603-4604. The unusual galaxy merger remnant NGC 6240 is also in Ophiuchus. In 2006, a new nearby star cluster was discovered associated with the 4th magnitude star Mu Ophiuchi . The Mamajek 2 cluster appears to be a poor cluster remnant analogous to the Ursa Major Moving Group, but 7 times more distant (approximately 170 parsecs away). Mamajek 2 appears to have formed in the same star-forming complex as the NGC 2516 cluster roughly 135 million years ago . Ophiuchus holding the serpent, Serpens, as depicted in Urania's Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825. Above the tail of the serpent is the now-obsolete constellation Taurus Poniatovii while below it is Scutum. Mythology There exist a number of theories as to whom the figure represents. The most recent interpretation is that the figure represents the healer Asclepius, who learned the secrets of keeping death at bay after observing one serpent bringing another healing herbs. To prevent the entire human race from becoming immortal under Asclepius' care, Zeus killed him with a bolt of lightning, but later placed his image in the heavens to honor his good works. It has also been noted that the constellation Ophiuchus is in close proximity in the sky to that of Sagittarius, which has at times been believed to represent Chiron (the mentor of Asclepius and many other Greek demigods), though Chiron was originally associated with the constellation Centaurus. Another possibility is that the figure represents the Trojan priest Laocoön, who was killed by a pair of sea serpents sent by the gods after he warned the Trojans not to accept the Trojan Horse. This event was also memorialized by the sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus in the famous marble sculpture Laocoön and his Sons, which stands in the Vatican Museums. A third possibility is Apollo wrestling with the Python to take control of the oracle at Delphi. A fourth is the story of Phorbas, a Thessalonikan who rescued the people of the island of Rhodes from a plague of serpents and was granted a place in the sky in honor of this deed. Astrology Although Ophiuchus intersects the ecliptic, it is not a zodiacal sign in most versions of astrology. The signs are defined as 30-degree segments of the ecliptic, of which there are twelve, and they are named after nearby constellations at the time the system was developed, rather than being defined by the modern constellations. However, a few sidereal astrologers consider the Sun to be in the sign Ophiuchus when it is in the constellation Ophiuchus, which is November 30 to December 17. Although not incorporated into the 12-sign zodiac, Ophiuchus and some of the fixed stars in it were sometimes used by astrologers in antiquity as extra-zodiacal indicators (i.e. astrologically significant celestial phenomena lying outside of the 12-sign zodiac proper). An anonymous 4th century astrologer, often known as Anonymous of 379, seems to have associated "the bright star of Ophiuchus", likely α Ophiuchi, with doctors, healers or physicians (ἰατρῶν). Franz Cumont and Franz Boll, Catalogus Codicum Astrologorum Graecorum, Vol. 5, part 1, Brussels, 1904, pg. 210. Citations References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ophiuchus Star Tales – Ophiuchus

Ophiuchus |@lemmatized ophiuchus:23 óphiúchus:1 genitive:1 ophiuchi:7 greek:3 ὀφιοῦχος:1 large:2 constellation:17 locate:5 around:1 celestial:2 equator:1 name:4 snake:3 holder:1 commonly:1 represent:6 man:2 grasp:2 serpens:6 one:5 list:1 century:2 astronomer:3 ptolemy:1 remain:1 modern:2 formerly:1 refer:1 serpentarius:1 latin:1 word:1 mean:2 current:1 zodiacal:3 sun:3 pass:3 course:1 year:4 unlike:1 twelve:2 lend:1 astrological:1 sign:6 november:2 december:2 location:2 aquila:1 hercules:1 northwest:1 center:1 milky:1 way:1 southern:1 part:4 lie:3 scorpius:1 west:1 sagittarius:2 east:1 best:1 visible:1 northern:1 summer:1 opposite:1 orion:1 sky:4 depict:3 serpent:6 interposition:1 body:1 divide:1 two:1 caput:1 cauda:1 nonetheless:1 count:1 johannes:2 kepler:3 draw:1 stella:2 nova:3 foot:2 notable:1 feature:1 star:18 bright:2 include:1 α:2 call:4 rasalhague:1 figure:4 head:1 η:1 r:1 class:1 recurrent:1 whose:1 brightness:1 increase:1 irregular:1 interval:1 hundred:1 time:5 period:1 day:1 think:1 brink:1 become:3 type:1 supernova:5 soon:1 bbc:1 news:1 barnard:1 near:2 solar:1 system:3 close:2 alpha:1 centauri:2 binary:1 proxima:1 left:1 β:1 north:1 v:1 shape:1 group:2 area:1 occupy:1 obsolete:2 taurus:2 poniatovii:2 poniatowski:1 bull:1 use:3 data:1 green:1 bank:1 telescope:1 discover:2 superbubble:2 extend:1 beyond:1 plane:1 galaxy:2 april:1 announce:1 swedish:1 build:1 odin:1 satellite:1 make:1 first:4 detection:1 cloud:1 molecular:2 oxygen:2 space:1 follow:1 observation:1 detect:1 interstellar:2 medium:1 observe:2 october:2 θ:1 saw:1 study:1 extensively:1 subsequently:1 publish:2 finding:1 book:1 title:1 de:1 pede:1 serpentarii:1 new:2 galileo:1 brief:1 appearance:1 counter:1 aristotelian:1 dogma:1 heaven:2 changeless:1 approximately:2 voyager:2 probe:1 within:1 light:1 ac:1 mission:2 deep:2 object:1 contain:1 several:1 cluster:5 ic:2 ngc:3 well:1 nebula:1 unusual:1 merger:1 remnant:2 also:3 nearby:2 associate:3 magnitude:1 mu:1 mamajek:2 appear:2 poor:1 analogous:1 ursa:1 major:1 move:1 distant:1 parsec:1 away:1 form:1 forming:1 complex:1 roughly:1 million:1 ago:1 hold:1 urania:1 mirror:1 set:1 card:1 london:2 c:1 tail:1 scutum:1 mythology:1 exist:1 number:1 theory:1 recent:1 interpretation:1 healer:2 asclepius:3 learn:1 secret:1 keep:1 death:1 bay:1 bring:1 another:2 healing:1 herb:1 prevent:1 entire:1 human:1 race:1 immortal:1 care:1 zeus:1 kill:2 bolt:1 lightning:1 later:1 place:2 image:1 honor:2 good:1 work:1 note:1 proximity:1 believe:1 chiron:2 mentor:1 many:1 demigod:1 though:1 originally:1 centaurus:1 possibility:2 trojan:3 priest:1 laocoön:2 pair:1 sea:1 send:1 god:1 warn:1 accept:1 horse:1 event:1 memorialize:1 sculptor:1 agesander:1 athenodoros:1 polydorus:1 famous:1 marble:1 sculpture:1 son:1 stand:1 vatican:1 museum:1 third:1 apollo:1 wrestle:1 python:1 take:1 control:1 oracle:1 delphi:1 fourth:1 story:1 phorbas:1 thessalonikan:1 rescue:1 people:1 island:1 rhodes:1 plague:1 grant:1 deed:1 astrology:2 although:2 intersect:1 ecliptic:2 version:1 define:2 degree:1 segment:1 develop:1 rather:1 however:1 sidereal:1 astrologer:3 consider:1 incorporate:1 zodiac:2 fixed:1 sometimes:1 antiquity:1 extra:1 indicator:1 e:1 astrologically:1 significant:1 phenomenon:1 outside:1 proper:1 anonymous:2 often:1 know:1 seem:1 likely:1 doctor:1 physician:1 ἰατρῶν:1 franz:2 cumont:1 boll:1 catalogus:1 codicum:1 astrologorum:1 graecorum:1 vol:1 brussels:1 pg:1 citation:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 tale:1 |@bigram celestial_equator:1 astronomer_ptolemy:1 milky_way:1 johannes_kepler:2 stella_nova:2 bbc_news:1 alpha_centauri:1 proxima_centauri:1 constellation_taurus:2 voyager_probe:1 ursa_major:1 depict_urania:1 urania_mirror:1 constellation_centaurus:1 trojan_horse:1 marble_sculpture:1 oracle_delphi:1 zodiacal_sign:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1

Transport_in_the_Isle_of_Man

There are a number of transport services around the Isle of Man, Mostly consisting of paved roads, Rail services and an Airport Service. Roads Overview map of transport links in the Isle of Man. The island has a total of Isle of Man - About the Island of public roads, all of which are paved. Many of the roads on the island have no speed limit, although measured travel speeds are often relatively low. There is a comprehensive bus network, operated by Isle of Man Transport, a department of the Isle of Man Government. Isle of Man travel speeds Speed Limit 85% Speed 85% Speed Measurement site (mph) Eastbound (mph) Westbound (mph) Measurement dates Ballafreer House, Main Road, Marown No Limit 46 47 27 June – 4 July 2005 Main Road, Baldrine 30 36 36 21 November – 28 November 2005 Glen Mona, Maughold (parish) Derestricted 38 42 26 September – 3 October 2005 Ballamodha Straight, Malew 40 51 50 6 March – 13 March 2006 Ballacobb, Ballaugh No Limit 51 40 3 July – 10 July 2006 Richmond Hill, Douglas (By bus stop) 50 55 50 24 April – 1 May 2006 Shore Road, Outside Limekilns Farm No Limit 49 50 2 August – 8 August 2004 Windy Corner, Onchan No Limit 54 57 17 July – 24 July 2006 source: Transport Implications of the Isle of Man Strategic Plan Railways The island has a total of 68.5 km (42.6 miles) of railway, of which 43.5 km (27.02 miles) is electrified. There are six separate rail systems on the island: Isle of Man Steam Railway - operated by Isle of Man Transport Manx Electric Railway - operated by Isle of Man Transport Snaefell Mountain Railway - operated by Isle of Man Transport Douglas Horse Tram - operated by the Douglas Borough Council Groudle Glen Railway - operated by the Isle of Man Steam Railway Supporters' Association Great Laxey Mine Railway - operated by the Laxey & Lonan Heritage Trust By beginning in Peel, on the West coast of the island - it is possible to begin a circular 'tour' of the Isle Of Man Railways - with a little bit of help from the buses. Taking Bus Route 8 from Peel to Port Erin, you pick up the Isle Of Man Steam Railway for a journey to Douglas. A short walk from Douglas Railway Station to the promenade brings you to the Douglas Horse Tram line, which takes you to the Derby Castle at the opposite end of the prom. At Derby Castle, the Manx Electric Railway begins its route northwards to Laxey and Ramsey. At Laxey, the MER interchanges with the Snaefell Mountain Railway - and a change of carriage will allow you to ride to the top of Snaefell. Upon returning to Laxey - the MER offers a route northwards to Ramsey. The final leg, from Ramsey back to Peel, is achieved by taking Bus Route 5. Leaving Peel at 08:10am, and allowing for a light lunch at the top of Snaefell - the journey time is a little over 6 hours. Airports The only commercial airport on the island is the Isle of Man Airport at Ronaldsway. Scheduled services operate to and from various cities in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, operated by several different airlines. Ports and harbours Ports are located at Castletown, Douglas, Peel and Ramsey. Douglas is served by frequent ferries to and from United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. The principal operator is the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company. Merchant marine The Isle of Man register comprises 226 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totalling 6,055,436 GRT or . This figure includes some foreign-owned ships registered on the Island as a flag of convenience: Australia 3, Cyprus 4, Denmark 30, Estonia 3, France 1, Germany 57, Greece 8, Hong Kong 11, Iceland 1, Italy 6, Monaco 4, Netherlands 2, New Zealand 1, Norway 10, Singapore 2, Sweden 3, United Kingdom 80, United States 1. A breakdown of ships by type: bulk 25, cargo 40, chemical tanker 25, combination bulk 2, container 19, liquefied gas 31, multi-functional large load carrier 1, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll on/roll off 17, specialised tanker 1, vehicle carrier 5. References External links Isle of Man Transport (Arraghey Ellan Vannin) Isle of Man Steam Packet Company Isle of Man Airport Searchable Isle of Man Bus/Railway Timetables Manx Electric Railway Society

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Gaius_Maecenas

Gaius Cilnius Maecenas 13 April 70 BC –October 8 BC was a confidant and political advisor to Octavian (who was to become the first Emperor of Rome as Caesar Augustus) as well as an important patron for the new generation of 'Augustan' poets. His name has become a byword for a wealthy patron of the arts. "Maecenas," which means a cultural benefactor, was the word misspelled by the second place finisher 12-year-old Tim Ruiter during the 2009 Scripps National Spelling Bee in the U.S. Biography Expressions in Propertius ii. I, 25-30 seem to imply that Maecenas had taken some part in the campaigns of Mutina, Philippi and Perusia. He prided himself on his ancient Etruscan lineage, and claimed descent from the princely house of the Cilnii, who excited the jealousy of their townsmen by their preponderant wealth and influence at Arretium in the 4th century BC Livy x. 3. Tacitus Tacitus, Annals 6. 11. refers to him as "Cilnius Maecenas"; it is possible that "Cilnius" was his mother's nomen - or that Maecenas was in fact a cognomen. Varro, however, specifies that the name Maecenas is a nomen based on origin like Lesas, Ufenas, etc: see Chris J. Simpson, "Two Small Thoughts on 'Cilnius Maecenas'" 1996. The Gaius Maecenas mentioned in Cicero (Pro Cluentio, 56 as an influential member of the equestrian order in 91 BC may have been his grandfather, or even his father. The testimony of Horace Odes iii. 8, 5 and Maecenas's own literary tastes imply that he had profited by the highest education of his time. His great wealth may have been in part hereditary, but he owed his position and influence to his close connection with the Emperor Augustus. He first appears in history in 40 BC, when he was employed by Octavian in arranging his marriage with Scribonia, and afterwards in assisting to negotiate the peace of Brundisium and the reconciliation with Mark Antony. As a close friend and advisor he acted even as deputy for Augustus when he was abroad. It was in 39 BC that Horace was introduced to Maecenas, who had before this received Varius and Virgil into his intimacy. In the "Journey to Brundisium," Horace, Satires, i. 5. in 37, Maecenas and Marcus Cocceius Nerva—great grandfather to the future emperor Nerva—are described as having been sent on an important mission, and they were successful in patching up, by the Treaty of Tarentum, a reconciliation between the two claimants for supreme power. During the Sicilian war against Sextus Pompeius in 36, Maecenas was sent back to Rome, and was entrusted with supreme administrative control in the city and in Italy. He was vicegerent of Octavian during the campaign of Actium, when, with great promptness and secrecy, he crushed the conspiracy of the Lepidus the Younger; and during the subsequent absences of his chief in the provinces he again held the same position. During the latter years of his life he fell somewhat out of favour with his master. Suetonius Augustus, 66 attributes the loss of the imperial favour to Maecenas' having indiscreetly revealed to Terentia, his beautiful but difficult wife, the discovery of the conspiracy in which her brother Varro Murena Consul in 23 BC, Murena was involved in a conspiracy with Fannius Caepio and executed in 22 BC (Kline, Index to Horace Satires: Epistles). was implicated, but according to Dio Cassius liv. 19 it was due to the emperor's relations with Terentia. Maecenas died in 8 BC, leaving the emperor sole heir to his wealth. Opinions were much divided in ancient times as to the personal character of Maecenas; but the testimony as to his administrative and diplomatic ability was unanimous. He enjoyed the credit of sharing largely in the establishment of the new order of things, of reconciling parties, and of carrying the new empire safely through many dangers. To his influence especially was attributed the more humane policy of Octavian after his first alliance with Antony and Lepidus. The best summary of his character as a man and a statesman, by Marcus Velleius Paterculus, ii. 88 describes him as "of sleepless vigilance in critical emergencies, far-seeing and knowing how to act, but in his relaxation from business more luxurious and effeminate than a woman." Expressions in the Odes of Horace ii. 17. a seem to imply that Maecenas was deficient in the robustness of fibre which Romans liked to imagine was characteristic of their city. Maecenate (patronage) ||Stepan Bakalovich. "At Maecenas' reception room" Maecenas is most famous for his support of young poets, hence his name has become the eponym for a "patron of arts". He supported Virgil who wrote the Georgics in his honour. It was Virgil, impressed with examples of Horace's poetry, who introduced Horace to Maecenas. Indeed Horace begins the first poem of his Odes (Odes I.i) by addressing his new patron. He was given full financial support, as well as an estate in the Sabine mountains, by Maecenas in a spirit close to Greek evergetism. Propertius and the minor poets Varius Rufus, Plotius Tucca, Valgius Rufus and Domitius Marsus also were his protégés. His character as a munificent patron of literature - which has made his name a household word - is gratefully acknowledged by the recipients of it and attested by the regrets of the men of letters of a later age, expressed by Martial and Juvenal. His patronage was exercised, not from vanity or a mere dilettante love of letters, but with a view to the higher interest of the state. He recognized in the genius of the poets of that time, not only the truest ornament of the court, but a power of reconciling men's minds to the new order of things, and of investing the actual state of affairs with an ideal glory and majesty. The change in seriousness of purpose between the Eclogues and the Georgics of Virgil was in a great measure the result of the direction given by the statesman to the poet's genius. A similar change between the earlier odes of Horace, in which he declares his epicurean indifference to affairs of state, and the great national odes of the third book is to be ascribed to the same guidance. Maecenas endeavoured also to divert the less masculine genius of Propertius from harping continually on his love to themes of public interest. But if the motive of his patronage had been merely politic it never could have inspired the affection which it did in its recipients. The great charm of Maecenas in his relation to the men of genius who formed his circle was his simplicity, cordiality and sincerity. Although not particular in the choice of some of the associates of his pleasures, he admitted none but men of worth to his intimacy, and when once admitted they were treated like equals. Much of the wisdom of Maecenas probably lives in the Satires and Epistles of Horace. It has fallen to the lot of no other patron of literature to have his name associated with works of such lasting interest as the Georgics of Virgil, the first three books of Horace's Odes, and the first book of his Epistles. Works Maecenas also wrote literature himself in both prose and verse. The some twenty fragments that remain show that he was less successful as an author than as a judge and patron of literature. His prose works on various subjects - Prometheus, dialogues like Symposium (a banquet at which Virgil, Horace and Messalla were present), De cultu suo (on his manner of life) and a poem In Octaviam ("Against Octavia") of which the content is unclear - were ridiculed by Augustus, Seneca and Quintilian for their strange style, the use of rare words and awkward transpositions. According to Dio Cassius, Maecenas was also the inventor of a system of shorthand. Egyptian granodiorite Bull of Apis found in the vicinity of the Gardens of Maecenas on the Esquiline (Palazzo Altemps, Rome) The Gardens of Maecenas Maecenas sited his famous gardens, the first gardens in the Hellenistic-Persian garden style in Rome, on the Esquiline Hill, atop the Servian Wall and its adjoining necropolis, near the gardens of Lamia. It contained terraces, libraries and other aspects of Roman culture. Maecenas is said to have been the first to construct a swimming bath of hot water in Rome Cassius Dio LV.7.6 , which may have been in the gardens. The luxury of his gardens and villas incurred the displeasure of Seneca the Younger. Villa of Maecenas in Tivoli, Italy, Jacob Philipp Hackert, 1783 Though the approximate site is known, it is not easy to reconcile literary indications to determine the gardens' exact location, whether or not they lay on both sides of the Servian agger and both north and south of the porta Esquilina. Common graves of the archaic Esquiline necropolis have been found near the north-west corner of the modern Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, that is, outside the Esquiline gate of antiquity and north of the via Tiburtina vetus; most probably the horti Maecenatiani extended north from this gate and road on both sides of the agger. The gardens became imperial property after Maecenas's death, and Tiberius lived here after his return to Rome in 2 AD Suet. Tib. 15 . Nero connected them with the Palatine Hill via his Domus Transitoria Tac. Ann. XV.39 , and viewed the burning of that from the turris Maecenatiana Suet. Nero 38 . This turris was probably the "molem propinquam nubibus arduis" ("the pile, among the clouds") mentioned in by Horace. Horace's Odes iii.29.10. Whether the horti Maecenatiani bought by Fronto Fronto, ad M. Caesarem 2.2 - "Plane multum mihi facetiarum contulit istic Horatius Flaccus, memorabilis poeta mihique propter Maecenatem ac Maecenatianos hortos meos non alienus. Is namque Horatius Sermonum libr(o) s(ecundo) fabulam istam Polemonis inseruit, si recte memini, hisce versibus..." actually were the former gardens of Maecenas is unknown, and the domus Frontoniana mentioned in the twelfth century by Magister Gregorius may also refer to the gardens of Maecenas Journal of Roman Studies 1919, 35, 53.1 Legacy His name has become a byword for a well-connected and wealthy patron. In various languages, it has even been coined into a word for (private) patronage (mainly cultural, but sometimes wider, usually perceived as more altruistic than sponsorship), e.g. mecenaat in Dutch, mesenaatti in Finnish, mécénat in French, Mäzen in German, mecenate in Italian, mecenat in Romanian, mecen in Slovenian, mecenas in Spanish, меценат in Russian. A verse of the student song "Gaudeamus igitur" wishes longevity upon the charity of the students' benefactors ("Maecenatum," genitive plural of "Maecenas"). The word "Maecenas" was the penultimate word used in the 2009 Scripps National Spelling Bee, on May 28, 2009. It was spelled incorrectly. A version of Gaius Maecenas was portrayed by Alex Wyndham in HBO's series Rome. A version of Gaius Maecenas was also portrayed by actor Russell Barr in the British-Italian joint mini-series 'Imperium: Augustus'. Notes References Primary Sources Dio Cassius Tacitus, Annals Suetonius, Augustus Horace, Odes with Scholia Horace, Satires i.8.14 - "nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus atque / aggere in aprico spatiari, quo modo tristes / albis informem spectabant ossibus agrum,/cum mihi non tantum furesque feraeque suetae/hunc vexare locum curae sunt atque labori/quantum carminibus quae versant atque venenis/humanos animos: has nullo perdere possum/nec prohibere modo, simul ac vaga luna decorum/protulit os, quin ossa legant herbasque nocentis." Acro, Porphyrio, and Comm. Cruq. ad loc. Topographical Dictionary Secondary Sources V. Gardthausen, Augustus and seine Zeit, i. 762 seq. ; ii. 432 seq. For a modern biography of Maecenas, see Jean–Marie André, Mécène, essai de biographie spirituelle. Paris, Les Belles lettres, 1967. The fragments of Maecenas' poetry have been collected and edited by J. Blänsdorf (ed.), Fragmenta poetarum Latinorum epicorum et lyricorum praeter Ennium et Lucilium, 3rd ed., Stuttgart: Teubner, 1995, pp. 243-48. See also Maecenas-Ehrung, German Award to philanthropists

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APL_(programming_language)

APL (A Programming Language) is an array programming language based on a notation invented in 1957 by Kenneth E. Iverson while at Harvard University. It originated as an attempt to provide consistent notation for the teaching and analysis of topics related to the application of computers. Iverson published his notation in 1962 in a book titled A Programming Language. By 1965, a subset of the notation was implemented as a programming language, then known as IVSYS. Later, prior to its commercial release, APL got its name from the title of the book. Iverson received the Turing Award in 1979 for his work. Iverson's notation was later used to describe the IBM System/360 machine architecture, a description much more concise and exact than the existing documentation and revealing several previously unnoticed problems. Later, a Selectric typeball was specially designed to write a linear representation of this notation. This distinctive aspect of APL, the use of a special character set visually depicting the operations to be performed, remains fundamentally unchanged today. The APL language features a rich set of operations which work on entire arrays of data, like the vector instruction set of a SIMD architecture. While many computer languages would require iteration to add two arrays together, functions in APL typically deal with entire arrays at once. In conjunction with a special character set where glyphs represent operations to be performed, this drastically reduces the potential number of loops and allows for smaller, more concise and compact programs. As with all programming languages that have had several decades of continual use, APL has evolved significantly, generally in an upward-compatible manner, from its earlier releases. APL is usually interpretive and interactive, and normally features a read-evaluate-print loop (REPL) for command and expression input. Today, nearly all modern implementations support structured programming while several dialects now feature some form of object oriented programming constructs. History The first incarnation of what was later to be the APL programming language was a book describing a notation invented in 1957 by Kenneth E. Iverson while at Harvard University. Published in 1962, the notation described in the book was recognizable yet distant from APL. IBM was chiefly responsible for the introduction of APL to the marketplace. In 1965, a portion of the notation was reworked and implemented as a programming language. APL was first available in 1967 for the IBM 1130 as APL\1130 . It would run in as little as 8k 16 bit words of memory, and used a dedicated 1 megabyte hard disk. APL gained its foothold on mainframe timesharing systems from the late 1960s through the 1980s. Later, when suitably performing hardware was finally available starting in the early to mid-1980s, many users migrated their applications to the personal computer environment. Early IBM APL interpreters for IBM 360 and IBM 370 hardware implemented their own multi-user management instead of relying on the host services, thus they were timesharing systems in their own right. First introduced in 1966, the APL\360 system was a multi-user interpreter. In 1973, IBM released APL.SV which was a continuation of the same product, but which offered shared variables as a means to access facilities outside of the APL system, such as operating system files. In the mid 1970s, the IBM mainframe interpreter was even adapted for use on the IBM 5100 desktop computer, which had a small CRT and an APL keyboard, when most other small computers of the time only offered BASIC. In the 1980s, the VSAPL program product enjoyed widespread usage with CMS, TSO, VSPC, and CICS users. Several timesharing firms sprang up in the 1960s and 1970s which sold APL services using modified versions of the IBM APL\360 interpreter. In North America, the better-known ones were I. P. Sharp Associates, Scientific Time Sharing Corporation, and The Computer Company (TCC). With the advent first of less expensive mainframes such as the IBM 4331 and later the personal computer, the timesharing industry had all but disappeared by the mid 1980s. Sharp APL was available from I. P. Sharp Associates, first on a timesharing basis in the 1960s, and later as a program product starting around 1979. Sharp APL was an advanced APL implementation with many language extensions, such as packages (the ability to put one or more objects into a single variable), file system, nested arrays, and shared variables. APL interpreters were available from other mainframe and mini-computer manufacturers as well, notably Burroughs, CDC, Data General, DEC, Harris, Hewlett-Packard, Siemens, Xerox, and others. APL2 Starting in the early 1980s, IBM APL development, under the leadership of Dr Jim Brown, implemented a new version of the APL language which contained as its primary enhancement the concept of nested arrays where an array may contain other arrays, plus new language features which facilitated the integration of nested arrays into program workflow. Ken Iverson, no longer in control of the development of the APL language, left IBM and joined I. P. Sharp Associates where he, among other things, directed the evolution of Sharp APL to be more in accordance with his vision. As other vendors were busy developing APL interpreters for new hardware, notably Unix-based microcomputers, APL2 was almost always the standard chosen for new APL interpreter developments. Even today, most APL vendors cite APL2 compatibility, which only approaches 100%, as a selling point for their products. APL2 for IBM mainframe computers is still available today, and was first available for CMS and TSO around 1980. The APL2 Workstation edition (Windows, OS/2, AIX, Linux, and Solaris) followed much later in the early 1990s. Microcomputers The first microcomputer implementation of APL was on the 8008-based MCM/70, the first general purpose personal computer, in 1973. A Small APL for the Intel 8080 called EMPL was released in 1977, and Softronics APL, with most of the functions of full APL, for 8080-based CP/M systems was released in 1979. In 1977, was released a business level APL known as TIS APL, based on the Z80 processor. It featured the full set of file functions for APL, plus a full screen input and switching of right and left arguments for most dyadic operators by introducing ~. prefix to all single character dyadic functions such as - or /. Vanguard APL was available for Z80 CP/M-based processors in the late 1970s. TCC released APL.68000 in the early 1980s for Motorola 68000-based processors, this system being the basis for MicroAPL Limited's APLX product. I. P. Sharp Associates released a version of their APL interpreter for the IBM PC and PC/370 - for the IBM PC, an emulator was written which facilitated reusing much of the IBM 370 mainframe code. Arguably, the best known APL interpreter for the IBM Personal Computer was STSC's APL*Plus/PC. The Commodore SuperPET, introduced in 1981, included an APL interpreter developed by the University of Waterloo. In the early 1980s, the Analogic Corporation developed The APL Machine, which was an array processing computer designed to be programmed only in APL. There were actually three processing units, the user's workstation, an IBM PC, where programs were entered and edited, a Motorola 6800 processor which ran the APL interpreter, and the Analogic array processor which executed the primitives. At the time of its introduction The APL Machine was likely the fastest APL system available. Although a technological success, The APL Machine was a marketing failure. The initial version supported a single process at a time. At the time the project was discontinued, the design had been completed to allow multiple users. As an aside, an unusual aspect of The APL Machine was that the library of workspaces was organized such that a single function or variable which was shared by many workspaces existed only once in the library. Several of the members of The APL Machine project had previously spent a number of years with Burroughs implementing APL\700. At one stage, Microsoft Corporation planned to release a version of APL, but these plans never materialized. An early 1978 publication of Rodnay Zaks from Sybex was A microprogrammed APL implementation ISBN 0895880059 which is the complete, total source listing for the microcode for a PDP / LSI-11 processor implementing APL. This may have been the substance of his PhD thesis. Overview Over a very wide set of problem domains (math, science, engineering, computer design, robotics, data visualization, actuarial science, traditional DP, etc.) APL is an extremely powerful, expressive and concise programming language, typically set in an interactive environment. It was originally created, among other things, as a way to describe computers, by expressing mathematical notation in a rigorous way that could be interpreted by a computer. It is easy to learn but some APL programs can take some time to understand, especially for a newcomer. Few other programming languages offer the comprehensive array functionality of APL. Unlike traditionally structured programming languages, code in APL is typically structured as chains of monadic or dyadic functions and operators acting on arrays. As APL has many nonstandard primitives (functions and operators, indicated by a single symbol or a combination of a few symbols), it does not have function or operator precedence. Early APL implementations did not have control structures (do or while loops, if-then-else), but by using array operations, usage of structured programming constructs was just not necessary. For example, the iota function (which yields a one-dimensional array, or vector, from 1 to N) can replace for-loop iteration. More recent implementations of APL generally include comprehensive control structures, thus data structure and program control flow can be clearly and cleanly separated. The APL environment is called a workspace. In a workspace the user can define programs and data, i.e. the data values exist also outside the programs, and the user can manipulate the data without the necessity to define a program. For example, assigns the vector values 4 5 6 7 to N; adds 4 to all values (giving 8 9 10 11) and prints them (a return value not assigned at the end of a statement to a variable using the assignment arrow is displayed by the APL interpreter); prints the sum of N, i.e. 22. The user can save the workspace with all values, programs and execution status. APL is well-known for its use of a set of non-ASCII symbols that are an extension of traditional arithmetic and algebraic notation. Having single character names for SIMD vector functions is one way that APL enables compact formulation of algorithms for data transformation such as computing Conway's Game of Life in one line of code (example). In nearly all versions of APL, it is theoretically possible to express any computable function in one expression, that is, in one line of code. Because of its condensed nature and non-standard characters, APL has sometimes been termed a "write-only language", and reading an APL program can at first feel like decoding Egyptian hieroglyphics. Because of the unusual character set, many programmers use special keyboards with APL keytops for authoring APL code. Although there are various ways to write APL code using only ASCII characters, Dickey, Lee, A list of APL Transliteration Schemes, 1993 in practice, it is almost never done. (This may be thought to support Iverson’s thesis about notation as a tool of thought. Iverson K.E.,"Notation as a tool of thought", Communications of the ACM, 23: 444-465 (August 1980). ) Most if not all modern implementations use standard keyboard layouts, with special mappings or input method editors to access non-ASCII characters. Historically, the APL font has been distinctive, with uppercase italic alphabetic characters and upright numerals and symbols. Most vendors continue to display the APL character set in a custom font. Advocates of APL claim that the examples of so-called write-only code are almost invariably examples of poor programming practice or novice mistakes, which can occur in any language. Advocates of APL also claim that they are far more productive with APL than with more conventional computer languages, and that working software can be implemented in far less time and with far fewer programmers than using other technology. APL lets an individual solve harder problems faster. Also, being compact and terse, APL lends itself well to larger scale software development as complexity arising from a large number of lines of code can be dramatically reduced. Many APL advocates and practitioners view programming in standard programming languages, such as COBOL and Java, as comparatively tedious. APL is often found where time-to-market is important, such as with trading systems. Iverson later designed the J programming language which uses ASCII with digraphs instead of special symbols. Examples Note: Some of the examples shown here may require a Unicode font containing APL characters. In the first example below you should be able to see a triangle with a vertical bar through it. If not, you will need to install a font or make changes to your browser. A recommended APL Unicode font is available free from the British APL Association . If you are using Microsoft Internet Explorer as your browser, there are additional considerations for access to Unicode fonts. See the external reference note on setting up Internet Explorer at the end of the Unicode article. Most other browsers will pick up Unicode fonts automatically if they have been installed. The following expression sorts a word list stored in matrix X according to word length: X[⍋X+.≠' ';] The following function "life", written in Dyalog APL, takes a boolean matrix and calculates the new generation according to Conway's Game of Life: Image:LifeInApl.gif In the following example, also Dyalog, the first line assigns some HTML code to a variable "txt" and then uses an APL expression to remove all the HTML tags, returning the text only as shown in the last line. Image:StripHtmlFromText.gif The following expression finds all prime numbers from 1 to R. In both time and space, the calculation is O(R²). (~R∊R∘.×R)/R←1↓⍳R From right to left, this means: ιR creates a vector containing integers from 1 to R (if R = 6 at the beginning of the program, ιR is 1 2 3 4 5 6) Drop first element of this vector (↓ function), i.e. 1. So 1↓ιR is 2 3 4 5 6 Set R to the vector (←, assignment primitive) Generate outer product of R multiplied by R, i.e. a matrix which is the multiplication table of R by R (°.× function) Build a vector the same length as R with 1 in each place where the corresponding number in R is in the outer product matrix (∈, set inclusion function), i.e. 0 0 1 0 1 Logically negate the values in the vector (change zeros to ones and ones to zeros) (∼, negation function), i.e. 1 1 0 1 0 Select the items in R for which the corresponding element is 1 (/ function), i.e. 2 3 5 Calculation APL was unique in the speed with which it could perform complex matrix operations. For example, a very large matrix multiplication would take only a few seconds on a machine which was much less powerful than those today. There were both technical and economic reasons for this advantage: Commercial interpreters delivered highly-tuned linear algebra library routines. Very low interpretive overhead was incurred per-array—not per-element. APL response time compared favorably to the runtimes of early optimizing compilers. IBM provided microcode assist for APL on a number of IBM/370 mainframes. A widely cited paper "An APL Machine" (authored by Phil Abrams) perpetuated the myth that APL made pervasive use of lazy evaluation where calculations would not actually be performed until the results were needed and then only those calculations strictly required. An obvious (and easy to implement) lazy evaluation is the J-vector : when a monadic iota is encountered in the code, it is kept as a representation instead of being calculated at once, thus saving some time as well as memory. Although this technique was not generalized, it embodies the language's best survival mechanism: not specifying the order of scalar operations. Even as eventually standardized by X3J10, APL is so highly data-parallel, it gives language implementors immense freedom to schedule operations as efficiently as possible. As computer innovations such as cache memory, and SIMD execution became commercially available, APL programs ported with little extra effort spent re-optimizing low-level details. Interpreters Today, most APL language activity takes place under the Microsoft Windows operating system, with some activity under Linux, Unix, and Mac OS. Comparatively little APL activity takes place today on mainframe computers. APLNow (formerly APL2000) offers an advanced APL interpreter which operates under Linux, Unix, and Windows. It supports Windows automation, supports calls to operating system and user defined DLLs, has an advanced APL File System, and represents the current level of APL language development. APL2000's product is an advanced continuation of STSC's successful APL*Plus/PC and APL*Plus/386 product line. Dyalog APL is an advanced APL interpreter which operates under Linux, Unix, and Windows. Dyalog has aggressive extensions to the APL language which include new object oriented features, numerous language enhancements, plus a consistent namespace model used for both its Microsoft Automation interface, as well as native namespaces. For the Windows platform, Dyalog APL offers tight integration with Microsoft .Net, plus limited integration with the Microsoft Visual Studio development platform. IBM offers a version of IBM APL2 for IBM AIX, Linux, Sun Solaris and Windows systems. This product is a continuation of APL2 offered for IBM mainframes. IBM APL2 was arguably the most influential APL system, which provided a solid implementation standard for the next set of extensions to the language, focusing on nested arrays. NARS2000 is an open source APL interpreter written by Bob Smith, a well-known APL developer and implementor from STSC in the 1970s and 1980s. NARS2000 contains advanced features and new datatypes, runs natively under Windows, and runs under Linux and Apple Mac OS with Wine. MicroAPL Limited offers APLX, a full-featured 64 bit interpreter for Linux, Windows, and Apple Mac OS systems. Soliton Associates offers the SAX interpreter (Sharp APL for Unix) for Unix and Linux systems, which is a further development of I. P. Sharp Associates' Sharp APL product. Unlike most other APL interpreters, Kenneth E. Iverson had some influence in the way nested arrays were implemented in Sharp APL and SAX. Nearly all other APL implementations followed the course set by IBM with APL2, thus some important details in Sharp APL differ from other implementations. Compilation APL programs are normally interpreted and less often compiled. In reality, most APL compilers translated source APL to a lower level language such as C, leaving the machine-specific details to the lower level compiler. Compilation of APL programs was a frequently discussed topic in conferences. Although some of the newer enhancements to the APL language such as nested arrays have rendered the language increasingly difficult to compile, the idea of APL compilation is still under development today. In the past, APL compilation was regarded as a means to achieve execution speed comparable to other mainstream languages, especially on mainframe computers. Several APL compilers achieved some levels of success, though comparatively little of the development effort spent on APL over the years went to perfecting compilation into machine code. As is the case when moving APL programs from one vendor's APL interpreter to another, APL programs invariably will require changes to their content. Depending on the compiler, variable declarations might be needed, certain language features would need to be removed or avoided, or the APL programs would need to be cleaned up in some way. Some features of the language, such as the execute function (an expression evaluator) and the various reflection and introspection functions from APL, such as the ability to return a function's text or to materialize a new function from text, are simply not practical to implement in machine code compilation. A commercial compiler was brought to market by STSC in the mid 1980s as an add-on to IBM's VSAPL Program Product. Unlike more modern APL compilers, this product produced machine code which would execute only in the interpreter environment, it was not possible to eliminate the interpreter component. The compiler could compile many scalar and vector operations to machine code, but it would rely on the APL interpreter's services to perform some more advanced functions, rather than attempt to compile them. However, dramatic speedups did occur, especially for heavily iterative APL code. Around the same time, the book An APL Compiler by Timothy Budd appeared in print. This book detailed the construction of an APL translator, written in C, which performed certain optimizations such as loop fusion specific to the needs of an array language. The source language was APL-like in that a few rules of the APL language were changed or relaxed to permit more efficient compilation. The translator would emit C code which could then be compiled and run well outside of the APL workspace. Today, execution speed is less critical and many popular languages are implemented using virtual machines - instructions that are interpreted at runtime. The Burroughs/Unisys APLB interpreter (1982) was the first to use dynamic incremental compilation to produce code for an APL-specific virtual machine. It recompiled on-the-fly as identifiers changed their functional meanings. In addition to removing parsing and some error checking from the main execution path, such compilation also streamlines the repeated entry and exit of user-defined functional operands. This avoids the stack setup and take-down for function calls made by APL's built-in operators such as Reduce and Each. APEX, a research APL compiler, is available from Snake Island Research Inc. APEX compiles flat APL (a subset of ISO N8485) into SAC, a functional array language with parallel semantics, and currently runs under Linux. APEX-generated code uses loop fusion and array contraction, special-case algorithms not generally available to interpreters (e.g., upgrade of permutation vector), to achieve a level of performance comparable to that of Fortran. The APLNext VisualAPL system is a departure from a conventional APL system in that VisualAPL is a true .Net language which is fully inter-operable with other .Microsoft .Net languages such as VB.Net and C#. VisualAPL is inherently object oriented and Unicode-based. While VisualAPL incorporates most of the features of legacy APL implementations, the VisualAPL language extends legacy APL to be .Net-compliant. VisualAPL is hosted in the standard Microsoft Visual Studio IDE and as such, invokes compilation in a manner identical to that of other .Net languages. By producing .Net common language runtime (CLR) code, it utilizes the Microsoft just-in-time compiler (JIT) to support 32-bit or 64-bit hardware. Substantial performance speed-ups over legacy APL have been reported, especially when (optional) strong typing of function arguments is used. An APL to C# translator is available from Causeway Graphical Systems. This product was designed to allow the APL code, translated to equivalent C#, to run completely outside of the APL environment. The Causeway compiler requires a run-time library of array functions. Some speedup, sometimes dramatic, is visible, but happens on account of the optimisations inherent in Microsoft's .Net framework. A source of links to existing compilers is at APL2C. Terminology APL makes a clear distinction between functions and operators. Functions take values (variables or constants or expressions) as arguments, and return values as results. Operators (aka higher-order functions) take functions as arguments, and return related, derived functions as results. For example the "sum" function is derived by applying the "reduction" operator to the "addition" function. Applying the same reduction operator to the "ceiling" function (which returns the larger of two values) creates a derived "maximum" function, which returns the largest of a group (vector) of values. In the J language, Iverson substituted the terms 'verb' and 'adverb' for 'function' and 'operator'. APL also identifies those features built into the language, and represented by a symbol, or a fixed combination of symbols, as primitives. Most primitives are either functions or operators. Coding APL is largely a process of writing non-primitive functions and (in some versions of APL) operators. However a few primitives are considered to be neither functions nor operators, most noticeably assignment. Character set APL has always been criticized for its choice of a unique, non-standard character set. The observation that some who learn it usually become ardent adherents shows that there is some weight behind Iverson's idea that the notation used does make a difference. In the beginning, there were few terminal devices which could reproduce the APL character set—the most popular ones employing the IBM Selectric print mechanism along with a special APL type element. Over time, with the universal use of high-quality graphic display and printing devices, the APL character font problem has largely been eliminated; however, the problem of entering APL characters requires the use of input method editors or special keyboard mappings, which may frustrate beginners accustomed to other languages. With the popularization of the Unicode standard, which contains the APL character set, the problem of obtaining the required fonts seems poised to go away. From a user's standpoint, the additional characters can give APL a special elegance and concision not possible in other languages, using symbols visually mnemonic of the functions they represent. Or it can lead to a ridiculous degree of complexity and unreadability, typically when the symbols are strung together into a single mass without any comments. Or it can be unreasonably difficult and time consuming to enter then later edit those APL statements. APL symbols and keyboard layout Note the mnemonics associating an APL character with a letter: question mark on Q, power on P, rho on R, base value on B, eNcode on N, modulus on M and so on. This makes it easier for an English-language speaker to type APL on a non-APL keyboard providing one has visual feedback on one's screen. Also, decals have been produced for attachment to standard keyboards, either on the front of the keys or on the top of them. A more up to date keyboard diagram, applicable for APL2 and other modern implementations, is available: Union layout for windows. All APL symbols are present in Unicode, in the Miscellaneous Technical range, although some APL products may not yet feature unicode, and some APL symbols may be unused or unavailable in a given vendor's implementation: {| class="Unicode" style="font-size:180%" |- align=center |' || ( || ) || + ||, || - || . || / || : || ; || < || = || > || ? || [ || ] |- align=center | \ || _ ||¨ || ¯ || × || ÷ || ← || ↑ || → || ↓ ||∆ || ∇ || ∘ || ∣ || ∧ || ∨ |- align=center | ∩ || ∪ || ∼ || ≠ || ≤ || ≥ || ≬ || ⊂ || ⊃ || ⌈ ||⌊ || ⊤ || ⊥ || ⋆ || ⌶ || ⌷ |- align=center | ⌸ || ⌹ || ⌺ || ⌻ || ⌼ || ⌽ || ⌾ || ⌿ || ⍀ || ⍁ || ⍂||⍃ || ⍄ || ⍅ || ⍆ || ⍇ |- align=center | ⍈ || ⍉ || ⍊ || ⍋ || ⍌ || ⍍ || ⍎ || ⍏ || ⍐ || ⍑ || ⍒ ||⍓ || ⍔ || ⍕ || ⍖ || ⍗ |- align=center | ⍘ || ⍙ || ⍚ || ⍛ || ⍜ || ⍝ || ⍞ || ⍟ || ⍠ || ⍡ || ⍢ ||⍣ || ⍤ || ⍥ || ⍦ || ⍧ |- align=center | ⍨ || ⍩ || ⍪ || ⍫ || ⍬ || ⍭ || ⍮ || ⍯ || ⍰ || ⍱ || ⍲ ||⍳ || ⍴ || ⍵ || ⍶ || ⍷ |-align=center | ⍸ || ⍹ || ⍺ || ⎕ || ○ |} Additional APL characters were available by overstriking one character over another. For example, the log symbol was formed by overstriking shift-P with shift-O. This complicated correcting mistakes and editing program lines. This may have ultimately been the reason for early APL programs to have a certain dense style - they were difficult to edit. Many overstrikes shown in the above table, although appealing, are not actually used. New overstrikes were introduced by vendors as they produced versions of APL tailored to specific hardware, system features, file system, and so on. Further, printing terminals and early APL cathode-ray terminals were capable of displaying arbitrary overstrikes, but as personal computers rapidly replaced terminals as a data-entry device, APL character support was now provided as an APL Character Generator ROM or a soft character set rendered by the display device. With the advent of Windows, APL characters were defined as just another complete font, thus the distinction between overstruck characters and standard characters having been eliminated. Later IBM terminals, notably the IBM 3270 display stations, had an alternate keyboard arrangement which is the basis for some of the modern APL keyboard layouts in use today. Better terminals, namely display devices instead of printers, encouraged the development of better full screen editors, which had a measurable improvement in productivity and program readability. Usage APL has long had a small and fervent user base. It was and still is popular in financial and insurance applications, in simulations, and in mathematical applications. APL has been used in a wide variety of contexts and for many and varied purposes. A newsletter titled "Quote-Quad" dedicated to APL has been published since the 1970s by the SIGAPL section of the Association for Computing Machinery (Quote-Quad is the name of the APL character used for text input and output). APL has been used for rapid development of interactive Domain Specific Languages. Until as late as the mid-1980s, APL timesharing vendors offered applications delivered in the form of domain specific languages. On the I. P. Sharp timesharing system, a workspace called 39 MAGIC offered access to financial and airline data plus sophisticated (for the time) graphing and reporting, in the form of a domain specific language. Another example is the GRAPHPAK workspace supplied with IBM's APL2; a demonstration version of both APL2 and GRAPHPAK can be downloaded for Windows. Because of its matrix operations, APL was for some time quite popular for computer graphics programming, where graphic transformations could be encoded as matrix multiplications. One of the first commercial computer graphics houses, Digital Effects, based in New York City, produced an APL graphics product known as "Visions," which was used to create television commercials and film animation for the 1982 film Tron. Interest in APL has steadily declined since the mid 1980s. This was partially due to the lack of a smooth migration path from higher performing mainframe implementations to low-cost personal computer alternatives, as APL implementations for computers before the Intel 80386 were suitable for small applications. The growth of end-user computing tools such as Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Access also eroded into potential APL usage. These are appropriate platforms for what may have been mainframe APL applications in the 1970s and 1980s. Some APL users migrated to the J programming language, which offers more advanced features. Lastly, the decline was also due in part to the growth of MATLAB, GNU Octave, and Scilab. These scientific computing array-oriented platforms provide an interactive computing experience similar to APL, but more resemble conventional programming languages such as Fortran, and use standard ASCII. Notwithstanding this decline, APL finds continued use in certain fields, such as accounting research (Stanford Accounting PhD requirements) Standardization APL has been standardized by the ANSI working group X3J10 and ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 Subcommittee 22 Working Group 3. The Core APL language is specified in ISO 8485:1989, and the Extended APL language is specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001. Quotes "APL, in which you can write a program to simulate shuffling a deck of cards and then dealing them out to several players in four characters, none of which appear on a standard keyboard." David Given "APL is a mistake, carried through to perfection. It is the language of the future for the programming techniques of the past: it creates a new generation of coding bums." Edsger Dijkstra, 1968 APL, a song to the tune of "Row, row, row your boat". (on a part of Richard Stallman's personal webpage entitled 'Doggerel') Rho, rho, rho of X Always equals 1. Rho is dimension; rho rho, rank. APL is fun! "This way of doing business was so productive that it spread like wildfire. By the time the practical people found out what had happened; APL was so important a part of how IBM ran its business that it could not possibly be uprooted. The wild-eyed researchers had produced a moneymaker." Michael S. Montalbano 1982 (see A Personal History of APL) The following amusing rhyme from Stan Kelly-Bootle's Devil's DP Dictionary/The Computer Contradictionary has been circulated as part of the fortune program in numerous Unix installations. There are three things a man must do Before his life is done; Write two lines in APL, And make the buggers run. Joke in the APL community, heard sometime after Iverson joined I. P. Sharp Associates in 1980: Q: If functions modify their data, and if operators modify their functions, then what modifies operators? A: Ken Iverson APL Glossary Some words in the APL vocabulary have usage or meaning which is at variance with usage in mathematics or computer science. termdescriptionfunction1. symbols for built-in facilities in the language to perform such things like addition and subtraction, i.e. + and -. (These are often called "operators" elsewhere in the computer science community)2. a typical APL programniladica function which takes no arguments, "Programmera i APL", Bohman, Fröberg, Studentlitteratur, ISBN-91-44-13162-3 monadica function which requires only a right argument, or an operator which requires only a left argument, unarydyadica function (or operator) which requires both a left and right argument, binarynomadica function which takes an optional left argument and is thus able to be used in a monadic or dyadic contextoperatora construct in APL which takes a function as its argument and returns a new function. The monadic / operator (reduction) takes as its sole left argument the addition function +, which results in the function +/, which adds up the elements of a vectorvectora one-dimensional array See also Alphabetical list of programming languages A+ (programming language), a dialect of APL with aggressive extensions APL function symbols, a list of built-in monadic and dyadic functions and their Unicode representation. Criticism of the APL programming language IBM 1130, APL \ 1130 was an early implementation (1968) of APL on the IBM 1130 IBM 3270 Keyboard layout for APL I. P. Sharp Associates Iverson Award LYaPAS STSC, company formed to commercialize APL Shared Variables Type-III product References Notes General Iverson, Kenneth E. - A Programming Language, Wiley 1962. A Formal Description of SYSTEM/360, IBM Systems Journal 3:3, New York: 1964 Pakin, Sandra - APL\360 Reference Manual, Science Research Associates, Inc. 1968. ISBN 0-574-16135-X, History of Programming Languages, chapter 14 Gerald Jean Francis Banon - Bases da Computacao Grafica, RIO DE JANEIRO: CAMPUS, 1989. 141 p. LePage, Wilbur R., Applied A.P.L.Programming, Prentice Hall, 1978 External links Articles A Formal Description of SYSTEM/360 (1964 article by Adin D. Falkoff, Kenneth E. Iverson, Edward H. Sussenguth) An APL Machine (1970 Stanford doctoral dissertation by Philip Abrams) The Design of APL (1973 article by Adin D. Falkoff and Kenneth E. Iverson) Notation as a Tool of Thought (1979 Turing Award Lecture by Kenneth E. Iverson) A Personal History Of APL (1982 article by Michael S. Montalbano) Language as an intellectual tool: From hieroglyphics to APL (1991 article by Donald B. McIntyre) The IBM Family of APL Systems (1991 article by Adin D. Falkoff) A Personal view of APL (1991 article by Kenneth E. Iverson) General NARS2000 Open Source APL comp.lang.apl IBM APL2 Dyalog APL APL2000 APLNext: APL for .Net MicroAPL Ltd. SIGAPL Home Page Quote-Quad newsletter British APL Association’s journal Vector APL-Journal - German APL-Publication APL Wiki OOPAL: Integrating Array Programming in Object-Oriented Programming An introduction to Object Oriented APL Comparison of Black-Scholes options pricing model in many languages, including APL System Building with APL + Win by Brad McCormick by Rex Swain by Eric Lescasse Sam Sirlin's APL FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions list) plus link to versions of Budd's compiler Java applet to practice APL APL Unicode Font – Extended, a free font containing all the Unicode glyphs for the APL function symbols.

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Isidore_of_Miletus

Isidore of Miletus (Ισίδωρος ο Μιλήσιος,in Greek) was one of the two Greek architects (the other being Anthemius of Tralles) who designed the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (what is today Istanbul in Turkey). The Emperor Justinian I decided to rebuild the 4th century basilica in Constantinople which was destroyed during the Nika riots of 532. He employed Isidore of Miletus along with Anthemius of Tralles. Isidore of Miletus had earlier taught physics in Alexandria, Egypt and then later at Constantinople, and had written a commentary on earlier books on building. He had also collected and publicized the writings of Eutocius, which were commentaries on the mathematics of Archimedes and Apollonius, and consequently helped to revive interest in their works. Through this act, these most important of writings have been preserved and passed on to future generations. Furthermore, he was also an able mathematician, to him we owe the T-square and string construction of a parabola and possibly also the apocryphal Book XV of Euclid's Elements. References Citations and footnotes

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Corona

A corona is a type of plasma "atmosphere" of the Sun or other celestial body, extending millions of kilometers into space, most easily seen during a total solar eclipse, but also observable in a coronagraph. The Latin root of the word corona means crown. The corona can still be seen in this solar eclipse of August 11, 1999, as seen from France. The high temperature of the corona gives it unusual spectral features, which led some to suggest, in the 19th century, that it contained a previously unknown element, "coronium". These spectral features have since been traced to highly ionized Iron (Fe-XIV) which indicates a plasma temperature in excess of 106 kelvin. Light from the corona comes from three primary sources, which are called by different names although all of them share the same volume of space. The K-corona (K for kontinuierlich, "continuous" in German) is created by sunlight scattering off free electrons; Doppler broadening of the reflected photospheric absorption lines completely obscures them, giving the spectral appearance of a continuum with no absorption lines. The F-corona (F for Fraunhofer) is created by sunlight bouncing off dust particles, and is observable because its light contains the Fraunhofer absorption lines that are seen in raw sunlight; the F-corona extends to very high elongation angles from the Sun, where it is called the Zodiacal light. The E-corona (E for emission) is due to spectral emission lines produced by ions that are present in the coronal plasma; it may be observed in broad or forbidden or hot spectral emission lines and is the main source of information about the corona's composition. . Physical features The sun's corona is much hotter (by a factor of nearly 200) than the visible surface of the Sun: the photosphere's average temperature is 5800 Kelvin compared to the corona's one to three million Kelvin. The corona is 10−12 as dense as the photosphere, however, and so produces about one-millionth as much visible light. The corona is separated from the photosphere by the relatively shallow chromosphere. The exact mechanism by which the corona is heated is still the subject of some debate, but likely possibilities include induction by the Sun's magnetic field and sonic pressure waves from below (the latter being less probable now that coronae are known to be present in early-type, highly magnetic stars). The outer edges of the Sun's corona are constantly being transported away due to open magnetic flux generating the solar wind. A drawing demonstrating the configuration of solar magnetic flux during the solar cycle.The Corona is not always evenly distributed across the surface of the sun. During periods of quiet, the corona is more or less confined to the equatorial regions, with coronal holes covering the polar regions. However during the Sun's active periods, the corona is evenly distributed over the equatorial and polar regions, though it is most prominent in areas with sunspot activity. The solar cycle spans approximately 11 years, from solar minimum to solar maximum, where the solar magnetic field is continually wound up (due to a differential rotation at the solar equator; the equator rotates quicker than the poles). Sunspot activity will be more pronounced at solar maximum where the magnetic field is twisted to a maximum. Associated with sunspots are coronal loops, loops of magnetic flux, upwelling from the solar interior. The magnetic flux pushes the hotter photosphere aside, exposing the cooler plasma below, thus creating the dark (when compared to the solar disk) spots. Coronal Loops TRACE 171Å coronal loops Coronal loops are the basic structures of the magnetic solar corona. These loops are the closed-magnetic flux cousins of the open-magnetic flux that can be found in coronal hole (polar) regions and the solar wind. Loops of magnetic flux well up from the solar body and fill with hot solar plasma. Due to the heightened magnetic activity in these coronal loop regions, coronal loops can often be the precursor to solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). Solar plasma feeding these structures is heated from under 6000K to well over 1×106K from the photosphere, through the transition region, and into the corona. Often, the solar plasma will fill these loops from one foot point and drain from the other (siphon flow due to a pressure difference, or asymmetric flow due to some other driver). This is known as chromospheric evaporation and chromospheric condensation respectively. There may also be symmetric flow from both loop foot points, causing a buildup of mass in the loop structure. The plasma may cool in this region creating dark filaments in the solar disk or prominences off the limb. Coronal loops may have lifetimes in the order of seconds (in the case of flare events), minutes, hours or days. Usually coronal loops lasting for long periods of time are known as steady state or quiescent coronal loops, where there is a balance in loop energy sources and sinks (example). Coronal loops have become very important when trying to understand the current coronal heating problem. Coronal loops are highly radiating sources of plasma and therefore easy to observe by instruments such as TRACE; they are highly observable laboratories to study phenomena such as solar oscillations, wave activity and nanoflares. However, it remains difficult to find a solution to the coronal heating problem as these structures are being observed remotely, where many ambiguities are present (i.e. radiation contributions along the LOS). In-situ measurements are required before a definitive answer can be arrived at, but due to the high plasma temperatures in the corona, in-situ measurements are impossible (at least for the time being). Transients Generated by solar flares or large solar prominences, "coronal transients" (also called coronal mass ejections) are sometimes released. These are enormous loops of coronal material traveling outward from the Sun at over a million kilometers per hour, containing roughly 10 times the energy of the solar flare or prominence that triggered them. Some larger ejections can propel hundreds of millions of tons of material in to space at roughly at 1.5 million kilometers an hour. Other stars Stars other than the Sun have coronae, which can be detected using X-ray telescopes. Some stellar coronae, particularly in young stars, are much more luminous than the Sun's. Coronal heating problem The coronal heating problem in solar physics relates to the question of why the temperature of the Sun's corona is millions of kelvins higher than that of the surface. The high temperatures require energy to be carried from the solar interior to the corona by non-thermal processes, because the second law of thermodynamics prevents heat from flowing directly from the solar photosphere, or surface, at about 5800 kelvin, to the much hotter corona at about 1 to 3 MK (parts of the corona can even reach 10 MK). The amount of power required to heat the solar corona can easily be calculated. It is about 1 kilowatt for every square meter of surface area on the Sun, or 1/40000 of the amount of light energy that escapes the Sun. This thin region of temperature increase from the chromosphere to the corona is known as the transition region and can range from tens to hundreds of kilometers thick. An analogy of this would be a light bulb heating the air surrounding it hotter than its glass surface. The second law of thermodynamics would be broken. Many coronal heating theories have been proposed, but two theories have remained as the most likely candidates, wave heating and magnetic reconnection (or nanoflares). Through most of the past 50 years, neither theory has been able to account for the extreme coronal temperatures. Most solar physicists now believe that some combination of the two theories can probably explain coronal heating, although the details are not yet complete. The NASA mission Solar Probe + is intended to approach the sun to a distance of approximately 9.5 solar radii in order to investigate coronal heating and the origin of the solar wind. +Competing heating mechanismsHeating Models HydrodynamicMagnetic No magnetic field Slow rotating stars DC (reconnection) AC (waves) B-field stresses Reconnection events Flares Uniform heating rates Photospheric foot point shuffling MHD wave propagation High Alfvén wave flux Non-uniform heating rates Not our Sun!Competing theories Wave heating theory The wave heating theory, proposed in 1949 by Evry Schatzman, proposes that waves carry energy from the solar interior to the solar chromosphere and corona. The Sun is made of plasma rather than ordinary gas, so it supports several types of waves analogous to sound waves in air. The most important types of wave are magneto-acoustic waves and Alfvén waves. Magneto-acoustic waves are sound waves that have been modified by the presence of a magnetic field, and Alfvén waves are similar to ULF radio waves that have been modified by interaction with matter in the plasma. Both types of waves can be launched by the turbulence of granulation and super granulation at the solar photosphere, and both types of waves can carry energy for some distance through the solar atmosphere before turning into shock waves that dissipate their energy as heat. One problem with wave heating is delivery of the heat to the appropriate place. Magneto-acoustic waves cannot carry sufficient energy upward through the chromosphere to the corona, both because of the low pressure present in the chromosphere and because they tend to be reflected back to the photosphere. Alfvén waves can carry enough energy, but do not dissipate that energy rapidly enough once they enter the corona. Waves in plasmas are notoriously difficult to understand and describe analytically, but computer simulations, carried out by Thomas Bogdan and colleagues in 2003, seem to show that Alfvén waves can transmute into other wave modes at the base of the corona, providing a pathway that can carry large amounts of energy from the photosphere into the corona and then dissipate it as heat. Another problem with wave heating has been the complete absence, until the late 1990s, of any direct evidence of waves propagating through the solar corona. The first direct observation of waves propagating into and through the solar corona was made in 1997 with the SOHO space-borne solar observatory, the first platform capable of observing the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet for long periods of time with stable photometry. Those were magneto-acoustic waves with a frequency of about 1 millihertz (mHz, corresponding to a 1,000 second wave period), that carry only about 10% of the energy required to heat the corona. Many observations exist of localized wave phenomena, such as Alfvén waves launched by solar flares, but those events are transient and cannot explain the uniform coronal heat. It is not yet known exactly how much wave energy is available to heat the corona. Results published in 2004 using data from the TRACE spacecraft seem to indicate that there are waves in the solar atmosphere at frequencies as high as 100 mHz (10 second period). Measurements of the temperature of different ions in the solar wind with the UVCS instrument aboard SOHO give strong indirect evidence that there are waves at frequencies as high as 200 Hz, well into the range of human hearing. These waves are very difficult to detect under normal circumstances, but evidence collected during solar eclipses by teams from Williams College suggest the presences of such waves in the 1–10 Hz range. Magnetic reconnection theory The Magnetic reconnection theory relies on the solar magnetic field to induce electric currents in the solar corona. The currents then collapse suddenly, releasing energy as heat and wave energy in the corona. This process is called "reconnection" because of the peculiar way that magnetic fields behave in a plasma (or any electrically conductive fluid such as mercury or seawater). In a plasma, magnetic field lines are normally tied to individual pieces of matter, so that the topology of the magnetic field remains the same: if a particular north and south magnetic pole are connected by a single field line, then even if the plasma is stirred or if the magnets are moved around, that field line will continue to connect those particular poles. The connection is maintained by electric currents that are induced in the plasma. Under certain conditions, the electric currents can collapse, allowing the magnetic field to "reconnect" to other magnetic poles and release heat and wave energy in the process. Magnetic reconnection is hypothesized to be the mechanism behind solar flares, the largest explosions in our solar system. Furthermore, the surface of Sun is covered with millions of small magnetized regions 50–1,000 km across. These small magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation. The magnetic field in the solar corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this "magnetic carpet", so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate for the coronal heat, perhaps as a series of "microflares" that individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy. The idea that micro flares might heat the corona was put forward by Eugene Parker in the 1980s but is still controversial. In particular, ultraviolet telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO/EIT can observe individual micro-flares as small brightenings in extreme ultraviolet light, but there seem to be too few of these small events to account for the energy released into the corona. The additional energy not accounted for could be made up by wave energy, or by gradual magnetic reconnection that releases energy more smoothly than micro-flares and therefore doesn't appear well in the TRACE data. Variations on the micro flare hypothesis use other mechanisms to stress the magnetic field or to release the energy, and are a subject of active research in 2005. References Further reading Thorsten Dambeck: Seething Cauldron in the Suns's Furnace , MaxPlanckResearch, 2/2008, p. 28 - 33 External links Coronal heating problem at Innovation Reports NASA/GSFC description of the coronal heating problem FAQ about coronal heating Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, including near-real-time images of the solar corona Coronal x-ray images from the Hinode XRT be-x-old:Сонечная карона

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Batman_Forever

Batman Forever is a 1995 superhero film directed by Joel Schumacher. Based on the DC Comics character Batman, the film stars Val Kilmer, Tommy Lee Jones, Jim Carrey, Nicole Kidman and Chris O'Donnell. Batman Forever tells the story of Batman (Kilmer) trying to stop Two-Face (Jones) and the Riddler's (Carrey) villainous scheme of draining information from all the brains in Gotham City. Batman gains alliance from psychiatrist Dr. Chase Meridian (Kidman) and adopted sidekick Robin (O'Donnell). Plot The film opens with Batman (Val Kilmer) stopping a hostage situation in a bank caused by Two-Face (Tommy Lee Jones), the alter ego of physically/emotionally scarred former district attorney, Harvey Dent. Unfortunately, Two-Face escapes. Later on, Edward Nygma (Jim Carrey), a researcher at Wayne Enterprises, develops a device to beam television directly to a person's brain; Bruce Wayne rejects the invention, who notes that it "raised too many questions," and Edward resigns from his position. After meeting psychiatrist Dr. Chase Meridian (Nicole Kidman), Bruce invites her to a charity circus event. While there, Two-Face and his henchmen storm the event in an attempt to discover Batman's secret identity, and in the process the acrobat family, The Flying Graysons are murdered. The youngest member, Dick (Chris O'Donnell), survives and stops Two-Face's bomb from exploding. Upon his return, he discovers that Two-Face killed his family and escaped the scene. Bruce assumes responsibility for Dick and allows him to stay at Wayne Manor. Dick declares his intention to kill Two-Face and avenge his family's murder, and when he discovers Bruce's secret identity as Batman, he insists on becoming his sidekick, "Robin". Meanwhile, Edward has become psychologically obsessed with Bruce, and he begins to leave riddles for him. He decides to become a criminal known as "The Riddler" and become allies with Two-Face. Using his invention that Bruce had rejected earlier, Edward could read and control people's minds, and steal their intelligence quotient. At a business party, Edward discovers Bruce's secret identity, but luckily Robin saves his life. However, Two-Face and the Riddler later converge into the Batcave, destroy most of the equipment, and kidnap Chase. They also leave Bruce another riddle. After solving the last riddle, Batman and Robin locate the Riddler's lair, where both are separated upon reaching the island. Robin then encounters Two-Face and manages to beat him to the ground; Two-Face clings on for life, and realizing that he cannot kill him, Robin helps the villain back up. Doing this allows Two Face to get the upper hand, and he captures Robin. Meanwhile, Batman manages to make his way into the Riddler's lair and meets the Riddler himself; he reveals Robin and Chase as hostages, and gives Batman a choice of saving one hostage, but not the other. Batman finds a way to save both hostages, and manages to destroy the brainwave-collecting device and warp the Riddler in the process. During the battle, Two Face falls to his death. The Riddler is finally sent to Arkham Asylum, and Chase is asked to consult on his case. Riddler offers to reveal the identity of Batman to her, but he thinks himself Batman. Chase then meets Bruce Wayne outside and tells him his secret is safe. Cast Val Kilmer as Bruce Wayne / Batman: After coming across the journal of his father, he starts questioning his act of vengeance. Bruce struggles with his dual identity as a crime fighter, becoming romantically involved with Chase Meridian. Tommy Lee Jones as Harvey Dent / Two-Face: Formerly the good district attorney of Gotham City, half of Harvey's face is scarred with acid during the conviction of a crime boss. This leads to events that showcase him as Batman's eccentric enemy "Two-Face". Jim Carrey as Dr. Edward Nygma / Riddler: A former employee at Wayne Enterprises, Edward is fired by because of the dangers of his newest invention. He becomes psychologically obsessed with Bruce Wayne. In a secret identity he becomes the villainous Riddler, leaving riddles and puzzles at scenes of crime. Nicole Kidman as Dr. Chase Meridian: A psychologist and love interest of Bruce Wayne. Chase is fascinated by the dual nature of Batman. She's held as a damsel in distress in the climax. Chris O'Donnell as Dick Grayson / Robin: Once a circus acrobat, Dick is adopted by Bruce after Two-Face murders his parents and brother at a circus event. Bruce is reminded when his parents were murdered when he sees the same vengeance in Dick. He eventually discovers the batcave and learns Bruce's secret identity. In his wake, he becomes the crime fighting sidekick, Robin. Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth: The faithful butler of Bruce and Dick. Pat Hingle as James Gordon: The Police Commissioner of Gotham City Drew Barrymore as Sugar: The "good" henchwoman of Two-Face. Debi Mazar as Spice: The "bad" henchwoman of Two-Face. Ed Begley, Jr. as Fred Stickley: Edward Nygma's ill-tempered supervisor at Wayne Enterprises. Begley was uncredited for this role. Elizabeth Sanders as Gossip Gerty: Gotham's top gossip columnist. Rene Auberjonois as Dr. Burton: Head Doctor of Arkham Asylum. Joe Grifasi as Bank Guard: A nervous man taken hostage by Two-Face. Jon Favreau and Don "The Dragon" Wilson appear in cameos. Production Even though Batman Returns was a financial success, Warner Bros. felt the film should have made more money and decided to make the film series more mainstream. Tim Burton, who had directed the two previous installments, decided to restrict himself to the role of producer and approved of Joel Schumacher as director. Lee and Janet Scott Batchler were then hired to write the script. Akiva Goldsman was brought to perform a rewrite. He delivered a "production draft" in June 1994. Production went on fast track with Rene Russo cast as Dr. Chase Meridian. Michael Keaton decided not to reprise Batman because he didn't like the new direction the film series was heading in. Keaton also wanted to pursue "more interesting roles", turning down $15 million to appear in Batman Forever. Val Kilmer was cast days later, and the filmmakers decided that Russo was too old for Kilmer, replacing her with a different actress. Robin Wright Penn, Jeanne Tripplehorn and Linda Hamilton were in competition for Dr. Chase Meridian, with Penn appearing as the favorable choice. Nicole Kidman was eventually cast. Robin Williams turned down the Riddler, while Michael Jackson was attached to the role, but the filmmakers ignored him. Jim Carrey was eventually cast. Robin appeared in the shooting script of Batman Returns but was deleted due to too many characters. Marlon Wayans was cast in the role, and signed for Batman Forever. It was decided to replace Wayans with a different actor Leonardo DiCaprio and Chris O'Donnell became the top two choices, with O'Donnell winning the part. Mitchell Gaylord served as O'Donnell's stunt double. Filming started in September 1994. Rick Baker designed the prosthetic makeup. John Dykstra, Andrew Adamson and Jim Rygiel served as visual effects supervisors, with Boss Film Studios and Pacific Data Images also contributing with visual effects work. Schumacher had problems filming with Kilmer, while "Jim Carrey was a gentleman, and Tommy Lee was threatened by him. I'm tired of defending overpaid, overprivileged actors. I pray I don't work with them again." Reception Peter David and Alan Grant wrote separate novelizations of the film. Dennis O'Neil authored a comic book adaption, with art by Michal Dutkiewicz. Batman Forever was released in America on June 16, 1995 in 2,842 theaters, making $52.78 million in its opening weekend. This was the highest opening weekend of 1995. The film went on to gross $184.03 million in North America, and $152.5 million in foreign countries, totaling $336.53 million. Batman Forever was declared a financial success. The film earned more money than its predecessor Batman Returns, and was the second-highest (behind Toy Story) grossing film in North America in 1995. In worldwide totals Batman Forever was number six. Based on 48 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, 44% of reviewers enjoyed the film, with the consensus of "Loud, excessively busy, and often boring, Batman Forever nonetheless has the charisma of Jim Carrey and Tommy Lee Jones to offer mild relief." The film was more balanced with 13 critics in Rotten Tomatoes'''s "Top Critics" poll, receiving a 69% approval rating. By comparison Metacritic collected an average score of 51, based on 23 reviews. Jonathan Rosenbaum called Batman Forever "suitable for boys of five and under. Nicole Kidman is here to validate the rampant repressed homoeroticism." Peter Travers criticized the movie's blatant commercialism, but commented that "Batman Forever still gets in its licks. There's no fun machine this summer that packs more surprises. The script misses the pain Tim Burton caught in a man tormented by the long-ago murder of his parents." Brian Lowry of Variety believed "One does have to question the logic behind adding nipples to the hard-rubber batsuit. Whose idea was that supposed to be anyway, Alfred's? Some of the computer-generated Gotham cityscapes appear too obviously fake. Elliot Goldenthal's score, while serviceable, also isn't as stirring as Danny Elfman's work in the first two films." Scott Beatty felt "Tommy Lee Jones played Harvey Dent as a Joker knock-off rather than a multi-layered rogue." Lee Bermejo called Batman Forever "unbearable". Roger Ebert gave a positive review, "Is the movie better entertainment? Well, it's great bubblegum for the eyes. Younger children will be able to process it more easily, some kids were led bawling from Batman Returns where the PG-13 rating was a joke." Mick LaSalle had a mixed reaction, concluding "a shot of Kilmer's rubber buns at one point is guaranteed to bring squeals from the audience." James Berardinelli enjoyed the film. "It's lighter, brighter, funnier, faster-paced, and a whole lot more colorful than before." At the 68th Academy Awards, Batman Forever was nominated with Cinematography, Sound and Sound Editing. "Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me" by U2 was given a Golden Globe Award nomination. At the Saturn Awards, the film was nominated for Best Fantasy Film, Make-up, Special Effects and Costume Design. Composer Elliot Goldenthal was given a Grammy Award nomination. Batman Forever received six nominations at the 1996 MTV Movie Awards. "Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me" was given a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Song. Original cutBatman Forever went through a few major edits before its release. Originally darker than the final product, the movie's original length was closer to 2 hours and 40 minutes according to director Joel Schumacher. There was talk of an extended cut being released to DVD for the film's 10th anniversary in 2005. While all four previous Batman films were given Special Edition DVD releases on the same day as Batman Begins's DVD release, the version of Batman Forever released was the original, although some of the following scenes were in a deleted scenes section in the special features. The following is a compiled list of the most important deleted scenes or original versions of scenes: A famous scene that featured Two-Face escaping Arkham originally opened the movie. A guard enters the empty cell and finds the words "The Bat Must Die" illuminated by lightning on the wall. The film's events in the first 15 to 20 minutes were in different order as well, and the resulting "new opening" has made its way to YouTube. One scene featured a local Gotham talk show with Chase Meridian as a guest, talking about Batman. The scene at the casino robbery where the Riddler fails at punching the security guard originally added the Riddler proceeding to beat the man with his cane. There was originally a scene of Alfred and Bruce examining the Nygma Tech "Box". An extended conversation when the Riddler and Two-Face team up. One scene showed the development of the NygmaTech building on Claw Island, funded by the Riddler and Two-Face's robberies. This features deleted scenes of Nygma visiting the site and the box press conference. One deleted scene featured a philosophical conversation between Two Face, Riddler, Sugar, and Spice as they take hits from the box. The Wayne Manor raid sequence was longer, featuring Bruce and Chase fighting Two Face and his thugs. The fight scene between Two-Face and Robin on Claw Island was originally longer. The scene where the Riddler has Chase chained up on a couch originally ended with him knocking her out by injecting her with a type of sleeping drug. He then says, "Nap time, gorgeous." to Chase. One sequence came directly after the casino robbery, where Batman follows a robbery signal on a tracking device in the Batmobile. He shows up at the crime scene and finds he is at the wrong place (a beauty salon), in which a room full of girls laugh at him. The Riddler had been throwing Batman off the track by messing with the Batmobile's tracking device. This would explain why in the theatrical version Batman seems to give Riddler and Two-Face moments of free rein over the city. One of the most important deleted scenes, which is on the DVD, shows Bruce waking up from being shot by Two-Face with temporary memory loss. Bruce remembers everything except being Batman. After Alfred shows him the Batcave, Bruce comes upon a section of the cave where he first encountered the bat that inspired his alter ego (which is shown earlier in the movie when he talks to Chase). This deleted scene kept in line with the earlier storyline of Thomas Wayne's diary, which Bruce finds in the cave. The recurring nightmares of his parents' deaths throughout the movie are given closer inspection when he reads the diary. He had believed his parents would not have died if he hadn't made them go to the movies, but his father's diary reveals that his parents had been planning to go to the movies anyway, prompting Bruce to say through tears, "It wasn't my fault..." He sees the bat again in this scene, and the size of it made many fans who saw the screenshot think it was Man-Bat. It was confirmed that this was not and was never intended to be Man-Bat. The movie originally ended with Chase asking Alfred, "Does it ever end?" This was followed by Batman standing on the ledge of a building, just like the original film of 1989, and he is then joined by Robin. The final shot was reportedly supposed to be the dynamic duo leaping off the building and coming downwards at the camera. While the scene of the dynamic duo is not on the DVD, Chase and Alfred's scene is. References See also Batman Forever (score) Batman Forever (soundtrack) Batman Forever (video game)Batman Forever: The Arcade Game'' External links

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Council_of_Europe

The Council of Europe () is the oldest international organisation working towards European integration, having been founded in 1949. It has a particular emphasis on legal standards, human rights, democratic development, the rule of law and cultural co-operation. It has 47 member states with some 800 million citizens. Its statutory institutions are the Committee of Ministers comprising the foreign ministers of each member state, the Parliamentary Assembly composed of MPs from the Parliament of each member state, and the Secretary General heading the secretariat of the Council of Europe. The most famous conventional bodies of the Council of Europe are the European Court of Human Rights which enforces the European Convention on Human Rights as well as the European Pharmacopoeia Commission which sets the quality standards for pharmaceutical products in Europe. The Council of Europe's work has resulted in standards, charters and conventions to facilitate cooperation between European countries and further integration. The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg, France with English and French as its two official languages. The Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly also work in German, Italian and Russian. History In 1945, at the end of the second World War, Europe was marked by unprecedented devastation and human suffering. It faced new political challenges, in particular reconciliation among the peoples of Europe. This situation favoured the long held idea of European integration through the creation of common institutions. One of the first to conceive of a union of European nations was Hungarian Prime Minister Pál Teleki. Hungary had lost over two-thirds of its territory at the end of World War I in the 1920 Treaty of Trianon. In early 1941 during the World War II, he was striving to preserve his country's autonomy in the face of Germany's coercion to join in their invasion of Yugoslavia. In the book, Transylvania. The Land Beyond the Forest, Louis C. Cornish described how Teleki, under constant surveillance by the German Gestapo during 1941, sent a secret communication to contacts in America. In his famous speech at the University of Zurich on 19 September 1946, Sir Winston Churchill called for a United States of Europe and the creation of a Council of Europe. He had spoken of a Council of Europe as early as 1943 in a broadcast to the nation. The future structure of the Council of Europe was discussed at a specific congress of several hundred leading politicians, government representatives and civil society in The Hague, Netherlands in 1948. There were two schools of thought competing: some favoured a classical international organisation with representatives of governments, while others preferred a political forum with parliamentarians. Both approaches were finally combined through the creation of the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly under the Statute of the Council of Europe. This dual intergovernmental and inter-parliamentary structure was later copied for the European Communities, NATO and the OSCE. The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by the Treaty of London. The Treaty of London or the Statute of the Council of Europe was signed in London on that day by ten states: Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Many states followed, especially after the democratic transitions in central and eastern Europe during the early 1990s, and the Council of Europe now integrates nearly all states of Europe. Aims and achievements Article 1(a) of the Statute states that "The aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve a greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating their economic and social progress." Therefore, membership is open to all European states which seek European integration, accept the principle of the rule of law and are able and willing to guarantee democracy, fundamental human rights and freedoms. While the member states of the European Union transfer national legislative and executive powers to the European Commission and the European Parliament in specific areas under European Community law, Council of Europe member states maintain their sovereignty but commit themselves through conventions (i.e. public international law) and co-operate on the basis of common values and common political decisions. Those conventions and decisions are developed by the member states working together at the Council of Europe, whereas secondary European Community law is set by the organs of the European Union. Both organisations function as concentric circles around the common foundations for European integration, with the Council of Europe being the geographically wider circle. The European Union could be seen as the smaller circle with a much higher level of integration through the transfer of powers from the national to the EU level. Being part of public international law, Council of Europe conventions could also be opened for signature to non-member states thus facilitating equal co-operation with countries outside Europe (see chapter below). The Council of Europe's most famous achievement is the European Convention on Human Rights, which was adopted in 1950 following a report by the Council of Europe's Parliamentary Assembly. The Convention created the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg. The Court supervises compliance with the European Convention on Human Rights and thus functions as the highest European court for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It is to this court that Europeans can bring cases if they believe that a member country has violated their fundamental rights. The wide activities and achievements of the Council of Europe can be found in detail on its official website. In a nutshell, the Council of Europe works in the following areas: Protection of the rule of law and fostering legal co-operation through some 200 conventions and other treaties, including such leading instruments as the Convention on Cybercrime, the Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, the Conventions against Corruption and Organised Crime, and the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedecine. CODEXTER, designed to co-ordinate counter-terrorism measures The European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ) Protection of human rights, notably through: the European Convention on Human Rights the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture the Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings the Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse social rights under the European Social Charter linguistic rights under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages minority rights under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities Media freedom under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention on Transfrontier Television Protection of democracy through parliamentary scrutiny and election monitoring by its Parliamentary Assembly as well as assistance in democratic reforms, in particular by the Venice Commission. Promotion of cultural co-operation and diversity under the Council of Europe's Cultural Convention of 1954 and several conventions on the protection of cultural heritage as well as through its Centre for Modern Languages in Graz, Austria and its North-South Centre in Lisbon, Portugal. Promotion of the right to education under Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights and several conventions on the recognition of university studies and diplomas (see also Bologna Process and Lisbon Recognition Convention). Promotion of fair sport through the Anti-Doping Convention and the Convention against Spectator Violence. Promotion of European youth exchanges and co-operation through European Youth Centres in Strasbourg and Budapest, Hungary. Promotion of the quality of medicines throughout Europe by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Pharmacopoeia. Institutions The parliamentary hemicycle The institutions of the Council of Europe are: The Secretary General, who is elected for a term of five years by the Parliamentary Assembly and heads the Secretariat of the Council of Europe. Since 2004, Terry Davis from the United Kingdom has been Secretary General. The Committee of Ministers, comprising the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of all 47 member states who are represented by their Permanent Representatives and Ambassadors accredited to the Council of Europe. Committee of Ministers' presidencies are held in alphabetical order for six months following the English alphabet (Slovenia and Sweden changed their places due to the fact that Slovenia held the EU Presidency in 2008): Sweden 05/2008-11/2008, Spain 11/2008-05/2009, Slovenia 05/2009-11/2009, Switzerland 11/2009-05/2010, "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" 05/2010-11/2010, Turkey 11/2010-05/2011, etc. The Parliamentary Assembly (PACE), which comprises national parliamentarians from all member states and elects its President for a year with the possibility of being re-elected for another year. In January 2008, Lluis Maria de Puig from Spain was elected President of the Parliamentary Assembly. National parliamentary delegations to the Assembly must reflect the political spectrum of their national parliament, i.e. comprise government and opposition parties. The Assembly appoints members as rapporteurs with the mandate to prepare parliamentary reports on specific subjects. The British MP Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe was rapporteur for the drafting of the European Convention on Human Rights. Dick Marty's reports on secret CIA detentions and rendition flights in Europe became quite famous in 2007. Other Assembly rapporteurs were instrumental in, for example, the abolition of the death penalty in Europe, the political and human rights situation in Chechnya, disappeared persons in Belarus, freedom of expression in the media and many other subjects. The Congress of the Council of Europe (Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe), which was created in 1994 and comprises political representatives from local and regional authorities in all member states. The most influential instruments of the Council of Europe in this field are the European Charter of Local Self-Government of 1985 and the European Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation between Territorial Communities or Authorities of 1980. The European Court of Human Rights, created under the European Convention on Human Rights of 1950, is composed of a judge from each member state elected for a renewable term of six years by the Parliamentary Assembly and is headed by the elected President of the Court. Since 2007, Jean-Paul Costa from France is the President of the Court. Under the new Protocol No. 14 to the European Convention on Human Rights, the terms of office of judges shall be nine years but non-renewable. All member states except Russia have signed and ratified Protocol No. 14. The Commissioner for Human Rights, who is elected by the Parliamentary Assembly for a non-renewable term of six years since the creation of this position in 1999. This position is held since 2006 by Thomas Hammarberg from Sweden. The Conference of INGOs.NGOs (NGOs) can participate in the INGO Conference of the Council of Europe. Since the [Resolution (2003)8] adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 19 November 2003, they are given a “participatory status”. Information Offices of the Council of Europe in many member states. European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines. The CoE system also includes a number of semi-autonomous structures known as "Partial Agreements", some of which are also open to non-member states: The Council of Europe Development Bank in Paris The European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines with its European Pharmacopoeia The European Audiovisual Observatory The European Support Fund Eurimages for the co-production and distribution of films The Pompidou Group - Cooperation Group to Combat Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking in Drugs The European Commission for Democracy through Law, better known as the Venice Commission The Group of States Against Corruption (GRECO) The European and Mediterranean Major Hazards Agreement (EUR-OPA) which is a platform for co-operation between European and Southern Mediterranean countries in the field of major natural and technological disasters. The Enlarged Partial Agreement on Sport, which is open to accession by states and sport associations. The North-South Centre of the Council of Europe in Lisbon (Portugal) The Centre for Modern Languages is in Graz (Austria) Headquarters and buildings Aerial shot of the Palais de l'Europe in Strasbourg The seat of the Council of Europe is in Strasbourg, France. First meetings were held in Strasbourg's University Palace in 1949, but the Council of Europe moved soon into its own buildings. The Council of Europe's eight main buildings are situated in the Quartier européen, an area in the north-west of Strasbourg spread over the three districts Le Wacken, La Robertsau and Quartier de l'Orangerie, that also features the four buildings of the seat of the European Parliament in Strasbourg, the Arte headquarters and the seat of the International Institute of Human Rights. Building in the area started in 1949 with the predecessor of the Palais de l'Europe, the House of Europe (torn down in 1977) and came to a provisional end in 2007 with the opening of the New General Office Building in 2008. The Palais de l'Europe (Palace of Europe) as well as the Art Nouveau Villa Schutzenberger (seat of the European Audiovisual Observatory) are located in the Orangerie district, the European Court of Human Rights, the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and the Agora Building are situated in the Robertsau district. The Agora building has been voted "best international business center real estate project of 2007" on 13 March 2008, at the MIPIM 2008. The European Youth Centre is located in the Wacken district. Besides its headquarters in Strasbourg, the Council of Europe is also present in other cities and countries. The Council of Europe Development Bank has its seat in Paris, the North-South Centre of the Council of Europe is established in Lisbon, Portugal, and the Centre for Modern Languages is in Graz, Austria. There are European Youth Centres in Budapest, Hungary and Strasbourg. The European Wergeland Centre, a new Resource Centre on education for intercultural dialogue, human rights and democratic citizenship, operated in cooperation with the Norwegian Government opened in Oslo, Norway in February 2009 . The Council of Europe has offices in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Moldova, Montenegro, Serbia, Ukraine and information offices in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Georgia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia, Slovenia, the Republic of Macedonia, Ukraine and a projects office in Turkey. All of these offices are establishments of the Council of Europe and they share its juridical personality with privileges and immunities. Symbols The Flag of Europe The Council of Europe created and uses as its official symbols the famous European Flag with 12 golden stars arranged in a circle on a blue background since 1955, and the European Anthem based on the Ode to Joy in the final movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth symphony since 1972. On 5 May 1964 - the 15th anniversary of its founding, the Council of Europe established 5 May as Europe Day. Although protected by copyright, the wide private and public use of the European Flag is encouraged to symbolise a European dimension. To avoid confusion with the European Union which subsequently adopted the same flag in the 1980s, as well as other European institutions, the Council of Europe often uses a modified version with a lower-case 'e' in the centre of the stars which is referred to as the "Council of Europe Logo". Membership The Council of Europe was founded on 5 May 1949 by Belgium, Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the United Kingdom. It now has 47 member states, with Montenegro being the latest to join. Some members have some or most of their territory extending beyond Europe, and in the case of Armenia and Cyprus, they are located entirely outside Europe; these states are included due to their historical and cultural links to Europe. As a result, nearly all European states have acceded to the Council, with the exception of Belarus (human rights concerns), Kazakhstan (human rights concerns), Kosovo (partly unrecognised), Abkhazia (recognised only by two countries), South Ossetia (recognised only by two countries), Northern Cyprus (recognised only by one country), Nagorno-Karabakh (unrecognised), Transnistria (unrecognised) and the Holy See (unique status). The latter is however an observer. Notes on table;aGreece and Turkey also considered as founders of the organisation. bIn 1950, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), est. 23 May 1949, and then French-occupied Saar (protectorate) became associate members. (West) Germany became a full member in 1951, while the Saarland withdrew from its associate membership in 1956 after acceding to the Federal Republic after a referendum in 1955. The Soviet-occupied eastern part of Germany and later East German Democratic Republic never became a member of the Council of Europe. Through German reunification in 1990, the five Länder (i.e. states/regions) of East Germany acceeded to the Federal Republic of Germany and thus gained representation in the Council of Europe. c Joined under the provisional reference "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (including quotation marks). Majority of countries recognise the country with its constitutional name. d Originally joined as Serbia and Montenegro. FlagStateDate joinedBelgiumFounderDenmarkFounderFranceFounderIrelandFounderItalyFounderLuxembourgFounderNetherlandsFounderNorwayFounderSwedenFounderUnited KingdomFounderGreecea 9 August 1949Turkeya9 August 1949Iceland7 March 1950Germanyb13 July 1950Austria16 April 1956Cyprus24 May 1961Switzerland6 May 1963Malta29 April 1965Portugal22 September 1976Spain24 November 1977Liechtenstein23 November 1978San Marino16 November 1988Finland5 May 1989Hungary6 November 1990Poland26 November 1991Bulgaria7 May 1992Estonia14 May 1993Lithuania14 May 1993Slovenia14 May 1993Czech Republic30 June 1993Slovakia30 June 1993Romania7 October 1993Andorra10 November 1994Latvia10 February 1995Albania13 July 1995Moldova13 July 1995Republic of Macedoniac9 November 1995Ukraine9 November 1995Russia28 February 1996Croatia6 November 1996Georgia27 April 1999Armenia25 January 2001Azerbaijan25 January 2001Bosnia and Herzegovina24 April 2002Serbiad3 April 2003Monaco5 October 2004Montenegro11 May 2007 Following its declaration of independence on 3 June 2006, Montenegro submitted a request to accede to the Council of Europe. The Committee of Ministers transmitted the request to the Parliamentary Assembly for opinion, in accordance with the usual procedure. Eleven days later, on 14 June 2006, the Committee of Ministers declared that the Republic of Serbia would continue the membership of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. On 11 May 2007, Montenegro joined the Council of Europe as 47th member state. This coin was issued in Armenia to commemorate Armenia's accession to the Council in 2001 Applicants The Parliament of Belarus held special guest status with the Parliamentary Assembly from September 1992 to January 1997, but this has been suspended as a consequence of the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections which the CoE found to be undemocratic, as well as limits on democratic freedoms such as freedom of expression (cf. Belarusian media) under the administration of President Alexander Lukashenko. The constitution changed by the referendum "does not respect minimum democratic standards and violates the principles of separation of powers and the rule of law. Belarus applied for full membership on 12 March 1993 (still open). Kazakhstan applied for the Special Guest status with the Parliamentary Assembly in 1999. The Assembly found that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but granting Special Guest status would require improvements in the fields of democracy and human rights. Kazakhstan signed a co-operation agreement with the Assembly. Observers Canada, Japan, Mexico, the U.S. and the Holy See have observer status with the Council of Europe and can participate in the Committee of Ministers and all intergovernmental committees. They may contribute financially to the activities of the Council of Europe on a voluntary basis. The parliaments of Canada, Israel and Mexico have observer status with the Parliamentary Assembly and their delegations can participate in Assembly sessions and committee meetings. Representatives of the Palestinian Legislative Council may participate in Assembly debates concerning the Middle East as well as Turkish representatives from Northern Cyprus concerning this island. There has been criticism concerning the observer status of Japan and the US because both countries apply the death penalty. Co-operation Non-member states The Council of Europe works mainly through conventions. By drafting conventions or international treaties, common legal standards are set for its member states. However, several conventions have also been opened for signature to non-member states. Important examples are the Convention on Cybercrime (signed e.g. by Canada, Japan, South Africa and the United States), the Lisbon Recognition Convention on the recognition of study periods and degrees (signed e.g. by Australia, Belarus, Canada, the Holy See, Israel, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, New Zealand and the USA), the Anti-doping Convention (signed e.g. by Australia, Belarus, Canada and Tunisia) and the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (signed e.g. by Burkina Faso, Morocco, Tunisia and Senegal as well as the European Community). Non-member states also participate in several partial agreements, such as the Venice Commission, the Group of States Against Corruption GRECO and the European Pharmacopoeia Commission. Invited to sign and ratify relevant conventions of the Council of Europe on a case-by-case basis are sent to three groups of non-member entities CoE Conventions : Non-european states: Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Bolivia, Brasil, Burkina Faso, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, South Korea, Kyrgystan, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mauritius, Morocco, New Zealand, Panama, Peru, Philipines, Senegal, South Africa, Syria, Tajikistan, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Uruguay, Venezuela and the observers Canada, Israel, Japan, Mexico, United States. european states: Kazakhstan, Belarus and the observer Vatican City. the European Community European Union Relations in general between the CoE and the EU As mentioned in the introduction, it is important to realise that the Council of Europe is not to be mistaken with the Council of the European Union or the European Council. These belong to the European Union, which is separate from the Council of Europe, although they have shared the same European flag and anthem since the 1980s because they also work for European integration. Cooperation between the European Union and the Council of Europe has recently been reinforced, notably on culture and education as well as on the international enforcement of justice and Human Rights. The European Union is expected to accede to the European Convention on Human Rights (the Convention). At their Warsaw Summit in 2005, the Heads of State and Government of all Council of Europe member states reiterated their desire for the EU to accede without delay to ensure consistent human rights protection across Europe. There are also concerns about consistency in case law - the European Court of Justice (the EU's court in Luxembourg) is treating the Convention as part of the legal system of all EU member states in order to prevent conflict between its judgements and those of the European Court of Human Rights (the court in Strasbourg interpreting the Convention). Protocol No.14 of the Convention is designed to allow the EU to accede to it and the EU Reform Treaty contains a protocol binding the EU to join. The EU would thus be subject to its human rights law and external monitoring as its member states currently are. It is further proposed that the EU join as a member of the Council of Europe once it has attained its legal personality in the Reform Treaty, possibly in 2010. Joint Programmes between the CoE and the EU The Council of Europe and the European Union are based on the same values and pursue common aims with regard to the protection of democracy, respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms and the rule of law. These common aims have led the Council of Europe and the European Union to develop a very tight network of relations and cooperation links (participation of the European Commission to meet Council of Europe activities, accession of European Union to Council of Europe Conventions, etc.). One significant instrument of this cooperation is the conclusion since 1993 of a number of joint programmes, for essentially cooperation with countries which have joined the Council of Europe since 1989. The same countries have developed increasingly close links with the European Union, or have applied for membership. By combining forces in this way, the complementarity of respective activities of the European Commission and the Council of Europe has been enhanced. In April 2001 an important step was taken through the signature by the European Commission and the Council of Europe of a Joint Declaration on Cooperation and Partnership, which, among other things, offers more systematic means of joint programming and priority-setting. Country-specific and thematic Joint Programmes Most joint programmes are country-specific. They cover Albania (since 1993), Ukraine (since 1995), the Russian Federation (since 1996), Moldova (since 1997), Georgia (since 1999), Serbia, Montenegro, Armenia, and Azerbaijan (since 2001), Turkey (since 2001), Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 2003) and also the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Other Joint Programmes, for instance for the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) have also been implemented in the past. There have also been multilateral thematic joint programmes, open to Central and Eastern European countries, regarding, for instance, national minorities, the fight against organised crime and corruption, and the development of independent and multidisciplinary ethics committees for review of biomedical research. There have been other multilateral joint programmes, for awareness-raising on the abolition of the death penalty, the preparation of the European conference to fight against racism and intolerance, action to promote the European Social Charter and a programme to strengthen democracy and constitutional development in central and eastern Europe with the Council of Europe's Venice Commission. There is a "Council of Europe Project Office" in Ankara, Turkey since 2004 which implements joint projects of the Council of Europe and the European Union in co-operation with the Turkish government. Activities The Joint Programmes consist of a series of activities agreed between the European Commission and the Council of Europe, in consultation with the governments of the concerned countries, designed to facilitate and support legal and institutional reform. Training courses, expert reports and advice to governments, conferences, workshops, seminars and publication dissemination are all usual working methods. The emphasis has been on training and advice but in some cases Joint Programmes have even offered limited material support (for instance with the establishment of the Albanian School of Magistrates and the State Publications Centre). Programming and funding The Directorate General for External Relations of the European Commission and the Council of Europe's Directorate of Strategic Planning (as well as other services as applicable) set and match priorities for the purpose of Joint Programmes. Sometimes the Council of Europe makes proposals to the European Commission for urgent joint undertakings. EuropeAid is the structure within the European Commission involved in the final selection and administrative follow-up of programmes. The Council of Europe counterpart throughout the project cycle is the Directorate of Strategic Planning, in close consultation with the different Council of Europe Directorates General responsible for the implementation of the activities. In recent years the European Commission Delegations in the beneficiary countries have increasingly been implied in the Joint Programmes. Equally, Council of Europe Secretariat Offices in the field support planning and implementation. The European Commission and the Council of Europe provide joint funding for the programme, and the Council of Europe is responsible for its implementation. In most cases funding is shared on a 50-50 basis but on some occasions the European Commission has contributed with proportionally more resources. A large number of Joint Programmes have been concluded with the EC's European Initiative for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR). Programmes have also been concluded with the European Commission's TACIS and CARDS programmes. In 2002 a major Joint Programme for Turkey became operational, with resources from the EU enlargement funds and the Council of Europe. In 2001 two Joint Programmes were established with the European Agency for Reconstruction (EAR), a decentralised agency of the European Union that deals with assistance to Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Programme Partners The Council of Europe often works with partner institutions in the country concerned. Partners may include: The Ministries of Justice, Foreign Affairs and the Interior The national and regional Bar Associations The office of the Public Prosecutor The Courts and judicial training centres The national or regional commissioners on human rights Journalists' unions Other professional bodies Human rights protection movements and other non-governmental organisations. United Nations The Council of Europe holds observer status with the United Nations and is regularly represented in the UN General Assembly. It has organised the regional UN conferences against racism and on women and co-operates with the United Nations at many levels, in particular in the areas of human rights, minorities, migration and counter-terrorism. Non-governmental Organisations Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) can participate in the INGO Conference of the Council of Europe and become observers to inter-governmental committees of experts. The Council of Europe drafted the European Convention on the Recognition of the Legal Personality of International Non-Governmental Organisations in 1986, which sets the legal basis for the existence and work of NGOs in Europe. Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to freedom of association, which is also a fundamental norm for NGOs. References See also North-South Centre of the Council of Europe Europe European Union International organisations in Europe Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe OSCE countries statistics Common European Framework of Reference for Languages European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages Council of Europe Film Award (FACE) CODEXTER CAHDI Conference of Specialised Ministers Group of States Against Corruption Council of Europe Archives External links Official site Statute of the Council of Europe Eurominority map of minorities, native peoples and ethnic groups European NAvigator Council of Europe Armenia, Azerbaijan join Council of Europe European Movement European Audiovisual Observatory Video clips Council of Europe YouTube channel

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Foreign_relations_of_Costa_Rica

Costa Rica is an active member of the international community and, in 1983, claimed it was for neutrality. Due to certain powerful constituencies favoring its methods, it has a weight in world affairs far beyond its size. The country lobbied aggressively for the establishment of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and became the first nation to recognize the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Human Rights Court, based in San Jose. Then-President Óscar Arias authored a regional plan in 1987 that served as the basis for the Esquipulas Peace Agreement and Arias was awarded the 1987 Nobel Peace Prize for his work. Arias also promoted change in the USSR-backed Nicaraguan government of the era. Costa Rica also hosted several rounds of negotiations between the Salvadoran Government and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), aiding El Salvador's efforts to emerge from civil war and culminating in that country's 1994 free and fair elections. Costa Rica has been a strong proponent of regional arms-limitation agreements. Former President Miguel Ángel Rodríguez recently proposed the abolition of all Central American militaries and the creation of a regional counternarcotics police force in their stead. With the establishment of democratically-elected governments in all Central American nations by the 1990s, Costa Rica turned its focus from regional conflicts to the pursuit of neoliberal policies on the isthmus. The influence of these policies, along with the US invasion of Panama, was instrumental in drawing Panama into the Central American model of neoliberalism. Costa Rica also participated in the multinational Partnership for Democracy and Development in Central America. Regional political integration has not proven attractive to Costa Rica. The country debated its role in the Central American integration process under former President Calderon. Costa Rica has sought concrete economic ties with its Central American neighbors rather than the establishment of regional political institutions, and it chose not to join the Central American Parliament. President Figueres promoted a higher profile for Costa Rica in regional and international fora. Costa Rica gained election as President of the Group of 77 in the United Nations in 1995. That term ended in 1997 with the South-South Conference held in San Jose. Costa Rica occupied a nonpermanent seat in the Security Council from 1997 to 1999 and exercised a leadership role in confronting crises in the Middle East and Africa, as well as in the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. It is currently a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. On Jan. 1 2008 Costa Rica started its third year term on the Security council. Costa Rica broke relations with Cuba in 1961 in compliance with sanctions placed on the island by the Organization of American States and has not renewed formal diplomatic ties with Fidel Castro's government. In 1995, Costa Rica established a consular office in Havana. Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in 2001. On March 18, 2009 the Costa Rican government announced that it will reestablish diplomatic relations with Cuba, the next day, the Government of Cuba announced that it agreed to reestablishing relations. Costa Rica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, which led to the restoration of the democratically elected Government of Haiti in October 1994. Costa Rica was among the first to call for a postponement of the May 22 elections in Peru when international observer missions found electoral machinery not prepared for the vote count. Costa Rica maintained official relations with the Republic of China (commonly known as "Taiwan") instead of the People's Republic of China (commonly known as "China") until June 1, 2007, when it opened relations with China. Taiwan then broke relations on June 7th. Costa Rica switches allegiance to China from Taiwan - Boston.com . Strong economic ties existed between the two countries with projects having included the recent construction of a suspension bridge with Taiwanese capital to join the Costa Rican mainland with the Nicoya Peninsula. The bridge has been a boon for the tourist industry in the peninsula by reducing travel time to some locations by as much as two hours. Until 2006 Costa Rica was only one of two countries that had its embassy to Israel sited in Jerusalem (it has since moved its mission to Tel Aviv which almost every country in the world that recognises Israel considers as its de jure capital). Costa Rica is also a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98) Sources http://www.boston.com/news/world/asia/articles/2007/06/07/costa_rica_switches_allegiance_to_china_from_taiwan/ See also Diplomatic missions of Costa Rica List of diplomatic missions in Costa Rica

Foreign_relations_of_Costa_Rica |@lemmatized costa:24 rica:22 active:1 member:3 international:4 community:1 claim:1 neutrality:1 due:1 certain:1 powerful:1 constituency:1 favor:1 method:1 weight:1 world:3 affair:1 far:1 beyond:1 size:1 country:6 lobby:1 aggressively:1 establishment:3 office:3 united:4 nation:5 high:2 commissioner:1 human:3 right:3 become:1 first:2 recognize:1 jurisdiction:1 inter:1 american:8 court:2 base:1 san:2 jose:2 president:5 óscar:1 aria:3 author:1 regional:7 plan:1 serve:1 basis:1 esquipulas:1 peace:2 agreement:3 award:1 nobel:1 prize:1 work:1 also:5 promote:2 change:1 ussr:1 back:2 nicaraguan:1 government:7 era:1 host:1 several:1 round:1 negotiation:1 salvadoran:1 farabundo:1 martí:1 national:1 liberation:1 front:1 fmln:1 aid:1 el:1 salvador:1 effort:2 emerge:1 civil:1 war:1 culminating:1 free:1 fair:1 election:3 strong:2 proponent:1 arm:1 limitation:1 former:3 miguel:1 ángel:1 rodríguez:1 recently:1 propose:1 abolition:1 central:7 military:2 creation:1 counternarcotics:1 police:1 force:1 stead:1 democratically:2 elect:1 turn:1 focus:1 conflict:1 pursuit:1 neoliberal:1 policy:2 isthmus:1 influence:1 along:1 u:2 invasion:1 panama:2 instrumental:1 draw:1 model:1 neoliberalism:1 participate:1 multinational:1 partnership:1 democracy:1 development:1 america:1 political:2 integration:2 prove:1 attractive:1 debate:1 role:2 process:1 calderon:1 seek:1 concrete:1 economic:2 tie:3 neighbor:1 rather:1 institution:1 choose:1 join:2 parliament:1 figueres:1 profile:1 forum:1 gain:1 group:1 term:2 end:1 south:2 conference:1 hold:1 occupy:1 nonpermanent:1 seat:1 security:3 council:3 exercise:1 leadership:1 confront:1 crisis:1 middle:1 east:1 africa:1 well:1 socialist:1 federal:1 republic:3 yugoslavia:1 currently:1 commission:1 jan:1 start:1 third:1 year:1 break:2 relation:6 cuba:4 compliance:1 sanction:1 place:1 island:1 organization:1 state:2 renew:1 formal:1 diplomatic:4 fidel:1 castro:1 establish:1 consular:2 havana:1 open:2 march:1 rican:2 announce:2 reestablish:2 next:1 day:1 agree:1 strongly:1 implement:1 un:1 resolution:1 lead:1 restoration:1 elected:1 haiti:1 october:1 among:1 call:1 postponement:1 may:1 peru:1 observer:1 mission:4 find:1 electoral:1 machinery:1 prepare:1 vote:1 count:1 maintain:1 official:1 china:5 commonly:2 know:2 taiwan:3 instead:1 people:1 june:2 switch:1 allegiance:1 boston:2 com:2 exist:1 two:3 project:1 include:1 recent:1 construction:1 suspension:1 bridge:2 taiwanese:1 capital:2 mainland:1 nicoya:1 peninsula:2 boon:1 tourist:1 industry:1 reduce:1 travel:1 time:1 location:1 much:1 hour:1 one:1 embassy:1 israel:2 sit:1 jerusalem:1 since:1 move:1 tel:1 aviv:1 almost:1 every:1 recognise:1 considers:1 de:1 jure:1 criminal:1 without:1 bilateral:1 immunity:1 protection:1 cover:1 article:2 source:1 http:1 www:1 news:1 asia:1 see:1 list:1 |@bigram costa_rica:22 san_jose:2 óscar_aria:1 el_salvador:1 miguel_ángel:1 democratically_elect:1 fidel_castro:1 havana_cuba:1 costa_rican:2 diplomatic_relation:1 democratically_elected:1 suspension_bridge:1 tel_aviv:1 de_jure:1 bilateral_immunity:1 http_www:1 diplomatic_mission:2

Sample_space

In probability theory, the sample space or universal sample space, often denoted S, Ω, or U (for "universe"), of an experiment or random trial is the set of all possible outcomes. For example, if the experiment is tossing a coin, the sample space is the set {head, tail}. For tossing a single six-sided die, the sample space is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. For some kinds of experiments, there may be two or more plausible sample spaces available. For example, when drawing a card from a standard deck of 52 playing cards, one possibility for the sample space could be the rank (Ace through King), while another could be the suit (clubs, diamonds, hearts, or spades). A complete description of outcomes, however, would specify both the denomination and the suit, and a sample space describing each individual card can be constructed as the Cartesian product of the two sample spaces noted above. In an elementary approach to probability, any subset of the sample space is usually called an event. However, this gives rise to problems when the sample space is infinite, so that a more precise definition of event is necessary. Under this definition only measurable subsets of the sample space, constituting a σ-algebra over the sample space itself, are considered events. ''However, this has essentially only theoretical significance, since in general the σ-algebra can always be defined to include all subsets of interest in applications. See also Probability Space. Set Event (probability theory)

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Devil

Satan frozen at the center of Cocytus, the ninth circle of Hell in Dante's Inferno. The Devil is the title given to the supernatural being, who, in mainstream Christianity, Islam, and some other religions, is believed to be a powerful, evil entity and the tempter of humankind. The Devil is commonly associated with heretics, infidels, and other unbelievers. The name "Devil" derives from the Greek word diabolos, which means "slanderer" or "accuser". "devil", Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 29 June 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030155>. In mainstream Christianity, God and the Devil are usually portrayed as fighting over the souls of humans, with the Devil seeking to lure people away from God and into Sheol. The Devil commands a force of evil angels, commonly known as demons. The Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) describes the Adversary (Ha-satan) as a servant of God whose job it is to test humankind. This entity is commonly referred to by a variety of names, including Abbadon, Angra Mainyu, Satan, Asmodai, Beelzebub, Lucifer, Belial, and Iblis. Many other religions have a trickster or tempter figure that is similar to the Devil. Modern conceptions of the Devil include the concept that it symbolizes humans' own lower nature or sinfulness. People put the concept of the Devil to use in social and political conflicts, claiming that their opponents are influenced by the Devil or even willingly supporting the Devil. The Devil has also been used to explain why others hold beliefs that are considered to be false and ungodly. The Devil in religious accounts In Genesis In the story of Adam and Eve, "the serpent" is a trickster said to be "more crafty than any of the wild animals the LORD God had made," who asked Eve, "Did God really say, 'You must not eat from any tree in the garden'?" (). Eve answers the serpent, saying that God warned them not to eat "the fruit from the tree that is in the middle of the garden [..] or you will die." The serpent (lowercase) convinces Eve to disobey God and eat of the tree, telling her "You will not surely die [..] For God knows that when you eat of it your eyes will be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil." Eve convinces Adam to eat of the tree, and after seeing that they disobeyed his single commandment, God punishes them with mortality. In religious context, Genesis is a story that explains the (current) human condition as a "Fall of Man," and hence mankind's relation to God as a divine punishment, relative to life in Paradise. Judaism In Judaism there is no concept of a devil like in mainstream Christianity or Islam. In Hebrew, the biblical word ha-satan (השָׂטָן) means "the adversary" For example in and and other places, the word "adversary" appears in the translation, which in the original Hebrew is "ha-satan". or the obstacle, or even "the prosecutor" (recognizing that God is viewed as the ultimate Judge). In the book of Job (Iyov), ha-satan is the title, not the proper name, of an angel submitted to God; he is the divine court's chief prosecutor. In Judaism ha-satan does not make evil, rather points out to God the evil inclinations and actions of humankind. In essence ha-satan has no power unless humans do evil things. After God points out Job's piety, ha-satan asks for permission to test the faith of Job. The righteous man is afflicted with loss of family, property, and later, health, but he still stays faithful to God. At the conclusion of this book God appears as a whirlwind, explaining to all that divine justice is inscrutable. In the epilogue Job's possessions are restored and he has a second family to "replace" the one that died. In the Torah, ha-satan is mentioned several times. The main time is during the incident of the golden calf. As the source of people's evil inclination, or yetser harah, he is responsible for the Israelites building the golden calf while Moses was on Mount Sinai receiving the Torah from God. In the book of 1 Chronicles 21:1, ha-satan incites David to an unlawful census. In fact, the Book of Isaiah, Job, Ecclesiastes, and Deuteronomy all have passages in which God is credited for exercising sovereign control over both good and evil. Christianity Saint Wolfgang and the Devil by Michael Pacher). In mainstream Christianity the Devil is also known as Satan and sometimes as Lucifer, although some scholars recognize the reference in Isaiah 14:12 to Lucifer, or the Morning Star, to be a reference to the Babylonian king (see, for example, the entries in Nave's Topical Bible, the Holman Bible Dictionary and the Adam Clarke Commentary). Modern Christians consider the Devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons) rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described as hating all humanity, or more accurately creation, opposing God, spreading lies and wreaking havoc on the souls of mankind. Other Christians consider the devil in the Bible to refer figuratively to human sin and temptation and to any human system in opposition to God. In the Bible, the devil is identified with the serpent in the Garden of Eden, the dragon in the Book of Revelation (e.g. Rev. 12:9), and the tempter of the Gospels (e.g. Mat. 4:1). Islam In Islam the Devil is referred to as Iblis (Arabic: Shaitan, a word referring to evil devil-like beings). According to the Qur'an, God created Iblis out of "smokeless fire" (along with all of the other jinn) and created man out of clay. The primary characteristic of the Devil, besides hubris, is that he has no power other than the power to cast evil suggestions into the heart of men and women. According to Muslim theology, Iblis was expelled from the grace of God when he disobeyed God by choosing not to pay homage to Adam, the father of all mankind. He claimed to be superior to Adam, on the grounds that man was created of earth unlike himself. As for the angels, they prostrated before Adam to show their homage and obedience to God. However, Iblis, adamant in his view that man is inferior, and unlike angels was given the ability to choose, made a choice of not obeying God. This caused him to be expelled by God, a fact that Iblis blamed on humanity. Initially, the Devil was successful in deceiving Adam, but once his intentions became clear, Adam and Eve repented to God and were freed from their misdeeds and forgiven. God gave them a strong warning about Iblis and the fires of Hell and asked them and their children (humankind) to stay away from the deceptions of their senses caused by the Devil. According to the verses of the Qur’an, the Devil's mission until the Qiyamah or Resurrection Day (yaum-ul-qiyama) is to deceive Adam's children (mankind). After that, he will be put into the fires of Hell along with those whom he has deceived. The Devil is also referred to as one of the jinns, as they are all created from the smokeless fire. The Qur'an does not depict Iblis as the enemy of God, as God is supreme over all his creations and Iblis is just one of his creations. Iblis's single enemy is humanity. He intends to discourage humans from obeying God. Thus, humankind is warned to struggle (jihad) against the mischiefs of the Satan and temptations he puts them in. The ones who succeed in this are rewarded with Paradise (jannath ul firdaus), attainable only by righteous conduct. Zoroastrianism In the Gathas, the oldest texts of the Zoroastrian Avesta, believed to have been composed by Zoroaster himself, the poet does not mention a manifest adversary. Ahura Mazda's Creation is "truth", asha. The "lie" (druj) is manifest only as decay or chaos, not an entity. Later, in Zurvanism (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), Ahura Mazda and the principle of evil, Angra Mainyu, are the "twin" offspring of Zurvan, 'Time'. No trace of Zurvanism exists after the 10th century. Today, the Parsis of India largely accept the 19th century interpretation that Angra Mainyu is the 'Destructive Emanation' of Ahura Mazda. Instead of struggling against Mazda himself, Angra Mainyu battles Spenta Mainyu, Mazda's 'Creative Emanation.' Bahá'í Faith In the Bahá'í Faith there is no existence of a malevolent superhuman entity such as the devil. Human beings are seen to have free will, and thus are seen to be able to either turn towards God and develop spiritual qualities, or instead be immersed in their own desires and thus commit wrongs; if people are immersed in their own desires, the Bahá'í writings sometimes use a metaphorical usage of satanic to describe their actions. The writings of Bahá'í Faith also state that the devil is also a metaphor for the "insistent self" or "lower self" which is a self-serving inclination within each individual. This tendency is often referred to in the Bahá'í writings as "the Evil One". Shoghi Effendi quoted in Neopaganism Christian tradition has frequently identified pagan religions and witchcraft with the influence of Satan. In the Early Modern Period, the Church accused alleged witches of consorting and conspiring with Satan. Several modern conservative Christian writers, such as Jack Chick and James Dobson, have depicted today's neopagan and witchcraft religions as explicitly Satanic. Few neopagan reconstructionist traditions recognize Satan or the Devil outright. However, many neopagan groups worship some sort of Horned God, for example as a consort of the Great Goddess in Wicca. These gods usually reflect mythological figures such as Cernunnos or Pan, and any similarity they may have to the Christian Devil seems to date back only to the 19th century, when a Christian reaction to Pan's growing importance in literature and art resulted in his image being translated to that of the Devil. New Age movement Participants in the New Age movement have widely varied views about Satan, the Devil, and so forth. In some forms of Esoteric Christianity Satan remains as a being of evil, or at least a metaphor for sin and materialism, but the most widespread tendency is to deny his existence altogether. Lucifer, on the other hand, in the original Roman sense of "light-bringer", occasionally appears in the literature of certain groups as a metaphorical figure quite distinct from Satan, and without any implications of evil. For example, Theosophy founder Madame Blavatsky named her journal Lucifer since she intended it to be a "bringer of light". Many New Age schools of thought follow a nondualistic philosophy that does not recognize a primal force for evil. Even when a dualistic model is followed, this is more often akin to the Chinese system of yin and yang, in which good and evil are explicitly not a complementary duality. Schools of thought that do stress a spiritual war between good and evil or light and darkness include the philosophy of Rudolf Steiner, Agni Yoga, and the Church Universal and Triumphant. Satanism Some religions worship the Devil. This can be in a polytheistic sense where "God", Satan, and others are all deities with Satan as the preferred patron; or it can be from a more monotheistic viewpoint, where God is regarded as a true god, but is nevertheless defied. Some variants deny the existence of God and the Devil altogether, but still call themselves Satanists, such as Anton LaVey's Church Of Satan which sees Satan as a representation of the primal and natural state of mankind. Similar concepts in other religions Hinduism In contrast to Christianity, Islam, and Zoroastrianism, Hinduism does not recognize any central evil force or entity such as the Devil opposing God. Hinduism does recognize that different beings (e.g., asuras) and entities can perform evil acts, under the temporary dominance of the guna of tamas, and cause wordly sufferings. The Rajasic and Tamasic Gunas of Maya are considered especially close to the Abrahamic concept , the hellish parts of the Ultimate Delusion called "Prakriti". An embodiment of this is the concept of Advaita (non-dualism) where there is no good or evil but simply different levels of realization. On the other hand in Hinduism, which provides plenty of room for counterpoint, there is also the notion of dvaita (dualism) where there is interplay between good and evil tendencies. Hindu Concept of God A prominent asura is Rahu whose characteristics are similar to those of the Devil. However, Hindus, and Vaishnavites in particular, believe that an avatar of Vishnu incarnates to defeat evil when evil reaches its greatest strength. The concept of Guna and Karma also explain evil to a degree, rather than the influence of a devil. To be more specific, Hindu philosophy defines that the only existing thing (Truth) is the Almighty God. So, all the asuric tendencies are inferior and mostly exist as illusions in the mind. Asuras are also different people in whom bad motivations and intentions (tamas) have temporarily outweighed the good ones (Sattva). Different beings like siddha, gandharva, yaksha etc. are considered beings unlike mankind, and in some ways superior to men. In Ayyavazhi, officially an offshoot of Hinduism prominent in Tamil Nadu (a southern state in India with Dravidian heritage), followers, unlike most other branches of Hinduism, believes in a Satan-like figure, Kroni. Kroni, according to Ayyavazhi is the primordial manifestation of evil and manifests in various forms of evil, i.e., Ravana, Duryodhana, etc., in different ages or yugas. In response to such manifestation of evil, believers, in Ayya-Vazhi religion believe that God, as Vishnu manifests in His avatars such as Rama and Krishna to defeat evil. Eventually, the Ekam with the spirit (the spirit taken by Narayana only for incarnating in the world) of Narayana incarnates in the world as Ayya Vaikundar to destroy the final manifestaion of Kroni, Kaliyan. Kroni, the spirit of Kali Yuga is said to be omnipresent in this age and that is one of the reasons why followers of Ayya Vazhi, like most Hindus, believe that the current yuga, Kali Yuga is so degraded. Buddhism A devil-like figure in Buddhism is Mara. He is a tempter, who also tempted Gautama Buddha by trying to seduce him with the vision of beautiful women who, in various legends, are often said to be Mara's daughters. Mara personifies unskillfulness, the "death" of the spiritual life. He tries to distract humans from practicing the spiritual life by making the mundane alluring or the negative seem positive. Another interpretation of Mara is that he is the desires that are present in ones own mind preventing the person from seeing the truth. So in a sense Mara is not an independent being but a part of one's own being that has to be defeated. In daily life of the Buddha the role of devil has been given to Devadatta. Ancient Egypt In the Ausarian drama we find that Ausar (Greek: Osiris) is chopped into 13 pieces by Set. Auset (Isis) collects all of his pieces save his phallus. Horus, son of Ausar and Auset sets out to avenge the death and dismemberment of his father by confronting Set. Horus is victorious over Set and Ausar, being brought back from the dead becomes lord of the underworld. It is this drama that gives us the cosmic conflict between good and evil, evil being embodied by Set. This is not to say that Set was always seen as an evil character in Ancient Egyptian theology. There are many times in Ancient Egyptian history where conflicts between different "houses" lead to the depreciation of one god relative to another. As in most polytheistic faiths, the characters involved differentiate themselves from the Western tradition of a devil in that all the gods are closely related. In this case, numerous historic texts suggest that Set is the Uncle or Brother of Horus and in the "defeat" of Set, we see another separation from the norm in the devouring/assimilation of Set into Horus with the result of Horus having depictions of both the falcon head and the (unknown animal) head of Set. This (like Buddhism) represents a dissolution of dichotomy. The Devil in world folklore In the Western Christian tradition, the Devil has entered popular folklore, particularly in his role as a trickster figure. As such, he is found as a character in a wide number of traditional folktales and legends from Ireland, Newfoundland, Italy and the United Kingdom, where he often attempts to trick or outwit other characters. In some of these tales, the Devil is portrayed as more of a folk villain than as the personification of evil. The Devil also features prominently in a number of hagiographical tales, or tales of the saints such as the popular tale of St. Dunstan, many of which may fall outside the authorized religious canon. The Devil is also a recurring feature in tales explaining the etymology of geographical names, lending his name to natural formations such as The Devil's Chimney. Other names for the Devil Further information: Names of the Devil in Christianity Demons In some religions and traditions, these titles are separate demons; others identify these names as guises of The Devil. Even when thought of as individual demons, some are often thought of being under the Devil's direct control. This identifies only those thought of as the Devil; List of demons has a more general listing. Azazel, Asael (Hebrew): King of Devils Baphomet, a demon supposedly worshiped by the Knights Templar Beelzebub, ba'al zevuv בעל זבוב (Hebrew): Master of the flies or Lord of the Flies () Belial, Beliar, Bheliar (Hebrew): without master, despicableness of the earth, Lord of Pride () Mastema, a devil in the Book of Jubilees Sammael, Samiel, Sammael (Hebrew): "Poison of God" Titles These are all titles that almost always refer to the Devil himself. 666 or 616, the Number of the Beast Angra Mainyu, Ahriman: "malign spirit", "unholy spirit" Antichrist, the coming of the Devil to the mortal world in Christianity Der Leibhaftige (German): "He Himself" Diabolus, Diavolus (Greek): "downward flowing" Iblis, the devil in Islam Lord of the underworld / Lord of Hell / Lord of this World Lucifer / The Morning Star (Greek and Roman): bringer of light, illuminator; often believed to be Satan's name before he fell (the Planet Venus) Leviathan Mephistopheles, Mephisto (Greek): that, which avoids the light Old Scratch, The Stranger, Old Nick: a colloquialism for the devil, as indicated by the name of the character in the story The Devil and Tom Walker Old Hob Prince of Darkness / Air Satan / The Adversary, Accuser, Prosecutor (The ancient/old/crooked/coiling) Serpent Shaitan, an Arabic name for Satan Kölski (Iceland) http://visindavefur.hi.is Voland (medieval France) A list of liturgical names for the Devil may be found in Jeffrey Burton Russell, Lucifer, the Devil in the Middle Ages (Cornell University Press, 1986), p. 128, note 76 online. God as the Devil Several religious authors throughout history have advanced the notion that the god of the Abrahamic Bible and its sequels is consistent in character with the Devil. They make the case that the Biblical God is a divine force that wreaks suffering, death, and destruction and that tempts or commands humanity into committing mayhem and genocide. These writings refer to the Biblical God variously as "a demiurgus", "an evil angel", "the devil god", "the Prince of Darkness", "the source of all evil", "a demon", "a cruel, wrathful, warlike tyrant", "Satan", "the devil", and "the first beast of the book of Revelation". Many of the authors criticize only Jehovah, the God of the Abrahamic scriptures (Tanakh), in contrast with the "true god" of the New Testament. However, other authors apply their condemnation to the entire godhead of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The authors assert their claims by reference to a number of passages in Biblical scripture describing actions of God that they say are evil or Devil-like. Many of the authors have been severely chastised for their writings, and their followers killed. See also Satan in literature Satan in popular culture The Devil (Tarot card) Devil worship Hierarchy of devils Names of the demons Hell, Hades, Underworld Pact with the Devil Number of the Beast Footnotes References The Origin of Satan, by Elaine Pagels (Vintage Books, New York 1995) explores the development, the "demonization" of the character of Satan against the background of the bitter struggle between the early Church and the Synagogue to be the legitimate heir of ancient Hebrew religious tradition. She discusses how Satan becomes a figure that reflects our own hatreds and prejudices, and the struggle between our loving selves and our fearful, combative selves. The Old Enemy: Satan & the Combat Myth, by Neil Forsyth (Princeton, New Jersey, 1987) seeks to show how Satan emerged from ancient mythological traditions and is best understood not as a principle of evil, but as a narrative character in the context of "the Combat Myth". Forsyth tells the Devil's story from the Epic of Gilgamesh through to the writings of St. Augustine. The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity, by Jeffrey Burton Russell (Meridian, New York 1977) is "a history of the personification of evil" which, to make things clear, he calls "the Devil". Accessible and engaging, full of photographs illustrating the text, this is the first of a four volume series on the history of the concept of the Devil. The following volumes are, Satan: The Early Christian Tradition, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, and Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. The Devil in Legend and Literature, by Maximilian Rudwin (Open Court, La Salle, Illinois, 1931, 1959) is a compendium of "the secular and sacred adventures of Satan." External links Catholic Encyclopedia Children of the Devil The Devil - Unjustly Maligned Origin and Fate of Satan

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grace:1 choose:2 pay:1 homage:2 father:2 superior:2 ground:1 earth:2 unlike:4 prostrate:1 show:2 obedience:1 however:4 adamant:1 inferior:2 ability:1 choice:1 obey:2 cause:3 blame:1 initially:1 successful:1 deceive:3 intention:2 become:2 clear:2 repent:1 free:2 misdeed:1 forgiven:1 strong:1 warning:1 child:3 deception:1 sens:1 verse:1 mission:1 qiyamah:1 resurrection:1 day:1 yaum:1 ul:2 qiyama:1 jinns:1 depict:2 enemy:3 supreme:1 intend:2 discourage:1 thus:3 struggle:4 jihad:1 mischief:1 succeed:1 reward:1 jannath:1 firdaus:1 attainable:1 conduct:1 zoroastrianism:3 gathas:1 text:3 zoroastrian:1 avesta:1 compose:1 zoroaster:1 poet:1 manifest:4 ahura:3 mazda:5 truth:3 asha:1 druj:1 decay:1 chaos:1 zurvanism:2 zurvanite:1 principle:2 twin:1 offspring:1 zurvan:1 trace:1 exists:1 century:3 today:2 parsi:1 india:2 largely:1 accept:1 interpretation:2 destructive:1 emanation:2 instead:2 battle:1 spenta:1 creative:1 bahá:5 í:5 existence:3 malevolent:1 superhuman:1 able:1 either:1 turn:1 towards:1 develop:1 spiritual:4 quality:1 immerse:2 desire:3 commit:2 wrong:1 writing:6 metaphorical:2 usage:1 satanic:2 state:3 metaphor:2 insistent:1 self:5 serve:1 within:1 individual:2 tendency:4 often:6 shoghi:1 effendi:1 quote:1 neopaganism:1 tradition:8 frequently:1 pagan:1 witchcraft:2 early:3 period:1 church:4 accuse:1 alleged:1 witch:1 consort:2 conspire:1 conservative:1 writer:1 jack:1 chick:1 james:1 dobson:1 neopagan:3 explicitly:2 reconstructionist:1 outright:1 group:2 worship:4 sort:1 horned:1 great:2 goddess:1 wicca:1 reflect:2 mythological:2 cernunnos:1 pan:2 similarity:1 may:3 seem:2 date:1 back:2 reaction:1 grow:1 importance:1 literature:4 art:1 result:2 image:1 translate:1 new:7 age:7 movement:2 participant:1 widely:1 vary:1 forth:1 form:2 esoteric:1 remain:1 least:1 materialism:1 widespread:1 deny:2 altogether:2 hand:2 roman:2 sense:3 light:5 bringer:3 occasionally:1 certain:1 quite:1 distinct:1 without:2 implication:1 theosophy:1 founder:1 madame:1 blavatsky:1 journal:1 since:1 school:2 thought:3 follow:2 nondualistic:1 philosophy:3 primal:2 dualistic:1 model:1 akin:1 chinese:1 yin:1 yang:1 complementary:1 duality:1 stress:1 war:1 darkness:3 rudolf:1 steiner:1 agni:1 yoga:1 universal:1 triumphant:1 satanism:1 polytheistic:2 deity:1 preferred:1 patron:1 monotheistic:1 viewpoint:1 regard:1 true:2 nevertheless:1 defy:1 variant:1 call:3 satanist:1 anton:1 lavey:1 representation:1 natural:2 hinduism:6 contrast:2 central:1 different:6 asura:3 perform:1 act:1 temporary:1 dominance:1 guna:2 tamas:2 wordly:1 suffering:2 rajasic:1 tamasic:1 gunas:1 maya:1 especially:1 close:1 abrahamic:3 hellish:1 part:2 delusion:1 prakriti:1 embodiment:1 advaita:1 non:1 dualism:2 simply:1 level:1 realization:1 provide:1 plenty:1 room:1 counterpoint:1 notion:2 dvaita:1 interplay:1 hindu:4 prominent:2 rahu:1 vaishnavites:1 particular:1 avatar:2 vishnu:2 incarnates:2 defeat:4 reach:1 strength:1 karma:1 degree:1 specific:1 defines:1 exist:2 almighty:1 asuric:1 mostly:1 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dead:1 becomes:1 underworld:3 u:1 cosmic:1 embody:1 always:2 character:8 egyptian:2 history:4 house:1 lead:1 depreciation:1 involve:1 differentiate:1 western:2 closely:1 related:1 case:2 numerous:1 historic:1 suggest:1 uncle:1 brother:1 separation:1 norm:1 devouring:1 assimilation:1 depiction:1 falcon:1 head:2 unknown:1 represent:1 dissolution:1 dichotomy:1 folklore:2 enter:1 popular:3 particularly:1 wide:1 number:5 traditional:1 folktale:1 ireland:1 newfoundland:1 italy:1 united:1 kingdom:1 attempt:1 trick:1 outwit:1 tale:5 folk:1 villain:1 personification:2 feature:2 prominently:1 hagiographical:1 st:2 dunstan:1 outside:1 authorized:1 canon:1 recur:1 etymology:1 geographical:1 lend:1 formation:1 chimney:1 information:1 separate:1 guise:1 think:2 direct:1 list:2 general:1 listing:1 azazel:1 asael:1 baphomet:1 supposedly:1 knight:1 templar:1 ba:1 al:1 zevuv:1 בעל:1 זבוב:1 master:2 fly:2 beliar:1 bheliar:1 despicableness:1 pride:1 mastema:1 jubilee:1 sammael:2 samiel:1 poison:1 almost:1 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external_link:1

Orange_Alternative

Orange Alternative (Pomarańczowa Alternatywa) is a name for an underground protest movement which was started in Wrocław, a town in south-west Poland and led by Waldemar Fydrych (sometimes misspelled as Frydrych), commonly known as Major (Commander of the Festung Breslau) in the 1980s. Its main purpose was to offer a wider group of citizens an alternative way of opposition against the communist regime by means of a peaceful protest that used absurd and nonsensical elements. By doing this, Orange Alternative participants could not be arrested by the police for opposition to the communist regime without the authorities becoming a laughing stock. Initially it painted ridiculous graffiti of dwarves on paint spots covering up anti-communist slogans on city walls. Afterwards, beginning with 1985 through 1990, it organized a series of more than sixty happenings in several Polish cities, including Wrocław, Warsaw, Łódź, Lublin and Tomaszów Mazowiecki. It was the most picturesque element of Polish opposition against communism. It suspended activity in 1989, but reactivated in 2001 and has been active on a small scale ever since. The Dwarf – the statue of the Orange Alternative symbol at the corner of Świdnicka and Kazimierza Wielkiego streets in Wrocław. A statue of a Dwarf, dedicated to the memory of the movement stands today on Świdnicka Street in Wrocław, in the place where happenings took place. Orange Alternative movement has inspired several other similar movements in communist countries including Czechoslovakia and Hungary and it has also inspired and influenced the Pora and the so called Orange Revolution movement in Ukraine, which was in turn supported by Poland. Some utterances ascribed to Waldemar Fydrych: In Poland there are only three places when you can feel free: In churches, but only for the meditations, in prisons, but not everyone can go to prison, and on the streets: they are the freest places. The Western World will find out much more about the situation in Poland from hearing that I was put to jail for giving tampons to a woman, than from reading the books and articles written by other people from the opposition. Can you treat a police officer seriously, when he is asking you the question: "Why did you participate in an illegal meeting of dwarfs?" The Beginnings The beginning of the Orange Alternative are in a student movement called the Movement for New Culture created in 1980 at the University of Wrocław. It is in that year that Waldemar "Major" Fydrych, one of the movement's founders, proclaims the Socialist Surrealism Manifesto Socialist Surrealism Manifesto , which becomes the ideological backbone behind a gazette known as “The Orange Alternative.” Seven out of the total fifteen issues of this gazette appear during student strikes organized in November and December 1980 as part of the Solidarity upheaval. The first number is edited jointly by Major Waldemar Fydrych and Wiesław Cupała (aka “Captain”) simply with an idea to have fun. The editors treat the strike and the surrounding reality as forms of Art. For the ensuing numbers, the editorial committee is joined by Piotr Adamcio, known as “Lieutenant Pablo,” Andrzej Dziewit and Zenon Zegarski, nicknamed “Lieutenant Zizi Top.” Although its avangarde character, according to the student strike organizers, was a threat to the "higher aims of the strike", and notwithstanding attempts by the strike committee to censor it, the gazette became rapidly very popular among the students. The Dwarves The last remaining Orange Alternative Dwarf on Madalińskiego Street in Warsaw. Originally painted on the paint spot covering up the logo of another anti-communist group Solidarność Walcząca The first known actions of the Orange Alternative consisted of painting dwarf graffiti on spots created by the polices's covering up anti-regime slogans on walls of the Polish cities. The first graffiti was painted by Major Waldemar Fydrych and Wiesław Cupała on the night from the 30th to 31st of August 1982 on one of the residences in the Wrocław district of Biscupin and Sępolno. Altogether more than one thousand of such graffiti were painted in the major Polish cities such as Wrocław, Kraków, Warsaw, Łódź, and Gdańsk. Dwarves appearing in numbers all over Poland arose interest of both: Polish pedestrians and the militia, whose intervention led to short term arrests of the graffiti artists. During one of these incidents, Major, a detainee at a police station in Łódź, proclaimed, in reference to the marxist and hegelian dialectics, yet another artistic manifesto and referred to his graffiti art as “dialectic painting” stating: “The Thesis is the Anti-Regime Slogan. The Anti-thesis is the Spot and the Synthesis is the Dwarf. Quantity evolves into Quality. The more Dwarves there are, the better it is.” Happenings What brought the Orange Alternative the biggest fame were its street happenings which it organized throughout the second half of the 1980s. These actions gained it enormous popularity among the Polish youth, who joined the movement, seeing it an alternative to the opposition style presented by the Solidarity, which they viewed as more stiff and boring. The first modest happening called the "Burning of Tubes" was organized as early as 1985 in Wrocław by Major Waldemar Fydrych accompanied by a small group of artists to which belonged: Krzysztof Skarbek, Piotr Petyszkowski, Andrzej Głuszek and Sławomir Monkiewicz. The break-through moment came in the fall of 1987, during the Open Theatre Festival in Wrocław, when the Village Voice reported the Orange Alternative's action known as "Distribution of Toilet Paper" - a happening that laughed at the annoying, at the time, lack of that consumer product. After the publication of this article, the Orange Alternative became of interest to a number of Polish and foreign media. The biggest happenings however took place in the years 1987 through 1989, with the "orange" wave spilling over Poland into cities such as Warsaw, Łódź, Lublin and Tomaszów Mazowiecki following Major Fydrych's arrest on March 8th 1988. The actions of the Orange Alternative - although its leaders and participants often expressed anarchistic viewpoints - were not inherently ideological. No serious demands were ever expressed. Rather, the slogans were surrealist in character (such as "Vivat Sorbovit" (Sorbovit being a popular soft drink at that time) or "There is no freedom without dwarves." Often they paraphrased slogans used by the Solidarity Union or the communists. Their role was to laugh at absurds and pompousness of both sides of the system and provoke to independent thinking. Their open street formula allowed all individuals to take part in the happenings. This openness drew thousands of pedestrians to participate in the group's actions. In such a way, the majority of the happenings could assemble thousands of participants, of whom many were accidental passers-by. The culmination point in the movement's history was the action organized on June 1st, 1988, known as the "Revolution of Dwarves", during which more than 10 thousand persons marched through the center of Wrocław wearing orange dwarf hats. The happenings usually terminated with the arrest of hundreds of participants, who did not manage to escape in time from the hands of the militia. The happeners were even able to provoke the communist militia to arrest at one point 77 Santa Clauses or, at another occasion, all people wearing anything red. For everyone of its actions, the Orange Alternative printed leaflets and posters, featuring slogans like "Every militiaman is a piece of Art" or "Citizen, help the militia, beat-up yourself." <small>PRECZ Z UPAŁAMI - "AWAY WITH SWELTER",if the person wearing letter 'U' shirt turns away the text says PRECZ Z PAŁAMI - "AWAY WITH BATONS" happening in Wrocław, July 1988 Notes References Juliusz Tyszka. "The Orange Alternative: Street happenings as social performance in Poland under Martial Law." NEW THEATRE QUARTERLY. vol. 14 (56), 1998. p. 00311 Nicole Gourgaud. Doctoral thesis, Université de Lyon – November 1993 See also The orange alternative, drukarnia Efekt, Warszawa 2008 - a very readable book about the movement from its very beginning Nonviolent resistance Orange Revolution External links Pomarańczowa Alternatywa/Orange Alternative website

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Lyonel_Feininger

Lyonel Charles Feininger (July 17, 1871 January 13, 1956) was a German-American painter and caricaturist. Life and work Lyonel Feininger was born to parents of German American descent and grew up in New York City. He moved to Berlin in 1887 to study at the Königliche Akademie Berlin under Ernst Hancke, art schools in Berlin with Karl Schlabitz, and in Paris with sculptor Filippo Colarossi. He started working as a caricaturist for several magazines including Harper's Round Table, Harper's Young People, Humoristische Blätter, Lustige Blätter, Das Narrenschiff, Berliner Tageblatt and Ulk. Feininger married Clara Fürst, daughter of the painter Gustav Fürst, and they had two daughters. He also had several children with Julia Berg whom he later married. The artist is represented with drawings at the exhibitions of the annual Berlin Secession in the years 1901 through 1903. Feininger only started working as an artist at the age of 36, after having worked as a commercial caricaturist for twenty years for various newspapers and magazines in both the USA and Germany; he was a member of the Berliner Sezession in 1909, was associated with expressionist group Die Brücke, the Novembergruppe, Gruppe 1919, the Blaue Reiter circle and The Blue Four. Famously, he designed the cover for the Bauhaus 1919 manifesto: an expressionist woodcut 'cathedral'. He also taught at the Bauhaus for several years, teaching amongst many in his workshops, Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack (German/Australian (1893 - 1965) and Margarete Koehler-Bittkow (German/American, 1898-1964) When the NSDAP came to power in 1933, the situation became unbearable for Feininger and his wife, who was partly Jewish. They moved to America after his work was exhibited in the 'degenerate art' (Entartete Kunst) in 1936, but before the 1937 exhibition in Munich. Feininger was one of the very few fine artists also to draw comic strips as a cartoonist. His short-lived strips, The Kin-der-Kids and Wee Willie Winkie's World were noted for their fey humor and graphic experimentation. Feininger also had intermittent activity as a pianist and composer, with several piano compositions and fugues for organ extant. His son, Andreas Feininger, became famous as a photographer of New York City. Lyonel Feininger's painting Jesuiten III (Jesuits III), 1915 Stamp, Germany 2002 Selected works 1907, Der weiße Mann, (Collection Museo Carmen Thyssen-Bornemisza, Madrid) 1910, Straße im Dämmern, (Sprengel Museum, Hannover) 1913, Gelmeroda I, (Private collection, New York) 1913, Leuchtbake, (Museum Folkwang, Essen) 1918, Teltow II, (Neue Nationalgalerie, Berlin) 1925, Barfüßerkirche in Erfurt I, (Staatsgalerie Stuttgart) 1929, Halle, Am Trödel, (Bauhaus-Archive, Berlin) 1931, Die Türme über der Stadt (Halle), (Museum Ludwig, Köln) 1936, Gelmeroda XIII, (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City) See also Cubism Expressionism References Feininger's biography at artnet External links Lyonel Feininger Project Lyonel Feininger Digital Album The Ohio State University Cartoon Research Library Toonopedia: Lyonel Feininger Lyonel Feininger's Photo & Gravesite Available Works and Biography Galerie Ludorff, Duesseldorf, Germany Lyonel Feininger Virtual Gallery Lyonel Feininger papers at the Smithsonian Archives of American Art

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David_Hilbert

David Hilbert (January 23, 1862 – February 14, 1943) was a German mathematician, recognized as one of the most influential and universal mathematicians of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He discovered or developed a broad range of fundamental ideas in many areas, including invariant theory and the axiomatization of geometry. He also formulated the theory of Hilbert spaces, one of the foundations of functional analysis. Hilbert adopted and warmly defended Georg Cantor's set theory and transfinite numbers. A famous example of his leadership in mathematics is his 1900 presentation of a collection of problems that set the course for much of the mathematical research of the 20th century. Hilbert and his students contributed significantly to establishing rigor and some tools to the mathematics used in modern physics. He is also known as one of the founders of proof theory, mathematical logic and the distinction between mathematics and metamathematics. Life Hilbert, the first of two children and only son of Otto and Maria Therese (Erdtmann) Hilbert, was born in either Königsberg (according to Hilbert's own statement) or in Wehlau (today Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast)) near Königsberg where his father was occupied at the time of his birth in the Province of Prussia. Reid 1996, pp. 1–2; also on p. 8, Reid notes that there is some ambiguity of exactly where Hilbert was born. Hilbert himself stated that he was born in Königsberg. In the fall of 1872, he entered the Friedrichskolleg Gymnasium (the same school that Immanuel Kant had attended 140 years before), but after an unhappy duration he transferred (fall 1879) to and graduated from (spring 1880) the more science-oriented Wilhelm Gymnasium. Reid 1996, pp. 4–7. Upon graduation he enrolled (autumn 1880) at the University of Königsberg, the "Albertina". In the spring of 1882, Hermann Minkowski (two years younger than Hilbert and also a native of Königsberg but so talented he had graduated early from his gymnasium and gone to Berlin for three semesters), Reid 1996, p. 11. returned to Königsberg and entered the university. "Hilbert knew his luck when he saw it. In spite of his father's disapproval, he soon became friends with the shy, gifted Minkowski." Reid 1996, p. 12. In 1884, Adolf Hurwitz arrived from Göttingen as an Extraordinarius, i.e., an associate professor. An intense and fruitful scientific exchange between the three began and especially Minkowski and Hilbert would exercise a reciprocal influence over each other at various times in their scientific careers. Hilbert obtained his doctorate in 1885, with a dissertation, written under Ferdinand von Lindemann, titled Über invariante Eigenschaften spezieller binärer Formen, insbesondere der Kugelfunktionen ("On the invariant properties of special binary forms, in particular the spherical harmonic functions"). Hilbert remained at the University of Königsberg as a professor from 1886 to 1895. In 1892, Hilbert married Käthe Jerosch (1864–1945), "the daughter of a Konigsberg merchant, an outspoken young lady with an independence of mind that matched his own". Reid 1996, p. 36. While at Königsberg they had their one child Franz Hilbert (1893–1969). In 1895, as a result of intervention on his behalf by Felix Klein he obtained the position of Chairman of Mathematics at the University of Göttingen, at that time the best research center for mathematics in the world and where he remained for the rest of his life. His son Franz would suffer his entire life from an (undiagnosed) mental illness, his inferior intellect a terrible disappointment to his father and this tragedy a matter of distress to the mathematicians and students at Göttingen. Reid 1996, p. 139. Sadly, Minkowski — Hilbert's "best and truest friend" Reid 1996, p. 121. — would die prematurely of a ruptured appendix in 1909. Math department in Göttingen where Hilbert worked from 1895 until his retirement in 1930 The Göttingen school Among the students of Hilbert, there were Hermann Weyl, the champion of chess Emanuel Lasker, Ernst Zermelo, and Carl Gustav Hempel. John von Neumann was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, Hilbert was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as Emmy Noether and Alonzo Church. Among his 69 Ph.D. students in Göttingen were many who later became famous mathematicians, including (with date of thesis): Otto Blumenthal (1898), Felix Bernstein (1901), Hermann Weyl (1908), Richard Courant (1910), Erich Hecke (1910), Hugo Steinhaus (1911), Wilhelm Ackermann (1925). Between 1902 and 1939 Hilbert was editor of the Mathematische Annalen, the leading mathematical journal of the time. Later years Hilbert lived to see the Nazis purge many of the prominent faculty members at University of Göttingen, in 1933. (Hilbert's colleagues exiled) Among those forced out were Hermann Weyl, who had taken Hilbert's chair when he retired in 1930, Emmy Noether and Edmund Landau. One of those who had to leave Germany was Paul Bernays, Hilbert's collaborator in mathematical logic, and co-author with him of the important book Die Grundlagen der Mathematik (which eventually appeared in two volumes, in 1934 and 1939). This was a sequel to the Hilbert – Ackermann book Principles of Mathematical Logic from 1928. About a year later, he attended a banquet, and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, Bernhard Rust. Rust asked, "How is mathematics in Göttingen now that it has been freed of the Jewish influence?" Hilbert replied, "Mathematics in Göttingen? There is really none any more." Reid 1996, p. 205. Hilbert's tomb:Wir müssen wissenWir werden wissen By the time Hilbert died in 1943, the Nazis had nearly completely restructured the university, many of the former faculty being either Jewish or married to Jews. Hilbert's funeral was attended by fewer than a dozen people, only two of whom were fellow academics, among them Arnold Sommerfeld, a theoretical physicist and also a son of the City of Königsberg. Reid 1996, p. 213. News of his death only became known to the wider world six months after he had died. On his tombstone, at Göttingen, one can read his epitaph, the famous lines he had spoken at the end of his retirement address to the Society of German Scientists and Physicians in the fall of 1930: Reid p. 192 Wir müssen wissen. Wir werden wissen. As translated into English the inscriptions read: We must know. We will know. (Ironically, the day before Hilbert pronounced this phrase at the 1930 annual meeting of the Society of German Scientists and Physicians, Kurt Gödel—in a roundtable discussion during the Conference on Epistemology held jointly with the Society meetings—tentatively announced the first expression of his (now-famous) incompleteness theorem, "The Conference on Epistemology of the Exact Sciences ran for three days, from 5 to 7 September" (Dawson 1997:68). "It ... was held in conjunction with and just before the ninety-first annual meeting of the Society of German Scientists and Physicians ... and the sixth Assembly of German Physicists and Mathematicians.... Gödel's contributed talk took place on Saturday, 6 September [1930], from 3 until 3:20 in the afternoon, and on Sunday the meeting concluded with a round table discussion of the first day's addresses. During the latter event, without warning and almost offhandedly, Gödel quietly announced that "one can even give examples of propositions (and in fact of those of the type of Goldbach or Fermat) that, while contentually true, are unprovable in the formal system of classical mathematics [153]" (Dawson:69) "... As it happened, Hilbert himself was present at Königsberg, though apparently not at the Conference on Epistemology. The day after the roundtable discussion he delivered the opening address before the Society of German Scientists and Physicians -- his famous lecture 'Naturerkennen und Logik" (Logic and the knowledge of nature), at the end of which he declared: 'For the mathematician there is no Ignorabimus, and, in my opinion, not at all for natural science either. ... The true reason why [no one] has succeeded in finding an unsolvable problem is, in my opinion, that there is no unsolvable problem. In contrast to the foolish Ignorabimus, our credo avers: We must know, We shall know [159]'"(Dawson:71). Gödel's paper was received on November 17, 1930 (cf Reid p. 197, van Heijenoort 1976:592) and published on 25 March 1931 (Dawson 1997:74). But Gödel had given a talk about it beforehand... "An abstract had been presented on October 1930 to the Vienna Academy of Sciences by Hans Hahn" (van Heijenoort:592); this abstract and the full paper both appear in van Heijenoort:583ff. the news of which would make Hilbert "somewhat angry".) Reid p. 198 The finiteness theorem Hilbert's first work on invariant functions led him to the demonstration in 1888 of his famous finiteness theorem. Twenty years earlier, Paul Gordan had demonstrated the theorem of the finiteness of generators for binary forms using a complex computational approach. The attempts to generalize his method to functions with more than two variables failed because of the enormous difficulty of the calculations involved. Hilbert realized that it was necessary to take a completely different path. As a result, he demonstrated Hilbert's basis theorem: showing the existence of a finite set of generators, for the invariants of quantics in any number of variables, but in an abstract form. That is, while demonstrating the existence of such a set, it was not a constructive proof — it did not display "an object" — but rather, it was an existence proof Reid 1996, pp. 36–37. and relied on use of the Law of Excluded Middle in an infinite extension. Hilbert sent his results to the Mathematische Annalen. Gordan, the house expert on the theory of invariants for the Mathematische Annalen, was not able to appreciate the revolutionary nature of Hilbert's theorem and rejected the article, criticizing the exposition because it was insufficiently comprehensive. His comment was: Das ist nicht Mathematik. Das ist Theologie. (This is not Mathematics. This is Theology.) Reid 1996, p. 34. Klein, on the other hand, recognized the importance of the work, and guaranteed that it would be published without any alterations. Encouraged by Klein and by the comments of Gordan, Hilbert in a second article extended his method, providing estimations on the maximum degree of the minimum set of generators, and he sent it once more to the Annalen. After having read the manuscript, Klein wrote to him, saying: Without doubt this is the most important work on general algebra that the Annalen has ever published. Rowe, p. 195 Later, after the usefulness of Hilbert's method was universally recognized, Gordan himself would say: I have convinced myself that even theology has its merits. Reid 1996, p. 37. For all his successes, the nature of his proof stirred up more trouble than Hilbert could imagine at the time. Although Kronecker had conceded, Hilbert would later respond to others' similar criticisms that "many different constructions are subsumed under one fundamental idea" — in other words (to quote Reid): "Through a proof of existence, Hilbert had been able to obtain a construction"; "the proof" (i.e. the symbols on the page) was "the object". Not all were convinced. While Kronecker would die soon after, his constructivist banner would be carried forward in full cry by the young Brouwer and his developing intuitionist "school", much to Hilbert's torment in his later years. cf. Reid 1996, pp. 148–149. Indeed Hilbert would lose his "gifted pupil" Weyl to intuitionism — "Hilbert was disturbed by his former student's fascination with the ideas of Brouwer, which aroused in Hilbert the memory of Kronecker". Reid 1996, p. 148. Brouwer the intuitionist in particular raged against the use of the Law of Excluded Middle over infinite sets (as Hilbert had used it). Hilbert would respond: 'Taking the Principle of the Excluded Middle from the mathematician ... is the same as ... prohibiting the boxer the use of his fists.' The possible loss did not seem to bother Weyl. Reid 1996, p. 150. Axiomatization of geometry The text Grundlagen der Geometrie (tr.: Foundations of Geometry) published by Hilbert in 1899 proposes a formal set, the Hilbert's axioms, substituting the traditional axioms of Euclid. They avoid weaknesses identified in those of Euclid, whose works at the time were still used textbook-fashion. Independently and contemporaneously, a 19-year-old American student named Robert Lee Moore published an equivalent set of axioms. Some of the axioms coincide, while some of the axioms in Moore's system are theorems in Hilbert's and vice-versa. Hilbert's approach signaled the shift to the modern axiomatic method. Axioms are not taken as self-evident truths. Geometry may treat things, about which we have powerful intuitions, but it is not necessary to assign any explicit meaning to the undefined concepts. The elements, such as point, line, plane, and others, could be substituted, as Hilbert says, by tables, chairs, glasses of beer and other such objects. It is their defined relationships that are discussed. Hilbert first enumerates the undefined concepts: point, line, plane, lying on (a relation between points and planes), betweenness, congruence of pairs of points, and congruence of angles. The axioms unify both the plane geometry and solid geometry of Euclid in a single system. The 23 Problems He put forth a most influential list of 23 unsolved problems at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris in 1900. This is generally reckoned the most successful and deeply considered compilation of open problems ever to be produced by an individual mathematician. After re-working the foundations of classical geometry, Hilbert could have extrapolated to the rest of mathematics. His approach differed, however, from the later 'foundationalist' Russell-Whitehead or 'encyclopedist' Nicolas Bourbaki, and from his contemporary Giuseppe Peano. The mathematical community as a whole could enlist in problems, which he had identified as crucial aspects of the areas of mathematics he took to be key. The problem set was launched as a talk "The Problems of Mathematics" presented during the course of the Second International Congress of Mathematicians held in Paris. Here is the introduction of the speech that Hilbert gave: Who among us would not be happy to lift the veil behind which is hidden the future; to gaze at the coming developments of our science and at the secrets of its development in the centuries to come? What will be the ends toward which the spirit of future generations of mathematicians will tend? What methods, what new facts will the new century reveal in the vast and rich field of mathematical thought? He presented fewer than half the problems at the Congress, which were published in the acts of the Congress. In a subsequent publication, he extended the panorama, and arrived at the formulation of the now-canonical 23 Problems of Hilbert. The full text is important, since the exegesis of the questions still can be a matter of inevitable debate, whenever it is asked how many have been solved. Some of these were solved within a short time. Others have been discussed throughout the 20th century, with a few now taken to be unsuitably open-ended to come to closure. Some even continue to this day to remain a challenge for mathematicians. Formalism In an account that had become standard by the mid-century, Hilbert's problem set was also a kind of manifesto, that opened the way for the development of the formalist school, one of three major schools of mathematics of the 20th century. According to the formalist, mathematics is a game devoid of meaning in which one plays with symbols devoid of meaning according to formal rules which are agreed upon in advance. It is therefore an autonomous activity of thought. There is, however, room to doubt whether Hilbert's own views were simplistically formalist in this sense. Hilbert's program In 1920 he proposed explicitly a research project (in metamathematics, as it was then termed) that became known as Hilbert's program. He wanted mathematics to be formulated on a solid and complete logical foundation. He believed that in principle this could be done, by showing that: all of mathematics follows from a correctly-chosen finite system of axioms; and that some such axiom system is provably consistent through some means such as the epsilon calculus. He seems to have had both technical and philosophical reasons for formulating this proposal. It affirmed his dislike of what had become known as the ignorabimus, still an active issue in his time in German thought, and traced back in that formulation to Emil du Bois-Reymond. This program is still recognizable in the most popular philosophy of mathematics, where it is usually called formalism. For example, the Bourbaki group adopted a watered-down and selective version of it as adequate to the requirements of their twin projects of (a) writing encyclopedic foundational works, and (b) supporting the axiomatic method as a research tool. This approach has been successful and influential in relation with Hilbert's work in algebra and functional analysis, but has failed to engage in the same way with his interests in physics and logic. Gödel's work Hilbert and the talented mathematicians who worked with him in his enterprise were committed to the project. His attempt to support axiomatized mathematics with definitive principles, which could banish theoretical uncertainties, was however to end in failure. Gödel demonstrated that any non-contradictory formal system, which was comprehensive enough to include at least arithmetic, cannot demonstrate its completeness by way of its own axioms. In 1931 his incompleteness theorem showed that Hilbert's grand plan was impossible as stated. The second point cannot in any reasonable way be combined with the first point, as long as the axiom system is genuinely finitary. Nevertheless, the subsequent achievements of proof theory at the very least clarified consistency as it relates to theories of central concern to mathematicians. Hilbert's work had started logic on this course of clarification; the need to understand Gödel's work then led to the development of recursion theory and then mathematical logic as an autonomous discipline in the 1930s. The basis for later theoretical computer science, in Alonzo Church and Alan Turing also grew directly out of this 'debate'. Functional analysis Around 1909, Hilbert dedicated himself to the study of differential and integral equations; his work had direct consequences for important parts of modern functional analysis. In order to carry out these studies, Hilbert introduced the concept of an infinite dimensional Euclidean space, later called Hilbert space. His work in this part of analysis provided the basis for important contributions to the mathematics of physics in the next two decades, though from an unanticipated direction. Later on, Stefan Banach amplified the concept, defining Banach spaces. Hilbert space is the most important single idea in the area of functional analysis, particularly of the spectral theory of self-adjoint linear operators, that grew up around it during the 20th century. Physics Until 1912, Hilbert was almost exclusively a "pure" mathematician. When planning a visit from Bonn, where he was immersed in studying physics, his fellow mathematician and friend Hermann Minkowski joked he had to spend 10 days in quarantine before being able to visit Hilbert. In fact, Minkowski seems responsible for most of Hilbert's physics investigations prior to 1912, including their joint seminar in the subject in 1905. In 1912, three years after his friend's death, Hilbert turned his focus to the subject almost exclusively. He arranged to have a "physics tutor" for himself. Reid 1996, p. 129. He started studying kinetic gas theory and moved on to elementary radiation theory and the molecular theory of matter. Even after the war started in 1914, he continued seminars and classes where the works of Albert Einstein and others were followed closely. By 1907 Einstein had framed the fundamentals of his theory of gravity, but then struggled for nearly 8 years with a confounding problem of putting the theory into final form Isaacson 2007:218 . By early summer 1915, Hilbert's interest in physics had focused him on general relativity, and he invited Einstein to Göttingen to deliver a week of lectures on the subject Sauer 1999, Folsing 1998, Isaacson 2007:212 . Einstein received an enthusiastic reception at Göttingen Isaacson 2007:213 . Over the summer Einstein learned that Hilbert was also working on the field equations and redoubled his own efforts. During November 1915 Einstein published several papers culminating in "The Field Equations of Gravitation" (see Einstein field equations. Nearly simultaneously David Hilbert published "The Foundations of Physics", an axiomatic derivation of the field equations (see Einstein–Hilbert action ). Hilbert fully credited Einstein as the originator of the theory, and no public priority dispute concerning the field equations ever arose between the two men during their lives Since 1971 there have been some spirited and scholarly discussions about which of the two men first presented the now accepted form of the field equations. "Hilbert freely admitted, and frequently stated in lectures, that the great idea was Einstein's./'Every boy in the streets of Gottingen understands more about four dimensional geometry than Einstein," he once remarked. 'Yet, in spite of that, Einstein did the work and not the mathematicians'" (Reid 1996:141-142, also Isaacson 2007:222 quoting Thorne p. 119). (see more at priority ). Additionally, Hilbert's work anticipated and assisted several advances in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. His work was a key aspect of Hermann Weyl and John von Neumann's work on the mathematical equivalence of Werner Heisenberg's matrix mechanics and Erwin Schrödinger's wave equation and his namesake Hilbert space plays an important part in quantum theory. In 1926 von Neuman showed that if atomic states were understood as vectors in Hilbert space, then they would correspond with both Schrödinger's wave function theory and Heisenberg's matrices. It is of interest to note that in 1926, the year after the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum theory by Max Born and Werner Heisenberg, the mathematician John von Neumann became an assistant to David Hilbert at Göttingen. When von Neumann left in 1932, von Neumann’s book on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics, based on Hilbert’s mathematics, was published under the title Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik. See: Norman Macrae, John von Neumann: The Scientific Genius Who Pioneered the Modern Computer, Game Theory, Nuclear Deterrence, and Much More (Reprinted by the American Mathematical Society, 1999) and Reid 1996. Throughout this immersion in physics, Hilbert worked on putting rigor into the mathematics of physics. While highly dependent on higher math, the physicist tended to be "sloppy" with it. To a "pure" mathematician like Hilbert, this was both "ugly" and difficult to understand. As he began to understand the physics and how the physicists were using mathematics, he developed a coherent mathematical theory for what he found, most importantly in the area of integral equations. When his colleague Richard Courant wrote the now classic Methods of Mathematical Physics including some of Hilbert's ideas, he added Hilbert's name as author even though Hilbert had not directly contributed to the writing. Hilbert said "Physics is too hard for physicists", implying that the necessary mathematics was generally beyond them; the Courant-Hilbert book made it easier for them. Number theory Hilbert unified the field of algebraic number theory with his 1897 treatise Zahlbericht (literally "report on numbers"). He also resolved a significant number theory problem formulated by Waring in 1770. As with the the finiteness theorem, he used an existence proof that shows there must be solutions for the problem rather than providing a mechanism to produce the answers Reid 1996, p. 114 . He then had little more to publish on the subject; but the emergence of Hilbert modular forms in the dissertation of a student means his name is further attached to a major area. He made a series of conjectures on class field theory. The concepts were highly influential, and his own contribution is seen in the names of the Hilbert class field and the Hilbert symbol of local class field theory. Results on them were mostly proved by 1930, after breakthrough work by Teiji Takagi that established him as Japan's first mathematician of international stature. Hilbert did not work in the central areas of analytic number theory, but his name has become known for the Hilbert–Pólya conjecture, for reasons that are anecdotal. Miscellaneous talks, essays, and contributions His paradox of the Grand Hotel, a meditation on strange properties of the infinite, is often used in popular accounts of infinite cardinal numbers. His Erdős number is (at most) 4. Foreign member of the Royal Society He was awarded the second Bolyai prize in 1910. His collected works (Gesammelte Abhandlungen) has been published several times. The original versions of his papers contained errors; when the collection was first published, the errors were corrected and it was found that this could be done without major changes in the statements of the theorems, with one exception—a claimed proof of the Continuum hypothesis.<ref name="Rota97">Rota G.-C. (1997), "Ten lessons I wish I had been taught", Notices of the AMS, 44: 22-25.</ref> The errors were nonetheless so numerous and significant that it took Olga Taussky-Todd three years to make the corrections. See also Brouwer-Hilbert controversy Einstein–Hilbert action Hilbert's axioms Hilbert class field Hilbert C*-module Hilbert cube Hilbert curve Hilbert function Hilbert inequality Wolfram MathWorld – Hilbert inequality Hilbert matrix Hilbert metric Hilbert number Hilbert polynomial Hilbert's problems Hilbert's program Hilbert–Poincaré series Hilbert space Hilbert spectrum Hilbert symbol Hilbert transform Hilbert's Arithmetic of Ends Hilbert’s constants Wolfram MathWorld – Hilbert’s constants Hilbert's irreducibility theorem Hilbert's Nullstellensatz Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel Hilbert's theorem (differential geometry) Hilbert's Theorem 90 Hilbert's syzygy theorem Hilbert-style deduction system Hilbert–Pólya conjecture Hilbert–Schmidt operator Hilbert–Smith conjecture Hilbert–Speiser theorem Principles of Mathematical Logic Relativity priority dispute Notes References Primary literature in English translation Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, 2 vols. Oxford Uni. Press. 1918. "Axiomatic thought," 1115–14. 1922. "The new grounding of mathematics: First report," 1115–33. 1923. "The logical foundations of mathematics," 1134–47. 1930. "Logic and the knowledge of nature," 1157–65. 1931. "The grounding of elementary number theory," 1148–56. 1904. "On the foundations of logic and arithmetic," 129–38. 1925. "On the infinite," 367–92. 1927. "The foundations of mathematics," with comment by Weyl and Appendix by Bernays, 464–89. Jean van Heijenoort, 1967. From Frege to Godel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931. Harvard Univ. Press. - an accessible set of lectures originally for the citizens of Göttingen. Secondary literature Bottazzini Umberto, 2003. Il flauto di Hilbert. Storia della matematica. UTET, ISBN 88-7750-852-3 Corry, L., Renn, J., and Stachel, J., 1997, "Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute," Science 278: nn-nn. Dawson, John W. Jr 1997. Logical Dilemmas: The Life and Work of Kurt Gödel. Wellesley MA: A. K. Peters. ISBN 1-56881-256-6. Folsing, Albrecht, 1998. Albert Einstein. Penguin. Grattan-Guinness, Ivor, 2000. The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940. Princeton Univ. Press. Gray, Jeremy, 2000. The Hilbert Challenge. ISBN 0-19-850651-1 Mehra, Jagdish, 1974. Einstein, Hilbert, and the Theory of Gravitation. Reidel. Piergiorgio Odifreddi, 2003. Divertimento Geometrico - Da Euclide ad Hilbert. Bollati Boringhieri, ISBN 88-339-5714-4. A clear exposition of the "errors" of Euclid and of the solutions presented in the Grundlagen der Geometrie, with reference to non-Euclidean geometry. Reid, Constance, 1996. Hilbert, Springer, ISBN 0-387-94674-8. The biography in English. Sauer, Tilman, 1999, "The relativity of discovery: Hilbert's first note on the foundations of physics," Arch. Hist. Exact Sci. 53: 529-75. Sieg, Wilfried, and Ravaglia, Mark, 2005, "Grundlagen der Mathematik" in Grattan-Guinness, I., ed., Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics. Elsevier: 981-99. (in English) Thorne, Kip, 1995. Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy'', W. W. Norton & Company; Reprint edition. ISBN 0-393-31276-3. External links Hilbert Bernays Project Hilbert's 23 Problems Address Hilbert's Program Hilbert's radio speech recorded in Königsberg 1930 (in German), with English translation 'From Hilbert's Problems to the Future', lecture by Professor Robin Wilson, Gresham College, 27 February 2008 (available in text, audio and video formats).

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Canon_law

Canon law is internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of churches. The way that such church law is legislated, interpreted and at times adjudicated varies widely among these three bodies of churches. In all three traditions, a canon was initially a rule adopted by a council (From Greek kanon / κανών, Hebrew kaneh / קנה, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law. Canons of the Apostles The Apostolic Canons or Ecclesiastical Canons of the Same Holy Apostles is a collection of ancient ecclesiastical decrees (eighty-five in the Eastern, fifty in the Western Church) concerning the government and discipline of the Early Christian Church, incorporated with the Apostolic Constitutions which are part of the Ante-Nicene Fathers collection. Catholic Church The Roman Catholic Church has the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the Western world, Canon Law @Canonlaw.info predating the common and European civil law traditions. What began with rules ("canons") adopted by the Apostles at the Council of Jerusalem in the 1st century has blossomed into a highly complex and original legal system encapsulating not just norms of the New Testament, but some elements of the Hebrew (Old Testament), Roman, Visigothic, Saxon, and Celtic legal traditions spanning thousands of years of human experience. In the Catholic Church, positive ecclesiastical laws, based upon either immutable divine and natural law, or changeable circumstantial and merely positive law, derive formal authority and promulgation from the pope, who as Supreme Pontiff possesses the totality of legislative, executive, and judicial power in his person. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but indeed all-encompassing of the human condition. In the early Church, the first canons were decreed by bishops united in "Ecumenical" councils (the Emperor summoning all of the known world's bishops to attend with at least the acknowledgement of the Bishop of Rome) or "local" councils (bishops of a region or territory). Over time, these canons were supplemented with decretals of the Bishops of Rome, which were responses to doubts or problems according to the maxim, "Roma locuta est, causa finita est" ("Rome has spoken, case is closed"). Later, they were gathered together into collections, both unofficial and official. The first truly systematic collection was assembled by the Camaldolese monk Gratian in the 11th century, commonly known as the Decretum Gratiani ("Gratian's Decree"). Pope Gregory IX is credited with promulgating the first official collection of canons called the Decretalia Gregorii Noni or Liber Extra (1234). This was followed by the Liber Sextus (1298) of Boniface VIII, the Clementines (1317) of Clement V, the Extravagantes Joannis XXII and the Extravagantes Communes, all of which followed the same structure as the Liber Extra. All these collections, with the Decretum Gratiani, are together referred to as the Corpus Juris Canonici. After the completion of the Corpus Juris Canonici, subsequent papal legislation was published in periodic volumes called Bullaria. By the 19th Century, this body of legislation included some 10,000 norms. Many these were difficult to reconcile with one another due to changes in circumstances and practice. This situation impelled Pope St. Pius X to order the creation of the first Code of Canon Law, a single volume of clearly stated laws. Under the aegis of the Cardinal Pietro Gasparri, the Commission for the Codification of Canon Law was completed under Benedict XV, who promulgated the Code, effective in 1918. The work having been begun by Pius X, it was sometimes called the "Pio-Benedictine Code" but more often the 1917 Code. In its preparation, centuries of material was examined, scrutinized for authenticity by leading experts, and harmonized as much as possible with opposing canons and even other Codes, from the Codex of Justinian to the Napoleonic Code. Pope John XXIII initially called for a Synod of the Diocese of Rome, an Ecumenical Council, and an updating to the 1917 Code. After the Second Ecumenical Council of the Vatican (Vatican II) closed in 1965, it became apparent that the Code would need to be revised in light of the documents and theology of Vatican II. After multiple drafts and many years of discussion, Pope John Paul II promulgated the revised Code of Canon Law (CIC) in 1983. Containing 1572 canons, it is the law currently binding on the Latin (western) Catholic Church. The canon law of the Eastern Catholic Churches, which had developed some different disciplines and practices, underwent its own process of codification, resulting in the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches promulgated in 1990 by Pope John Paul II. The institutions and practices of canon law paralleled the legal development of much of Europe, and consequently both modern Civil law and Common law bear the influences of canon law. Edson Luiz Sampel, a Brazilian expert in canon law, says that canon law is contained in the genesis of various institutes of civil law, such as the law in continental Europe and Latin American countries. Sampel explains that canon law has significant influence in contemporary society. Currently, all catholic seminary students are expected to take courses in canon law (c. 252.3). Some ecclesiastical officials are required to have the doctorate (JCD) or at least the licentiate (JCL) in canon law in order to fulfill their functions: Judicial Vicars (c. 1419.1), Judges (c. 1421.3), Promoters of Justice (c. 1435), Defenders of the Bond (c. 1435). In addition, Vicars General and Episcopal Vicars are to be doctors or at least licensed in canon law or theology (c. 478.1), and canonical advocates (but not procurators) must either have the doctorate or be truly expert in canon law (c. 1483). Ordinarily, Bishops are to have advanced degrees in sacred scripture, theology, or canon law (c. 378.1.5). St. Raymond of Penyafort (1175-1275), a Spanish Dominican priest, is the patron saint of canonists, due to his important contributions to the science of Canon Law. Orthodox Churches The Greek-speaking Orthodox have collected canons and commentaries upon them in a work known as the Pedalion (Greek: Πηδάλιον, "The Rudder") so named because it is meant to "steer" the Church. The Orthodox Christian tradition in general treats its canons more as guidelines than as laws, the bishops adjusting them to cultural and other local circumstances. Some Orthodox canon scholars point out that, had the Ecumenical Councils (which deliberated in Greek) meant for the canons to be used as laws, they would have called them nomoi/νόμοι (laws) rather than kanones/κανόνες (standards), but almost all Orthodox conform to them. The dogmatic decisions of the Councils, though, are to be obeyed rather than to be treated as guidelines, since they are essential for the Church's unity. Anglican Churches In the Church of England, the ecclesiastical courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g., discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards). Their separate status dates back to the 12th century when the Normans split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other courts of England the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a civil law system, not common law, although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes. Since the Reformation, ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts. The teaching of canon law at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by Henry VIII; thereafter practitioners in the ecclesiastical courts were trained in civil law, receiving a Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or an LL.D. from Cambridge. Such lawyers (called "doctors" and "civilians") were centred at "Doctors Commons," a few streets south of St Paul's Cathedral in London, where they monopolized probate, matrimonial, and admiralty cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the common law courts in the mid-19th century. (Admiralty law was also based on civil law instead of common law, thus was handled by the civilians too.) Charles I repealed Canon Law in 1638 after uprisings of Covenanters confronting the Bishops of Aberdeen following the convention at Muchalls Castle and other revolts across Scotland earlier that year. Other churches in the Anglican Communion around the world (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the United States, and the Anglican Church of Canada) still function under their own private systems of canon law. Presbyterian and Reformed Churches In Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, canon law is known as "practice and procedure" or "church order," and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice and worship. The United Methodist Church The Book of Discipline contains the laws, rules, policies and guidelines for The United Methodist Church. Its last edition was published in 2008. See also Antinomianism Canon law (Church of England) Canon law (Episcopal Church in the United States) Canons of Dort Canons of the Apostles Chronological list of canon lawyers Collections of Ancient Canons Decretum Gratiani Doctor of Canon Law Ecclesiastical court Fetha Negest Gratian (jurist) Licentiate of Canon Law References Further reading Baker, J.H. (2002) An Introduction to English Legal History, 4th ed. London : Butterworths, ISBN 0-406-93053-8 Brundgage, James A., The Medieval Origins of the Legal Profession: Canonists, Civilians, and Courts, Chicago : University of Chicago Press, c2008. Brundage, James A., Medieval Canon Law, London ; New York : Longman, 1995. The Episcopal Church (2006) Constitution and Canons, together with the Rules of Order for the Government of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, otherwise known as The Episcopal Church, New York : Church Publishing, Inc. R. C. Mortimer, Western Canon Law, London: A. and C. Black, 1953. Robinson, O.F.,Fergus, T.D. and Gordon, W.M. (2000) European Legal History, 3rd ed., London : Butterworths, ISBN 0-406-91360-9 External links Catholic Codex Iuris Canonici (1983), original text in Latin (the only official text) Code of Canon Law (1983) but with the 1998 modification of canons 750 and 1371, English translation by the Canon Law Society of America, on the Vatican website Code of Canon Law (1983), English translation by the Canon Law Society of Great Britain and Ireland, assisted by the Canon Law Society of Australia and New Zealand and the Canadian Canon Law Society Codex canonum ecclesiarum orientalium (1990), original text in Latin "Code of canons of Oriental Churchs" (1990), defective English translation Codex Iuris Canonici (1917), original text in Latin Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon Law: outdated, but useful Salvific Law 1983 Code of Canon Law - Notes, Commentary, Articles, Bibliography Anglican "Canons of the Church of England" "Canon Law in the Anglican Communion" "Ecclesiastical Law Society" '''

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Economy_of_the_Maldives

In ancient times the Maldives were renowned for cowries, coir rope, dried tuna fish (Maldive Fish), ambergris (Maavaharu) and Coco de mer (Tavakkaashi). Local and foreign trading ships used to load these products in the Maldives and bring them abroad. Nowadays, the mixed economy of the Maldives is based on the principal activities of tourism, fishing and shipping. Tourism is the largest industry in the Maldives, accounting for 28% of GDP and more than 60% of the Maldives' foreign exchange receipts. It powered the current GDP per capita to expand 265% in the 1980s and a further 115% in the 1990s. Over 90% of government tax revenue flows in from import duties and tourism-related taxes. Fishing is the second leading sector in the Maldives. The economic reform program by the government in 1989 lifted import quotas and opened some exports to the private sector. Subsequently, it has liberalized regulations to allow more foreign investment. Agriculture and manufacturing play a minor role in the economy, constrained by the limited availability of cultivable land and shortage of domestic labour. Most staple foods are imported. Industry in the Maldives consists mainly of garment production, boat building, and handicrafts. It accounts for about 18% of GDP. Maldivian authorities are concerned about the impact of erosion and possible global warming in the low-lying country. Among the 1,900 islands in the Maldives, only 198 are inhabited. The population is scattered throughout the country, and the greatest concentration is on the capital island, Malé. Limitations on potable water and arable land, plus the added difficulty of congestion are some of the problems faced by households in Malé. Development of the infrastructure is mainly dependent on the tourism industry and its complementary tertiary sectors, transport, distribution, real estate, construction, and government. Taxes on the tourist industry have been plowed into infrastructure and it is used to improve technology in the agricultural sector. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Maldives at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of Rufiyaa. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange 1980 440 7.58 Rufiyaa 1985 885 7.08 Rufiyaa 1990 2,054 9.55 Rufiyaa 1995 4,696 11.76 Rufiyaa 2000 7,348 11.77 Rufiyaa 2005 10,458 12.80 Rufiyaa For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 8.36 Rufiyaa only. Average wages in 2007 hover around $14-17 per day. The Maldives has experienced relatively low inflation throughout the recent years. Real GDP growth averaged about 10% in the 1980s. It expanded by an exceptional 16.2% in 1990, declined to 4% in 1993, and, over the 1995-2004 decade, real GDP growth averaged just over 7.5% per year. In 2005, as a result of the tsunami, the GDP contracted by about 5.5%; however, the economy rebounded in 2006 with a 13% increase. U.S. State Department estimate The Maldives has been running a merchandise trade deficit in the range of $200 to $260 million since 1997. The trade deficit declined to $233 million in 2000 from $262 million in 1999. In 2004 it was $444 million. International shipping to and from the Maldives is mainly operated by the private sector with only a small fraction of the tonnage carried on vessels operated by the national carrier, Maldives Shipping Management Ltd. Over the years, Maldives has received economic assistance from multilateral development organizations, including the United Nations Development Programme, Asian Development Bank, and the World Bank. Individual donors, including Japan, India, Australia, and European and Arab countries (such as Islamic Development Bank and the Kuwaiti Fund) also have contributed. See: Economic Aid to Maldives In 1956, a bilateral agreement gave United Kingdom access to in Addu Atoll in the far south, to establish an air facility in Gan in return for British aid. However, the agreement ended in 1976, shortly after the closing of the Gan air station. Economic Sectors Tourism As of 2007, the Maldives has successfully promoted its natural assets for tourism. The beautiful, unpolluted beaches on small coral islands, blue waters and sunsets attract tourists worldwide, bringing in about $325 million a year. Tourism and other services in the tertiary sector contributed 33% to the GDP in 2000. Since the establishment of the first resort in 1972, over 84 islands have been developed as tourist resorts, with a total capacity of some 16,000 beds. The number of tourists (mainly from Europe) visiting the Maldives increased from 1,100 in 1972 to 280,000 in 1994. In 2000, tourist arrivals exceeded 466,000. The average occupancy rate is 68%, with the average number of tourists staying for 8 days and spending about $755. It is recorded that over 500,000 tourists visited the islands in 2003. Fishing This sector employs about 20% of the labour force and contributes 10% of GDP. All fishing is done by line as the use of nets is illegal. Production in the fishing sector, was approximately 119,000 metric tons in 2000, most of which were skipjack tuna. About 50% of fish is exported, especially to Sri Lanka, Germany, UK, Thailand, Japan, and Singapore. Almost 42% of fish exports consist of dried or canned fish, and another 31% is frozen and the remaining 10% is exported as fresh fish. Total exports of fish reached about $40 million in 2000. The fishing fleet consists of some 1,140 small, flat-bottomed boats (dhonis). Since the dhonis have shifted from sailing boats to outboard motors, the annual tuna catch per fisherman has risen from 1.4 metric tons in 1983 to 5.6 in 1999. Agriculture Due to the availability of poor soil and scarceness of arable land in the islands, agriculture is limited to only a few subsistence crops, such as coconut, banana, breadfruit, papayas, mangoes, taro, betel, chilies, sweet potatoes, and onions. Agriculture contributes about 6% of GDP. Industry See also: Industries in Maldives The industrial sector provides only about 7% of GDP. Traditional industry consists of boat building and handicrafts, while modern industry is limited to a few tuna canneries, five garment factories, a bottling plant, and a few enterprises in the capital producing PVC pipe, soap, furniture, and food products. There are no Patent Laws in the Maldives. Other Traditional economic activities such as mat weaving, jewelry making and lacquer work are also found in the Maldives. Environmental concerns There is growing concern towards the coral reef and marine life due to coral mining (used for building and jewelry making), sand dredging, solid waste pollution and oil spills from boats. Mining of sand and coral has destroyed the natural coral reef that once protected several important islands, now making them highly susceptible to the erosive effects of the sea. The destruction of large coral beds due to heat is also a growing concern. Sheppard, Charles R.C. (Sept 18, 2003) "Predicted recurrences of mass coral mortality in the Indian Ocean" Nature 425(6955): pp.294-296 In April 1987, high tides swept over the Maldives, inundating much of Malé and nearby islands which prompted Maldivian authorities to take global climatic changes seriously. An INQUA research in 2003 found that actual sea levels in the Maldives had dropped in the 1970s and forecasts little change in the next century. Mörner, Nils-Axel; Tooley, Michael; and Possnert, Göran (2004) "New perspectives for the future of the Maldives" Global and Planetary Change 40: pp.177–182; There is also concern over the questionable shark fishing practices in place in the island. Shark fishing is forbidden by law, but these laws are not enforced. The population of sharks has sharply decreased in recent years. Bloody shark slaughter in the island paradise Der Spiegel (German), 09-15-2008. The Asian brown cloud hovering in the atmosphere over the northern Indian Ocean is also another concern. Studies show that decreased sunshine and increased acid rain from the cloud. Srinivasan, J. et al. (2002) "Asian Brown Cloud – fact and fantasy" Current Science 83(5): pp.586-592; Investment in education The government expenditure for education was 18% of the budget in 1999. Both public and private schools have made remarkable progress in the last decade. Further, there are private institutions that are staffed by community-paid teachers without formal training who provide basic numeracy and literacy skills in addition to religious knowledge. The modern schools are run by both the government and private sector, providing primary and secondary education simultaneously. As the modern English-medium school system expands, the traditional system is gradually being upgraded. By early 1998, more than 30 islands were equipped to provide education for grades, 8, 9, and 10. Some 164 islands provided education up to grade 5, 6, or 7. In Malé is the only school for grades 11 and 12, with a school in the southern most island of Gan scheduled to offer the final 2 years starting in 2002. Seven post-secondary technical training institutes provide opportunities for youth to gain skills that are in demand. The World Bank has already committed $17 million for education development in 2000-04, and plans to commit further $15 million for human development and distance learning during this period. Over 2001-03, the ADB planned to support post-secondary education development in Maldives Statistical data GDP: - US$817 million (2005) GDP - real growth rate: -3.60% (2006) GDP - per capita: - $2,483 (2005) GDP - composition by sector: (2004 est.) agriculture: - 20% industry: - 18% services: - 62% Inflation rate (consumer prices): - 3% (1995-2004 average); 5.6% (2005 est.) Labor force: estimated 1995 - 67,000 2000 - 88,000 Labor force - by occupation: (1995) agriculture 22%, industry 18%, services 60% Unemployment rate: - NEGL% Budget: (2004 est.) revenues: $265 million (excluding foreign grants) expenditures: $362 million; including capital expenditures of $80 million Industries: fish processing, tourism, shipping, boat building, coconut processing, garments, woven mats, rope, handicrafts, coral and sand mining Industrial production growth rate: estimated 1996 - +4.4% 2004 - -0.9% Electricity - production: - 85 GWh (1998) and 135 million kWh (2003) Electricity - production by source: - fossil fuel: - 100% (2005) Electricity - consumption: - 79 GWh (1998) and 125.6 million kWh (2003) Agriculture - products: - coconuts, corn, sweet potatoes; fish Exports - commodities: - fish, clothing Exports: - $123 million f.o.b. (2004 est.) Exports - partners: 1998 - US, UK, Sri Lanka, Japan 2005 - Thailand 30.6%, UK 13.8%, Sri Lanka 13.4%, Japan 13.3%, Algeria 5.8% Imports - commodities: - petroleum products, ships, foodstuffs, textiles, clothing, intermediate and capital goods Imports: 1998 - $312 million f.o.b. 2000 - $372 million f.o.b. 2004 - $567 million f.o.b. Imports - major partners: - Singapore, India, Sri Lanka, Japan, Canada Debt - external: estimated 1998 - $188 million 2000 - $237 million 2004 - $316 million Economic aid - recipient: - $NA Currency: - 1 rufiyaa (Rf) = 100 laari Exchange rates: - rufiyaa 12.80(Rf) per US$1 (2006) Fiscal year: - calendar year References Xavier Romero-Frias, The Maldive Islanders, A Study of the Popular Culture of an Ancient Ocean Kingdom. Barcelona 1999, ISBN 84 7254 801 5 See also Maldives Economic aid to Maldives External links Global Economic Prospects: Growth Prospects for South Asia The World Bank, December 13, 2006 "Doing Business in Maldives" The World Bank Group

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Laminar_flow

Laminar and turbulent flow of cigarette smoke. Laminar flow, sometimes known as streamline flow, occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between the layers. In fluid dynamics, laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion, low momentum convection, pressure and velocity independent from time. It is the opposite of turbulent flow. In nonscientific terms laminar flow is "smooth," while turbulent flow is "rough." The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important parameter in the equations that describe whether flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow. Reynolds numbers of less than 2300 are generally considered to be of a laminar type. When the Reynolds number is much less than 1, Creeping motion or Stokes flow occurs. This is an extreme case of laminar flow where viscous (friction) effects are much greater than inertial forces. For example, consider the flow of air over an airplane wing. The boundary layer is a very thin sheet of air lying over the surface of the wing (and all other surfaces of the airplane). Because air has viscosity, this layer of air tends to adhere to the wing. As the wing moves forward through the air, the boundary layer at first flows smoothly over the streamlined shape of the airfoil. Here the flow is called laminar and the boundary layer is a laminar layer. For a practical demonstration of laminar and non-laminar flow, one can observe the smoke rising off a cigarette in a place where there is no breeze. The smoke from the cigarette will rise vertically and smoothly for some distance (laminar flow) and then will start undulating into a turbulent, nonlaminar flow. External links Laminar flow in a pipe Comparison of laminar and turbulent flow

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Litre

The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of volume. There are two official symbols: the Latin letter L in lower and upper case (l and L). The lower case L is also often written as a cursive ℓ, though this symbol has no official approval by any international bureau. Although the litre is not an SI unit, it is accepted for use with the SI, Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006, p. 124. ("Days" and "hours" are examples of other non-SI units that SI accepts.) and has appeared in several versions of the metric system. The official SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3). One litre is equal to 0.001 cubic metre and is denoted as 1 cubic decimetre (dm3). The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek via Latin. The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The spelling of the word used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is "litre". This spelling is also the usual one in English in most English speaking countries, but the usual American English spelling is "liter", which is officially endorsed by the United States. The Metric Conversion Act of 1985 gives the Secretary of Commerce of the US the responsibility of interpreting or modifying the SI for use in the US. The Secretary of Commerce delegated this authority to the Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (Turner, 2008). In 2008, the NIST published the US version (Taylor and Thompson, 2008a) of the English text of the eighth edition of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) publication Le Système International d’ Unités (SI) (BIPM, 2006). In the NIST publication, the spellings "meter," "liter," and "deka" are used rather than "metre", "litre", and "deca" as in the original BIPM English text (Taylor and Thompson, 2008a, p. iii). The Director of the NIST officially recognized this publication, together with Taylor and Thompson (2008b), as the "legal interpretation" of the SI for the United States (Turner, 2008). Definition A litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre (1 L = 1 dm3 = 103 cm3). Hence 1 L ≡ 0.001 m3 (exactly). So 1000 L = 1 m3 From 1901 to 1964 the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at 4°C and 760 millimetres of mercury pressure. During this time, a litre was about 1.000028 dm3. In 1964 this definition was abandoned in favor of the current one. SI prefixes applied to the litre The litre may be used with any SI prefix. The most commonly used is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to using the non-SI name of "cubic centimetre". It is a commonly used measurement, especially in medicine and cooking. Other units may be found in the table below, the more often used terms are in bold. Multiple Name Symbols Equivalent volume Multiple Name Symbols Equivalent volume 100 L litre l (ℓ) L dm3 cubic decimetre     101 L decalitre dal daL   10–1 L decilitre dl dL   102 L hectolitre hl hL   10–2 L centilitre cl cL   103 L kilolitre kl kL m3 cubic metre 10–3 L millilitre ml mL cm3 cubic centimetre (cc) 106 L megalitre Ml ML dam3 cubic decametre 10–6 L microlitre µl µL mm3 cubic millimetre 109 L gigalitre Gl GL hm3 cubic hectometre 10–9 L nanolitre nl nL 106 µm3 1 million cubic micrometres 1012 L teralitre Tl TL km3 cubic kilometre 10–12 L picolitre pl pL 103 µm3 1 thousand cubic micrometres 1015 L petalitre Pl PL 103 km3 1 thousand cubic kilometres 10–15 L femtolitre fl fL µm3 cubic micrometre 1018 L exalitre El EL 106 km3 1 million cubic kilometres 10–18 L attolitre al aL 106 nm3 1 million cubic nanometres 1021 L zettalitre Zl ZL Mm3 cubic megametre 10–21 L zeptolitre zl zL 103 nm3 1 thousand cubic nanometres 1024 L yottalitre Yl YL 103 Mm3 1 thousand cubic megametres 10–24 L yoctolitre yl yL nm3 cubic nanometre Non-metric conversions Litre expressed in non-metric unit  Non-metric unit expressed in litre1 L ≈ 0.87987699Imperial quart1 Imperial quart≡ 1.1365225 litre1 L ≈ 1.056688US fluid quart 1 US fluid quart≡ 0.946352946 litre 1 L ≈ 1.75975326Imperial pint 1 Imperial pint≡ 0.56826125 litre 1 L ≈ 2.11337641US fluid pints 1 US fluid pint≡ 0.473176473 litre 1 L ≈ 0.2641720523US liquid gallon 1 US liquid gallon≡ 3.785411784 litres 1 L ≈ 0.21997Imperial gallon 1 Imperial gallon≡ 4.54609 litres 1 L ≈ 0.0353146667cubic foot 1 cubic foot≡ 28.316846592 litres 1 L ≈ 61.0237441cubic inches 1 cubic inch≡ 0.01638706 litre See also Imperial units and US customary units Rough conversions One litre is slightly more than one U.S. liquid quart and slightly less than one Imperial quart or the less common U.S. dry quart. A measured cup is roughly 250 mL. A litre is the volume of a cube with sides of 10 cm, which is slightly less than a cube of sides 4 inches (or one-third of a foot). Twenty-seven cubes "one-third of a foot on each side" would fit in one cubic foot, which is within 5% of the actual value of exactly 28.316846592 litres. A nice aide-memoire is: "A litre of water's a pint and three quarters" (Imperial pints, that is). Or, simpler: "A litre is a kilo of water" (the litre was once defined in a way that made this exactly true under certain conditions). Explanation Litres are most commonly used for items (such as fluids and berries) which are measured by the capacity or size of their container, whereas cubic metres (and derived units) are most commonly used for items measured either by their dimensions or their displacements. The litre is often also used in some calculated measurements, such as density (kg/L), allowing an easy comparison with the density of water. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, which occurs at about 4 degrees Celsius. Similarly: 1 millilitre of water has about 1 g of mass; 1,000 litres of water has about 1,000 kg of mass. This relationship is because the gram was originally defined as the mass of 1 mL of water. However, this definition was abandoned in 1799 because the density of water changes with temperature and, very slightly, pressure. Symbol Originally, the only symbol for the litre was l (lowercase letter L), following the convention that only those unit symbols that abbreviate the name of a person start with a capital letter. In many English-speaking countries, the most common shape of a handwritten Arabic digit 1 is just a vertical stroke; that is, it lacks the upstroke added in many other cultures. Therefore, the digit 1 may easily be confused with the letter l. On some typewriters, particularly older ones, the unshifted L key had to be used to type the numeral 1. Further, even in some computer typefaces, the two characters are barely distinguishable. This caused some concern, especially in the medical community. As a result, L (uppercase letter L) was adopted as an alternative symbol for litre in 1979. The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology now recommends the use of the uppercase letter L, a practice that is also widely followed in Canada and Australia. In these countries, the symbol L is also used with prefixes, as in mL and µL, instead of the traditional ml and µl used in Europe. In the UK and Ireland as well as the rest of Europe, lowercase l is used with prefixes, though whole litres are often written in full (so, "750 ml" on a wine bottle, but often "1 litre" on a juice carton). Prior to 1979, the symbol (script small l, U+2113), came into common use in some countries; for example, it was recommended by South African Bureau of Standards publication M33 and Canada in the 1970s. This symbol can still be encountered occasionally in some English-speaking countries, and its use is ubiquitous in Japan and South Korea. Fonts covering the CJK characters usually include not only the script small l but also four precomposed characters: ㎕, ㎖, ㎗, and ㎘ (U+3395 to U+3398) for the microlitre, millilitre, decilitre, and kilolitre. Nevertheless, it is no longer used in most countries and was never officially recognised by the BIPM or the International Organization for Standardization, and is a character often not available in currently-used documentation systems. History In 1795, the litre was introduced in France as one of the new "Republican Measures", and defined as one cubic decimetre. In 1879, the CIPM adopted the definition of the litre, and the symbol l (lowercase letter L). In 1901, at the 3rd CGPM conference, the litre was redefined as the space occupied by 1 kg of pure water at the temperature of its maximum density (3.98 °C) under a pressure of 1 atm. This made the litre equal to about 1.000 028 dm3 (earlier reference works usually put it at 1.000 027 dm3). In 1964, at the 12th CGPM conference, the original definition was reverted to, and thus the litre was once again defined in exact relation to the metre, as another name for the cubic decimetre, that is, exactly 1 dm3. NIST, 2000 In 1979, at the 16th CGPM conference, the alternative symbol L (uppercase letter L) was adopted. It also expressed a preference that in the future only one of these two symbols should be retained, but in 1990 said it was still too early to do so. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, 2006 Colloquial and practical usage In spoken English, the abbreviation "mL" (for millilitre) is often pronounced as "mil", which is homophonous with the colloquial term "mil", which is intended to mean "one thousandth of a metre". This generally does not create confusion, because the context is usually sufficient — one being a volume, the other a linear measurement. The colloquial use of "mil" for millimetre for an ambiguous topic as in "5 mils of rain fell since 9am" may, however, be confusing. And in the United States a term of the same spelling and pronunciation means a thousandth of an inch. The abbreviation cc (for cubic centimetre, equal to a millilitre or mL) is a unit of the cgs system, that preceded the MKS system, that later evolved into the system. The abbreviation cc is still commonly used in many fields including (for example) sizing for motorcycle and related sports for small combustion engine displacement; larger engines, such as automobile engines, do have their displacement measured in litres. In European countries where the metric system was established well before the adoption of the standard, there is still carry-over of usage from the precursor cgs and MKS systems. In the system, use of prefixes for multiples of 1,000 is preferred and all other multiples discouraged. However, in countries where these other multiples were already established, their use remains common. In particular, use of the centi (10-2), deci (10-1), deca (10+1), and hecto (10+2) prefixes are still common. For example, in many European countries, the hectolitre is the typical unit for production and export volumes of beverages (milk, beer, soft drinks, etc) and for measuring the size of the catch and quotas for fishing boats; decilitres are found in cookbooks; centilitres indicate the capacity of drinking glasses and of small bottles. In colloquial Dutch in Belgium, a 'vijfentwintiger' and a 'drieëndertiger' (literally 'twenty-fiver' and 'thirty-threer') are the common beer glasses, the corresponding bottles mention 25 cL or 33 cL. Bottles may also be 75 cL or half size at 37.5 cL for 'artisanal' brews or 70 cL for wines or spirits. Cans come in 25 cL, 33 cL and 50 cL aka 0.5 L. Family size bottles as for soft drinks or drinking water use the litre (0.5 L, 1 L, 1.5 L, 2 L), and so do beer barrels (50 L, or the half sized 25 L). This unit is most common for all other household size containers of liquids, from thermocans, by buckets, to bath tubs; as well as for fuel tanks and consumption for heating or by vehicles. In countries where the metric system was adopted as the official measuring system after the standard was established, common usage more closely follow contemporary conventions. For example, in Canada where the metric system is now in widespread use, consumer beverages are labelled almost exclusively using litres and millilitres. Hectolitres sometimes appear in industry, but centilitres and decilitres are rarely, if ever, used. Larger volumes are usually given in cubic metres (equivalent to 1 kL), or thousands or millions of cubic metres. The situation is similar in Australia, although kilolitres, megalitres and gigalitres are commonly used for measuring water consumption, reservoir capacities and river flows. For larger volumes of fluids, such as annual consumption of tap water, lorry (truck) tanks, or swimming pools, the cubic metre is the general unit, as it is generally for all volumes of a non-liquid nature. Use for non-liquid volumes Although traditionally used only for the measurement of fluids, and containers for fluids, there are some fields where it has become a common measurement for volumes: berries and solid items that can be poured and are measured by their containers Car boot/trunk size Climbing packs Computer cases Microwave ovens Refrigerators Sleeping bags - packed volume The litre is a particularly convenient and easily visualised unit for this range of volumes - a backpack could be as small as 2 litres, and a refrigerator as large as 300 litres. Expressed as cubic metres these same volumes would be 0.002 and 0.3 (or as cubic centimetres 2,000 and 300,000)—much less convenient numbers. See also Claude Émile Jean-Baptiste Litre Cubic metre Gallon Kilogram Pint Notes References Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. (2006). "The International System of Units (SI)" (on-line browser): Table 6 (Non-SI units accepted for use with the International System). Retrieved 24 August 2008 National Institute of Standards and Technology. (December 2003). The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: International System of Units (SI) (web site): Note on SI units. Retrieved 24 August 2008. Recommending uppercase letter L. Retrieved 24 August 2008. Taylor, B.N. and Thompson, A. (Eds.). (2008a). The International System of Units (SI). United States version of the English text of the eighth edition (2006) of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures publication Le Système International d’ Unités (SI) (Special Publication 330). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 18 August 2008. Taylor, B.N. and Thompson, A. (2008b). Guide for the Use of the Internatioal System of Units (Special Publication 811). Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved 23 August 2008. Turner, J. (Deputy Director of the National Institute of Standards and Technology). (16 May 2008)."Interpretation of the International System of Units (the Metric System of Measurement) for the United States". Federal Register Vol. 73, No. 96, p. 28432-3. UK National Physical Laboratory. Internationally recognised non SI units be-x-old:Літар

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Military_academy

A military academy or service academy (in American English) is an educational institution which prepares candidates for service in the officer corps of the Army, the Navy, Air Force or Coast Guard or provides education in a service environment, the exact definition depending on the country concerned. Three types of academy exists: High school-level institutions awarding academic qualifications, university-level institutions awarding Bachelor's degree level qualification, and those preparing officer cadets for commissioning into the armed services of the state. Afghanistan National Military Academy of Afghanistan Argentina Argentine Army Colegio Militar de la Nación (National Military College), located in El Palomar, Buenos Aires Argentine Navy Escuela Naval Militar (Naval Military School), located in Río Santiago, Buenos Aires Argentine Air Force Escuela de Aviación Militar (Military Aviation School), located in the city of Córdoba Australia Australian Defence Force Academy Royal Military College, Duntroon Officer Training School RAAF Royal Australian Naval College Bangladesh Bangladesh Military Academy Belgium Royal Military Academy (Belgium) Brazil Has several military academies, and the biggest is Academia Militar de Agulhas Negras (AMAN) in the municipality of Resende, in state of Rio de Janeiro, in the southeast of that country. Bulgaria |Nikola Vaptsarov Naval Academy of the Bulgarian Navy Vasil Levski National Military University founded in 1878 as a military school in Plovdiv Air force Faculty located in Dolna Mitropoliya Artillery, Air Defence and CIS Faculty located in Shumen All-Force Faculty faculty located in Veliko Tarnovo Nikola Vaptsarov Naval Academy located in Varna and founded in 1881 as Naval Machinery School in Rousse Rakovski Defence and Staff College located in Sofia. It was founded with an Act of the 15 th National Assembly of 1 st March, 1912 in Sofia Canada Canada currently has one military-theme private boarding school open for students at the pre-university level, Robert Land Academy (RLA), which is located in West Lincoln, Ontario. Founded in 1977, it is an all-boys' institute whose funding arises solely from tuition fees. The Academy is an institute fully accredited by the province of Ontario, which accepts students from Grade 6 to Grade 12 (the Ontario Academic Credit level). Canada formerly had three university level service academies, the Canadian Military Colleges. These included the Royal Military College of Canada (RMC) in Kingston, Ontario, Royal Roads Military College (RRMC) in Victoria, British Columbia and the Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean (CMR) in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Québec. RMC was founded in 1876, RRMC in 1941 and CMR in 1954. H16511 Dr. Richard Arthur Preston "To Serve Canada: A History of the Royal Military College of Canada" 1997 Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1969. By the 60s all three institutions were providing *military education to officer cadets of all three elements in the Canadian Forces; the navy, army and air force; and RMC received the authority to grant academic degrees in Arts, Science and Engineering. 4237 Dr. Adrian Preston & Peter Dennis (Edited) "Swords and Covenants" Rowman And Littlefield, London. Croom Helm. 1976. Graduates of the Colleges are widely acknowledged to have had a disproportionate impact in the Canadian services and society, thanks to the solid foundations provided by their military education. H16511 Dr. Richard Preston "R.M.C. and Kingston: The effect of imperial and military influences on a Canadian community" 1968 In the modern era, emphasis was placed on a broad based, liberal education including core courses in the humanities, social, pure and applied sciences. Military discipline and training, as well as a focus on physical fitness and fluency in both of Canada's two official languages, English and French, provided cadets with ample challenges and a very fulfilling experience. H1877 R. Guy C. Smith (editor) "As You Were! Ex-Cadets Remember". In 2 Volumes. Volume I: 1876-1918. Volume II: 1919-1984. Royal Military College. [Kingston]. The R.M.C. Club of Canada. 1984 In 1995 the Department of National Defence was forced to close Royal Roads Military College and Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean due to budget considerations, but Royal Military College of Canada continues to carry the proud tradition educating Canada's future leaders into the twenty-first century. "To Serve Canada: A History of the Royal Military College since the Second World War", Ottawa, University of Ottawa Press, 1991. The Royal Roads University reopened as a civilian university. In 2007, the Department of National Defence reopened Collège militaire royal de Saint-Jean as a two year college. China, People's Republic of Whampoa Military Academy PLA National Defense University China, Republic of Whampoa Military Academy Republic of China Military Academy R.O.C. Military Academy R.O.C. Naval Academy R.O.C. Air Force Academy National Defense University National Defense Medical Center Czech Republic Univerzita obrany (University of Defence) http://www.unob.cz/en/ Denmark Royal Danish Army Officers Academy Royal Danish Naval Academy Royal Danish Air Force Officers School Egypt Egyptian Air Academy Egyptian Military Academy Egyptian Naval Academy Finland National Defence University France Undergraduate academies : École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr (ESM, literally the "Special Military School of St Cyr") is the French Military Academy. It is often referred to as Saint-Cyr. Founded by Napoleon in 1802, and initially located in Fontainebleau, it was moved first to Saint-Cyr l'École in 1808, and then to Coëtquidan (Brittany) in 1945. École de l'Air : the French Air Force Academy École Navale : the French Naval Academy École des officiers de la gendarmerie nationale : the French Gendarmerie Academy ENSIETA : the French engineer Academy Postgraduate academies : Institut des hautes études de la défense nationale (Defense Postgraduate Institute) École d'État-major (Staff School) Collège d'enseignement supérieur de l'armée de terre (Army Higher Education College) Collège interarmées de défense (Defense Joint College) The Ecole Polytechnique, though its students are enlisted in the military, is no longer a military academy, as very few of its graduates remain in the military after graduation. Germany In Germany there exists a system which clearly differs from the common ones. The only true military academies are in fact the Führungsakademie der Bundeswehr where mainly future staff officers and general staff officers are further trained and the Naval Academy Mürwik. The standard education in military leadership is the task of the Offizierschulen (officer's schools) run by the three branches. The contents differ from branch to branch. In the army all officer's are at least trained to lead a platoon. There they also have to pass an officer exam to become commissioned later on. Moreover there exist so called Waffenschulen like infantry school or artillery school. There the officer's learn to deal with the typical tasks of their respective corps. A specialty of the German concept of officer formation is the academic education. Germany runs two own Universities of the German Federal Armed Forces where almost every future officer has to pass non-military studies and achieve a Bachelor's or Master's degree. During their studies (after at least three years of service) the candidates become commissioned Leutnant (second-lieutenant). Greece The Hellenic Armed Forces have military academies supervised by each branch of the Armed Forces individually: The Hellenic Army supervises: The Evelpidon Military Academy, located in Athens. The Corps Officers Military Academy, located in Thessaloniki. The Hellenic Air Force supervises: The Icarus Air Force Academy, located in Kalamata. The Hellenic Navy supervises: The Hellenic Naval Cadets Academy, located in Piraeus. India MILITARY ACADEMIES IN INDIA National Defence Academy (NDA) Indian Military Academy (IMA) OFFICERS TRAINING ACADEMY (OTA) NAVAL ACADEMY (NAVAC) AIRFORCE ACADEMY (AFA) RIMC Dehradun Ajmer Military School Bangalore Military School Belgaum Military School Chail Military School Dholpur Military School Sainik Schools in all states of the country Indonesia Akademi Angkatan Bersenjata Republic Indonesia (Indonesia Military Academy) Founded in Yogyakarta, October 13, 1945 in order of General Staff Chief of Indonesia Army Leut. Gen Urip Sumoharjo with name Militaire Academie (MA) Yogyakarta. Now, Tentara Nasional Indonesia (National Military of Indonesia), placed each academy into: Indonesian Army Akademi Militer - Akmil (Military Academy), located in Magelang, Province of Jawa Tengah Indonesian Air Force Akademi Angkatan Udara - AAU (Air Force Academy), located in Yogyakarta, Province of Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Indonesian Navy Akademi Angkatan Laut - AAL (Naval Academy), located in Surabaya, Province of Jawa Timur Italy University level institutions: Accademia Militare, Modena Accademia Navale, Livorno Accademia Aeronautica, Pozzuoli Scuola Ufficiali Carabinieri, Rome Accademia della Guardia di Finanza, Bergamo Japan National Defense Academy of Japan (University level) National Defense Medical College (Medical, university level) Officer Candidate Training Schools (for each of Ground, Maritime and Air Self-defense forces) Korea, South The three main military academies: Korea Military Academy (Army) The Naval Academy of Korea Korea Air Force Academy Other military academies: Korea Army Academy at Yeongcheon, formerly Korea Third Military Academy Armed Forces Nursing Academy Malaysia Secondary level institutions: Royal Military College (Maktab Tentera Diraja) University Level of Education National Defence University of Malaysia (University Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia)(Foundation, Bachelors Degree, Masters Degree, PhD Degree and Specialise Courses) Specialist Training & Staff institutions: [Officers Cadet School in Port Dickson](OCS) Malaysian Armed Forces Staff College (Maktab Turus Angkatan Tentera) Armed Forces Health Training Institute (Institut Latihan Kesihatan Angkatan Tentera) Malaysian Peacekeeping Training Centre (Pusat Latihan Pengaman Malaysia) Reserve Officer Training Units ( or ) or ROTU exists only in public universities in Malaysia. This is a tertiary institution based officer commissioning program to equip students as officer cadets with military knowledge and understanding for service as Commissioned Officers in the reserve components of the various branches of the Malaysian Armed Forces. Mexico Heroica Escuela Naval Militar Heroico Colegio Militar University level institutions: National Defence University of Malaysia (Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia) Armed Forces Defence College (Maktab Pertahanan Angkatan Tentera) Netherlands Koninklijke Militaire Academie Royal Netherlands Naval College New Zealand Tier One - Initial Officer Training New Zealand Commissioning Course, Waiouru (NZ Army) Initial Officer Training, Woodbourne, (RNZAF) Officer Training School, Devonport Naval Base Tier Two - Junior Officer Education NZDF Junior Staff Course, New Zealand Defence College Tier Three - Senior Officer Education NZDF Staff Course, New Zealand Defence College Norway Undergraduate officer training Norwegian Military Academy, Linderud/Oslo (Norwegian Army) Norwegian Naval Academy, Laksevåg/Bergen (Royal Norwegian Navy) Norwegian Air Force Academy, Trondheim (Royal Norwegian Air Force) Postgraduate training Norwegian Defence Staff College, Oslo (Joint) Norwegian National Defence College, Oslo (Civil Service/Very senior officers) Pakistan The Pakistan Military Academy is the sole supplier of officers to the Pakistan Army while the Pakistan Air Force Academy supplies officers and fighter pilots to the Pakistan Air Force. The officers for the Pakistan Navy are supplied by the Pakistan Naval Academy. Peru Undergraduate officer training Chorrillos Military School (Peruvian Army) Peruvian Naval School (Peruvian Navy) Peruvian Air Force Officer's School (Peruvian Air Force) Philippines The Philippine Military Academy (PMA) is the training school for future officers of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. It was established as an Officer's School of the Philippine Constabulary on February 17, 1905 at Intramuros, Manila, but was relocated on September 1, 1908 in Baguio City. Romania In Romania there are military academies for every military branch: Land Forces: Academia Fortelor Terestre (Land Forces Academy), located in Sibiu. http://www.armyacademy.ro Air Forces: Academia Fortelor Aeriene (Air Forces Academy), located in Braṣov. Naval Forces: Academia Fortelor Navale (Naval Forces Academy), located in Constanṭa. There is also a technical military academy: Academia Tehnica Militara (Technical Military Academy), located in Bucharest. http://www.mta.ro Serbia Military Academy Belgrade Singapore Officer Cadet School Singapore Command and Staff College Spain Academia General Militar, Zaragoza Academia General del Aire, San Javier Escuela Naval Militar de Oficiales, Marín Sri Lanka Sri Lanka has one defense university taking cadets from all three armed services , 3 non-university level Military Academies, one for each armed service providing basic training for officer and a Command and Staff College for senior officers of the three armed services. The General Sir John Kotelawala Defense University, was established in 1980 and is named after Gen. Sri John Kotelawala the 2nd Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. University General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University, Colombo Officer training Sri Lanka Military Academy, Diyatalawa Naval and Maritime Academy, Trincomalee Air Force Academy, SLAF China Bay , Trincomalee Staff training Defence Services Command and Staff College Soviet Union Sweden Military Academy Karlberg Turkey Kara Harp Okulu (Turkish Military Academy) Turkish Air Force Academy Turkish Naval Academy Turkish Naval High School United Kingdom The 149th Sovereign's Parade in front of Old College, RMA Sandhurst. Pre-University level institutions: Welbeck College - Sixth form college for 16 to 18 year olds providing A-Level education in preparation for entry into the British Armed Forces or Ministry of Defence Civil Service as Technical Officers, following undergraduate education. Duke of York's Royal Military School - for the children of service men and women. Officer training Britannia Royal Naval College, HMS Dartmouth Commando Training Centre Royal Marines Royal Military Academy Sandhurst Royal Air Force College Cranwell Postgraduate and staff training Defence Academy of the United Kingdom Royal College of Defence Studies (mainly for officers of Colonel/Brigadier or equivalent rank selected as future senior leaders; highly selective) Joint Services Command and Staff College (courses for officers from Major to Brigadier or equivalent rank) Defence College of Management and Technology Armed Forces Chaplaincy Centre Advance Research and Assessment Group Conflict Studies Reaearch Centre No longer operational: Royal Naval College, Greenwich Royal Naval Engineering College Manadon, HMS Thunderer, Plymouth, Devon Staff College, Camberley RAF Staff College, Andover RAF Staff College, Bracknell Royal Military Academy, Woolwich Joint Service Defence College Paralleling the way the School Cadet forces work at a pre-university level, at the university level there are the University Royal Naval Units, University Officer Training Corps (UOTC) and University Air Squadrons. However the mission of the UOTC is not the training of officers . United States US Air Force Academy cadets The United States is almost unique in that the term "military academy" does not necessarily mean an institution run by the armed forces to train its own military officers; it may also mean a middle school, high school or tertiary-level college, whether public or private, which instructs its students in military-style education, discipline and tradition. Many public high schools offer Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps programs sponsored by the United States Armed Forces. The term military school primarily refers to pre-collegiate (middle and high school) institutions. Military schools were once far more common than they are today; see the extensive list of defunct military academies. The term military academy commonly refers to all pre-collegiate, collegiate, and post-collegiate institutions, yet graduate institutions, catering for officers already in service, are often considered separately and termed staff colleges and Graduate Schools. Military academies can be either private or have government sponsorship from regional (state) or national government. The colleges operated by the U.S. Federal Government are referred to as the Federal Service Academies and are: United States Military Academy, West Point, New York United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado United States Coast Guard Academy, New London, Connecticut United States Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, New York Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, Maryland State-sponsored Military Academy: The Virginia Military Institute, Lexington, Virginia In addition, several institutions which were at the time of their founding military colleges, maintain both a corps of cadets and a civilian student body. These include: Norwich University Corps of Cadets. Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont Texas A&M Corps of Cadets, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia North Georgia College and State University, Dahlonega, Georgia (chartered as a military college, but has had a corps and a civilian student body from its inception) Along with Virginia Military Institute these institutions are known as the Senior Military Colleges. Five institutions are considered Military Junior Colleges. These five schools participate in the Army's two-year Early Commissioning Program, an Army ROTC program where qualified students can earn a commission as a Second Lieutenant after only two years of college. The five Military Junior Colleges are: Wentworth Military Academy and College, Lexington, Missouri Valley Forge Military Academy and College, Wayne, Pennsylvania New Mexico Military Institute, Roswell, New Mexico Marion Military Institute, Marion, Alabama Georgia Military College, Milledgeville, Georgia Note: The terms college and university are interchangeable in the below discussion. They are both used to denote an institution of higher learning which a person might attend after attending high school, typically at age 17, 18, or 19. Venezuela Military academies are managed by each branch of the Armed Forces and offer five-year University courses. Enrolled students are Officer Candidates and receive a commission as Sub Teniente or Alférez on graduation. The terms Escuela Militar or Academia Militar are always used to refer to these higher-education institutions: Academia Militar de Venezuela (Army) Escuela Naval de Venezuela (Navy) Escuela de Aviación Militar (Air Force) Efofac (National Guard) Military-style high schools in Venezuela are known as Liceos Militares or Liceos Militarizados. These are managed by the Armed Forces or by private groups, with support and personnel from the Armed Forces. Pre-collegiate institutions A military school teaches various ages (middle school, high school, or both) in a manner that includes military traditions and training in military subjects. The vast majority are in the United States. Many military schools are also boarding schools, and others are simply magnet schools in a larger school system. Many are privately run institutions, though some are public and are run by either a public school system (such as the Chicago Public Schools), or by a state. A common misperception results because some states have chosen to house their child criminal populations in higher-security boarding schools that are run in a manner similar to military boarding schools. These are also called reform schools, and are functionally a combination of school and prison. They attempt to emulate the high standards of established military boarding schools in the hope that a strict structured environment can reform these children. This may or may not be true. However, this should not reflect on the long and distinguished history of military schools; their associations are traditionally those of high academic achievement, with solid college preparatory curricula, schooling in the military arts, and considerably esteemed graduates. Popular culture sometimes shows parents sending or threatening to send unruly children off to military school (or boarding school) to teach them good behavior. Adult institutions A college level military academy is an institute of higher learning of things military. It is part of a larger system of military education and training institutions. The primary educational goal at military academies is to provide a high quality education that includes significant coursework and training in the fields of military tactics and military strategy. The amount of non-military coursework varies by both the institution and the country, and the amount of practical military experience gained varies as well. Military academies may or may not grant university degrees. In the U.S., graduates have a major field of study, earning a Bachelor's degree in that subject just as at other universities. However, in British academies, the graduate does not achieve a university degree, since the whole of the one-year course (nowadays undertaken mainly but not exclusively by university graduates) is dedicated to military training. There are two types of military academies: national (government-run) and state/private-run. Graduates from national academies are typically commissioned as officers in the country's military. The new officers usually have an obligation to serve for a certain number of years. In some countries (e.g. Britain) all military officers train at the appropriate academy, whereas in others (e.g. the United States) only a percentage do and the service academies are seen as institutions which supply service-specific officers within the forces (about 15 percent of US military officers). State or private-run academy graduates have no requirement to join the military after graduation, although some schools have a high rate of graduate military service. Today, most of these schools have ventured away from their military roots and now enroll both military and civilian students. The only exception in the United States is the Virginia Military Institute which remains all-military. See also Staff college List of United States military schools and academies List of defunct United States military academies US military staff colleges List of government-run higher-level national military academies List of fictional military schools and academies Military building References

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Carmichael_number

In number theory, a Carmichael number is a composite positive integer which satisfies the congruence for all integers which are relatively prime to (see modular arithmetic). They are named for Robert Carmichael. The Carmichael numbers are the Knödel numbers K1. Overview Fermat's little theorem states that all prime numbers have the above property. In this sense, Carmichael numbers are similar to prime numbers; in fact, they are called Fermat pseudoprimes. Carmichael numbers are sometimes also called absolute Fermat pseudoprimes. Carmichael numbers are important because they pass the Fermat primality test but are not actually prime. Since Carmichael numbers exist, this primality test cannot be relied upon to prove the primality of a number, although it can still be used to prove a number is composite. Still, as numbers become larger, Carmichael numbers become very rare. For example, there are 1,401,644 Carmichael numbers between 1 and 1018 (approximately one in 700 billion numbers.) Richard Pinch, "The Carmichael numbers up to 1018", April 2006 (building on his earlier work ). This makes tests based on Fermat's Little Theorem slightly risky compared to others such as the Solovay-Strassen primality test. An alternative and equivalent definition of Carmichael numbers is given by Korselt's criterion. Theorem (Korselt 1899): A positive composite integer is a Carmichael number if and only if is square-free, and for all prime divisors of , it is true that (the notation indicates that divides ). It follows from this theorem that all Carmichael numbers are odd, as any composite even that is square-free (and hence has only one prime factor of two) will have at least one odd prime factor, and thus results in an even dividing an odd, a contradiction. Korselt was the first who observed these properties, but he could not find an example. In 1910 Carmichael found the first and smallest such number, 561, and hence the name. That 561 is a Carmichael number can be seen with Korselt's criterion. Indeed, is squarefree and , and . The next few Carmichael numbers are : J. Chernick proved a theorem in 1939 which can be used to construct a subset of Carmichael numbers. The number is a Carmichael number if its three factors are all prime. Whether this formula produces an infinite quantity of Carmichael numbers is an open question. Paul Erdős heuristically argued there should be infinitely many Carmichael numbers. In 1994 it was shown by W. R. (Red) Alford, Andrew Granville and Carl Pomerance that there really do exist infinitely many Carmichael numbers. Specifically, they showed that for sufficiently large , there are at least Carmichael numbers between 1 and . W. R. Alford, A. Granville, and C. Pomerance. "There are Infinitely Many Carmichael Numbers." Annals of Mathematics 139 (1994) 703-722. Löh and Niebuhr in 1992 found some huge Carmichael numbers including one with 1,101,518 factors and over 16 million digits. Properties Carmichael numbers have at least three positive prime factors. The first Carmichael numbers with prime factors are : k   3 4 5 6 7 8 9 The first Carmichael numbers with 4 prime factors are : i   1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 The second Carmichael number (1105) can be expressed as the sum of two squares in more ways than any smaller number. The third Carmichael number (1729) is the Hardy-Ramanujan Number: the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two cubes in two different ways. Distribution Let denote the number of Carmichael numbers less than or equal to . Erdős proved in his 1956 paper that for some constant ; The table below gives approximate values for this constant: n k 104 2.19547 106 1.97946 108 1.90495 1010 1.86870 1012 1.86377 1014 1.86293 1016 1.86406 1018 1.86522 1020 1.86598 As of December 2007, it has been shown that there are 8220777 Carmichael numbers up to 1020. In the other direction, Alford, Granville and Pomerance proved in their 1994 paper that for sufficiently large and Glyn Harman proved that again for sufficiently large . Glyn Harman. "On the number of Carmichael numbers up to X." Bull. Lond. Math. Soc. 37 (2005) 641-650. This author has subsequently improved the exponent to just over . Erdős also gave a heuristic suggesting that his upper bound should be close to the true rate of growth of . The distribution of Carmichael numbers by powers of 10, from Pinch (2006). 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 7 16 43 105 255 646 1547 3605 8241 19279 44706 105212 246683 585355 1401644 3381806 8220777 Higher-order Carmichael numbers Carmichael numbers can be generalized using concepts of abstract algebra. The above definition states that a composite integer n is Carmichael precisely when the nth-power-raising function pn from the ring Zn of integers modulo n to itself is the identity function. The identity is the only Zn-algebra endomorphism on Zn so we can restate the definition as asking that pn be an algebra endomorphism of Zn. As above, pn satisfies the same property whenever n is prime. The nth-power-raising function pn is also defined on any Zn-algebra A. A theorem states that n is prime if and only if all such functions pn are algebra endomorphisms. In-between these two conditions lies the definition of Carmichael number of order m for any positive integer m as any composite number n such that pn is an endomorphism on every Zn-algebra that can be generated as Zn-module by m elements. Carmichael numbers of order 1 are just the ordinary Carmichael numbers. Properties Korselt's criterion can be generalized to higher-order Carmichael numbers, as shown by Howe. Everett W. Howe. "Higher-order Carmichael numbers." Mathematics of Computation 69 (2000), pp. 1711–1719. A heuristic argument, given in the same paper, appears to suggest that there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers of order m, for any m. However, not a single Carmichael number of order 3 or above is known. Notes References Chernick, J. (1935). On Fermat's simple theorem. Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 45, 269–274. Ribenboim, Paolo (1996). The New Book of Prime Number Records. Löh, Günter and Niebuhr, Wolfgang (1996). A new algorithm for constructing large Carmichael numbers(pdf) Korselt (1899). Problème chinois. L'intermédiaire des mathématiciens, 6, 142–143. Carmichael, R. D. (1912) On composite numbers P which satisfy the Fermat congruence . Am. Math. Month. 19 22–27. Erdős, Paul (1956). On pseudoprimes and Carmichael numbers, Publ. Math. Debrecen 4, 201 –206. External links Table of Carmichael numbers Carmichael numbers up to 10^12 Mathpages: The Dullness of 1729 Final Answers Modular Arithmetic Richard G.E. Pinch. The Carmichael numbers up to 10 to the 20. (list of publications)

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Legal_aspects_of_transsexualism

Transsexual people are those who establish a permanent identity with the gender opposite to the biological sex at which they were assigned at birth. As most legal jurisdictions have at least some recognition of the two traditional genders at the exclusion of other categories, this raises many legal issues and aspects of transsexualism. Most of these issues tend to be located in what is generally considered family law, especially the issue of marriage, but also things such as the ability of a transgendered person to benefit from a partner's insurance or social security. The degree of legal recognition provided to transsexualism varies widely throughout the world. Many countries now extend legal recognition to sex reassignment by permitting a change of gender on the birth certificate. Many transsexual people have their bodies permanently changed by surgical means or semi-permanently changed by hormonal means (see Sex reassignment therapy). In many countries, some of these modifications are required for legal recognition. In a few, the legal aspects are directly tied to health care; i.e. the same bodies or doctors decide whether a person can go ahead, and the subsequent processes automatically incorporate both matters. The amount to which non-transsexual transgender people can benefit from the legal recognition given to transsexual people varies. In some countries, an explicit medical diagnosis of transsexualism is (at least formally) necessary. In others, a diagnosis of gender identity disorder, or simply the fact that one has established a different gender role, can be sufficient for some or all of the legal recognition available. Europe Several countries in Europe give transsexual people the right to at least change their first name. Most also provide a way of changing birth certificates. Several European countries recognize the right of transsexuals to marry in their post-operative sex. France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Denmark, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom all recognize this right. The situation is different in some eastern European countries. For instance, countries like the Czech Republic have laws governing sex change or, at least, give people the right to change their name and legal documents (Latvia). Other countries like Lithuania do not have any working legislation governing sex change. Spain Since June 2006, a new law in Spain allows transsexual people to modify their name and legal gender in all public documents and records on the basis of a personal request, regardless of whether they had genital reassignment surgery or not. However, medical (hormonal) treatment for at least two years is a prerequisite. Poland In Polish law there is not any specific institution or act considering gender change, although right to change one's legal gender is generally recognised. Article 189 of Polish Civil Procedure Code allows an individual to ask court to determine his right or legal relations in many contexts, including gender and civil registry records. On the grounds of this provision Polish courts often approve legal claims for modyfing registry records, name and all other public documents. It is practically needed that court should be provided with medical evidences of one's transsexuality. The first milestone sentence in the case of gender shifting was given by Warsaw's Voivode Court in 1964. Court reasoned that it possible in face of civil procedure and act on civil registry records to change one's gender after the genital reassignment surgery was conduced. In 1983 the Supreme Court ruled that in some cases, when the attributes of newly-formed sex are predominant it is possible to change one's gender even before the genital reassignment surgery see for example: T. Smyczynski, Prawo rodzinne i opiekuńcze, C.H. Beck 2005 . United Kingdom Historically in the United Kingdom, transsexual people had succeeded in getting their birth certificates changed and marriages conducted. This was first legally challenged in the 1960s, in the case of Sir Ewan Forbes, where the Court of Session ruled that the certificate change was legitimate for the purposes of inheriting a title, a decision later upheld by the Home Secretary. However, the case was held secretly and in a Scottish court, and there was not a publicly reported case in an English court until 1970. That year, in the case of Corbett v Corbett, Arthur Corbett attempted to annul his marriage to April Ashley on the grounds that transsexuals were not recognised in English law. It was decided that, for the purposes of marriage, a post-operative transsexual was considered to be of the sex they had at birth. This set the precedent for the coming decades. People who thought they had existing valid marriages turned out not to – and the previous unofficial changing of birth certificates was stopped. Transsexual people were able to change their names freely; to get passports and driving licences altered; to have their National Insurance details changed; and so forth. A piece of legislation was also introduced to ban discrimination against transsexual people for employment. In the 1980s and 1990s the pressure group, Press for Change, helped people take several cases to the European Court of Human Rights about this. In Rees vs. United Kingdom, 1986, it was decided that the UK was not violating any human rights; but, that they should keep the situation under review. The UK government did nothing to look at the situation – and in 2002 in the case Goodwin vs. United Kingdom, it was decided that the rights to privacy and family life were being infringed. In response to its obligation, Parliament passed the Gender Recognition Act 2004, which effectively granted full legal recognition for transgender people. In contrast to systems elsewhere in the world, the Gender Recognition process does not require applicants to be post-operative. They need only demonstrate that they have suffered gender dysphoria, and have lived in the 'acquired gender' for two years, and intend to continue doing so until death. There are strict rules governing the requirements for granting of a certificate; more details may be found on the GIRES website. Medical treatment It has been established by the courts that no National Health Service Health Authority has the right to deny treatment for gender dysphoria as a matter of policy. However, effective access to treatment varies wildly depending upon the policies of the individual Gender Identity Clinics with some taking a more relaxed approach than others. Transsexual people frequently characterise some centres as arrogant and controlling. A minimum requirement of 24 months real life experience, before a surgical referral is permitted, is not uncommon; and many GICs will force patients to transition before they are allowed access to hormone replacement therapy. A common alternative for some is to seek private treatment; though most private health insurance plans specifically exclude it. Often, people will seek hormone therapy privately and then later seek surgery on the NHS; which, may prove troublesome because the NHS likes to be involved at all stages of the process. Germany The "Transsexuellengesetz" Since 1980, Germany has a law that regulates the change of first names and legal gender. It is called "Gesetz über die Änderung der Vornamen und die Feststellung der Geschlechtszugehörigkeit in besonderen Fällen (:de:Transsexuellengesetz - TSG)" (Law about the change of first name and determination of gender identity in special cases (Transsexual law - TSG)). In Germany, as in many countries whose law is at least partly based on the Code Napoleon, the first name has to be gender-specific. One can either obtain a change of name alone, and proceed later with a change of legal gender, if possible or desired, or obtain both in a single procedure. For both, two official expert opinions have to be presented to a court stating that: a medical diagnosis of transsexualism has been made, the person has felt the need of living "according to their desires" for at least three years, and it is "unlikely" that the "feeling of belonging to the other sex/gender" is going to change any more. (German does not differentiate between sex and gender). The change of name can and almost certainly will be revoked if the person marries and then fathers or gives birth to a child that was conceived after the name change became valid. For the change of legal gender, it is also required that the person is permanently infertile, and "has had surgery through which their outer sexual characteristics are changed to a significant approximation to the appearance of the other sex/gender". Originally, the law stated that neither change of name nor legal gender were available for people under 25 years of age. This condition has been declared void by the courts, and today there is no minimum age. Until 2008, it also stated that the person had to be unmarried. The TSG applies only to German citizens; there are exceptions only for non-German citizens with very specific legal status, such as stateless people living legally in Germany. Unless a person can show that they do not have the money to pay for the procedure, the applicant has to pay the costs for the procedure. The costs for the court itself are about 60-70 Euros, but the expert opinions can range in cost from 0 Euros to several thousand Euros on average around 600 to 1200 Euros. Several court decisions have further specified several matters. For example, a person with only a name change has the right to be called "Herr" or "Frau" (Mr. or Mrs.) according to their first name, not their legal gender; similarly, documents have to be issued reflecting the actual gender role, not legal gender. Job references, certifications and similar from the time before the change of name have to be reissued with the new name, so effectively there is no way for a new employer to learn about the change of name and/or gender. Also, people with only a name change do not have to divulge their legal gender to employers even if the gender of the employee usually matters in a particular job. (For example a medical assistant to a gynaecologist.) Criticism of the "Transsexuellengesetz" In the last couple of years, the TSG has come under intense criticism not only from the trans community, but also some medical caregivers. This criticism is directed against both the way the law is applied, especially concerning the way "expert opinions" are done, and the wording of the law itself. Particularly the following parts of the TSG are criticised: The mandatory diagnosis of transsexualism, instead of "gender identity disorder" or simply granting at least name changes on the basis of individual need. The fact that (almost) only German citizens can obtain papers reflecting the gender role they live in, resulting in significant problems for people living in Germany who are not German citizens. The need for "expert opinions", see below. The proceedings can take a very long time, especially because of the time that is often needed for the expert opinions, but also because courts are often overloaded. Half a year is a rather fast decision, one year or more is not unusual. People who have only changed their name have a questionable legal status. While most of the time this is perfectly sufficient, there are several problems in specific situations. A person with only a name change ... who is in hospital or prison has no right to be accommodated according to the gender role they live in, but can be housed according to their legal gender; can enter a registered partnership with a person of the same legal gender (since 2001), but can not marry or enter any kind of legally secured partnership with a person of the opposite legal gender; risks their name change when fathering or giving birth to a child. The conditions for a change of legal gender are often considered too high: The requirement to be unmarried means that people who are married and wish to remain so can not obtain a change of legal gender. (How a legal change of gender would affect a registered partnership is currently unknown, since registered partnerships only became available since 2001.) The requirement to be "permanently infertile" is seen as interfering with the right to physical integrity, especially since a simple sterilization is usually not seen as sufficient, but castration is required instead. The requirement for surgery, which is interpreted essentially as a requirement for genital reassignment surgery, is seen as interfering with the right to physical integrity. This is always applied to transwomen, and transmen are only currently exempt because the results are seen as unacceptable. This exemption is regularly challenged by judges. As has already been mentioned, the "expert opinions" can be very expensive. Some "experts" wish to test everything they can think of, including intelligence and/or every psychiatric disorder they can think of. Also, the sexual history of the clients is of particular interest to some. This results in assessments which are lengthy (several months are not unusual), costly and humiliating. Many "experts" also consider only those people as transsexual who live in a gender role that the expert considers "appropriate" resulting in problems for example for transwomen who sometimes do not wear skirts or transmen with hair that is considered "too long". Especially lesbian transwomen and gay transmen suffer from problems with these "experts". Since the courts usually impose the "experts" on the applicants (which is legally at least questionable) there is no way to escape these often expensive, lengthy and humiliating assessments. Not every expert who is asked for an expert opinion however will work according such questionable "guidelines". Since there are many regional differences, there is a certain amount of "trans-tourism"; people (at least officially) moving to the circuit of courts who are known to appoint "liberal" or "reasonable" experts. However, the general problems with "expert opinions" have led to demands to abandon these completely or at least to lower the required number to one and to lower the formal requirement for it. Many of this criticism applies also to "expert opinions", "letters of recommendation" or similar papers regarding medical procedures. The same problems with "experts" are also experienced in all other countries. In July 2008, a court in Karlsruhe ruled that a transsexual woman who transitioned to female after having been married to a woman for more than 50 years could remain married to her wife and change her legal gender to female. It gave the legislature one year to effect the necessary change in the relevant law. (La Presse) Legal aspects of medical treatment Based on several court decisions, some dating back to the late 1970s, medical treatment of transsexualism (and in fact all gender identity disorders) has to be paid by health insurance, which is mandatory in Germany. Like all treatments that have to be paid for by health insurance, "medical necessity" has to be shown in each particular case. In some cases, this can lead to lengthy procedures, although this is not always the case. However, the less "medical necessity" can be shown, the more difficult it gets to get coverage. This is particularly true for surgeries like Facial Feminization Surgery, but also occasionally for more basic matters as the construction of a neo-clitoris. The regulation of coverage of medical costs is formally completely unrelated to the TSG; in practice, there can be overlaps, for example with expert opinions. Lithuania In Lithuania, it is not possible for transsexual people to change gender-related records. Even the ability to change names is limited: it is possible to change from a gender-specific name to a gender-neutral name, but only for unmarried people. Although the basic right to change sex is described in Lithuanian civil code article 2.27, this article is not considered in force because no specific law governing sex change exists. Romania In Romania, it is legal for transgender people to change their first name to reflect their gender identity, based on personal choice. Since 1996, it is also possible for someone who has gone through sex reassignment surgery to change their legal gender in order to reflect their new (post-operative) biological sex. Transsexuals then have the right to marry in their post-operative sex. Legal Survey of LGBT Rights Worldwide, PDF file Netherlands In the Netherlands one can go to court and request a change in gender and birth name on ones birth certificate. With this modification the records of the local municipality are updated, and one can obtain a passport and driver's license with the new name and gender. Moreover, a child can then request an update of the gender indication of their parents to allow a change to their records. Ireland In the Republic of Ireland, it is not possible for a transsexual person to alter their birth certificate. A case was taken in the High Court by Dr. Lydia Foy in 2002 which saw her case being turned down as a birth certificate was deemed to be an historical document http://archives.tcm.ie/carlownationalist/2002/07/22/story2387.asp Lydia Foy vs. An t-Ard Chlaraitheoir (Registrar General) . It is currently possible for anyone to undertake a change of name either through common usage or through a deed of change of name. Dr. Foy has taken new proceedings to the High Court relying on the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights in the Goodwin and 'I' cases. Her application was heard between 17 and 26 April 2007 and judgment was reserved. Judgment was given in the High Court on 19 October 2007. The Judge held that the Irish state had failed to respect Dr. Foy's rights under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights by not providing any mechanism for her to obtain a new birth certificate in her female gender. He indicated that he would grant a declaration that Irish law in this area was incompatible with the Convention. He also said he would have found that her right to marry under Article 12 of the Convention had been infringed as well if that had been relevant. On 14 February 2008 the Judge finally granted a declaration that sections of the Civil Registration Act, 2004 were incompatible with Article 8 of the Convention. This was the first declaration of incompatibility made under the European Convention of Human Rights Act passed in 2003. The written judgment is so far only available in an uncorrected form. The Government has two months within which to appeal to the Supreme Court. If they do not, the Taoiseach (Prime Minister) must report to the Oireachtas (Parliament) the making of the declaration and will have to indicate what measures his Government proposes to take to comply with Ireland's obligations under the European Convention. In Northern Ireland, the Gender Recognition Act 2004 of the United Kingdom applies, so a name and gender change on one's birth certificate is now possible. Africa South Africa South African courts have accepted the Corbett decision, but New Zealand courts, and more recently an Australian court (see Re Kevin - validity of marriage of transsexual), have rejected it. Some Canadian courts have also accepted the decision, though the law in question appears to vary from province to province. North America United States Canada The situation in Canada varies depending upon which province you are in. It is possible to gain recognition in each of them, but with varying requirements. Asia Singapore Singapore has also recently recognized the right of transsexuals to marry in their reassigned sex. Japan In July 2003, the parliament of Japan unanimously approved a new law that enables transsexual people to change their legal sexes. The law, effective in 2004, however, has controversial conditions which demand the applicants be both unmarried and childless. On 28 July 2004, Naha Family Court, Okinawa Prefecture, allowed an official sex-change of a transsexual woman, generally thought as the first court approval under the new law. In May 2005, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government's Transport Authority announced that transsexual people and those "suffering from a gender disorder" will be permitted to ride in designated women-only carriages on its subway lines . South Korea In South Korea, it is possible for transgender individuals to change their legal genders, although it depends on the decision of the judge for each case. Since the 1990s, however, legal sex change has been approved in most of the cases. The legal system in Korea does not prevent marriage once a person has changed their legal sex. In 2006, the Supreme Court of Korea ruled that transsexuals have the right to have their legal papers altered to reflect their reassigned sex. A transwoman can be registered, not only as female, but also as being 'born as a woman'. Korea To Correct Identity Papers Of Transsexuals - 365gay.com While same-sex marriage is not approved by South Korean law, a transgender woman obtains the legal status of 'female' automatically when she marries to a man, even if she has previously been a 'male' on papers. Malaysia There is no legislation expressly allowing transsexuals to legally change their gender in Malaysia. The relevant legislations are the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1957 and National Registration Act 1959. Therefore judges currently exercise their discretion in interpreting the law and defining the gender. There are conflicting decisions on this matter. There is a case in 2003 where the court allowed a transsexual to change her gender indicated in the identity card, and granted a declaration that she is a female. "JeffreyJessie: Recognising Transsexuals", The Malaysian Bar. Accessed August 21, 2007. J.G v. Pengarah Jabatan Pendaftaran Negara However, in 2005, in another case, the court refused to amend the gender of a transsexual in the identity card and birth certificate. Both cases applied the United Kingdom case of Corbett v Corbett in defining the gender. Philippines The Supreme Court of the Philippines Justice Leonardo Quisumbing on September 12, 2008, allowed Jennifer Cagandahan, 27, to change both his birth certificate, gender and name from Jennifer to Jeff, to male: “We respect respondent’s congenital condition and his mature decision to be a male. Life is already difficult for the ordinary person. We cannot but respect how respondent deals with his unordinary state and thus help make his life easier, considering the unique circumstances in this case. In the absence of a law on the matter, the court will not dictate on respondent concerning a matter so innately private as one’s sexuality and lifestyle preferences, much less on whether or not to undergo medical treatment to reverse the male tendency due to rare medical condition, congenital adrenal hyperplasia. In the absence of evidence that respondent is an ‘incompetent’ and in the absence of evidence to show that classifying respondent as a male will harm other members of society ... the court affirms as valid and justified the respondent’s position and his personal judgment of being a male." Court records showed that - at 6, he had small ovaries; at 13, his ovarian structure was minimized and he had no breasts and did not menstruate. The psychiatrist testified that "he has both male and female sex organs, but was genetically female, and that since his body secreted male hormones, his female organs did not develop normally." The Philippines National Institutes of Health said "people with congenital adrenal hyperplasia lack an enzyme needed by the adrenal gland to make the hormones cortisol and aldosterone. Without these hormones, the body produces more androgen, a type of male sex hormone. This causes male characteristics to appear early in males or inappropriately in the case of females. About 1 in 10,000 to 18,000 children are born with congenital adrenal hyperplasia." newsinfo.inquirer.net, Call him Jeff, says SC; he used to be called Jennifer news.com.au, Woman's body 'naturally' became male foxnews.com/story, Rare Condition Turns Woman Into Man Australia Birth Certificates Estelle Asmodelle was Australia's first legal transsexual with the Births, Deaths and Marriages Dept. (NSW Government). As cited by (18 June 1987 - Australian Telegraph Newspaper.) This was the first time in Australian law history that an adult transsexual was permitted to change their birth certificate to a different sex and soon afterwards the passport law also changed allowing transsexuals to be issued passports with the new sex depicted. Australia is now one of only a few countries where legal status of the new sex following sex affirmation surgery is granted via a new full birth certificate. Birth certificates are within the jurisdiction of the states, whereas marriage and passports are matters for the Commonwealth. All Australian jurisdictions now recognise the affirmed sex of an individual after surgery unless the person is married. Marriage Re Kevin - validity of marriage of transsexual ([2001] FamCA 1074) is a groundbreaking judgment of the Family Court of Australia, concerning both transsexualism as a phenomenon, the human rights of those who experience transsexualism and the right of people who have experienced transsexualism to enter into a legally valid marriage. Kevin, an affirmed male (sometimes still genoticentrically a belief that the sexual identity of a person (male or female) is best determined by their genital appearance or formation; even when that contradicts other biological sex idnicators such as the person's brain sex or neurological sex as evidenced by the person's own opinion/experience of their sexual identity. referred to as a "female-to-male transsexual"), married Jennifer before the case started. Prior to the marriage Kevin had affirmed his male sexual identity by underging hormonal and other sex affirmation treatment; including a double mastectomy and full hysterectomy but not the construction of a phallus. His legal sex had been changed on his birth certificate and other documentation and since his affirmation of his male sex (including as at the time of his marriage and the trial) he had lived in the Australian culture and community as a male. When the Attorney General for the Commonwealth of Australia advised the couple through his department that in his considered opinion their marriage was not a legally valid one and that the couple (or at least Kevin) was liable to be prosecuted and possibly imprisoned, the couple sought the legal advice and representation of Australian lawyer Rachael Wallbank See for useful commentary on Re Kevin and further case references. , herself an affirmed female, and commenced proceedings in the Famly Court of Australia against the Attorney General for the Commonwealth of Australia to have their marriage declared legally valid. The question to be determined by the court was whether Kevin was a man for the purposes of the marriage law of Australia and, hence, whether the marriage ceremony he had undertaken with Jennifer was a valid one. Further, at the time of the trial the couple had one child as a result of approved assisted technology. Their second child was born at the time of the hearing of the appeal proceedings. English law had previously decided, in the case of Corbett v Corbett (1971), that sex affirmation including genital reassignment/rehabilitation surgery (then and sometimes still geniticentrically called "Sex Reassignment Surgery") would not be recognized for purposes of marriage. That decsison had been generally followed throughout the world; including the United States of America. Justice Richard Chisholm (the judge in Re Kevin) found fault with both the legal bases and internal logic of this decision and held it did not bind or represent Australian law. Significantly, Justice Chisholm found that the extensive international and Australian expert evidence in Re Kevin did not support the primary "factual" proposition in the Corbett decision that a causal (and hence legal) distinction could and should be made between the natural variations in human sexual formation sometimes called "intersex" (in Corbett and other similar decisions said to have a biological causation) and transsexualism (in Corbett and other similar decisions said to be a psychological disorder). Chisholm J found that on the balance of expert evidence, both as presented in Re Kevin and generally in cases throughout the world dealing with the issue, no such factual distinction was possible and that transsexualism was an example of natural intersexual diversity in human sexual formation and not a pychological disorder or illness. Justice Chisholm stated that to determine a person's sex for the purpose of the law of marriage in Australia all relevant matters need to be considered, including: the person's biological and physical characteristics at birth (including gonads, genitals and chromosomes); the person's life experiences, including the sex in which he or she is brought up and the person's attitude to it; the person's self-perception as a man or woman; the extent to which the person has functioned in society as a man or a woman; any hormonal, surgical or other medical sex affirmation (including genital reassignment/rehabilitation) treatments the person has undergone, and the consequences of such treatment as well as the person's biological, psychological and physical characteristics at the time of the marriage, including (if they can be identified) any biological features of the person's brain that are associated with a particular sex. His Honour stated that it is clear from the Australian authorities that "post-operative transsexuals" will normally be members of their affirmed sex. Holding that the sex of a person for the purposes of marriage is their sex at the time of the marriage, the judgement found Kevin to be a man within the ordinary everyday meaning of the word in Australian life and declared the marriage between Kevin and Jennifer to be valid. The Attorney-General appealed. The Full Court of the Family Court, upholding the decision at first instance , determined that the reasoning of the Family Division of the UK High Court in W v W, an intersex marriage case, was a correct statement of the law in Australia and that people with transsexualism, like others with intersex conditions, should be able to choose their sex, affirm it and marry as a member of that sex. Re Kevin has been subsequently extensively quoted and relied upon in international jurisprudence (including the in the United States of America and in the European Court of Human Rights) concerning the civil and human rights of people who experience transsexualism; including young people with transsexualism who are still regularly deprived of their right to affirm their innate sex without being punished by family and culture, change their legal sex in order to make it intelligably consistent with their affirmed/lived sex as well as being able to freely access medically approved sex affirmation treatment. Passports Until recently, transsexual people in Australia were able to be issued an interim passport with their self-identified gender stated upon it, in order to travel overseas for sex reassignment surgery (SRS). However, a recent "clarification" by the Minister for foreign affairs and Trade, Mr. Alexander Downer, stated that a person may not have a new passport or interim passport issued without a birth certificate stating their gender. instead they may be issued a "Document of Identity" A department of Foreign Affairs spokesperson has said; "The department has an obligation to ensure that the national passport reflects the official identity of the bearer and it would be inconsistent ... to continue to issue passports, albeit limited in validity, to persons in a sex other than that shown in the records held by the ... births, deaths and marriages registrar," Natalie Imbruglia's sex change cousin in passport row, Sydney Morning Herald, Due to the interpretation of the Commonwealth Marriage Act 1961, Birth certificates are not able to be changed where the person is currently married. In the case of homosexual-identified transpeople, to obtain a divorce would require them to perjure themselves by stating that their relationship was irretrievably broken. Due to the aforementioned "clarification" Such people are also unable to be issued a passport, even if they previously obtained an interim passport in order to have SRS. Grace Abrams appealed the minister's rejection of her application for a permanent passport. Her application with the administrative appeals tribunal was upheld, stating that she was able to validate her identity as a female person, and that her inability to present a female birth certificate due to state legislation was not valid grounds for rejecting her application This, however, gives rise to the event that Mrs. Abrams is a legally identified woman in a legally recognised marriage with another legal woman See also List of transgender-related topics LGBT rights by country or territory — including gender identity/expression LGBT people in prison References Chow, Melinda. (2005). "Smith v. City of Salem: Transgendered Jurisprudence and an Expanding Meaning of Sex Discrimination under Title VII". Harvard Journal of Law & Gender. Vol. 28. Winter. 207. Transgender Rights. (2006). Edited by Paisley Currah, Richard M. Juang and Shannon Price Minter. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Notes External links Transgender Law Center - California civil rights organization advocating for transgender communities through direct legal service, public policy advocacy, and educational opportunities Links to Online forms for California Change of Name and Gender Trans Gender Title and Name Change Information and Advice on Trans Gender Title and Name Changes in the United Kingdom Press for Change - UK information about the trans rights campaign and details about the legal, medical, political, and social issues surrounding transgender people Sylvia Rivera Law Project - US based cooperative organization founded on the understanding that gender self-determination is intertwined with racial, social, and economic justice Gender Public Advocacy Coalition - US advocacy group working to end discrimination and violence caused by gender stereotypes by changing public attitudes, educating elected officials, and expanding human rights National Center for Transgender Equality - US group dedicated to advancing the equality of transgender people through advocacy, collaboration and empowerment. Transgender Law and Policy Institute US information about laws and policy surrounding gender identity and gender expression. Instructions for changing name and sex on birth certificate - State-by-state instructions for US and Canada - Australian WOMAN Network provides support and advocacy for people who are surgically affirming or have affirmed a sex opposite that assigned to them at birth Illinois Gender Advocates Illinois advocacy group for transgender people

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Morphophonology

Morphophonology (also morphophonemics, morphonology) is a branch of linguistics which studies: The phonological structure of morphemes. The combinatory phonic modifications of morphemes which happen when they are combined The alternative series which serve a morphological function. Examples of a morphophonological alternatives in English include these distinctions: Plurals "-es" and "-s", as in "bus, buses", vs. "bun, buns". Plural of "-f" is "-ves", as in "leaf, leaves" Different pronunciations for the past tense marker "-ed". English, being mostly an isolating language, does not have much morphophonology. Inflected and agglutinating languages may have extremely complicated systems, e.g. consonant gradation. Orthographic context The English plural morpheme s is written the same regardless of its pronunciation: cats, dogs. This is a morphophonemic spelling. If English used a purely phonemic orthography(the same system without any morphemic considerations), these could be spelled cats and dogz, because and are separate phonemes in English. To some extent English orthography reflects the etymology of its words, and as such it is partially morphophonemic. This explains not only cats and dogs , but also science vs. unconscious , prejudice vs. prequel , chased vs. loaded , sign signature , nation vs. nationalism , and special vs. species , etc. Most morphophonemic orthographies, however, reflect only active morphology, like cats vs. dogs, or chased vs. loaded. Turkish and German both have broadly phonemic writing systems, but while German is morphophonemic, transcribing the "underlying" phonemes, Turkish is purely phonemic, transcribing surface phonemes only (at least traditionally; this appears to be changing). For example, Turkish has two words, /et/ 'meat' and /et/ 'to do', which in isolation appear to be homonyms. However, when a vowel follows, the roots diverge: /eti/ 'his meat', but /edir/ 'he does'. In Turkish when a root that ends in a /d/ appears without a following vowel, the /d/ becomes /t/ (final obstruent devoicing), and that is reflected in the spelling: et, et, eti, edir. German has a similar relationship between /t/ and /d/. The words for 'bath' and 'advice' are /bat/ and /rat/, but the verbal forms are /badən/ 'to bathe' and /ratən/ 'to advise'. However, they are spelled Bad, baden and Rat, raten as if the consonants didn't change at all. Indeed, a speaker may perceive that the final consonant in Bad is different from the final consonant of Rat because the inflections differ, even though they are pronounced the same. A morphophonemic orthography such as this has the advantage of maintaining the orthographic shape of the root regardless of the inflection, which aids in recognition while reading. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, pipes (| |) are often used to indicate a morphophonemic rather than phonemic representation. Another common convention is double slashes (// //), iconically implying that the transcription is 'more phonemic than simply phonemic'. Other conventions sometimes seen are double pipes (|| ||) and curly brackets ({ }). Table. The underlying (morpho-phonemic), phonemic, and phonetic representations of four German and Turkish words. The forms in boldface are the ones chosen for the official orthographies. (In the Turkish examples, represents an underlying high vowel that may surface as any one of the four phonemes .) {| class="wikitable" ! ||word!!morpho-phonemic!!phonemic!!phonetic |- |align=center rowspan=4|German||Bad|| || || |- |baden|| || || |- |Rat|| || || {{IPA| |- |raten|| || || {{IPA| |- |align=center rowspan=4|Turkish||et|| || || {{IPA| |- |edir|| || || |- |et|| || || {{IPA| |- |eti|| || || |} Another example of a morphophonemic orthography is modern hangul, and even more so the obsolete North Korean Chosŏn-ŏ sinch'ŏlchabŏp orthography.

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Arthur_Eddington

Arthur Stanley Eddington, OM, FRS (28 December 1882 – 22 November 1944) was a British astrophysicist of the early 20th century. The Eddington limit, the natural limit to the luminosity of stars, or the radiation generated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour. He is famous for his work regarding the Theory of Relativity. Eddington wrote a number of articles which announced and explained Einstein's theory of general relativity to the English-speaking world. World War I severed many lines of scientific communication and new developments in German science were not well known in England. He also conducted an eclipse expedition in 1919 that provided one of the earliest confirmations of relativity, and he became known for his popular expositions and interpretations of the theory. Biography Early years Eddington was born in Kendal, England, son of Quaker parents, Arthur Henry Eddington and Sarah Ann Shout. His father taught at a Quaker training college in Lancashire before moving to Kendal to become headmaster of Stramongate School. He died in the typhoid epidemic which swept England in 1884. When his father died, his mother was left to bring up her two children with relatively little income. The family moved to Weston-super-Mare where at first Stanley (as his mother and sister always called Eddington) was educated at home before spending three years at a preparatory school. In 1893 Stanley entered Brynmelyn School. He proved to be a most capable scholar particularly in mathematics and English literature. His performance earned him a scholarship to Owens College, Manchester in 1898, which he was able to attend, having turned 16 that year. He spent the first year in a general course, but turned to physics for the next three years. Eddington was greatly influenced by his physics and mathematics teachers, Arthur Schuster and Horace Lamb. At Manchester, Eddington lived at Dalton Hall, where he came under the lasting influence of the Quaker mathematician J.W. Graham. His progress was rapid, winning him several scholarships and he graduated with a B.Sc. in physics with First Class Honours in 1902. Based on his performance at Owens College, he was awarded a scholarship to the University of Cambridge (Trinity College) in 1902. His tutor at Cambridge was the distinguished mathematician R.A. Herman and in 1904 Eddington became the first ever second-year student to be placed as Senior Wrangler. After receiving his B.A. in 1905, he began research on thermionic emission in the Cavendish Laboratory. This did not go well, and meanwhile he spent time teaching mathematics to first year engineering students, without much satisfaction. But fortunately this hiatus was brief. Astronomy In January 1906, Eddington was nominated to the post of chief assistant to the Astronomer Royal at the Royal Greenwich Observatory. He left Cambridge for Greenwich the following month. He was put to work on a detailed analysis of the parallax of 433 Eros on photographic plates that had started in 1900. He developed a new statistical method based on the apparent drift of two background stars, winning him the Smith's Prize in 1907. The prize won him a Fellowship of Trinity College, Cambridge. In December 1912 George Darwin, son of Charles Darwin, died suddenly and Eddington was promoted to his chair as the Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in early 1913. Later that year, Robert Ball, holder of the theoretical Lowndean chair also died, and Eddington was named the director of the entire Cambridge Observatory the next year. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society shortly after. Eddington also investigated the interior of stars through theory, and developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He began this in 1916 with investigations of possible physical explanations for Cepheid variables. He began by extending Karl Schwarzschild's earlier work on radiation pressure in Emden polytropic models. These models treated a star as a sphere of gas held up against gravity by internal thermal pressure, and one of Eddington's chief additions was to show that radiation pressure was necessary to prevent collapse of the sphere. He developed his model despite knowingly lacking firm foundations for understanding opacity and energy generation in the stellar interior. However, his results allowed for calculation of temperature, density and pressure at all points inside a star, and Eddington argued that his theory was so useful for further astrophysical investigation that it should be retained despite not being based on completely accepted physics. James Jeans contributed the important suggestion that stellar matter would certainly be ionized, but that was the end of any collaboration between the pair, who became famous for their lively debates. Eddington defended his method by pointing to the utility of his results, particularly his important mass-luminosity relation. This had the unexpected result of showing that virtually all stars, including giants and dwarfs, behaved as ideal gases. In the process of developing his stellar models, he sought to overturn current thinking about the sources of stellar energy. Jeans and others defended the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism, which was based on classical mechanics, while Eddington speculated broadly about the qualitative and quantitative consequences of possible proton-electron annihilation and nuclear fusion processes. With these assumptions, he demonstrated that the interior temperature of stars must be millions of degrees. In 1924, he discovered the mass-luminosity relation for stars (see Lecchini in #External links and references ). Despite some disagreement, Eddington's models were eventually accepted as a powerful tool for further investigation, particularly in issues of stellar evolution. The confirmation of his estimated stellar diameters by Michelson in 1920 proved crucial in convincing astronomers unused to Eddington's intuitive, exploratory style. Eddington's theory appeared in mature form in 1926 as The Internal Constitution of the Stars, which became an important text for training an entire generation of astrophysicists. During World War I Eddington became embroiled in controversy within the British astronomical and scientific communities. Many astronomers, chief among them H.H. Turner, argued that scientific relations with all of the Central Powers should be permanently ended due to their conduct in the war. Eddington, a Quaker pacifist, struggled to keep wartime bitterness out of astronomy. He repeatedly called for British scientists to preserve their pre-war friendships and collegiality with German scientists. Eddington's pacifism caused severe difficulties during the war, especially when he was called up for conscription in 1918. He claimed conscientious objector status, a position recognized by the law, if somewhat despised by the public. In 1918 the government sought to revoke this deferment, and only the timely intervention of the Astronomer Royal and other high profile figures kept Eddington out of prison. Eddington's work in astrophysics in the late 1920s and the 1930s continued his work in stellar structure, and precipitated further clashes with Jeans and E.A. Milne. An important topic was the extension of his models to take advantage of developments in quantum physics, including the use of degeneracy physics in describing dwarf stars. This precipitated his famous dispute with Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was then a student at Cambridge. Chandrasekhar's narrative of this incident, in which his work is harshly rejected, portrays Eddington as rather cruel and dogmatic, and is at variance with Eddington's character as described by other contemporaries. Eddington's criticism seems to have been based on a suspicion that a purely mathematical derivation from quantum theory was not enough to explain the daunting physical paradoxes that were apparently part of degenerate stars. Relativity During World War I Eddington was Secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, which meant he was the first to receive a series of letters and papers from Willem de Sitter regarding Einstein’s theory of general relativity. Eddington was fortunate in being not only one of the few astronomers with the mathematical skills to understand general relativity, but (owing to his international and pacifist views) one of the few at the time who was still interested in pursuing a theory developed by a German physicist. He quickly became the chief supporter and expositor of relativity in Britain. He and Astronomer Royal Frank Dyson organized two expeditions to observe a solar eclipse in 1919 to make the first empirical test of Einstein’s theory: the measurement of the deflection of light by the sun's gravitational field. In fact, it was Dyson’s argument for the indispensability of Eddington’s expertise in this test that allowed him to escape prison during the war. One of Eddington's photographs of the 1919 eclipse, presented in his 1920 paper announcing its success. After the war, Eddington travelled to the island of Príncipe near Africa to watch the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. During the eclipse, he took pictures of the stars in the region around the Sun. According to the theory of general relativity, stars with light rays that passed near the Sun would appear to have been slightly shifted because their light had been curved by its gravitational field. This effect is noticeable only during an eclipse, since otherwise the Sun's brightness obscures the affected stars. Eddington showed that Newtonian gravitation could be interpreted to predict half the shift predicted by Einstein. (Somewhat confusingly, this same half-shift was initially predicted by Einstein with an incomplete version of general relativity. By the time of the 1919 eclipse Einstein had corrected his calculations.) Eddington's observations published the next year confirmed Einstein's theory, and were hailed at the time as a conclusive proof of general relativity over the Newtonian model. The news was reported in newspapers all over the world as a major story. Afterward, Eddington embarked on a campaign to popularize relativity and the expedition as landmarks both in scientific development and international scientific relations. It has been claimed that Eddington's observations were of poor quality and he had unjustly discounted simultaneous observations at Sobral, Brazil which appeared closer to the Newtonian model Not Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition by Daniel Kennefick . The quality of the 1919 results was indeed poor compared to later observations, but was sufficient to persuade contemporary astronomers. The rejection of the results from the Brazil expedition was due to a defect in the telescopes used which, again, was completely accepted and well-understood by contemporary astronomers. D. Kennefick, "Testing relativity from the 1919 eclipse- a question of bias," Physics Today, March 2009, pp. 37-42. . The myth that Eddington's results were fraudulent is a modern invention. Throughout this period Eddington lectured on relativity, and was particularly well known for his ability to explain the concepts in lay terms as well as scientific. He collected many of these into the Mathematical Theory of Relativity in 1923, which Albert Einstein suggested was "the finest presentation of the subject in any language." He was an early advocate of Einstein's General Relativity, and an interesting anecdote well illustrates his humor and personal intellectual investment: Ludwig Silberstein, a physicist who thought of himself as an expert on relativity, approached Eddington at the Royal Society's (6 November) 1919 meeting where he had defended Einstein's Relativity with his Brazil-Principe Solar Eclipse calculations with some degree of scepticism and ruefully charged Arthur as one who claimed to be one of three men who actually understood the theory (Silberstein, of course, was including himself and Einstein as the other two). When Eddington refrained from replying, he insisted Arthur not be "so shy", whereupon Eddington replied, "Oh, no! I was wondering who the third one might be!" As related by Eddington to Chandrasekhar and quoted in Walter Isaacson "Einstein: His Life and Universe", page 262 Popular and philosophical writings During the 1920s and 30s Eddington gave innumerable lectures, interviews, and radio broadcasts on relativity (in addition to his textbook Mathematical Theory of Relativity), and later, quantum mechanics. Many of these were gathered into books, including The Nature of the Physical World and New Pathways in Science. His skillful use of literary allusions and humor helped make these famously difficult subjects quite accessible. Eddington's books and lectures were immensely popular with the public, not only because of Eddington’s clear and entertaining exposition, but also for his willingness to discuss the philosophical and religious implications of the new physics. He argued for a deeply-rooted philosophical harmony between scientific investigation and religious mysticism, and also that the positivist nature of modern physics (i.e., relativity and quantum physics) provided new room for personal religious experience and free will. Unlike many other spiritual scientists, he rejected the idea that science could provide proof of religious propositions. He promoted the infinite monkey theorem in his 1928 book The Nature of the Physical World, with the phrase "If an army of monkeys were strumming on typewriters, they might write all the books in the British Museum". His popular writings made him, quite literally, a household name in Great Britain between the world wars. Cosmology Eddington was also heavily involved with the development of the first generation of general relativistic cosmological models. He had been investigating the instability of the Einstein universe when he learned of both Lemaitre's 1927 paper postulating an expanding or contracting universe and Hubble's work on the recession on the spiral nebulae. He soon became an enthusiastic supporter of an expanding universe cosmology, pointing to the nebular recession as evidence of a curved space-time. However, he never accepted the argument that an expanding universe required a beginning. He rejected what would later be known as Big Bang cosmologies as 'too unaesthetically abrupt.' He felt the cosmical constant must have played the crucial role in the universe's evolution from an Einsteinian steady state to its current expanding state, and most of his cosmological investigations focused on the constant's significance and characteristics. Fundamental theory During the 1920s until his death, he increasingly concentrated on what he called "fundamental theory" which was intended to be a unification of quantum theory, relativity and gravitation. At first he progressed along "traditional" lines, but turned increasingly to an almost numerological analysis of the dimensionless ratios of fundamental constants. His basic approach was to combine several fundamental constants in order to produce a dimensionless number. In many cases these would result in numbers close to 1040, its square, or its square root. He was convinced that the mass of the proton and the charge of the electron, were a natural and complete specification for constructing a Universe and that their values were not accidental. One of the discoverers of quantum mechanics, Paul Dirac, also pursued this line of investigation, which has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis, and some scientists even today believe it has something to it. A somewhat damaging statement in his defence of these concepts involved the fine structure constant α. At the time it was measured to be very close to 1/136, and he argued that the value should in fact be exactly 1/136 for epistemological reasons. Later measurements placed the value much closer to 1/137, at which point he switched his line of reasoning to argue that one more should be added to the degrees of freedom), so that the value should in fact be exactly 1/137, the Eddington number. Wags at the time started calling him "Arthur Adding-one". This change of stance detracted from Eddington's credibility in the physics community. The current measured value is estimated at 1/137.035999679(94). Eddington believed he had identified an algebraic basis for fundamental physics, which he termed "E-frames" (representing a certain group - a Clifford algebra). While his theory has long been neglected by the general physics community, similar algebraic notions underlie many modern attempts at a grand unified theory. Moreover, Eddington's emphasis on the values of the fundamental constants, and specifically upon dimensionless numbers derived from them, is nowadays a central concern of physics. He did not complete this line of research before his death in 1944, and his book entitled Fundamental Theory was published posthumously in 1948. Eddington died in Cambridge, England and is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge. Eddington number (cycling) Eddington is credited with devising a measure of a cyclist's long distance riding achievements. The Eddington Number in this context is defined as E, the number of days a cyclist has cycled more than E miles PhysicsWorld Archive » Volume 18 » Cycling record Tlatet: Eddington number . For example an Eddington Number of 70 would imply that a cyclist has cycled more than 70 miles in a day on 70 occasions. Achieving a high Eddington number is difficult since moving from, say, 70 to 75 will probably require more than five new long distance rides since any rides shorter than 75 miles will no longer be included in the reckoning. The construct of the Eddington Number for cycling is identical to the h-index that quantifies both the actual scientific productivity and the apparent scientific impact of a scientist. Honours Awards Smith's Prize (1907) Bruce Medal of Astronomical Society of the Pacific (1924) Henry Draper Medal (1924) Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1924) Royal Medal of the Royal Society (1928) Knighthood (1930) Order of Merit (1938) Hon. Freeman of Kendal, 1930 Who's who entry for A.S. Eddington. . Named after him Lunar crater Eddington asteroid 2761 Eddington Royal Astronomical Society's Eddington Medal Eddington mission, now cancelled Eddington Tower, halls of residence at the University of Essex Service Gave the Swarthmore Lecture in 1929. Chair of the National Peace Council 1941-1943. President of the International Astronomical Union; of the Physical Society, 1930–32; of the Royal Astronomical Society, 1921–23 . Romanes Lecturer, 1922 . Gifford Lecturer, 1927 . Bibliography 1914. Stellar Movements and the Structure of the Universe. London: Macmillan. 1918. Report on the relativity theory of gravitation. London, Fleetway press, Ltd. 1920. Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33709-7 1923, 1952. The Mathematical Theory of Relativity. Cambridge University Press. 1926. Stars and Atoms. Oxford: British Association. 1926. The Internal Constitution of Stars. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33708-9 1928. The Nature of the Physical World. MacMillan. 1935 replica edition: ISBN 0-8414-3885-4, University of Michigan 1981 edition: ISBN 0-472-06015-5 (1926–27 Gifford lectures) 1929. Science and the Unseen World. U.S. Macmillan, UK Allen & Unwin. 1980 Reprint Arden Library ISBN 0-8495-1426-6. 2004 U.S. reprint - Whitefish, Montana : Kessinger Publications: ISBN 1-4179-1728-8. 2007 UK reprint London, Allen & Unwin ISBN 9780901689818 (Swarthmore Lecture), with a new foreword by George Ellis. 19nn. The Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate', 1900-1931. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34976-1 1930. Why I Believe in God: Science and Religion, as a Scientist Sees It 1935. New Pathways in Science. Cambridge University Press. 1936. Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons. Cambridge Univ. Press. 1939. Philosophy of Physical Science. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-7581-2054-0 (1938 Tarner lectures at Cambridge)) 1925. The Domain of Physical Science. 2005 reprint: ISBN 1-4253-5842-X 1948. Fundamental Theory. Cambridge University Press. In popular culture Eddington was portrayed by actor David Tennant in the television film Einstein and Eddington (duration 89 minutes), a co-production of the BBC and HBO, broadcast in the UK on Saturday 22 November 2008, on BBC2. References See also Astronomy: Eddington limit, Chandrasekhar limit, Gravitational lens, Stellar nucleosynthesis, Timeline of stellar astronomy, Astronomers, Astrophysicists Science: Pathological science, Fundamental physical constant, Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity, General relativity, Special relativity, Luminiferous aether, Experiments, Fundamental theory, Eddington number, Eddington-Dirac number, Time's arrow. Organizations: Trinity College, Cambridge, Religious Society of Friends, Royal Astronomical Society Other: Georges Lemaître, Infinite monkey theorem, One hundred thirty-seven, Numerology, Eddington (disambiguation), List of English people, List of astronomical topics List of science and religion scholars External links and references O'Connor, J. J., and E. F. Robertson, "Arthur Stanley Eddington". School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Eddington Quotations Bennett, Clark, "Sir Arthur Eddington (1882-1944)". Founding Fathers of Relativity. Tenn, Joseph S.,"Arthur Stanley Eddington". The Bruce Medalists. Clausen, Ben, "Men of Science and of Faith in God, Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882–1944)". Russell, Henry Norris, "Review of The Internal Constitution of the Stars by A.S. Eddington". Ap.J. 67, 83 (1928). Durham, Ian T., "Eddington & Uncertainty". Physics in Perspective (September – December). Arxiv, History of Physics. Experiments of Sobral and Príncipe repeated in the space project in proceeding in fórum astronomical. Lecchini, Stefano, "How Dwarfs Became Giants. The Discovery of the Mass-Luminosity Relation". Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, pp. 224 (2007). Stanley, Matthew. “An Expedition to Heal the Wounds of War: The 1919 Eclipse Expedition and Eddington as Quaker Adventurer.” Isis 94 (2003): 57–89. Stanley, Matthew. “So Simple a Thing as a Star: Jeans, Eddington, and the Growth of Astrophysical Phenomenology” in British Journal for the History of Science, 2007, 40: 53-82. ODNB article by C. W. Kilmister, ‘Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley (1882–1944)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 accessed 23 November 2008 Biography and bibliography of Bruce medalists: Arthur Stanley Eddington Links to online copies of important books by Eddington: 'The Nature of the Physical World', 'The Philosophy of Physical Science', 'Relativity Theory of Protons and Electrons', and 'Fundamental Theory' Obituaries Astrophysical Journal 101 (1943-46) 133 Obituary by Henry Norris Russell. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, 39 (1943-46) 1 Obituary by A. Vibert Douglas. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 105 (1943-46) 68 Obituary by H. Spencer Jones and E.T. Whitaker. The Observatory 66 (1943-46) 1 Obituary by Herbert Dingle The Times, Thursday, November 23, 1944; pg. 7; Issue 49998; col D: Obituary (unsigned) - Image of cutting available at MacTutor History of Mathematics archive (St. Andrews University) Website

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Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) is the short title of United States (), codified at et seq. It was signed into law on July 26, 1990, by President George H. W. Bush, and later amended with changes effective January 1, 2009. The ADA is a wide-ranging civil rights law that prohibits, under certain circumstances, discrimination based on disability. It affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1964 , which made discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics illegal. Disability is defined as "a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity." The determination of whether any particular condition is considered a disability is made on a case by case basis. Certain specific conditions are excluded as disabilities, such as current substance abuse and visual impairment which is correctable by prescription lenses. On September 25, 2008, President George W. Bush signed into law The ADA Amendments Act of 2008 (ADAAA). It is intended to give broader protections for disabled workers and "turn back the clock" on court rulings which Congress deemed too restrictive. The ADAAA includes a list of impairments to major life activities. Titles of the ADA Speech cards used by President George H. W. Bush at the signing ceremony of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) on July 26, 1990. Title I - Employment See . The ADA states that a covered entity shall not discriminate against a qualified individual with a disability. This applies to job application procedures, hiring, advancement and discharge of employees, worker's compensation, job training, and other terms, conditions, and privileges of employment. Covered entity can refer to an employment agency, labor organization, or joint labor-management committee, and is generally an employer engaged in interstate commerce and having 15 or more workers. Discrimination may include, among other things, limiting or classifying a job applicant or employee in an adverse way, denying employment opportunities to people who truly qualify, or not making reasonable accommodations to the known physical or mental limitations of disabled employees, not advancing employees with disabilities in the business, and/or not providing needed accommodations in training. Employers can use medical entrance examinations for applicants, after making the job offer, only if all applicants (regardless of disability) must take it and it is treated as a confidential medical record. Qualified individuals do not include any employee or applicant who is currently engaging in the illegal use of drugs when that usage is the basis for the employer's actions. Part of Title I was found unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in the case of Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett as violating the sovereign immunity rights of the several states as specified by the Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The provision allowing private suits against states for money damages was invalidated. Title II - Public Entities (and public transportation) See . Title II prohibits disability discrimination by all public entities at the local (i.e. school district, municipal, city, county) and state level. Public entities must comply with Title II regulations by the U.S. Department of Justice. These regulations cover access to all programs and services offered by the entity. Access includes physical access described in the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and programmatic access that might be obstructed by discriminatory policies or procedures of the entity. Title II also applies to public transportation provided by public entities through regulations by the U.S. Department of Transportation. It includes the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, along with all other commuter authorities. This section requires the provision of paratransit services by public entities that provide fixed route services. Title III - Public Accommodations (and Commercial Facilities) See . A small business advertising five dollar haircuts for "handicaps" Under Title III, no individual may be discriminated against on the basis of disability with regards to the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, or accommodations of any place of public accommodation by any person who owns, leases (or leases to), or operates a place of public accommodation. "Public accommodations" include most places of lodging (such as inns and hotels), recreation, transportation, education, and dining, along with stores, care providers, and places of public displays, among other things. Under Title III of the ADA, all "new construction" (construction, modification or alterations) after the effective date of the ADA (approximately July 1992) must be fully compliant with the Americans With Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines ("ADAAG") found in the Code of Federal Regulations at 28 C.F.R., Part 36, Appendix "A." Title III also has application to existing facilities. One of the definitions of "discrimination" under Title III of the ADA is a "failure to remove" architectural barriers in existing facilities. See . This means that even facilities that have not been modified or altered in any way after the ADA was passed still have obligations. The standard is whether "removing barriers" (typically defined as bringing a condition into compliance with the ADAAG) is "readily achievable," defined as "easily accomplished without much difficulty or expense." The statutory definition of "readily achievable" calls for a balancing test between the cost of the proposed "fix" and the wherewithal of the business and/or owners of the business. Thus, what might be "readily achievable" for a sophisticated and financially capable corporation might not be readily achievable for a small or local business. There are exceptions to this title; many private clubs and religious organizations may not be bound by Title III. With regard to historic properties (those properties that are listed or that are eligible for listing in the National Register of Historic Places, or properties designated as historic under State or local law), those facilities must still comply with the provisions of Title III of the ADA to the "maximum extent feasible" but if following the usual standards would "threaten to destroy the historic significance of a feature of the building" then alternative standards may be used. Nonetheless, as Frank Bowe predicted when he testified as the lead witness on Title III in the Senate hearings leading up to enactment, the fact that Title III calls for accessibility in, and alterations to, many thousands of stores, restaurants, hotels, etc., in many thousands of communities across the U.S. means that this Title probably has had more effect on the lives of more Americans with disabilities than any other ADA title. Title IV - Telecommunications Title IV of the ADA amended the landmark Communications Act of 1934 primarily by adding section . This section requires that all telecommunications companies in the U.S. take steps to ensure functionally equivalent services for consumers with disabilities, notably those who are deaf or hard of hearing and those with speech impairments. When Title IV took effect in the early 1990s, it led to installation of public Teletypewriter (TTY) machines and other TDDs (Telecommunications Device for the Deaf). Title IV also led to creation, in all 50 States and the District of Columbia, of what were then called dual-party relay services and now are known as Telecommunications Relay Services (TRS). Today, many TRS-mediated calls are made over the Internet by consumers who use broadband connections. Some are Video Relay Service (VRS) calls, while others are text calls. In either variation, communication assistants translate between the signed/typed words of a consumer and the spoken words of others. In 2006, according to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), VRS calls averaged two million minutes a month. Title V - Miscellaneous Provisions See . Title V includes technical provisions. It discusses, for example, the fact that nothing in the ADA amends, overrides or cancels anything in Section 504. Additionally, Title V includes an anti retaliation or coercion provision. The Technical Assistance Manual for the ADA explains it: "III-3.6000 Retaliation or coercion. Individuals who exercise their rights under the ADA, or assist others in exercising their rights, are protected from retaliation. The prohibition against retaliation or coercion applies broadly to any individual or entity that seeks to prevent an individual from exercising his or her rights or to retaliate against him or her for having exercised those rights . . . Any form of retaliation or coercion, including threats, intimidation, or interference, is prohibited if it is intended to interfere with the exercise of rights under the ADA." Major life activities The ADA defines a covered disability as "a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity." The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was charged with interpreting the 1990 law with regard to discrimination in employment. Its regulations narrowed "substantially limits" to "significantly or severely restricts". In 2008, effective January 1, 2009, the ADAAA broadened the interpretations and added to the ADA examples of "major life activities" including, but not limited to, "caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, hearing, eating, sleeping, walking, standing, lifting, bending, speaking, breathing, learning, reading, concentrating, thinking, communicating, and working" as well as the operation of several specified "major bodily functions". The Act overturns a 1999 U.S. Supreme Court case which held that an employee was not disabled if the impairment could be corrected by mitigating measures; it specifically provides that such impairment must be determined without considering such ameliorative measures. Another court restriction overturned is the interpretation that an impairment that substantially limits one major life activity must also limit others to be considered a disability. The ADAAA will undoubtedly lead to broader coverage of impaired employees. The United States House Committee on Education and Labor states that the amendment "makes it absolutely clear that the ADA is intended to provide broad coverage to protect anyone who faces discrimination on the basis of disability." Political pressure The ADA (1990) is unusual because more than a hundred groups dedicated to disability rights, civil rights, and social justice worked together to ensure its passage. Justin Dart was a major organizer. Many of the standards mandated by the national government for the ADA were first incorporated by Ruthe B. Cowl, who established and operated the Cowl Rehabilitation Center in Laredo, Texas from 1959 until her death in 2008. :: Laredos.net :: - Bussines Quotes On signing the measure, George H. W. Bush said: On the debate of what it means to be disabled, Joan Aleshire stated in the book Voices From the Edge: Criticism Employment The ADA has been a frequent target of criticism. For example, some claim that individuals who are diagnosed with one of the so-called "lesser disabilities" are being "accommodated" when they should not be. The ADA has also been subject to harsh ridicule; the Onion ran a story in 1998 about the new "Americans With No Abilities Act," which was described "a major victory for the millions upon millions of U.S. citizens who lack any real skills or uses." Anonymous, "Congress Passes Americans With No Abilities Act," The Onion, 24 June 1998. It has to be noted though that the Onion is satire and the article is funny even for people with disabilities. On the other hand, court decisions have made necessary "an individualized assessment to prove that an impairment is protected under the ADA. Therefore, the plaintiff must offer evidence that the extent of the limitation caused by the impairment is substantial in terms of his or her own experience;" a medical diagnosis or physician's declaration of disability is no longer enough. Most people never have their discrimination cases heard in court because of the difficulty of getting past the first step. Even those who support the intent of the law worry that it might have unintended consequences. Among other arguments, supporters hypothesize that the Act creates additional legal risks for employers who then quietly avoid hiring people with disabilities to avoid this risk. And such researchers (e.g., DeLeire, 2000; Acemoglu & Angrist, 2001) claim to have documented a sharp drop in employment among individuals with a disability after passage of the Act. (see Schwochau & Blanck for counter arguments) Others (see Schall, 1998) believe that the law has been ineffectual. The ADA did not come with a guide for how employees and employers should apply the Act to mental disabilities. Psychologist Dr. John Fielder (1994) wrote a manual for employers that has been used by many parties concerned with issues of cognitive disabilities. "Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (the "ADA") (1) requires an employer (2) to provide reasonable accommodation to qualified individuals with disabilities who are employees or applicants for employment, unless to do so would cause undue hardship. "In general, an accommodation is any change in the work environment or in the way things are customarily done that enables an individual with a disability to enjoy equal employment opportunities." (3) There are three categories of "reasonable accommodations": "(i) modifications or adjustments to a job application process that enable a qualified applicant with a disability to be considered for the position such qualified applicant desires; or (ii) modifications or adjustments to the work environment, or to the manner or circumstances under which the position held or desired is customarily performed, that enable a qualified individual with a disability to perform the essential functions of that position; or (iii) modifications or adjustments that enable a covered entity's employee with a disability to enjoy equal benefits and privileges of employment as are enjoyed by its other similarly situated employees without disabilities." The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/accommodation.html Enforcement Guidance: Reasonable Accommodation and Undue Hardship Under the Americans with Disabilities Act Oct, 17 2002 #915.002 Accessibility The ADA allows private plaintiffs to receive only injunctive relief (a court order requiring the public accommodation to remedy violations of the accessibility regulations) and attorneys' fees, and does not provide monetary rewards to private plaintiffs who sue non-compliant businesses. Unless a state law, such as the California Unruh Civil Rights Act, provides for monetary damages to private plaintiffs, persons with disabilities do not obtain direct financial benefits from suing businesses that violate the ADA. Thus, "professional plaintiffs" are typically found in states that have enacted state laws that allow private individuals to win monetary awards from non-compliant businesses. At least one of these plaintiffs in California has been barred by courts from filing lawsuits unless he receives prior court permission. The attorneys' fees provision of Title III does provide incentive for lawyers to specialize and engage in serial ADA litigation, but a disabled plaintiff does not obtain financial reward from attorneys' fees unless they act as their own attorney, or as mentioned above, a disabled plaintiff resides in a state which provides for minimum compensation and court fees in lawsuits. Moreover, there may be a benefit to these "private attorneys general" who identify and compel the correction of illegal conditions: they may increase the number of public accommodations accessible to persons with disabilities. “Civil rights law depends heavily on private enforcement. Moreover, the inclusion of penalties and damages is the driving force that facilitates voluntary compliance with the ADA.” Parr v. L & L Drive-Inn Restaurant (D. Hawaii 2000) 96 F.Supp.2d 1065, 1082, citing and quoting, Committee Print, Vol. II, 101st Cong., 2d Sess., at 1481-82 (1990); 42 U.S.C. § 12101(b)(2); S.Rep. No. 101-116, at 15 (1989). Courts have noted: “As a result, most ADA suits are brought by a small number of private plaintiffs who view themselves as champions of the disabled. For the ADA to yield its promise of equal access for the disabled, it may indeed be necessary and desirable for committed individuals to bring serial litigation advancing the time when public accommodations will be compliant with the ADA.” Molski v. Evergreen Dynasty Corp., (9th Cir. 2007) 500 F.3d 1047, 1062; D'Lil v. Best Western Encina Lodge & Suites (9th Cir. 2008) 538 F.3d 1031, 1040. Thousands of people have submitted requests to the Department of Justice for investigation of barriers in older buildings and design and construction errors in brand new facilities. Most of these are ignored, because even if the government wanted to investigate all of them, they lack the staff or budget to do so. In its 2004 Americans with Disabilities Act Report, the Department of Justice identified the "pervasive and chronic failure of businesses to comply with even the most rudimentary access requirements under the Americans with Disabilities Act." Most business owners realized after a while that there was little chance that the DOJ would come after them, and thus put off making changes to remove barriers. In most cases of uncooperative businesses, individuals must hire an attorney and bring a civil suit. Extra exam time In 2007, outside counsel for the Law School Admission Council (LSAC) sought to bar a student from getting extra time on the LSAT. http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=900005554012 The LSAC thought the student was "trying to take advantage of the system," by alleging that his ADHD fell under the scope of the Americans with Disabilities Act. The LSAC won the case (Love v. Law School Admissions Council) and the judge denied the student's demand for extra time. However, the LSAC continues to grant 75 percent of extra-exam-time requests. ADA case law There have been some notable cases regarding the ADA. For example, a major hotel room marketer with its business presence on the Internet is being sued because its customers with disabilities cannot reserve hotel rooms through its website without substantial extra efforts that persons without disabilities are not required to perform. Disability Rights Advocates These represent a major potential expansion of the ADA in that this, and other similar suits (known as "bricks vs. Clicks"), seeks to expand the ADA's authority to cyberspace, where entities may not have actual physical facilities that are required to comply. National Federation for the Blind v. Target This is a case where a major retailer, Target Corp., was sued because their web designers failed to design its website to enable persons with low or no vision to use it. National Federation for the Blind v. Target at Disability Rights Advocates Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett, 531 U.S. 356 (2001), was a United States Supreme Court case about Congress's enforcement powers under the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution. It decided that Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act was unconstitutional insofar as it allowed states to be sued by private citizens for money damages. Barden v. The City of Sacramento Another example, filed in March 1999, claimed that the City of Sacramento failed to comply with the ADA when, while making public street improvements, it did not bring its sidewalks into compliance with the ADA. Certain issues were resolved in Federal Court. One issue, whether sidewalks were covered by the ADA, was appealed to the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals which ruled that sidewalks were a "program" under ADA and must be made accessible to persons with disabilities. The ruling was later appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court which refused to hear the case, letting stand the ruling of the 9th Circuit Court. Barden v. Sacramento from Disability Rights Advocates . Spector v. Norwegian Cruise Line Ltd. This was a case that was decided by the United States Supreme Court in 2005. The defendant argued that as a vessel flying the flag of a foreign nation was exempt from the requirements of the ADA. This argument was accepted by a federal court in Florida and, subsequently, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. However, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed the ruling of the lower courts on the basis that Norwegian Cruise Lines was a business headquartered in the United States whose clients were predominantly Americans and, more importantly, operated out of port facilities throughout the United States. Olmstead, Commissioner, Georgia Department of Human Resources, et al. v. L. C., by zimring, guardian ad litem and next friend, et al. This was a case before the United States Supreme Court in 1999. The two plaintiffs L.C. and E.W. were institutionalized in Georgia for diagnosed mental retardation and schizophrenia. Clinical assessments by the state determined that the plaintiffs could be appropriately treated in a community setting rather than the state institution. The plaintiffs sued the state of Georgia and the institution for being inappropriately treated and housed in the institutional setting rather than being treated in one of the state's community based treatment facilities. The Supreme Court decided under Title II of the ADA that mental illness is a form of disability and therefore covered under the ADA, and that unjustified institutional isolation of a person with a disability is a form of discrimination because it "perpetuates unwarranted assumptions that persons so isolated are incapable or unworthy of participating in community life." The court added that "confinement in an institution severely diminishes the everyday life activities of individuals, including family relations, social contacts, work options, economic independence, educational advancement, and cultural enrichment." Therefore, under Title II no person with a disability can be unjustly excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of services, programs or activities of any public entity. OLMSTEAD V. L. C. from Cornell University Law School - Syllabus for the Supreme Court Decision in 1999 (Olmstead v. L.C. should not be confused with Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), a case in 1928 regarding wiretapping.) Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America v. The University of Michigan This was a case filed before the The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan Southern Division on behalf of the Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America against University of Michigan – Michigan Stadium claiming that Michigan Stadium violated the Americans with Disabilities Act in its $226-million renovation by failing to add enough seats for disabled fans or accommodate the needs for disabled restrooms, concessions and parking. The U.S. Department of Justice assisted in the suit filed by attorney Richard Bernstein of The Law Offices of Sam Bernstein in Farmington Hills, Michigan, which was settled in March 2008. Erb, Robin. “U-M fans rave about new seats for disabled.” Detroit Free Press. 9 Sept 2008. The settlement required the stadium to add 329 wheelchair seats throughout the stadium by 2010, and an additional 135 accessible seats in clubhouses to go along with the existing 88 wheelchair seats. Wolffe, Jerry. “New wheelchair seats will be full at U-M’s Big House.” The Oakland Press. 14 Sept 2008. The agreement now is a blueprint for all stadiums and other public facilities regarding accessibility. Wolffe, Jerry. “New wheelchair seats will be full at U-M’s Big House.” The Oakland Press. 14 Sept 2008. / Resources Acemoglu, Daron & Angrist, Joshua D. (2001). Consequences of Employment Protection? The Case of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Journal of Political Economy, volume 109 (2001), pages 915–957. Bush, George H. W., Remarks of President George Bush at the Signing of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Available on-line at Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. DeLeire, Thomas. (Autumn, 2000). The Wage and Employment Effects of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 693–715 Fielder, J. F. Mental Disabilities and the Americans with Disabilities Act. Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 2004. Hamilton Krieger, Linda, ed., Backlash Against the ADA: Reinterpreting Disability Rights Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003. Johnson, Mary. (2000). Make Them Go Away: Clint Eastwood, Christopher Reeve & The Case Against Disability Rights. Louisville, KY: The Advocado Press. Schall, Carol M. (Jun 1998). The Americans with Disabilities Act—Are We Keeping Our Promise? An Analysis of the Effect of the ADA on the Employment of Persons with Disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, v10 n3 p191-203. Schwochau, Susan & Blanck, Peter David. The Economics of the Americans with Disabilities Act, Part III: Does the ADA Disable the Disabled? BERKELEY JOURNAL OF EMPLOYMENT & LABOR LAW [Vol. 21:271] Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003... Weber, Mark C. Disability Harassment. New York, NY: NYU Press, 2007. See also Accessibility Developmental disability American Disability rights movement Casey Martin Job Accommodation Network — provides information about rights and responsibilities under the ADA and related legislation. List of disability rights activists — includes a list of people who helped pass the ADA List of anti-discrimination acts Disability discrimination act Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ADA Compliance Kit Individual rights advocate External links Compliance tool kits from the ADA Navigable text of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 - 42 U.S. Code Chapter 126 Searchable collection of over 7,000 Federal ADA documents Federally-funded technical assistance network Is the American with Disabilities Act (ADA) a good law? Overview of ADA, IDEA, and Section 504: Update 2001 Overview of ADA, IDEA, and Section 504 Employment of People with Disabilities Accessible Web Design Testing Students with Disabilities Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding the Americans with Disabilities Act Paratransit Watch - Accessible Public Transportation News, Issues, and Resources. U.S. Department of Justice. ADA Info Americans with Disabilities Act Amendment (ADAAA) Information Center. ADAAA Information for Employers References

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False_document

A false document is a form of verisimilitude that attempts to create a sense of authenticity beyond the normal and expected suspension of disbelief for a work of art. The goal of a false document is to fool an audience into thinking that what is being presented is actually a fact. In practice, false document effects can be achieved in many ways, including use of faked police reports, newspaper articles, bibliographical references, documentary footage or using the legal names of performers or writers in a fictional context. The effect can be extended outside of the confines of a text by supplementary material such as badges, I.D. cards, diaries, letters or other artifacts. By intentionally blurring boundaries between fiction and fact, false documents present complex and perhaps insoluble ethical questions. In some cases, the difference between a great artistic achievement and a stunning forgery is slim. Sometimes the false document technique can be the subject of a work instead of its technique, though these two approaches are not mutually exclusive as many texts which engage falseness do so both on the literal and the thematic level. A false document is usually created simply as an artistic exercise, but occasionally is promoted in conjunction with a criminal enterprise like fraud, forgery, or a confidence game. A false document should not be confused with a mockumentary, an admittedly fictional film presented in the manner of a documentary. Origin of the false document technique One of the earliest examples of the technique is the 16th century chivalric romance Amadis of Gaul (1508, Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo). False documents in film The Semidocumentary film making technique popularized in the 1950s used documentary techniques. The 1973 film The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (And the 2003 Remake) claims to be based on true events, but this is not the case. It is, in reality, only loosely inspired by crimes committed by Ed Gein. The 1974 film Macon County Line claims to be true but it is fiction. Peter Jackson's 1995 film Forgotten Silver was billed and introduced as a serious documentary, purporting to tell the story of 'forgotten' New Zealand filmmaker Colin McKenzie. A large portion of the viewing audience were fooled until the directors revealed they were "only joking". A disclaimer before the 1996 film Fargo makes the claim that it is based on a true story, but this was refuted by its creators, the Coen brothers, saying that people would more readily believe something outlandish if told that it actually happened, per the "truth is stranger than fiction" idiom. When the 1999 film The Blair Witch Project was released, the extensive marketing campaign claimed it to be a real documentary, compiled from footage discovered abandoned in a forest. The 2008 film Cloverfield purports to be video footage shot by witnesses of a monster attacking New York City and recovered by the Army as evidence. It begins with a title screen claiming the footage was found in "US Site 447, formerly known as Central Park." However, the enormous scale of the disaster shown in the movie makes it impossible that viewers would consider the movie to be true. False documents in art Orson Welles' F for Fake is a prime example of a film which is both about falsification (art forgery and the journalism surrounding art forgery) as well as having falsified moments within the film. The movie follows the exploits of a famous art forger, his biographer Clifford Irving, and the subsequent fake autobiography of Howard Hughes that Irving tries to publish. The issues of veracity and forgery are explored in the film while at the same time, Welles tricks the audience by incorporating fake bits of narrative alongside the documentary footage. Another artist who has run afoul of the technique is the artist JSG Boggs, whose life and work have been extensively explored by author and journalist Lawrence Weschler. Boggs draws currency with exceptional care and accuracy, but he only ever draws one side. He then attempts to buy things with the piece of paper upon which he has drawn the currency. His goal is to pass each bill for its face value in common transactions. He buys lunch, clothes, and lodging in this manner, and after the transactions are complete his bills fetch many times their face value on the art market along with accompanying evidence (receipts, photos, and the like) which prove the veracity of the actual transaction. Boggs does not make any money from the much larger art market value of his work. He only exists on the profit of the actual transaction. He has been arrested in many countries, and there is much controversy surrounding his work. Mostly, however, the technique is employed in more mundane ways that hark back to its nineteenth century origins. Whether a particular piece of art is a false document, or is using false documentary techniques in a central way, is of course arguable. Usually, the character and extent of the use is examined. False documents, fakery and forgery Documentary filmmaking, and other attempts at actual documentation, can wittingly and unwittingly participate in the form as its goals of authenticity are so closely aligned with direct false documentation (that is, in both cases there is an element of authenticity and an element of narrative fudging). In Schwarzenegger's Pumping Iron, for example, Arnold talks about how his father died in the months preceding a major body building competition. He uses this anecdote to illustrate how important the final months before a competition are to a truly dedicated bodybuilder. He says that, though his father's funeral was set during the penultimate month, he did not attend because he could not be distracted from training. However, in the companion book it is revealed that at the time of printing, Arnold's father had not died. It does not say the story was a lie, it merely provides contrary evidence. Schwarzenegger was executive producer of both the film and the companion book. It has been theorized by Professor Sally Robinson that Schwarzenegger was intentionally undermining his own narrative, effectively creating a mildly self-deprecating re-examination of his own obsessions for perfection at any cost. In the end, whether Arnold intentionally fabricated the story for a desired effect is left to the audience (in interviews associated with the re-release of the film, he says he did). The Protocols of the Elders of Zion In the case of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion there is a very interesting complexity. It is an alleged record which was published and printed for the first time in 1903. The alleged original manuscript has long since disappeared, and conflicting, and inconsistent, testimony and witness reports about it have been presented at the Berne Trial in 1934 and 1935. Nevertheless, it has been established that it was a fabrication created by the Tsar's secret police, the Okhrana. Furthermore, it has been established that a substantial portion of it was taken, without citation, from a 1864 satire on Napoleon III by one Maurice Joly (his French language work titled, Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu) - so that it also constitutes plagiarism. Nevertheless, it has been repeatedly reproduced, in typescript and printed form, by its often anonymous editors as an alleged authentic document taken or stolen from some vaguely identified Jewish and Masonic organization. As such, it was presented to Russian Empire censors (1903, 1905, 1906, 1911) who passed it along for publication. Similarly, it was presented to various government officials, military and diplomatic, in the United States and in Europe (1919-1920), in opposition to the Russian Revolution, and to influence the terms of the peace settlement which resulted in the Treaty of Versailles. Accordingly, this work, which now only exists in the world as a reproduction, has all the elements of a false document. Since it is difficult to imagine a typesetter working without a manuscript, we must assume that one existed. But since this original forged item has long since disappeared, the crimes of fraudulently and repeatedly submitting such a false document as authentic not only cannot be prosecuted, but cannot be studied by historians or subjected to the rigorous requirements of forensics. False documents in theory Boggs by Lawrence Weschler Mr. Wilson's Cabinet of Wonder by Lawrence Weschler Simulacra and Simulation by Jean Baudrillard Fiction Writers and Other Well-Intentioned Frauds by Eileen Pollack, in the March/April 2003 issue of AWP Writers Chronicle The Invention of False Medieval Authorities As a Literary Device in Popular Fiction by Gwendolyn A. Morgan. False documents in fiction Several fiction writers use the technique of inventing a piece of literature or non-fiction and referring to this work as if it actually existed, typically by quoting from the work. Blurring the line of reality and fiction is an important component of horror, mystery, detective, science fiction and fantasy narratives due to their unusual demands on verisimilitude; a typically descriptive narrative form may not engender in the reader the necessary sense of wonder and danger. For this reason, false documentary techniques have been in use for at least as long as these literary genres have existed. Frankenstein draws heavily on a forged document feel, as do Dracula, The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and many of the works of Jules Verne and H.G. Wells. Vladimir Nabokov's Pale Fire is a particularly elaborate variation. The following is a partial list of false supporting documents in fiction: Miguel de Cervantes claims that all the chapters but the first in Don Quixote are translated from an Arabic manuscript by Cide Hamete Benengeli. He is parodying a plot device of chivalry books. For instance, Joanot Martorell in the introductory letter to Tirant lo Blanc claims to be not the creator of a fiction, but the translator of an English historical manuscript. Robert Graves' novel I, Claudius, is written as a recently-discovered autobiography penned by the late Emperor. Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe was supposedly the autobiography of the title character, an English castaway who spent 28 years on a remote island. The account was presented as a factual event, in a genre called histories. It was based on the real castaway Alexander Selkirk. Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels was originally attributed to "Lemuel Gulliver", a ship's surgeon, and purported to be a factual account of four of his sea voyages. It even includes a rather irate bogus note from Gulliver to his publisher. It may be debatable whether the book is an example of a False Document, but is included because it initially bore little or no indication that it was a work of fiction. The Ossian cycle of ancient Celtic poetry supposedly rediscovered and published in 1760 was actually written in the eighteenth century, possibly based on some fragments of earlier verses. Voltaire's novel Candide purports to be assembled from the notes of a deceased "Monsieur le docteur Ralph", likely due to the fact that the novel pokes fun at most of the powers of Europe at the time. Bram Stoker's novel Dracula is told in the form of numerous documents, including journals and newspaper articles. A brief introduction claims that they are all real. Italo Calvino's novel If On a Winter's Night a Traveller deals extensively with the concepts surrounding false documents, including serially representing the contents of the novel itself as a false document. The Anno Dracula stories and novels of Kim Newman use many of these same false sources. The Necronomicon appearing in the works of H. P. Lovecraft. The King in Yellow appearing in the book of the same name by Robert W. Chambers purports to be an actual play that is capable of driving the reader insane. Both the books Fantastic Beasts & Where to Find Them and Quidditch Through the Ages, which were written by Harry Potter author J.K. Rowling as a way to raise funds for Comic Relief U.K., are written as reference books for the wizarding world. The books, which are referenced many times in the Harry Potter books, even have footnotes about other books, which do no exist, for future reading, and a foreword by Albus Dumbledore, which explains why they are releasing the book to a muggle audience. Fantastic Beasts also has "written in" commentary by both Harry and Ron. Neil Gaiman, in the first issue of his comic Sandman, introduced the grimoire titled Grimorium Magdelene. In the The Club Dumas, author Arturo Pérez-Reverte introduced the grimoire the The Nine Doors of the Kingdom of Shadows (also called The Ninth Gate) as well as the Delomalanicon. Author William Goldman claims in his book The Princess Bride that the story he tells is an abridged version of the Florinese literary masterpiece by the great (and fictional) S. Morgenstern. Fritz Leiber's novella Our Lady of Darkness revolves around the secret occult studies of fictional author/occultist Thibaut de Castries and his book Megapolisomancy: A New Science of Cities. The Name of the Rose by Umberto Eco pretends to be a recovered manuscript. First Encyclopaedia of Tlön appearing in the short story "Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius" by Jorge Luis Borges, plus several other fictional books invented by the same author, including an entire bibliography for the fictional author Pierre Menard. Several works of the fictional author Fanshawe appearing in Paul Auster's The Locked Room in The New York Trilogy. The Red Book of Westmarch and a surviving copy of it called The Thain's Book, portions of which were "translated" by J. R. R. Tolkien into his books The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Tolkien also physically fabricated several pages of another fictional book, the "Book of Mazarbul". Never Whistle While You're Pissing is the work of the fictional character Hagbard Celine in the Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson. Michael Crichton's Eaters of the Dead is a fabricated recreation of the Old English epic Beowulf in the form of a scholastic translation of Ahmad ibn Fadlan's tenth century manuscript. Many of his other novels, such as The Andromeda Strain and Jurassic Park, also incorporated large quantities of fabricated scientific documents in the form of diagrams, DNA sequences, footnotes and bibliography. Business historian Robert Sobel wrote For Want of a Nail, a fictional history of an alternate North America which included hundreds of fictional footnotes and a bibliography listing over a hundred fictional histories and biographies. Dozens of fictional footnotes referencing events, books of magical scholarship, and biographies in Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell, the debut novel by Susanna Clarke. Milorad Pavić's Dictionary of the Khazars is a work of fiction in the form of three fictional encyclopedias, which incorporate viewpoints that provide inconsistent descriptions of the events they describe. A Princess of Mars by Edgar Rice Burroughs claims to be the manuscript of John Carter relating his adventures on Mars, except for the first chapter explaining how the manuscript was received. Burroughs has also used this technique extensively in his other novels, particularly the tales of Pellucidar. House of Leaves by Mark Z. Danielewski is a work of fiction revolving around the discovery of a manuscript critiquing a documentary called The Navidson Record and its effects on both its author and editor. The Third Policeman and The Dalkey Archive by Flann O'Brien contains not only quotes from the works of a fictitious Irish philosopher named de Selby, but also has numerous footnotes and references to other fictitious authors writing about de Selby and his books. The Flashman books by George MacDonald Fraser are supposedly edited versions of the title character's memoirs. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams is named for a fictional galactic encyclopedia that one of the main characters works for. The book also frequently quotes the fictional Guide. The roleplaying game Spaceship Zero presents itself as being based on a non-existent television show, which is based on a non-existent radio play, all of which are to be adapted into a non-existent film. The hoax has been generally accepted in a number of reviews of the title. Philip K. Dick's novel The Man in the High Castle features a (banned) fictional work called The Grasshopper Lies Heavy, which purports to describe how things might have transpired after World War II if the Allied side had won (in the reality of the book, the Axis powers triumphed). The Historian by Elizabeth Kostova purports to be a book by the main character, and further contains a number of other letters, books, and maps relating to Dracula and the main character's friends and family. The twelve-volume opus Life by Unspiek, Baron Bodissey is an oft-quoted imaginary work referred to in various novels by Jack Vance. Isaac Asimov's Encyclopedia Galactica as presented in The Foundation Series is an attempt to compile all human knowledge in order to preserve it following the collapse of the Galactic Empire in the far future. An "excerpt" from it introduces each chapter of each book in the series. Isaac Asimov's story The Endochronic Properties of Resublimated Thiotimoline is a fictional research paper about a compound that dissolves before being added to water that cites only and entirely false sources. Stephen King's novel, Carrie, includes many excerpts from a fictional committee's findings on the events in the novel, as well as excerpts from a book on the events in the novel titled The Shadow Exploded. Dean Koontz' novels included quotations from The Book of Counted Sorrows, which did not exist until, at the urging of his fans, he created it. Jack Higgins based his book The Eagle Has Landed on alleged research into a German abduction plot in the Second World War. Higgins writes in the first person of finding the graves of 13 German paratroopers in an English churchyard, an event known not to have actually occurred, and claims that the book stems from his research into actual events. Nathaniel Hawthorne's book The Scarlet Letter opens with an account of the author himself finding the letter and records which tell the story of Hester Prynne, which is narrated in the rest of the book. The existence of the records has never been proven; the opening is generally considered to be a literary device. Margaret Atwood's novel The Handmaid's Tale closes with a chapter set at a conference taking place some time after the events of the rest of the book, in which scholars question the authenticity of the earlier manuscript. The comic book limited series Watchmen makes extensive use of the technique, including one character's autobiography, magazine interviews with several characters, psychiatric reports and even a fictional comic book within the comic book. James Gurney's Dinotopia: Land Apart from Time is based on the premise that it is the diary of Arthur Dennison, who gets shipwrecked on the island of Dinotopia. Nick Bantock's series of Griffin and Sabine works consist of a series of letters and postcards between the two main characters. The Tattooed Map, a novel by Barbara Hodgson also published by Raincoast Books, reads as a journal being kept by the protagonists as they travel to Morocco, complete with hardwritten notes, photos and magazine cutouts from the journey. The books in Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events conclude with supposed letters from Snicket himself to his editor, containing a summary of his submitted manuscript for the following book in the series. Since Lemony Snicket is both the fictional narrator of the stories as well as the author's pseudonym, it creates a false sense that the stories are written from truth. The Screwtape Letters, written by C. S. Lewis, is purported to be a series of missives from a demonic teacher at a college to his protégé. The Zombie Survival Guide, by Max Brooks, presents itself as a survival manual in the event of a zombie outbreak. It includes citations of scientific studies performed on zombies, details on the sort of preparation one can make to guard against attacks, and historical examples of zombie outbreaks. It concludes with blank pages which the owner is meant to use as a journal, should they endure a zombie outbreak, lending the book a stronger, if satiric, kind of realism. Brooks' later work, World War Z, uses false interviews to create a mockumentary account of a worldwide zombie outbreak. "The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar," by Edgar Allan Poe, about a mesmerist who puts a man in a suspended hypnotic state at the moment of death. It was published without claiming to be fictional, and many at the time of publication (1845), took it to be a factual account. Each chapter in Frank Herbert's science fiction novels Whipping Star, The Dosadi Experiment, and Dune variously begin with an aphorism, an excerpt from an official report (or even a manual), a quotation from a book about the events of the novel, etc. A special case is represented by two examples fashioned to represent traditional academic scientific publications: The Snouters: Form and Life of the Rhinogrades, by Zoologist Gerolf Steiner, purports to be a non-fictional natural history study, and was written, published, and presented as if it were an actual scientific treatise documenting the recently-extinct indigenous wildlife ("Rhinogradentia") of the equally fictitious Hi-yi-yi archipelago. There is nothing in the work itself that indicates it is a work of fiction. In a remarkably similar vein, science fiction artist and author Wayne Douglas Barlowe wrote Expedition: Being an Account in Words and Artwork of the 2358 A.D. Voyage to Darwin IV, which was a natural history study of an alien planet and its indigenous wildlife, written as though published in the year 2366. False documents in games In video games, the adventure genre has most frequently given rise to the use of false documents to create a sense of immersion. The feelies pioneered by text adventure company Infocom include many examples, such as blueprints, maps, documents, and publications designed within the context of each game's fictional setting. A more recent development, the alternate reality game, is intrinsically tied to the concept; an ARG may exist solely as a collection of false documents that build a fictional storyline and puzzles connected to it. A prominent example of false document in the videogame genre is the Resident Evil series, which, from the first installment, uses newspaper clippings and television news reports that report the alleged cannibalistic murder of the victims found in the Arklay Mountain region. While the rest of the series does not do this as much as the first, there are still a few cases that it happens, such as the opening sequence of Resident Evil 4. A viral marketing campaign ran prior to the release of Shadow of the Colossus, stating the Colossi were actual real statues found by explorers and tourists. False documents in cross-marketing There is a long history of producers creating tie-in material to promote and merchandise movies and television shows. Tie-in materials as far-ranging as toys, games, lunch boxes, clothing and so on have all been created and in some cases generate as much or more revenue as the original programming. One big merchandising arena is publishing. In most cases such material is not considered canon within the show's mythology; however, in some instances the books, magazines, etc. are specifically designed by the creators to be canonical. With the rise of the Internet, in-canon online material has become more prominent. The following is a list of "false document" in-canon supplemental material: Twin Peaks spawned three canon books: The Autobiography of F.B.I. Special Agent Dale Cooper: My Life, My Tapes ISBN 0-671-74400-3 The Secret Diary of Laura Palmer ISBN 0-671-73590-X Twin Peaks: An Access Guide to the Town ISBN 0-671-74399-6 Additionally, a set of trading cards was produced which are also canon. Bad Twin ISBN 1-4013-0276-9 is a canon tie-in novel for the TV series Lost False documents in politics A forged document, the Zinoviev Letter brought about the downfall of the first Labour Government in Britain. It was likely forged by SIS, the secret service now known as MI6. Conspiracies within secret intelligence services have occurred more recently, and led Harold Wilson in the 1960s to put in place rules to prevent phone tapping of members of parliament for example. Hoaxes A number of hoaxes have involved false documents: "Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity" by Alan Sokal, (Spring/Summer 1996 issue of Social Text). See Sokal Affair "The endochronic properties of resublimated thiotimoline", Isaac Asimov. Salamander Letter Journal of Irreproducible Results The Report From Iron Mountain The Oera Linda book The Hitler Diaries The Protocols of the Elders of Zion - although information about the original manuscript(s) is unreliable, highly controversial, and its whereabouts and existences unknown Les Dossiers Secrets d'Henri Lobineau False documents as a field of study False documents were recently the topic of a graduate level seminar in the humanities at the University of Michigan. The seminar was taught by Professor Eileen Pollack. While the form has existed for at least two hundred years, focused study is fairly recent. See also Alternate reality game A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century, an anti-Semitic forgery Conspiracy theory Donation of Constantine Epistolary novel Falsification Fictional book Fictional guidebook Forgery Frame tale Literary forgery Literary technique Fictitious entry Questioned document examination Urban legend Voynich manuscript Mockumentary April Fools' Day RFC References Curtis Peebles (1994). Watch the Skies: A Chronicle of the Flying Saucer Myth, Smithsonian Institution, ISBN 1-56098-343-4

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Docetism

In Christianity, Docetism (from the Greek [dokeō], "to seem") is the belief that Jesus' physical body was an illusion, as was his crucifixion; that is, Jesus only seemed to have a physical body and to physically die, but in reality he was incorporeal, a pure spirit, and hence could not physically die. This belief treats the sentence "the Word was made Flesh" (John 1:14) as merely figurative. Docetism has historically been regarded as heretical by most Christian theologians. Christology and theological implications This belief is most commonly attributed to the Gnostics, many of whom believed that matter was evil, and as a result God would not take on a material body. This statement is rooted in the idea that a divine spark is imprisoned within the material body, and that the material body is in itself an obstacle, deliberately created by an evil, lesser god (the demiurge) to prevent man from seeing his divine origin. Docetism can be further explained as the view that since the human body is temporary and the spirit is eternal, the body of Jesus must have been an illusion and, likewise, his crucifixion. Even so, saying that the human body is temporary has a tendency to undercut the importance of the belief in resurrection of the dead and the goodness of created matter, and is in opposition to this orthodox view. Docetism was quite a common form of early Christianity, from around 70 AD for about 100 years. Strong, A.H. Systematic Theology. 1907 Passages in the New Testament appear to have been written specifically to counter this belief, Luke 24:39; John 1:14; Acts 2:31; Hebrews 5:7; 1 John 4:2 although other passages reflect the language which perhaps gave rise to it. Romans 8:1,5; 1 Corinthians 1:9; Docetism largely died out during the first millennium AD. Gnostic movements that survived past that time, such as Catharism, incorporated docetism into their beliefs, but such movements were destroyed by the Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229). Ignatius of Antioch wrote very harshly against docetism around 110 AD in his letter to the Smyrnaeans. In 7:1, he said, "They [the docetists] abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer, because they confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again. They who deny the gift of God are perishing in their disputes". Since one of the main beliefs of docetism was that the body of Jesus was an illusion, docetists could not accept that the bread and wine used in the Eucharist were the actual flesh and blood of Jesus. Other detailed criticisms were given by Irenaeus and Tertullian. Earl Doherty and Timothy Freke have suggested docetism arose from Christ mythicism. Texts including docetism Non-canonical Christian texts Gospel of Phillip Second Treatise of the Great Seth Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter Gospel of Judas In the contra epistulam fundamenti, Augustine of Hippo makes reference to the Manichaeans believing that Jesus was Docetic. See also Christology Adoptionism Adoptivi Arianism Binitarianism Monophysitism Avatar Christian heresy References External links Docetae in the Catholic Encyclopedia

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Ian_McKellen

Sir Ian Murray McKellen, CH, CBE (born 25 May 1939), is an English actor of stage and screen, the recipient of the Tony Award and two Academy Award nominations. His work has spanned genres from Shakespearean and modern theatre to popular fantasy and science fiction. He is known to many for roles such as Gandalf in the Lord of the Rings film trilogy and as Magneto in the X-Men films. He was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1979, and knighted in the 1991 New Year Honours for his outstanding work and contributions to the theatre. In the 2008 New Year Honours he was made a Companion of Honour (CH) for services to drama and to equality. In 1988, he came out as gay and became a founding member of Stonewall, one of the United Kingdom's most influential LGBT rights groups, of which he remains a prominent spokesman. Early years McKellen was born in Burnley, Lancashire, England, though he spent most of his early life in Wigan. Born shortly before the outbreak of World War II, the experience had some lasting impact on him. In response to an interview question when an interviewer remarked that he seemed quite calm in the aftermath of the 11 September attacks, he said: "Well, darling, you forget — I slept under a steel plate until I was four years old." McKellen's father, Denis Murray McKellen, a civil engineer, was a laity preacher, and both of his grandfathers were preachers as well. At the time of Ian's birth, his parents already had a five-year-old daughter, Jean. His home environment was strongly Christian, but non-orthodox. "My upbringing was of low nonconformist Christians who felt that you led the Christian life in part by behaving in a Christian manner to everybody you met." When he was 12, his mother, Margery Lois (née Sutcliffe) died; his father died when he was 24. When he came out of the closet to his stepmother, Gladys McKellen, who was a member of the Religious Society of Friends: "Not only was she not fazed, but as a member of a society which declared its indifference to people's sexuality years back, I think she was just glad for my sake that I wasn't lying any more." McKellen attended Bolton School (boys division), "Bolton School." of which he is still a supporter, attending regularly to talk to pupils. McKellen's acting career started at Bolton Little Theatre, "Bolton Little Theatre." of which he is now the patron. An early fascination with the theatre was encouraged by his parents, who took him on a family outing to Peter Pan at the Manchester Opera House when he was three. When he was nine, his main Christmas present was a wood and bakelite, fold-away Victorian Theatre from Pollocks Toy Theatres, with cardboard scenery and wires to push on the cut-outs of Cinderella and of Olivier's Hamlet. His sister took him to his first Shakespeare play, Twelfth Night, by the amateurs of Wigan's Little Theatre, shortly followed by their Macbeth and Wigan High School for Girls' production of A Midsummer Night's Dream with music by Mendelssohn and with the role of Bottom played by Jean McKellen. (Jean continued to act, direct, and produce amateur theatre up to her recent death.) He won a scholarship to St Catharine's College, Cambridge, when he was eighteen, where he developed an attraction to Derek Jacobi. "Ian McKellen." Host: James Lipton. Inside the Actors Studio. Bravo. 8 December 2002. No. 5, season 9. He has characterised it as "a passion that was undeclared and unrequited". He and his first serious partner, Brian Taylor, a history teacher from Bolton, began their relationship in 1964. It lasted for eight years, ending in 1972. They lived in London, where McKellen continued to pursue his career as an actor. For over a decade, he has lived in a five-story Victorian conversion in Narrow Street, Limehouse. In 1978 he met his second partner, Sean Mathias, at the Edinburgh Festival. According to Mathias, the ten-year love affair was tempestuous, with conflicts over McKellen's success in acting versus Mathias' somewhat less-successful career. In the early 1980s, McKellen lost his appetite for meat except for fish and became a pescetarian. Correspondence with Ian McKellen—Vegetarianism from "Online Autobiography", accessed 4 February 2008. Popular success McKellen had taken film roles throughout his career - beginning in 1969 with A Touch of Love, excluding the unreleased The Bells of Hell Go Ting-A-Ling-A-Ling (1966) – but it was not until the 1990s that he became more widely recognised in this medium, through several roles in blockbuster Hollywood movies. In 1993, McKellen had a supporting role as a South African tycoon in the sleeper hit Six Degrees of Separation, in which he starred with Stockard Channing, Donald Sutherland, and Will Smith. In the same year, he was also exposed to North American audiences in minor roles in the television miniseries Tales of the City (based on the novel by his friend Armistead Maupin) and the movie Last Action Hero, in which he played Death. Also in 1993, McKellen played a large role in the TV movie And the Band Played On, about the discovery of the AIDS virus. In 1995, he played the title role in Richard III, a film he also co-wrote (adapting the play for the screen based on a stage production of Shakespeare's play directed by Richard Eyre for the Royal National Theatre) and co-produced. In McKellen's role as executive producer he returned his £50,000 fee in order to complete the filming of the final battle. Empire, May 2006 His performance in the title role was critically acclaimed, and he was nominated for Golden Globe and BAFTA awards, and won the European Film Award for best actor. His breakthrough role for mainstream American audiences came with the modestly acclaimed Apt Pupil, based on a story by Stephen King. McKellen portrayed an old Nazi officer, living under a false name in the U.S., who was befriended by a curious teenager (Brad Renfro) who threatened to expose him unless he told his story in detail. His casting was based partly on his performance in Cold Comfort Farm, seen by Apt Pupil director Bryan Singer, despite the BBFC's refusal to release it in cinemas. He was subsequently nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in the 1998 film Gods and Monsters, where he played James Whale, the gay director of Show Boat (1936) and Frankenstein. Ian McKellen as Gandalf the Grey in The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, for which he earned an Academy Award nomination. He reteamed with Bryan Singer to play the comic book character Magneto in X-Men and its sequels X2: X-Men United and X-Men: The Last Stand. It was while filming X-Men that he was cast as the wizard Gandalf in Peter Jackson's three-film adaptation of The Lord of the Rings (consisting of The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the King). McKellen received honors from the Screen Actors Guild for Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture for his work in The Fellowship of the Ring and was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the same role. He also voiced Gandalf in the video game adaptions of the film trilogy as well as in The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age. He will reprise the role for the upcoming prequel The Hobbit. On 16 March 2002, he was the host on Saturday Night Live. In 2003, McKellen made a guest appearance as himself on the American cartoon show The Simpsons, in a special British-themed episode entitled "The Regina Monologues", along with Tony Blair and J. K. Rowling. In April and May 2005, he played the role of Mel Hutchwright in Granada Television's long running soap opera, Coronation Street, fulfilling a lifelong ambition. He is also known for his voicework, having narrated Richard Bell's Eighteen, as a grandfather who leaves his World War II memoirs on audiocassette for his teenage grandson. McKellen has appeared in limited release films, such as Emile (which was shot in a few days during the X2 shoot), Neverwas and Asylum. He appeared as Sir Leigh Teabing in The Da Vinci Code. During a 17 May 2006 interview on The Today Show with the Da Vinci Code cast and director, Matt Lauer posed a question to the group about how they would have felt if the film had borne a prominent disclaimer that it is a work of fiction, as some religious groups wanted. McKellen responded, "I've often thought the Bible should have a disclaimer in the front saying 'This is fiction.' I mean, walking on water? It takes... an act of faith. And I have faith in this movie — not that it's true, not that it's factual, but that it's a jolly good story." He continued, "And I think audiences are clever enough and bright enough to separate out fact and fiction, and discuss the thing when they've seen it". "Ian McKellen Unable to Suspend Disbelief While Reading the Bible." Us Weekly. 17 May 2006. Video clip available here. McKellen appeared in the 2006 series of Ricky Gervais' comedy series Extras, where he played himself directing Gervais' character Andy Millman in a play about gay lovers. McKellen received a 2007 Emmy nomination for his performance. LGBT rights campaigning Ian McKellen (left) with Michael Cashman at the Gay Rights March on Manchester in protest of Section 28 in 1988 While McKellen had made his sexuality known to his fellow actors early on in his stage career, it was not until 1988 that he came out to the general public, in a programme on BBC Radio 3. The context that prompted McKellen's decision — overriding concerns about a possible negative effect on his career — was that the controversial Section 28 of the Local Government Bill, simply known as "Section 28" was under consideration in the British Parliament. By this time, McKellen's ten-year relationship with Mathias had ended, removing the additional concern of what effect his coming out would have on his partner's career. McKellen has stated that he was influenced in his decision by the advice and support of his friends, among them noted gay author Armistead Maupin. In 2003, during an appearance on Have I Got News For You, McKellen claimed that when he visited Michael Howard, then Environment Secretary (responsible for local government), in 1988 to lobby against Section 28, Howard refused to change his position but did ask him to leave an autograph for his children. McKellen agreed, but wrote "Fuck off, I'm gay." 10 things we didn't know this time last week. BBC News. 14 November 2003. Section 28, which proposed to prohibit local authorities from "promoting homosexuality" 'as a kind of pretended family relationship', was ambiguous and the actual impact of the amendment was uncertain. McKellen became active in fighting the proposed law, and declared himself gay on a BBC Radio programme where he debated the subject of Section 28 with the conservative journalist Peregrine Worsthorne. He has said of this period: "My own participating in that campaign was a focus for people [to] take comfort that if Ian McKellen was on board for this, perhaps it would be all right for other people to be as well, gay and straight". Section 28 was, however, enacted and remained on the statute books until 2003. In the intervening period, McKellen continued to fight for its repeal and criticised British Prime Minister Tony Blair for failing to concern himself with the issue. McKellen has continued to be very active in LGBT rights efforts. In a statement on his website regarding his activism, the actor comments that "Activism". mckellen.com. Accessed 13 July 2008. |McKellen at Europride 2003 in Manchester. McKellen is a co-founder of Stonewall, a LGB rights lobby group in the United Kingdom, named after the Stonewall riots. McKellen is also Patron of LGBT History Month, Pride London, GAY-GLOS and The Lesbian & Gay Foundation. In 1994, at the closing ceremony of the Gay Games, he briefly took the stage to address the crowd, saying, "I'm Sir Ian McKellen, but you can call me Serena." (This nickname, originally given to him by Stephen Fry, had been circulating within the gay community since McKellen's knighthood was conferred.) In 2002, he attended the Academy Awards with his then-boyfriend, New Zealander Nick Cuthell - possibly a first for a major nominee since Nigel Hawthorne, the first openly gay performer to be nominated for an Academy Award, who attended the ceremonies with his partner, Trevor Bentham, in 1995. In 2006, McKellen spoke at the pre-launch of the 2007 LGBT History Month in the UK, lending his support to the organisation and its founder, Sue Sanders, a personal friend. On 5 January 2007 McKellen became a patron of The Albert Kennedy Trust, an organisation that provides support to young, homeless and troubled LGBT people. In 2006, McKellen became a Patron of Oxford Pride. At the time he said: McKellen has also taken his activism internationally, where it caused a major stir in Singapore. Invited to do an interview on a morning show, he shocked the interviewer by asking if they could recommend him a gay bar. The program immediately ended. "Ian McKellen Causes a Stir on Singaporean Television with Gay Comment." GayWired.com. In December 2008, he was named in [[Out (magazine)|Out]]'s annual Out 100 list. "Ian McKellen." Out. December 2008. Accessed 28 April 2009 Awards 1981: New York Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play, for Amadeus 1984: London Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Revival, for Wild Honey 1984: London Evening Standard Award for Best Actor, for Coriolanus 1989: London Evening Standard Award for Best Actor, for Othello 1990: London Olivier Award for Best Actor, for Richard III 1996: European Film Award for Best Actor, for Richard III 1997: Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Mini-Series or TV Movie, for Rasputin: Dark Servant of Destiny 1998: Back Stage West Garland Awards, for his one-man show A Knight Out in Los Angeles 1998: National Board of Review for Best Actor, for Gods and Monsters 1999: Independent Spirit Award for Best Actor, for Gods and Monsters 2001: Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Supporting Actor, for The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring 2004: Manila, Philippines Pride International Film Festival's Lifetime Achievement & Distinction Award2007: Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production, for Flushed AwayIn May 2007, he was named, by the Independent on Sunday Pink List, the fifth most influential gay person in Britain, down from the 1st place the previous year. Independent on Sunday Pink List 2007 Selected stage and screen credits Theatre The hands of McKellen on a 1999 Gods and Monsters plaque.Much Ado About Nothing, Royal National Theatre, Old Vic, London, 1965Trelawny of the 'Wells', National Theatre, London & Chichester Festival, 1965The Promise, West End; Broadway, 1967Edward II (in title role), Edinburgh Festival & West End, 1969Hamlet (title role), UK/European Tour, 1971'Tis Pity She's a Whore, UK Tour, 1972Dr Faustus (title role), Royal Shakespeare Company, Edinburgh Festival & Aldwych Theatre (London), 1974King John, RSC, 1975Romeo and Juliet (as Romeo), RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & London, 1976The Winter's Tale, RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon, 1976Macbeth (title role), RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & Young Vic (London), 1976–1977The Alchemist, RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon & London, 1977Every Good Boy Deserves Favour, RSC, Barbican Arts Centre (London), 1977Three Sisters, RSC, UK Tour, 1978Bent, (as Uncle Freddie) West End, 1979Amadeus (as Salieri), Broadway, 1980Coriolanus (title role), National Theatre, 1984Wild Honey, National Theatre, 1984 (& Broadway, 1986)The Cherry Orchard (as Lopakhin), National Theatre, 1985The Duchess of Malfi, National Theatre, 1985The Real Inspector Hound, National Theatre, London & Paris, 1985Othello (as Iago), RSC, London & Stratford-upon-Avon, 1989Richard III (title role), National Theatre, world tour, 1990 & US tour, 1992Uncle Vanya (title role), National Theatre, 1992Peter Pan (as Mr. Darling/Captain Hook), National Theatre, 1997An Enemy of the People, National Theatre, 1997 & Ahmanson Theatre (Los Angeles), 1998Present Laughter, West Yorkshire Playhouse (Leeds, England), 1998Dance of Death, at the Broadhurst Theatre (New York) in 2001. At the Lyric Theatre (London, England) in 2003 Aladdin, (as Widow Twankie) Old Vic, 2004 & 2005The Cut, Donmar Warehouse, 2006King Lear by William Shakespeare, (as Lear), Courtyard Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon, 2007The Seagull by Anton Chekov, (as Sorin), Courtyard Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon, 2007; New York (Brooklyn Academy of Music), 2007 Minneapolis, 2007, New London Theatre (West End), 2007-8King Lear by William Shakespeare, (as Lear), New Zealand, 2007; New York (Brooklyn Academy of Music), 2007, Minneapolis, 2007, New London Theatre (West End), 2007-8Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett, (as Estragon), London, 2009 The Theatre Royal Haymarket Filmography Year Film Role Notes 1968 David Copperfield (TV)David Copperfield 1969 The Promise Leonidik Alfred the Great Roger A Touch of Love George Matthews 1981 Priest of Love Lawrence Pillar of Fire Narrator Documentary1982 The Scarlet Pimpernel Paul Chauvelin 1983 The Keep Dr. Theodore Cuza 1985 Plenty Sir Andrew Charleson Zina Arthur Kronfeld 1989 Scandal John Profumo 1993 Six Degrees of Separation Geoffrey Miller The Ballad of Little Jo Percy Corcoran Last Action Hero Death(uncredited cameo) And the Band Played On Bill Kraus CableACE Award for Supporting Actor in a Movie or MiniseriesNominated — Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor – Miniseries or a Movie 1994 To Die For Quilt Documentary Narrator (voice) The Shadow Dr. Reinhardt Lane I'll Do Anything John Earl McAlpine 1995 Restoration Will Gates Richard III Richard III European Film Award for Best ActorEvening Standard British Film Award for Best FilmNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Adapted ScreenplayNominated — Chlotrudis Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama Jack and Sarah William 1996 Rasputin: Dark Servant of Destiny (TV) Nicholas II Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Miniseries or Television FilmNominated — Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor – Miniseries or a MovieNominated — Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Series, Miniseries or Television Film 1997 Swept from the Sea Dr. James Kennedy Bent Uncle Freddie 1998 Apt Pupil Kurt Dussander Saturn Award for Best Supporting ActorBroadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor also for Gods and MonstersFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor also for Gods and Monsters Gods and Monsters James Whale British Independent Film Award for Best ActorBroadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor also for Apt PupilChicago Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorChlotrudis Award for Best ActorFlorida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor also for Apt PupilIndependent Spirit Award for Best Lead MaleKansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best ActorLos Angeles Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNational Board of Review Award for Best ActorOnline Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorSan Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best ActorSan Sebastián International Film Festival Award for Best ActorToronto Film Critics Association Award for Best ActorNominated - Academy Award for Best ActorNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture DramaNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role 2000 X-Men Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto 2001 The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring Gandalf the Grey Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best CastSaturn Award for Best Supporting ActorScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting RoleNominated - Academy Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated — Empire Award for Best British ActorNominated — Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion PictureNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture 2002 The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers Gandalf the White Online Film Critics Society Award for Best CastPhoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best CastNominated — Empire Award for Best British ActorNominated — Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Tusker Tusker 2003 The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King Gandalf the White Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best CastNational Board of Review Award for Best CastScreen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion PictureNominated — Saturn Award for Best Supporting ActorNominated — BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting RoleNominated — Empire Award for Best British ActorNominated — Phoenix Film Critics Society Award for Best Cast Emile Emile Nominated — Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role The Simpsons Himself X2 Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto 2004 Eighteen Jason Anders 2005 Neverwas Gabriel Finch Asylum Dr. Peter Cleave The Magic Roundabout Zebedee (voice) 2006 Extras (TV)Ian McKellenNominated - Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor – Miniseries or a Movie Flushed Away The Toad Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production X-Men: The Last Stand Erik Lehnsherr / Magneto The Da Vinci Code Sir Leigh Teabing 2007 Stardust Narrator(voice) The Golden Compass Iorek Byrnison (voice) 2008 King Lear (TV)King Lear 2009 The Prisoner (TV)Number Two 2011 The Hobbit IGandalf the Grey 2012 The Hobbit IIGandalf the Grey Miscellaneous Vampire in the music video "Heart" by Pet Shop Boys The man who's "falling out of reach" in the music video "Falling Out of Reach" by Guillemots Audiobook narrator of Michelle Paver's Chronicles of Ancient Darkness series (Wolf Brother, Spirit Walker, Soul Eater, Outcast) References External links McKellen's home page Interviews, blogs and clips Interview and photoshoot factory-publishing.com McKellen's personal pages on the Lord of the Rings movie, with a diary and answers to questions by fans Interview at www.sci-fi-online.com Podcast interview Interview at AfterElton.com Extended BBC interviews with McKellen as he prepares to play King Lear "A conversation with Sir Ian": Interactive video interview with McKellen on Shakespeare, Richard III and Richard's opening speech Emma Brockes, Every inch a king (interview) The Guardian'', November 2007 Ian McKellen: A Free Man The Telegraph, 15 December 2008

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Kana

Kana are the syllabic Japanese scripts, as opposed to the logographic Chinese characters known in Japan as kanji () and the Roman alphabet known as rōmaji. There are three kana scripts: modern cursive hiragana (ひらがな), modern angular katakana (カタカナ), and the old syllabic use of kanji known as man'yōgana that was ancestral to both. Katakana with a few additions is used to write Ainu. Kana was used in Taiwanese as a gloss (furigana) for Chinese characters during the Japanese administration of Taiwan. See Taiwanese kana. Hiragana and katakana The difference in usage between hiragana and katakana is stylistic. Usually, hiragana is the default syllabary, and katakana is used for foreign borrowings, onomatopoeia and interjections, and transcriptions of the Sino-Japanese readings of kanji. +Table of the Japanese kanaHiragana (left) and katakana (right)Syllables in parentheses are archaic. (Image of this table.)-kstnhmyrwnaa あ アka か カsa さ サta た タna な ナha は ハma ま マya や ヤra ら ラwa わ ワii い イki き キshi し シchi ち チni に ニhi ひ ヒmi み ミ*ri り リ(wi) ゐ ヰuu う ウku く クsu す スtsu つツnu ぬ ヌfu ふ フmu む ムyu ゆ ユru る ル*n ん ンee え エke け ケse せ セte て テne ね ネhe へ ヘme め メ*re れ レ(we) ゑ ヱoo お オko こ コso そ ソto と トno の ノho ほ ホmo も モyo よ ヨro ろ ロo/wo を ヲ There are no kana for ye, yi, or wu, as these syllables do not occur in Japanese, though ye is believed to have existed in pre-Classical Japanese (prior to the advent of kana), and is generally represented for purposes of reconstruction by the kanji 江. In later periods, the syllable we (katakana ヱ, hiragana ゑ) came to be realized as , as demonstrated by 1600s-era European sources, but later merged with the vowel e. It was eliminated from official orthography in 1946. In modern orthography, ye may be written いぇ, イェ. While no longer part of standard orthography, wi and we are sometimes used stylistically, as in ウヰスキー for "whiskey" and ヱビス for Yebisu, a brand of beer. Modern usage Hiragana is mostly used to indicate prefixes, particles, and grammatical word endings (okurigana). It is also used to represent entire words (usually of Japanese, rather than Chinese, origin) in place of kanji. See the article hiragana for details. Today katakana is most commonly used to write words of foreign origin that do not have kanji representations. For example, "Barack Obama" can be expressed as バラク・オバマ. Katakana is also used to represent onomatopoeia, technical and scientific terms, and some corporate branding. See the article katakana for details. Kana can be written in small form above or next to lesser-known kanji in order to show pronunciation; this is called furigana. Furigana is used most widely in children's books. Literature for young children who do not yet know kanji may dispense with it altogether and instead use hiragana combined with spaces. History Development of hiragana and katakana The first kana was a system called man'yōgana, a set of kanji used for their phonetic values, much as Chinese uses characters for their phonetic values in foreign loanwords today. Man'yōshū, a poetry anthology assembled in 759, is written in this early script. Hiragana developed as a distinct script from cursive man'yōgana, whereas katakana developed from abbreviated parts of regular script man'yōgana as a glossing system to add readings or explanations to Buddhist sutras. Hiragana was developed for speed, whereas katakana developed to be small. Kana is traditionally said to have been invented by the Buddhist priest Kūkai in the 9th century. Kūkai certainly brought the Siddham script home on his return from China in 806; his interest in the sacred aspects of speech and writing led him to the conclusion that Japanese would be better represented by a phonetic alphabet than by the kanji which had been used up to that point. The modern arrangement of kana reflects that of Siddham, but the traditional iroha arrangement follows a poem which uses each kana once. The present set of kana was codified in 1900, and rules for their usage in 1946. Collation Kana are the basis for collation in Japanese. They are taken in the order given by the gojūon (あ い う え お … わ を ん), though iroha ordering is used for enumeration in some circumstances. Dictionaries differ in the sequence order for long/short vowel distinction, small tsu and diacritics. As the Japanese do not use word spaces (except for children), there can be no word-by-word collation; all collation is kana-by-kana. Kana in Unicode The Hiragana range in Unicode is U+3040 ... U+309F, and the Katakana range is U+30A0 ... U+30FF. The obsolete characters (WI and WE) also have their proper codepoints, except for hentaigana, as hentaigana are considered glyph variants of more common kana. 0123456789ABCDEF304x ぁあぃいぅうぇえぉおかがきぎく305x ぐけげこごさざしじすずせぜそぞた306x だちぢっつづてでとどなにぬねのは307x ばぱひびぴふぶぷへべぺほぼぽまみ308x むめもゃやゅゆょよらりるれろゎわ309x ゐゑをんゔゕゖ ゙゚゛゜ゝゞゟ30Ax ゠ァアィイゥウェエォオカガキギク30Bx グケゲコゴサザシジスズセゼソゾタ30Cx ダチヂッツヅテデトドナニヌネノハ30Dx バパヒビピフブプヘベペホボポマミ30Ex ムメモャヤュユョヨラリルレロヮワ30Fx ヰヱヲンヴヵヶヷヸヹヺ・ーヽヾヿ Code points U+3040, U+3097, and U+3098 are unassigned as of Unicode 4.1. Characters U+3095 and U+3096 are hiragana small ka and small ke, respectively. U+30F5 and U+30F6 are their katakana equivalents. Characters U+3099 and U+309A are combining dakuten and handakuten, which correspond to the spacing characters U+309B and U+309C. U+309D is the hiragana iteration mark, used to repeat a previous hiragana. U+309E is the voiced hiragana iteration mark, which stands in for the previous hiragana but with the consonant voiced (k becomes g, h becomes b, etc.). U+30FD and U+30FE are the katakana iteration marks. U+309F is a ligature of "yori" (より) sometimes used in vertical writing. U+30FF is a ligature of "koto" (コト), also found in vertical writing. Additionally, there are halfwidth equivalents to the standard fullwidth katakana. These are encoded within the Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms block (U+FF00–U+FFEF), starting at U+FF65 and ending at U+FF9F (characters U+FF61–U+FF64 are halfwidth punctuation marks): 0123456789ABCDEFFF60 ｡｢｣､･ｦｧｨｩｪｫｬｭｮｯFF70 ｰｱｲｳｴｵｶｷｸｹｺｻｼｽｾｿFF80 ﾀﾁﾂﾃﾄﾅﾆﾇﾈﾉﾊﾋﾌﾍﾎﾏFF90 ﾐﾑﾒﾓﾔﾕﾖﾗﾘﾙﾚﾛﾜﾝﾞﾟ There is also a small "Katakana Phonetic Extensions" range (U+31F0 ... U+31FF), which includes some extra characters for writing the Ainu language. 0123456789ABCDEF31F0 ㇰㇱㇲㇳㇴㇵㇶㇷㇸㇹㇺㇻㇼㇽㇾㇿ  ｸｼｽﾄﾇﾊﾋﾌﾍﾎﾑﾗﾘﾙﾚﾛ References See also Gojūon Romaji Transliteration and Transcription Historical kana usage Man'yōgana Hentaigana External links Real Kana Practice hiragana and katakana using different typefaces. Origin of Hiragana Origin of Katakana Change Kanji into Romaji and Hiragana Kana web translator - Transliterate Kana to Rōmaji Kana Copybook (PDF) Kana no quiz Free/libre and cross-platform educational software to memorize Japanese kana pronouncing & transcription. Japanese calligraphy. Kana KanaQuest Memorize Japanese words and kana with multiple quizzes.

Kana |@lemmatized kana:26 syllabic:2 japanese:13 script:6 oppose:1 logographic:1 chinese:4 character:9 know:5 japan:1 kanji:11 roman:1 alphabet:2 rōmaji:2 three:1 modern:5 cursive:2 hiragana:20 ひらがな:1 angular:1 katakana:20 カタカナ:1 old:1 use:19 man:6 yōgana:5 ancestral:1 addition:1 write:7 ainu:2 taiwanese:2 gloss:1 furigana:3 administration:1 taiwan:1 see:4 difference:1 usage:4 stylistic:1 usually:2 default:1 syllabary:1 foreign:3 borrowing:1 onomatopoeia:2 interjection:1 transcription:3 sino:1 reading:2 table:2 kanahiragana:1 leave:1 right:1 syllables:1 parenthesis:1 archaic:1 image:1 kstnhmyrwnaa:1 あ:2 アka:1 か:1 カsa:1 さ:1 サta:1 た:1 タna:1 な:1 ナha:1 は:1 ハma:1 ま:1 マya:1 や:1 ヤra:1 ら:1 ラwa:1 わ:2 ワii:1 い:2 イki:1 き:1 キshi:1 し:1 シchi:1 ち:1 チni:1 に:1 ニhi:1 ひ:1 ヒmi:1 み:1 ミ:1 ri:1 り:1 リ:1 wi:3 ゐ:1 ヰuu:1 う:2 ウku:1 く:1 クsu:1 す:1 スtsu:1 つツnu:1 ぬ:1 ヌfu:1 ふ:1 フmu:1 む:1 ムyu:1 ゆ:1 ユru:1 る:1 ル:1 n:1 ん:2 ンee:1 え:2 エke:1 け:1 ケse:1 せ:1 セte:1 て:1 テne:1 ね:1 ネhe:1 へ:1 ヘme:1 め:1 メ:1 れ:1 レ:1 ゑ:2 ヱoo:1 お:2 オko:1 こ:1 コso:1 そ:1 ソto:1 と:1 トno:1 の:1 ノho:1 ほ:1 ホmo:1 も:1 モyo:1 よ:1 ヨro:1 ろ:1 ロo:1 wo:1 を:2 ヲ:1 ye:3 yi:1 wu:1 syllable:2 occur:1 though:2 believe:1 exist:1 pre:1 classical:1 prior:1 advent:1 generally:1 represent:4 purpose:1 reconstruction:1 江:1 late:1 period:1 ヱ:1 come:1 realize:1 demonstrate:1 era:1 european:1 source:1 later:1 merge:1 vowel:2 e:1 eliminate:1 official:1 orthography:3 may:2 いぇ:1 イェ:1 long:2 part:2 standard:2 sometimes:2 stylistically:1 ウヰスキー:1 whiskey:1 ヱビス:1 yebisu:1 brand:1 beer:1 mostly:1 indicate:1 prefix:1 particle:1 grammatical:1 word:7 ending:1 okurigana:1 also:6 entire:1 rather:1 origin:4 place:1 article:2 detail:2 today:2 commonly:1 representation:1 example:1 barack:1 obama:1 express:1 バラク:1 オバマ:1 technical:1 scientific:1 term:1 corporate:1 branding:1 small:6 form:2 next:1 lesser:1 order:3 show:1 pronunciation:1 call:2 widely:1 child:3 book:1 literature:1 young:1 yet:1 dispense:1 altogether:1 instead:1 combine:2 space:3 history:1 development:1 first:1 system:2 set:2 phonetic:4 value:2 much:1 us:1 loanword:1 yōshū:1 poetry:1 anthology:1 assemble:1 early:1 develop:4 distinct:1 whereas:2 abbreviated:1 regular:1 glossing:1 add:1 explanation:1 buddhist:2 sutra:1 speed:1 traditionally:1 say:1 invent:1 priest:1 kūkai:2 century:1 certainly:1 bring:1 siddham:2 home:1 return:1 china:1 interest:1 sacred:1 aspect:1 speech:1 lead:1 conclusion:1 would:1 well:1 point:2 arrangement:2 reflect:1 traditional:1 iroha:2 follow:1 poem:1 present:1 codify:1 rule:1 collation:4 basis:1 take:1 give:1 gojūon:2 ordering:1 enumeration:1 circumstance:1 dictionary:1 differ:1 sequence:1 short:1 distinction:1 tsu:1 diacritic:1 except:2 unicode:3 range:3 u:29 obsolete:1 proper:1 codepoints:1 hentaigana:3 consider:1 glyph:1 variant:1 common:1 ゐゑをんゔゕゖ:1 ヰヱヲンヴヵヶヷヸヹヺ:1 ーヽヾヿ:1 code:1 unassigned:1 ka:1 ke:1 respectively:1 equivalent:2 dakuten:1 handakuten:1 correspond:1 iteration:3 mark:4 repeat:1 previous:2 voiced:1 stand:1 consonant:1 voice:1 k:1 becomes:2 g:1 h:1 b:1 etc:1 ligature:2 yori:1 より:1 vertical:2 writing:2 koto:1 コト:1 find:1 additionally:1 halfwidth:3 fullwidth:2 encode:1 within:1 block:1 ffef:1 start:1 end:1 punctuation:1 ﾐﾑﾒﾓﾔﾕﾖﾗﾘﾙﾚﾛﾜﾝﾞﾟ:1 extension:1 include:1 extra:1 language:1 ㇰㇱㇲㇳㇴㇵㇶㇷㇸㇹㇺㇻㇼㇽㇾㇿ:1 ｸｼｽﾄﾇﾊﾋﾌﾍﾎﾑﾗﾘﾙﾚﾛ:1 reference:1 romaji:2 transliteration:1 historical:1 external:1 link:1 real:1 practice:1 different:1 typeface:1 change:1 web:1 translator:1 transliterate:1 copybook:1 pdf:1 quiz:2 free:1 libre:1 cross:1 platform:1 educational:1 software:1 memorize:2 pronounce:1 calligraphy:1 kanaquest:1 multiple:1 |@bigram man_yōgana:5 hiragana_katakana:4 sino_japanese:1 barack_obama:1 man_yōshū:1 script_cursive:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 punctuation_mark:1 external_link:1

Albert,_Duke_in_Prussia

Albert of Prussia Albert (; ; 16 May 1490 – 20 March 1568) was the 37th Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and, after converting to Lutheranism, the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia, which was the first state to adopt the Lutheran faith and Protestantism as the official state religion. Albert proved instrumental in the political spread of Protestantism in its early stage. Because Albert was a member of the Brandenburg-Ansbach branch of the House of Hohenzollern, it had been hoped that his election as Grand Master would reverse the decline of the Teutonic Knights since 1410; Duke Frederick of Saxony of the House of Wettin had been elected for the same reason. Instead, Albert's secularization of the Prussian territories of the Order eventually led to the inheritance of the Duchy of Prussia by the Margraviate of Brandenburg. Albert's titles (on his proclamation of 1561 in Königsberg) were: Albert the Elder, Margrave of Brandenburg in Prussia, Stettin in Pomerania, Duke of the Kashubians, and Wends, Burgrave of Nuremberg, and Count of Rügen etc. Early life Albert was born in Ansbach in Franconia as the third son of Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. His mother was Sophia, daughter of Casimir IV Jagiellon, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, and his wife Elisabeth of Austria. He was raised for a career in the Church and spent some time at the court of Hermann IV of Hesse, Elector of Cologne, who appointed him canon of the Cologne Cathedral. Despite being quite religious, he was also interested in mathematics and science, and sometimes is claimed to have contradicted the teachings of the Church in favour of scientific theories. His career was forwarded by the Church however and institutions of the Catholic clerics supported his early advance. Turning to a more active life, Albert accompanied Emperor Maximilian I to Italy in 1508, and after his return spent some time in the Kingdom of Hungary. Grand Master As Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, Statue by Rudolf Siemering (1835 Königsberg - 1905 Berlin) Duke Frederick of Saxony, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, died in December 1510. Albert was chosen as his successor early in 1511 in the hope that his relationship to his maternal uncle, Sigismund I the Old, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes over eastern Prussia, which had been held by the Order under Polish suzerainty since the Second Peace of Thorn (1466). The new Grand Master, aware of his duties to the empire and to the papacy, refused to submit to the crown of Poland. As war over the Order's existence appeared inevitable, Albert made strenuous efforts to secure allies and carried on protracted negotiations with Emperor Maximilian I. The ill-feeling, influenced by the ravages of members of the Order in Poland, culminated in a war which began in December 1519 and devastated Prussia. Albert was granted a four-year truce early in 1521. The dispute was referred to Emperor Charles V and other princes, but as no settlement was reached Albert continued his efforts to obtain help in view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose he visited the Diet of Nuremberg in 1522, where he made the acquaintance of the Reformer Andreas Osiander, by whose influence Albert was won over to Protestantism. The Grand Master then journeyed to Wittenberg, where he was advised by Martin Luther to abandon the rules of his Order, to marry, and to convert Prussia into a hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which was understandably appealing to Albert, had already been discussed by some of his relatives; but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, and he assured Pope Adrian VI that he was anxious to reform the Order and punish the knights who had adopted Lutheran doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, Margrave George of Brandenburg-Ansbach, laid the scheme before their uncle, Sigismund I the Old of Poland. Duke of Prussia “The Prussian Tribute“: Albert and his brothers receive the Duchy of Prussia as a fief from the Polish King, Sigismund I the Old in 1525 (History painting by Jan Matejko, 1882) After some delay Sigismund assented to the offer, with the provision that Prussia should be treated as a Polish fiefdom; and after this arrangement had been confirmed by a treaty concluded at Kraków, Albert pledged a personal oath to Sigismund I and was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs on 10 February 1525. The Estates of the land then met at Königsberg and took the oath of allegiance to the new duke, who used his full powers to promote the doctrines of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert refused to appear and was proscribed, while the Order elected a new Grand Master, Walter von Cronberg, who received Prussia as a fief at the imperial Diet of Augsburg. As the German princes were experiencing the tumult of the Reformation, the Peasants' War, and the wars against the Ottoman Turks, they did not enforce the ban on the duke, and agitation against him soon died away. In imperial politics Albert was fairly active. Joining the League of Torgau in 1526, he acted in unison with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded and plotted together to overthrow Charles V after the issue of the Augsburg Interim in May 1548. For various reasons, however, poverty and personal inclination among others, he did not take a prominent part in the military operations of this period. The early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. He did something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools in every town and by freeing serfs who adopted a scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded Königsberg University, where he appointed his friend Andreas Osiander to a professorship in 1549. Albert also paid for the printing of the Astronomical "Prutenic Tables" compiled by Erasmus Reinhold and the first maps of Prussia by Caspar Hennenberger. 1 Groschen coin, 1534, Iustus ex fide vivit — The Just lives on Faith This step was the beginning of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign. Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with Philip Melanchthon, who had adherents in Königsberg, and these theological disputes soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened. There were no longer church lands available with which to conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and Albert's rule became unpopular. After Osiander's death in 1552, Albert favoured a preacher named Johann Funck, who, with an adventurer named Paul Skalić, exercised great influence over him and obtained considerable wealth at public expense. The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death and the need, should that happen, to appoint a regent, as his only son, Albert Frederick was still a mere youth. The duke was forced to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, and the climax came in 1566 when the Estates appealed to King Sigismund II Augustus of Poland, Albert's cousin, who sent a commission to Königsberg. Scalich saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed. The question of the regency was settled, and a form of Lutheranism was adopted and declared binding on all teachers and preachers. Virtually deprived of power, the duke lived for two more years, and died at Tapiau on 20 March 1568. He had married Dorothea, daughter of King Frederick I of Denmark, in 1526 and, following her death in 1547, he married Anna Maria, daughter of Eric I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Albert was a voluminous letter writer, and corresponded with many of the leading personages of the time. In 1891, a statue was erected to his memory at Königsberg. Legacy Although having received relatively little recognition in German history, Albert's dissolution of the Teutonic State caused him to found the Duchy of Prussia, as well as the Hohernzollern dynasty, which would eventually become arguably the most powerful European nation and unite the whole of Germany. Therefore, Albert is often seen as the father of the Prussian nation, and even in some ways indirectly responsible for the unification of Germany. He must have been a skilled political administrator and leader, as he was able to effectively reverse the decline of the Teutonic Order, until he supposedly "betrayed" them by transforming their lands into his own duchy, ousting them in the process. Among his other visible legacies include founding the University of Konigsberg, and being the first German Noble to support Luther's ideas. Ancestors References External links William Urban on the situation in Prussia |-

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Louisiana

The State of Louisiana ( or , , pronounced ) is a state located in the southern region (Deep South) of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state divided into parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties. The largest parish by population is Jefferson Parish, and the largest by land area is Cameron Parish. Some Louisiana urban environments have a multicultural, multilingual heritage, being so strongly influenced by an admixture of 18th century French, Spanish and African cultures that they have been considered somewhat exceptional in the U.S. Before the American influx and statehood at the beginning of the 19th century, the territory of current Louisiana State had been a Spanish and French colony. In addition, the pattern of development included importing numerous Africans in the 18th century, with many from the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Etymology Louisiana (also known as New France) was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643–1715. When René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane, meaning "Land of Louis". Louisiana was also part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain of the Spanish Empire. The territory was acquired in 1803 by the United States through the Louisiana Purchase from France. Once part of the United States, the Louisiana Territory stretched from present-day New Orleans north to the present-day Canadian border. Part or all of 15 states were formed from the territory. Geography Map of Louisiana Topography Louisiana is bordered to the west by the state of Texas; to the north by Arkansas; to the east by the state of Mississippi; and to the south by the Gulf of Mexico. The surface of the state may properly be divided into two parts, the uplands and the alluvial. The alluvial region includes low swamp lands, coastal marshlands and beaches, and barrier islands that cover about 20,000 square miles (52,000 km²). This area lies principally along the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River, which traverses the state from north to south for a distance of about 600 miles (1,000 km) and empties into the Gulf of Mexico; the Red River; the Ouachita River and its branches; and other minor streams (some of which are called bayous). The breadth of the alluvial region along the Mississippi is from 10 to 60 miles (15 to 100 km), and along the other rivers the alluvial region averages about 10 miles (15 km) across. The Mississippi River flows along a ridge formed by its own deposits (known as a levee), from which the lands decline toward the low swamps beyond at an average fall of six feet per mile (3 m/km). The alluvial lands along other streams present similar features. The higher lands and contiguous hill lands of the north and northwestern part of the state have an area of more than 25,000 square miles (65,000 km²). They consist of prairie and woodlands. The elevations above sea level range from 10 feet (3 m) at the coast and swamp lands to 50 and 60 feet (15–18 m) at the prairie and alluvial lands. In the uplands and hills, the elevations rise to Driskill Mountain, the highest point in the state at only 535 feet (163 m) above sea level. Only two other states, Florida and Delaware, are geographically lower than Louisiana. Several other states, such as Kansas and Nebraska, are geographically flatter. Besides the navigable waterways already named, there are the Sabine (Sah-BEAN), forming the western boundary; and the Pearl, the eastern boundary; the Calcasieu (KAL-cah-shew), the Mermentau, the Vermilion, Bayou Teche, the Atchafalaya, the Boeuf (beff), Bayou Lafourche, the Courtableau, Bayou D'Arbonne, the Macon, the Tensas (TEN-saw), Amite River, the Tchefuncte (CHA-Funk-ta), the Tickfaw, the Natalbany, and a number of other smaller streams, constituting a natural system of navigable waterways, aggregating over in length. These waterways are unequaled in any other state of the nation. The state also has 1,060 square miles (2,745 km²) of land-locked bays; 1,700 square miles (4,400 km²) of inland lakes; and a river surface of over 500 square miles (1,300 km²). Climate Louisiana has a humid subtropical climate (Koppen climate classification Cfa), perhaps the most "classic" example of a humid subtropical climate of all the Southeastern states, with long, hot, humid summers and short, mild winters. The subtropical characteristics of the state are due in large part to the influence of the Gulf of Mexico, which even at its farthest point is no more than 200 miles (320 km) away. Precipitation is frequent throughout the year, although the summer is slightly wetter than the rest of the year. There is a dip in precipitation in October. Southern Louisiana receives far more copious rainfall, especially during the winter months. Summers in Louisiana are hot and humid, with high temperatures from mid-June to mid-September averaging 90 °F (32 °C) or more and overnight lows averaging above 70 °F (22 °C). In the summer, the extreme maximum temperature is much warmer in the north than in the south, with temperatures near the Gulf of Mexico occasionally reaching 100 °F (38 °C), although temperatures above 95 °F (35 °C) are commonplace. In northern Louisiana, the temperatures reach above 105 °F (41 °C) in the summer. Temperatures are generally mildly warm in the winter in the southern part of the state, with highs around New Orleans, Baton Rouge, the rest of south Louisiana, and the Gulf of Mexico averaging 66 °F (19 °C), while the northern part of the state is mildly cool in the winter with highs averaging 59 °F (15 °C). The overnight lows in the winter average well above freezing throughout the state, with 46 °F (8 °C) the average near the Gulf and an average low of 37 °F (3 °C) in the winter in the northern part of the state. Louisiana does have its share of cold fronts, which frequently drop the temperatures below 20 °F (-8 °C) in the northern part of the state, but almost never do so in the southern part of the state. Snow is not very common near the Gulf of Mexico, although those in the northern parts of the state can expect one to three snowfalls per year, with the frequency increasing northwards. Louisiana is often affected by tropical cyclones and is very vulnerable to strikes by major hurricanes, particularly the lowlands around and in the New Orleans area. The unique geography of the region with the many bayous, marshes and inlets can make major hurricanes especially destructive. The area is also prone to frequent thunderstorms, especially in the summer. The entire state averages over 60 days of thunderstorms a year, more than any other state except Florida. Louisiana averages 27 tornadoes annually. The entire state is vulnerable to a tornado strike, with the extreme southern portion of the state slightly less so than the rest of the state. Tornadoes are much more common from January to March in the southern part of the state, and from February through March in the northern part of the state. NOAA National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved on October 24, 2006. Hurricanes September 1, 2008, Gustav made landfall along the Louisiana coast near Cocodrie in southeastern Louisiana. As late as August 31 it had been projected by the National Hurricane Center that the hurricane would remain at Category 3 or above on September 1, but in the event the center of Gustav made landfall as a strong Category 2 hurricane (1 mph below Category 3), and dropped to Category 1 soon after. Hurricane Gustav makes landfall, weakens to Category 1 storm Fox News, September 2, 2008. As a result of NHC's forecasts there had been a massive evacuation of New Orleans amid warnings (for example from the city's mayor, Ray Nagin) that this would be the “storm of the century”, Mandatory evacuations to begin Sunday morning in New Orleans CNN, August 31, 2008. potentially more devastating than Katrina almost exactly three years earlier, but these fears were not realised. Nevertheless, a significant number of deaths were caused by or attributed to Gustav, and around 1.5 million people were without power in Louisiana on September 1. September 24, 2005, Rita (Category 3 at landfall) struck southwestern Louisiana, flooding many parishes and cities along the coast, including Cameron Parish, Lake Charles, and other towns. The storm's winds further weakened the damaged levees in New Orleans and caused renewed flooding in parts of the city. August 29, 2005, Katrina (Category 3 at landfall) struck and devastated southeastern Louisiana, while breached and undermined levees in New Orleans allowed 80% of the city to flood. Most people had been evacuated but the majority of the population became homeless. The city was virtually closed until October. It is estimated that more than two million people in the Gulf region were displaced by the hurricane, and more than 1,500 fatalities resulted in Louisiana alone. A public outcry criticized governments at the local, state, and federal levels, citing that preparation and response was neither fast nor adequate. Oct. 3, 2002, Lili (Category 1 at landfall) August 1992, Andrew (Category 3 at landfall) struck south-central Louisiana. It killed four people; knocked out power to nearly 150,000 citizens; and destroyed hundreds of millions of dollars of crops in the state. August 1969, Camille (Category 5) caused a . storm surge and killed 250 people. Although Camille officially made landfall in Mississippi and the worst impacts were felt there, it also had effects in Louisiana. New Orleans was spared the brunt of the storm and remained dry, with the exception of mild rain-generated flooding in the most low-lying areas. September 9, 1965, Betsy (Category 3 at landfall) came ashore in Louisiana, causing massive destruction as the first hurricane in history to cause one billion dollars in damage (over ten billion in inflation-adjusted USD). The storm hit New Orleans particularly hard by flooding approximately 35% of the city (including the Lower 9th Ward, Gentilly, and parts of Mid-City), and pushing the death toll in the state to 76. June 1957, Audrey (Category 4) devastated southwest Louisiana, destroying or severely damaging 60–80 percent of the homes and businesses from Cameron to Grand Chenier. 40,000 people were left homeless and more than 300 people were killed in the state. Geology The underlying strata of the state are of Cretaceous age and are covered by alluvial deposits of Tertiary and post-Tertiary origin. A large part of Louisiana is the creation and product of the Mississippi River. It was originally covered by an arm of the sea, and has been built up by the silt carried down the valley by the great river. Near the coast, there are many salt domes, where salt is mined and oil is often found. Salt domes also exist in North Louisiana. Due both to extensive flood control measures along the Mississippi River and natural subsidence, Louisiana is now suffering the loss of coastal land area. State and federal government efforts to halt or reverse this phenomenon are underway; others are being sought. There is one bright spot, however; the Atchafalaya River is creating new delta land in the South-Central portion of the state. This active delta lobe also indicates that the Mississippi is seeking a new path to the Gulf. Much engineering effort is devoted to keeping the river near its traditional route, as the state's economy and shipping depends on it. Geographic and statistical areas Louisiana is divided into 64 parishes (the equivalent of counties in most other states). The term "parish" is unique to Louisiana and is due to its French/Spanish heritage; the original boundaries of the civilian county governments were coterminuous with the local Roman Catholic parishes. List of parishes in Louisiana Louisiana census statistical areas Louisiana metropolitan areas List of cities, towns, and villages in Louisiana Louisiana locations by per capita income Protected areas Louisiana contains a number of areas which are, in varying degrees, protected from human intervention. In addition to National Park Service sites and areas and a United States National Forest, Louisiana operates a system of state parks and recreation areas throughout the state. Administered by the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, the Louisiana Natural and Scenic Rivers System provides a degree of protection for 48 rivers, streams and bayous in the state. National Park Service Historic or scenic areas managed, protected, or otherwise recognized by the National Park Service include: Cane River National Heritage Area near Natchitoches; Cane River Creole National Historical Park near Natchitoches; Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve, headquartered in New Orleans, with units in St. Bernard Parish, Barataria (Crown Point), and Acadiana (Lafayette); New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park; Poverty Point National Monument at Epps, Louisiana; and Saline River/Bayou, a designated National Wild and Scenic River near Winn Parish in northern Louisiana. US Forest Service Kisatchie National Forest is Louisiana's only national forest. It includes several hundred thousand acres in central and north Louisiana. State parks and recreational areas Louisiana operates a system of 19 state parks, 16 state historic sites and one state preservation area. Louisiana is also home of the High Delta Safari Park close to Shreveport and Monroe. Transportation Intracoastal waterway in Louisiana near New Orleans Interstate highways Interstate 10 Interstate 12 Interstate 20 Interstate 49 Interstate 55 Interstate 59 Interstate 110 Interstate 210 Interstate 220 Interstate 310 Interstate 510 Interstate 610 Interstate 910 United States highways {| U.S. Route 11 U.S. Route 51 U.S. Route 61 U.S. Route 63 U.S. Route 65 U.S. Route 71 U.S. Route 79 U.S. Route 80 U.S. Route 84 U.S. Route 90 U.S. Route 165 U.S. Route 167 U.S. Route 171 U.S. Route 190 U.S. Route 371 U.S. Route 425 The Intracoastal Waterway is an important means of transporting commercial goods such as petroleum and petroleum products, agricultural produce, building materials and manufactured goods. History Early settlement Louisiana was inhabited by Native Americans when European explorers arrived in the 16th century. Many place names in the state are transliterations of those used in Native American dialects. Tribes that inhabited what is now Louisiana included the Atakapa, the Boocana the Opelousa, the Acolapissa, the Tangipahoa, and the Chitimacha in the southeast of the state; the Washa, the Chawasha, the Yagenechito, the Bayougoula and the Houma (part of the Choctaw nation), the Quinipissa, the Okelousa, the Avoyel, the Taensa (part of the Natchez nation), the Tunica, and the Koroa. Central and northwest Louisiana was home to a substantial portion of the Caddo nation and the Natchitoches confederacy, consisting of the Natchitoches, the Yatasi, the Nakasa, the Doustioni, the Quachita, and the Adai. Sturtevant, William C. (1967): Early Indian Tribes, Cultures, and Linguistic Stocks, Smithsonian Institution Map (Eastern United States). Exploration and colonization by Europeans Louisiana regions The first European explorers to visit Louisiana came in 1528. The Spanish expedition (led by Panfilo de Narváez) located the mouth of the Mississippi River. In 1541, Hernando de Soto's expedition crossed the region. Then Spanish interest in Louisiana lay dormant. In the late 17th century, French expeditions, which included sovereign, religious and commercial aims, established a foothold on the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast. With its first settlements, France lay claim to a vast region of North America and set out to establish a commercial empire and French nation stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to Canada. In 1682, the French explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle named the region Louisiana to honor France's King Louis XIV. The first permanent settlement, Fort Maurepas (at what is now Ocean Springs, Mississippi, near Biloxi), was founded by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, a French military officer from Canada, in 1699. By then the French had also built a small fort at the mouth of the Mississippi at a settlement they named La Balise (or La Balize), "seamark" in French. By 1721 they built a wooden lighthouse-type structure to guide ships on the river. David Roth, "Louisiana Hurricane History: 18th century (1722–1800)", Tropical Weather - National Weather Service - Lake Charles, LA, 2003, accessed May 7, 2008 The French colony of Louisiana originally claimed all the land on both sides of the Mississippi River and north to French territory in Canada. The following States were part of Louisiana: Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota. The settlement of Natchitoches (along the Red River in present-day northwest Louisiana) was established in 1714 by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, making it the oldest permanent European settlement in the Louisiana Purchase territory. The French settlement had two purposes: to establish trade with the Spanish in Texas, and to deter Spanish advances into Louisiana. Also, the northern terminus of the Old San Antonio Road (sometimes called El Camino Real, or Kings Highway) was at Natchitoches. The settlement soon became a flourishing river port and crossroads, giving rise to vast cotton kingdoms along the river. Over time, planters developed large plantations and built fine homes in a growing town, a pattern repeated in New Orleans and other places. Louisiana's French settlements contributed to further exploration and outposts, concentrated along the banks of the Mississippi and its major tributaries, from Louisiana to as far north as the region called the Illinois Country, around present-day St. Louis, Missouri. See also: French colonization of the Americas Initially Mobile, Alabama and Biloxi, Mississippi functioned as the capital of the colony. Recognizing the importance of the Mississippi River to trade and military interests, France made New Orleans the seat of civilian and military authority in 1722. From then until the United States acquired the territory in the Louisiana Purchase on December 20, 1803, France and Spain traded control of the region's colonial empire. In the 1720s, German immigrants settled along the Mississippi River in a region referred to as the German Coast. France ceded most of its territory to the east of the Mississippi to Great Britain in the aftermath of the Seven Years' War or French and Indian War, as it was known in North America. It retained the area around New Orleans and the parishes around Lake Pontchartrain. The rest of Louisiana became a colony of Spain after the Seven Years' War by the Treaty of Paris of 1763. During the period of Spanish rule, several thousand French-speaking refugees from the region of Acadia (now Nova Scotia,New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island, Canada) made their way to Louisiana following British expulsion after the Seven Years' War. They settled chiefly in the southwestern Louisiana region now called Acadiana. The Spanish, eager to gain more Catholic settlers, welcomed the Acadian refugees. Cajuns descend from these Acadian refugees. Spanish Canary Islanders, called Isleños, emigrated from the Canary Islands of Spain to Louisiana under the Spanish crown between 1778 and 1783. In 1800, France's Napoleon Bonaparte acquired Louisiana from Spain in the Treaty of San Ildefonso, an arrangement kept secret for two years. Haitian Migration and Influence Pierre Laussat (French Minister in Louisiana 1718): "Saint-Domingue was, of all our colonies in the Antilles, the one whose mentality and customs influenced Louisiana the most." Louisiana and her Caribbean parent colony developed intimate links during the eighteenth century, centered on maritime trade, the exchange of capital and information, and the migration of colonists. From such beginnings, Haitians exerted a profound influence on Louisiana's politics, people, religion, and culture. The colony's officials, responding to anti-slavery plots and uprisings on the island, banned the entry of enslaved Saint Dominguans in 1763. Their rebellious actions would continue to impact upon Louisiana's slave trade and immigration policies throughout the age of the American and French revolutions. These two democratic struggles struck fear in the hearts of the Spaniards, who governed Louisiana from 1763 to 1800. They suppressed what they saw as seditious activities and banned subversive materials in a futile attempt to isolate their colony from the spread of democratic revolution. In May 1790 a royal decree prohibited the entry of blacks - enslaved and free - from the French West Indies. A year later, the first successful slave revolt in history started, which would lead eventually to the founding of Haiti. The revolution in Saint Domingue unleashed a massive multiracial exodus: the French fled with the slaves they managed to keep; so did numerous free people of color, some of whom were slaveholders themselves. In addition, in 1793, a catastrophic fire destroyed two-thirds of the principal city, Cap Français (present-day Cap Haïtien), and nearly ten thousand people left the island for good. In the ensuing decades of revolution, foreign invasion, and civil war, thousands more fled the turmoil. Many moved eastward to Santo Domingo (present-day Dominican Republic) or to nearby Caribbean islands. Large numbers of immigrants, black and white, found shelter in North America, notably in New York, Baltimore (fifty-three ships landed there in July 1793), Philadelphia, Norfolk, Charleston, and Savannah, as well as in Spanish Florida. Nowhere on the continent, however, did the refugee movement exert as profound an influence as in southern Louisiana. Between 1791 and 1803, thirteen hundred refugees arrived in New Orleans. The authorities were concerned that some had come with "seditious" ideas. In the spring of 1795, Pointe Coupée was the scene of an attempted insurrection during which planters' homes were burned down. Following the incident, a free émigré from Saint Domingue, Louis Benoit, accused of being "very imbued with the revolutionary maxims which have devastated the said colony" was banished. The failed uprising caused planter Joseph Pontalba to take "heed of the dreadful calamities of Saint Domingue, and of the germ of revolt only too widespread among our slaves." Continued unrest in Pointe Coupée and on the German Coast contributed to a decision to shut down the entire slave trade in the spring of 1796. In 1800 Louisiana officials debated reopening it, but they agreed that Saint Domingue blacks would be barred from entry. They also noted the presence of black and white insurgents from the French West Indies who were "propagating dangerous doctrines among our Negroes." Their slaves seemed more "insolent," "ungovernable," and "insubordinate" than they had just five years before. That same year, Spain ceded Louisiana back to France, and planters continued to live in fear of revolts. After future emperor Napoleon Bonaparte sold the colony to the United States in 1803 because his disastrous expedition against Saint Domingue had stretched his finances and military too thin, events in the island loomed even larger in Louisiana. http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm;jsessionid=f8303469141230638453792?migration=5&topic=2&bhcp=1 Purchase by the United States When the United States won its independence from Great Britain in 1783, one of its major concerns was having a European power on its western boundary, and the need for unrestricted access to the Mississippi River. As American settlers pushed west, they found that the Appalachian Mountains provided a barrier to shipping goods eastward. The easiest way to ship produce was to use a flatboat to float it down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to the port of New Orleans, from where goods could be put on ocean-going vessels. The problem with this route was that the Spanish owned both sides of the Mississippi below Natchez. Napoleon's ambitions in Louisiana involved the creation of a new empire centered on the Caribbean sugar trade. By the terms of the Treaty of Amiens of 1800, Great Britain returned ownership of the islands of Martinique and Guadaloupe to the French. Napoleon looked upon Louisiana as a depot for these sugar islands, and as a buffer to U.S. settlement. In October 1801 he sent a large military force to conquer the important island of Santo Domingo and re-introduce slavery, which had been abolished in St. Domingue following a slave revolt there in 1792-3, and the legal and constitutional abolition of slavery in French colonies in 1794. When the army led by Napoleon's brother-in-law Leclerc was defeated by the forces opposed to the re-enslavement of most of the population of St. Domingue, Napoleon decided to sell Louisiana. Louisiana's bilingual state welcome sign, recognizing its French heritage Thomas Jefferson, third President of the United States, was disturbed by Napoleon's plans to re-establish French colonies in America. With the possession of New Orleans, Napoleon could close the Mississippi to U.S. commerce at any time. Jefferson authorized Robert R. Livingston, U.S. Minister to France, to negotiate for the purchase of the City of New Orleans, portions of the east bank of the Mississippi, and free navigation of the river for U.S. commerce. Livingston was authorized to pay up to $2 million. An official transfer of Louisiana to French ownership had not yet taken place, and Napoleon's deal with the Spanish was a poorly kept secret on the frontier. On October 18, 1802, however, Juan Ventura Morales, Acting Intendant of Louisiana, made public the intention of Spain to revoke the right of deposit at New Orleans for all cargo from the United States. The closure of this vital port to the United States caused anger and consternation. Commerce in the west was virtually blockaded. Historians believe that the revocation of the right of deposit was prompted by abuses of the Americans, particularly smuggling, and not by French intrigues as was believed at the time. President Jefferson ignored public pressure for war with France, and appointed James Monroe a special envoy to Napoleon, to assist in obtaining New Orleans for the United States. Jefferson also raised the authorized expenditure to $10 million. However, on April 11, 1803, French Foreign Minister Talleyrand surprised Livingston by asking how much the United States was prepared to pay for the entirety of Louisiana, not just New Orleans and the surrounding area (as Livingston's instructions covered). Monroe agreed with Livingston that Napoleon might withdraw this offer at any time (leaving them with no ability to obtain the desired New Orleans area), and that approval from President Jefferson might take months, so Livingston and Monroe decided to open negotiations immediately. By April 30, they closed a deal for the purchase of the entire Louisiana territory for 60 million Francs (approximately $15 million). Part of this sum was used to forgive debts owed by France to the United States. The payment was made in United States bonds, which Napoleon sold at face value to the Dutch firm of Hope and Company, and the British banking house of Baring, at a discount of 87 1/2 per each $100 unit. As a result, France received only $8,831,250 in cash for Louisiana. Dutiful English banker Alexander Baring conferred with Marbois in Paris, shuttled to the United States to pick up the bonds, took them to Britain, and returned to France with the money – which Napoleon used to wage war against Baring's own country. When news of the purchase reached the United States, Jefferson was surprised. He had authorized the expenditure of $10 million for a port city, and instead received treaties committing the government to spend $15 million on a land package which would double the size of the country. Jefferson's political opponents in the Federalist Party argued that the Louisiana purchase was a worthless desert, and that the Constitution did not provide for the acquisition of new land or negotiating treaties without the consent of the Senate. What really worried the opposition was the new states which would inevitably be carved from the Louisiana territory, strengthening Western and Southern interests in Congress, and further reducing the influence of New England Federalists in national affairs. President Jefferson was an enthusiastic supporter of westward expansion, and held firm in his support for the treaty. Despite Federalist objections, the U.S. Senate ratified the Louisiana treaty on October 20, 1803. A transfer ceremony was held in New Orleans on November 29, 1803. Since the Louisiana territory had never officially been turned over to the French, the Spanish took down their flag, and the French raised theirs. The following day, General James Wilkinson accepted possession of New Orleans for the United States. A similar ceremony was held in St. Louis on March 9, 1804, when a French tricolor was raised near the river, replacing the Spanish national flag. The following day, Captain Amos Stoddard of the First U.S. Artillery marched his troops into town and had the American flag run up the fort's flagpole. The Louisiana territory was officially transferred to the United States government, represented by Meriwether Lewis. The Louisiana Territory, purchased for less than 3 cents an acre, doubled the size of the United States overnight, without a war or the loss of a single American life, and set a precedent for the purchase of territory. It opened the way for the eventual expansion of the United States across the continent to the Pacific. Demographics Louisiana population density map. As of July 2005 (prior to the landfall of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita), Louisiana has an estimated population of 4,523,628, which is an increase of 16,943, or 0.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 54,670, or 1.2%, since 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 129,889 people (that is 350,818 births minus 220,929 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 69,373 people out of the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 20,174 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 89,547 people. The population density of the state is 102.6 people per square mile. [Title=The New York Times 2008 Almanac|Author=edited by John W. Wright|Date=2007|Page=178] The center of population of Louisiana is located in Pointe Coupee Parish, in the city of New Roads. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 4.7% of the population aged 5 and older speak French or Cajun French at home, while 2.5% speak Spanish . Cajun and Creole population Cajuns and Creoles of French ancestry are dominant in much of the southern part of the state. Louisiana Cajuns are the descendants of French-speaking Acadians from colonial French Acadia, which are now the present-day Canadian provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. The Creole people of Louisiana are split into two racial divisions. Créole was the term first given to French settlers born in Louisiana when it was a colony of France. In Spanish the term for natives was criollo. Given the immigration and settlement patterns, white Creoles are predominantly of French and Spanish ancestry. As the slave population grew in Louisiana, there were also enslaved blacks who could be called Creoles, in the sense of having been born in the colony. The special meaning of Louisiana Creole, however, is associated with free people of color (gens de couleur libres), which was generally a third class of mixed-race people who were concentrated in southern Louisiana and New Orleans. This group was formed under French and Spanish rule, made up at first of descendants from relationships between colonial men and enslaved women, mostly African. As time went on, colonial men chose companions who were often women of color, or mixed-race. Often the men would free their companions and children if still enslaved. The arrangements were formalized in New Orleans as plaçage, often associated with property settlements for the young women and education for their children, or at least for sons. Creoles who were free people of color during French and Spanish rule formed a distinct class - many were educated and became wealthy property owners or artisans, and they were politically active. Often these mixed-race Creoles married only among themselves. They were a distinct group between white French and Spanish descendants, and the mass of enslaved Africans. After the Haitian Revolution, the class of free people of color in New Orleans and Louisiana was increased by French-speaking refugees and immigrants from Haiti. At the same time, French-speaking whites entered the city, some bringing slaves with them, who in Haiti were mostly African natives. Today Creoles of color are generally those who are a mix of African, French, Spanish and Native American heritage, who grew up in the French or Creole-speaking environment and culture. The separate status of Creoles of color was diminished after the US made the Louisiana Purchase, and even more so after the American Civil War. White attempts to regain supremacy made them divide society simply into black and white. Those Creoles who had been free for generations before the Civil War lost some of their standing. African American and Franco-African population Louisiana's population has the second largest proportion of black Americans (32.5%) in the United States, behind neighboring Mississippi (36.3%). Official census statistics do not distinguish among people of African ancestry. Consequently, no distinction is made between those in Louisiana of English-speaking heritage and those of French-speaking heritage. Creoles of color, Black Americans in Louisiana with French, African, and Native American ancestry, predominate in the southeast, central, and northern parts of the state, particularly those parishes along the Mississippi River valley. Southern white population Whites of Southern U.S. background predominate in northern Louisiana. These people are predominantly of English, German, Welsh, and Scots Irish backgrounds, and share a common, mostly Protestant culture with Americans of neighboring states. Other Europeans Before the Louisiana Purchase, some German families had settled in a rural area along the lower Mississippi valley, then known as the German Coast. They assimilated into Cajun and Creole communities. In 1840 New Orleans was the third largest and most wealthy city in the nation and the largest city in the South. Its bustling port and trade economy attracted numerous Irish, Italian, German and Portuguese immigrants, of which the first two groups were totally Catholic, and some Portuguese and Germans were, adding to Catholic culture in southern Louisiana. New Orleans is also home to sizable Dutch, Greek and Polish communities, and Jewish populations of various nationalities. More than 10,000 Maltese were reported to come to Louisiana in the early 20th century. In some cemeteries, many tombstones representing persons of the ethnic "Italian" community would read "born in Malta, Italy". Malta is not, however, part of Italy, although its islands were located closest to Sicily. In the early 20th century, because of its strategic importance in the Mediterranean, it was under colonial rule by Great Britain. Hispanic Americans According to the 2000 census, people of Hispanic origin made up 2.4% of the state's population. By 2005, this proportion had increased to an estimated 3 percent of the state's population, and the figure is believed to have increased further since then. The state has attracted an influx of immigrants from various countries of Latin America, such as Mexico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua. New Orleans has one of the largest Honduran American communities in the USA. Older Cuban American and Dominican communities are present in the New Orleans area, sometimes dating back to the 1920s and even as early as the 1880s, although most of them are immigrants and in the case of Cubans, being anti-Castro regime political refugees. New Orleans had strong ties to the Spanish empire in the late 18th century. But now the majority of New Orleans' Hispanic population came in the 1990s and the post-Katrina peak (2005) of Latin American immigration when Central Americans and Mexicans moved in, working for home construction, remodeling and wreckage removal crews. Asian Americans In 2006 it was estimated that 50,209 people of Asian descent (East Asian, South Asian and other Asian) live in Louisiana. Louisiana's Asian American population includes the descendants of Chinese workers who arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, often from the Caribbean. Another wave of Chinese immigration but this time from Southeast Asia occurred in the late 20th century. In the 1970s and 1980s, numerous Vietnamese and other Southeast Asian refugees came to the Gulf Coast to work in the fishing and shrimping industries. People of Vietnamese ancestry comprise the bulk of Asian Americans in Louisiana. About 95% of Louisiana's Asian population resides in New Orleans, also home to well-established East Indian and Korean communities. The earliest arrival of Filipinos are the "Manilamen", who worked on Spanish ships from the Philippines, back in 1763, and who settled down in the Gulf coast, married white "Cajun" and Native American women, and later were absorbed into the local Creole population. Economy Louisiana State Quarter The total gross state product in 2005 for Louisiana was US$168 billion, placing it 24th in the nation. Its per capita personal income is $30,952, ranking 41st in the United States. The state's principal agricultural products include seafood (it is the biggest producer of crawfish in the world, supplying approximately 90%), cotton, soybeans, cattle, sugarcane, poultry and eggs, dairy products, and rice. Industry generates chemical products, petroleum and coal products, food processing and transportation equipment, and paper products. Tourism is an important element in the economy. The Port of South Louisiana, located on the Mississippi between New Orleans and Baton Rouge, is the largest volume shipping port in the Western Hemisphere and 4th largest in the world, as well as the largest bulk cargo port in the world. linked from , accessed September 28, 2006 New Orleans and Shreveport are also home to a thriving film industry. State financial incentives and aggressive promotion have put the local film industry on a fast track. In late 2007 and early 2008, a film studio will open in Treme, with state-of-the-art production facilities, and a film training institute. New Jersey Local Jobs - NJ.com Tabasco sauce, which is marketed by one of the United States' biggest producers of hot sauce, the McIlhenny Company, originated on Avery Island. Shevory, Kristina. "The Fiery Family," New York Times, March 31, 2007, p. B1. Louisiana has three personal income tax brackets, ranging from 2% to 6%. The sales tax rate is 4%: a 3.97% Louisiana sales tax and a .03% Louisiana Tourism Promotion District sales tax. Political subdivisions also levy their own sales tax in addition to the state fees. The state also has a use tax, which includes 4% to be distributed by the Department of Revenue to local governments. Property taxes are assessed and collected at the local level. Louisiana is a subsidized state, receiving $1.44 from the federal government for every dollar paid in. Tourism and culture are major players in Louisiana's economy, earning an estimated $5.2 billion per year. Economy Louisiana also hosts many important cultural events, such as the World Cultural Economic Forum, which is held annually in the fall at the New Orleans Morial Convention Center. World Culture Economic Forum Energy Louisiana is rich in petroleum and natural gas. Petroleum and gas deposits are found in abundance both onshore and offshore in State-owned waters. In addition, vast petroleum and natural gas reserves are found offshore from Louisiana in the federally administered Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) in the Gulf of Mexico. According to the Energy Information Administration, the Gulf of Mexico OCS is the largest U.S. petroleum-producing region. Excluding the Gulf of Mexico OCS, Louisiana ranks fourth in petroleum production and is home to about 2 percent of total U.S. petroleum reserves. Louisiana's natural gas reserves account for about 5 percent of the U.S. total. The recent discovery of the Haynesville Shale formation in parts of or all of Caddo, Bossier, Bienville, Sabine, De Soto, Red River, Sabine, and Natchitoches parishes have made it the world's fourth largest gas field with some wells initially producing over 25 million cubic feet of gas daily. Louisiana was the first site of petroleum drilling over water in the world, on Caddo Lake in the northwest corner of the state. The petroleum and gas industry, as well as its subsidiary industries such as transport and refining, have dominated Louisiana's economy since the 1940s. Beginning in 1950, Louisiana was sued several times by the U.S. Interior Department, in efforts by the federal government to strip Louisiana of its submerged land property rights. These control vast stores of reservoirs of petroleum and natural gas. When petroleum and gas boomed in the 1970s, so did Louisiana's economy. Likewise, when the petroleum and gas crash occurred in the 1980s, in large part due to monetary policy set by the Federal Reserve, Louisiana real estate, savings and loans, and local banks fell rapidly in value. The Louisiana economy as well as its politics of the last half-century cannot be understood without thoroughly accounting for the influence of the petroleum and gas industries. Since the 1980s, these industries have consolidated in Houston. Law and government Louisiana State CapitolLouisiana Governor's Mansion In 1849, the state moved the capital from New Orleans to Baton Rouge. Donaldsonville, Opelousas, and Shreveport have briefly served as the seat of Louisiana state government. The Louisiana State Capitol and the Louisiana Governor's Mansion are both located in Baton Rouge. The current Louisiana governor is Bobby Jindal, the first Indian American to be elected governor. The current U.S. senators are Mary Landrieu (Democrat) and David Vitter (Republican). Louisiana has seven congressional districts and is represented in the U.S. House of Representatives by six Republicans and one Democrat. Louisiana has nine votes in the Electoral College. Civil law The Louisiana political and legal structure has maintained several elements from the time of French governance. One is the use of the term "parish" (from the French: paroisse) in place of "county" for administrative subdivision. Another is the legal system of civil law based on French, German and Spanish legal codes and ultimately Roman law—as opposed to English common law. Common law is "judge-made" law based on precedent, and is the basis of statutes in all other U.S. states. Louisiana's type of civil law system is what the majority of nations in the world use, especially in Europe and its former colonies, excluding those that derive from the British Empire. However, it is incorrect to equate the Louisiana Civil Code with the Napoleonic Code. Although the Napoleonic Code strongly influenced Louisiana law, it was never in force in Louisiana, as it was enacted in 1804, after the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. While the Louisiana Civil Code of 1808 has been continuously revised and updated since its enactment, it is still considered the controlling authority in the state. Differences still exist between Louisianan civil law and the common law found in the other U.S. states. While some of these differences have been bridged due to the strong influence of common law tradition, it is important to note that the "civilian" tradition is still deeply rooted in most aspects of Louisiana private law. Thus property, contractual, business entities structure, much of civil procedure, and family law, as well as some aspects of criminal law, are still mostly based on traditional Roman legal thinking. Model Codes, such as the Uniform Commercial Code, which are adopted by most states within the union including Louisiana, are based on civilian thought, the essence being that it is deductive, as opposed to the common law which is inductive. In the civilian tradition the legislative body agrees a priori on the general principles to be followed. When a set of facts are brought before a judge, he deduces the court's ruling by comparing the facts of the individual case to the law. In contrast, common law, which really does not exist in its pure historical form due to the advent of statutory law, was created by a judge applying other judges' decisions to a new fact pattern brought before him in a case. The result is that historically English judges were not constrained by legislative authority. Marriage In 1997, Louisiana became the first state to offer the option of a traditional marriage or a covenant marriage . In a covenant marriage, the couple waives their right to a "no-fault" divorce after six months of separation, which is available in a traditional marriage. To divorce under a covenant marriage, a couple must demonstrate cause. Marriages between ascendants and descendants and marriages between collaterals within the fourth degree (i.e., siblings, aunt and nephew, uncle and niece, first cousins) are prohibited. http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=111053 Same-sex marriages are prohibited. http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=111041 . Louisiana is a community property state. http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=109401 Elections From 1898–1965, after Louisiana had effectively disfranchised African Americans and poor whites by provisions of a new constitution, it essentially was a one-party state dominated by elite white Democrats. The franchise for whites was expanded somewhat during the decades, but blacks remained essentially disfranchised until the Civil Rights Movement, culminating in passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In multiple acts of resistance, blacks left the segregation, violence and oppression of the state to seek better opportunities in northern and western industrial cities during the Great Migrations of 1910–1970, markedly reducing their proportion of population in Louisiana. Since the 1960s, when civil rights legislation was passed under President Lyndon Johnson to protect voting and civil rights, most African Americans in the state have affiliated with the Democratic Party. In the same years, many white conservatives have moved to support Republican Party candidates in national and gubernatorial elections. David Vitter is the first Republican in Louisiana to be popularly elected as a U.S. Senator. The previous Republican Senator, John S. Harris, who took office in 1868, was chosen by the state legislature. Louisiana was unique among U.S. states in using a system for state and local elections similar to that of modern France. All candidates, regardless of party affiliation, ran in a nonpartisan blanket primary (or "jungle primary") on Election Day. If no candidate had more than 50% of the vote, the two candidates with the highest vote total competed in a runoff election approximately one month later. This run-off did not take into account party identification; therefore, it was not uncommon for a Democrat to be in a runoff with a fellow Democrat or a Republican to be in a runoff with a fellow Republican. Congressional races have also been held under the jungle primary system. All other states use single-party primaries followed by a general election between party candidates, each conducted by either a plurality voting system or runoff voting, to elect Senators, Representatives, and statewide officials. Since 2008, federal congressional elections have been run under a closed primary system — limited to registered party members. Louisiana has seven seats in to the U.S. House of Representatives, six of which are currently held by Republicans and one by a Democrat. Louisiana is not classified as a "swing state" for future presidential elections. Law enforcement Louisiana's statewide police force is the Louisiana State Police. It began in 1922 and its motto is "courtesy, loyalty, service". Its troopers have statewide jurisdiction with power to enforce all laws of the state, including city and parish ordinances. Each year, they patrol over 12 million miles (20 million km) of roadway and arrest about 10,000 impaired drivers. However, Orleans parish is the only parish in which troopers do not maintain primary patrol responsibility. New Orleans Police Department has immediate jurisdiction of Orleans Parish. Troopers are also responsible for investigating the casino and gaming industry, all hazardous material incidents, and general criminal, narcotics and insurance fraud; and conducting anti-terrorism training. With the exception of Orleans Parish each parish in Louisiana has an elected sheriff. Orleans Parish has two elected sheriffs—one criminal and one civil. The sheriffs are responsible for general law enforcement in their respective parishes. Orleans Parish is an exception, as here the general law enforcement duties fall to the New Orleans Police Department. The sheriff also controls and manages the parish jail and/or correctional facility. The sheriff is also the tax collector for each parish. In 2006 a bill was passed which will consolidate the two sheriffs' departments into one in 2010. Most parishes are governed by a Police Jury. Eighteen of the sixty-four parishes are governed under an alternative form of government under a Home Rule Charter. They oversee the parish budget and operate the parish maintenance services. This includes parish road maintenance and other rural services. Education Sports teams As of 2005, Louisiana is nominally the least populous state with more than one major professional sports league franchise: the National Basketball Association's New Orleans Hornets and the National Football League's New Orleans Saints. Louisiana also has a AAA Minor League baseball team, the New Orleans Zephyrs. The Zephyrs, currently affiliated with the Florida Marlins, became the only Louisiana professional team to win a Championship, when they won the AAA World Series in 1998. It should also be noted that from 1901–1959, New Orleans had a Double-A baseball team known as the Pelicans who won many league titles Louisiana also has a proportionally high number of collegiate NCAA Division I sports for its size; the state has no Division II teams and only one Division III team. U.S. college athletics by state Baton Rouge is also home to the two-time BCS National Champions, the 2003, and 2007 Tigers of Louisiana State University. Culture Dishes typical of Louisiana Creole cuisine. Louisiana is home to many, especially notable are the distinct culture of the Creoles and Cajuns. Creole culture is a cultural amalgamation that takes a little from each of the French, Spanish, African, and Native American cultures French Creole Heritage . The Creole culture is part of White Creoles' and Black Creoles' culture. Originally Créoles referred to native-born whites of French-Spanish descent. Later the term also referred to descendants of the white men's relationships with African or African-American women, many of whom were educated free people of color. Many of the wealthy white men had quasi-permanent relationships with women of color outside their marriages, and supported them as "placées". If a woman was enslaved at the beginning of the relationship, the man usually arranged for her manumission, as well as that of any of her children. Creoles became associated with the New Orleans area, where the elaborated arrangements flourished. Most wealthy planters had houses in town as well as at their plantations. Popular belief that a Creole is a mixed Black/French person came from the "Haitian" connotation of an African French person. There were many immigrants from Haiti to New Orleans after the Revolution. Although a Black Creole is one type of Creole, it is not the only type, nor the original meaning of Creole. All of the respective cultures of the groups that settled in southern Louisiana have been combined to make one "New Orleans" culture. The creative combination of cultures from these groups, along with Native American culture, was called "Creole" Culture. It has continued as one of the dominant social, economic and political cultures of Louisiana, along with Cajun culture, well into the 20th century. Some believe it has finally been overtaken by the American mainstream. Cajun Culture. The ancestors of Cajuns came from west central France to the provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada, known as Acadia. When the British won the French and Indian War, the British forcibly separated families and evicted them because of their long-stated political neutrality. Most captured Acadians were placed in internment camps in England and the New England colonies for 10 to 30 years. Many of those who escaped the British remained in French Canada. Once freed by England, many scattered, some to France, Canada, Mexico, or the Falkland Islands. The majority found refuge in south Louisiana centered in the region around Lafayette and the LaFourche Bayou country. Until the 1970s, Cajuns were often considered lower-class citizens, with the term "Cajun" being somewhat derogatory. Once flush with oil and gas riches, Cajun culture, food, music and their infectious "joie de vivre" lifestyle quickly gained international acclaim. A third distinct culture in Louisiana is that of the Isleños, who are descendants of Spanish Canary Islanders who migrated from the Canary Islands of Spain to Louisiana under the Spanish crown beginning in the mid-1770s. They settled in four main settlements, but many relocated to what is modern-day St. Bernard Parish, where the majority of the Isleño population is still concentrated. An annual festival called Fiesta celebrates the heritage of the Isleños. St Bernard Parish has an Isleños museum, cemetery and church, as well as many street names with Spanish words and Spanish surnames from this heritage. Isleño identity is an active concern in the New Orleans suburbs of St. Bernard Parish, LA. Some members of the Isleño community still speak Spanish - with their own Canary Islander accent. Numerous Isleño identity clubs and organizations, and many members of Isleños society keep contact with the Canary Islands of Spain. Languages Louisiana has a unique linguistic culture, owing to its French and Spanish heritage. According to the 2000 census, among persons five years old and older, Statistics of languages spoken in Louisiana Retrieved on June 18, 2008. 90.8% of Louisiana residents speak only English (99% total speak English) and 4.7% speak French at home (7% total speak French). Other minority languages are Spanish, which is spoken by 2.5% of the population; Vietnamese, by 0.6%; and German, by 0.2%. Although state law recognizes the usage of English and French in certain circumstances, the Louisiana State Constitution does not declare any "de jure official language or languages". Louisiana State Constitution of 1974 Retrieved on June 18, 2008. Currently the "de facto administrative languages" of the Louisiana State Government are English and French. There are several unique dialects of French, Creole, and English spoken in Louisiana. There are three unique dialects of the French language: Cajun French, Colonial French, and Napoleonic French. For the Creole language, there is Louisiana Creole French. There are also two unique dialects of the English language: Cajun English, a French-influenced variety of English, and what is informally known as Yat, which resembles the New York City dialect, particularly that of historical Brooklyn, as both accents were influenced by large communities of immigrant Irish and Italian, but the Yat dialect was also influenced by French and Spanish. The Yat dialect is the principal dialect of the African Americans of the New Orleans Metropolitan Area. Caucasians of the metropolitan area speak with an accent that closely resembles other southern U.S. dialects of English. Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 1,382,603; Southern Baptist Convention with 768,587; and the United Methodist Church with 160,153. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/22_2000.asp Like other Southern states, the population of Louisiana is made up of numerous Protestant denominations, comprising 60% of the state's adult population. Protestants are concentrated in the northern and central parts of the state and in the northern tier of the Florida Parishes. Because of French and Spanish heritage, whose descendants are Cajun and French Creole, and later Irish, Italian, and German immigrants, there is also a large Roman Catholic population, particularly in the southern part of the state. For Louisiana's position in a larger religious context, see Bible Belt. Since French Creoles were the first settlers, planters and leaders of the territory, they have traditionally been well represented in politics. For instance, most of the early governors were French Creole Catholics. Although nowadays constituting only a plurality but not a majority of Louisiana's population, Catholics have continued to be influential in state politics. As of 2008 both Senators and the Governor were Catholic. The high proportion and influence of the Catholic population makes Louisiana distinct among Southern states. Other Southern states—such as Maryland and Texas—have longstanding indigenous Catholic populations, and Florida's largely Catholic population of Cuban emigres has been influential since the 1960s. Yet, Louisiana is still unusual or exceptional in its extent of aboriginal Catholic settlement and influence. Among states in the Deep South (discounting Florida's Panhandle and much of Texas) the historic role of Catholicism in Louisiana is unparalleled and unique. Among the states of the Union, Louisiana's unique use of the term parish (French la parouche or "la paroisse") for county is rooted in the pre-statehood role of Catholic church parishes in the administration of government. Current religious affiliations of the people of Louisiana: Christian: 90% Protestant: 60% Evangelical Protestant 31% Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Historically black Protestant: 20% Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Mainline Protestant 9% Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Roman Catholic: 28% Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Other Christian: 2% Jehovah's Witnesses: 1% Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Other Religions: 2% Islam: 1% Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Buddhism: 1% Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Judaism: less than 0.5% Unaffiliated: 8% Jewish American communities exist in the state's larger cities, notably Baton Rouge and New Orleans. Isaacs, Ronald H. The Jewish Information Source Book: A Dictionary and Almanac, Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, Inc., 1993. p. 202. The most significant of these is the Jewish community of the New Orleans area, with a pre-Katrina population of about 12,000. The presence of a significant Jewish community well established by the early 20th century also made Louisiana unusual among Southern states, although South Carolina and Virginia also had influential populations in some of their major cities from the 18th and 19th centuries. Prominent Jews in Louisiana's political leadership have included Whig (later Democrat) Judah P. Benjamin (1811–1884), who represented Louisiana in the U.S. Senate prior to the American Civil War and then became the Confederate Secretary of State; Democrat Adolph Meyer (1842–1908), Confederate Army officer who represented the state in the U.S. House from 1891 until his death in 1908; and Republican Secretary of State Jay Dardenne (1954-). Music See also Index of Louisiana-related articles References Bibliography Yiannopoulos, A.N., The Civil Codes of Louisiana (reprinted from Civil Law System: Louisiana and Comparative law, A Coursebook: Texts, Cases and Materials, 3d Edition; similar to version in preface to Louisiana Civil Code, ed. by Yiannopoulos) Rodolfo Batiza, The Louisiana Civil Code of 1808: Its Actual Sources and Present Relevance, 46 TUL. L. REV. 4 (1971); Rodolfo Batiza, Sources of the Civil Code of 1808, Facts and Speculation: A Rejoinder, 46 TUL. L. REV. 628 (1972); Robert A. Pascal, Sources of the Digest of 1808: A Reply to Professor Batiza, 46 TUL. L. REV. 603 (1972); Joseph M. Sweeney, Tournament of Scholars Over the Sources of the Civil Code of 1808,46 TUL. L. REV. 585 (1972). The standard history of the state, though only through the Civil War, is Charles Gayarré's History of Louisiana (various editions, culminating in 1866, 4 vols., with a posthumous and further expanded edition in 1885). A number of accounts by 17th and 18th century French explorers, among whom the following at least should be cited: Jean-Bernard Bossu, François-Marie Perrin du Lac, Pierre-François-Xavier de Charlevoix, Dumont (as published by Fr. Mascrier), Fr. Louis Hennepin, Lahontan, Louis Narcisse Baudry des Lozières, Jean-Baptiste Bénard de la Harpe, and Laval. In this group, the explorer Antoine Simon Le Page du Pratz may be considered the first historian of Louisiana with his Histoire de la Louisiane (3 vols., Paris, 1758; 2 vols., London, 1763) François Xavier Martin's History of Louisiana (2 vols., New Orleans, 1827–1829, later ed. by J. F. Condon, continued to 1861, New Orleans, 1882) is the first scholarly treatment of the subject, along with François Barbé-Marbois' Histoire de la Louisiane et de la cession de colonie par la France aux Etats-Unis (Paris, 1829; in English, Philadelphia, 1830). Alcée Fortier's A History of Louisiana (N.Y., 4 vols., 1904) is the most recent of the large-scale scholarly histories of the state. The official works of Albert Phelps and Grace King should also be mentioned among the more important, as well as the publications of the Louisiana Historical Society and several works on the history of New Orleans (q.v.), among them those by Henry Rightor and John Smith Kendall. External links State Government Official State of Louisiana website Louisiana State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Louisiana state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. Census Statistics on Louisiana U.S. Government Energy Profile for Louisiana USDA Louisiana Statistical Facts USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Louisiana News media The Times-Picayune major Louisiana newspaper WWL-TV Louisiana television station Other Louisiana Geographic Information Center Louisiana Endowment for the Humanities

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Aberdare

Aberdare () is an industrial town in Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, situated (as the name implies) at the confluence of the River Dar and Cynon. The population at the (1991) census was 31,619. It is south west of Merthyr Tydfil and north west of Cardiff. History and Development From being, at the beginning of the 19th century, a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew rapidly in population owing to the abundance of its coal and iron ore, and the population of the whole parish (which was only 1,486 in 1801) increased tenfold during the first half of the 19th century. It has since declined, owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry. Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847. These have not been worked since about 1875. After this, the iron industry was represented only by a small tinplate works, but by this stage the economy of the town was dominated by the coal mining industry. There were also several brickworks and breweries. During the latter half of the 19th century, considerable public improvements were made to the town, which became, despite its neighbouring collieries, a pleasant place to live. Its institutions included a post-graduate theological college (opened in connection with the Church of England in 1892, until 1907, when it was removed to Llandaff). Aberdare, with the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan's (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, had twelve Anglican churches, one Roman Catholic church (built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys Abbey) and at one time had over fifty Nonconformist chapels. The services in the majority of the chapels were in the Welsh language. The urban district includes what were once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmaman, Cwmbach, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed, Penywaun and Trecynon. There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr. Hirwaun moor, 4 miles to the north west of Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at which Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Dyfed, was defeated by the allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and Iestyn ap Gwrgant, the last Welsh prince of Glamorgan. The Coal Industry In the early years of Aberdare's development, most of the coal worked in the parish was coking coal, and was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks. In 1836, exploitation of the "Four-foot Seam" of high-calorific value steam coal began, and pits were sunk in rapid succession. This coal was valuable for steam railways and steam ships, and an export trade began, via the Taff Vale Railway and the port of Cardiff. The population of the parish rose from 6,471 in 1841 to 14,999 in 1851 and 32,299 in 1861 and John Davies Davies, John, A History of Wales, Penguin, 1994, ISBN 0-14-014581-8, p 400 described it as "the most dynamic place in Wales". In 1851, the Admiralty decided to use Welsh steam coal in ships of the Royal Navy, and this decision boosted the reputation of Aberdare's product and launched a huge international export market Davies, op cit, p 400 . Coal mined in Aberdare parish rose from in 1844 to in 1850 Davies, op cit, p 384 , and the coal trade, which after 1875 was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions. Steam coal was subsequently found in the Rhondda and further west, but many of the great companies of the Welsh coal industry's Gilded Age started operation in Aberdare and the lower Cynon Valley, including those of Samuel Thomas, David Davies and Sons, Nixon's Navigation and Powell Duffryn. In common with the rest of the South Wales coalfield, Aberdare's coal industry commenced a long decline after World War I, and the last two deep mines still in operation in the 1960s were the small Aberaman and Fforchaman collieries, which closed in 1962 and 1965 respectively. Culture Aberdare, during its boom years, was considered a centre of Welsh culture: it hosted the first National Eisteddfod in 1861, again in 1885, and in 1956 at Aberdare Park where the Gorsedd standing stones still exist. The Coliseum Theatre is Aberdare's main arts venue, containing a 600-seat auditorium and cinema. It is situated in nearby Trecynon and was built in 1938 using miners' subscriptions. Aberdare was the birthplace of the Second World War poet Alun Lewis, and a plaque commemorating him is to be found, including a quotation from his poem, The Mountain over Aberdare. The original founding members of the rock band Stereophonics originated from the nearby village of Cwmaman. It is also the hometown of guitarist Mark Parry of Vancouver rock band The Manvils. Famed anarchist-punk band Crass played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare during the UK miners' strike (1984-1985). Griffith Rhys Jones - or Caradog as he was commonly known - was the Conductor of the famous 'Côr Mawr' of some 460 voices (the South Wales Choral Union), which twice won first prize at Crystal Palace choral competitions in London in the 1870s. He is depicted in the town's most prominent statue by sculptor Goscombe John, unveiled on Victoria Square in 1920. Churches & Chapels In the town centre is you will find St. Elvan's Church. This is a Church in Wales church at the heart of the Parish of Aberdare. The church is over 200 years old and has had extensive work since its erection in the 1800s. The church also has a modern, two-manual & pedal board pipe organ that is still used in services. The nearby St John the Baptist Church of the same parish is also notable as a 15th century building that is still used for regular services. It currently has only a small electric organ. Also of the same parish is St. Matthew's Church in Abernant. In the Parish of Aberaman & Cwmaman you will find St. Margaret's Church which has an old, but beautiful pipe organ with two manuals and a pedal board. Also of this parish is St. Joseph's church, Cwmaman. In The Media The Torchwood novel Almost Perfect by James Goss mentions a fictional nuclear blast taking place in the town. Sports Aberdare Athletic F.C. were members of the Football League between 1921 and 1927 before being replaced by Torquay United after finishing bottom. The club folded a year later. They played their games at the Aberdare Athletic Ground. Aberdare Rugby Football Club are a rugby union team formed in 1890 which still play in Aberdare today at the Ynys Stadium. The Aberdare Athletic Ground was also the venue of the first ever rugby league international played between Wales and the New Zealand All Golds on New Years Day 1908, which was won by the Welsh 9-8. Transport The town is served by Aberdare railway station and Aberdare bus station which are opposite each other in the town centre. Schools and colleges Colleges Coleg Morgannwg Primary schools Caradog primary school Town Church primary school St Margarets Roman Catholic primary school Ysgol Gynradd Gymraeg Aberdar Blaengwawr Primary School Oaklands Primary School Cap Coach Primary School Glynhafod Primary School Cwmaman Infants School Cwmdare Primary School Comin Infants School Secondary Schools Aberdare Boys' Comprehensive School Aberdare Boys Grammar School (now closed) Aberdare Girls' School Blaengwawr Comprehensive School Ysgol Gyfun Rhydywaun St. John the Baptist School (Aberdare) Universities University of Glamorgan Notable people from Aberdare and district Notable current and former residents and natives of Aberdare include: Stereophonics - All 3 original members, Kelly Jones, Richard Jones and Stuart Cable where all brought up in Cwmaman, Aberdare Ioan Gruffudd - Actor born in Llwydcoed, Aberdare Patrick Hannan (presenter) - Welsh broadcaster Bethan Jenkins - Member of the National Assembly for Wales for the South Wales (West) Region Mihangel Morgan - a leading Welsh language writer, born in Trecynon, some of his literary works feature Aberdare Roy Noble - popular Welsh broadcaster has lived near Aberdare for the past thirty years Jo Walton - fantasy novelist, now living in Montreal, Quebec David Young - Rugby player and Cardiff Blues' coach raised in Penywaun. Lions tourist and former Wales' captain. Lyn Evans - particle physicist and project leader of the Large Hadron Collider, the largest science experiment in the world. David Watkins - Lawyer Born 1978. Twin cities/towns - Montelimar, France - Slagelse, Denmark See also Aberdare Park References External links Aberdare Blog Aberdare RFC Aberdare Trefoil Guild BBC website on Aberdare www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Aberdare and surrounding area

Aberdare |@lemmatized aberdare:39 industrial:1 town:11 rhondda:2 cynon:3 taf:1 wale:9 situate:2 name:1 implies:1 confluence:1 river:1 dar:1 population:4 census:1 south:4 west:5 merthyr:2 tydfil:1 north:2 cardiff:3 history:2 development:2 beginning:1 century:4 mere:1 village:3 agricultural:1 district:3 place:4 grow:1 rapidly:1 owe:2 abundance:1 coal:13 iron:2 ore:1 whole:1 parish:11 increase:1 tenfold:1 first:4 half:2 since:3 decline:2 loss:1 heavy:1 industry:6 ironwork:2 establish:1 llwydcoed:3 abernant:3 respectively:2 follow:1 others:1 gadlys:1 aberaman:5 work:5 represent:1 small:3 tinplate:1 stage:1 economy:1 dominate:1 mining:1 also:8 several:2 brickwork:1 brewery:1 latter:1 considerable:1 public:1 improvement:1 make:1 become:1 despite:1 neighbouring:1 colliery:2 pleasant:1 live:4 institution:1 include:5 post:1 graduate:1 theological:1 college:3 open:1 connection:1 church:14 england:1 remove:1 llandaff:1 ecclesiastical:1 st:8 fagan:1 trecynon:4 carve:1 ancient:1 twelve:1 anglican:1 one:2 roman:2 catholic:2 build:2 monk:1 street:1 near:2 site:1 cell:1 attach:1 penrhys:1 abbey:1 time:1 fifty:1 nonconformist:1 chapel:3 service:3 majority:1 welsh:9 language:2 urban:1 separate:1 cwmaman:6 cwmbach:1 cwmdare:2 penywaun:2 cairn:1 remains:1 circular:1 british:1 encampment:1 mountain:2 hirwaun:1 moor:1 mile:1 accord:1 tradition:1 scene:1 battle:1 rhys:2 ap:2 tewdwr:1 prince:2 dyfed:1 defeat:1 allied:1 force:1 norman:1 robert:1 fitzhamon:1 iestyn:1 gwrgant:1 last:3 glamorgan:2 early:1 year:6 coke:1 consume:1 locally:1 chiefly:1 exploitation:1 four:1 foot:1 seam:1 high:1 calorific:1 value:1 steam:5 begin:2 pit:1 sink:1 rapid:1 succession:1 valuable:1 railway:3 ship:2 export:2 trade:2 via:1 taff:1 vale:1 port:1 rise:2 john:5 davy:5 penguin:1 isbn:1 p:3 describe:1 dynamic:1 admiralty:1 decide:1 use:4 royal:1 navy:1 decision:1 boost:1 reputation:1 product:1 launch:1 huge:2 international:2 market:1 op:2 cit:2 mine:2 chief:1 support:1 soon:1 reach:1 dimension:1 subsequently:1 find:4 many:1 great:1 company:1 gild:1 age:1 start:1 operation:2 low:1 valley:1 samuel:1 thomas:1 david:3 son:1 nixon:1 navigation:1 powell:1 duffryn:1 common:1 rest:1 coalfield:1 commence:1 long:1 world:3 war:2 two:3 deep:1 still:5 fforchaman:1 close:2 culture:2 boom:1 consider:1 centre:3 host:1 national:2 eisteddfod:1 park:2 gorsedd:1 stand:1 stone:1 exist:1 coliseum:1 theatre:1 main:1 art:1 venue:2 contain:1 seat:1 auditorium:1 cinema:1 nearby:3 miner:3 subscription:1 birthplace:1 second:1 poet:1 alun:1 lewis:1 plaque:1 commemorate:1 quotation:1 poem:1 original:2 founding:1 member:4 rock:2 band:3 stereophonics:2 originate:1 hometown:1 guitarist:1 mark:1 parry:1 vancouver:1 manvils:1 famed:1 anarchist:1 punk:1 crass:1 play:3 show:1 strike:2 uk:2 griffith:1 jones:3 caradog:2 commonly:1 know:1 conductor:1 famous:1 côr:1 mawr:1 voice:1 wales:1 choral:2 union:2 twice:1 win:2 prize:1 crystal:1 palace:1 competition:1 london:1 depict:1 prominent:1 statue:1 sculptor:1 goscombe:1 unveil:1 victoria:1 square:1 elvan:1 heart:1 old:2 extensive:1 erection:1 modern:1 manual:2 pedal:2 board:2 pipe:2 organ:3 baptist:2 notable:3 building:1 regular:1 currently:1 electric:1 matthew:1 margaret:1 beautiful:1 joseph:1 medium:1 torchwood:1 novel:1 almost:1 perfect:1 james:1 goss:1 mention:1 fictional:1 nuclear:1 blast:1 take:1 sport:1 athletic:3 f:1 c:1 football:2 league:2 replace:1 torquay:1 unite:1 finish:1 bottom:1 club:2 fold:1 later:1 game:1 ground:2 rugby:4 team:1 form:1 today:1 ynys:1 stadium:1 ever:1 played:1 new:2 zealand:1 gold:1 day:1 transport:1 serve:1 station:2 bus:1 opposite:1 school:18 coleg:1 morgannwg:1 primary:9 margarets:1 ysgol:2 gynradd:1 gymraeg:1 aberdar:1 blaengwawr:2 oakland:1 cap:1 coach:2 glynhafod:1 infant:2 comin:1 secondary:1 boy:1 comprehensive:2 boys:1 grammar:1 girl:1 gyfun:1 rhydywaun:1 universities:1 university:1 people:1 current:1 former:2 resident:1 native:1 kelly:1 richard:1 stuart:1 cable:1 bring:1 ioan:1 gruffudd:1 actor:1 bear:2 patrick:1 hannan:1 presenter:1 broadcaster:2 bethan:1 jenkins:1 assembly:1 region:1 mihangel:1 morgan:1 lead:1 writer:1 literary:1 feature:1 roy:1 noble:1 popular:1 past:1 thirty:1 jo:1 walton:1 fantasy:1 novelist:1 montreal:1 quebec:1 young:1 player:1 blue:1 raise:1 lion:1 tourist:1 captain:1 lyn:1 evans:1 particle:1 physicist:1 project:1 leader:1 large:2 hadron:1 collider:1 science:1 experiment:1 watkins:1 lawyer:1 born:1 twin:1 city:1 montelimar:1 france:1 slagelse:1 denmark:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 blog:1 rfc:1 trefoil:1 guild:1 bbc:1 website:1 www:1 geograph:1 co:1 photo:1 surround:1 area:1 |@bigram merthyr_tydfil:1 iron_ore:1 increase_tenfold:1 calorific_value:1 op_cit:2 plaque_commemorate:1 rhys_jones:1 pipe_organ:2 rugby_union:1 montreal_quebec:1 hadron_collider:1 external_link:1

Politics_of_Honduras

Politics of Honduras takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Honduras is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Congress of Honduras. The party system is dominated by the conservative National Party of Honduras and the liberal Liberal Party of Honduras. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The 1987 constitution of Honduras provides for a strong executive, a unicameral National Congress, and a judiciary appointed by the National Congress. Reinforced by the media and several political watchdog organizations, human rights and civil liberties are reasonably well protected. There are no known political prisoners in Honduras and the privately owned media frequently exercises its right to criticize without fear of reprisals. Organized labor now represents less than 15% of the work force and its economic and political influence has declined. Security situation Three major events over the last few years have brought this tiny country to the attention of the world media. A massacre of 68 prisoners in the farm prison just outside of La Ceiba on 5 March 2003, a fire in the prison at San Pedro Sula that killed 107 prisoners on 18 May 2004, and the massacre of 27 innocent men, women and children in San Pedro Sula, on 23 December 2004. There is a great feeling of insecurity amongst the population about the chronically poor security situation in Honduras. The major problem is rooted in the gangs, who are called maras in Spanish (ants in English). These include the Mara Salvatrucha and the Mara 18. The gangs are rooted in the poverty of Honduras, and in the ready availability of crack cocaine. Honduras is not only a transit point for cocaine running between Colombia and the US but also has an internal market, creating all sorts of inner city urban problems. The gangs sell the crack, commit other crimes, and hire themselves out to the seriously organised drug smugglers. Those engaged in international trafficking are better resourced than the state authorities combating them. An argument some would use to justify increasing US military aid to Honduras to help fight the organised drug gangs, while others would say that Honduras would be better off legalizing drugs, thus avoiding military solutions to Honduran security problems. President Ricardo Maduro, a former Central Bank of Honduras chairman, decided to stand for President on a security ticket after his only son was murdered on 28 April 1999, an event that gained him considerable public support. During his tenure as President of the Central Bank of Honduras,a banking license was given to Banco de Producción, after leaving the Central bank he became Chairman and majority stockholder of the bank and the General Manger of the Central bank, Ana Cristina Mejia de Pereira became the General Manager of Banco de la Producción. He came into power in January 2002 with a wave of measures against gangs and delinquency, the most noticeable of which has been soldiers patrolling the streets with the police. Many gang members have been jailed for illicit association. While violent crime dipped for a few months even the best that Maduro could throw at the criminals has not slowed the very high crime rate. The massacre in the San Pedro Sula suburb of Chamelecón left 27 dead and 29 injured. The murderers left behind a message, claiming to come from the Cinchoneros, and railing against Maduro, Lobo, Álvarez and the death penalty. They promised to commit another massacre before the new year. Fortunately one suspected assassin was detained very shortly afterwards in another part of San Pedro Sula, and further arrests have since been made. Death penalty The death penalty was abolished in 1956, and the last person was executed in 1940, but several candidates for the 2005 presidential elections were in favour of restoring it. Pepe Lobo had promised that if elected President but unable to get a majority in Congress to pass the death penalty he would hold a referendum on the subject. Executive branch |President |Manuel Zelaya |PLH |27 January 2006 |} The president is both the chief of state and head of government and is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. Legislative branch The National Congress of Honduras (Congreso Nacional) has 128 members (diputados), elected for four year term by proportional representation; congressional seats are assigned the parties' candidates on a departmental basis in proportion to the number of votes each party receives. Political parties and elections On February 20, 2005 the PNH and the PLH held their internal party elections to decide who would represent these two parties in the forthcoming presidential elections in November. Porfirio Pepe Lobo became the PNH candidate. Manuel Zelaya became the Liberal Party candidate. A Presidential and general election was held on November 27, 2005. Manuel Zelaya of the Liberal Party of Honduras (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH) won, with Porfirio Pepe Lobo of the National Party of Honduras (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH) coming in second. The PNH challenged the election results, and Lobo Sosa did not concede until December 7. Towards the end of December the government finally released the total ballot count, giving Zelaya the official victory. Zelaya was inaugurated as Honduras' new president on January 27, 2006. Honduras has five registered political parties: PNH, PLH, Social Democrats (Partido Innovación Nacional y Social Demócrata: PINU-SD), Social Christians (Partido Demócrata-Cristiano: DC), and Democrat Unification (Partido Unificación Democrática: UD). The PNH and PLH have ruled the country for decades. In the last years, Honduras has had five Liberal presidents: Roberto Suazo Córdova, José Azcona del Hoyo, Carlos Roberto Reina, Carlos Roberto Flores and Manuel Zelaya, and two Nationalists: Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero and Ricardo Maduro. The elections have been full of controversies, including questions about whether Azcona was born in Honduras or Spain, and whether Maduro should have been able to stand given he was born in Panama. Judicial branch The judiciary includes a Supreme Court of Justice, courts of appeal, and several courts of original jurisdiction – such as labor, tax, and criminal courts. The judges of the Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia, are elected for seven-year terms by the National Congress. Administrative divisions For administrative purposes, Honduras is divided into 18 departments, with departmental and municipal officials selected for four-year terms. Political pressure groups Some of the main political pressure groups are the Committee for the Defense of Human Rights in Honduras or CODEH; Confederation of Honduran Workers or CTH; Coordinating Committee of Popular Organizations or CCOP; General Workers Confederation or CGT; Honduran Council of Private Enterprise or COHEP; National Association of Honduran Campesinos or ANACH; National Union of Campesinos or UNC; United Federation of Honduran Workers or FUTH. Guerrilla groups The Revolutionary Popular Forces Lorenzo Zelaya was in resistance to the government, and is now defunct. The Chichoneros were a leftist guerilla group active in the 1980s, targeting foreign and corporate interests in the country, but are now defunct. International organization participation

Politics_of_Honduras |@lemmatized politics:1 honduras:25 take:1 place:1 framework:1 presidential:4 representative:1 democratic:1 republic:1 whereby:1 president:9 head:3 state:3 government:6 multi:1 party:13 system:2 executive:4 power:3 exercise:2 legislative:2 vest:1 national:9 congress:6 dominate:1 conservative:1 liberal:6 judiciary:3 independent:1 legislature:1 constitution:1 provide:1 strong:1 unicameral:1 appoint:1 reinforce:1 medium:3 several:3 political:7 watchdog:1 organization:3 human:2 right:3 civil:1 liberty:1 reasonably:1 well:2 protect:1 known:1 prisoner:3 privately:1 frequently:1 criticize:1 without:1 fear:1 reprisal:1 organize:1 labor:2 represent:2 less:1 work:1 force:2 economic:1 influence:1 decline:1 security:4 situation:2 three:1 major:2 event:2 last:3 year:7 bring:1 tiny:1 country:3 attention:1 world:1 massacre:4 farm:1 prison:2 outside:1 la:2 ceiba:1 march:1 fire:1 san:4 pedro:4 sula:4 kill:1 may:1 innocent:1 men:1 woman:1 child:1 december:3 great:1 feeling:1 insecurity:1 amongst:1 population:1 chronically:1 poor:1 problem:3 root:2 gang:6 call:1 mara:3 spanish:1 ant:1 english:1 include:3 salvatrucha:1 poverty:1 ready:1 availability:1 crack:2 cocaine:2 transit:1 point:1 run:1 colombia:1 u:2 also:1 internal:2 market:1 create:1 sort:1 inner:1 city:1 urban:1 sell:1 commit:2 crime:3 hire:1 seriously:1 organised:2 drug:3 smuggler:1 engage:1 international:2 trafficking:1 resourced:1 authority:1 combat:1 argument:1 would:5 use:1 justify:1 increase:1 military:2 aid:1 help:1 fight:1 others:1 say:1 good:1 legalize:1 thus:1 avoid:1 solution:1 honduran:5 ricardo:2 maduro:5 former:1 central:4 bank:5 chairman:2 decide:2 stand:2 ticket:1 son:1 murder:1 april:1 gain:1 considerable:1 public:1 support:1 tenure:1 banking:1 license:1 give:3 banco:2 de:6 producción:2 leave:3 become:4 majority:2 stockholder:1 general:4 manger:1 ana:1 cristina:1 mejia:1 pereira:1 manager:1 come:3 january:3 wave:1 measure:1 delinquency:1 noticeable:1 soldier:1 patrol:1 street:1 police:1 many:1 member:2 jail:1 illicit:1 association:2 violent:1 dip:1 month:1 even:1 best:1 could:1 throw:1 criminal:2 slow:1 high:1 rate:1 suburb:1 chamelecón:1 dead:1 injured:1 murderer:1 behind:1 message:1 claim:1 cinchoneros:1 rail:1 lobo:5 álvarez:1 death:4 penalty:4 promise:2 another:2 new:2 fortunately:1 one:1 suspect:1 assassin:1 detain:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 part:1 far:1 arrest:1 since:1 make:1 abolish:1 person:1 execute:1 candidate:4 election:7 favour:1 restore:1 pepe:3 elect:4 unable:1 get:1 pass:1 hold:3 referendum:1 subject:1 branch:3 manuel:4 zelaya:7 plh:5 chief:1 popular:3 vote:2 four:3 term:4 congreso:1 nacional:3 diputados:1 proportional:1 representation:1 congressional:1 seat:1 assign:1 departmental:2 basis:1 proportion:1 number:1 receives:1 february:1 pnh:6 two:2 forthcoming:1 november:2 porfirio:2 partido:5 win:1 second:1 challenge:1 result:1 sosa:1 concede:1 towards:1 end:1 finally:1 release:1 total:1 ballot:1 count:1 official:2 victory:1 inaugurate:1 five:2 register:1 social:3 democrat:2 innovación:1 demócrata:2 pinu:1 sd:1 christian:1 cristiano:1 dc:1 unification:1 unificación:1 democrática:1 ud:1 rule:1 decade:1 roberto:3 suazo:1 córdova:1 josé:1 azcona:2 del:1 hoyo:1 carlos:2 reina:1 flores:1 nationalist:1 rafael:1 leonardo:1 callejas:1 romero:1 full:1 controversy:1 question:1 whether:2 bear:2 spain:1 able:1 panama:1 judicial:1 supreme:2 court:5 justice:2 appeal:1 original:1 jurisdiction:1 tax:1 judge:1 corte:1 suprema:1 justicia:1 seven:1 administrative:2 division:1 purpose:1 divide:1 department:1 municipal:1 select:1 pressure:2 group:4 main:1 committee:2 defense:1 codeh:1 confederation:2 worker:3 cth:1 coordinate:1 ccop:1 cgt:1 council:1 private:1 enterprise:1 cohep:1 campesinos:2 anach:1 union:1 unc:1 united:1 federation:1 futh:1 guerrilla:1 revolutionary:1 lorenzo:1 resistance:1 defunct:2 chichoneros:1 leftist:1 guerilla:1 active:1 target:1 foreign:1 corporate:1 interest:1 participation:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 fear_reprisal:1 la_ceiba:1 san_pedro:4 pedro_sula:4 massacre_innocent:1 crack_cocaine:1 shortly_afterwards:1 presidential_election:2 pepe_lobo:3 manuel_zelaya:4 legislative_branch:1 congreso_nacional:1 proportional_representation:1 porfirio_pepe:2 partido_liberal:1 del_hoyo:1 carlos_roberto:2 roberto_flores:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:2

Industrial_and_organizational_psychology

Industrial and Organizational Psychology (also known as industrial-organizational psychology, I-O psychology, work psychology, organizational psychology, work and organizational psychology, occupational psychology, personnel psychology or talent assessment) applies psychology to organizations and the workplace. (Later this year, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology plans a vote to either retain its name or to change it to the Society for Organizational Psychology or something similar that eliminates the word "Industrial" and retains the word "Organizational". Any such change might cause many American researchers, practitioners and educational programs in I-O psychology to change over to the new name to describe their field.) "Industrial-organizational psychologists contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance and well-being of its people. An I-O psychologist researches and identifies how behaviors and attitudes can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, and feedback systems." 'Building Better Organizations' Brochure published by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.siop.org/visibilitybrochure/memberbrochure.aspx Overview Guion (1965) defines I-O psychology as "the scientific study of the relationship between man and the world of work:... in the process of making a living" (p. 817). Blum and Naylor (1968) define it as "simply the application or extension of psychological facts and principles to the problems concerning human beings operating within the context of business and industry" (p 4). I-O psychology has historically subsumed two broad areas of study, as evident by its name, although this distinction is largely artificial and many topics cut across both areas. I-O psychology has roots in social psychology; organizational psychologists examine the role of the work environment in performance and other outcomes including job satisfaction and health. I-O psychology is represented by Division 14 of the American Psychological Association. Common research and practice areas for I-O psychologists include: Job performance Job analysis Personnel recruitment and selection Performance appraisal/management Individual assessment (knowledge, skills, and ability testing, personality assessment, work sample tests, assessment centers) Psychometrics Compensation Training and training evaluation Employment law Work motivation Job attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction, commitment, organizational citizenship, and retaliation) Occupational health and safety Work/life balance Human factors and decision making Organizational culture/climate Organizational surveys Leadership and executive coaching Ethics Diversity Job design Human resources Organizational development (OD) Organizational research methods Technology in the workplace Group/team performance I-O psychologists are trained in the “scientist-practitioner” model. The training enables I-O psychologists to employ scientific principles and research-based designs to generate knowledge. They use what they have learned in applied settings to help clients address workplace needs. I-O psychologists are employed as professors, researchers, and consultants. They also work within organizations, often as part of a human resources department where they coordinate hiring and organizational development initiatives from an evidence-based perspective. History The "industrial" side of I-O psychology has its historical origins in research on individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of performance. This branch of the field crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty stations. After the War the growing industrial base in the U.S. added impetus to I-O psychology. Walter Dill Scott, who was elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most prominent I-O psychologist of his time, although James McKeen Cattell (elected APA President in 1895) and Hugo Münsterberg (1898) were influential in the early development of the field. Farr, J.L. Organized I/O Psychology: Past, Present, Future. . Organizational psychology gained prominence after World War II, influenced by the Hawthorne studies and the work of researchers such as Kurt Lewin and Muzafer Sherif. Research methods in I-O psychology As described above, I-O psychologists are trained in the scientist-practitioner model. I-O psychologists rely on a variety of methods to conduct organizational research. Study designs employed by I-O psychologists include surveys, experiments, quasi-experiments, and observational studies. I-O psychologists rely on diverse data sources including human judgments, historical databases, objective measures of work performance (e.g., sales volume), and questionnaires and surveys. I-O researchers employ both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Quantitative methods used in I-O psychology include both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (e.g., correlation, multiple regression, and analysis of variance). More advanced statistical methods employed by some I-O psychologists include logistic regression, multivariate analysis of variance, structural equation modeling, Hayduk, L.A. (1987). Structural equations modeling with lisrel. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. and hierarchical linear modeling Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2001). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. (HLM; also known as multilevel modeling). HLM is particularly applicable to research on team- and organization-level effects on individuals. I-O psychologists also employ psychometric methods including methods associated with classical test theory Nunnally, J., & Bernstein, I. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (CTT), generalizability theory, and item response theory (IRT). Du Toit, M. (2003) IRT from SSI. Mooresville, IN: Scientific Software. In the 1990s, a growing body of empirical research in I-O psychology was influential in the application of meta-analysis, particularly in the area of the stability of research findings across contexts. The most well-known meta-analytic approaches are those associated with Hunter and Schmidt, Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Thousand Oaks, CA. Hunter, J.E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1994). Estimation of sampling error variance in the meta-analysis of correlations: Use of average correlation in the homogeneous case. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 171-177. Law, K. S., Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1994). A test of two refinements in procedures for meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 978-986. Rosenthal, Rosenthal, R. (1995). Writing meta-analytic reviews. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 183-192. Rosenthal, R., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2002). Meta-analysis. In H. Pashler & J. Wixted (Eds.). Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology (3rd ed.), Vol. 4: Methodology in experimental psychology, pp. 391-428. Hoboken, NJ, US: Wiley. and Hedges and Olkin. Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1984). Nonparametric estimators of effect size in meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 573-580. With the help of meta-analysis, Hunter and Schmidt Hunter, J.E., Schmidt, F. L., & Pearlman, K. (1981). Task differences as moderators of aptitude test validity in selection: A red herring. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 166-185. Schmidt, F. L., Law, K., Hunter, J. E., Rothstein, H. R., Pearlman, K., McDaniel, M. (1993). Refinements in validity generalization methods: Implications for the situational specificity hypothesis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 3-12. advanced the idea of validity generalization, which suggests that some performance predictors, specifically cognitive ability tests (see especially Hunter [1986] Hunter, J. E. (1986). Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitude, job knowledge, and job performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 340-362. and Hunter & Schmidt [1996] Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1996). Intelligence and job performance: Economic and social implications. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 2, 447-472. ) have a relatively stable and positive relation to job performance across all jobs. Although not unchallenged, validity generalization has broad acceptance with regard to many selection instruments (e.g., cognitive ability tests, job knowledge tests, work samples, and structured interviews) across a broad range of jobs. Qualitative methods employed in I-O psychology include content analysis, focus groups, interviews, case studies, and several other observational techniques. I-O research on organizational culture research has employed ethnographic techniques and participant observation to collect data. One well-known qualitative technique employed in I-O psychology is John Flanagan's Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327-358. critical incident technique, which requires "qualified observers" (e.g., pilots in studies of aviation, construction workers in studies of construction projects) to describe a work situation that resulted in a good or bad outcome. Objectivity is ensured when multiple observers identify the same incidents. The observers are also asked to provide information about what the actor in the situation could have done differently to influence the outcome. This technique is then used to describe the critical elements of performance in certain jobs and how worker behavior relates to outcomes. Most notably, this technique has been employed to improve performance among aircraft crews and surgical teams, literally saving thousands of lives since its introduction. An application of the technique in research on coping with job stress comes from O'Driscoll and Cooper. O'Driscoll, M. P., & Cooper, C. L. (1994). Coping with work-related stress: A critique of existing measures and proposal for an alternative methodology. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67, 343-354. I-O psychologists sometimes use quantitative and qualitative methods in concert. For example, when constructing behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS), a job analyst may use qualitative methods, such as critical incidents interviews and focus groups to collect data bearing on performance. Then the analyst would have SMEs rate those examples on a Likert scale and compute inter-rater agreement statistics to judge the adequacy of each item. Each potential item would additionally be correlated with an external criterion in order to evaluate its usefulness if it were to be selected to be included in a BARS metric. Topics in industrial-organizational psychology Job analysis Job analysis is often described as the cornerstone of successful employee selection efforts and performance management initiatives. A job analysis involves the systematic collection of information about a job. Job-analytic methods are often described as belonging to one of two approaches. One approach, the task-oriented job analysis, involves an examination of the duties, tasks, and/or competencies required by a job. The second approach, a worker-oriented job analysis, involves an examination of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to successfully perform the work. These two approaches are not mutually exclusive. Various adaptations of job-analytic methods include competency modeling, which examines large groups of duties and tasks related to a common goal or process, and practice analysis, which examines the way work is performed in an occupation across jobs. Job-analytic data are often collected using a variety of quantitative and qualitative methods. The information obtained from a job analysis is then used to create job-relevant selection procedures, performance appraisals and criteria, or training programs. Additional uses of job-analytic information include job evaluations for the purpose of determining compensation levels and job redesign. Personnel recruitment and selection I-O psychologists typically work with HR specialists to design (a) recruitment processes and (b) personnel selection systems. Personnel recruitment is the process of identifying qualified candidates in the workforce and getting them to apply for jobs within an organization. Personnel recruitment processes include developing job announcements, placing ads, defining key qualifications for applicants, and screening out unqualified applicants. Personnel selection is the systematic process of hiring and promoting personnel. Personnel selection systems employ evidence-based practices to determine the most qualified candidates. Personnel selection involves both new hires and individuals who can be promoted from within the organization. Common selection tools include ability tests (e.g., cognitive, physical, or psychomotor), knowledge tests, personality tests, structured interviews, the systematic collection of biographical data, and work samples. I-O psychologists must evaluate evidence regarding the extent to which selection tools predict job performance, evidence that bears on the validity of selection tools. Personnel selection procedures are usually validated, i.e., shown to be job relevant, using one or more of the following types of validity: content validity, construct validity, and/or criterion-related validity. I-O psychologists adhere to professional standards, such as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology's (SIOP) Principles for Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures The SIOP Principles and the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. The Standards, jointly published by the American Psychological Association, the American Educational Research Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's Uniform Guidelines Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures are also influential in guiding personnel selection although they have been criticized as outdated when compared to the current state of knowledge in I-O psychology. Performance appraisal/management Performance appraisal or performance evaluation is the process of measuring an individual's work behaviors and outcomes against the expectations of the job. Performance appraisal is frequently used in promotion and compensation decisions, to help design and validate personnel selection procedures, and for performance management. Performance management is the process of providing performance feedback relative to expectations and improvement information (e.g., coaching, mentoring). Performance management may also include documenting and tracking performance information for organization-level evaluation purposes. An I-O psychologist would typically use information from the job analysis to determine a job's performance dimensions, and then construct a rating scale to describe each level of performance for the job. Often, the I-O psychologist would be responsible for training organizational personnel how to use the performance appraisal instrument, including ways to minimize bias when using the rating scale, and how to provide effective performance feedback. Additionally, the I-O psychologist may consult with the organization on ways to use the performance appraisal information for broader performance management initiatives. Individual assessment and psychometrics Individual assessment involves the measurement of individual differences. I-O psychologists perform individual assessments in order to evaluate differences among candidates for employment as well as differences among employees. The constructs measured pertain to job performance. With candidates for employment, individual assessment is often part of the personnel selection process. These assessments can include written tests, physical tests, psychomotor tests, personality tests, work samples, and assessment centers. Psychometrics is the science of measuring psychological variables, such as knowledge, skills, and abilities. I-O psychologists are generally well-trained in psychometric psychology. Compensation Compensation includes wages or salary, bonuses, pension/retirement contributions, and perquisites that can be converted to cash or replace living expenses. I-O psychologists may be asked to conduct a job evaluation for the purpose of determining compensation levels and ranges. I-O psychologists may also serve as expert witnesses in pay discrimination cases when disparities in pay for similar work are alleged. Training and training evaluation Most people hired for a job are not already versed in all the tasks required to perform the job effectively. Similar to performance management (see above), an I-O psychologist would employ a job analysis in concert with principles of instructional design to create an effective training program. A training program is likely to include a summative evaluation at its conclusion in order to ensure that trainees have met the training objectives and can perform the target work tasks at an acceptable level. Training programs often include formative evaluations to assess the impact of the training as the training proceeds. Formative evaluations can be used to locate problems in training procedures and help I-O psychologist make corrective adjustments in the while the training is ongoing. Occupational health psychology Occupational health psychology (OHP) is a relatively new discipline allied with both industrial-organizational psychology and health psychology. The ancestry of OHP includes industrial-organizational psychology, health psychology, and occupational health. Everly, G. S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In P. A. Keller & L. G. Ritt (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book, Vol. 5 (pp. 331-338). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange. OHP has doctoral programs, journals, and professional organizations. OHP researchers and practitioners identify psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that give rise to health-related problems in workers. The problems OHP addresses are not limited to physical health (e.g., cardiovascular disease Bosma, H., Marmot, M. G., Hemingway, H., Nicholson, A. C., Brunner, E., & Stansfeld, S. A. (1997). Low job control and risk of coronary heart disease in Whitehall II (prospective cohort) study. British Medical Journal, 314, 558C565. ) but also include mental health problems such as depression. Tucker, J. S., Sinclair, R. R., & Thomas, J. L. (2005). The multilevel effects of occupational stressors on soldiers' well-being: Organizational attachment, and readiness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10, 276-299. Two examples of workplace psychosocial characteristics that OHP has investigated are (a) the extent to which a worker possesses decision latitude Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285-307. and (b) the supportiveness of supervisors. Moyle, P. (1998). Longitudinal influences of managerial support on employee well-being. Work & Stress, 12, 29-49 OHP is also concerned with the development and implementation of interventions that can prevent or ameliorate work-related health problems. Schmitt, L. (2007). OHP interventions: Wellness programs. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 4-5. Another aim of OHP is to ensure that steps taken to promote healthy workplaces also have a beneficial impact on the economic success of organizations. Adkins, J. A. (1999). Promoting organizational health: The evolving practice of occupational health psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30, 129 137. OHP is also concerned with workplace incivility Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J., Williams, J. H., & Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace: Incidence and impact. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 64-80. and violence, Kelloway, E. K., Barling, J., & Hurrell, J. J. (Eds). Handbook of workplace violence. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. work-home carryover, Haines, V. Y. III, Marchand, A., & Harvey, S. (2006). Crossover of workplace aggression experiences in dual-earner couples. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11, 305-314. unemployment Feldt, T., Leskinen, E., & Kinnunen, U. (2005). Structural invariance and stability of sense of coherence: A longitudinal analysis of two groups with different employment experiences. Work & Stress, 19, 68-83. and downsizing, Moore, S., Grunberg, L., & Greenberg, E.. (2004). Repeated downsizing contact: The effects of similar and dissimilar layoff experiences on work and well-being outcomes. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 9, 247-257. the adverse impact of recently deteriorating economic conditions and personal and organizational means to alleviate that impact, Probst, T. M., & Sears, L. E. (2009). Stress during the financial crisis. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 3-4. and workplace safety Kidd, P., Scharf, T., & Veazie, M. (1996) Linking stress and injury in the farming environment: A secondary analysis. Health Education Quarterly, 23, 224-237. and accident prevention. Williamson, A. M., & Feyer, A.-M.(1995). Causes of accidents and the time of day. Work & Stress, 9, 158-164. Two important OHP journals are the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology and Work & Stress. Organizations closely associated with OHP include the Society for Occupational Health Psychology and the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology. Training and Outlook Graduate programs A comprehensive list of U.S. and Canadian master's and doctoral programs can be found at the web site of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). Graduate Training Programs (visited web site on March 22, 2009). Some helpful ways to learn about graduate programs include visiting the web sites on the SIOP list and speaking to I-O faculty at the institutions listed. Admission into I-O psychology Ph.D. programs are highly competitive given that many programs accept a small number of applicants every year. There are graduate degree programs in I-O psychology outside of the U.S. and Canada. The SIOP web site Graduate Training Programs (visited web site on March 22, 2009). also provides a comprehensive list of I-O programs in many other countries. Job outlook According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2007), the job outlook for industrial-organizational psychologists is promising. Businesses enlist the services of these psychologists in order to retain employees and maintain a good work ethic. I-O psychologists specializing in research often conduct studies within companies to aid in marketing research. In 2006, the median annual salary for industrial-organizational psychologists was $86,420 (US). Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-09 Edition, Psychologists, See also Applied psychology Behavioral Risk Management Educational Psychology Employment Law Human Resources Development Human resource management Industrial sociology Occupational health psychology Systems psychology References Further reading Anderson, N., Ones, D. S., Sinangil, H. K., & Viswesvaran, C. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Volume 1: Personnel psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd. Anderson, N., Ones, D. S., Sinangil, H. K., & Viswesvaran, C. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Volume 2: Organizational psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd. Borman, W. C., Ilgen, D., R., & Klimoski, R., J. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of psychology: Vol 12 Industrial and organizational psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Borman, W. C., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1993). Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. Chapter in N. Schmitt and W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel Selection. San Francisco: Josey-Bass (pp. 71-98). Campbell, J. P., Gasser, M. B., & Oswald, F. L. (1996). The substantive nature of job performance variability. In K. R. Murphy (Ed.), Individual differences and behavior in organizations (pp. 258–299). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Copley, F. B. (1923). Frederick W. Taylor father of scientific management, Vols. I and II. New York: Taylor Society. Dunnette, M. D. (Ed.). (1976). Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally. Dunnette, M. D., & Hough, L. M. (Eds.). (1991). Handbook of industrial/organizational psychology (4 Volumes). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Guion, R. M. (1998). Assessment, measurement and prediction for personnel decisions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Koppes, L. L. (Ed.). (2007). Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Lowman, R. L. (Ed.). (2002). The California School of Organizational Studies handbook of organizational consulting psychology: A comprehensive guide to theory, skills and techniques. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Rogelberg, S., G. (Ed.). (2002). Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational psychology. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Sackett, P. R., & Wilk, S. L. (1994). Within group norming and other forms of score adjustment in pre-employment testing. American Psychologist, 49, 929-954. Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274. Key journals in industrial and organizational psychology Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice Academy of Management Journal Academy of Management Perspectives Academy of Management Review Human Performance Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of Management Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Journal of Organizational Behavior Personnel Psychology The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist Work & Stress External links Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology Industrial & organizational psychology at The Psychology Wiki Professional I-O Psychologist Network (you can post messages and/or read and reply to others' postings; organized by topic; maintains anonymity via use of avatars) Research on Organizations: Bibliography Database and Maps Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Society for Occupational Health Psychology Outline of psychology

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Judy_Blume

Judy Blume (born Judy Sussman on February 12 1938) is an American author. She has written many novels for children and young adults which have exceeded sales of 80 million and been translated into 31 languages. Judy's Official Bio from official website Blume's novels for children and teenagers were among the first to tackle such controversial matters as racism (Iggie's House), menstruation (Are You There God? It's Me, Margaret.), divorce (It's Not the End of the World, 'Just As Long As We're Together'), bullying (Blubber), masturbation (Deenie; Then Again, Maybe I Won't) and teen sex (Forever), and as such have been the source of controversy over the appropriateness of such topics for her middle school audience. She is married with two children and a step-child. Background Judy Blume was born in Elizabeth, New Jersey, on February 12, 1938, to Rudolf and Ester Sussman [Jewish]. Blume moved to Miami Beach with her mother and older brother, David, when she was in third grade to aide his recovery from a kidney infection; her father remained in New Jersey to continue running his dentistry practice. She married John Blume in 1959, having two children with him- a daughter, Randy Lee, and a son, Lawrence Andrew. In 1961 Blume graduated with a B.S. in education from New York University, an institution which would name her a Distinguished Alumna thirty five years later. John and Judy Blume divorced in 1975 and she married and divorced once again before meeting George Cooper, whom she married in 1987; through this marriage Blume gained a stepdaughter, Amanda. Blume and Cooper also have a grandson Question for Judy from official website and currently reside in Key West and New York City. Career A lifelong avid reader, Blume first began writing when her children began preschool, How I Became an Author from official website and published her first book, The One in the Middle Is the Green Kangaroo, in 1969. The decade that followed proved to be her most prolific, with 13 more books being published, including many of her most well-known titles, such as Are You There God? It's Me, Margaret. (1970), Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing (1972), Otherwise Known as Sheila the Great (1972), and Blubber (1974). After publishing novels for young children and teens, Blume tackled another genre—adult fiction. Her novels Wifey and Smart Women shot to the top of The New York Times best-seller list. Wifey has become a bestseller, with over 4 million copies sold to date. Her latest and third adult novel Summer Sisters (1998) was widely praised and has sold more than 3 million copies. Judy Blume: Mating IQ from Psychology Today It spent 5 months on The New York Times Bestseller list Early Blumers:In defense of censorship from National Review Online the hardcover reaching #3 Best Sellers: August 16, 1998 from The New York Times and the paperback spent several weeks at #1. Paperback Best Sellers: May 30, 1999 from The New York Times Paperback Best Sellers: June 12, 1999 from The New York Times Blume has won more than ninety literary awards. In 2004, she was awarded the National Book Foundation Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters. Literary Prize for Judy Blume, Confidante to Teenagers from The New York Times In 1996 the American Library Association selected Blume for its Margaret A. Edwards Award for her contributions to young adult literature. Blume's award page on the American Library Association website Blume received the Library of Congress Living Legends award in the "Writers and Artists" category in April 2000 for her significant contributions to America's cultural heritage. Blume has also had several books to appear on the list of top all-time bestselling children’s books. Some of her books have become made for television movies, but she has had little success here. Blume is also an advocate for teachers reading aloud to their students. She gets an uncountable amount of mail from students and adults whose teachers read aloud to them. Blume herself has specific memories of being read aloud to by her teachers. Blume believes that if teachers would take the time to introduce good books to students, perhaps there would not be as many reluctant readers. Censorship Though light in tone, many of Judy Blume’s books deal with difficult issues for children, including questioning the existence of Santa Claus, friendship, religion, divorce, body image, and sexuality. However, Blume states that she does not set out to tackle these issues when writing. She begins with a character, sometimes a character and a situation. Fans of Blume's novels have praised her use of real-life settings, ambivalent endings and gentle humor. Her allegedly ambiguous treatment of moral issues made her at one time a regular target of school library censors and the religious right. Her books are still often challenged in school libraries; in fact, Forever was the second most challenged book of 2005, according to the American Library Association. She is recognized as one of the most banned children's authors in the United States Banned Books Week: Celebrating the Freedom to Read from SDS Universe which eventually led her to edit a collection of short stories about censorship (Places I Never Meant to Be). Despite ardent attempts at censorship Blume's young adult novels and books for children have sold 80 million copies world wide. Judy Blume Release Third Adult Novel from CNN Judy Blume is no stranger to censorship and having her works being challenged. In fact, she is one of the most censored authors in America, having had several of her books challenged and/or banned. When her books first came under attack, she went through a variety of emotions: scared, frightened, alone, and angry. In an interview with Publisher’s Weekly, Blume states that the fear of censorship can be contagious. In another interview, Blume tells Judy Freeman, children’s literature consultant and author, that the sadness came from a sadness for children who may not be allowed to read banned books. She says, “It says to them, “There’s something in this book we don’t want you do know about, something we don’t want to discuss with you.’” Perhaps one of her most censored and challenged books is Are You There God? It’s Me, Margaret. (1970), and considered to deal with many “rite of passage” topics for young, pre-teen girls. This book is about an eleven year old girl, Margaret Simon, who is growing up with no organized religion (her father was Jewish and her mother Christian). However, she does seem to have a close relationship with God. She views Him as her friend and confidant, someone she talks to when she cannot seem to talk to anyone else about important issues in her life. When assigned a yearlong independent project at school, Margaret chooses to study people’s beliefs. This proves to be a weighty assignment for Margaret. In her quest to complete the project and find out more about other’s beliefs, Margaret discovers a lot about herself as well. Through serious yet sometimes comical situations, the book also deals with several other taboo topics: Margaret having to buy her very first bra; having her first period and having to deal with sanitary napkins; jealousy over other girls having more womanly figures than hers; and liking boys. Margaret learns to better understand and cope with these issues from talks with her mother, grandmother, friends, and of course, God. This book deals openly with sexuality and religion, which makes it one of the most challenged books in America. On the list of the top 100 most challenged books at the American Libraries Association, Are You There God? It’s Me, Margaret., falls at number sixty two. In several interviews, Blume tells the story of receiving a phone call from a woman who harassed her and called her a communist for writing this book. Blume jokes that she does not know whether she received this accusation was because of how the book dealt with religion or because of how it dealt with sexuality. In her efforts to preserve for young readers intellectual freedom in literature, Blume has founded the National Coalition Against Censorship, which is comprised of fifty not-for-profit organizations that come together to fight censorship. Judy Blume has also founded or is closely affiliated with several other organizations regarding children’s literature and censorship, including, The Kids Fund, The Author’s Guild, the Society of Children’s Book Writers and Illustrators, and the Key West Literary Seminar. Blume is also the editor for a collection of short stories, Places I Never Meant To Be, Original Stories by Censored Writers. Blume also tells Freeman that censorship is not getting any better. There has been a rise in challenged books over the years. Blume urges teachers and writers who feel passionately about censorships to speak out and share their voice on the subject. Bibliography Sources Judy Brume. (1999) Authors and Artists for Young Adults (Gale Research), 26: 7-17. Summarizes and extends 1990 article, with more emphasis on Blume's impact and censorship issues. By R. Garcia-Johnson. Judy Blume. (1990) Authors and Artists for Young Adults (Gale Research), 3: 25-36. Incorporates extensive passages from published interviews with Blume. Great author References External links The Most Frequently Challenged Books of 2006 from the American Library Association

Judy_Blume |@lemmatized judy:15 blume:39 bear:2 sussman:2 february:2 american:7 author:9 write:4 many:5 novel:7 child:15 young:8 adult:9 exceed:1 sale:1 million:4 translate:1 language:1 official:4 bio:1 website:4 teenager:2 among:1 first:6 tackle:3 controversial:1 matter:1 racism:1 iggie:1 house:1 menstruation:1 god:6 margaret:11 divorce:4 end:1 world:2 long:1 together:2 bullying:1 blubber:2 masturbation:1 deenie:1 maybe:1 win:2 teen:3 sex:1 forever:2 source:2 controversy:1 appropriateness:1 topic:3 middle:2 school:4 audience:1 married:1 two:3 step:1 background:1 elizabeth:1 new:10 jersey:2 rudolf:1 ester:1 jewish:2 move:1 miami:1 beach:1 mother:3 old:2 brother:1 david:1 third:3 grade:2 aide:1 recovery:1 kidney:1 infection:1 father:2 remain:1 continue:1 run:1 dentistry:1 practice:1 marry:3 john:2 daughter:1 randy:1 lee:1 son:1 lawrence:1 andrew:1 graduate:1 b:1 education:1 york:8 university:1 institution:1 would:3 name:1 distinguished:1 alumna:1 thirty:1 five:1 year:3 later:1 meet:1 george:1 cooper:2 marriage:1 gain:1 stepdaughter:1 amanda:1 also:7 grandson:1 question:2 currently:1 reside:1 key:2 west:2 city:1 career:1 lifelong:1 avid:1 reader:3 begin:3 preschool:1 become:3 publish:4 book:27 one:6 green:1 kangaroo:1 decade:1 follow:1 prove:2 prolific:1 include:3 well:3 know:4 title:1 tale:1 fourth:1 nothing:1 otherwise:1 sheila:1 great:2 another:2 genre:1 fiction:1 novels:1 wifey:2 smart:1 woman:2 shoot:1 top:3 time:9 best:4 seller:4 list:4 bestseller:2 copy:3 sell:3 date:1 late:1 summer:1 sister:1 widely:1 praise:2 mating:1 iq:1 psychology:1 today:1 spend:2 month:1 early:1 blumers:1 defense:1 censorship:12 national:3 review:1 online:1 hardcover:1 reach:1 august:1 paperback:3 several:6 week:2 may:2 june:1 ninety:1 literary:3 award:5 foundation:1 medal:1 distinguish:1 contribution:3 letter:1 prize:1 confidante:1 library:8 association:5 select:1 edward:1 literature:4 page:1 receive:3 congress:1 live:1 legend:1 writer:4 artist:3 category:1 april:1 significant:1 america:3 cultural:1 heritage:1 appear:1 bestselling:1 make:3 television:1 movie:1 little:1 success:1 advocate:1 teacher:5 read:5 aloud:3 student:3 get:2 uncountable:1 amount:1 mail:1 whose:1 specific:1 memory:1 believe:1 take:1 introduce:1 good:2 perhaps:2 reluctant:1 though:1 light:1 tone:1 deal:6 difficult:1 issue:6 existence:1 santa:1 claus:1 friendship:1 religion:4 body:1 image:1 sexuality:3 however:2 state:3 set:1 character:2 sometimes:2 situation:2 fan:1 use:1 real:1 life:2 setting:1 ambivalent:1 ending:1 gentle:1 humor:1 allegedly:1 ambiguous:1 treatment:1 moral:1 regular:1 target:1 censor:1 religious:1 right:1 still:1 often:1 challenge:5 fact:2 second:1 challenged:4 accord:1 recognize:1 banned:1 united:1 ban:3 celebrate:1 freedom:2 sds:1 universe:1 eventually:1 lead:1 edit:1 collection:2 short:2 story:4 place:2 never:2 mean:2 despite:1 ardent:1 attempt:1 wide:1 release:1 cnn:1 stranger:1 work:1 censored:3 come:3 attack:1 go:1 variety:1 emotion:1 scar:1 frighten:1 alone:1 angry:1 interview:4 publisher:1 weekly:1 fear:1 contagious:1 tell:3 freeman:2 consultant:1 sadness:2 allow:1 say:2 something:2 want:2 discuss:1 consider:1 rite:1 passage:2 pre:1 girl:3 eleven:1 simon:1 grow:1 organize:1 christian:1 seem:2 close:1 relationship:1 view:1 friend:2 confidant:1 someone:1 talk:3 cannot:1 anyone:1 else:1 important:1 assign:1 yearlong:1 independent:1 project:2 chooses:1 study:1 people:1 beliefs:1 weighty:1 assignment:1 quest:1 complete:1 find:1 belief:1 discover:1 lot:1 serious:1 yet:1 comical:1 taboo:1 buy:1 bra:1 period:1 sanitary:1 napkin:1 jealousy:1 womanly:1 figure:1 like:1 boy:1 learn:1 understand:1 cope:1 grandmother:1 course:1 openly:1 fall:1 number:1 sixty:1 phone:1 call:2 harass:1 communist:1 joke:1 whether:1 accusation:1 dealt:1 effort:1 preserve:1 intellectual:1 found:2 coalition:1 comprise:1 fifty:1 profit:1 organization:2 fight:1 closely:1 affiliate:1 regard:1 kid:1 fund:1 guild:1 society:1 illustrator:1 seminar:1 editor:1 original:1 rise:1 urge:1 feel:1 passionately:1 speak:1 share:1 voice:1 subject:1 bibliography:1 brume:1 gale:2 research:2 summarizes:1 extend:1 article:1 emphasis:1 impact:1 r:1 garcia:1 johnson:1 incorporates:1 extensive:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 frequently:1 |@bigram judy_blume:10 avid_reader:1 read_aloud:3 santa_claus:1 friend_confidant:1 anyone_else:1 external_link:1

Ahimsa

Gautama Buddha, known for his philosophy of ahimsa Ahimsa (Devanagari: ; IAST ) is a Sanskrit term meaning to do no harm (literally: the avoidance of violence - himsa). It is an important tenet of the religions that originated in ancient India (Hinduism, Buddhism and especially Jainism). Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings. It is closely connected with the notion that all kinds of violence entail negative karmic consequences. The extent to which the principle of non-violence can or should be applied to different life forms is controversial between various authorities, movements and currents within the three religions and has been a matter of debate for thousands of years. Though the origins of the concept of ahimsa are unknown, the earliest references to ahimsa are found in the texts of historical Vedic religion, dated to 8th century BCE. Here, ahimsa initially relates to "non-injury" without a moral connotation, but later to non-violence to animals and then, to all beings. The idea emerges again in the Hindu texts Mahabharata and Manu Smriti, where ahimsa is said to be merited by good Karma. Though meat-eating and slaughter of animals are criticized by some Hindu texts, other texts present counter-arguments in support of hunting and ritual sacrifice. In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Swami Vivekananda, Ramana Maharishi, Swami Sivananda and A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami emphasized the importance of ahimsa. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi applied ahimsa to politics, by his non-violent satyagrahas. Ahimsa in Jainism emphasizes vegetarianism and bans hunting and ritual sacrifice. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals and make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. In accordance to this policy, eating of some foods, whose cultivation harms small insects and worms as well as agriculture itself, is to be abstained from. Violence in self-defense, criminal law, and war are accepted by Hindus and Jains. Though ahimsa is not used as a technical term in Buddhism unlike the other two religions, it condemns ritual sacrifice and violence, and moral codes emphasize the importance of not taking life. Vedism The term ahimsa appears in the Taittiriya Samhita of the Yajurveda (TS 5.2.8.7), where it refers to non-injury to the sacrificer himself. Tähtinen p. 2. It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of "non-injury" without a moral connotation. Shatapatha Brahmana 2.3.4.30; 2.5.1.14; 6.3.1.26; 6.3.1.39. The ahimsa doctrine is a late development in Brahmanical culture. Henk M. Bodewitz in Jan E. M. Houben, K. R. van Kooij, ed., Violence denied: violence, non-violence and the rationalization of violence in South Asian cultural history. BRILL, 1999 page 30. The earliest reference to the idea of non-violence to animals (pashu-ahimsa), apparently in a moral sense, is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE. Tähtinen p. 2-3. The word scarcely appears in the principal Upanishads. John Bowker, Problems of suffering in religions of the world. Cambridge University Press, 1975, page 233. The Chandogya Upanishad, dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE, one of the oldest Upanishads, has the earliest evidence for the use of the word ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism (a code of conduct). It bars violence against "all creatures" (sarva-bhuta) and the practitioner of ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of reincarnation (CU 8.15.1). Tähtinen p. 2-5; English translation: Schmidt p. 631. It also names ahimsa as one of five essential virtues (CU 3.17.4). Some scholars are of the opinion that this passage was a concession to growing influence of shramanic culture on the Brahmanical religion. Puruṣottama Bilimoria, Joseph Prabhu, Renuka M. Sharma, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, page 315. Hinduism Non-human life Hindus do not substantially differentiate the soul within a human body from that of an animal. Bhagavad Gita 5.18 "The humble sages, by virtue of true knowledge, see with equal vision a learned and gentle brahmana, a cow, an elephant, a dog and a dog-eater [outcaste]." Hence ahimsa as a binding code of conduct implies a ban on hunting, butchery, meat eating, and the use of animal products provided by violent means. The question of moral duties towards animals and of negative Karma incurred from violence against them is discussed in detail in some Hindu scriptures and religious lawbooks. Some source texts discuss meat eating as a fact without referring to the ethical side of the issue. The Dharmasutra law books written around the 5th or 4th century BCE contain regulations for meat eating and lists of edible animals. Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2.4.7; 2.6.2; 2.11.15; 2.12.8; 3.1.13; 3.3.6; Apastamba Dharmasutra 1.17.15; 1.17.19; 2.17.26-2.18.3; Vasistha Dharmasutra 14.12. Medical treatises of the Ayurveda discuss and recommend meat from a purely health-related viewpoint without even mentioning the aspect of ahimsa. Alsdorf p. 617-619. Examples are the Sushruta Samhita written in the 3rd or 4th century CE, which recommends beef for certain patients and for pregnant women, Sutrasthana 46.89; Sharirasthana 3.25. and the Charaka Samhita which describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents. Sutrasthana 27.87. Several highly authoritative scriptures bar violence against domestic animals except in the case of ritual sacrifice. This view is clearly expressed in the Mahabharata, Mahabharata 3.199.11-12 (3.199 is 3.207 according to another count); 13.115; 13.116.26; 13.148.17. the Bhagavata Purana (11.5.13-14), and the Chandogya Upanishad (8.15.1). It is also reflected in the Manu Smriti (5.27-44), a particularly renowned traditional Hindu lawbook (Dharmaśāstra). These texts strongly condemn the slaughter of animals and meat eating. The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors (Kshatriyas), Mahabharata 13.115.59-60; 13.116.15-18. but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non-violent. Alsdorf p. 592-593. This view has, for the most part, been changed, and now almost all Hindu temples ban meat from temple premises. Nevertheless the sources show that this compromise between supporters of ahimsa and meat eaters was shaky and hotly disputed. Even the loopholes – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of ahimsa. Alsdorf p. 572-577 (for the Manu Smriti) and p. 585-597 (for the Mahabharata); Tähtinen p. 34-36. The Mahabharata and the Manu Smriti (5.27-55) contain lengthy discussions about the legitimacy of ritual slaughter. Mahabharata 12.260 (12.260 is 12.268 according to another count); 13.115-116; 14.28. In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints. Moreover, a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse. Mahabharata 3.199 (3.199 is 3.207 according to another count). Most of the arguments proposed in favour of non-violence to animals refer to rewards it entails before or after death and to horrible karmic consequences of violence. Tähtinen p. 39-43. In particular, it is pointed out that he who deliberately kills an animal will on his part be eaten by an animal in a future existence due to karmic retribution. Schmidt p. 629, 643-645. Ahimsa is described as a prerequisite for acquiring supernatural faculties, highest bliss and ultimate salvation; Alsdorf p. 589; Schmidt p. 634-635, 640-643; Tähtinen p. 41-42. moreover it is said to protect against all kinds of dangers. Alsdorf p. 590. The Manu Smriti (10.63), Kautilya’s Arthashastra (1.3.13) and the Vasishtha Dharmasutra (4.4) point out that ahimsa is a duty for all the four classes (Varnas) of society. The texts declare that ahimsa should be extended to all forms of life. They also give attention to the protection of plants. The Manu Smriti prohibits wanton destruction of both wild and cultivated plants (11.145). Hermits (Sannyasins) had to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants. Schmidt p. 637-639. Under these circumstances the defenders of hunting and ritual slaughter had to deny the violent nature of these activities. They asserted that lawful violence is in fact non-violence; according to them sacrificial killing is not killing, but is meant for the welfare of the whole world. Manu Smriti 5.39 and 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207). They also suggested that such killing is in fact a benevolent act, because the slaughtered animal will attain a high rebirth in the cycle of reincarnation. Manu Smriti 5.32; 5.39-40; 5.42; 5.44; Mahabharata 3.199 (3.207); 14.28. Moreover they argued that some species have been created for the purpose of being sacrificed and eaten by humans, Manu Smriti 5.30, Mahabharata 3.199.5 (3.207.5). that it is normal for animals to kill and eat other animals, Mahabharata 3.199.23-24 (3.207.23-24). that agriculture, too, inevitably leads to the death of many animals, Mahabharata 3.199.19 (3.207.19). that plants are living beings as well and must still be destroyed, that we unintentionally and unknowingly destroy life forms all the time, Mahabharata 3.199.28-29 (3.207.28-29). and that a hunted animal has a fair chance to survive by killing the hunter. Mahabharata 13.116.15-18. Self-defense, criminal law, and war Hindu scriptures and law books support the use of violence in self-defense against an armed attacker. Mahabharata 12.15.55; Manu Smriti 8.349-350; Matsya Purana 226.116. They make it clear that criminals are not protected by the rule of ahimsa. Tähtinen p. 96, 98-101. They have no misgivings about the death penalty; their position is that evil-doers who deserve death should be killed, and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them, even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons. Tähtinen p. 96, 98-99. According to some interpretations, the concept of ahimsa as expounded in the scriptures and law books is not meant to imply pacifism; war is seen as a normal part of life and the natural duty of the warriors. Tähtinen p. 91-93. In the second chapter of the Bhagavad Gita Krishna refutes the pacifist ideas of Arjuna and uses various arguments to convince him that he must fight and kill in the impending battle. According to this interpretation of the scriptures, face-to-face combat is highly meritorious and fighters who die in battle go to heaven. Tähtinen p. 93. The apparent conflict between ahimsa and the just war prescribed by the Gita has often been resolved by resorting to allegorical readings. Such readings are based on Theosophical interpretations and were notably represented by Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi, Mohandas K., The Bhagavad Gita According to Gandhi Berkeley Hills Books, Berkeley 2000 who made clear throughout his life and his own commentary on the Gita that it was "an allegory in which the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna, man's higher impulses struggling against evil." Fischer, Louis: Gandhi: His Life and Message to the World Mentor, New York 1954, pp. 15-16 Modern times In modern Hinduism slaughter according to the rituals permitted in the Vedic scriptures has virtually disappeared. In the 19th and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Swami Vivekananda, Religious Vegetarianism, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 50-52. Ramana Maharshi, Ramana Maharishi: Be as you are Swami Sivananda Swami Sivananda: Bliss Divine, p. 3-8. and A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Religious Vegetarianism p. 56-60. emphasized the importance of ahimsa. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi promoted the principle of ahimsa very successfully by applying it to all spheres of life, particularly to politics. Tähtinen p. 116-124. His non-violent resistance movement satyagraha had an immense impact on India, impressed public opinion in Western countries and influenced the leaders of various civil rights movements such as Martin Luther King Jr. In Gandhi’s thought ahimsa precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury, but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred, unkind behavior such as harsh words, dishonesty and lying, all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with ahimsa. Walli p. XXII-XLVII; Borman, William: Gandhi and Non-Violence, Albany 1986, p. 11-12. Sri Aurobindo criticized the Gandhian concept of ahimsa as unrealistic and not universally applicable; he adopted a pragmatic non-pacifist position, saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation. Tähtinen p. 115-116. A thorough historical and philosophical study of ahimsa was instrumental in the shaping of Albert Schweitzer's principle of "reverence for life". Schweitzer criticized Indian philosophical and religious traditions for having conceived ahimsa as the negative principle of avoiding violence instead of emphasizing the importance of positive action (helping injured beings). Schweitzer, Albert: Indian Thought and its Development, London 1956, p. 80-84, 100-104, 110-112, 198-200, 223-225, 229-230. Yoga Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali’s "classical" Yoga (Raja Yoga). It is one of the five Yamas (restraints) which make up the code of conduct, the first of the eight limbs of which this path consists. Patañjali: Yoga Sutras, Sadhana Pada 30. In the schools of Bhakti Yoga, the devotees who worship Vishnu or Krishna are particularly keen on ahimsa. Tähtinen p. 87. Another Bhakti Yoga school, Radha Soami Satsang Beas observes vegetarianism and moral living as aspects of "ahimsa." Ahimsa is also an obligation in Hatha Yoga according to the classic manual Hatha Yoga Pradipika (1.1.17). Jainism The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa. The word in the middle is "ahimsa". The wheel represents the dharmacakra which stands for the resolve to halt the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth and non-violence. In Jainism, the understanding and implementation of ahimsa is more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive than in any other religion. Laidlaw, James: Riches and Renunciation. Religion, economy, and society among the Jains, Oxford 1995, p. 154-160; Jindal, K.B.: An epitome of Jainism, New Delhi 1988, p. 74-90; Tähtinen p. 110. Non-violence is seen as the most essential religious duty for everyone (, a statement often inscribed on Jain temples). Dundas, Paul: The Jains, second edition, London 2002, p. 160; Wiley, Kristi L.: Ahimsa and Compassion in Jainism, in: Studies in Jaina History and Culture, ed. Peter Flügel, London 2006, p. 438; Laidlaw p. 153-154. Like in Hinduism, the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful Karma. Laidlaw p. 26-30, 191-195. When Mahavira revived and reorganized the Jain movement in the 6th or 5th century BCE, Dundas p. 24 suggests the 5th century; the traditional dating of Mahavira’s death is 527 BCE. ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. Goyal, S.R.: A History of Indian Buddhism, Meerut 1987, p. 83-85. Parshva, the earliest Jain leader (Tirthankar) whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure, Dundas p. 19, 30; Tähtinen p. 132. lived in about the 8th century BCE. Dundas p. 30 suggests the 8th or 7th century; the traditional chronology places him in the late 9th or early 8th century. He founded the community to which Mahavira’s parents belonged. Acaranga Sutra 2.15. Ahimsa was already part of the "Fourfold Restraint" (Caujjama), the vows taken by Parshva’s followers. Sthananga Sutra 266; Tähtinen p. 132; Goyal p. 83-84, 103. In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries, Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus, whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of ahimsa. Dundas p. 160, 234, 241; Wiley p. 448; Granoff, Phyllis: The Violence of Non-Violence: A Study of Some Jain Responses to Non-Jain Religious Practices, in: Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 15 (1992) p. 1-43; Tähtinen p. 8-9. There is some evidence, however, that ancient Jain ascetics accepted meat as alms if the animal had not been specifically killed for them. Alsdorf p. 564-570; Dundas p. 177. Modern Jains deny this vehemently, especially with regard to Mahavira himself. Alsdorf p. 568-569. According to the Jain tradition either lacto-vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory. Laidlaw p. 169. The Jain concept of ahimsa is characterized by several aspects. It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior-hunters. Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out. Laidlaw p. 166-167; Tähtinen p. 37. Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible. Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food, they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival, and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants. Lodha, R.M.: Conservation of Vegetation and Jain Philosophy, in: Medieval Jainism: Culture and Environment, New Delhi 1990, p. 137-141; Tähtinen p. 105. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals. Jindal p. 89; Laidlaw p. 54, 154-155, 180. For example, Jains often do not go out at night, when they are more likely to step upon an insect. In their view, injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action. Sutrakrtangasutram 1.8.3; Uttaradhyayanasutra 10; Tattvarthasutra 7.8; Dundas p. 161-162. Eating honey is strictly outlawed, as it would amount to violence against the bees. Hemacandra: Yogashastra 3.37; Laidlaw p. 166-167. Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals, such as worms and insects, Laidlaw p. 180. but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers. Sangave, Vilas Adinath: Jaina Community. A Social Survey, second edition, Bombay 1980, p. 259; Dundas p. 191. . Additionally, because they consider harsh words to be a form of violence, they often keep a cloth to ritually cover their mouth, as a reminder not to allow violence in their speech. In contrast, Jains agree with Hindus that violence in self-defense can be justified, Nisithabhasya (in Nisithasutra) 289; Jinadatta Suri: Upadesharasayana 26; Dundas p. 162-163; Tähtinen p. 31. and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty. Jindal p. 89-90; Laidlaw p. 154-155; Jaini, Padmanabh S.: Ahimsa and "Just War" in Jainism, in: Ahimsa, Anekanta and Jainism, ed. Tara Sethia, New Delhi 2004, p. 52-60; Tähtinen p. 31. Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defense, and there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers. Harisena, Brhatkathakosa 124 (10th century); Jindal p. 90-91; Sangave p. 259. Though, theoretically, all life forms are said to deserve full protection from all kinds of injury, Jains admit that this ideal cannot be completely implemented in practice. Hence, they recognize a hierarchy of life. Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones. For the mobile beings, they distinguish between one-sensed, two-sensed, three-sensed, four-sensed and five-sensed ones; a one-sensed animal has touch as its only sensory modality. The more senses a being has, the more they care about its protection. Among the five-sensed beings, the rational ones (humans) are most strongly protected by Jain ahimsa. Jindal p. 89, 125-133 (detailed exposition of the classification system); Tähtinen p. 17, 113. In the practice of ahimsa, the requirements are less strict for the lay persons who have undertaken anuvrata (Lesser Vows) than for the monks and nuns who are bound by mahavrata (Great Vows). Dundas p. 158-159, 189-192; Laidlaw p. 173-175, 179; Religious Vegetarianism, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 43-46 (translation of the First Great Vow). Buddhism Unlike in Hindu and Jain sources, in ancient Buddhist texts ahimsa is not used as a technical term. Tähtinen p. 10. The traditional Buddhist understanding of non-violence is not as rigid as the Jain one, but like the Jains, Buddhists have always condemned the killing of animals. Sarao, K.T.S.: The Origin and Nature of Ancient Indian Buddhism, Delhi 1989, p. 49; Goyal p. 143; Tähtinen p. 37. The Buddhist position on vegetarianism is complex, nuanced, and varies between traditions. In the Theravada Buddhist tradition, monastics are allowed to eat certain kinds of meat, with proper contemplation on the nature of meat, on three conditions stipulated by the Buddha: "One has not seen, heard, or suspected (that [the animal] was killed on purpose for [the monastic]) Mv.VI.31.14, Buddhist Monastic code http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc2/bmc2.ch04.html ." In Mahayana Buddhism, and in particular Chinese Buddhism, however, monastics and lay practitioners are encouraged and even required to be vegetarian "The Buddhist Diet." Michael Ohlsson. December 9, 1998, http://online.sfsu.edu/~rone/Buddhism/BuddhismAnimalsVegetarian/Buddhist%20Diet.htm , although this prohibition is usually not strictly enforced among the laity. In the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, most lamas and lay practitioners eat meat even though they follow and accept the Mahayana texts which discourage or even prohibit doing so. The main reasons for this is survival as it is incredibly difficult to harvest crops at such high altitude and thus yak meat forms an important dietary staple for Tibetans. Prominent Tibetan teachers such as the Dalai Lama and the Karmapa Ogyen Trinley Dorje have requested that their disciples become vegetarian "U.S: Tibetan Buddhists move towards vegetarianism." Sharon St. Joan. Bestfriends.org. April 26, 2007, http://network.bestfriends.org/international/news/14456.html . Since the beginnings of the Buddhist community, monks and nuns have had to commit themselves to Five Precepts of moral conduct. Lamotte, Etienne: History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Śaka Era, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988, p. 54-55. In ancient Buddhism, lay persons were encouraged, but not obliged, to commit themselves to observe the Five Training Precepts of morality (). Lamotte p. 69-70. In both codes the first rule is to abstain from taking the life of a sentient being (). Lamotte p. 70. War Unlike the Vedic religion, ancient Buddhism had strong misgivings about violent ways of punishing criminals and about war. Both were not explicitly condemned, Sarao p. 53; Tähtinen p. 95, 102. but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged. Tähtinen p. 95, 102-103. Kurt A. Raaflaub, War and Peace in the Ancient World. Blackwell Publishing, 2007 , page 61. The early texts condemn rather the mental states that lead to violent behavior. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 52. Non-violence is an over-riding concern of the Pali Canon. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 111. While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms, and portray the ideal king as a pacifist, such a king is nonetheless flanked by an army. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 41. It seems that the Buddha's teaching on non-violence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti-military-service way by early Buddhists. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 41. The early texts assume war to be a fact of life, and well-skilled warriors are viewed as a necessity for defensive warfare. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 50. In Pali texts, injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha; later Mahayana texts, which often generalize monastic norms to laity, require this of lay people as well. Stewart McFarlane in Peter Harvey, ed., Buddhism. Continuum, 2001, pages 195-196. The early texts do not contain just-war ideology as such. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 40. Some argue that a sutta in the Gamani Samyuttam rules out all military service. In this passage, a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that, as he has been told, soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm. The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill, he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, pages 125-126. Full texts of the sutta:. In the early texts, a person's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having an inordinate impact on the next birth. Rune E.A. Johansson, The Dynamic Psychology of Early Buddhism. Curzon Press 1979, page 33. Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, pages 40-53. Some examples are the Cakkavati Sihanada Sutta, the Kosala Samyutta, the Ratthapala Sutta, and the Sinha Sutta. See also page 125. See also Trevor Ling, Buddhism, Imperialism, and War. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1979, pages 136-137. One example is the Kosala Samyutta, in which King Pasenadi, a righteous king favored by the Buddha, learns of an impending attack on his kingdom. He arms himself in defense, and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack. Upon his return (in defeat), the Buddha says, among other things, that Pasenadi is "a friend of virtue, acquainted with virtue, intimate with virtue", while the opposite is said of the aggressor, King Ajatasattu. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 49, see also pages 52-53. According to Theravada commentaries, there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be incur full the punishment for killing according to the Vinaya, the Buddhist code of monastic rules. These are: (1) the presence of a living being, human or animal; (2) the perception of the presence of the living being; (3) the intent to kill; (4) the act of killing by some means; and (5) the resulting death. Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics. Wisdom Publications, 1997, pages 60, 159, see also Bartholomeusz page 121. Mv.VIII.61, Buddhist Monastic code chapter 8, Pacittiya. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/bmc1/ch08-7.html . Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated, and its ethicization is predicated upon intent. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, page 121. Some have argued that in defensive postures, for example, the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill, but to save, and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions. Tessa Bartholomeusz, In Defense of Dharma. RoutledgeCurzon 2002, pages 44, 121-122, 124, . See also Consistent life ethic Non-violence Nonresistance Pacifism Yamas Karuna Gandhism Satyagraha Vegetarianism and religion History of vegetarianism References External links Ahimsa quotations from Puranic scripture (vedabase.net)

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dynamic:1 psychology:1 curzon:1 cakkavati:1 sihanada:1 kosala:2 samyutta:2 ratthapala:1 sinha:1 trevor:1 ling:1 imperialism:1 george:1 allen:1 unwin:1 pasenadi:2 righteous:1 favor:1 learns:1 attack:2 kingdom:2 arm:1 return:1 defeat:1 thing:1 friend:1 acquaint:1 intimate:1 opposite:1 aggressor:1 ajatasattu:1 requisite:1 factor:1 fulfil:1 vinaya:1 presence:2 perception:1 intent:2 result:1 hammalawa:1 saddhatissa:1 wisdom:1 publication:1 viii:1 pacittiya:1 basis:1 complicate:1 ethicization:1 predicate:1 posture:1 primary:1 save:1 minimal:1 repercussion:1 consistent:1 nonresistance:1 karuna:1 gandhism:1 external:1 link:1 quotation:1 puranic:1 vedabase:1 net:1 |@bigram gautama_buddha:1 hinduism_buddhism:1 manu_smriti:10 swami_vivekananda:2 swami_sivananda:3 bhaktivedanta_swami:2 mohandas_karamchand:2 karamchand_gandhi:2 tähtinen_p:26 ashgate_publishing:1 bhagavad_gita:3 bhagavata_purana:1 meat_eater:1 fruitarian_diet:1 evil_doer:1 mahatma_gandhi:1 martin_luther:1 albert_schweitzer:1 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Coral_66

CORAL (Computer On-line Real-time Applications Language) is a programming language originally developed in 1964 at the Royal Radar Establishment (RRE), Malvern, UK, as a subset of JOVIAL. Coral 66 was subsequently developed by I. F. Currie and M. Griffiths. Its official definition , edited by Woodward, Wetherall and Gorman, was first published in 1970. Coral 66 is a general-purpose programming language based on Algol 60, with some features from Coral 64, JOVIAL, and FORTRAN. It includes structured record types (as in Pascal) and supports the packing of data into limited storage (also as in Pascal). Like Edinburgh IMP it allows embedded assembler, and also offers good run-time checking and diagnostics. It is specifically intended for real-time applications and for use on computers with limited processing power, including those limited to fixed point arithmetic and those without support for dynamic storage allocation. The language was an inter-service standard for British military programming, and was also widely adopted for civil purposes in the British control and automation industry. It was used to write software for both the Ferranti and GEC computers from 1971 onwards. Implementations also exist for the Interdata 8/32, PDP-11, VAX, Alpha platforms and HP Integrity servers; for the Honeywell, and for the Computer Technology Limited (CTL, later ITL) Modular-1; as well as for SPARC running Solaris and Intel running Linux. A variant of Coral 66 was developed during the late 1970s/early 1980s by the British GPO, in conjunction with GEC, STC and Plessey, for use on the System X digital telephone exchange control computers, known as PO-CORAL. This was later renamed BT-CORAL when British Telecom was spun off from the Post Office. Unique features of this language were the focus on real-time execution, message processing, limits on statement execution between waiting for input, and a prohibition on recursion to remove the need for a stack. As Coral was aimed at a variety of real-time work, rather than general office DP, it was not thought to require any standardised equivalent to a stdio library. This made life difficult for newcomers to the language, and producing a mere Hello World was no mean achievement. Source code for a Coral 66 compiler (written in BCPL) has been recovered and the "Official Definition of Coral 66" document by HMSO has been scanned; the Ministry of Defence patent office has issued a licence to the Edinburgh Computer History project to allow them to put both the code and the language reference online for non-commercial use. External links CORAL 66 test program extracted from the Test Responder report CORAL 66 benchmarks EDS CORAL 66 compiler for Vax/VMS (commercial working CORAL 66 system) XGC Software's Coral 66 compiler (commercial system) XGC Coral 66 Language Reference Manual (HTML) and in PDF format, based on the Official Definition. BS5905 CORAL 66 Standard DEF STAN 05-47 PDP-11 CORAL/ASM interfacing library ECCE editor script to translate CORAL 66 into Edinburgh IMP References

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Day_of_the_Tentacle

Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle is a graphical adventure game, originally released in 1993, and published by LucasArts. It is the eighth game to use the SCUMM engine. It was released simultaneously on floppy disk and CD-ROM. Day of the Tentacle was designed by Dave Grossman and Tim Schafer. The game, a loose sequel to Maniac Mansion, is focused on Bernard Bernoulli — the only one of the three playable characters that was featured in the first game — and his friends Laverne and Hoagie, as they help Dr. Fred Edison using a time machine to prevent Purple Tentacle from taking over the world. The game utilizes time travel and the effects of changing history as part of the many puzzles to be solved in the game. Gameplay Day of the Tentacle follows the point-and-click two-dimensional adventure game formula, first established by the original Maniac Mansion. Players direct the controllable characters around the game world by clicking with the computer mouse. To interact with the game world, players choose from a set of commands arrayed on the screen and then on an object in the world. This was the last SCUMM game to use the original interface of having the bottom of the screen being taken up by a verb selection and inventory; starting with the next game to use the SCUMM engine, Sam and Max Hit the Road, the engine was modified to scroll through a more concise list of verbs with the right mouse button and having the inventory on a separate screen. This formula carried on to later games in the franchise, such as The Dig, Full Throttle and The Curse of Monkey Island. In Day of the Tentacle, the player can switch between any one of the three playable characters at any time, though two of the characters must first be unlocked by the completion of certain puzzles. The three protagonists can also share inventory items amongst themselves (at least, those items that can be stowed in a toilet), a feature that plays into many of the game's puzzles. Many puzzles are based on time travel and the effects of aging on objects and the changing of the past are used as part of the solution. For example, one puzzle requires the player to send a medical chart of a Tentacle back to the past, having it used as the design of the American flag, then collecting one such flag in the future to be used as a Tentacle disguise. In Maniac Mansion, the playable characters can be killed by various sequences of events. LucasArts adopted a different philosophy towards its adventure games in 1990, beginning with Loom. Their philosophy was that the game should not punish the player for exploring the game world. Accordingly, in most of the adventure games released by LucasArts after Loom, including Day of the Tentacle, the player character(s) cannot die. The whole original Maniac Mansion game can be played on a computer inside the Day of the Tentacle game, a practice that other game developers have repeated, but at the time of Day of the Tentacle's release this was unprecedented. Story The Purple Tentacle, seen here shortly after his mutation in the opening cinematic, is the main antagonist in Day of the Tentacle. The game, which takes place five years after Maniac Mansion, opens with Purple Tentacle becoming exposed to toxic waste spewing from Dr. Fred Edison's mansion. The toxic waste isn't the by-product of any experiment, it's a device designed specifically to pump toxic sludge out of the building, as it is all the rage with mad scientists lately. Purple's ingestion of it results in him growing a pair of flipper-like arms, vastly increased intelligence, and acquiring a thirst for global domination. Dr. Fred catches Purple Tentacle, as well as the friendly, non-evil Green Tentacle, and keeps them both in his basement before deciding that he will euthanize them. That evening, Green Tentacle sends a plea of help to his old friend Bernard Bernouli — a stereotypical nerd and character from the first game — who heads off to the mansion to rescue him, accompanied by his friends, Laverne, a slightly psychotic medical student, and Hoagie, a laid-back rock band roadie. Bernard frees Green and Purple, only for Purple to inform him of his plans of world domination and resume his conquering of the Earth. Since he can't figure out a way to stop Purple now that he's begun his mad quest, Dr. Edison attempts to send the three friends back in time to 'yesterday' using his time machine, which consists of a central unit made out of an old car and three personal travel units called "Chron-o-Johns", made from portable toilets. By doing so, they can turn off the sludge machine which produced the toxic waste so that Purple never ingests the waste in the first place, hence pre-emptively stopping him from taking over the world. However, because Dr. Edison has used an imitation diamond as the power source, the machine fails, sending Hoagie 200 years in the past, where he learns that the mansion was the setting for the creation of the United States Constitution, and Laverne 200 years in the future to a Tentacle-controlled world where humans are treated as pets and Purple is revered as a hero, while Bernard remains in the present. Dr. Edison tasks Bernard with finding a real diamond to power the time machine to return his friends to the present so that they can try to travel to yesterday once again, while informing Hoagie and Laverne through the Chron-o-John that they must find power sources for their own units in order to bring them back. Fortunately for all involved (especially Hoagie, who has been sent back to before electricity was available), the three can send small objects back and forth in time through the Chron-o-Johns in order to complete these tasks. Eventually, Bernard uses Dr. Edison's old family fortune to buy a real diamond, both Laverne and Hoagie manage to power their units, and the three are reunited in the present. Dr. Edison attempts to send them back into the past again, this time successfully. Upon arrival, they find that the Purple Tentacle from 200 years in the future has also used the time machine to bring several versions of himself to the same day to prevent them from turning off the sludge machine. Bernard and his friends successfully defeat all the Purple Tentacles, turn off the machine and restore the course of future events to normal order. The game ends with the credits rolling over a Tentacle-shaped American flag, one of the more significant results of their tampering in history. Historical interaction One of the aspects of Day of the Tentacle'''s plot is that it gives the game player the opportunity to interact with several important historical figures from colonial America, namely George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock and Betsy Ross. Their personality traits are exaggerated for comic effect. Their descendants (or at least characters that resemble them) can be seen in the other ages. Harold, seemingly a descendant of Washington, appears as a transvestite in a future beauty contest organized by the Tentacles. An apparent descendant of Ben Franklin makes an appearance as a novelty toy salesman and a descendant of John Hancock appears as a depressed inventor named Dwayne. Some of the more entertaining puzzles of the game involve these characters. In one sequence, Hoagie must give an exploding cigar to Washington in order to replace his famous false teeth with chattering novelty mechanical dentures, while in another he gives a drawing of a tentacle to Ross, who sews it into the American flag. In another scene, in order to coax Washington into chopping down a kumquat tree, Hoagie must paint the fruits red, as Washington insists that he only chops down cherry trees, referring to a legend concerning Washington's youth. Reception Day of the Tentacle was well received at the time of its release, and still features regularly in lists of 'top' games to this day. Adventure Gamers included the game as #1 on their 20 Greatest Adventure Games of All Time List. IGN rated it number 60 on their 2005 top 100 games list, it is also listed as one of the greatest games of all time on GameSpot. Adventure Gamers' review rated the game 5 out of 5, stating "If someone were to ask for a few examples of games that exemplify the best of the graphic adventure genre, Day of the Tentacle would certainly be near the top". Development The game was originally intended to resemble Maniac Mansion more closely, with the player allowed to choose from among six characters (who would have included a male poet named Chester, a female hippie named Moonglow (described as "a New Age girl with sandals"), and Razor from the original game). This idea was dropped in preproduction to simplify the project. The art created for the character of Chester was eventually adapted for the characters of the sculptor twins in the final game. Soundtrack Original music for this game was written by Clint Bajakian, Peter McConnell, and Michael Land, who each respectively wrote most of the music for the Past, Present, and Future sections of the game. http://www.mixnmojo.com/features/read.php?article=dayofthetentacle&page=4 The soundtrack for the opening scene begins with the Ranz des Vaches melody, well-known for its inclusion in Gioachino Rossini's William Tell Overture''. See also LucasArts adventure games ScummVM References External links Netjak Review of Day of The Tentacle

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Intel_80186

A strongly simplified block diagram of the 80186 architecture. The Intel 80186 is a microprocessor and microcontroller introduced in 1982. It was based on the Intel 8086 and, like it, had a 16-bit external data bus multiplexed with a 20-bit address bus. It was also available as the Intel 80188, with an 8-bit external data bus. Description Features and performance The 80186 and 80188 series was generally intended for embedded systems, as microcontrollers with external memory. Therefore, to reduce the number of chips required, it included features such as clock generator, interrupt controller, timers, wait state generator, DMA channels, and external chip select lines. The initial clock rate of the 80186 and 80188 was 6 MHz, but due to more hardware available for the microcode to use, especially for address calculation, many individual instructions ran faster than on an 8086 at the same clock frequency. For instance, the common register+immediate In fact, all variants, including reg+reg and reg+reg+immediate were faster. addressing mode was significantly faster than on the 8086, especially when a memory location was both (one of the) operand(s) and the destination. Multiply and divide also showed great improvement and were several times as fast as on the original 8086. A few new instructions were introduced with the 80186 (referred to as 8086-2 in some datasheets): enter/leave (replacing several instructions when handling stack frames), pusha/popa (push/pop all general registers), bound (check array index against bounds), ud2 (generate invalid opcode exception), ins/outs (input/output of string). A useful immediate mode was added for the push, imul, and multi-bit shift instructions. Most of these new instructions and modes were later included in the 80386 instruction set (and therefore in the x86 ISA). The (redesigned) CMOS version, 80C186, introduced DRAM refresh, a power-save mode, and a direct interface to the 8087 or 80287 floating point numeric coprocessor. In Personal Computers Few personal computers used the 80186, with some notable exceptions: the Wang Office Assistant, marketed as a PC-like stand-alone word processor; the Mindset; the Siemens PC-D (not 100% IBM PC-compatible but using MS-DOS 2.11 ); the Compis (a Swedish school computer); the RM Nimbus (a British school computer); the Unisys ICON (a Canadian school computer); ORB Computer by ABS; the HP 200lx; the Tandy 2000 desktop (a somewhat PC-compatible workstation with sharp graphics for its day); the Philips :YES. Acorn created a plug-in containing a 80188 with 512 KB of RAM, the Master 512 system. In May 2006 Intel announced that production of the 186 would cease at the end of September 2007. Pin- and instruction-compatible replacements might still be manufactured by various 3rd party sources. Notes and references External links Intel Datasheet Intel's Official Page for the 80186 Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de Scan of the Intel 80186 data book at datasheetarchive.com Intel Microprocessor History Chipdb.org

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Cadmium

Cadmium () is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. The soft, bluish-white transition metal is chemically similar to the two other metals in group 12 , zinc and mercury. Similar to zinc it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds and similar to mercury it shows a low melting point for a transition metal. Cadmium is a relatively abundant element. Cadmium was discovered in 1817 by Friedrich Strohmeyer as an impurity in zinc carbonate. Cadmium occurs as minor component in most zinc ores and therefore is a by-product of zinc production. Cadmium was for a long time used as pigment and for corrosion resistant plating on steel. Cadmium compounds were used to stabilize plastic. With the exception of its use in nickel-cadmium batteries, the use of cadmium is generally decreasing in all other applications. This decrease is due to the high toxicity and carcinogenicity of cadmium and the associated health and environmental concerns. Although cadmium is toxic, one enzyme, a carbonic anhydrase with a cadmium as reactive centre has been discovered. Characteristics Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, toxic, bluish-white bivalent metal. It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms more complex compounds. Chemical The most common oxidation state of cadmium is +2, though rare examples of +1 can be found. Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous cadmium oxide (CdO). The crystalline form of the same compound is dark red and changes colour when heated, similar to zinc oxide. Hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid and nitric acid dissolve cadmium by forming cadmium chloride (CdCl2) cadmium sulfate (CdSO4) or cadmium nitrate (Cd(NO3)2). The oxidation state +1 can be reached by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and aluminium chloride, forming the Cd22+ which is similar to the Hg22+ in mercury(I) chloride. Cd + CdCl2 + 2AlCl3 → Cd2[AlCl4]2 Isotopes Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 isotopes. For two of them, natural radioactivity was observed, and three others are predicted to be radioactive but their decay is not observed, due to extremely long half-life times. The two natural radioactive isotopes are 113Cd (beta decay, half-life is 7.7 × 1015 years) and 116Cd (two-neutrino double beta decay, half-life is 2.9 × 1019 years). The other three are 106Cd, 108Cd (double electron capture), and 114Cd (double beta decay); only lower limits on their half-life times have been set. At least three isotopes - 110Cd, 111Cd, and 112Cd - are stable. Among the isotopes absent in natural cadmium, the most long-lived are 109Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days, and 115Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 2.5 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 5 minutes. This element also has 8 known meta states, with the most stable being 113mCd (t½ 14.1 years), 115mCd (t½ 44.6 days), and 117mCd (t½ 3.36 hours). The cadmium-113 total cross section clearly showing the cadmium cutoff. The known isotopes of cadmium range in atomic mass from 94.950 u (95Cd) to 131.946 u (132Cd). The primary decay mode before the second-most-abundant stable isotope, 112Cd, is electron capture, and the primary modes after are beta emission. The primary decay product before 112Cd is element 47 (silver), and the primary product after is element 49 (indium). One isotope of cadmium, 113Cd, absorbs neutrons with very high probability if they have an energy below the cadmium cut-off and transmits them readily otherwise. The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5 eV. p505 Neutrons with energy below the cutoff are deemed slow neutrons, distinguishing them from intermediate and fast neutrons. Applications Batteries Ni-Cd batteries About three-quarters of all the cadmium used is in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide). More recent nickel-metal hydride batteries reduce the use of Ni-Cd batteries. The European Union banned the use of cadmium in electronics in 2004 with several exceptions but reduced the allowed content of cadmium in electronics to 0.002 %. Other uses Most of the remaining quarter is used mainly for cadmium pigments, coatings and plating, and as stabilizers for plastics. Other uses include: Train painted with cadmium yellow In some of the lowest-melting alloys, for example Wood's metal In bearing alloys, due to a low coefficient of friction and very good fatigue resistance In electroplating (6% cadmium). Cadmium electroplating is widely used in aircraft industry due to the excellent corrosion resistance of cadmium-plated steel components. Cadmium provides cathodic protection to low-alloyed steels, since it is positioned lower in the galvanic series. The coating is usually passivated by chromate salts. A significant limitation of cadmium plating is hydrogen embrittlement of high-strength steels caused by the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition). In many kinds of solder As a barrier to control neutrons in nuclear fission The pressurized water reactor designed by Westinghouse Electric Company used an alloy consisting of 80% Ag, 15% In, and 5% Cd. Cadmium oxide in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors for colour television picture tubes Cadmium sulfide (CdS) as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums. In paint pigments, cadmium forms various salts, with CdS being the most common. This sulfide is used as a yellow pigment. Cadmium selenide can be used as red pigment, commonly called cadmium red. To painters who work with the pigment, cadmium yellows, oranges, and reds are the most potent colours to use. In fact, during production, these colours are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders, or blended into watercolours, gouaches, acrylics, and other paint and pigment formulations. These pigments are toxic, and it is recommended to use a barrier cream on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin when working with them. In some semiconductors such as cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and cadmium telluride, which can be used for light detection or solar cells. HgCdTe is sensitive to infrared. In PVC as stabilizers. In molecular biology, it is used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions. See also :Category:Cadmium compounds. History Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals, which was named after the Greek mythological character, Κάδμος Cadmus) was discovered in Germany in 1817 by Friedrich Strohmeyer. Strohmeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Strohmeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed colour when heated but pure calamine did not. He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reduction of the sulfide. Even though cadmium and its compounds are highly toxic, the British Pharmaceutical Codex from 1907 states that cadmium iodide was used as a medicine to treat "enlarged joints, scrofulous glands, and chilblains". World production trend In 1927, the International Conference on Weights and Measures redefined the metre in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1m = 1,553,164.13 wavelengths). This definition has since been changed (see krypton). After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s the major application was the coating of steel and copper alloys to prevent corrosion. In 1944 62 % and in 1956 59 % of the cadmium in the United States was used for this purpose. The second application where red and yellow pigments based on sulfides and selenides of cadmium. In 1956 24 % of the cadmium used within the United States was used for this purpose. The stabilizing effect of cadmium containing chemicals on plastics leed to a increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The use of Cadmium in all applications mentioned above declined drastically due to environmental and health regulations from 1980 on. In 2006 only 7 % of the cadmium is used for plating and coating and only 10% is used for pigments. The decrease in the consumption in other applications was made up by a growing demand of cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries, which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006. The overall consumption of cadmium was nearly constant from the 1970s till 2009. Occurrence Cadmium metal Cadmium-containing ores are rare and are found to occur in small quantities. However, traces do naturally occur in phosphate, and have been shown to transmit in food through fertilizer application. Greenockite (CdS), the only cadmium mineral of importance, is nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS). As a consequence, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining, smelting, and refining sulfide ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, lead and copper. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Production in the United States began in 1907, but it was not until after World War I that cadmium came into wide use. One place where metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia. See also :Category:Cadmium minerals. Extraction Cadmium output in 2005 In 2001, China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one-sixth world share closely followed by South Korea and Japan, reports the British Geological Survey. Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1,4 % of cadmium. In 1970s the output of cadmium was 6.5 pounds per ton of zinc. Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presence of oxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated out of the electrolysis solution. Cadmium at WebElements.com Biological role A role of cadmium in biology has been recently discovered. A cadmium-dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms. Cadmium does the same job as zinc in other anhydrases, but the diatoms live in environments with very low zinc concentrations, thus biology has taken cadmium rather than zinc, and made it work. The discovery was made using X-ray absorption fluorescence spectroscopy (XAFS), and cadmium was characterized by noting the energy of the X-rays that were absorbed. Image of the violet light from a helium cadmium metal vapor laser. The highly monochromatic color arises from the 441.563 nm transition line of cadmium. Toxicity Cadmium poisoning is an occupational hazard associated with industrial processes such as metal plating and the production of nickel-cadmium batteries, pigments, plastics, and other synthetics. The primary route of exposure in industrial settings is inhalation. Inhalation of cadmium-containing fumes can result initially in metal fume fever but may progress to chemical pneumonitis, pulmonary edema, and death. Cadmium is also a potential environmental hazard. Human exposures to environmental cadmium are primarily the result of the burning of fossil fuels and municipal wastes. However, there have been notable instances of toxicity as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water. In the decades leading up to World War II, Japanese mining operations contaminated the Jinzu River with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals. As a consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops growing along the riverbanks downstream of the mines. The local agricultural communities consuming the contaminated rice developed Itai-itai disease and renal abnormalities, including proteinuria and glucosuria. Cadmium is one of six substances banned by the European Union's Restriction on Hazardous Substances (RoHS) directive, which bans certain hazardous substances in electronics. Cadmium and several cadmium-containing compounds are known carcinogens and can induce many types of cancer. Research has found that cadmium toxicity may be carried into the body by zinc binding proteins; in particular, proteins that contain zinc finger protein structures. Zinc and cadmium are in the same group on the periodic table, contain the same common oxidation state (+2), and when ionized are almost the same size. Due to these similarities, cadmium can replace zinc in many biological systems, in particular, systems that contain softer ligands such as sulfur. Cadmium can bind up to ten times more strongly than zinc in certain biological systems, and is notoriously difficult to remove. In addition, cadmium can replace magnesium and calcium in certain biological systems, although these replacements are rare. Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population. It has been estimated that about 10% of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking. The absorption of cadmium from the lungs is much more effective than that from the gut, and as much as 50% of the cadmium inhaled via cigarette smoke may be absorbed. On average, smokers have 4-5 times higher blood cadmium concentrations and 2-3 times higher kidney cadmium concentrations than non-smokers. Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from passive smoking. No significant effect on blood cadmium concentrations could be detected in children exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. References See also List of breast carcinogenic substances External links ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Cadmium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services IARC Monograph "Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds" National Pollutant Inventory - Cadmium and compounds WebElements.com – Cadmium Los Alamos National Laboratory – Cadmium Warning Moose and Deer Liver National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Cadmium Page USGS Comodity Report cadmium

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hand:1 prevent:2 absorption:3 skin:1 semiconductor:1 telluride:1 light:2 detection:1 solar:1 hgcdte:1 sensitive:1 infrared:1 pvc:1 molecular:1 biology:3 block:1 voltage:1 dependent:2 calcium:3 channel:1 flux:1 ion:1 see:4 category:2 history:1 latin:2 cadmia:1 greek:2 καδμεία:1 meaning:1 calamine:5 mineral:3 name:2 mythological:1 character:1 κάδμος:1 cadmus:1 germany:2 new:1 important:2 producer:2 word:1 note:2 impure:1 sample:1 pure:1 persistent:1 study:2 result:4 eventually:1 isolated:2 roast:2 reduction:1 even:1 highly:2 british:2 pharmaceutical:1 codex:1 iodide:1 medicine:2 enlarged:1 joint:1 scrofulous:1 gland:1 chilblain:1 world:4 trend:1 international:1 conference:1 weight:1 measure:1 redefine:1 metre:1 term:2 spectral:1 line:2 wavelengths:1 definition:1 krypton:1 industrial:3 scale:1 start:1 major:1 copper:2 united:4 purpose:2 base:1 selenides:1 within:1 effect:2 contain:6 leed:1 increase:1 mention:1 decline:1 drastically:1 regulation:1 consumption:4 make:3 grow:2 demand:1 account:1 overall:1 nearly:2 constant:1 till:1 occurrence:1 containing:2 small:2 quantity:1 however:2 trace:2 phosphate:1 food:2 fertilizer:1 greenockite:1 cds:1 importance:1 always:1 sphalerite:1 zns:1 consequence:2 produce:3 byproduct:1 mining:2 smelting:1 refine:1 degree:1 lead:2 amount:1 secondary:1 source:2 dust:1 generate:1 recycle:1 iron:1 scrap:1 begin:1 war:2 come:1 wide:1 place:1 metallic:1 vilyuy:1 river:2 basin:1 siberia:1 extraction:1 output:2 china:1 top:1 almost:2 sixth:1 share:1 closely:1 follow:1 south:1 korea:1 japan:1 report:2 geological:1 survey:1 often:1 concentrate:1 sulfidic:1 pound:1 per:1 ton:1 presence:1 oxygen:1 convert:1 either:1 smelt:2 carbon:1 electrolysis:2 isolate:1 vacuum:1 distillation:1 precipitate:1 solution:1 webelements:2 com:2 biological:4 role:2 recently:1 marine:1 diatom:2 job:1 anhydrases:1 environment:1 concentration:4 thus:1 take:1 rather:1 discovery:1 x:2 ray:2 fluorescence:1 spectroscopy:1 xafs:1 characterize:1 absorb:2 image:1 violet:1 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single:1 general:1 population:1 estimate:1 cigarette:3 inhale:2 lung:1 much:2 effective:1 gut:1 via:1 smoke:3 average:1 smoker:2 higher:1 blood:2 kidney:1 non:1 despite:1 seem:1 little:1 passive:1 could:1 detect:1 child:1 expose:1 reference:1 list:1 breast:1 carcinogenic:1 external:1 link:1 atsdr:1 case:1 department:1 service:1 iarc:1 monograph:1 national:3 pollutant:1 inventory:1 los:1 alamos:1 laboratory:1 warn:1 moose:1 deer:1 liver:1 institute:1 safety:1 page:1 usgs:1 comodity:1 |@bigram zinc_ore:4 corrosion_resistant:1 nickel_cadmium:5 cadmium_battery:4 enzyme_carbonic:1 carbonic_anhydrase:2 soft_malleable:1 malleable_ductile:1 zinc_oxide:1 hydrochloric_acid:1 sulfuric_acid:2 nitric_acid:1 radioactive_decay:1 radioactive_isotope:2 beta_decay:3 stable_isotope:1 potassium_hydroxide:1 coefficient_friction:1 corrosion_resistance:1 tensile_strength:1 strength_mpa:1 vapor_deposition:1 nuclear_fission:1 pressurized_water:1 acrylic_paint:1 molecular_biology:1 sulfide_ore:2 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Athanasian_Creed

|Athanasius of Alexandria was traditionally thought to be the author of the Athanasian Creed, and gives his name to its common title. The Athanasian Creed (Quicumque vult) is a Christian statement of belief, focusing on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology. The Latin name of the creed, Quicumque vult, is taken from the opening words "Whosoever wishes." The Athanasian Creed has been used by Christian churches since the sixth century of the common era. It is the first creed in which the equality of the three persons of the Trinity is explicitly stated, and differs from the Nicene and Apostles' Creeds in the inclusion of anathemas, or condemnations of those who disagree with the Creed. Widely accepted among Western Christians, including the Roman Catholic Church and liturgical Protestants, the Athanasian Creed has been used in public worship more and more infrequently in recent years. The creed only gained limited and occasional acceptance among Eastern Christians. Origin |The Shield of the Trinity, a visual representation of the doctrine of the Trinity, derived from the Athanasian Creed. The Latin reads: "The Father is God, The Son is God, The Holy Spirit is God; God is the Father, God is the Son, God is the Holy Spirit; The Father is not the Son, The Son is not the Father, The Father is not the Holy Spirit, The Holy Spirit is not the Father, The Son is not the Holy Spirit, The Holy Spirit is not the Son." A medieval account credited Athanasius of Alexandria, the famous defender of Nicene theology, as the author of the Creed. According to this account, Athanasius composed it during his exile in Rome, and presented it to Pope Julius as a witness to his orthodoxy. Phillip Schaff, The Creeds of Chistendom, (Harper Brothers, 1877) 1.4.5; available online (retrived May 4, 2009). This traditional attribution of the Creed to Athanasius was first called into question in 1642 by Dutch theologian G.J. Voss, Michael O'Carroll, "Athanasian Creed" in Trinitas, (Wilmington, Delaware:Michael Glazier, 1987). and it has since been widely accepted by modern scholars that the creed was not authored by Athanasius. Frederick W. Norris, "Athanasian Creed" in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, 2nd edition, ed. Everett Fergusen (New York:Garland, 1997). Athanasius' name seems to have become attached to the creed as a sign of its strong declaration of Trinitarian faith. The reasoning for rejecting Athanasius as the author usually relies on a combination of the following: The creed originally was most likely written in Latin, while Athanasius composed in Greek. Neither Athanasius nor his contemporaries ever mention the Creed. It is not mentioned in any records of the ecumenical councils. It appears to address theological concerns that developed after Athanasius died. It was most widely circulated among Western Christians. Concordia Triglotta, Historical Introduction, St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1921, p. 13. Michael O'Carroll, "Athanasian Creed" in Trinitas, (Wilmington, Delaware:Michael Glazier, 1987). The use of the Creed in a sermon by Caesarius of Arles, as well as a theological resemblance to works by Vincent of Lérins, point to Southern Gaul as its origin. Frederick W. Norris, "Athanasian Creed" in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, 2nd edition, ed. Everett Fergusen (New York:Garland, 1997). The most likely time frame is in the late fifth or early sixth century of the common era - at least 100 years after Athanasius. The theology of the creed is firmly rooted in the Augustinian tradition, using exact terminology of Augustine's On the Trinity (published 415 c.e.). Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, vol. 3 (Charles Scribner, 1910) available online (retrieved May 7, 2009). In the late 19th century, there was a great deal of speculation about who might have authored the creed, with suggestions including Ambrose of Milan, Venantius Fortunatus, and Hilary of Poitiers, among others. See Samuel Macauley Jackson, et. al. eds., The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion, (1914) "Athanasian Creed," (online) for examples of various theories of authorship. The 1940 discovery of a lost work by Vincent of Lérins, which bears a striking similarity to much of the language of the Athanasian Creed, have led many to conclude that the creed originated either with Vincent or with his students. Athanasian Creed. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 07, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/40585/Athanasian-Creed. For example, in the authorative modern monograph about the creed, J.N.D. Kelly asserts that Vincent of Lérin was not its author, but that it may have come from the same milieu, namely the area of Lérins in southern Gaul. J.N.D. Kelly, The Athanasian Creed, NY: Harper and Row, 1964. The oldest surviving manuscripts of the Athanasian Creed date from the late 8th century. Content The Athanasian Creed is usually divided into two sections: lines 1-28 addressing the doctrine of the Trinity, and lines 29-44 addressing the doctrine of Christology. Philip Schaff uses this classic division in his consideration of the Creed: The Creeds of Chistendom, (Harper Brothers, 1877) 1.4.5; available online (retrived May 4, 2009). Enumerating the three persons of the Trinity (i.e., Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit), the first section of the creed ascribes the divine attributes to each individually. Thus, each person of the Trinity is described as uncreated (increatus), limitless (Immensus), eternal (æternus), and omnipotent (omnipotens). Athanasian Creed, lines 8,9,10, and 13, respectively. See the side by side English and Latin in vol. 2 of Shaff's The Creeds of Christendom, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2.iv.i.iv.html online) . While ascribing the divine attributes and divinity to each person of the Trinity, thus avoiding subordinationism, the first half of the Athanasian Creed also stresses the unity of the three persons in the one Godhead, thus avoiding a theology of tritheism. Furthermore, although one God, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct from each other. For the Father is neither made nor begotten; the Son is not made but is begotten from the Father; the Holy Spirit is neither made nor begotten but proceeds from the Father and the Son (filioque). Didactic as its content appears to contemporary readers, its opening sets out the essential principle that the Catholic faith does not consist in the first place in assent to propositions, but 'that we worship One God in Trinity, and Trinity and Unity'. All else flows from that orientation. Its teaching about Jesus Christ is more detailed than in the Nicene Creed, and reflects the teaching of the First Council of Ephesus (431) and the definition of the Council of Chalcedon (451). The 'Athanasian' Creed boldly uses the key Nicene term homoousios ('one substance', 'one in Being') not only with respect to the relation of the Son to the Father according to his divine nature, but that the Son is homoousios with his mother Mary, according to his human nature. The Creed's wording thus excludes not only Sabellianism and Arianism, but the Christological heresies of Nestorianism and Eutychianism. A need for a clear confession against Arianism arose in western Europe when the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, who had Arian beliefs, invaded at the beginning of the 5th century. The final section of this Creed also moved beyond the Nicene (and Apostles') Creeds in making negative statements about the people's fate: "They that have done good shall go into life everlasting: and they that have done evil into everlasting fire." This caused considerable debate in England in the mid-nineteenth century, centred around the teaching of Frederic Denison Maurice. Uses |Detail of a manuscript illustration depicting a knight carrying the "Shield of the Trinity." Composed of 44 rhythmic lines, the Athanasian Creed appears to have been intended as a liturgical document - that is, the original purpose of the creed was to be spoken or sung as a part of worship. Phillip Schaff, The Creeds of Chistendom, (Harper Brothers, 1877) 1.4.5; available online (retrived May 4, 2009). The creed itself uses the language of public worship, speaking of the worship of God rather than the language of belief ("Now this is the catholic faith: We worship one God"). Among medieval European Christian churches, this creed was recited following the Sunday sermon or at the Sunday Office of Prime. Philip Pfatteicher, Commentary on the Lutheran Book of Worship, (Minneapolis:Augsburg, 1990), p. 444 The creed was often set to music and used in the place of a Psalm. Early Protestants inherited the late medieval devotion to the Athanasian Creed, and it was considered to be authoritative in many Protestant churches. The statements of Protestant belief (confessional documents) of various Reformers commend the Athanasian Creed to their followers, including the Augsburg Confession, the Formula of Concord, the Second Helvetic Confession, the Belgic Confession, the Bohemian Confession and the Thirty-nine Articles. Augusburg Confession, art. 1 references the Nicene Creed, but uses the language of the Athanasian: e.g., "There are three persons, coeternal and of the same essence and power." Formula of Concord, Solid Declaration, Summary 2. Second Helvetic Confession, Chapter 11. Belgic Confession, Article 9. 39 Articles, article 8. Bohemian Confession (1575), Article of faith 2. Among modern Lutheran and Reformed churches adherence to the Athanasian Creed is prescribed by the earlier confessional documents, but the creed does not receive much attention outside of occasional use - especially on Trinity Sunday. For example: the congregational constitution guidelines (pdf) for the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod, and the beliefs of the Reformed Church in America (both retrieved May 6, 2009) Philip Pfatteicher, Commentary on the Lutheran Book of Worship, (Minneapolis:Augsburg, 1990), p. 444 In Reformed circles, it is included (for example) in the Christian Reformed Churches of Australia's Book of Forms (publ. 1991). That said, it is rarely recited in public worship. In the successive Books of Common Prayer of the reformed Church of England from 1549 to 1662, its recitation was provided for on 19 occasions each year, a practice which continued until the nineteenth century, when vigorous controversy regarding its statement about 'eternal damnation' saw its use gradually decline. It remains one of the three Creeds approved in the Thirty-Nine Articles, and is printed in several current Anglican prayer books (eg A Prayer Book for Australia (1995)). As with Roman Catholic practice, its use is now generally only on Trinity Sunday or its octave. In Roman Catholic churches, it was traditionally said at Prime on Sundays after Epiphany and Pentecost, except when a Double feast or day within an octave occurred, and on Trinity Sunday. In the 1960 reforms, it was reduced to once a year on Trinity Sunday. It has been effectively dropped from the Catholic liturgy since Vatican II, although it is retained in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. It is however maintained in the Forma Extraordinaria, per the decree Summorum Pontificum, and also in the rite of exorcism, both in the Forma Ordinaria and the Forma Extraordinaria of the Roman Rite. In Lutheranism, the Athanasian Creed is -- along with the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds -- one of the three ecumenical creeds placed at the beginning of the 1580 Book of Concord, the historic collection of authoritative doctrinal statements (confessions) of the Lutheran church. It is still used in the liturgy on Trinity Sunday. A common visualisation of the first half of the Creed is the Shield of the Trinity. References External links The Athanasian Creed (ICET/ELLC text) Quicumque vult in Latin and English The Origin and Terminology of the Athanasian Creed by Robert H. Krueger Scholarly edition with annotated translation

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extraordinaria:2 per:1 decree:1 summorum:1 pontificum:1 rite:2 exorcism:1 ordinaria:1 lutheranism:1 along:1 historic:1 collection:1 doctrinal:1 still:1 visualisation:1 external:1 link:1 icet:1 ellc:1 text:1 robert:1 h:1 krueger:1 scholarly:1 annotated:1 translation:1 |@bigram athanasius_alexandria:2 athanasian_creed:26 apostle_creed:1 holy_spirit:9 schaff_creed:2 wilmington_delaware:2 michael_glazier:2 ecumenical_council:1 concordia_publishing:1 philip_schaff:2 charles_scribner:1 ambrose_milan:1 venantius_fortunatus:1 hilary_poitier:1 et_al:1 schaff_herzog:1 herzog_encyclopedia:1 striking_similarity:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_online:1 http_www:2 com_ebchecked:1 ebchecked_topic:1 harper_row:1 creed_christendom:1 www_ccel:1 ccel_org:1 org_ccel:1 jesus_christ:1 nicene_creed:3 council_chalcedon:1 ostrogoth_visigoth:1 nineteenth_century:2 augsburg_confession:1 helvetic_confession:2 missouri_synod:1 eternal_damnation:1 summorum_pontificum:1 external_link:1

Kerguelen_Islands

The Kerguelen Islands (; in French commonly Îles Kerguelen or Archipel de Kerguelen but officially Archipel des Kerguelen or Archipel Kerguelen, ), also known as Desolation Island, are a group of islands in the southern Indian Ocean. The islands are a territory of France. They are antipodal to an area in the vicinity of the meeting point of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Montana in North America. There are no indigenous inhabitants, but France maintains a permanent presence of 50 to 100 scientists, engineers and researchers. Sea Level Measurement and Analysis in the Western Indian Ocean, UNSECO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission The main island, Grande Terre, is 6,675 km² in area and is surrounded by another 300 smaller islands and islets, forming an archipelago of 7,215 km². The climate is raw and chilly but not severely cold throughout the year — much like that of the outer Aleutian Islands of Alaska — with frequent high winds, and while the surrounding seas are generally rough, they remain ice-free year-round. History Engraving 'Christmas Harbour, Kerguelens Land', dated 1811 The islands, along with Adélie Land, the Crozet Islands, and the Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands are part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands and are administered as a separate district. They were discovered by the Breton-French navigator Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen de Trémarec in February 1772. Soon after their discovery, the archipelago was regularly visited by whalers and sealers (mostly British, American, and Norwegian) who hunted the resident populations of whales and seals to the point of near extinction, including fur seals in the 18th century and elephant seals in the 19th century. Since the end of the whaling and sealing era, most of the islands' species have been able to re-establish themselves. In the past, a number of expeditions briefly visited the islands, including that of Captain James Cook in 1776. In 1874–75, British, German and US expeditions visited Kerguelen to observe the transit of Venus. Exploring Polar Frontiers, p. 346, William James Mills, 2003 The German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis called at Kerguelen during December 1940. During their stay the crew performed maintenance and replenished their water supplies. This ship's first fatality of the war occurred when a sailor fell while painting the funnel. He is buried in what is sometimes referred to as "the most southerly German grave" of the Second World War. Kerguelen has been continually occupied since 1950 by scientific research teams, with a population of fifty to one hundred frequently present. There is also a French satellite tracking station. Grande Terre Péninsule Rallier du Baty Port aux Français Two Brothers Mountains (Monts des Deux Frères) Cook Glacier The main island of the archipelago is called La Grande Terre. It measures 150 km east to west and 120 km north to south. The main base, the so-called "capital" of the islands, is located at the eastern end of the Gulf of Morbihan on Grande Terre island at , and it is known as Port-aux-Français. Facilities there include scientific-research buildings, a satellite tracking station, dormitories, a hospital, a library, a gymnasium, a pub, and the chapel of Notre-Dame des Vents. The highest point is the Galliéni Massif (Pic du Grand-Ross), which lies along the southern coast of the island and has an elevation of 1,850 meters. The Cook Glacier, which covers approximately 550 km², lies on the west-central part of the island. Grande Terre has numerous bays, inlets, fjords, and coves, as well as several peninsulas and promontories. The most important ones are listed below: Courbet Peninsula Péninsule Rallier du Baty Péninsule Gallieni Péninsule Loranchet Presqu'île Jeanne d'Arc Presqu'île Ronarc'h Presqu'île de la Société de Géographie Presqu'île Joffre Presqu'île du Prince de Galles Presqu'île du Gauss Presqu'île Bouquet de la Grye Presqu'île d'Entrecasteaux Presqu'île du Bougainville Presqu'île Hoche Notable localities There are also a number of notable localities, all on Grande Terre (see also the main map): Anse Betsy [Betsy Cove] (a former geomagnetic station at ), on Baie Accessible [Accessible Bay], on the north coast of the Courbet Peninsula. On this site an astronomical and geomagnetic observatory was erected on 26 October 1874 by a German research expedition led by Georg Gustav Freiherr von Schleinitz. The primary goal of this station was the 1874 observation of the transit of Venus. Armor (Base Armor), established in 1983 forty kilometers west of Port-aux-Français at the bottom of Morbihan Gulf, for the acclimatization of salmon to the Kerguelen islands. Baie de l'Observatoire [Observatory Bay] (a former geomagnetic observation station at ), just west of Port-Aux-Français, on the eastern fringe of the Central Plateau, along the northern shore of the Golfe du Morbihan. For the 1874 transit of Venus, George Biddell Airy at the Royal Observatory of the U.K. organized and equipped five expeditions to different parts of the world. Three of these were sent to the Kerguelen Islands. The Reverend Stephen Joseph Perry led the British expeditions to the Kerguelen Islands. He set up his main observation station at Observatory Bay and two auxiliary stations, one at Thumb Peak [49°31'11.8"S, 70°10'18.1"E] led by Sommerville Goodridge, and the second at Supply Bay [49°30'47.3"S, 69°46'13.2"E] led by Cyril Corbet. Observatory Bay was also used by the German Antarctic Expedition led by Erich Dagobert von Drygalski in 1902–03. In January 2007, an archaeological excavation of this site was carried out. Cabane Port-Raymond (scientific camp at ), at the head of a fjord cutting into the Courbet Peninsula from the south. Cap Ratmanoff (geomagnetic station at ), the eastmost point of the Kerguelens. La Montjoie (scientific camp at ), on the south shore of Baie Rocheuse, along the northwestern coast of the archipelago. Molloy (Pointe Molloy), a former observatory ten kilometers west of the present-day Port-Aux-Français, along the south coast of the Courbet Peninsula, or northern shore of the Golfe du Morbihan (Kerguelen), at . An American expedition led by G. P. Ryan erected a station at this site on 7 September 1874. That station was also established to observe the 1874 transit of Venus. Port Bizet (seismographic station at ), on the northeastern coast of Île Longue. This also serves as the principal sheep farm for the island's resident flock of Bizet sheep. Port Christmas (a former geomagnetic station at ), on Baie de l'Oiseau, in the extreme northwest of the Loranchet Peninsula. This place was so named by Captain James Cook, who re-discovered the islands and who anchored there on Christmas Day, 1776. This is also the place where Captain Cook coined the name "Desolation Islands" in reference to what he saw as a sterile landscape. Port Couvreux (a former whaling station, experimental sheep farm, and geomagnetic station, at ), on Baie du Hillsborough, on the southeast coast of Presqu'île Bouquet de la Grye. Starting in 1912, sheep were raise here to create an economic base for future settlement, however, the attempt failed and the last inhabitants had to be evacuated, and the station abandoned, in 1931. The huts remain as well as a graveyard with five anonymous graves. These are those of the settlers who were unable to survive in the harsh environment. Port Curieuse (a harbor on the west coast across Île de l'Ouest ). The site was named after the ship La Curieuse, which was used by Raymond Rallier du Baty on his second visit to the islands (1913–14). Port Douzième (literally Twelfth Port, a hut and former geomagnetic station at ), on the north coast of Presqu'île Ronarch, southern shore of the Golfe du Morbihan. Port Jeanne d'Arc (a former whaling station founded by a Norwegian whaling company in 1908, and a former geomagnetic station at ), in the northwestern corner of Presqu'île Jeanne d'Arc, looking across the Buenos Aires passage to Île Longue (4 km northeast). The derelict settlement consists of four residential buildings with wooden walls and tin roofs, and a barn. One of the buildings was restored in 1977, and another in 2007. Since 1963, just east of Port-aux-Français is a launching site for French sounding rockets (mainly Arcas, Dragons, and Eridans). The islands The following list the most important adjacent islands: Île Foch in the north of the archipelago, at , is the largest satellite island with an area of 206.20 km². Its highest point, at 687 m, is called La Pyramide Mexicaine. Île Howe which lies less than one kilometre off the northern coast of Ile Foch is, at ~54.00 km², the second most important offlier in the Kerguelens . Île Saint-Lanne Gramont, is to the west of Île Foch in the Golfe Choiseul. It has an area of 45.80 km². Its highest point reaches 480 m (). Île du Port, also in the north in the Golfe des Baleiniers at , is the third largest satellite island with an area of 43.00 km², near its centre it reaches an altitude of 340 m. Île de l'Ouest (west coast, about 40.00 km², ) Île Longue (southeast, about 40.00 km² ) Îles Nuageuses (northwest, including île de Croÿ, île du Roland, îles Ternay, îles d'Après, ) Île de Castries () Îles Leygues (north, including île de Castries, île Dauphine, ) Île Violette () Île aux Rennes [also known as Reindeer Island or Australia Island] (western part of the Golfe du Morbihan, area 36.70 km², altitude 199 m, ) Île Haute (western part of the Golfe du Morbihan, altitude 321 m, ) Île Mayès () Economy Principal activities on the Kerguelen Islands focus on scientific research – mostly earth sciences and biology. The former sounding rocket range to the east of Port-aux-Français is currently the site of a SuperDARN radar. Since 1992, the French Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) has operated a satellite and rocket tracking station which is located four kilometers east of Port-aux-Français. There was a need for a tracking station in the Southern Hemisphere, and the French government required that it be located on French territory, rather than in a populated, foreign place like Australia or New Zealand. Agricultural activities are limited to raising sheep (approximately 3,500 Bizet sheep — an endangered species in metropolitan France) on Longue Island for consumption by the occupants of the base, as well as small quantities of vegetables in a greenhouse within the immediate vicinity of the main French base. There are also feral rabbits and sheep that can be hunted, and wild birds. There are also some fishing boats and vessels, owned by fishermen on Réunion Island — a department of France — who are licensed to fish within the archipelago's Exclusive Economic Zone. Geology Simplified geological map of the Kerguelen Islands The Kerguelen islands form an emerged part of the submerged Kerguelen-Heard tectonic plate, which has a total area nearing 2.2 million square kilometres. article by Roland Shlich (Research Manager at the CNRS) The major part of the volcanic formations visible on the islands are characteristic of an effusive volcanism, which caused a trap rock formation to start emerging above the level of the ocean 35 million years ago. The accumulation is of a considerable amount; basalt flows, each with a thickness of three to ten meters, stack on top of each other, sometimes up to a depth of 1,200 metres. This form of volcanism creates a monumental relief shaped as stairs of pyramids. Other forms of volcanism are present locally, such as the strombolic volcano Mont Ross, and the volcano-plutonic complex on the Rallier du Baty peninsula. Various veins and extrusions of lava such as trachytes, trachy-phonolites and phonolites are common all over the islands. No eruptive activity has been recorded in historic times, but some fumaroles are still active in the South-West of the Grande-Terre island. Mont Ross A few lignite strata, trapped in basalt flows, reveal fossilised Araucariaceae fragments, dated at about 14 million years of age. Glaciation caused the depression and tipping phenomena which created the gulfs at the north and east of the archipelago. Erosion caused by the glacial and fluvial activity carved out the valleys and fjords; erosion also created conglomerate detrital complexes, and the plain of the Courbet Peninsula. The islands are part of a submerged microcontinent called the Kerguelen sub-continent. UT Austin scientist plays major role in study of underwater "micro-continent". Retrieved on 2007-06-29 The microcontinent existed for three periods between 100 million years ago and 20 million years ago. The so-called Kerguelen sub-continent may have had tropical flora and fauna about 50 million years ago. The Kerguelen sub-continent finally sank 20 million years ago and is now one to two kilometers below sea level. Kerguelen's sedimentary rocks are similar to ones found in Australia and India, indicating they were all once connected. Scientists hope that studying the Kerguelen sub-continent will help them discover how Australia, India, and Antarctica broke apart. Sci/Tech 'Lost continent' discovered Retrieved on 2007-06-29 Flora and fauna Main article: Flora and fauna of the Kerguelen Islands. The main island is the home of a well-established feral cat population, descended from ships' cats. They survive on sea birds and the feral rabbits that were introduced to the islands. There is also a population of feral sheep from when sheep-raising was attempted here. The islands are also known for the indigenous, edible Kerguelen cabbage, a good source of vitamin C to ancient mariners. It was frequently served with corned beef. Kerguelen Islands in popular culture In the seafaring novel Desolation Island, one of the Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian, the crew repair their disabled ship on an island that strongly resembles Kerguelen, having a sheltered anchorage with large islands. A later book in the series asserts that this was a different Desolation Island, located somewhere "further south and east," (probably Heard Island, though this island was not confirmed to exist until the 1850s and has no bay with islands.) In The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket, Edgar Allan Poe's only complete novel, the crew of the Jane Guy alights at Kerguelen Island before eventually pushing on towards the South Pole. In Biggles' Second Case by W. E. Johns, Biggles searches for Nazi gold just after World War II on and around Kerguelen. Warbots (no. 5) Operation High Dragon involves a secret Chinese military base located on Kerguelen Island. ISBN 1-55817-159-2 In Gundam - The 08th MS Team, the Zeon Zanzibar-class cruiser used to evacuate Ginias Sakhalin's forces from their base is named Kerguelen. In the Danish graphic novel Mikkeline på skattejagt (Mikkeline's Treasure Hunt) by draftsman and cartoonist Claus Deleuran, Desolation Island plays a major role in the plot. In the humorous story the active volcano Mont Ross serves as a back entrance to hell as described in The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri. ISBN 87-7378-244-0 The novel The Lost Flying Boat by Alan Sillitoe is situated around Kerguelen, though the islands' geography are not accurately described. The Swedish comic James Hund by Jonas Darnell & Patrik Norrmann has set at least one episode on Kerguelen, where a satanic Nazi conspiracy against the world's leaders has its seat. The first chapter of Jules Verne's Le Sphinx des glaces (An Antarctic Mystery) is entitled "Chapitre 1 — Les Îles Kerguelen" ("Chapter 1 — The Kerguelen Islands"). In Patrick Robinson's Kilo Class (ISBN 0-06-109685-7), naval confrontations arise in the Kerguelen Islands between the Americans, the Chinese, and the Taiwanese. In the novel An Inexplicable Story by Josef Skvorecky, the chapter "A Letter from Herr Rudolf Ceeh" is a report by a German submariner about his stay on the Kerguelen Islands. The science fiction novel Rocannon's World by Ursula LeGuin mentions a planet called "New South Georgia", whose chief city is "Kerguelen". In the G. A. Henty novel The Young Midshipman, Chapter XVI (Old Joe's Yarn), Joe relates being shipwrecked on the Kerguelens and spending a winter surviving on Kerguelen cabbage, melted snow and seal meat before hiking to Betsy Cove, off of Hillborough Bay and being rescued by passing whalers. See also French overseas departments and territories Administrative divisions of France Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans Sub-antarctic islands Falkland Islands References External links Official site (In French) Official site (In French) Cartography of the Kerguelen, including a toponymy index (In French) Kerguelen Archipelago Southern & Antarctic Territories Columns about Kerguelen from The Times Personal site with many pictures Rocket launches on the Kerguelen Islands South Atlantic & Subantarctic Islands site, Kerguelen Archipelago page

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Cryptanalysis

Close-up of the rotors in a Fialka cipher machine Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, "hidden", and analýein, "to loosen" or "to untie") is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information, without access to the secret information which is normally required to do so. Typically, this involves finding a secret key. In non-technical language, this is the practice of codebreaking or cracking the code, although these phrases also have a specialised technical meaning (see code). "Cryptanalysis" is also used to refer to any attempt to circumvent the security of other types of cryptographic algorithms and protocols in general, and not just encryption. However, cryptanalysis usually excludes methods of attack that do not primarily target weaknesses in the actual cryptography, such as bribery, physical coercion, burglary, keystroke logging, and social engineering, although these types of attack are an important concern and are often more effective than traditional cryptanalysis. Even though the goal has been the same, the methods and techniques of cryptanalysis have changed drastically through the history of cryptography, adapting to increasing cryptographic complexity, ranging from the pen-and-paper methods of the past, through machines like Enigma in World War II, to the computer-based schemes of the present. The results of cryptanalysis have also changed — it is no longer possible to have unlimited success in codebreaking, and there is a hierarchical classification of what constitutes a rare practical attack. In the mid-1970s, a new class of cryptography was introduced: asymmetric cryptography. Methods for breaking these cryptosystems are typically radically different from before, and usually involve solving carefully-constructed problems in pure mathematics, the best-known being integer factorization. History of cryptanalysis Cryptanalysis has coevolved together with cryptography, and the contest can be traced through the history of cryptography—new ciphers being designed to replace old broken designs, and new cryptanalytic techniques invented to crack the improved schemes . In practice, they are viewed as two sides of the same coin: in order to create secure cryptography, you have to design against possible cryptanalysis. Classical cryptanalysis First page of Al-Kindi's 9th century Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages Although the actual word "cryptanalysis" is relatively recent (it was coined by William Friedman in 1920), methods for breaking codes and ciphers are much older. The first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by 9th-century Arabian polymath, Al-Kindi (also known as "Alkindus" in Europe), in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages. This treatise includes a description of the method of frequency analysis (Ibrahim Al-Kadi, 1992- ref-3). Italian scholar Giambattista della Porta was author of a seminal work on cryptanalysis "De Furtivis Literarum Notis". Crypto History Frequency analysis is the basic tool for breaking most classical ciphers. In natural languages, certain letters of the alphabet appear more frequently than others; in English, "E" is likely to be the most common letter in any sample of plaintext. Similarly, the digraph "TH" is the most likely pair of letters in English, and so on. Frequency analysis relies on a cipher failing to hide these statistics. For example, in a simple substitution cipher (where each letter is simply replaced with another), the most frequent letter in the ciphertext would be a likely candidate for "E". In practice, frequency analysis relies as much on linguistic knowledge as it does on statistics, but as ciphers became more complex, mathematics became more important in cryptanalysis. This change was particularly evident during World War II, where efforts to crack Axis ciphers required new levels of mathematical sophistication. Moreover, automation was first applied to cryptanalysis in that era with the Polish Bomba device, use of punched card equipment, and in the Colossus — one of the earliest computers (arguably the first programmable electronic digital computer). Modern cryptanalysis Replica of a Bombe device Even though computation was used to great effect in cryptanalysis in World War II, it also made possible new methods of cryptography orders of magnitude more complex than ever before. Taken as a whole, modern cryptography has become much more impervious to cryptanalysis than the pen-and-paper systems of the past, and now seems to have the upper hand against pure cryptanalysis. The historian David Kahn notes, "Many are the cryptosystems offered by the hundreds of commercial vendors today that cannot be broken by any known methods of cryptanalysis. Indeed, in such systems even a chosen plaintext attack, in which a selected plaintext is matched against its ciphertext, cannot yield the key that unlock other messages. In a sense, then, cryptanalysis is dead. But that is not the end of the story. Cryptanalysis may be dead, but there is - to mix my metaphors - more than one way to skin a cat.". David Kahn, Remarks on the 50th Anniversary of the National Security Agency, November 1, 2002. Kahn goes on to mention increased opportunities for interception, bugging, side channel attacks and quantum computers as replacements for the traditional means of cryptanalysis. Kahn may have been premature in his cryptanalysis postmortem; weak ciphers are not yet extinct, and cryptanalytic methods employed by intelligence agencies remain unpublished. In academia, new designs are regularly presented, and are also frequently broken: the 1984 block cipher Madryga was found to be susceptible to ciphertext-only attacks in 1998; FEAL-4, proposed as a replacement for the DES standard encryption algorithm, was demolished by a spate of attacks from the academic community, many of which are entirely practical. In industry, too, ciphers are not free from flaws: for example, the A5/1, A5/2 and CMEA algorithms, used in mobile phone technology, can all be broken in hours, minutes or even in real-time using widely-available computing equipment. In 2001, Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP), a protocol used to secure Wi-Fi wireless networks, was shown to be susceptible to a practical related-key attack. The results of cryptanalysis The decrypted Zimmermann Telegram. Successful cryptanalysis has undoubtedly influenced history; the ability to read the presumed-secret thoughts and plans of others can be a decisive advantage, and never more so than during wartime. For example, in World War I, the breaking of the Zimmermann Telegram was instrumental in bringing the United States into the war. In World War II, the cryptanalysis of the German ciphers — including the Enigma machine and the Lorenz cipher — has been credited with everything between shortening the end of the European war by a few months to determining the eventual result (see ULTRA). The United States also benefited from the cryptanalysis of the Japanese PURPLE code (see MAGIC). Governments have long recognised the potential benefits of cryptanalysis for intelligence, both military and diplomatic, and established dedicated organisations devoted to breaking the codes and ciphers of other nations, for example, GCHQ and the NSA, organisations which are still very active today. In 2004, it was reported that the United States had broken Iranian ciphers. (It is unknown, however, whether this was pure cryptanalysis, or whether other factors were involved: ). Types of cryptanalytic attack Cryptanalytic attacks vary in potency and how much of a threat they pose to real-world cryptosystems. A certificational weakness is a theoretical attack that is unlikely to be applicable in any real-world situation; the majority of results found in modern cryptanalytic research are of this type. Essentially, the practical importance of an attack is dependent on the answers to the following three questions: What knowledge and capabilities are needed as a prerequisite? How much additional secret information is deduced? How much effort is required? (What is the computational complexity?) Prior knowledge: scenarios for cryptanalysis Cryptanalysis can be performed under a number of assumptions about how much can be observed or found out about the system under attack. As a basic starting point it is normally assumed that, for the purposes of analysis, the general algorithm is known; this is Kerckhoffs' principle of "the enemy knows the system". This is a reasonable assumption in practice — throughout history, there are countless examples of secret algorithms falling into wider knowledge, variously through espionage, betrayal and reverse engineering. (On occasion, ciphers have been reconstructed through pure deduction; for example, the German Lorenz cipher and the Japanese Purple code, and a variety of classical schemes). Other assumptions include: Ciphertext-only: the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of ciphertexts or codetexts. Known-plaintext: the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which he knows the corresponding plaintext. Chosen-plaintext (chosen-ciphertext): the attacker can obtain the ciphertexts (plaintexts) corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts (ciphertexts) of his own choosing. Adaptive chosen-plaintext: like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can choose subsequent plaintexts based on information learned from previous encryptions. Similarly Adaptive chosen ciphertext attack. Related-key attack: Like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys. The keys are unknown, but the relationship between them is known; for example, two keys that differ in the one bit. These types of attack clearly differ in how plausible they would be to mount in practice. Although some are more likely than others, cryptographers will often take a conservative approach to security and assume the worst-case when designing algorithms, reasoning that if a scheme is secure even against unrealistic threats, then it should also resist real-world cryptanalysis as well. The assumptions are often more realistic than they might seem upon first glance. For a known-plaintext attack, the cryptanalyst might well know or be able to guess at a likely part of the plaintext, such as an encrypted letter beginning with "Dear Sir", or a computer session starting with "LOGIN:". A chosen-plaintext attack is less likely, but it is sometimes plausible: for example, you could convince someone to forward a message you have given them, but in encrypted form. Related-key attacks are mostly theoretical, although they can be realistic in certain situations, for example, when constructing cryptographic hash functions using a block cipher. Classifying success in cryptanalysis The results of cryptanalysis can also vary in usefulness. For example, cryptographer Lars Knudsen (1998) classified various types of attack on block ciphers according to the amount and quality of secret information that was discovered: Total break — the attacker deduces the secret key. Global deduction — the attacker discovers a functionally equivalent algorithm for encryption and decryption, but without learning the key. Instance (local) deduction — the attacker discovers additional plaintexts (or ciphertexts) not previously known. Information deduction — the attacker gains some Shannon information about plaintexts (or ciphertexts) not previously known. Distinguishing algorithm — the attacker can distinguish the cipher from a random permutation. Similar considerations apply to attacks on other types of cryptographic algorithm. Complexity Attacks can also be characterised by the amount of resources they require. This can be in the form of: Time — the number of "primitive operations" which must be performed. This is quite loose; primitive operations could be basic computer instructions, such as addition, XOR, shift, and so forth, or entire encryption methods. Memory — the amount of storage required to perform the attack. Data — the quantity of plaintexts and ciphertexts required. In academic cryptography, a weakness or a break in a scheme is usually defined quite conservatively. Bruce Schneier sums up this approach: "Breaking a cipher simply means finding a weakness in the cipher that can be exploited with a complexity less than brute force. Never mind that brute-force might require 2128 encryptions; an attack requiring 2110 encryptions would be considered a break...simply put, a break can just be a certificational weakness: evidence that the cipher does not perform as advertised." (Schneier, 2000). Cryptanalysis of asymmetric cryptography Asymmetric cryptography (or public key cryptography) is cryptography that relies on using two keys; one private, and one public. Such ciphers invariably rely on "hard" mathematical problems as the basis of their security, so an obvious point of attack is to develop methods for solving the problem. The security of two-key cryptography depends on mathematical questions in a way that single-key cryptography generally does not, and conversely links cryptanalysis to wider mathematical research in a new way. Asymmetric schemes are designed around the (conjectured) difficulty of solving various mathematical problems. If an improved algorithm can be found to solve the problem, then the system is weakened. For example, the security of the Diffie-Hellman key exchange scheme depends on the difficulty of calculating the discrete logarithm. In 1983, Don Coppersmith found a faster way to find discrete logarithms (in certain groups), and thereby requiring cryptographers to use larger groups (or different types of groups). RSA's security depends (in part) upon the difficulty of integer factorization — a breakthrough in factoring would impact the security of RSA. In 1980, one could factor a difficult 50-digit number at an expense of 1012 elementary computer operations. By 1984 the state of the art in factoring algorithms had advanced to a point where a 75-digit number could be factored in 1012 operations. Advances in computing technology also meant that the operations could be performed much faster, too. Moore's law predicts that computer speeds will continue to increase. Factoring techniques may continue do so as well, but will most likely depend on mathematical insight and creativity, neither of which has ever been successfully predictable. 150-digit numbers of the kind once used in RSA have been factored. The effort was greater than above, but was not unreasonable on fast modern computers. By the start of the 21st century, 150-digit numbers were no longer considered a large enough key size for RSA. Numbers with several hundred digits are still considered too hard to factor in 2005, though methods will probably continue to improve over time, requiring key size to keep pace or new algorithms to be used. Another distinguishing feature of asymmetric schemes is that, unlike attacks on symmetric cryptosystems, any cryptanalysis has the opportunity to make use of knowledge gained from the public key. Quantum computing applications for cryptanalysis Quantum computers, which are still in the early phases of development, have potential use in cryptanalysis. For example, Shor's Algorithm could factor large numbers in polynomial time, in effect breaking some commonly used forms of public-key encryption. By using Grover's algorithm on a quantum computer, brute-force key search can be made quadratically faster. However, this could be countered by increasing the key length. Methods of cryptanalysis Classical cryptanalysis: Frequency analysis Index of coincidence Kasiski examination Symmetric algorithms: Boomerang attack Brute force attack Davies' attack Differential cryptanalysis Impossible differential cryptanalysis Integral cryptanalysis Linear cryptanalysis Meet-in-the-middle attack Mod-n cryptanalysis Related-key attack Slide attack XSL attack Hash functions: Birthday attack Attack models: Chosen-ciphertext attack Chosen-plaintext attack Ciphertext-only attack Known-plaintext attack Side channel attacks: Power analysis Timing attack Network attacks: Man-in-the-middle attack Replay attack External attacks: Black-bag cryptanalysis Rubber-hose cryptanalysis See also General Cryptanalysis of the Enigma Cryptography Cryptography portal Decipherment Topics in cryptography Historic cryptanalysts Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander Lambros D. Callimahos Alastair Denniston Agnes Meyer Driscoll Elizebeth Friedman William F. Friedman, the father of modern cryptology Meredith Gardner Dilly Knox Solomon Kullback Marian Rejewski Joseph Rochefort, whose contributions affected the outcome of the Battle of Midway Frank Rowlett Abraham Sinkov Giovanni Soro, the Renaissance's first outstanding cryptanalyst Brigadier John Tiltman Alan Turing Herbert Yardley National National Cipher Challenge Zendian Problem External links A lot of real encrypted messages on newsgroups Basic Cryptanalysis (files contain 5 line header, that has to be removed first) Distributed Computing Projects Simon Singh's crypto corner The National Museum of Computing UltraAnvil tool for attacking simple substitution ciphers References Ibrahim A. Al-Kadi ,"The origins of cryptology: The Arab contributions”, Cryptologia, 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97–126. Friedrich L. Bauer: "Decrypted Secrets". Springer 2002. ISBN 3-540-42674-4 Helen Fouché Gaines, "Cryptanalysis", 1939, Dover. ISBN 0-486-20097-3 David Kahn, "The Codebreakers - The Story of Secret Writing", 1967. ISBN 0-684-83130-9 Lars R. Knudsen: Contemporary Block Ciphers. Lectures on Data Security 1998: 105-126 Bruce Schneier, "Self-Study Course in Block Cipher Cryptanalysis", Cryptologia, 24(1) (January 2000), pp. 18–34. Abraham Sinkov, Elementary Cryptanalysis: A Mathematical Approach, Mathematical Association of America, 1966. ISBN 0-88385-622-0 Christopher Swenson, Modern Cryptanalysis: Techniques for Advanced Code Breaking, ISBN 978-0470135938 Friedman, William F., Military Cryptanalysis, Part I, ISBN 0-89412-044-1 Friedman, William F., Military Cryptanalysis, Part II, ISBN 0-89412-064-6 Friedman, William F., Military Cryptanalysis, Part III, Simpler Varieties of Aperiodic Substitution Systems, ISBN 0-89412-196-0 Friedman, William F., Military Cryptanalysis, Part IV, Transposition and Fractionating Systems, ISBN 0-89412-198-7 Friedman, William F. and Lambros D. Callimahos, Military Cryptanalytics, Part I, Volume 1, ISBN 0-89412-073-5 Friedman, William F. and Lambros D. Callimahos, Military Cryptanalytics, Part I, Volume 2, ISBN 0-89412-074-3 Friedman, William F. and Lambros D. Callimahos, Military Cryptanalytics, Part II, Volume 1, ISBN 0-89412-075-1 Friedman, William F. and Lambros D. Callimahos, Military Cryptanalytics, Part II, Volume 2, ISBN 0-89412-076-X

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Metal

In chemistry, a metal (, Μέταλλο) is a chemical element whose atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations), and form metallic bonds between each other. Mortimer, Charles E. Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach. 3rd ed. New York: D. Van Nostrad Company, 1975. Definition Metals are sometimes described as a lattice of positive ions surrounded by a cloud of delocalized electrons. They are one of the three groups of elements as distinguished by their ionization and bonding properties, along with the metalloids and nonmetals. On the periodic table, a diagonal line drawn from boron (B) to polonium (Po) separates the metals from the nonmetals. Most elements on this line are metalloids, sometimes called semi-metals; elements to the lower left are metals; elements to the upper right are nonmetals (see the periodic table showing the metals). An alternative definition of metal refers to the band theory. If one fills the energy bands of a material with available electrons and ends up with a top band partly filled then the material is a metal. This definition opens up the category for metallic polymers and other organic metals, which have been made by researchers and employed in high-tech devices. These synthetic materials often have the characteristic silvery-grey reflectiveness (luster) of elemental metals. Chemical properties Metals are usually inclined to form cations through electron loss, reacting with oxygen in the air to form oxides over changing timescales (iron rusts over years, while potassium burns in seconds). Examples: 4Na + O2 → 2Na2O (sodium oxide) 2Ca + O2 → 2CaO (calcium oxide) 4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 (aluminium oxide) The transition metals (such as iron, copper, zinc, and nickel) take much longer to oxidize. Others, like palladium, platinum and gold, do not react with the atmosphere at all. Some metals form a barrier layer of oxide on their surface which cannot be penetrated by further oxygen molecules and thus retain their shiny appearance and good conductivity for many decades (like aluminium, some steels, and titanium). The oxides of metals are generally basic (as opposed to those of nonmetals, which are acidic. Painting, anodising or plating metals are good ways to prevent their corrosion. However, a more reactive metal in the electrochemical series must be chosen for coating, especially when chipping of the coating is expected. Water and the two metals form an electrochemical cell, and if the coating is less reactive than the coatee, the coating actually promotes corrosion. Physical properties Gallium crystals Metals in general have high electric, thermal conductivity, luster and density, and the ability to be deformed under stress without cleaving. While there are several metals that have low density, hardness, and melting points, these (the alkali and alkaline earth metals) are extremely reactive, and are rarely encountered in their elemental, metallic form. Density The majority of metals have higher densities than the majority of nonmetals. Nonetheless, there is wide variation in the densities of metals; lithium is the least dense solid element and osmium is the densest. The metals of groups I A and II A are referred to as the light metals because they are exceptions to this generalization. The high density of most metals is due to the tightly-packed crystal lattice of the metallic structure. The strength of metallic bonds for different metals reaches a maximum around the center of the transition series, as those elements have large amounts of delocalized electrons in a metallic bond. However, other factors (such as atomic radius, nuclear charge, number of bonding orbitals, overlap of orbital energies, and crystal form) are involved as well. Malleability The nondirectional nature of metallic bonding is thought to be the primary reason for the malleability of metal. Planes of atoms in a metal are able to slide across one another under stress, accounting for the ability of a crystal to deform without shattering. Hot metal work from a blacksmith. When the planes of an ionic bond are slid past one another, the resultant change in location shifts ions of the same charge into close proximity, resulting in the cleavage of the crystal. Such shift are not observed in covalently bonded crystals where fracture and thus crystal fragmentation occurs. Conductivity The electrical and thermal conductivity of metals originate from the fact that in the metallic bond, the outer electrons of the metal atoms form a gas of nearly free electrons, moving as an electron gas in a background of positive charge formed by the ion cores. Good mathematical predictions for electrical conductivity, as well as the electrons' contribution to the heat capacity and heat conductivity of metals can be calculated from the free electron model, which does not take the detailed structure of the ion lattice into account. Electric charge When considering the exact band structure and binding energy of a metal, it is necessary to take into account the positive potential caused by the specific arrangement of the ion cores - which is periodic in crystals. The most important consequence of the periodic potential is the formation of a small band gap at the boundary of the brillouin zone. Mathematically, the potential of the ion cores can be treated by various models, the simplest being the nearly-free electron model. Alloys An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in solid solution in which the major component is a metal. Most pure metals are either too soft, brittle or chemically reactive for practical use. Combining different ratios of metals as alloys modifies the properties of pure metals to produce desirable characteristics. The aim of making alloys is generally to make them less brittle, harder, resistant to corrosion, or have a more desirable color and luster. Examples of alloys are steel (iron and carbon), brass (copper and zinc), bronze (copper and tin), and duralumin (aluminium and copper). Alloys specially designed for highly demanding applications, such as jet engines, may contain more than ten elements. Categories Base metal In chemistry, the term 'base metal' is used informally to refer to a metal that oxidizes or corrodes relatively easily, and reacts variably with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form hydrogen. Examples include iron, nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is considered a base metal as it oxidizes relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl. It is commonly used in opposition to noble metal. In alchemy, a base metal was a common and inexpensive metal, as opposed to precious metals, mainly gold and silver. A longtime goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base metals into precious metals. In numismatics, coins used to derive their value primarily from the precious metal content. Most modern currencies are fiat currency, allowing the coins to be made of base metal. Ferrous metal The term "ferrous" is derived from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This can include pure iron, such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often magnetic, but not exclusively. Noble metal Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, unlike most base metals. They tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity. Examples include tantalum, gold, platinum, and rhodium. Precious metal A gold nugget A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic value. Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high luster and high electrical conductivity. Historically, precious metals were important as currency, but are now regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities. Gold, silver, platinum and palladium each have an ISO 4217 currency code. The best-known precious metals are gold and silver. While both have industrial uses, they are better known for their uses in art, jewelry, and coinage. Other precious metals include the platinum group metals: ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum, of which platinum is the most widely traded. Plutonium and uranium could also be considered precious metals. The demand for precious metals is driven not only by their practical use, but also by their role as investments and a store of value. Palladium was, as of summer 2006, valued at a little under half the price of gold, and platinum at around twice that of gold. Silver is substantially less expensive than these metals, but is often traditionally considered a precious metal for its role in coinage and jewelry. Extraction Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining, resulting in ores that are relatively rich sources of the requisite elements. Ore is located by prospecting techniques, followed by the exploration and examination of deposits. Mineral sources are generally divided into surface mines, which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment, and subsurface mines. Once the ore is mined, the metals must be extracted, usually by chemical or electrolytic reduction. Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals, while hydrometallurgy employs aqueous chemistry for the same purpose. The methods used depend on the metal and their contaminants. When a metal ore is an ionic compound of that metal and a non-metal, the ore must usually be smelted — heated with a reducing agent — to extract the pure metal. Many common metals, such as iron, are smelted using carbon as a reducing agent. Some metals, such as aluminium and sodium, have no commercially practical reducing agent, and are extracted using electrolysis instead. Sulfide ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted in air to convert them to oxides. Metallurgy Metallurgy is a domain of materials science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are called alloys. Applications Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal can also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use, or from sudden stress failure when a load capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools, pipes, non-illuminated signs and railroad tracks. The two most commonly used structural metals, iron and aluminium, are also the most abundant metals in the Earth's crust. Frank Kreith and Yogi Goswami, eds. (2004). The CRC Handbook of Mechanical Engineering, 2nd edition. CRC: Boca Raton. p. 12-2. Metals are good conductors, making them valuable in electrical appliances and for carrying an electric current over a distance with little energy lost. Electrical power grids rely on metal cables to distribute electricity. Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties. The thermal conductivity of metal is useful for containers to heat materials over a flame. Metal is also used for heat sinks to protect sensitive equipment from overheating. The high reflectivity of some metals is important in the construction of mirrors, including precision astronomical instruments. This last property can also make metallic jewelry aesthetically appealing. Some metals have specialized uses; radioactive metals such as uranium and plutonium are used in nuclear power plants to produce energy via nuclear fission. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature and is used in switches to complete a circuit when it flows over the switch contacts. Shape memory alloy is used for applications such as pipes, fasteners and vascular stents. Trade Metal and ore imports in 2005 The World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the U.S.A. and Japan. Astronomy In the specialised usage of astronomy and astrophysics, the term "metal" is often used to refer to any element other than hydrogen or helium, including substances as chemically non-metallic as neon, fluorine, and oxygen. Nearly all the hydrogen and helium in the Universe was created in Big Bang nucleosynthesis, whereas all the "metals" were produced by nucleosynthesis in stars or supernovae. The Sun and the Milky Way Galaxy are composed of roughly 74% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 2% "metals" (the rest of the elements; atomic numbers 3-118) by mass. See also Amorphous metal ASM International (society) Electric field screening Metal theft Metallic bond Metallurgy Metalworking Periodic table (metals and non-metals) Properties and uses of metals Steel Structural steel Transition metal References External links Martindale's 'The Reference Desk' - International Art, Business, Science & Technology

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Java_coffee

Java coffee is a coffee produced on the island of Java. In the United States, the term "Java" by itself is slang for coffee generally. The Indonesian phrase Kopi Jawa refers not only to the origin of the coffee, but is used to distinguish the strong, black, very sweet coffee, with powdered grains in the drink, from other forms of the drink. The Dutch began cultivation of coffee trees on Java (part of the Dutch East Indies) in the 17th century and it has been exported globally since. The coffee agricultural systems found on Java have changed considerably over time. A rust plague in the late 1880s killed off much of the plantation stocks in Sukabumi, before spreading to Central Java and parts of East Java. The Dutch responded by replacing the Arabica firstly with Liberica (a tough, but somewhat unpalatable coffee) and later with Robusta. Today Java's old colonial era plantations provide just a fraction of the coffee grown on the island, although it is primarily the higher valued Arabica variety. Dictionary Reference: java. Accessed on 28 October2005 Java’s Arabica coffee production is centered on the Ijen Plateau, at the eastern end of Java, at an altitude of more than 1,400 meters. The coffee is primarily grown on large estates that were built by the Dutch in the 18th century. The five largest estates are Blawan (also spelled Belawan or Blauan), Jampit (or Djampit), Pancoer (or Pancur), Kayumas and Tugosari, and they cover more than 4,000 hectares Specialty Coffee Association of Indonesia (2008): , Retrieved 2008-08-08 These estates transport ripe cherries quickly to their mills after harvest. The pulp is then fermented and washed off, using the wet process. This results in coffee with good, heavy body and a sweet overall impression. They are sometimes rustic in their flavor profiles, but display a lasting finish. At their best, they are smooth and supple and sometimes have a subtle herbaceous note in the aftertaste. This coffee is prized as one component in the traditional "Mocha Java" blend, which pairs coffee from Yemen and Java. Some estates age a portion of their coffee for up to three years. During this time, the coffee is "monsooned", by exposing it to warm, moist air during the rainy season. As they age, the beans turn from green to light brown, and the flavor gains strength while losing acidity. These aged coffees are called Old Government, Old Brown or Old Java. Java is also a source of kopi luwak, renowned as the most expensive coffee in the world. On Java, this variety is produced by feeding captive palm civets with ripe coffee cherries. The digestive tract of the civet removes the mucilage from the coffee beans. References

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Bootstrapping

Bootstrapping or booting refers to a group of metaphors that share a common meaning, a self-sustaining process that proceeds without external help. The term is often attributed to Rudolf Erich Raspe's story The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen, where the main character pulls himself out of a swamp, though it's disputed whether it was done by his hair or by his bootstraps. Straps on leather boots A pair of boots with one bootstrap visible. Tall boots may have a tab, loop or handle at the top known as a bootstrap, allowing one to use fingers or a tool to provide better leverage in pulling the boots on. The saying "to pull yourself up by your bootstraps" Bootstrap citations from 1800s was already in use during the 1800s as an example of an impossible task. Bootstrap as a metaphor, meaning to better oneself by one's own unaided efforts, was in use in 1922. Ulysses cited in the Oxford English Dictionary This metaphor spawned additional metaphors for a series of self-sustaining processes that proceed without external help. Phrase Finder Applications Computing The computer term bootstrap began as a metaphor in the 1950s. In computers, pressing a bootstrap button caused a hardwired program to read a bootstrap program from an input unit and then execute the bootstrap program which read more program instructions and became a self-sustaining process that proceeded without external help from manually entered instructions. As a computing term, bootstrap has been used since at least 1958. The bootstrap concept was used in the IBM 701 computer (1952-1956) which had a "load button" which initiated reading of the first 36-bit word from a punched card in a card reader, or from a magnetic tape unit, or drum unit (predecessor of the hard disk drive). The left 18-bit half-word was then executed as an instruction which read additional words into memory. From Gutenberg to the Internet, Jeremy M. Norman, 2005, page 436, ISBN 0-930405-87-0 See Bootstrapping (compilers), writing a compiler for a computer language using the computer language itself to code the compiler. See Bootstrapping (computing), a summary of the process of a simple computer system activating a more complicated computer system. See Installation (computer programs), for the bootstrapping process as part of the software installation process See Bootstrapping node, a network node that helps newly joining nodes successfully join a P2P network. Business and finance Bootstrapping in business is to start a business without external help/capital. Startups that bootstrap their business fund development of their company through internal cash flow and are cautious with their expenses. The Art of the Bootstrap, Venture Beat Startup Survival Guide, Sparxoo See Startup company, a startup company can grow by reinvesting profits in its own growth, if its bootstrapping costs are low and return on investment is high. See Bootstrapping (finance), the method to create the spot rate curve. See Operation Bootstrap ("Operación Manos a la Obra"), ambitious projects which industrialized Puerto Rico in the mid-20th century. Biology Richard Dawkins in his book River Out of Eden Richard Dawkins, River Out of Eden, pages 23-25, 1995 (paper) ISBN 0-465-06990-8 used the computer bootstrapping concept to explain how biological cells differentiate: "Different cells receive different combinations of chemicals, which switch on different combinations of genes, and some genes work to switch other genes on or off. And so the bootstrapping continues, until we have the full repertoire of different kinds of cells." Phylogenetics Bootstrapping analysis gives a way to judge the strength of support for nodes on phylogenetic trees. A number is presented by each node, which reflects the percentage of bootstrap trees which also resolve that clade. Law In law, bootstrapping is a rule preventing hearsay in conspiracy cases. Linguistics In linguistics, bootstrapping is a theory of language acquisition. Statistics In statistics, bootstrapping is a resampling technique used to obtain estimates of summary statistics. Machine learning In machine learning, bootstrapping is a technique used to iteratively improve a classifier performance. Physics In physics, bootstrapping is using very general consistency criteria to determine the form of a quantum theory from some assumptions on the spectrum of particles Electronics In electronics, bootstrapping is a form of positive feedback in analog circuit design See also Conceptual metaphor Münchhausen Trilemma Robert A. Heinlein's short story By His Bootstraps References External links Pull straps for boots Dictionary.com entries for Bootstrap Freedictionary.com entries for Bootstrap

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Montreal_Expos

Montreal ExposEstablished: 1969 (Expansion team)Relocated: December 3, 2004 (to Washington, D.C.)Major league affiliations:*National League (1969–2004)**East Division (1969–2004)Stadium: Jarry Park Stadium, Montreal (1969–1976) Olympic Stadium, Montreal (1976–2004) Hiram Bithorn Stadium (San Juan, Puerto Rico) (2003–2004)Uniform Colors: Blue, Red, White Logo Design: A stylized "M" for Montreal, containing a red "e" for Expos, and a blue "b" for baseball. Mascot: Souki (1978), Youppi (1979–2004) Theme Song: Les Expos sont là (literally: "The Expos are there") by Marc GélinasDivision Championships:[*] 1981National League Championships: NoneWorld Series Championships: None[*] In 1981, a players' strike in the middle of the season forced the season to be split into two halves. Montreal won the division in the second half, despite having the second best record in the division when considering the entire season, two games behind St. Louis. In 1994, a players' strike wiped out the last eight weeks of the season and all post-season. Montreal was in first place by six games in the National League East Division when play was stopped. No official titles were awarded in 1994.Geographical Rivals: New York Mets, Philadelphia Phillies, Toronto Blue Jays (interleague play) The Montreal Expos () is the name of a Major League Baseball team that was located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada from 1969 until 2004. Named after Expo 67, the Expos started play at Jarry Park, and moved to Olympic Stadium in the season following the 1976 Summer Olympics. Though the team featured a great deal of young talent nurtured through its farm system, its only post-season appearance was in 1981, when it finished first in the second half of the strike-shortened season and advanced to the National League Championship Series, losing to the Los Angeles Dodgers. After the 2004 season, the franchise was relocated by Major League Baseball, its owners since 2002, to Washington, D.C. and became the Washington Nationals. The Nationals retained all the Expos' records, player contracts, and minor league affiliates, as well as their spring training complex in Viera, Florida. Franchise history Creation of the franchise The original logo In 1960, Montreal lost its International League team, the Montreal Royals (an affiliate of the former Brooklyn Dodgers). Although the Royals had been a fixture in Montreal for many years and many Dodgers prospects had played in Montreal, such as Jackie Robinson, Roy Campanella, and Duke Snider, with the parent team's move to Los Angeles in 1958 the Dodgers chose to locate their main farm team closer to L.A. The move to get a new team for Montreal was the result of a seven-year-long effort led by Gerry Snyder, who at the time was the member from the district of Snowdon on Montreal City Council. Snyder was a high-profile figure in Montreal during the 1960s and 1970s. In addition to representing Snowdon on council from 1957 to 1982, Snyder chaired the city's Executive Committee during the 1960s, served as Mayor Jean Drapeau's primary liaison to the English-speaking community, and was instrumental in bringing both the 1976 Summer Olympic Games and the Formula One Grand Prix of Canada to the city. Snyder presented a bid for a Montreal franchise to Major League Baseball's team owners at their 1967 December meeting in Mexico City. One potential wildcard in Montreal's favour was that the chair of the National League's expansion committee was influential Los Angeles Dodgers president Walter O'Malley, under whom the Royals had become affiliated with the Dodgers. On May 27, 1968, O'Malley announced that franchises were being awarded to Montreal and San Diego, to begin play the following year (1969). After prominent Montreal businessman Jean-Louis Lévesque withdrew his support, Snyder convinced Charles Bronfman, a major shareholder in the worldwide Seagram distilling empire, to lend his considerable weight to the project and provide the funding guarantees required. Bronfman purchased the majority of the shares and was Chairman of the Board of Directors. The other investors and founding directors included vice-chairmen Lorne Webster and Paul Beaudry, plus Sidney Maislin, Hugh G. Hallward, Charlemagne Beaudry (Paul's brother), and team President and Executive Director John McHale. With its long history of use in Montreal, "Royals" was one of the candidate nicknames for the new franchise, but the Kansas City team had already adopted this name. The new owners therefore conducted a contest to name the team. Many names were suggested by Montreal residents (including the "Voyageurs" and, in a coincidental twist, the "Nationals", the name now used by the team in its current home in Washington), but there was a clear winner. The Expos name also had the advantage of being the same in either English or French, the city's two dominant languages. The Expos had to overcome another obstacle before they could take the field: they had to find a home ballpark. Delorimier Stadium, the former home of the Montreal Royals, was rejected as too small even for temporary use. Team officials initially settled on the Autostade, but city officials balked at the cost of adding a dome (thought necessary because of Montreal's often cold temperatures in April and September) and 12,000 seats. By August 1968, the league was threatening to withdraw the franchise. National League president Warren Giles and Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau visited Jarry Park, a 3,000-seat park in the city's northwest corner, and decided it could be a suitable temporary facility. Within six months, the park was transformed into a 28,500-seat makeshift facility, saving the franchise. Social impact of the Expos Montreal's international profile was raised considerably in the 1960s. The 1967 World's Fair, called Expo 67 was a success, and the city soon won the bid for the 1976 Summer Olympics. The city also opened a new subway system, the Montreal Metro. This string of achievements was capped by the winning of one of the four expansion franchises awarded by Major League Baseball for 1969. . The Montreal Expos was the first franchise awarded to a Canadian city by a major league organization originating in the United States. It was considered a huge step for the city of Montreal, the province of Quebec, the nation of Canada, and Major League Baseball. One of the challenges for French-language broadcasters was inventing a whole new lexicon to describe the game to fans. The Expos' success inspired Major League Baseball to add a second Canadian team, the Toronto Blue Jays in 1977. Early years The Expos won their first game, on the afternoon of April 8, 1969, against the New York Mets at Shea Stadium, beating the Mets by a score of 11–10. The Expos took the field for the first time with Bob Bailey playing first base, Gary Sutherland playing second base, Maury Wills playing shortstop, Coco Laboy playing third base, Mack Jones playing left field, Don Hahn playing centerfield, Rusty Staub playing right field, John Bateman at catcher and Mudcat Grant on the mound. The first manager was former Philadelphia Phillies manager Gene Mauch. Wills had the first hit in Expos history and also scored the first run. The first home run in franchise history came from an unlikely source — relief pitcher Dan McGinn. Bailey had the first RBI, and Don Shaw was credited with the win. Carroll Sembera pitched the final inning against the Mets and recorded the first save. The first game at Jarry Park was played on April 14 — an 8–7 Expos win over the St. Louis Cardinals, broadcast nationwide on CBC television and radio. A crowd of 29,184 jammed every corner of Jarry Park to watch the first major league baseball game ever played outside the United States. Jarry was only intended as a three-year temporary facility until what became Olympic Stadium could be completed, and so the stands were left completely exposed to the elements. As a result, the Expos frequently had to postpone games in April and September because there was no protection for the fans. Another problem was its orientation: first basemen were often blinded by the setting sun, causing stoppages of play. On several occasions, MLB threatened to yank the franchise due to the construction delays. Following that first series in Montreal, the Expos went to Philadelphia to play the Phillies. On April 17, Bill Stoneman pitched the first no-hitter in the club's history, as the Expos won 7–0. Stoneman's feat gave the Expos the record for the earliest no-hitter recorded by any major league baseball franchise — only ten days after their very first game. Rusty Staub and Mack Jones would become the darlings of the Montreal fans during the early years of the team. Staub was affectionately known as "Le Grand Orange" (in tribute to his red hair), and with Jones playing left field for the team, the left field bleachers at Jarry Park came to be known as "Jonesville." Staub also endeared himself to Montrealers by learning French. Staub was traded in 1972 to the New York Mets in exchange for 3 young prospects: first baseman-outfielder Mike Jorgensen, infielder Tim Foli, and outfielder Ken Singleton). While the trade landed Montreal three youngsters that would help the still maturing expansion team, many Montrealers were saddened to lose a popular player. Staub was reacquired by Montreal in July 1979. At his first game back in Montreal, against the Pittsburgh Pirates, Staub received a long and heartfelt standing ovation from the adoring fans, welcoming "Le Grand Orange" back. Staub left the team for good after the [[1979 Major League Baseball season|1979 season. His number 10 was eventually the first one retired by the Expos. After 10 straight losing seasons under Mauch (1969–75), Karl Kuehl and Charlie Fox (1976) and Dick Williams (1977–78), in 1979 under Williams the Expos posted a 95–65 record — the first of five consecutive winning seasons, and their best record for any complete season in Montreal franchise history — and finished in second place in the NL East. Promise of the 1980s The Expos made their only postseason appearance in Montreal franchise history during the split season of 1981. In the 1981 playoffs, the Expos defeated the Philadelphia Phillies 3–2 in the divisional series, but lost to the Los Angeles Dodgers 3–2 in the National League Championship Series, on a game postponed from Sunday to Monday afternoon due to rain. The difference in the game was a ninth inning home run by Dodger Rick Monday. The game has since been referred to as Blue Monday. Montreal was led through the 1980s by a core group of young players, including catcher Gary Carter, outfielders Tim Raines and Andre Dawson, third baseman Tim Wallach and pitchers Steve Rogers and Bill Gullickson. The promising aspects of the Expos gave rise to the name "Team of the 80s". Attendance at Olympic Stadium went up each year from 1979 to 1983 (excluding the strike year in 1981), and the fans would express their excitement in song — the "The Happy Wanderer" being a fan favourite after offensive explosions. In spite of the team's talent, the Expos were unable to finish above third place from 1982 to 1991. They had up-and-down years, with a winning percentage of .484 in 1984 under managers Bill Virdon and Jim Fanning and 1986 under Buck Rodgers, but above .500 seasons in 1985, 1987, and 1990 under Rodgers. Gary Carter was traded to the New York Mets in December 1984 for Hubie Brooks, Mike Fitzgerald, Herm Winningham, and Floyd Youmans. Andre Dawson left as a free agent after the 1986 season. Under new ownership In the 1989 season, with the Expos vying for a post-season berth, the team traded Gene Harris, Brian Holman, and Randy Johnson to Seattle for Mark Langston. Langston completed the season for the Expos with a 2.39 ERA (tied for the league lead in ERA+ with a 148 rating) and a league-leading 8.9 strikeouts per nine innings. Though the Expos led the National League East from the end of June to the start of August, and were two games behind first on September 6, they fell back to finish in fourth with a .500 record. Langston, Hubie Brooks, Pascual Pérez, and Bryn Smith left after the season as free agents. Following a winter of rumours, at the start of the 1990 spring training season, owner Charles Bronfman formally announced his intentions to sell the Expos, saying "After 21 years in baseball it's emotionally very draining. ... After a while, you're just burned out." In November, at the press conference where the sale of the franchise to a local consortium was announced, Bronfman said that 1989 "... was the year we should have won. ... It was a very bitter disappointment." Claude Brochu, the team's President and Chief Operating Officer since September 1986, became the managing general partner of the Expos, representing a consortium of 14 owners, which also included BCE, Canadian Pacific, the City of Montreal, Nesbitt Burns, and Univa (Provigo). The official transfer of ownership occurred on June 14, 1991. With a new ownership group in place, the Expos traded Tim Raines to the Chicago White Sox in a five-player deal that brought Iván Calderón to Montreal. Starting the 1991 season with a 20–29 record, General manager David Dombrowski (who had inherited manager Buck Rodgers upon assuming the GM position in 1988) fired Rodgers and replaced him with Tom Runnells, who completed the season with a record of 51–61 for an overall winning percentage of .441. Runnells switched third baseman Tim Wallach to first base, a move unpopular with the Montreal fans. The most notable highlight of 1991 was the perfect game thrown by Expos pitcher Dennis Martinez against the Los Angeles Dodgers on July 28, 1991. Dombrowski left Montreal in September to become the General Manager for the Florida Marlins expansion franchise, and Dan Duquette became the Expos general manager. At spring training in 1992, Runnells held a meeting while dressed in combat fatigues, giving the team's pre-season training the appearance of a boot camp. The team failed to respond to Runnells's attempt at humor, and Runnells was fired on May 22, with a 17–20 record. Felipe Alou, a long time member of the Expos organization since 1976, was promoted from bench coach to field manager, becoming the first Dominican-born manager in MLB history. Alou promptly returned Wallach to the third base position. Alou led the team to a 70–55 record, for an overall winning percentage of .537. Under Alou, Montreal had winning records from 1992 to 1996, with the exception of 1995. The Expos finished second in the National League East in 1992 and 1993. Dan Duquette left the Montreal Expos in January 1994 for his dream job, General Manager of the Boston Red Sox. Kevin Malone, the Expos director of scouting, took over as Montreal's GM. Hope and disappointment in 1994 The year 1994 proved to be heartbreaking for the Expos. The team's key contributors included outfielders Larry Walker, Moisés Alou, Marquis Grissom, and Rondell White; infielders Wil Cordero and Sean Berry; starting pitchers Ken Hill, Pedro Martinez, and Jeff Fassero; and the relief corps of Jeff Shaw, Gil Heredia, Tim Scott, Mel Rojas and John Wetteland. The Expos had the best record in Major League Baseball, 74–40, when the start of a players' strike on August 12, 1994 brought the season to a premature close and resulted in the cancellation of the World Series. The team was six games ahead of the second place Atlanta Braves and on pace to win 105 games. The strike damaged the Expos' campaign for a new stadium, and the local ownership group chose not to invest additional funds to retain the team's best players. Final decade During the 1994–1995 offseason, Claude Brochu instructed general manager Kevin Malone to conduct a fire sale and cut ties with the team's major stars. Larry Walker left as a free agent, and as the Expos had not offered him salary arbitration, they did not receive any compensation for Walker's departure. John Wetteland was traded to the New York Yankees, Ken Hill to the St. Louis Cardinals, and Marquis Grissom to the Atlanta Braves. Many of the leading players said, in retrospect, that they would have been willing to take pay cuts in order to return in 1995 and compete once again for the World Series. On ESPN, Larry Walker asked rhetorically, "I was willing to take a cut to keep the team together, but I was never offered a contract. Where did the money go? We may never know." The Expos' attendance flatlined after the fire sale and never recovered. Kevin Malone resigned as general manager in October 1995, saying "I'm in the building business, not in the dismantling business." Moisés Alou and Mel Rojas left as free agents after the 1996 season, and Pedro Martínez was traded after the 1997 season, shortly after winning the Cy Young Award. The Expos had losing seasons until 2002, except for 1996, when the team finished second with a .543 winning percentage. In 2002 and 2003, the team finished with identical .512 records. After losing superstar Vladimir Guerrero to free agency, the Expos finished 2004, the team's final year in Montreal, with a 67–95 record. In 1998, the Régie des installations Olympiques replaced Olympic Stadium's orange retractable roof with a permanent blue roof. The retractable roof was removed after the Expos homestand ending on May 10, and on May 21, the Expos played their first outdoor home game since September 8, 1991. During this time when Olympic Stadium was once again an open-air park, Rondell White became the only person to hit a ball out of Olympic Stadium, driving a foul ball out of the third-base side of the stadium in a game against the New York Yankees. Purchase by Jeffrey Loria On December 9, 1999, American art dealer Jeffrey Loria became the Expos' chairman, CEO, and managing general partner, purchasing Claude Brochu's ownership stake, and naming his stepson, David Samson, executive vice-president. Loria made his initial splash by signing Graeme Lloyd for $3,000,000, and acquiring Hideki Irabu's $4,125,000 contract and Lee Stevens's $3,500,000 contract in trades. The total sum of these contracts was nearly 50% of the 1999 payroll. Loria subsequently lost a considerable amount of goodwill by failing to sign television and English radio broadcast contracts for the 2000 season, as the team tried to increase their revenue from the broadcast rights. During the 2000 season, Loria requested additional public funding for the planned new ballpark in downtown Montreal, Labatt Park. However, the municipal and provincial governments vetoed public funding; Quebec Premier Lucien Bouchard said that he couldn't in good conscience allow public funding for a new stadium when the province was being forced to close hospitals. In addition, Olympic Stadium still had not been paid for (and wouldn't be paid for until 2006). As a result, the plans for the proposed downtown ballpark were canceled. Attendance in the 2001 season dropped to fewer than 10,000 per game, raising questions about the franchise's viability in Montreal. Felipe Alou was fired at the end of May, ending his Montreal managerial career with a total of 691 wins, the most of any Expos manager. On November 6, 2001, the Major League Baseball franchise owners voted 28–2 to contract MLB by two teams — according to various sources, the Expos and the Minnesota Twins, both of which reportedly voted against contraction. Purchase by Major League Baseball An Expos home game at Olympic Stadium during the final season. On December 20, 2001, the Boston Red Sox were sold to a partnership led by John W. Henry, the owner of the Florida Marlins. The purchase was approved by the MLB owners in January. In order to clear the way for Henry's group to formally take control of the Red Sox, Henry sold the Marlins to Loria, in a deal pre-approved by MLB on February 1, 2002. The Major League Baseball owners voted 30–0 to form a Delaware partnership, Expos Baseball, LP, to buy the Expos for US$120 million from Loria, an apparent first step to eliminate the franchise. After both deals closed, Loria moved the entire Expos management and coaching staff, including manager Jeff Torborg, to Miami — leaving the Expos without personnel, scouting reports, and office equipment, including the team's computers. Without a viable owner willing to operate the team in Montreal, it appeared that the Expos would either be disbanded or moved. However, the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission, operator of the Metrodome, won an injunction requiring the Twins to play there in 2002. Without a second team to join them in oblivion, the loss of the Expos would have left MLB with an odd number of teams, thus requiring one team to be idle every day. With this constraint, it would have been logistically impossible to preserve a 162-game schedule within MLB's six-month season. As MLB could not find a suitable new home for the Expos at that late date, and was not willing to alter the schedule, it was forced to keep the Expos in Montreal for the short term. MLB named former Anaheim Angels president Tony Tavares team president, Mets assistant general manager Omar Minaya vice-president and general manager, and MLB's chief disciplinarian Frank Robinson manager. MLB also leased a new FieldTurf surface for one year to replace Olympic Stadium's aging AstroTurf, with an option for a second year — a sign that it did not intend to keep the Expos in Montreal. In August, the contraction issue was postponed further, as MLB signed a collective bargaining agreement with the players association that prohibited contraction through the end of the agreement in 2006. Although their attendance increased from 7,935 per game in 2001 to 10,031 in 2002, MLB decided that the Expos would play 22 of their home games at Hiram Bithorn Stadium in San Juan, Puerto Rico in 2003. Despite being a considerably smaller facility (it seats approximately 19,000) than Montreal's Olympic Stadium, attendance in San Juan's Hiram Bithorn Stadium averaged 14,222, compared with 12,081 in Montreal. The Puerto Rican baseball fans embraced "Los Expos" (particularly Puerto Rican players Jose Vidro, Javier Vazquez and Wil Cordero, and other Latin players like Vladimir Guerrero and Liván Hernández) as their home team (as well as the Latin players from other teams), all the while hoping the team would make a permanent move to Puerto Rico. Expos players held clinics and made personal appearances on behalf of the team in Puerto Rico. Thanks in part to the San Juan games, the Expos were able to draw over a million fans at home in 2003 for the first time since 1997. The Expos' season in Puerto Rico was chronicled in the MLB-produced DVD Boricua Beisbol — Passion of Puerto Rico. Led by Vladimir Guerrero, the 2003 Expos were part of a spirited seven-team Wild Card hunt. On August 28, they found themselves in a five-way tie for the lead with Philadelphia, Florida, St. Louis, and Houston. However, MLB, led by Bud Selig, in what ESPN's Peter Gammons called "a conflict of interest," decided that it could not afford an extra $50,000 to call up players from its minor leagues to take advantage of MLB's expanded roster limit during September. The budget was some $35 million. This doomed any hopes of reviving the franchise. Minaya later said, "Baseball handed down a decree.” They would not be allowed to call up players from the minors on September 1, as it was deemed too expensive. They would have to make do with what they had. "It was a message to the players," Minaya said. "It was a momentum killer." He also stated: "They're a tough group of guys. You cannot ever forget 2003; they were as good as the Marlins, who won the World Series. But nobody knows this because nobody saw Montreal in 2003. What killed us was not getting the call-ups." This restriction was later cited by shortstop Orlando Cabrera as the reason he wanted to leave the team (he would be traded away in July, 2004). The Expos had a 12–15 record from August 29th to the end of the season, finishing eight games out of the wild card race. A panoramic shot of an Expos game at Olympic Stadium. Final season The Players' Union initially rejected continuing the San Juan arrangement for the 2004 season, but later relented. Meanwhile, MLB actively looked for a relocation site. Some of the choices included Washington, D.C.; San Juan; Monterrey, Mexico; Portland, Oregon; New Jersey; Northern Virginia; and Norfolk, Virginia. During the decision-making process, Selig added Las Vegas, Nevada, to the list of potential Expos homes. In addition, The Washington Post reported that prior to the move, Major League Baseball was negotiating with the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority. Banner raised during Montreal's final game in Olympic Stadium On September 29, 2004, MLB officially announced that the Expos franchise would move to Washington, D.C. for 2005. Later that night, the Expos played their last game in Montreal, a 9–1 loss to the Florida Marlins before a season-high crowd of 31,395 fans. Although the team had worried about fan reaction, there were only a couple of incidents with objects thrown on the field. To commemorate their unfinished 1994 season, the Expos unfurled a banner reading "1994 Meilleure Équipe du Baseball / Best Team in Baseball." The fans gave standing ovations to team stars Tony Batista, Brad Wilkerson, and Liván Hernández, and applauded loudly up until the final out. After the game, thanks were given to the crowd by Claude Raymond in French, Jamey Carroll in English, and Hernandez in Spanish. The end of the legal fight to keep the Expos in Montreal came on November 15, when arbitrators struck down a lawsuit by the former team owners against MLB and former majority owner Jeffrey Loria. The MLB franchise owners approved the move to Washington in a 28–1 vote on December 3. Baltimore Orioles owner Peter Angelos cast the sole "nay" vote, resenting the franchise's relocation and intrusion into the Baltimore/D.C. market. The Expos played their final game on October 3, 2004 at Shea Stadium, losing to the New York Mets by a score of 8–1. The Expos' run came to an end against the same team it began against, 35 years earlier. Historic games 1970s melys uniform in batting tunnel|An Expos jersey and cap lain in tribute April 14, 1969 - Mack Jones hit a three-run home run and two-run triple that highlighted an 8–7 win over the St. Louis Cardinals in the Expos' first home victory as a franchise at Jarry Park. Jones' blast was also the first MLB home run hit outside the United States. April 17, 1969 - In just the franchise's ninth game in existence, Bill Stoneman pitched a 7–0 no-hitter while striking out eight batters against the Philadelphia Phillies at Connie Mack Stadium. Johnny Briggs made the final out for the Phillies. Rusty Staub, "Le Grand Orange," was the hitting hero for the Expos, going 4-for-5 with three doubles and a homer. October 2, 1972 - Bill Stoneman pitched his second career no-hitter (the final score of this one was also 7–0) in the first game of a doubleheader against the New York Mets, at Jarry Park. The no-hitter was the first ever pitched outside the United States. Future broadcaster Tim McCarver was Stoneman's catcher. April 15, 1977 - The Expos set a team attendance record for a regular season game, as 57,592 fans attended the first game at Olympic Stadium. They were defeated 7–2 by the Phillies. Greg Luzinski of the Phillies and Ellis Valentine of the Expos hit homers in the second inning, the first home runs at the Expos' new home. July 30, 1978 - The Expos set a team record (which was never broken) for hits in a game when they picked up 28, as they beat the Atlanta Braves by a score of 19–0. Andre Dawson, Larry Parrish and Gary Carter led the way with four hits each. 1980s May 10, 1981 - Charlie Lea pitched a no-hitter against the San Francisco Giants, defeating them 4–0 at Olympic Stadium. The last out was recorded by Andre Dawson, in center field. October 11, 1981 - Steve Rogers defeated Steve Carlton, of the Philadelphia Phillies, 3–0 in a pitchers' duel to win the [[1981 National League Division Series|National League Division Series. It was the only postseason series victory in Expos history. Rogers drove in two of the three Expos runs as well, singling home Larry Parrish and Chris Speier in the fifth inning. The Expos advanced to play the Los Angeles Dodgers, who defeated the Astros. Rogers had previously defeated Carlton in Game One of the series as well. October 19, 1981 - Blue Monday. In the decisive Game 5 of their only National League Championship Series, the Expos were defeated at home 2–1 by the Los Angeles Dodgers. Tim Raines opened the bottom of the first with a double against Cy Young Award-winning rookie sensation Fernando Valenzuela and scored on an Andre Dawson double play ball. Valenzuela held the Expos scoreless the rest of the way, however, and the Dodgers tied the game at 1 in the top of the fifth with two hits, a wild pitch and an RBI ground-out off Expo starter Ray Burris. The teams remained tied until the top of the ninth, when Expo manager Jim Fanning made a risky decision to relieve Burris with Game 3 winner Steve Rogers. Struggling closer Jeff Reardon was throwing alongside Rogers in the bullpen at the time, but Fanning elected to summon his ace. Rogers retired Steve Garvey and Ron Cey in order, but outfielder Rick Monday homered to put Los Angeles ahead 2–1, crushing the Expos' hopes of advancing to the World Series. Two-out walks from Gary Carter and Larry Parrish were all the Expos could muster in the bottom of the ninth, as Bob Welch preserved the one-run Dodger victory. The Expos lost the NLCS 3 games to 2. They never returned to the postseason. July 13, 1982 - The All-Star Game moved across the border, when it was played at Montreal's Olympic Stadium. It was the first Midsummer Classic ever to be held outside of the United States. The National League won 4–1 before a crowd of 59,057. Steve Rogers was the winning pitcher and Dennis Eckersley took the loss. Dave Concepción was named MVP. Five players represented the Expos on the National League squad: Gary Carter, Andre Dawson, Tim Raines, Al Oliver and Rogers. April 13, 1984 - In his only season with the Expos, Pete Rose collected his 4,000th hit at Olympic Stadium. The hit placed him alongside Ty Cobb, the only other player with at least 4,000 hits. May 2, 1987 - Tim Raines powers the Expos past the New York Mets, going 4 for 5, hitting the first competitive pitch he faced in 1987 for a triple, and hitting a game-winning grand slam in the 10th inning. A free agent since November 1986, Raines had just signed with the Expos on the previous day, having missed spring training and the first month of the season as no team made a serious bid to sign him. August 23, 1989 - The Expos and Dodgers engaged in a 22-inning marathon, the longest game in Expos history. It eventually ended when Rick Dempsey homered for the Dodgers in the top half of the 22nd inning off Dennis Martinez, who was making a very rare relief appearance. Rex Hudler got caught while attempting to steal second base in the bottom half of the 22nd, ending the game. The game could have ended earlier when a sacrifice fly led to an Expos run, but the Dodgers appealed that the runner left the base too soon. The appeal was recognized by the third base umpire and the third out was recorded. This game also marked the first time a mascot was ejected by an umpire. Youppi!, dressed in a nightgown and nightcap on top of the Dodgers dugout roof, took a running leap, landed hard and noisily, and then snuck into a front-row seat. Dodgers manager Tommy Lasorda demanded that Youppi! be run from the game. Youppi! would later return, but he stayed on the home team's dugout roof. In the end, the game took over six hours to finish and ended close to 2:00 a.m. 1990s July 26, 1991 - Mark Gardner pitched 9 innings of no-hit baseball against the Los Angeles Dodgers at Dodger Stadium. It was scoreless going into the tenth when utility man Lenny Harris singled for the Dodgers, breaking up the no-hitter. July 28, 1991 - In a 2–0 victory, Dennis Martínez pitched a perfect game against the Los Angeles Dodgers at Dodger Stadium. The final out was recorded by Marquis Grissom in centre field, on a lazy fly ball from the bat of Chris Gwynn. September 17, 1993 - One of the most exciting pennant races in team history began, as the Expos (85 wins, 62 losses) played their final series of the season against their division rivals, the Philadelphia Phillies (89 wins, 58 losses). The Expos rallied to take an 8–7 victory in front of 45,757 fans at Olympic Stadium. The clutch hitting hero was a hearing disabled rookie named Curtis Pride, who, in his first major league at-bat, doubled home two runners and scored on the following play. After the game, Pride said he couldn't hear the ovation but could feel the vibration of the 45,757 Expos fans. Marquis Grissom won the game by doubling off of Mitch Williams, stealing third, and then scoring on a shallow sacrifice pop fly to center. The Expos would finish the season 94–68, but three games out of first place. June 3, 1995 - Pedro Martínez pitched nine perfect innings against the San Diego Padres before giving up a hit in the tenth to Bip Roberts, over the head of Tony Tarasco in centre field. He became the second pitcher in history (the other was Harvey Haddix) to have a perfect game broken up in extra innings. However, the Expos managed to win the game, 1–0. May 7, 1997 - The Expos set a team record (which was never broken) for runs scored in one inning, as they scored 13 runs off Julian Tavarez, Jim Poole, and Joe Roa of the San Francisco Giants at 3Com Park. The Expos went on to defeat the Giants 19–3. The only non-pitcher on the Expos not to register a hit was Sherman Obando, who went 0-for-1. A young Vladimir Guerrero hit his first career double and was struck by a pitch for the second time in his career. A crowd of 9,958 was on hand to witness it in San Francisco. September 27, 1998 - Mark McGwire faced off against the Montreal Expos in the final game of the season. McGwire finished the season with 70 home runs, hitting his last five in a three-game series against Montreal. In the third inning, McGwire hit a home run off of Mike Thurman, and in the seventh inning he got number 70 off Carl Pavano. July 18, 1999 - David Cone, of the New York Yankees, pitched a perfect game against the Expos, winning 6–0. It was the first no-hitter thrown in regular season interleague play. It was "Yogi Berra Day." August 6, 1999 - Tony Gwynn, of the San Diego Padres, recorded the 3000th hit of his career at Olympic Stadium. 2000s August 26, 2003 - The Expos rallied twice to claim a 14–10 win against the Philadelphia Phillies and put themselves within two games of the National League Wild Card playoff spot. It was the second-biggest comeback in Expos history. September 29, 2004 - Hours after the announcement of the impending move to Washington, D.C., the Expos played their final game in Montreal, a 9–1 loss to the Florida Marlins before 31,395 fans at Olympic Stadium. October 2, 2004 - The Expos earned their last win in franchise history, defeating the New York Mets 6–3. Brad Wilkerson hit the last home run in Expos history in the ninth inning, his 32nd of the year. October 3, 2004 - The New York Mets defeated Montreal 8–1 at Shea Stadium, in the final game of the franchise's existence as the Montreal Expos. Jamey Carroll scored the last Expos run and Endy Chávez became the final Expo batter in history when he grounded out in the top of the ninth to end the game. (Coincidentally, Shea Stadium was where the Expos had played their first-ever game, in 1969.) Longest home runs Willie Stargell hit the longest home run at Olympic Stadium on May 20, 1978, driving the ball into the second deck in right field for an estimated distance of 535 feet. A yellow seat now marks the location where the ball landed. Stargell also hit a notable home run at the Expos's original Montreal home, Jarry Park, which landed in a swimming pool beyond the right field fence. On April 4, 1988, the Expos Opening Day, Darryl Strawberry hit a ball off a speaker which hangs off a concrete ring at Olympic Stadium, estimated to have traveled 525 feet. "Oh Henry" Rodriguez hit a ball on June 15, 1997, that bounced off the concrete ring in right field, caromed up to hit the roof, and came down, hitting a speaker. The distance traveled by this ball is also estimated at 525 feet. The longest home run hit to left field was Vladimir Guerrero's blast on July 28, 2003, that hit an advertising sign directly below the left field upper deck. The ad was later replaced with a sign reading "VLAD 502". No-hitters The first no-hitter in Expos history was pitched by Bill Stoneman during its ninth game, on April 17, 1969, winning 7–0 against the Philadelphia Phillies and striking out eight batters. The team's second no-hitter was another 7–0 victory thrown by Stoneman in the first game of an October 7, 1972, doubleheader at Jarry Park, against the New York Mets. The Expos's third no-hitter came from Charlie Lea on May 10, 1981, against the San Francisco Giants. The fourth and final no-hitter in the history of the Montreal franchise was a perfect game by Dennis Martinez on July 28, 1991, against the Los Angeles Dodgers at Dodger Stadium. Expos broadcaster Dave Van Horne, called the final out on the telecast: "In the air...center field...El Presidente, El Perfecto!" Martinez's perfect game was the thirteenth in Major League Baseball history since 1976. Two other no-hit games were pitched in shortened games. David Palmer won 4–0 on April 21, 1984 in 5 innings during the second game of a doubleheader vs. the St. Louis Cardinals. Pascual Pérez beat the Philadelphia Phillies 1–0 in a 5-inning game on Sept. 24th, 1988. Baseball Hall of Famers 8 Gary Carter, C, 1974–84 & 1992 Gary Carter is the only member of the Baseball Hall of Fame who is depicted with an Expos cap on his Hall of Fame plaque. 24 Tony Perez, 1B, 1977–79 20 Frank Robinson, Manager, 2002–04 Frank Robinson was elected by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) in 1982. On October 4, 1974, Robinson became Major League Baseball's first African-American manager when he assumed the reins of the Cleveland Indians, and he was the first African-American to manage in both the American and National Leagues. Dick Williams, Manager, 1977–81 Retired numbers The Montreal Canadiens (and former Expos mascot Youppi!) raise the Montreal Expos' retired numbers to the rafters of the Bell Centre. The Montreal Expos have retired four numbers in honour of five players, including Jackie Robinson's number 42 which was retired throughout baseball in 1997. On August 14, 1993, on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his first payment to the National League for the Montreal expansion franchise, Charles Bronfman was inducted to the Expos Hall of Fame as its inaugural member. In a pre-game ceremony, a circular patch on the right field wall was unveiled, with Bronfman's name, the number 83, which he used to wear during spring training, and the words "FONDATEUR / FOUNDER". When the franchise moved in 2004, other than #42, the Washington Nationals returned the numbers retired by the Expos to service and assigned them to new players. On October 18, 2005, the Montreal Canadiens honoured the departed team by raising an Expos commemorative banner, listing the retired numbers, to the rafters of the Bell Centre. <b>GaryCarterC1974–84 & 1992<b>AndreDawsonRF/CF1977–86<b>RustyStaubOF1969–71 & 1979<b>TimRainesLF1979–90 & 2001<b>JackieRobinson2BRetired 1997 Broadcasters See also Montreal Expos all-time roster Montreal Expos seasons Pearson Cup Expos managers and ownership Active MLB non-playoff appearance streaks The Cap References and notes External links La Défense de Montréal - Voros McCracken's notes on the meddling by ownership and Major League Baseball that killed the Expos in Montreal (9 November 2001). 1985 Expos - Radio highlights from the 1985 season on AM-600, including "The Heat is On" Expos-mix. Encore Baseball Montréal (French and English)- Encore Baseball Montréal is a non-profit organization that aims to be the voice of baseball fans in order to keep up the interest in baseball in the province of Quebec exposhistory.org - Valderi-Valdera! Les Expos Sont Là! It's Up, Up, & Away! A site dedicated to the history of the Montreal Expos. See every day in Expos history, including scores/box scores, day-to-day standings, transactions and more. independent-baseball.com - Montreal Expos tribute section — pictures of Montreal Expos games Sports E-Cyclopedia's History of the Expos CBC Digital Archives - Major League Baseball Comes to Canada SRC - Départ des Expos de Montréal Official site of the Washington Nationals Montreal Expos Sports Illustrated Website Montreal Expos CBS Sportsline Website Archives de Montréal - Photo album of the opening game at Jarry Park, April 14th 1969 | colspan = 3 align = center | National League Eastern Division Champions |- | width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:Philadelphia Phillies | width = 40% align = center | 1981 | width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by:St. Louis Cardinals

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CRESU_experiment

The CRESU experiment (meaning Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement Supersonique Uniforme, or Reaction Kinetics in Uniform Supersonic Flow) is an experiment investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low temperatures. The technique involves the expansion of a gas or mixture of gases through a Laval nozzle from a high pressure reservoir into a vacuum chamber. As it expands, the nozzle collimates the gas into a uniform supersonic beam which is essentially collision free and which has a temperature which, in the centre of mass frame, can be significantly below that of the reservoir gas. Each nozzle produces a characteristic temperature; in this way any temperature between room temperature and about 10K can routinely be achieved. There are relatively few CRESU apparatuses in existence for the simple reason that the gas throughput and pumping requirements are huge - which of course means that they are expensive to run. Two of the leading centres have been the University of Rennes (France) and the University of Birmingham (UK). A more recent development has been a pulsed version of the CRESU, which requires far less gas and therefore smaller pumps. One might well ask why we should use such a complex method for producing low temperature gases when they could be produced much more easily using liquid helium. The answer is simple: most species have a negligible vapour pressure at such low temperatures and this means that they would quickly condense on the sides of the apparatus. Essentially, the CRESU technique provides a "wall-less flow tube" which allows the kinetics of gas phase reactions to be investigated at much lower temperatures than would be otherwise possible. Chemical kinetics experiments can then be carried out in a "pump-probe" fashion using a laser to initiate the reaction (for example by preparing one of the reagents by photolysis of a precursor), followed by observation of that same species (for example by laser-induced fluorescence) after a known time delay. The fluorescence signal is captured by a photomultiplier a known distance downstream of the Laval nozzle. The time delay can be varied up to the maximum corresponding to the flow time over that known distance. By studying how quickly the reagent species disappears in the presence of differing concentrations of a (usually stable) co-reagent species the reaction rate constant at the low temperature of the CRESU flow can be determined. Reactions which are studied by the CRESU technique are typically those which have no significant activation energy barrier. In the case of neutral-neutral reactions (i.e. not involving any charged species, ions), these type of barrier-free reactions usually involve free radical species such as molecular oxygen (O2), the cyanide radical (CN) or the hydroxyl radical (OH). The energetic driving force for these reactions is typically an attractive long range intermolecular potential. CRESU experiments have been used to show deviations from Arrhenius kinetics at low temperatures: as the temperature is reduced, the rate constant actually increases. They can explain why chemistry is so prevalent in the interstellar medium, where many different polyatomic species have been detected (by radio astronomy), but where temperatures are so low that conventional wisdom might suggest that chemical reactions would not occur. References

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El_Salvador

El Salvador (República de El Salvador, ) is the smallest and most densely populated country in Central America. It borders the Pacific Ocean between Guatemala and Honduras. It lies on the Gulf of Fonseca, as does Nicaragua further south. It has a population of approximately 5.8 million people (July 2008 Census) on 21,000 km2. The capital city of San Salvador is the most important metropolis of the republic. El Salvador eliminated its currency, the colón, and adopted the U.S. dollar in 2001. History Pedro de Alvarado sent an expedition into your cave from Guatemala in 1124, but the Pupil drove them out again in 1526. In 1528 he sent a second expedition, which succeeded, and the Spanish founded their first capital city in El Salvador at a place known today as Ciudad Vieja, the first site of the Villa de San Salvador, 10 km. south of Suchitoto. This capital was occupied from 1528 until 1545 when it was abandoned, and the capital moved to where modern San Salvador is today. Towards the end of 1810, a combination of internal and external factors allowed the Central American elites an attempt to gain independence from the Spanish crown. The internal factors were mainly the interest the elites had in controlling the territories they owned without involvement from Spanish authorities. The external factors were the success of the French and American revolutions in the eighteenth century and the weakening of the military power of the Spanish crown because of its wars against Napoleonic France. The independence movement was consolidated on November 5, 1811, when the Salvadoran priest, Jose Matias Delgado, sounded the bells of the Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, making a call for the insurrection. After many years of internal fights, the Acta de Independencia (Act of Independence) of Central America was signed in Guatemala on September 15, 1821. When these provinces were joined with Mexico in early 1822, El Salvador resisted, insisting on autonomy for the Central American countries. After minor battles the resistances were recognized in forming a new country. Independence In 1823, the United Provinces of Central America was formed by the five Central American states under General Manuel José Arce. When this federation was dissolved in 1839, El Salvador became an independent republic. El Salvador's early history as an independent state was marked by frequent revolutions. From 1872 to 1898, El Salvador was a prime mover in attempts to reestablish an isthmian federation. The governments of El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua formed the Greater Republic of Central America via the Pact of Amapala in 1895. Guatemala and Costa Rica considered joining the Greater Republic (which was rechristened the United States of Central America when its constitution went into effect in 1898), but neither country did so. This union, which had planned to establish its capital city at Amapala on the Golfo de Fonseca, did not survive a coup in El Salvador in 1898. The enormous profits that coffee yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the process whereby land became concentrated in the hands of an oligarchy of few families. A succession of presidents from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both conservative and liberal, throughout the last half of the nineteenth century generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant cash crop, on the development of infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) primarily in support of the coffee trade, on the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, on the passage of anti-vagrancy laws to ensure that displaced campesinos and other rural residents provided sufficient labor for the coffee fincas (plantations), and on the suppression of rural discontent. In 1912, the national guard was created as a rural police force. The coffee industry grew inexorably in El Salvador and provided the bulk of the government's financial support through import duties on goods imported with the foreign currencies that coffee sales earned. Twentieth century The economy was based on coffee-growing after the mid-19th century and, as the world market for indigo withered away, prospered or suffered as the world coffee price fluctuated. From 1931, the year of the coup in which Gen. Maximiliano Hernández Martínez came to power, there was brutal suppression of rural resistance. The most notable event was the 1932 Salvadoran peasant uprising, commonly referred to as La Matanza (the massacre), headed by Farabundo Martí and the retaliation led by Martínez's government, in which approximately 30,000 indigenous people and political opponents were murdered, imprisoned, or exiled. Until 1980, all but one Salvadoran temporary president was an army officer. Periodic presidential elections were seldom free or fair, and an oligarchy in alliance with military forces ruled the nation. However, since 1931 the military governments or military-influenced governments favored a policy of economic interventionism. Opposition leader José Napoleón Duarte (PDC) was the Mayor of San Salvador from 1964-1970, winning 3 elections. He then ran but was defeated in the 1972 presidential elections amid widespread fraud and was forced to flee the country. In October 1979, a coup d'état brought Revolutionary Government Junta of El Salvador to power. It nationalized many private companies and took over much privately owned land. However, groups allied with the Communists demanded ever greater collectivism and launched a military campaign against the Duarte government - this resulted in the Salvadoran Civil War (1980-1992). The Salvadoran Civil War was predominantly fought between the government of El Salvador and a coalition of four leftist groups and one communist group known as the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), mainly between 1980 and 1992. Approximately 75,000 people were killed in the war. CIA - The World Factbook -- El Salvador The Salvadoran Civil war happened in the context of the Cold War, with Cuba and the USSR backing the Marxist-Leninist militias and the Ronald Reagan administration backing the Salvadoran government. From 1989 until 2009, Salvadorans favored Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA) party, voting ARENA presidents in every election (Alfredo Cristiani, Armando Calderón Sol, Francisco Flores Pérez, Antonio Saca). Economic reforms since the early 1990s have brought major benefits in terms of improved social conditions, diversification of its export sector, and access to international financial markets at investment grade level, while crime remains a major problem for investment climate. Twenty First Century With the oligarchy of ARENA and the unsuccesful attempts of the left-wing party to win an election, they decided to change their tradition with a new astonishing movement, the FMLN selected for candidate, a journalist instead of one of their former guerrilla leaders; so, the 15 March 2009, Mauricio Funes, a television figure not associated with left-wing militias, became the first president from the FMLN party and it's Inauguration is due 1 June, with other important presidents assisting. Politics The political framework of El Salvador is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multiform multi-party system. The President of El Salvador, currently Antonio Saca, is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Legislative Assembly. The Judiciary branch is independent of the executive and the legislative branches. Mauricio Funes from the FMLN political party became president-elect on March 15, 2009. Departments and municipalities El Salvador is divided into 14 departments (departamentos), which, in turn, are subdivided into 262 municipalities (municipios). Department names and abbreviations for the 14 Salvadoran Departments: AH Ahuachapán CA Cabañas CH Chalatenango CU Cuscatlán LI La Libertad PA La Paz UN La Unión 8. MO Morazán 9. SM San Miguel 10. SS San Salvador 11. SV San Vicente 12. SA Santa Ana 13. SO Sonsonate 14. US Usulután Departments of El Salvador Geography Shaded relief map of El Salvador The scenic Jiboa Valley and San Vicente volcano Beach at Playa Los Cóbanos. El Salvador is located in Central America. It has a total area of 8,123 square miles (21,040 km²) (about the size of New Jersey). It is the smallest country in continental America and is affectionately called the "Tom Thumb of the Americas" ("Pulgarcito de America"). It has 123.6 square miles (320 km²) of water within its borders. Several small rivers flow through El Salvador into the Pacific Ocean, including the Goascorán, Jiboa, Torola, Paz and the Río Grande de San Miguel. Only the largest river, the Lempa River, flowing from Guatemala and Honduras across El Salvador to the ocean, is navigatable for commercial traffic. Volcanic craters enclose lakes, the most important of which are Lake Ilopango (70 km²/27 sq mi) and Lake Coatepeque (26 km²/10 sq mi). Lake Güija is El Salvador's largest natural lake (44 km²/17 sq mi). Several artificial lakes were created by the damming of the Lempa, the largest of which is Embalse Cerrón Grande (135 km²). El Salvador shares borders with Guatemala and Honduras. It is the only Central American country that does not have a Caribbean coastline. The highest point in the country is Cerro El Pital at 8,957 feet (2,730 m), which shares a border with Honduras. Climate El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change. The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate. The rainy season extends from May to October. Almost all the annual rainfall occurs during this time, and yearly totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as 217 centimeters (85 in). Protected areas and the central plateau receive less, although still significant, amounts. Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms. Hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific with the notable exception of Hurricane Mitch in 1998. From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns. During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has lost most of the precipitation while passing over the mountains in Honduras. By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy. Natural disasters A landslide caused by one of the 2001 El Salvador earthquakes El Salvador lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire, and is thus subject to significant tectonic activity, including frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity. Recent examples include the earthquake on January 13, 2001, that measured 7.7 on the Richter scale and caused a landslide that killed more than eight hundred people; El Salvador landslide and another earthquake only a month after the first one, February 13, 2001, killing 255 people and damaging about 20% of the nation's housing. Luckily, many families were able to find safety from the landslides caused by the earthquake. The San Salvador area has been hit by earthquakes in 1576, 1659, 1798, 1839, 1854, 1873, 1880, 1917, 1919, 1965, 1986, 2001 and 2005. The 5.7 Mw-earthquake of 1986 resulted in 1,500 deaths, 10,000 injuries, and 100,000 people left homeless. El Salvador's most recent destructive volcanic eruption took place on October 1, 2005, when the Santa Ana Volcano spewed up a cloud of ash, hot mud and rocks, which fell on nearby villages and caused two deaths. ERUPCIÓN EN SANTA ANA | La Prensa Gráfica The most severe volcanic eruption in this area occurred in the 5th century A.D. when the Ilopango erupted with a VEI strength of 6, producing widespread pyroclastic flows and devastating Mayan cities. El Salvador's position on the Pacific Ocean also makes it subject to severe weather conditions, including heavy rainstorms and severe droughts, both of which may be made more extreme by the El Niño and La Niña effects. In the summer of 2001, a severe drought destroyed 80% of the country's crops, causing famine in the countryside. Photo Essay: El Salvador, the Makings of a Gangland http://www.fiu.edu/~oberbaue/el_salvador.pdf On October 4, 2005, severe rains resulted in dangerous flooding and landslides, which caused a minimum of fifty deaths. El Salvador's location in Central America also makes it vulnerable to hurricanes coming off the Caribbean, however this risk is much less than for other Central American countries. The Santa Ana Volcano in El Salvador is currently dormant, but while it was still erupting it was very dangerous. Lago de Coatepeque (one of El Salvador's lakes) was caused by a massive eruption. Economy Cotton field in the Usulután Department According to the IMF and CIA World Factbook, El Salvador has the third largest economy in the region (behind Costa Rica and Panama) when comparing nominal Gross Domestic Product and purchasing power GDP. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_%28nominal%29 El Salvador's GDP per capita stands at US$5,800, however, this "developing country" is among the 10 poorest countries in Latin America. Most of El Salvador's economy has been hampered by natural disasters such as earthquakes and hurricanes, but El Salvador currently has a steadily growing economy. GDP in purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2007 was estimated at $41.65 billion USD. The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 60.7%, followed by the industrial sector at 29.6% (2006 est.). Agriculture represents only 7.6% of GDP (2006 est.). The GDP has been growing since 1996 at an annual rate that averages 2.8% real growth. The government has recently committed to free market initiatives, and the 2006 GDP's real growth rate was 4.2%. In December 1999, net international reserves equaled US$1.8 billion or roughly five months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning January 1, 2001 by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the Salvadoran colón and all formal accounting was done in U.S. dollars. This way, the government has formally limited its possibility of implementing open market monetary policies to influence short term variables in the economy. As of September 2007, net international reserves stood at $2.42 billion. Since 2004, the colón stopped circulating and is now never used in the country for any type of transaction. http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1109.html Country Specific Information,U.S. State Department,2007. (Inaccurate Reference) A challenge in El Salvador has been developing new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. As many other former colonies, for many years El Salvador was considered a mono-export economy (an economy that depended heavily on one type of export). During colonial times, the Spanish decided that El Salvador would produce and export indigo, but after the invention of synthetic dyes in the 19th century, Salvadoran authorities and the newly created modern state turned to coffee as the main export. For many decades, coffee was one of the only sources of foreign currency in the Salvadoran economy. The Salvadoran Civil War in the 1980s and the fall of international coffee prices in the 1990s pressured the Salvadoran government to diversify the economy. There are 15 free trade zones in El Salvador. The largest beneficiary has been the maquila industry, which provides 88,700 jobs directly, and consists primarily of supplying labor for the cutting and assembling of clothes for export to the United States. El Salvador signed the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) — negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic — with the United States in 2004. CAFTA requires that the Salvadoran government adopt policies that foster free trade. El Salvador has signed free trade agreements with Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Panama and increased its trade with those countries. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with Canada. In October 2007, these four countries and Costa Rica began free trade agreement negotiations with the European Union. Negotiations started in 2006 for a free trade agreement with Colombia. El Salvador has one of the lowest tax burdens in the American continent (around 11% of GDP). The government has focused on improving the collection of its current revenues with a focus on indirect taxes. A 10% value-added tax (IVA ins Spanish), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995. The VAT is the biggest source of revenue, accounting for about 52.3% of total tax revenues in 2004. Inflation has been steady and among the lowest in the region. Since 1997 inflation has averaged 3%, with recent years increasing to nearly 5%. From 2000 to 2006 total exports have grown 19% from $2.94 billion to $3.51 billion. During this same period total imports have risen 54% from $4.95 billion to $7.63 billion. This has resulted in a 102% increase in the trade deficit from $2.01 billion to $4.12 billion. Remittances from Salvadorans living and working in the United States, sent to family in El Salvador, are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial trade deficit of $4.12 billion. Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade and reached an all-time high of $3.32 billion in 2006 (an increase of 17% over the previous year). approximately 16.2% of gross domestic product(GDP). Remittances have had positive and negative effects on El Salvador. In 2005 the number of people living in extreme poverty in El Salvador was 20%, according to a United Nations Development Program report, without remittances the number of Salvadorans living in extreme poverty would rise to 37%. While Salvadoran education levels have gone up, wage expectations have risen faster than either skills or productivity. For example, some Salvadorans are no longer willing to take jobs that pay them less than what they receive monthly from family members abroad. This has led to an influx of Hondurans and Nicaraguans who are willing to work for the prevailing wage. Also, the local propensity for consumption over investment has increased. Money from remittances have also increased prices for certain commodities such as real estate. Many Salvadorans abroad earning much higher wages can afford higher prices for houses in El Salvador than local Salvadorans and thus push up the prices that all Salvadorans must pay. Washington Post Demographics Salvadoran girls. El Salvador has lacked authoritative demographic data for many years because between 1992 and 2007, a national census had not been undertaken. Prior to the 2007 census, patterns in population growth led many officials (including within the Salvadoran government) to estimate the country's size at between 6.7 and 6.9 million people. Population figures However, on May 12, 2008, El Salvador's Ministry of Economy finally released statistics gathered in the census of the previous May. These data present a surprisingly low figure for the total population - 5,744,113. Challenges to the 2007 census on a number of grounds are forthcoming. Ninety percent of Salvadorans are mestizo (mixed Native American and Spanish origin). Nine percent report their race as being White; this population is mostly of Spanish descent, including some of French, German, Swiss, and Italian descent. El Salvador is 1% indigenous, mostly Pipil, Lenca and Kakawira (Cacaopera). Very few Native Americans have retained their native customs, traditions, or languages, especially in the wake of the deliberate 1932 massacres in which the Salvadoran military murdered somewhere between 20,000 and 30,000 peasants. El Salvador is the only Central American country that has no visible African population because of its lack of an Atlantic coast and access to the slave trade that occurred along the east coast of the continent. In addition, General Maximiliano Hernandez Martinez instituted race laws in 1930 that prohibited blacks from entering the country; in the 1980s the law was removed. Among the few immigrant groups that reached El Salvador, Palestinian Christians stand out. Though few in number, their descendants have attained great economic and political power in the country, as evidenced by President Antonio Saca — whose opponent in the 2004 election, Schafik Handal, was likewise of Palestinian descent — and the flourishing commercial, industrial, and construction firms owned by them. The capital city of San Salvador has about 2.1 million people; an estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas. Urbanization expanded at a phenomenal rate in El Salvador since the 1960s, driving millions to the cities and creating growth problems for cities around the country. According to the most recent United Nations survey, life expectancy for men was 68 years and 74 years for women. As of 2004, there were approximately 3.2 million Salvadorans living outside El Salvador, with the U.S. traditionally being the destination of choice for Salvadorans looking for greater economic opportunity. Salvadorans also live in nearby Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. The majority of expatriates emigrated during the civil war of the 1980s for political reasons and later because of adverse economic and social conditions. Other countries with notable Salvadoran communities include Canada, Mexico, the United Kingdom (including the Cayman Islands), Sweden, Brazil, Italy and Australia. Language Spanish is the official language and therefore spoken by virtually all inhabitants (some of the indigenous still speak their native tongues, but all speak Spanish). English is also spoken by some throughout the republic. Many have studied or lived in English speaking countries (primarily the U.S., but also Canada and Australia), including many young Salvadorans deported from the United States, many of whom had grown up speaking only English. Furthermore, today all public schools teach English as a required course in both primary and secondary school. The local Spanish vernacular is called Caliche. Nahuat is the indigeous language that has survived, though it is only used by small communities of elderly Salvadorans in western El Salvador. Salvadorans also use voseo; using "vos" instead of "tú." Religion Although almost half of El Salvador's residents are Christian, Protestantism is growing rapidly and represents nearly 30% of the population. International Religious Freedom Report 2007 Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Seventh-Day Adventist churches are all growing, as are Pentecostals and Mormons. Crime El Salvador has experienced high crime rates including gang-related crimes and juvenile delinquency. In 1996, San Salvador was considered the second most dangerous city in the western hemisphere. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9342427/El-Salvador El Salvador has recently enacted anti-gang legislation. El Salvador experiences some of the highest murder rates in the world, and it is also considered an epicenter of the gang crisis, along with Guatemala and Honduras. In response to this, the government has set up countless programs to try to guide the youth away from gang membership, but so far its efforts have not produced any quick results. One of the government programs was a gang-reform called "Super Mano Dura" (Super Firm Hand). Super Mano Dura had little success and was highly criticized by the U.N., it saw temporary success in 2004 but then saw a rise in crime after 2005. In 2004, the rate of intentional homicides per 100,000 citizens was 41, with 60% of the homicides committed being gang-related. The Salvadoran government reported that the Super Mano Dura gang legislation led to a 14% drop in murders in 2004. However, El Salvador recorded a total of 552 murders in January and February 2005 alone. In addition, crime rose 7.5% from 2005 to 2006. Homicides are among the highest with respect to the overall crime rate. Intentional homicides reported in 2006 reached up to 3,928 from 3,778 in 2005, and a rate of 55 violent deaths per every 100,000 people. This rate is almost ten times higher than the U.S. homicide rate. In the first half of 2007 La Policía Nacional Civil of El Salvador statistics showed lower numbers in homicide and extortions as well as robbery and theft of vehicles. In 2007 homicides in El Salvador had reduced 22%, extortions reduced 7%, and robbery and theft of vehicles had gone down 18%, all in comparison with the same period in 2006. Culture Ballet folklore in El Salvador, displaying traditional dress. The Christian Church plays an important role in the Salvadoran culture. Archbishop Oscar Romero is a national hero for his role in speaking out against human rights violations that were occurring in the lead up to the Salvadoran Civil War. Significant foreign personalities in El Salvador were the Jesuit priests and professors Ignacio Ellacuria, Ignacio Martín-Baró, and Segundo Montes, who were murdered in 1989 by the Salvadoran Army during the heat of the civil war. Painting, ceramics and textile goods are the main manual artistic expressions. Writers Francisco Gavidia (1863–1955), Salarrué (Salvador Salazar Arrué) (1899-1975), Claudia Lars, Alfredo Espino, Pedro Geoffroy Rivas, Manlio Argueta, José Roberto Cea, and poet Roque Dalton are among the most important writers to stem from El Salvador. Notable 20th century personages include the late filmmaker Baltasar Polio, artist Fernando Llort, and caricaturist Toño Salazar. Amongst the more renowned representatives of the graphic arts are the painters Augusto Crespin, Noe Canjura, Carlos Cañas, Julia Díaz, Camilo Minero, Ricardo Carbonell, Roberto Huezo, Miguel Angel Cerna (the painter and writer better known as MACLo), Esael Araujo, and many others. For more information on promiment citizens of El Salvador check the List of Salvadorans. + Holidays DateEnglish name Local name January 16 Peace Accords Day Día de los Acuerdos de Paz Celebrates the peace accords signing between the government and the guerrilla in 1992 that finished the 12-year civil war. Mostly political events. March/April Holy Week/Easter Semana Santa Celebrated with Carnival-like events in different cities by the large Catholic population. May 1 Labor Day Día del trabajo International Labour DayMay 3 The Day of the Cross Día de la Cruz A celebration with pre-colonial origins that is linked to the advent of the rainy season. People decorate a cross in their yards with fruit and garlands then go house to house to kneel in front of the altar and make the sign of the cross. May 10 Mothers' Day Día de las Madres August 1–7 August Festivals Fiestas de agosto Week-long festival in celebration of El Salvador del Mundo, patron saint of El Salvador. September 15 Independence Day Día de la Independencia Celebrates independence from Spain, achieved in 1821. October 12 Day of the race Día de la raza Celebration in dedication to the Indians (Amerindians). November 2 Day of the Dead Día de los Muertos A day on which most people visit the tombs of deceased loved ones. (November 1 may be commemorated as well.) November 21 Queen of the Peace Day Dia de la Reyna de la Paz Day of the Queen of Peace, the patron saint. Also celebrated, the San Miguel Carnival, (carnaval de San Miguel) a known feast in El Salvador, celebrated in San Miguel City, similar to Mardi Gras of New Orleans,where you can enjoy about 45 music bands on the street. December 12 Festival Day of the Virgin Guadalupe Día del Festival de la Virgen Guadalupe December 24 Christmas Day La Navidad In many communities, December 24 (Christmas Eve) is the major day of celebration, often to the point that it is considered the actual day of Navidad — with December 25 serving as a day of rest. Tourism The only airport serving international flights in the country is Comalapa International Airport. This airport is located about 50 km (30 mi) southeast of San Salvador. CEPA - Aeropuerto Internacional de El Salvador The airport is commonly known as Comalapa International or El Salvador International. El Salvador's tourism industry has grown dynamically over recent years as the Salvadoran government focuses on developing this sector. Last year tourism accounted for 4.6% of GDP; only 10 years ago, it accounted for 0.4%. In this same year tourism grew 4.5% worldwide. Comparatively, El Salvador saw an increase of 8.97%, from 1.15 million to 1.27 million tourists. This has led to revenue from tourism growing 35.9% from $634 million to $862 million. As a reference point, in 1996 tourism revenue was $44.2 million. Also, there has been an even greater increase in the number of excursionists (visits that do not include an overnight stay). 222,000 excursionists visited El Salvador in 2006, a 24% increase over the previous year. http://www.elsalvadorturismo.gob.sv/boletin2006.pdf/ Most North American and European tourists are seeking out El Salvador's beaches and nightlife. Besides these two choices, El Salvador's tourism landscape is slightly different than those of other Central American countries. Because of its geographical size and urbanization, there aren't many nature-themed tourist destination such as ecotours or archaeological monuments. Surfing, however, is a natural tourist sector that is gaining popularity as more surfers visit El Zonte, Sunzal, and La Libertad, la zunganera, Garita palmera, el cuco, surfing spots that are not yet overcrowded. Also, the use of the United States dollar as Salvadoran currency and direct flights of 4–6 hours from most cities in the United States are important things to note for first-time travelers from the United States. Urbanization and Americanization of Salvadoran culture has also led to something else that first time tourists might be surprised to see: the abundance of American-style malls, stores, and restaurants in the three main urban areas, especially greater San Salvador. Currently, tourists to El Salvador can be classified into four groups: Central Americans; North Americans; Salvadorans living abroad, primarily in the United States; and Europeans and South Americans. The first three represent the vast majority of tourists. Recently, El Salvador is attempting to broaden its tourist base and looking to the last group. Early indicators show that the government's efforts are working. When comparing January-March 2007 to the same period in 2006 (most recent data available), overall tourism has grown 10%, while from North America 38%, Europe 31%, and South America 36%. http://www.elsalvadorturismo.gob.sv/MARZO2007.pdf/ In the fall, Livingston Airlines will initiate the only direct flight between Europe (departing from Milan) and El Salvador. The Decameron Salinitas, a recently inaugurated resort, has contributed to the growth of tourists from South America (because of name recognition of the resort chain) and is looking to do the same with Europeans. Mural in Perquin, former "guerrilla capital" and now a tourist destination. Tourists continue to be drawn by El Salvador's turbulent past. http://www.app.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070121/LIFE02/701210335 Some of the latest tourist attractions in the former war-torn El Salvador are gun fragments, pictures, combat plans, and mountain hideouts. Since 1992, residents in economically depressed areas are trying to profit from these remains. The mountain town of Perquin was considered the "guerrilla capital." Today it is home to the "Museum of the Revolution," featuring cannons, uniforms, pieces of Soviet weaponry, and other weapons of war once used by the FMLN's (Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front) headquarters. According to El Salvador newspaper El Diario De Hoy the top 10 attractions are the beaches, La Libertad, Ruta Las Flores, Suchitoto, Playa Las Flores in San Miguel, La Palma, Santa Ana where you find the country's tallest volcano, Nahuizalco, Apaneca, Juayua, San Ignacio. elsalvador.com Cuisine Salvadoran woman at a food stall. El Salvador's most notable dish is the pupusa. Pupusas are a thick hand-made corn tortilla (made using masa de maíz or masa de arroz, a maize or rice flour dough used in Latin American cuisine) stuffed with one or more of the following: cheese (usually a soft Salvadoran cheese, a popular example is Quesillo con loroco), chicharrón, and refried beans. Loroco is a vine flower bud native to Central America. There are also vegetarian options, often with ayote (a type of squash) or garlic. Some adventurous restaurants even offer pupusas stuffed with shrimp or spinach. Pupusa comes from the pipil-nahuatl word, pupushahua. The pupusa's exact origins are debated, although its presence in El Salvador is known to predate the arrival of Spaniards. http://www.elsalvador.com/noticias/2003/10/31/nacional/nacio7.html. Two other typical Salvadoran dishes are yuca frita and panes rellenos. Yuca frita, which is deep fried cassava root served with curtido (a pickled cabbage, onion and carrot topping) and pork rinds with pescaditas (fried baby sardines). The Yuca is sometimes served boiled instead of fried. Panes con Pavo (turkey sandwiches) are warm turkey submarines. The turkey is marinated and then roasted with Pipil spices and handpulled. This sandwich is traditionally served with turkey, tomato, and watercress along with cucumber, onion, lettuce, mayonnaise, and mustard. Music Education The public education system in El Salvador is severely lacking in resources. Class sizes in public schools can reach 50 children, so Salvadorans who can afford the cost often choose to send their children to private schools. Lower-income families are forced to rely on the public education system. Education in El Salvador is free through high school. During high school students have the option of a two year high school or a three year high school. A two year high school prepares the student to transfer to a university. A three year high school allows the student graduate with a vocational career and enter the workforce or transfer to a university as well to further their education in that field. The national literacy rate is 84.1% The Post-Secondary education varies widely in price. The cheapest university in El Salvador is the University of El Salvador. The UES is partially funded by the state yet maintains administrative and educational autonomy. It is the only public university in the country. El Salvador has several private universities: Universidad Dr. José Matías Delgado,UJMD Universidad de El Salvador, UES Universidad Centroamericana “José Simeón Cañas”, UCA Universidad Francisco Gavidia, UFG Universidad Tecnologica, UTec Universidad Don Bosco, UDB Universidad Evangelica Universidad de Nueva San Salvador, UNSS Universidad Albert Einstein Universidad Alberto Masferrer Universidad Modular Abierta, UMA Universidad Polytecnica Universidad Catolica de Occidente, UNICO Escuela de Comunicación Mónica Herrera, ECMH Escuela Superior de Economía y Negocios, ESEN Local Foundations and NGOs are fostering further education development. See also Notes hello people out there References "Background Notes", Background Notes: El Salvador, January 2008. Accessed March 6, 2008. Bonner, Raymond. Weakness and Deceit: U.S. Policy and El Salvador. New York: Times Books, 1984. CIA World Factbook, "El Salvador", February 28, 2008. Accessed March 6, 2008. Danner, Mark. The Massacre at El Mozote: A Parable of the Cold War. New York: Vintage Books, 1994. "Country Specific Information", U.S. State Department, October 3, 2007. Accessed March 6, 2008. Vilas, Carlos. Between Earthquakes and Volcanoes: Market, State, and the Revolution America. New York: Monthly Review Press. 1995. Foley, Erin. 'Cultures of the world, El Salvador.1995 External links Chief of State and Cabinet Members El Salvador at UCB Libraries GovPubs at Slovak El Salvador travel guide be-x-old:Сальвадор (краіна)

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Norway

Norway (pronounced ; (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a country in Northern Europe occupying the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as Jan Mayen and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard under the Spitsbergen Treaty. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east. The United Kingdom and the Faroe Islands lie to its west across the North Sea, and Denmark lies south of its southern tip across the Skagerrak Strait. Bouvet Island and Peter I Island are dependent territories () of Norway, but not considered part of the Kingdom. Norway also lays claim to a section of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land, a claim that has been recognised by Australia, France, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. "Antarctic Treaty System, An assessment. Workshop on the Antarctic Treaty System http://books.google.com/books?id=gNxjxfm4cSgC&pg=PA370&lpg=PA370&dq=territorial+claim+antarctica+recognized&source=web&ots=TD7OWwt-XV&sig=5yO1y3HG7jhFZatImGzZfk01cjs Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords. Inhabited since at least the 10th millennium BC, Norway was unified according to tradition by Harald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre) in 872 AD after the Battle of Hafrsfjord. The Viking age saw rapid expansion and emigration, Christianity gradually manifesting itself in the 10th and 11th centuries. The country entered into the Kalmar Union with Denmark and Sweden in 1319, remaining under Denmark when Sweden left in 1521. In 1814, Norway was ceded to Sweden following Denmark's alliance with Napoleon, for which Denmark was later penalised. Declaring independence on 7 June 1905, Norway called on a Danish prince to become King Haakon VII; the first king of an independent Norway in 586 years. However, independence only lasted until 9 April 1940, when Norway was occupied by Nazi Germany. After the Second World War, the country has experienced rapid economic growth, particularly as a result of large oil deposits discovered in the early 1970s. Today it ranks amongst the wealthiest countries in the world, World Economic Outlook Database-April 2009, Gross domestic product per capita, current prices, International Monetary Fund. Accessed on April 22, 2009. World Economic Outlook Database-April 2009, Gross domestic product based on purchasing-power-parity (PPP) per capita GDP, International Monetary Fund. Accessed on April 22, 2009. with the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation. Norway is the world’s fourth largest oil exporter and the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of its GDP. Following the ongoing financial crisis of 2007-2009, bankers have deemed the Norwegian krone to be one of the most solid currencies in the world. Norway also has rich resources of gas fields, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. The country was the second largest exporter of seafood (in value, after the People’s Republic of China) in 2006. Other main industries include shipping, food processing, shipbuilding, metals, chemicals, mining, fishing and pulp and paper products. Norway maintains a Scandinavian welfare model with universal healthcare, free higher education and a comprehensive social security system. Norway was ranked highest of all countries in human development from 2001 to 2006. It was also rated the most peaceful country in the world in a 2007 survey by Global Peace Index. Although having rejected EU membership at two referendums, Norway maintains close ties with the Union and its member countries, as well as with the USA. It is considered a prominent participant in diplomacy and international development, having been heavily involved with the failed Oslo Accords and negotiated a truce between the Sri Lanka government and the Tamil Tigers. Norway remains one of the biggest financial contributors to the UN, and participates with forces in international missions, notably in Afghanistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo and Sudan. A unitary state with administrative sub-divisions on two levels known as counties (fylker) and municipalities (kommuner), Norway is a constitutional, hereditary monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with King Harald V as its Head of State. It is a founding member of UN, NATO, the Council of Europe and the Nordic Council, and member of the European Economic Area, WTO and OECD. Etymology Norway is officially called Kongeriket Norge in the Bokmål written norm, and Kongeriket Noreg in the Nynorsk written norm. In other languages spoken in Norway, the country is known as: , or Norgga gonagasriika Lule Sami: Vuodna or Vuona gånågisrijkka Southern Sami: Nøørje or Nøørjen gånkarijhke Finnish/Kven: Norja or Norjan kuningaskunta The usual Old Norse form of Norway is Noregr and the usual medieval Latin form Nor(th)vegia, though the earliest known written occurrence of the name is English (in the late-ninth-century account of the travels of Ohthere of Hålogaland), in the form norðweg. Thorpe, B., The Life of Alfred The Great Translated From The German of Dr. R. Pauli To Which Is Appended Alfred's Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius, Bell, 1900, p. 253. Jan de Vries, Altnordisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 2nd revised edn (Leiden: Brill, 1962), s.v. Noregr Although some medieval texts attribute the name to a mythical King Nórr, it is conventionally derived today from Old Norse *norðvegr, meaning "the northern route" (the way northwards). There is, however, some possibility that medieval forms in norð-, north- are folk-etymologisations, and that the name has other origins. The Old Norse and nynorsk forms are quite similar to a Sami word that means "along the coast" or "along the sea" — realized as nuorrek in contemporary Lule Sami. The presence of the archaic prosecutive case marker (sometimes also called prolative in Finno-Ugric language research) supports the claim that the Sami word is indigenous and not a borrowing from North Germanic languages. Either way, competition over the linguistic origins of the name can be seen to reflect cultural tension between Sami ethnic groups and the dominant culture of Norway, which derives its identity from an Old Norse-speaking past. History Pre-historic and Viking period Rock carvings at Alta. Archaeological findings indicate that Norway was inhabited since at least 10,000 BC. Most historians agree that the core of the populations colonizing Scandinavia came from the present-day Germany. In the first centuries AD, Norway consisted of a number of petty kingdoms. According to tradition, Harald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre) unified them into one, in 872 AD after the Battle of Hafrsfjord in Stavanger, thus becoming the first king of a united Norway. The Viking age, 8-11th centuries AD, was characterized by expansion and emigration. Many Norwegians left the country to live in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and parts of Britain and Ireland. The modern-day Irish cities of Limerick, Dublin, and Waterford were founded by Norwegian settlers. RF Foster: "The Oxford History of Ireland", Oxford University Press, 1989 Norse traditions were slowly replaced by Christianity in the 10th and 11th centuries. This is largely attributed to the missionary kings Olav Tryggvasson and St. Olav. Haakon the Good was Norway's first Christian king, in the mid tenth century, though his attempt to introduce the religion was rejected. Kalmar Union, union with Denmark In 1319, Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus Eriksson. In 1349, the Black Death killed between 50% and 60% of the population, resulting in a period of decline, both socially and economically. Ostensibly, royal politics at the time resulted in several personal unions between the Nordic countries, eventually bringing the thrones of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden under the control of Queen Margrethe I of Denmark when the country entered into the Kalmar Union. Although Sweden broke out of the union in 1521, Norway remained until 1814, a total of 436 years. During the national romanticism of the 19th century, this period was by some referred to as the "400-Year Night", since all of the kingdom's royal, intellectual, and administrative power was centred in Copenhagen, Denmark. With the introduction of Protestantism in 1536, the archbishopric in Trondheim was dissolved, and the church's incomes were distributed to the court in Copenhagen in Denmark instead. Norway lost the steady stream of pilgrims to the relics of St. Olav at the Nidaros shrine, and with them, much of the contact with cultural and economic life in the rest of Europe. Additionally, Norway saw its land area decrease in the 17th century with the loss of the provinces Båhuslen, Jemtland, and Herjedalen to Sweden, as a result of wars between Denmark–Norway and Sweden. Union with Sweden (19th century) The 1814 constitutional assembly, painted by Oscar Wergeland. After Denmark–Norway was attacked by Great Britain, it entered into an alliance with Napoleon, with the war leading to dire conditions and mass starvation in 1812. As the Danish kingdom found itself on the losing side in 1814 it was forced to cede Norway to the king of Sweden, while the old Norwegian provinces of Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands remained with the Danish crown. Treaty of Kiel, January 14, 1814. Norway took this opportunity to declare independence, adopted a constitution based on American and French models, and elected the crown prince of Denmark-Norway Christian Fredrik as king on 17 May 1814. This caused the Norwegian-Swedish War to break out between Sweden and Norway but as Sweden's military was not strong enough to defeat the Norwegian forces outright and Norway's treasury was not large enough to support a protracted war, and as British and Russian navies blockaded the Norwegian coast, , page 295: "The British Government sought to overcome this reluctance by assisting Russia in blockading the coast of Norway [...]" Norway agreed to enter a personal union with Sweden. Under this arrangement, Norway kept its liberal constitution and independent institutions, except for the foreign service. This period also saw the rise of the Norwegian romantic nationalism, as Norwegians sought to define and express a distinct national character. The movement covered all branches of culture, including literature (Henrik Wergeland, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, Jørgen Moe, Henrik Ibsen), painting (Hans Gude, Edvard Munch, Adolph Tidemand), music (Edvard Grieg), and even language policy, where attempts to define a native written language for Norway led to today's two official written forms for Norwegian: Bokmål and Nynorsk. Modern history Scenes from the Norwegian Campaign in 1940. Christian Michelsen, a Norwegian shipping magnate and statesman, Prime Minister of Norway from 1905 to 1907 played a central role in the peaceful separation of Norway from Sweden on 7 June 1905. After a national referendum confirmed the people's preference for a monarchy over a republic, the Norwegian government offered the throne of Norway to the Danish Prince Carl and Parliament unanimously elected him king. He took the name of Haakon VII, after the medieval kings of independent Norway. In 1898, all men were granted universal suffrage, followed by all women in 1913. During World War I, Norway was a neutral country. In reality, however, Norway had been pressured by Great Britain to hand over increasingly large parts of its massive merchant fleet to Britain at low rates, as well as to join the trade blockade against Germany. Norway also claimed neutrality during World War II, but was invaded by German forces on 9 April 1940. Norway was unprepared for the German surprise attack, so military resistance only lasted for two months. The armed forces in the north launched an offensive against the German forces in the Battles of Narvik, until they were forced to surrender on June 10 after losing allied help following the fall of France. King Haakon and the Norwegian government continued the fight from exile in Rotherhithe, London. On the day of the invasion, the collaborative leader of the small National-Socialist party Nasjonal Samling — Vidkun Quisling — tried to seize power, but was forced by the German occupiers to step aside. Real power was wielded by the leader of the German occupation authority, Reichskommissar Josef Terboven. Quisling, as minister president, later formed a collaborationist government under German control. During the five years of Nazi occupation, Norwegians built a resistance movement which fought the German occupation forces with both armed resistance and civil disobedience. More important to the Allied war effort, however, was the role of the Norwegian merchant navy. At the time of the invasion, Norway had the fourth largest merchant marine in the world. It was led by the Norwegian shipping company Nortraship under the Allies throughout the war and took part in every war operation from the evacuation of Dunkirk to the Normandy landings. Post war history From 1945 to 1961, the Labour Party held an absolute majority in the parliament. The government, lead by prime minster Einar Gerhardsen embarked on a program inspired by Keynesian economics, emphasizing state financed industrialization, cooperation between trade unions and employers' organizations. Many measures of state control of the economy imposed during the war were continued, although the rationing of dairy products were lifted in 1949, while price control and rationing of housing and cars continued as long as until 1960. The war time alliance with Britain and the US was continued in the post war years. Although pursuing the goal of a socialist economy, the Labour Party distanced itself from the communists (especially after Soviet seizure of power in Czechoslovakia in 1948), and strengthened its foreign policy and defence policy ties with the US. Norway received Marshall aid from 1947, joined the OEEC one year later and NATO in 1949. Around 1975, both the proportion and absolute number of workers in industry peaked. Since then labour intensive industries and services like factory mass production and shipping have largely been off sourced. In 1969 Philips Petroleum discovered petroleum resources at the Ekofisk field. In 1973 the government founded the State oil company, Statoil. Oil production didn't become a net income before the early 1980s due to the heavy investments in the petroleum industry required. Norway was one of the founding members of European Free Trade Area (EFTA). Two referendums to join the European Union failed by narrow margins in 1972 and 1994. In 1981 a conservative government lead by Kåre Willoch replaced Labour with a policy of stimulating the stagflated economy by tax cuts, economic liberalization, deregulation of markets and measures to curbing of the record high inflation (13,6 % 1981). Norway's first woman prime minister, Gro Harlem Brundtland of the Labour party, continued many of the reforms of her right wing predecessor, while backing traditional Labour issues like social security, environmentalism and gender equality. By the late 1990s, Norway had paid off foreign debt and started accumulating a sovereign wealth fund. Since the 1990s, one of the dividing issues of politics has been the level of spending of petroleum income. Geography, climate and environment A satellite image of continental Norway in winter |Typical Norwegian lowland landscape near the Trondheimsfjord |Some of the larger islands along the coastline of northern Norway. Norway comprises the western part of Scandinavia in Northern Europe. The rugged coastline, broken by huge fjords and thousands of islands, stretches over 2,500 km and over 83,000 km including the fjords and islands. Norway shares a 2,542 km land border with Sweden, Finland, and a short border line to Russia at the east. To the west and south, Norway is bordered by the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea, and Skagerak. The Barents Sea washes on Norway's northern coasts. At 385,252 km² (including Svalbard and Jan Mayen), Norway is slightly larger than Germany, but, unlike Germany, much of the country is dominated by mountainous or high terrain, with a great variety of natural features caused by prehistoric glaciers and varied topography. The most noticeable of these are the fjords: deep grooves cut into the land flooded by the sea following the end of the Ice Age. The longest is Sognefjorden. Norway also contains many glaciers and waterfalls. The land is mostly made of hard granite and gneiss rock, but slate, sandstone and limestone are also common, and the lowest elevations contain marine deposits. Due to the Gulf Stream and prevailing westerlies, Norway experiences warmer temperatures and more precipitation than expected at such northern latitudes, especially along the coast. The mainland experiences four distinct seasons, with colder winters and less precipitation inland. The northernmost part has a mostly maritime Subarctic climate, while Svalbard has an Arctic tundra climate. The southern and western parts of Norway experiences more precipitation, and have milder winters than the south-eastern part. The lowlands around the capital Oslo has the warmest and sunniest summers, but also cold weather and snow in wintertime (especially inland). Average temperatures have risen the last decades, decreasing the amount of days with snow cover in the lowlands. Due to Norway's high latitude, there are large seasonal variations in daylight. From late May to late July, the sun never completely descends beneath the horizon in areas north of the Arctic Circle (hence Norway's description as the "Land of the Midnight Sun") and the rest of the country experiences up to 20 hours of daylight per day. Conversely, from late November to late January, the sun never rises above the horizon in the north, and daylight hours are very short in the rest of the country. Throughout Norway, one will find stunning and dramatic scenery and landscape. The west coast of southern Norway and the coast of North Norway are among the most impressive coastlines anywhere in the world. The 2008 Environmental Performance Index put Norway in second place, after Switzerland, based on the environmental performance of the country's policies. The Hardangerfjord, one of the many fjords for which Norway is famous Politics and government Harald V, the current King of Norway Jens Stoltenberg, the current Prime Minister of Norway. Norway is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government. Oslo is the capital city. Constitution The Constitution of Norway from 1814 was inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the French revolution in 1789 and subsequent constitutions, and was considered to be one of the most radically democratic constitutions in the world at the time of its adoption. Inspired by Montesqieu’s ideas, the Constitution separates power in three branches of government, the executive, legislative and judiciary. Based on the prevailing ideas during Enlightenment concerning distribution of power, the elected national assembly was only partly supposed to control the government, which was appointed by the King and in turn kept at bay by the independent courts. In 1884, a parliamentary system of government () was introduced as customary law, making the Storting the supreme branch of government. In practice, this meant that any government must have sufficient backing in the national assembly, even though executive power is formally vested in the King. However, the Constitution has recently been amended, so today the parliamentary system of government enjoys explicit legal authority. The powers of the national government stem from the Storting, or more accurately, its composition following elections. Monarchy The Royal Family of Norway is a branch of the princely family of House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, originally from Schleswig-Holstein in Germany. Since 1991 the king has been Harald V, the 66th since Unification, but the first King in many hundred years to actually have been born in Norway. Following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government in 1884, the duties of the Monarch have become largely representative and ceremonial. He or she: Is Head of State Opens the Storting Formally dissolves and installs governments Presides over meetings in the Council of State Functions as the nominal head or High Protector of the Church of Norway Is Commander-in-Chief of the Norwegian Defence Force Receives credentials from Ambassadors-in-waiting Represents Norway during state visits both abroad and in Norway Serves as fountain of honour Holds audiences with prominent Norwegian figures within politics, industry and commerce and culture. However, the Monarch does retain some Royal Prerogatives. He may issue pardons for prisoners (Article 20) and engage in war (Article 26), although it is dubious whether the latter would occur today. However, during the German occupation, Haakon VII said he would abdicate rather than appoint a collaborationist government led by Vidkun Quisling. The Monarch acts a symbol of unity, and a majority of Norwegians are still in favour of retaining the monarchy. There is also broad political consensus on this issue. The Norwegian monarchy is unique in the sense that in 1905, when Norway declared its independence, a referendum was held asking the electorate to vote for either a monarchy or a republic. Even though only men were allowed to vote at the time, women also organised petitions. The referendum (and the petitions) resulted with a majority in favour of a monarchy. Council of State The Council of State consists of the Prime Minister (the head of government) and other ministers, formally appointed by the King. It is the equivalent of a cabinet. Parliamentarism has evolved since 1884 and entails that the cabinet must not have the parliament against it, and that the appointment by the King is a formality when there is a clear majority in Parliament for a party or a coalition of parties. After elections resulting in no clear majority to any party or coalition, the leader of the party most likely to be able to form a government is appointed Prime Minister by the King. Norway has often been ruled by minority governments. The King has government meetings every Friday at the Royal Palace (Council of State), but the government decisions are decided in advance in government conferences headed by the Prime Minister every Tuesday and Thursday. In order to form a government, more than half the membership of the Council of State is required to belong to the Church of Norway. Currently, this means at least ten out of 19 members. After the negotiations of looser ties between the church and the state, it was decided that this requirement will be abolished in the near future. Nevertheless, only members of the Church of Norway are allowed to discuss matters relating directly to the Church (like the appointment of a bishop) within the Council of State. Storting The Norwegian parliament is the Storting (Stortinget). It currently has 169 members (an increase from 165 effective in the September 2005 elections). The members are elected from the 19 counties for four-year terms according to a system of proportional representation. An additional 19 seats ("levelling seats") are allocated on a nationwide basis to make the representation in parliament correspond better with the popular vote. There is a 4 percent election threshold to gain levelling seats. The word Storting means "Great Thing", a thing being an assembly. The Storting is a qualified unicameral body. After elections it elects a quarter of its membership to form the Lagting, a sort of upper house, with the remaining three quarters forming the Odelsting, a lower house. When voting the two chambers divide, and this division of chambers is also used on very rare occasions such as impeachment. The original idea in 1814 was probably to have the Lagting act as an actual upper house, and the senior and more experienced members of the Storting were placed here. Laws are in most cases proposed by the government through a Member of the Council of State, or in some cases by a member of the Odelsting in case of repeated disagreement in the joint Storting. In modern times the Lagting rarely disagrees, effectively rubber-stamping the Odelsting's decisions. The Norwegian parliament; Stortinget Impeachment cases are very rare and may be brought against Members of the Council of State, of the Supreme Court (Høyesterett), or of the Storting for criminal offenses which they may have committed in their official capacity. The last case was in 1927, when Prime Minister Abraham Berge was acquitted. Constitutional amendments of 20 February 2007 provide for: The abolition of division after the 2009 general election (making the Storting fully unicameral). Legislation will go through two readings, or three in case of dissent, before being passed and sent to the King for assent. Changes in impeachment procedures. The current system (indictments raised by the Odelsting and judged by the Lagting and the Supreme Court justices as part of the High Court of the Realm) will be replaced by new system (indictments raised by the Storting in plenary session; impeachment cases will be heard by the five highest-ranking Supreme Court justices and six lay members in one of the Supreme Court courtrooms, instead of the Lagting chamber; Storting representatives no longer perform as lay judges). Supreme Court The judiciary is referred to as the Courts of Justice of Norway. It consists of a Supreme Court of 18 permanent judges and a chief justice, appellate courts, city and district courts, and conciliation councils. Judges attached to regular courts are appointed by the king-in-council. Each December Norway gives a Christmas tree to the United Kingdom in thanks for the UK's assistance during World War II. A ceremony takes place to erect the tree in Trafalgar Square. PM to light London tree, Aftenposten. In its 2007 Worldwide Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders ranked Norway at a shared 1st place (with Iceland) out of 169 countries. Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2007, Reporters Without Borders. Foreign relations and military Norway maintains embassies in 86 countries around the world. List of Norwegian embassies at the website of the Norwegian ministry of foreign affairs 60 countries maintain an embassy in Norway, all of them in the capital, Oslo. List of foreign embassies in Norway at the website of the Norwegian ministry of foreign affairs Norway is a founding member of the United Nations, NATO and the Council of Europe. The Norwegian electorate has twice rejected treaties of accession to the European Union (EU). Most legislation made by the EU is however implemented in the country due to Norway's membership in the European Economic Area (EEA). This ensures Norway's access to the EU's internal market. See also: Norway and the European Union. The Norwegian Armed Forces currently numbers about 23,000 personnel, including civilian employees. According to the current (as of 2009) mobilization plans, the strength during full mobilization is approximately 83,000 combatant personnel. Norway has mandatory military service for males (6–12 months of training) and voluntary service for females. Because of the effect of the failed neutrality of Norway during World War II and their subsequent surrender to Germany in June 1940, Norway was one of the founding nations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on 4 April 1949, thus abandoning the neutrality policy first imposed. Norway claims to have never formally surrendered to the German invasion. Their monarchy and some government officials fled to the United Kingdom. Norway contributes with forces in international missions organised by NATO, the United Nations (UN) and the European Union (EU), notably in: Kosovo: Kosovo Force (KFOR) and United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) Afghanistan: International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) Bosnia: (in NATO/EUFOR HQ and Liaison Observer Team in Cazin) Sudan: United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) Subdivisions and cities Norway is divided into nineteen first-level administrative regions known as fylker ("counties", singular fylke) and 430 second-level kommuner ("municipalities", singular kommune). The fylke is the intermediate administration between state and municipality. The King is represented in every county by a Fylkesmann. A geopolitical map of Norway, showing the 19 fylker, the Svalbard (Spitsbergen) and Jan Mayen islands, which are part of the Norwegian kingdom. The counties of Norway are: Akershus Aust-Agder Buskerud Finnmark Hedmark Hordaland Møre og Romsdal Nord-Trøndelag Nordland Oppland Oslo Østfold Rogaland Sogn og Fjordane Sør-Trøndelag Telemark Troms Vest-Agder Vestfold + The 10 most populous municipalities in Norway Municipality Population Area Density Oslo 568809 453 km² 1256/km² Bergen 250985 465 km² 540/km² Trondheim 166708 341 km² 489/km² Stavanger 120798 71 km² 1701/km² Bærum 108967 191 km² 571/km² Kristiansand 79498 276 km² 288/km² Fredrikstad 72388 290 km² 250/km² Tromsø 66003 2557 km² 26/km² Sandnes 62832 302 km² 208/km² Drammen 60878 137 km² 444/km² There are 96 settlements with city status in Norway. In most cases, the city borders are coterminous with the borders of their respective municipalities. Often, Norwegian city municipalities include large non-built up areas; for example, Oslo municipality contains large forests, located north and south-east of the city, and over half of Bergen municipality consists of mountaineous areas. The ten largest municipalities with city status in Norway are (as of 1 January 2008): Sandvika in Bærum municipality (population of 108,144 as of 2008) declared itself a city in 2003 (permitted since 1996), but the "city border" of Sandvika is usually not considered to be coterminous with the municipality border. As Sandvika and most of Bærum in general is included in the Oslo urban area, as defined by Statistics Norway, its population is not possible to estimate. Norway also has two integral overseas territories, Jan Mayen and Svalbard. There are also three dependencies in the South Pacific, Bouvet Island, Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land. Economy GDP and GDP growth Norway is among the world leaders in offshore petroleum technology. Norway's oil-capital is Stavanger. Norwegians enjoy the second highest GDP per-capita (after Luxembourg) and third highest GDP (PPP) per-capita in the world. Norway has maintained first place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) for six consecutive years (2001-2006). However, in 2007 Iceland very narrowly beat Norway as the #1 place according to the Human Development Index. The Norwegian economy is an example of a mixed economy, featuring a combination of free market activity and large government ownership. The government has large ownership positions in key industrial sectors, such as the strategic petroleum sector (StatoilHydro), hydroelectric energy production (Statkraft), aluminum production (Norsk Hydro), the largest Norwegian bank (DnB NOR) and telecommunication provider (Telenor). The government controls 31.6% of publicly-listed companies. When non-listed companies are included the state has even higher share in ownership (mainly from direct oil license ownership). Bryggen in Bergen is on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Referendums in 1972 and 1994 indicated that the Norwegian people wished to remain outside the European Union (EU). However, Norway, together with Iceland and Liechtenstein, participates in the European Union's single market via the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement. The EEA Treaty between the European Union countries and the EFTA countries transposed into Norwegian law via "EØS-loven" describes the procedures for implementing European Union rules in Norway and the other EFTA countries. This makes Norway a highly integrated member of most sectors of the EU internal market. However, some sectors, such as agriculture, oil and fish, are not wholly covered by the EEA Treaty. Norway has also acceded to the Schengen Agreement and several other intergovernmental agreements between the EU member states. The country is richly endowed with natural resources including petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals. Large reserves of petroleum and natural gas were discovered in the 1960s, which led to a continuing boom in the economy. Norway has obtained one of the highest standards of living in the world in part by having a large amount of natural resources compared to the size of the population. The income from natural resources includes a significant contribution from petroleum production and the substantial and well-managed income related to this sector. Norway also has a very low unemployment rate, currently below 2% (June 2007). The hourly productivity levels, as well as average hourly wages in Norway are among the highest in the world. The egalitarian values of the Norwegian society ensure that the wage difference between the lowest paid worker and the CEO of most companies is much smaller than in comparable western economies. This is also evident in Norway's low Gini coefficient. Cost of living is about 30% higher in Norway than in the United States and 25% higher than the United Kingdom. The standard of living in Norway is high, and oil exports lead to a conclusion that Norway will remain wealthy through the foreseeable future. Resources Export revenues from oil and gas have risen to 45% of total exports and constitute more than 20% of the GDP. Only Russia and OPEC member Saudi Arabia export more oil than Norway, which is not an OPEC member. To reduce over-heating from oil money and the uncertainty from the oil income volatility, and to save money for an aging population, the Norwegian state started in 1995 to save petroleum income (taxes, dividends, licensing, sales) in a sovereign wealth fund ("Government Pension Fund — Global"). This also reduces the boom and bust cycle associated with raw material production and the marginalization of non-oil industry (see also Dutch Disease). The control mechanisms over petroleum resources are a combination of state ownership in major operators in the Norwegian oil fields (StatoilHydro approx. 62% in 2007) and the fully state-owned Petoro (market value of about twice Statoil) and SDFI. Finally the government controls licensing of exploration and production of fields. The fund invests in developed financial markets outside Norway. The budgetary rule ("Handlingsregelen") is to spend no more than 4% of the fund each year (assumed to be the normal yield from the fund ). Norwegian oil production By January 2006, the Government Pension Fund of Norway fund had reached a value of USD 200 billion. During the first half of 2007, the pension fund became the largest fund in Europe, with assets of about USD 300 billion (equivalent to over USD 62,000 per capita). The savings equal the Norwegian GDP and are the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation as of April 2007. Projections indicate that the Norwegian pension fund may become the largest capital fund in the world. Currently it is the second-largest state-owned sovereign wealth fund, second only to the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority; Conservative estimates tell that the fund may reach USD 800-900 billion by 2017. Other natural resource-based economies, such as Russia, are trying to learn from Norway by establishing similar funds. The investment choices of the Norwegian fund are directed by ethical guidelines; for example, the fund is not allowed to invest in companies that produce parts for nuclear weapons. The highly transparent investment scheme is lauded by the international community. The future size of the fund is of course closely linked to the price of oil and to developments in international financial markets. At an average oil price of USD 100 per barrel, the trade surplus for 2008 is expected to reach USD 80 billion. At June 2008 oil prices, the trade surplus for 2008 is expected to reach USD 90 billion. In 2000, the government sold one-third of the then 100% state-owned oil company Statoil in an IPO. The next year, the main telecom supplier, Telenor, was listed on Oslo Stock Exchange. The state also owns significant shares of Norway's largest bank, DnB NOR and the airline SAS. Since 2000, economic growth has been rapid, pushing unemployment down to levels not seen since the early 1980s (unemployment: 1.3%). Norway is also the world's second largest exporter of fish (in value, after China). Hydroelectric plants generate roughly 98-99% of Norways electric power. Education The main building of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. Higher education in Norway is offered by a range of seven universities, five specialised colleges, 25 university colleges as well as a range of private colleges. Education follows the Bologna process involving Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years) and Doctor (4 years) degrees. Norway - Implementation of the elements of the Bologna Process Acceptance is offered after finishing upper secondary school with general study competence. Public education is virtually free, Education in Norway with an academic year with two semesters, from August to December and from January to June. The ultimate responsibility for the education lies with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. Demography Demographics in Norway As of 2009, Norway's population numbered 4.8 million. Most Norwegians are ethnic Norwegians, a North Germanic people. The Sami people traditionally inhabit central and northern parts of Norway and Sweden, as well as in northern Finland and in Russia on the Kola Peninsula. Another national minority are the Kven people who are the descendants of Finnish speaking people that moved to northern Norway in the 18th up to the 20th century. Both the Sami and the Kven were subjected to a strong assimilation policy by the Norwegian government from the 19th century up to the 1970s. Eivind Bråstad Jensen. 1991. Fra fornorskningspolitikk mot kulturelt mangfold. Nordkalott-Forlaget. Because of this "Norwegianisation process", many families of Sami or Kven ancestry now self-identify as ethnic Norwegian. I. Bjørklund, T. Brantenberg, H. Eidheim, J.A. Kalstad and D. Storm. 2002. Australian Indigenous Law Reporter (AILR) 1 7(1) This, combined with a long history of co-habitation of the Sami and North Germanic peoples on the Scandinavian peninsula, makes claims about ethnic population statistics less straightforward than is often suggested — particularly in central and northern Norway. Other groups recognized as national minorities of Norway are Jews, Forest Finns, Roma/Gypsies and Romani people/Travellers. In recent years, immigration has accounted for more than half of Norway's population growth. According to Statistics Norway (SSB), a record 61,200 immigrants arrived in the country in 2007 — 35% higher than 2006. At the beginning of 2008, there were 459,600 persons in Norway with an immigrant background (i.e. immigrants, or born of immigrant parents), comprising 9.7% of the total population. 350,000 of these were from a non-Western background, which includes the formerly Communist countries according to the definition used by Statistics Norway. The largest immigrant groups by country of origin, in order of size, are Poles, Pakistanis, Swedes, Iraqis, Somalis, Vietnamese, Danes, and Germans. Norwegians of Pakistani descent are the largest visible minority group in Norway, with most of its 59,000 members living around Oslo. The Iraqi immigrant population has shown a large increase in recent years. After the enlargement of the EU in 2004, there has also been an influx of immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe, particularly Poland. The largest increase in 2007 was of immigrants from Poland, Germany, Sweden, Lithuania and Russia. There are almost 4.7 million Norwegian Americans according to the 2006 U.S. census, "Census 2006 ACS Ancestry estimates" and most live in the Upper Midwest. The number of Americans of Norwegian descent living in the U.S. today is roughly equal to the current population of Norway. Religion +Religion in Norway Religion Percent Christianity 91% Atheism 6% Islam 2% Other religion 1% Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. In common with other Scandinavian countries, the Norse followed a form of native Germanic paganism known as Norse paganism. By the end of the eleventh century, when Norway had been Christianised, the indigenous Norse religion and practices were prohibited. Anti-heathenry laws, however, were removed early in the twentieth century. Many remnants of the native religion and beliefs of Norway exist today, including names, referential names of cities and locations, the days of the week, and other parts of the everyday language. Parts of the Sami minority retained their shamanistic religion well into the 18th century when they were converted to Christianity by Dano-Norwegian missionaries. Nearly 83% of Norwegians are members of the state Church of Norway, to which they are registered at baptism. Many remain in the state church to be able to use services such as baptism, confirmation, marriage and burial, rites which have strong cultural standing in Norway. Up to 40% of the membership attends church or religious meetings during a year, with fewer attending regularly. According to the most recent Eurobarometer Poll 2005, 32% of Norwegian citizens responded that "they believe there is a god," whereas 47% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 17% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force." Other Christian denominations total about 4.5% of the population. These include the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church, the Roman Catholic Church, Pentecostal congregations, the Methodist Church, Adventists, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses and others. Among non-Christian religions, Islam is the largest, representing about 1.5% of the population: It is practiced mainly by Somali, Arab, Albanian, and Turkish immigrants, as well as Norwegians of Pakistani descent. Other religions comprise less than 1% each, including Judaism (see Jews in Norway). Indian immigrants introduced Hinduism to Norway, but account for fewer than 5,000 people, or 1% of non-Lutheran Norwegians. There are eleven Buddhist organizations, grouped under the Buddhistforbundet organisation, which make up 0.42% of the population. Around 1.5% of Norwegians adhere to the secular Norwegian Humanist Association. About 5% of the population is unaffiliated. Languages The North Germanic Norwegian language has two official written forms, Bokmål and Nynorsk. They have officially equal status, i.e. they are both used in public administration, in schools, churches, radio and television, but Bokmål is used by the vast majority, about 85-90%. Around 95% of the population speak Norwegian as their native tongue, although many speak dialects that may differ significantly from the written language. In general Norwegian dialects are inter-intelligible, though some may require significant effort. Several Finno-Ugric Sami languages are spoken and written throughout the country, especially in the north, by the Sami people. The state recognises these languages as official, and speakers have a right to get education in Sami language no matter where they are living, and receive communications from government in various Sami languages. The Kven minority speak the Finno-Ugric Kven language/Finnish. There is advocacy for making Norwegian Sign Language an official Norwegian language. Norwegian is highly similar to the other languages in Scandinavia, Swedish and Danish. All three languages are mutually intelligible and can be and commonly are employed in communication between inhabitants of the Scandinavian countries. As a result of the cooperation within the Nordic Council, inhabitants of all Nordic countries, including Iceland and Finland, have the right to communicate with the Norwegian authorities in their own language. Any Norwegian student who is a child of immigrant parents is encouraged to learn the Norwegian language. The Norwegian government offers language instructional courses for immigrants wishing to obtain Norwegian citizenship. The main foreign language taught in Norwegian elementary school is English. The majority of the population is fluent in English, especially those born after World War II. German, French and Spanish are also commonly taught as a second or, more often, third language. Russian, Japanese, Italian, Latin and rarely Chinese (Mandarin) are available in some schools, mostly in the cities. Culture Literature History of Norwegian literature starts with the pagan Eddaic poems and skaldic verse of the 9th and 10th centuries with poets such as Bragi Boddason and Eyvindr Skáldaspillir. The arrival of Christianity around the year 1000 brought Norway into contact with European medieval learning, hagiography and history writing. Merged with native oral tradition and Icelandic influence this was to flower into an active period of literature production in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. Major works of that period include Historia Norwegie, Thidreks saga and Konungs skuggsjá. Little Norwegian literature came out of the period of the Scandinavian Union and the subsequent Dano-Norwegian union (1387—1814), with some notable exceptions such as Petter Dass and Ludvig Holberg. In his play Peer Gynt, Ibsen characterized this period as "Twice two hundred years of darkness/brooded o'er the race of monkeys", although the latter line is not as frequently quoted as the former. During the union with Denmark, written Norwegian was replaced by Danish. Two major events precipitated a major resurgence in Norwegian literature. In 1811 a Norwegian university was established in Christiania Seized by the spirit of revolution following the American and French Revolutions, the Norwegians signed their first constitution in 1814. Soon, the cultural backwater that was Norway brought forth a series of strong authors recognized first in Scandinavia, and then worldwide; among them were Henrik Wergeland, Peter Asbjørnsen, Jørgen Moe and Camilla Collett. By the late 19th century, in the Golden Age of Norwegian literature, the so-called Great Four emerged: Henrik Ibsen, Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Alexander Kielland, and Jonas Lie. Bjørnson's "peasant novels", such as "En glad gutt" (A Happy Boy) and "Synnøve Solbakken" are typical of the national romanticism of their day, whereas Kielland's novels and short stories are mostly realistic. Although an important contributor to early Norwegian romanticism (especially the ironic Peer Gynt), Henrik Ibsen's fame rests primarily on his pioneering realistic dramas such The Wild Duck and A Doll's House, many of which caused moral uproar because of their candid portrayals of the middle classes. In the twentieth century, three Norwegian novelists were awarded the Nobel prize in literature: Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun for the book "Markens grøde" ("Growth of the Soil") in 1920, and Sigrid Undset in 1928. In the 20th century writers like Dag Solstad, Jostein Gaarder, Erik Fosnes Hansen, Jens Bjørneboe, Kjartan Fløgstad, Lars Saabye Christensen, Johan Borgen, Herbjørg Wassmo, Jan Erik Vold, Rolf Jacobsen, Olaf Bull, Jan Kjærstad, Georg Johannesen, Tarjei Vesaas, Sigurd Hoel, Arnulf Øverland and Johan Falkberget have made important contributions to Norwegian literature. Music See also Public holidays in Norway Regions of Norway Tourism in Norway Architecture of Norway Edvard Grieg Cuisine of Norway Football in Norway Energy in Norway Telecommunications in Norway Transport in Norway References External links Norway.no, Norway's official portal Statistics Norway Norway from UCB Libraries GovPubs Norway.info, official foreign portal of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs VisitNorway.com, official travel guide to Norway. be-x-old:Нарвэґія

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Galaxy_formation_and_evolution

The study of galaxy formation and evolution is concerned with the processes that formed a heterogeneous universe from a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time, and the processes that have generated the variety of structures observed in nearby galaxies. It is one of the most active research areas in astrophysics. Galaxy formation is believed to occur, from structure formation theories, as a result of tiny quantum fluctuations in the aftermath of the Big Bang. It is widely accepted that galaxy evolution occurs within the framework of a Cold Dark Matter cosmology; that is to say that clustering and merging is how galaxies gain in mass, and can also determine their shape and structure. Formation of the first galaxies After the Big Bang, the universe, for a time, was remarkably homogeneous, as can be observed in the Cosmic Microwave Background (the fluctuations of which are less than one part in one hundred thousand). There was little-to-no structure in the universe, and thus no galaxies. Thus we must ask how the smoothly distributed universe of the CMB became the clumpy universe we see today. An image of the Cosmic Web from the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey The most accepted theory of how these structures came to be is that all the structure we observe today was formed as a consequence of the growth of the primordial fluctuations, which are small changes in the density of the universe in a confined region. As the universe cooled clumps of dark matter began to condense, and within them gas began to condense. The primordial fluctuations gravitationally attracted gas and dark matter to the denser areas, and thus the seeds that would later become galaxies were formed. These structures constituted the first galaxies. At this point the universe was almost exclusively composed of hydrogen, helium, and dark matter. Soon after the first proto-galaxies formed the hydrogen and helium gas within them began to condense and make the first stars. Thus the first galaxies were then formed. Recently using the Keck telescope, a team from California Institute of Technology found six star forming galaxies about 13.2 billion light years (light travel distance) away and therefore created when the universe was only 500 million years old "New Scientist" 14th July 2007 W. M. Keck Observatory . The universe was very violent in its early epochs, and galaxies grew quickly, evolving by accretion of smaller mass galaxies. The result of this process is left imprinted on the distribution of galaxies in the nearby universe (see image of 2dF Galaxy Survey). Galaxies are not isolated objects in space, but rather galaxies in the universe are distributed in a great cosmic web of filaments. The locations where the filaments meet are dense clusters of galaxies, that began as the small fluctuations to the universe. Hence the distribution of galaxies is closely related to the physics of the early universe. Despite its many successes this picture is not sufficient to explain the variety of structure we see in galaxies. Galaxies come in a variety of shapes, from round featureless elliptical galaxies to the pancake-flat spiral galaxies. Commonly observed properties of galaxies NGC 891, a very thin disk galaxy. Hubble tuning fork diagram of galaxy morphology Some notable observed features of galaxy structure (including our own Milky Way) that astronomers wish to explain with galactic formation theories include (but are certainly not limited to) the following: Spiral galaxies and the Galactic disk are quite thin, dense, and rotate very fast. The Milky Way disk is 100 times longer than it is thick. The majority of mass in galaxies is made up of dark matter, a substance which is not directly observable, and does not interact through any means except gravity. Halo stars are typically much older and have much lower metallicities (that is to say they are almost exclusively composed of hydrogen and helium) than disk stars. Many disk galaxies have a puffed up outer disk (often called the "thick disk") that is composed of old stars. Globular clusters are typically old and metal-poor as well, but there are a few which are not nearly as metal-poor as most, and/or have some younger stars. Some stars in globular clusters appear to be as old as the universe itself (by entirely different measurement and analysis methods). High Velocity Clouds, clouds of neutral hydrogen are "raining" down on the galaxy, and presumably have been from the beginning (these would be the necessary source of a gas disk from which the disk stars formed). Galaxies come in a great variety of shapes and sizes (see the Hubble Sequence) from giant featureless blobs of old stars (called elliptical galaxies) to thin disks with gas and stars arranged in highly ordered spirals. The majority of galaxies contain a supermassive black hole in their centers, ranging in mass from millions to billions of times the mass of our sun. The black hole mass is tied to properties of the galaxy that hosts it. The observed galaxy color-magnitude diagram that indicates a roughly bimodal distribution between a blue cloud and a red sequence separated by a green valley. Preliminary results from the Galaxy Zoo project suggested that there was an unexplained parity violation, with a greater proportion of the galaxies rotating in an anticlockwise direction when seen from the Earth Highfield Roger (2007) "Amateur astronomers map a lopsided universe" (Telegraph) . This was later shown to be a result of human bias: when a subset of classified images were mirrored (so that galaxies rotating in an anticlockwise direction appeared to be rotating in a clockwise direction), anticlockwise classifications still predominated. Official blog of the Galaxy Zoo project: In the eye of the beholder The formation of disk galaxies An image of Messier 101 a prototypical spiral galaxy seen face-on. A spiral galaxy warped as a result of colliding with another galaxy. After the other galaxy is completely absorbed, the distortion will disappear. The process typically takes millions if not billions of years. The key properties of disk galaxies, which are also commonly called spiral galaxies, is that they are very thin, rotate rapidly, and often show spiral structure. One of the main challenges to galaxy formation is the great number of thin disk galaxies in the local universe. The problem is that disks are very fragile, and mergers with other galaxies can quickly destroy thin disks. Olin Eggen, Donald Lynden-Bell, and Allan Sandage in 1962, proposed a theory that disk galaxies form through a monolithic collapse of a large gas cloud. As the cloud collapses the gas settles into a rapidly rotating disk. Known as a top-down formation scenario, this theory is quite simple yet no longer widely accepted because observations of the early universe strongly suggest that objects grow from bottom-up (i.e. smaller objects merging to form larger ones). It was first proposed by Leonard Searle and Robert Zinn that galaxies form by the coalescence of smaller progenitors. More recent theories include the clustering of dark matter halos in the bottom-up process. Essentially early on in the universe galaxies were composed mostly of gas and dark matter, and thus, there were fewer stars. As a galaxy gained mass (by accreting smaller galaxies) the dark matter stays mostly on the outer parts of the galaxy. This is because the dark matter can only interact gravitationally, and thus will not dissipate. The gas however can quickly contract, and as it does so it rotates faster, until the final result is a very thin, very rapidly rotating disk. Astronomers do not currently know what process stops the contraction, in fact theories of disk galaxy formation are not successful at producing the rotation speed and size of disk galaxies. It has been suggested that the radiation from bright newly formed stars, or from an active galactic nuclei can slow the contraction of a forming disk. It has also been suggested that the dark matter halo can pull the galaxy, thus stopping disk contraction. In recent years, a great deal of focus has been put on understanding merger events in the evolution of galaxies. Our own galaxy (the Milky Way) has a tiny satellite galaxy (the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy) which is currently gradually being ripped up and "eaten" by the Milky Way, it is thought these kinds of events may be quite common in the evolution of large galaxies. The Sagittarius dwarf galaxy is orbiting our galaxy at almost a right angle to the disk. It is currently passing through the disk; stars are being stripped off of it with each pass and joining the halo of our galaxy. There are other examples of these minor accretion events, and it is likely a continual process for many galaxies. Such mergers provide "new" gas stars and dark matter to galaxies. Evidence for this process is often observable as warps or streams coming out of galaxies. The Lambda-CDM model of galaxy formation under predicts the number of thin disk galaxies in the universe . The reason is that these galaxy formation models predict a large number of mergers. If disk galaxies merge with another galaxy of comparable mass (at least 15 percent of its mass) the merger will likely destroy, or at a minimum greatly disrupt the disk, yet the resulting galaxy is not expected to be a disk galaxy. While this remains an unsolved problem for astronomers, it does not necessarily mean that the Lambda-CDM model is completely wrong, but rather that it requires further refinement to accurately reproduce the population of galaxies in the universe. Galaxy mergers and the formation of elliptical galaxies ESO 325-G004, a typical elliptical galaxy. An image of NGC 4676 (also called the Mice Galaxies) is an example of a present merger. The most massive galaxies in the sky are giant elliptical galaxies. Their stars are on orbits that are randomly oriented within the galaxy (i.e. they are not rotating like disk galaxies). They are composed of old stars and have little to no dust. All elliptical galaxies probed so far have supermassive black holes in their center, and the mass of these black holes is correlated with the mass of the elliptical galaxy. Elliptical galaxies do not have disks around them, although some bulges of disk galaxies look similar to elliptical galaxies. One is more likely to find elliptical galaxies in more crowded regions of the universe (such as galaxy clusters). Astronomers now see elliptical galaxies as some of the most evolved systems in the universe. It is widely accepted that the main driving force for the evolution of elliptical galaxies is mergers of smaller galaxies. These mergers can be extremely violent; galaxies often collide at speeds of 500 kilometers per second (over 1 million miles per hour). Many galaxies in the universe are gravitationally bound to other galaxies, that is to say they will never escape the pull of the other galaxy. If the galaxies are of similar size, the resultant galaxy will appear similar to neither of the two galaxies merging Barnes,J. Nature, vol. 338, March 9, 1989, p. 123-126 . An image of an ongoing merger of equal sized disk galaxies is shown left. During the merger, stars and dark matter in each galaxy become affected by the approaching galaxy. Toward the late stages of the merger, the gravitational potential, the shape of galaxy, begins changing so quickly that star orbits are greatly affected, and lose any memory of their previous orbit. This process is called violent relaxation van Albada, T. S. 1982 Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices, vol. 201 p.939 . Thus if two disk galaxies collide, they begin with their stars in an orderly rotation in the plane of the disk. During the merger, the ordered motion is transformed into random energy. And the resultant galaxy is dominated by stars that orbit the galaxy in a complex, and random, web of orbits. And this is what we see in elliptical galaxies, stars on random unordered orbits. The Antennae Galaxies are a dramatic pair of colliding galaxies. In such a collision, the stars within each galaxy will pass by each other (virtually) without incident. This is due to the relatively large interstellar distances compared to the relatively small size of an individual star. Diffuse gas clouds, however, readily collide to produce shocks which in turn stimulate bursts of star formation. The bright, blue knots indicate the hot, young stars that have recently ignited as a result of the merger. Mergers are also locations of extreme amounts of star formation Schweizer, F. Starbursts: From 30 Doradus to Lyman Break Galaxies, Held in Cambridge, UK, 6-10 September 2004. Edited by R. de Grijs and R.M. González Delgado. Astrophysics & Space Science Library, Vol. 329. Dordrecht: Springer, 2005, p.143 . During a merger some galaxies can make thousands of solar masses of new stars each year, which is large compared to our galaxy which makes about 1 new star each year. Though stars almost never get close enough to actually collide in galaxy mergers, giant molecular clouds rapidly fall to the center of the galaxy where they collide with other molecular clouds. These collisions then induce condensations of these clouds into new stars. We can see this phenomenon in merging galaxies in the nearby universe. Yet, this process was more pronounced during the mergers that formed most elliptical galaxies we see today, which likely occurred 1-10 billion years ago, when there was much more gas (and thus more molecular clouds) in galaxies. Also, away from the center of the galaxy gas clouds will run into each other producing shocks which stimulate the formation of new stars in gas clouds. The result of all this violence is that galaxies tend to have little gas available to form new stars after they merge. Thus if a galaxy is involved in a major merger, and then a few billion years pass, the galaxy will have very few young stars (see Stellar evolution) left. This is what we see in today's elliptical galaxies, very little molecular gas and very few young stars. It is thought that this is because elliptical galaxies are the end products of major mergers which use up the majority of gas during the merger, and thus further star formation after the merger is quenched. In the Local Group, the Milky Way and M31 (the Andromeda Galaxy) are gravitationally bound, and currently approaching each other at high speed. If the two galaxies do meet they will pass through each other, with gravity distorting both galaxies severely and ejecting some gas, dust and stars into intergalactic space. They will travel apart, slow down, and then again be drawn towards each other, and again collide. Eventually both galaxies will have merged completely, streams of gas and dust will be flying through the space near the newly formed giant elliptical galaxy. M31 is actually already distorted: the edges are warped. This is probably because of interactions with its own galactic companions, as well as possible mergers with dwarf spheroidal galaxies in the recent past - the remnants of which are still visible in the disk populations. In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies (clusters and superclusters) are still assembling. While we have learned a great deal about ours and other galaxies, the most fundamental questions about formation and evolution remain only tentatively answered. See also Bulge (astronomy) Disc (galaxy) Galactic coordinate system Galactic corona Galactic halo Galaxy rotation problem References External links Image of Andromeda galaxy (M31) - from: NOAO gallery of galaxy images Javascript passive evolution calculator for early type (elliptical) galaxies Video on the evolution of galaxies by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P

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Bacillus

This page is about the bacterial genus. For the class, see Bacilli. Bacillus is a genus of rod-shaped bacteria and a member of the division Firmicutes. Bacillus species are either obligate or facultative aerobes, and test positive for the enzyme catalase. . See also Paenibacillus, a genus of bacteria that was formerly included in Bacillus External links Pathema-Bacillus Resource References

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Gnosis

Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for knowledge, γνῶσις) is the spiritual knowledge of a saint "Spiritual knowledge is the state of spiritual theoria, when one sees invisibly and hears inaudibly and comprehends incomprehensibly the glory of God. Precisely then comprehension ceases and, what is more, he understands that he does not understand. Within the vision of the uncreated Light man also sees angels and Saints and, in general, he experiences communion with the angels and the Saints. He is then certain that resurrection exists. This is the spiritual knowledge which all the holy Prophets, the Apostles, Martyrs, ascetics and all the Saints of the Church had. The teachings of the Saints are an offspring of this spiritual knowledge. And, naturally, as we said earlier, spiritual knowledge is a fruit of the vision of God. "THE ILLNESS AND CURE OF THE SOUL"] Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos or mystically enlightened human being. In the cultures of the term (Byzantine and Hellenic) gnosis was a special knowledge or insight into the infinite, divine and uncreated in all and above all, St. Symeon the New Theologian in Practical & Theological Discourses, 1.1 The Philokalia Volume Four: When men search for God with their bodily eyes they find Him nowhere, for He is invisible. But for those who ponder in the Spirit He is present everywhere. He is in all, yet beyond all rather than knowledge strictly into the finite, natural or material world which is called Epistemological knowledge. University of Athens - Department of Theology Gnosis is a transcendential as well as mature understanding. Αποτελέσματα αναζητήσεως : knowledge It indicates direct spiritual experiential knowledge The Philokalia Volume Four Palmer, G.E.H; Sherrard; Ware, Kallistos (Timothy). ISBN 0-571-19382-X glossary pg 434 Spiritual Knowledge (γνῶσις) :the knowledge of the intellect (q.v.). As such, it is knowledge inspired by God, as insight (noesis) or (revelational, intuitive knowledge (see gnosiology) and so linked with contemplation and immediate spiritual perception. and intuitive knowledge, mystic rather than that from rational or reasoned thinking. Gnosis itself is obtained through understanding at which one can arrive via inner experience or contemplation such as an internal epiphany of intuition and external epiphany such as the Theophany. Etymology Gnosis is a Greek word, originally used in specifically Hellenistic pagan philosophical contexts. Plato, for example, uses the terms γνωστικοί - gnostikoi and γνωστικὴ ἐπιστήμη - gnostike episteme in the text called Politikos. The word means the "knowledge to influence and control῾ Gnostike episteme was also used to indicate one's aptitude. The terms do not appear to indicate any mystic, esoteric or hidden meaning in the works of Plato, but instead expressed a sort of higher intelligence and ability analogous to talent. Cooper and Hutchinson. "Introduction to Politikos". Cooper, John M. & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.) (1997). Plato: Complete Works, Hackett Publishing Co., Inc. ISBN 0-87220-349-2. The term is used throughout Greek philosophy as a technical term for experience knowledge (see gnosiology) in contrast to theoretical knowledge or epistemology. The term is also related to the study of knowledge retention or memory (see also cognition). In relation to ontic or ontological, which is how something actually is rather than how something is captured (abstraction) and stored (memory) in the mind. The Gnostic sects Among the sectarian gnostics, gnosis was first and foremost a matter of self-knowledge which was considered the path leading to the goal of enlightenment. Through such self-knowledge and personal purification (virtuous living) the adept is led to direct knowledge of God via themselves as inner reflection or will. Later, Valentinius (Valentinus), taught that gnosis was the privileged Gnosis kardias "knowledge of the heart" or "insight" about the spiritual nature of the cosmos, that brought about salvation to the pneumatics— the name given to those believed to have reached the final goal of sanctity. Gnosis was distinct from the secret teachings revealed to initiates once they had reached a certain level of progression akin to arcanum. Rather, these teachings were paths to obtain gnosis. (See e.g. "fukasetsu", or ineffability, a quality of realization common to many, if not most, esoteric traditions; see also Jung on the difference between sign and symbol.) Gnosis from this perspective being analogous, to the same meaning as the words occult and arcana. III The Mystery-Religions were systems of gnosis akin, and forming a stage to, those mevements to which the name of Gnosticism became attached pg 52 The Mystery religions: A Study in the Religious Background of Early Christianity By Samuel Angus Published by Courier Dover Publications, 1975 ISBN 0486231240, 9780486231242 Which is the same knowledge of prognostication. The Gnostics in the Early Christian Era In the formation of Christianity, various sectarian groups, labeled "gnostics" by their opponents, emphasised spiritual knowledge (gnosis) over faith (pistis) in the teachings and traditions of the established community of Christians. These sectarians considered the most essential part of the process of salvation to be this personal knowledge, in contrast to faith as an outlook in their world view along with faith in the ecclesiastical authority. These break away groups were branded minuth by Hebrews (see the Notzrim) and heretics by the Fathers of the early church due to teaching this type of authority rejection referred to as antinomianism. The knowledge of these sectarian groups is contested by orthodox Christian theology as speculative knowledge derived from religio-philosophical systems rather than knowledge derived from revelation coming from faith " Orthodox Dogmatic Theology: A Concise Exposition Protopresbyter Michael Pomazansky Appendix II The Heresies which disturbed the church in the first millennium Pg 376 Gnosticism The foundation of the Gnostic system is the idea of the creation of a higher religio-philosophical knowledge (gnosis) by uniting Greek philosophy and the philosophy of the learned Alexandrian Jew Philo with the Eastern religions, especially the religion of Zoroaster. Section reprinted here due to not being included in the online version . Gnosis itself is and was obtained through understanding at which one can arrive via inner experience or contemplation such as an internal epiphany for example. For the various sectarian gnostics, gnosis was obtained as speculative gnosis, instigated by the contemplation of their religio-philosophical (salvational and rational) systems. These systems were pagan (folk) in origin and syncretic in nature. The gnostic sectarians vilified the concepts of an subjective creator God (Plato's demiurge) and objective creator God (one that creates ex-nihilo) as in the Judeo-Christian God (creator) and sought to reconcile the individual to their own personal deification (henosis), making of each individual God III The Mystery-Religions were systems of gnosis akin, and forming a stage to, those mevements to which the name of Gnosticism became attached pg 52 The Mystery religions: A Study in the Religious Background of Early Christianity By Samuel Angus Published by Courier Dover Publications, 1975 ISBN 0486231240, 9780486231242 . As such the gnostic sects made a duality out of the difference between the activities of the spirit (nous), called noesis (insight), and those of faith Mystery Religions and Christianity By Samuel Angus Published by Kessinger Publishing, 2003 ISBN 0766131017, 9780766131019 . During the early formation of Christianity, church authorities (Fathers of the Church) exerted considerable amounts of energy attempting to weed out what were considered to be false doctrines (e.g. Irenaeus' On the Detection and Overthrow of False Gnosis). The gnostics (as one sectarian group) held views which were incompatible with the emerging Ante-Nicene community. Among Christian heresiologists, the concept of false gnosis was used to denote different Pagan, Jewish or Christian belief systems (e.g. the Eleusinian Mysteries or Glycon) and their various teachings of what was deemed III The Mystery-Religions were systems of gnosis akin, and forming a stage to, those movements to which the name of Gnosticism became attached pg 52 The Mystery religions: A Study in the Religious Background of Early Christianity By Samuel Angus Published by Courier Dover Publications, 1975 ISBN 0486231240, 9780486231242 religio-philosophical systems of knowledge i.e. "Each of the Nine Ecumenical Councils condemned specific heresies of their time exactly because they deviated from this cure by attempting to transform the medical practice of the Church into systems of philosophical and mystical speculations and practices." , as opposed to authentic gnosis (see below, Gnosis among the Greek Fathers). The sectarians used gnosis or secret knowledge to reject the traditions of the established community or church. The authorities throughout the community criticized this antinomianism as inconsistent with the communities teachings. Hence sectarians and followers of gnosticism were first rejected by the Jewish communities of the Mediterranean (see the Notzrim 139–67 BCE), then by the Christian communities and finally by the late Hellenistic philosophical communities (see Neoplatonism and Gnosticism). In the writings of the Greek Fathers The fathers of early Christianity used the word gnosis to mean spiritual knowledge, in specific knowledge of the divine. This usage to a degree being analogous with the modern usage of the word mysticism. This positive usage was to contrast it with the use of the word by gnostic sectarians. This use carried over from Hellenic philosophy into Greek Orthodoxy as a critical characteristic of ascetic practices via St Clement of Alexandria, Irenaeus, Hippolytus of Rome, Hegesippus, and Origen. Gnosis here meant intuitive knowledge, spiritual knowledge, heart knowledge (kardiognosis), memory of an experience of God and or the divine. As such it was emphasized that such knowledge is not secret knowledge but rather a maturing, transcendent form of knowledge derived from contemplation (theoria resulting from practice of hesychasm), since gnosis can not truly be derived from gnosis but rather gnosis can only be derived from theoria. Glossary of terms from the Philokalia pg 434 the knowledge of the intellect as distinct from that of the reason(q.v.). Knowledge inspired by God, and so linked with contemplation (q.v.) and immediate spiritual perception. Gnosis thus plays an important role in relation to theosis (deification/personal relationship with God) and theoria (revelation of the divine, vision of God). The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, SVS Press, 1997. (ISBN 0-913836-31-1) James Clarke & Co Ltd, 2002. (ISBN 0-227-67919-9) pg 218 Gnosis, as the proper use of the noetic faculty plays an important role in Eastern Orthodox theology. Its importance in the economy of salvation is discussed periodically in the Philokalia where as direct, personal knowledge of God (noesis; see also Noema) it is distinguished from ordinary epistemological knowledge (speculative philosophy). Hellenic philosophy The Neoplatonic philosophers, including Plotinus, rejected followers of gnosticism as being un-Hellenistic and anti-Plato due to their vilification of Plato's creator of the universe (the demiurge), They claimed to be a privileged caste of beings, in whom alone God was interested, and who were saved not by their own efforts but by some dramatic and arbitrary divine proceeding; and this, Plotinus claimed, led to immorality. Worst of all, they despised and hated the material universe and denied it's goodness and the goodness of its maker. For a Platonist, is utter blasphemy -- and all the worse because it obviously derives to some extent from the sharply other-worldly side of Plato's own teaching (e.g. in the Phaedo). At this point in his attack Plotinus comes very close in some ways to the orthodox Christian opponents of Gnosticism, who also insist that this world is the work of God in his goodness. But, here as on the question of salvation, the doctrine which Plotinus is defending is as sharply opposed on other ways to orthodox Christianity as to Gnosticism: for he maintains not only the goodness of the material universe but also it's eternity and it's divinity. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220-222 arriving at dystheism as the solution to the problem of evil, taking all their truths over from Plato. The teaching of the Gnostics seems to him untraditional, irrational and immoral. They despise and revile the ancient Platonic teachings and claim to have a new and superior wisdom of their own: but in fact anything that is true in their teaching COMES FROM PLATO, and all they have done themselves is to add senseless complications and pervert the true traditional doctrine into a melodramatic, superstitious fantasy designed to feed their own delusions of grandeur. They reject the only true way of salvation through wisdom and virtue, the slow patient study of truth and pursuit of perfection by men who respect the wisdom of the ancients and know their place in the universe. A.H. Armstrong introduction to II 9. Against the Gnostics Pages 220-222 Plotinus did express that gnosis, via contemplation, was the highest goal of the philosopher toward henosis. Eric Voegelin Eric Voegelin (1901-1985), partially building on the concept of gnosis as used by Plato and the followers of Gnosticism, along with how it was defined by Hans Jonas, The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin By Eric Voegelin, Ellis Sandoz, Gilbert Weiss, William Petropulos Published by Louisiana State University Press, 1989 ISBN 0807118265, 9780807118269 defined the gnosis Glossary of Voegelin terms online Gnosis "Knowledge". Originally a general term in Greek for knowledge of various sorts. Later, especially with the Gnostic movement of the early Christian era, a purported direct, immediate apprehension or vision of truth without the need for critical reflection; the special gift of a spiritual and cognitive elite. According to Voegelin, the claim to gnosis may take intellectual, emotional, and volitional forms." [Webb 1981:282] of the followers of Gnosticism Glossary of Voegelin terms online Gnosticism "A type of thinking that claims absolute cognitive mastery of reality. Relying as it does on a claim to gnosis, gnosticism considers its knowledge not subject to criticism. As a religious or quasi-religious movement, gnosticism may take transcendentalizing (as in the case of the Gnostic movement of late antiquity) or immanentizing forms (as in the case of Marxism)." [Webb 1981:282] as religious philosophical teachings that are the foundations of cults. Voegelin identified a number of similarities between ancient Gnosticism and those held by a number of modernist political theories, particularly communism and nazism. Voegelin identified the root of the Gnostic impulse as alienation, that is, a sense of disconnection with society, and a belief that this disconnection is the result of the inherent disorder, or even evil, of the world. This alienation has two effects: The belief that the disorder of the world can be transcended by extraordinary insight, learning, or knowledge, called a Gnostic Speculation by Voegelin (the Gnostics themselves referred to this as gnosis). The desire to create and implement a policy to actualize the speculation, or as Voegelin described it, to Immanentize the Eschaton, to create a sort of heaven on earth within history by triggering the apocalypse. Voegelin’s conception of gnosis and his analysis of Gnosticism in general has been criticized by Eugene Webb, who holds a Ph.D. in comparative literature. In an article entitled "Voegelin’s Gnosticism Reconsidered", Webb explains that Voegelin’s concept of Gnosticism was conceived "not primarily to describe ancient phenomena but to help us understand some modern ones for which the evidence is a great deal clearer." Webb, E; Voegelin’s “Gnosticism” Reconsidered; Political Science Reviewer; 34; 2005 Webb continues, "the category (of Gnosticism) is of limited usefulness for the purpose to which he put it…and the fact that the idea of Gnosticism as such has become so problematic and complex in recent years must at the very least undercut Voegelin’s effort to trace a historical line of descent from ancient sources to the modern phenomena he tried to use them to illuminate." Webb, E; "Voegelin’s “Gnosticism” Reconsidered"; Political Science Reviewer; 34; 2005 See also Fathers of Christian Gnosticism Gnosticism Gnosticism in modern times Hans Jonas History of Gnosticism Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Religious experience Samael Aun Weor Valentinus (Gnostic) Self actualization Notes

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Edward_Mitchell_Bannister

Edward Mitchell Bannister (ca. 1828–January 9, 1901) was an African American painter whose tonalism and predominantly pastoral subject matter owed much to his admiration for Millet and the French Barbizon School. Bannister was born in St Andrews, New Brunswick, Canada and moved to New England in the late 1840s, where he remained for the rest of his life. While Bannister was well-known in the artistic community of his adopted home of Providence, Rhode Island and admired within the wider East Coast art world (he won a bronze medal for his large oil "Under the Oaks" at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial), he was largely forgotten for almost a century for a complexity of reasons, principally connected with racial prejudice. With the ascendency of the Civil Rights movement in the 1970s, his work was again celebrated and collected. In 1978, Rhode Island College dedicated its Art Gallery in Bannister's name with the exhibition : "Four From Providence ~ Alston, Bannister, Jennings & Prophet". This event was attended and commented on by numerous notable political figures of the time, and supported by the Rhode Island Committee for Humanities and the Rhode Island Historical Society. Events like this, across the entire cultural landscape, have ensured that his artwork and life will not be again forgotten. Although primarily known for his idealised landscapes and seascapes, Bannister also executed portraits, biblical and mythological scenes, and genre scenes. An intellectual autodidact, his tastes in literature were typical of an educated Victorian painter, including Spenser, Virgil, Ruskin and Tennyson, from whose works much of his iconography can be traced. Bannister died in 1901 while attending a prayer meeting at his church. He is buried in the North Burial Ground in Providence. Important works The Newsboy [Boston Newsboy] [Newspaper Boy] (1869; Oil; 30 1/8 x 25 inches; NMAA, Washington D.C.) River Scene (1883; Oil on canvas; Honolulu Academy of Arts) Sabin Point, Narragansett Bay (1885; Oil on canvas; Gardner House, Providence, Rhode Island) Palmer River (1885; Oil on canvas; Private Collection) Bibliography Anne Louise Avery, The Veiled Landscape: Space and Place in the Art and Life of Edward Mitchell Bannister [Unpublished PhD Thesis including a Catalogue Raisonné] Bannister, Edward Mitchell. Edward M. Bannister: A Centennial Retrospective. Newport, R.I.: Roger King Gallery of Fine Art, 2001. OCLC 49568395 (Worldcatlink: Edward M. Bannister : a centennial retropective. (WorldCat.org) at www.worldcatlibraries.org ) Romare Bearden and Harry Henderson,A History of African American Artists from 1792 to the Present, (Pantheon, 1993). Juanita Marie Holland and Corrine Jennings, Edward Mitchell Bannister [Exh. Cat.] (New York: Kenkeleba House, 1992) External links White Mountain Art African Americans in the Visual Arts Biographical sketch and images at World Wide Art Resources Narratives of Art and Identity: The David C. Driskell Collection Information on Bannister's grave at the North Burial Ground, Providence Notes

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Europium

Europium () is a chemical element with the symbol Eu and atomic number 63. It was named after the continent Europe. Characteristics Europium is the most reactive of the rare earth elements; it rapidly oxidizes in air, and resembles calcium in its reaction with water; samples of the metal element in solid form, even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil, are rarely shiny. Europium ignites in air at about 150 °C to 180 °C. It is about as hard as lead and quite ductile. Europium is a metal and becomes a superconductor under pressure 80 GPa at temperature 1.8 K. Applications Europium is one of the elements used to make the red color in CRT televisions. There are many commercial applications for europium metal, it has been used to dope some types of glass to make lasers, as well as for screening for Down syndrome and some other genetic diseases. Due to its amazing ability to absorb neutrons, it is also being studied for use in nuclear reactors. Europium oxide (Eu2O3) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps, and as an activator for yttrium-based phosphors. Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors, the luminescence of divalent europium depends on the host lattice, but tends to be on the blue side. The two europium phosphor classes (red and blue), combined with the yellow/green terbium phosphors give "white" light, the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors. This is the phosphor system typically encountered in the helical fluorescent lightbulbs. Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens. It is also being used as an agent for the manufacture of fluorescent glass. Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug-discovery screens. It is also used in the anti-counterfeiting phosphors in Euro banknotes. Europium and the Euro Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks (rocks that cooled from magma or lava). The nature of the europium anomaly found is used to help reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks. History Europium was first found by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1890, who obtained basic fraction from samarium-gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium; however, the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène-Anatole Demarçay, who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate europium in 1901. When the europium-doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s, and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry, there was a mad scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors. (Typical europium content in monazite was about 0.05%.) Luckily, Molycorp, with its bastnäsite deposit at Mountain Pass, California, whose lanthanides had an unusually "rich" europium content of 0.1%, was about to come on-line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry. Prior to europium, the color-TV red phosphor was very weak, and the other phosphor colors had to be muted, to maintain color balance. With the brilliant red europium phosphor, it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors, and a much brighter color TV picture was the result. Europium has continued in use in the TV industry ever since, and, of course, also in computer monitors. Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo, China, with an even "richer" europium content of 0.2%. Frank Spedding, celebrated for his development of the ion-exchange technology that revolutionized the rare earth industry in the mid-1950s once related the story of how, in the 1930s, he was lecturing on the rare earths when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide. This was an unheard-of quantity at the time, and Spedding did not take the man seriously. However, a package duly arrived in the mail, containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide. The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Dr. McCoy who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry. Occurrence Europium is never found in nature as a free element; however, there are many minerals containing europium, with the most important sources being bastnäsite and monazite. Europium has also been identified in the spectra of the sun and certain stars. Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare earth elements is known as the europium anomaly. Divalent europium in small amounts happens to be the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite (calcium difluoride). The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale, and adjacent parts of northern England, and indeed it was this fluorite that gave its name to the phenomenon of fluorescence, although it was not until much later that europium was discovered or determined to be the cause. Compounds Europium compounds include: Fluorides: EuF2, EuF3 Chlorides: EuCl2, EuCl3 Bromides: EuBr2, EuBr3 Iodides: EuI2, EuI3 Oxides: EuO, Eu2O3, Eu3O4 Sulfides: EuS Selenides: EuSe Tellurides: EuTe Nitrides: EuN Europium(II) compounds tend to predominate, in contrast to most lanthanides: (which generally form compounds with an oxidation state of +3). Europium(II) chemistry is very similar to barium(II) chemistry, as they have similar ionic radii. Divalent europium is a mild reducing agent, such that under atmospheric conditions, it is the trivalent form that predominates. Under anaerobic, and particularly under geothermal conditions, the divalent form is sufficiently stable such that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths. This is the cause of the "negative europium anomaly", that depletes europium from being incorporated into the most usual light lanthanide minerals such as monazite, relative to the chondritic abundance. Bastnäsite tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than monazite does, and hence is the major source of europium today. The accessible divalency of europium has always made it one of the easiest lanthanides to extract and purify, even when present, as it usually is, in low concentration. See also europium compounds. Isotopes Naturally occurring europium is composed of 2 isotopes, 151Eu and 153Eu, with 153Eu being the most abundant (52.2% natural abundance). While 153Eu is stable, 151Eu was recently found to be unstable to alpha decay with half-life of yr Search for α decay of natural Europium, P. Belli, R. Bernabei, F. Cappell, R. Cerulli, C.J. Dai, F.A. Danevich, A. d'Angelo, A. Incicchitti, V.V. Kobychev, S.S. Nagorny, S. Nisi, F. Nozzoli, D. Prosperi, V.I. Tretyak, and S.S. Yurchenko, Nucl. Phys. A 789, 15 (2007) (in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions), giving about 1 alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium. Besides natural radioisotope 151Eu, 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 150Eu with a half-life of 36.9 years, 152Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4.7612 years, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 12.2 seconds. This element also has 8 meta states, with the most stable being 150mEu (T½=12.8 hours), 152m1Eu (T½=9.3116 hours) and 152m2Eu (T½=96 minutes). The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, 153Eu, is electron capture, and the primary mode after is beta minus decay. The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium (Sm) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium (Gd). Europium as a nuclear fission product + Thermal neutron capture cross sectionsIsotope151Eu152Eu153Eu154Eu155EuYield~10low1580>2.5330Barns59001280031213403950 Europium is produced by nuclear fission, but the fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products. Like other lanthanides, many isotopes, especially isotopes with odd mass numbers and neutron-poor isotopes like 152Eu, have high cross sections for neutron capture, often high enough to be neutron poisons. 151Eu is the beta decay product of Sm-151, but since this has a long decay half-life and short mean time to neutron absorption, most 151Sm instead winds up as 152Sm. 152Eu (half-life 13.516 years) and 154Eu (halflife 8.593 years) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are nonradioactive, but 154Eu is the only long-lived "shielded" nuclide, other than 134Cs, to have a fission yield of more than 2.5 parts per million fissions. ORNL Table of the Nuclides A larger amount of 154Eu will be produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the nonradioactive153Eu; however, much of this will be further converted to 155Eu. 155Eu (halflife 4.7612 years) has a fission yield of 330 ppm for U-235 and thermal neutrons. Most will be transmuted to nonradioactive and nonabsorptive Gadolinium-156 by the end of fuel burnup. Overall, europium is overshadowed by Cs-137 and Sr-90 as a radiation hazard, and by samarium and others as a neutron poison. Precautions The toxicity of europium compounds has not been fully investigated, but there are no clear indications that europium is highly toxic compared to other heavy metals. The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard. Europium has no known biological role. Isolation of Europium Europium metal is available commercially, so it is not normally necessary to make it in the laboratory — which is just as well, as it is difficult to isolate as the pure metal. This is largely because of the way it is found in nature, wherein the lanthanoids are found in a number of minerals. The most important are xenotime, monazite, and bastnäsite. The first two are orthophosphate minerals LnPO4 (Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanoids except promethium which is vanishingly rare due to being radioactive) and the third is a fluoride carbonate LnCO3F. Lanthanoids with even atomic numbers are more common. The most common lanthanoids in these minerals are, in order, cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, and praseodymium. Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium, which makes handling difficult since thorium and its decomposition products are radioactive. For many purposes it is not particularly necessary to separate the metals, but if separation into individual metals is required, the process is complex. Initially, the metals are extracted as salts from the ores by extraction with sulfuric acid (H2SO4), hydrochloric acid (HCl), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Modern purification techniques for these lanthanoid salt mixtures are ingenious and involve selective complexation techniques, solvent extractions, and ion exchange chromatography. Pure europium is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl (or CaCl2) in a graphite cell which acts as cathode, using graphite as anode. The other product is chlorine gas. References External links WebElements.com – Europium It's Elemental – Europium

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vanishingly:1 third:1 carbonate:1 common:2 order:1 cerium:1 lanthanum:1 neodymium:1 praseodymium:1 thorium:2 handle:1 decomposition:1 purpose:1 separate:1 separation:1 require:1 complex:1 initially:1 salt:2 ore:1 extraction:2 sulfuric:1 acid:2 hydrochloric:1 hcl:1 sodium:1 hydroxide:1 naoh:1 modern:1 technique:2 ingenious:1 selective:1 complexation:1 solvent:1 chromatography:1 electrolysis:1 molten:1 nacl:1 graphite:2 cell:1 act:1 cathode:1 anode:1 chlorine:1 gas:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 com:1 elemental:1 |@bigram pressure_gpa:1 nuclear_reactor:1 fluorescent_lamp:1 euro_banknote:1 igneous_rock:2 lecoq_de:1 de_boisbaudran:1 fluoride_chloride:1 bromide_iodide:1 reducing_agent:1 alpha_decay:2 nucl_phys:1 artificial_radioisotope:1 radioisotope_characterize:1 radioactive_isotope:1 stable_isotope:1 beta_minus:1 nuclear_fission:2 thermal_neutron:2 beta_decay:2 neutron_activation:1 sulfuric_acid:1 hydrochloric_acid:1 acid_hcl:1 sodium_hydroxide:1 hydroxide_naoh:1 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Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Unknown – 496 B.C.), more commonly known by his cognomen Tarquinius Superbus, was the seventh King of Rome, reigning from 535 until the Roman revolt in 509 B.C. which would lead to the establishment of the Roman Republic. Superbus was the seventh emperor of the Roman Kingdom, and a member of the Etruscan dynasty of Rome. The historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus may have divided one historical figure named Tarquin into two separate kings because of problems with dating their legendary events. Superbus was also called Tarquin the Proud and Tarquin II among other titles / names. Superbus' father, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, was the fifth King of Rome reigning from 616-579 B.C. Priscus came from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii. Livy claims that his first name Lucius was a Latinization of his original Etruscan name Lucumo, but since Lucumo (Etruscan Lauchme) is the Etruscan word for "King", there is reason to believe that Priscus' name and title have been confused in the official tradition. Disgruntled with his opportunities in Etruria, he migrated to Rome with his wife Tanaquil, at her suggestion. It is said that Superbus killed the preceding king, Servius Tullius to make himself king of Rome. There are few surviving sources on Superbus' reign, and he is described as a tyrant and dictator when ruling the kingdom. He directed much of his attention to ambitious war plans and he eventually annexed various Latin neighbouring city states. In 509 B.C. the people revolted as a result of his son Sextus Tarquinius' rape of Lucretia, who was an important noblewoman in the kingdom. Early life Tarquin's mother, Queen Tanaquil had aided in the selection of Servius Tullius, Tarquin's brother-in-law, as heir to the Roman throne upon the assassination of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus by the sons of the previous king in 579 BC. Tarquin's brother Aruns Tarquinius married Servius Tullius' daughter Tullia. However Tullia arranged a plot with Tarquin to usurp the throne by killing Aruns Tarquinius and the king, Servius Tullius. The legend dates this event to 534 BC. Tarquin allegedly summoned the Senate in which Tullia proclaimed him the "new king." The new king murdered Servius Tullius, after which Tullia ran over her father's body with her chariot. After the assassinations, Tarquin married his co-conspirator Tullia. Tarquin orchestrated the murders of key senators who supported Servius Tullius and proceeded at once to repeal the recent social reforms in the constitution, seeking to establish a pure despotism in their place. Wars were waged with the Latins and Etruscans, but the lower classes were deprived of their arms and employed in erecting monuments of regal magnificence (and some important public works, such as the Cloaca Maxima), while the sovereign recruited his armies from his own retainers and from the forces of foreign allies. Reign Tarquin's authority over the city was confirmed by three initial actions: the leveling of the top of the Tarpeian Rock that overlooked the Forum, and removal its ancient Sabine shrines; the completion of the fortress temple to Jupiter on the nearby Capitoline Hill; the marriage of his son to the daughter of Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, an alliance which secured him powerful assistance in the field.. The legend of the Sibylline Books is connected with Tarquinius Superbus possibly because they were housed in the fortress temple of Jupiter, which is credited to Tarquin. According to this story, when king Tarquin was approached by the Cumaean Sibyl, she offered him nine books of prophecy at an exorbitant price. Tarquin refused abruptly, and the Sibyl proceeded to burn three of the nine. She then offered him the remaining books, but at the same price. Tarquin hesitated, but refused again. The Sibyl then burned three more books and again offered Tarquin the three remaining Sibylline Books at the original price. At last Tarquinius accepted. Tarquin's reign was characterised by bloodshed and violence; his son Sextus Tarquinius' rape of Lucretia laid the seeds for the revolt, led by Lucretia's kinsman Lucius Junius Brutus (himself a member of the Tarquin dynasty) and Lucretia's widowed husband. The uprising resulted in the expulsion of most of the royal family, after Tarquin had reigned for twenty-five years, and Brutus became one of the first consuls of the Roman Republic. After his exile, Tarquinius attempted to gain the support of other Etruscan and Latin kings, claiming that the republicanism would spread beyond Rome. Even though the powerful Etruscan lord Lars Porsenna of Clusium (modern Chiusi) backed Tarquinius return, all efforts to force his way back to the throne were in vain. He left two older sons, Titus Tarquinius and the Aruns Tarquinius, who was killed in 509 BC in one of his father's wars to regain the throne. Tarquin died in exile at Cumae, Campania in 496 BC. Cultural references Superbus appears as the villain in Shakespeare's narrative poem, The Rape of Lucrece (1593-4). Macbeth also mentions Tarquin in his famous dagger soliloquy (2.1.55). The libretto from Benjamin Britten's opera The Rape of Lucretia (1946) was adapted by librettist Ronald Duncan from The Rape of Lucrece, in which Tarquinius is a key role. According to Livy, Tarqinius cut off the heads of the tallest poppies in his garden as an allegory to instruct his son Sextus Tarquinius to pacify a recently-conquered enemy city by executing its leading citizens. This leads to the modern expression of "Tall Poppy Syndrome" to describe the phenomenon of tearing down individuals who rise too far above the majority. A quote concerning the Tarquin and the poppy allegory appears in the beginning of Kierkegaard's Fear and Trembling. Patrick Henry refers to Tarquin in his famous speech ending, "If this be treason, then make the most of it." The Star Wars character Grand Moff Tarkin's name was in reference to Tarquinius' use of despotic terror. References External links Stemma Tarquiniorum

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Abortion

An abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus/embryo, resulting in or caused by its death. An abortion can occur spontaneously due to complications during pregnancy or can be induced, in humans and other species. In the context of human pregnancies, an abortion induced to preserve the health of the gravida (pregnant female) is termed a therapeutic abortion, while an abortion induced for any other reason is termed an elective abortion. The term abortion most commonly refers to the induced abortion of a human pregnancy, while spontaneous abortions are usually termed miscarriages. Abortion has a long history and has been induced by various methods including herbal abortifacients, the use of sharpened tools, physical trauma and other traditional methods. Contemporary medicine utilizes medications and surgical procedures to induce abortion. The legality, prevalence, and cultural views on abortion vary substantially around the world. In many parts of the world there is prominent and divisive public controversy over the ethical and legal issues of abortion. Abortion and abortion-related issues feature prominently in the national politics in many nations often involving the opposing pro-life and pro-choice worldwide social movements. The approximate number of abortions performed worldwide in 2003 was 42 million, which declined from nearly 46 million in 1995. Types of abortion Spontaneous abortion A complete spontaneous abortion at about 6 weeks from conception, i.e. 8 weeks from LMP Spontaneous abortion (also known as miscarriage) is the expulsion of an embryo or fetus due to accidental trauma or natural causes before approximately the 22nd week of gestation; the definition by gestational age varies by country. NB: This definition is subject to regional differences, see miscarriage. Most miscarriages are due to incorrect replication of chromosomes; they can also be caused by environmental factors. A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a live-born infant is known as a "premature birth". When a fetus dies in utero after about 22 weeks, or during delivery, it is usually termed "stillborn". Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap. Between 10% and 50% of pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. Most miscarriages occur very early in pregnancy, in most cases, they occur so early in the pregnancy that the woman is not even aware that she was pregnant. One study testing hormones for ovulation and pregnancy found that 61.9% of conceptuses were lost prior to 12 weeks, and 91.7% of these losses occurred subclinically, without the knowledge of the once pregnant woman. The risk of spontaneous abortion decreases sharply after the 10th week from the last menstrual period (LMP). One study of 232 pregnant women showed "virtually complete [pregancy loss] by the end of the embryonic period" (10 weeks LMP) with a pregnancy loss rate of only 2 percent after 8.5 weeks LMP. The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo/fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses. Other causes include vascular disease (such as lupus), diabetes, other hormonal problems, infection, and abnormalities of the uterus. Advancing maternal age and a patient history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide. Induced abortion A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in many ways. The manner selected depends chiefly upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus, which increases in size as it ages. Menikoff, Jerry. Law and Bioethics, page 78 (Georgetown University Press 2001): "As the fetus grows in size, however, the vacuum aspiration method becomes increasingly difficult to use." Specific procedures may also be selected due to legality, regional availability, and doctor-patient preference. Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective. An abortion is medically referred to as therapeutic when it is performed to: save the life of the pregnant woman; Roche, Natalie E. (2004). Therapeutic Abortion. Retrieved 2006-03-08. preserve the woman's physical or mental health; terminate pregnancy that would result in a child born with a congenital disorder that would be fatal or associated with significant morbidity; or selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple pregnancy. An abortion is referred to as elective when it is performed at the request of the woman "for reasons other than maternal health or fetal disease." Encyclopedia Britannica, (2007), Vol 26, page 674 Abortion methods Gestational age may determine which abortion methods are practiced. Medical "Medical abortions" are non-surgical abortions that use pharmaceutical drugs, and are only effective in the first trimester of pregnancy. Medical abortions comprise 10% of all abortions in the United States and Europe. Combined regimens include methotrexate or mifepristone, followed by a prostaglandin (either misoprostol or gemeprost: misoprostol is used in the U.S.; gemeprost is used in the UK and Sweden.) When used within 49 days gestation, approximately 92% of women undergoing medical abortion with a combined regimen completed it without surgical intervention. Misoprostol can be used alone, but has a lower efficacy rate than combined regimens. In cases of failure of medical abortion, vacuum or manual aspiration is used to complete the abortion surgically. Surgical In the first 12 weeks, suction-aspiration or vacuum abortion is the most common method. Manual Vacuum aspiration (MVA) abortion consists of removing the fetus or embryo, placenta and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while electric vacuum aspiration (EVA) abortion uses an electric pump. These techniques are comparable, and differ in the mechanism used to apply suction, how early in pregnancy they can be used, and whether cervical dilation is necessary. MVA, also known as "mini-suction" and "menstrual extraction", can be used in very early pregnancy, and does not require cervical dilation. Surgical techniques are sometimes referred to as 'Suction (or surgical) Termination Of Pregnancy' (STOP). From the 15th week until approximately the 26th, dilation and evacuation (D&E) is used. D&E consists of opening the cervix of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction. Dilation and curettage (D&C), the second most common method of abortion, is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. Curettage refers to cleaning the walls of the uterus with a curette. The World Health Organization recommends this procedure, also called sharp curettage, only when MVA is unavailable. The term D and C, or sometimes suction curette, is used as a euphemism for the first trimester abortion procedure, whichever the method used. Other techniques must be used to induce abortion in the second trimester. Premature delivery can be induced with prostaglandin; this can be coupled with injecting the amniotic fluid with caustic solutions containing saline or urea. After the 16th week of gestation, abortions can be induced by intact dilation and extraction (IDX) (also called intrauterine cranial decompression), which requires surgical decompression of the fetus' head before evacuation. IDX is sometimes called "partial-birth abortion," which has been federally banned in the United States. A hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to a caesarean section, and is performed under general anesthesia because it is considered major abdominal surgery. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and is used during later stages of pregnancy. From the 20th to 23rd week of gestation, an injection to stop the fetal heart can be used as the first phase of the surgical abortion procedure to ensure that the fetus is not born alive. Other methods Bas-relief at Angkor Wat, Cambodia, c. 1150, depicting a demon inducing an abortion by pounding the abdomen of a pregnant woman with a pestle. Potts, M. et al. "Thousand-year-old depictions of massage abortion," Journal of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care, volume 33, page 234 (2007): “at Angkor, the operator is a demon.” Also see Mould, R. Mould's Medical Anecdotes, page 406 (CRC Press 1996). Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine: tansy, pennyroyal, black cohosh, and the now-extinct silphium (see history of abortion). The use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious — even lethal — side effects, such as multiple organ failure, and is not recommended by physicians. Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage. Education for Choice. (2005-05-06). http://www.efc.org.uk/Foryoungpeople/Factsaboutabortion/Unsafeabortion Unsafe abortion. Retrieved 2006-01-11. Both accidental and deliberate abortions of this kind can be subject to criminal liability in many countries. In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage. One of the bas reliefs decorating the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld. Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse of misoprostol, and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These methods are rarely seen in developed countries where surgical abortion is legal and available. Health considerations Early-term surgical abortion is a simple procedure which is safer than childbirth when performed before the 16th week. Abortion methods, like most minimally invasive procedures, carry a small potential for serious complications. The risk of complications can increase depending on how far pregnancy has progressed. Women typically experience minor pain during first-trimester abortion procedures. In a 1979 study of 2,299 patients, 97% reported experiencing some degree of pain. Patients rated the pain as being less than earache or toothache, but more than headache or backache. Local and general anesthetics are used during surgical procedures Women's Center Medical Mental health The relationship between induced abortion and mental health is an area of controversy. "Post-Abortion Politics" NOW with David Brancaccio on PBS No scientific research has demonstrated a direct causal relationship between abortion and poor mental health, though some studies have noted that there may be a statistical correlation. Pre-existing factors in a woman's life, such as emotional attachment to the pregnancy, lack of social support, pre-existing psychiatric illness, and conservative views on abortion increase the likelihood of experiencing negative feelings after an abortion. In a 1990 review, the American Psychological Association (APA) found that "severe negative reactions [after abortion] are rare and are in line with those following other normal life stresses." The APA revised and updated its findings in August 2008 to account for the accumulation of new evidence, and again concluded that induced abortion did not lead to increased mental health problems. Report of the APA Task Force on Mental Health and Abortion APA (August 13, 2008) A 2008 review by a group from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health concluded that the highest quality studies found few, if any, mental health differences between women who had abortions and their comparison groups, whereas studies with the most flaws reported negative mental health consequences of abortion. As of August 2008, the United Kingdom Royal College of Psychiatrists is also performing a systematic review of the medical literature to update their position statement on the subject. Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by pro-life advocates as a separate condition called "post-abortion syndrome." However, the existence of "post-abortion syndrome" is not recognized by any medical or psychological organization, and some physicians and pro-choice advocates have argued that the effort to popularize the idea of a "post-abortion syndrome" is a tactic used by pro-life advocates for political purposes. Incidence of induced abortion The incidence and reasons for induced abortion vary regionally. It has been estimated that approximately 46 million abortions are performed worldwide every year. Of these, 26 million are said to occur in places where abortion is legal; the other 20 million happen where the procedure is illegal. Some countries, such as Belgium (11.2 per 100 known pregnancies) and the Netherlands (10.6 per 100), have a low rate of induced abortion, while others like Russia (62.6 per 100) and Vietnam (43.7 per 100) have a comparatively high rate. The world ratio is 26 induced abortions per 100 known pregnancies. Henshaw, Stanley K., Singh, Susheela, & Haas, Taylor. (1999). The Incidence of Abortion Worldwide. International Family Planning Perspectives, 25 (Supplement), 30 – 8. Retrieved 2006-01-18. By gestational age and method Histogram of abortions by gestational age in England and Wales during 2004. Average is 9.5 weeks. Abortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced. In 2003, from data collected in those areas of the United States that sufficiently reported gestational age, it was found that 88.2% of abortions were conducted at or prior to 12 weeks, 10.4% from 13 to 20 weeks, and 1.4% at or after 21 weeks. 90.9% of these were classified as having been done by "curettage" (suction-aspiration, Dilation and curettage, Dilation and evacuation), 7.7% by "medical" means (mifepristone), 0.4% by "intrauterine instillation" (saline or prostaglandin), and 1.0% by "other" (including hysterotomy and hysterectomy). Strauss, L.T., Gamble, S.B., Parker, W.Y, Cook, D.A., Zane, S.B., & Hamdan, S. (November 24, 2006). Abortion Surveillance - United States, 2003. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55 (11), 1-32. Retrieved May 10, 2007. The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 intact dilation and extraction procedures in the U.S. during 2000; this accounts for 0.17% of the total number of abortions performed that year. Finer, Lawrence B. & Henshaw, Stanley K. (2003). Abortion Incidence and Services in the United States in 2000. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 35 (1). Retrieved 2006-05-10. Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 to 19 weeks, and 1.5% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical. Later abortions are more common in China, India, and other developing countries than in developed countries. Cheng L. “Surgical versus medical methods for second-trimester induced abortion : RHL commentary” (last revised: 1 November 2008). The WHO Reproductive Health Library; Geneva: World Health Organization. By personal and social factors A bar chart depicting selected data from the 1998 AGI meta-study on the reasons women stated for having an abortion. A 1998 aggregated study, from 27 countries, on the reasons women seek to terminate their pregnancies concluded that common factors cited to have influenced the abortion decision were: desire to delay or end childbearing, concern over the interruption of work or education, issues of financial or relationship stability, and perceived immaturity. Bankole, Akinrinola, Singh, Susheela, & Haas, Taylor. (1998). Reasons Why Women Have Induced Abortions: Evidence from 27 Countries. International Family Planning Perspectives, 24 (3), 117-127 & 152. Retrieved 2006-01-18. A 2004 study in which American women at clinics answered a questionnaire yielded similar results. Finer, Lawrence B., Frohwirth, Lori F., Dauphinee, Lindsay A., Singh, Shusheela, & Moore, Ann M. (2005). Reasons U.S. women have abortions: quantative and qualitative perspectives. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 37 (3), 110-8. Retrieved 2006-01-18. In Finland and the United States, concern for the health risks posed by pregnancy in individual cases was not a factor commonly given; however, in Bangladesh, India, and Kenya health concerns were cited by women more frequently as reasons for having an abortion. 1% of women in the 2004 survey-based U.S. study became pregnant as a result of rape and 0.5% as a result of incest. Another American study in 2002 concluded that 54% of women who had an abortion were using a form of contraception at the time of becoming pregnant while 46% were not. Inconsistent use was reported by 49% of those using condoms and 76% of those using the combined oral contraceptive pill; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage. Jones, Rachel K., Darroch, Jacqueline E., Henshaw, Stanley K. (2002). Contraceptive Use Among U.S. Women Having Abortions in 2000–2001. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 34 (6). Retrieved June 15, 2006. The Guttmacher Institute estimated that "most abortions in the United States are obtained by minority women" because minority women "have much higher rates of unintended pregnancy." Susan A. Cohen: Abortion and Women of Color: The Bigger Picture, Guttmacher Policy Review, Summer 2008, Volume 11, Number 3 Some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures. These might include the stigmatization of disabled persons, preference for children of a specific sex, disapproval of single motherhood, insufficient economic support for families, lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods, or efforts toward population control (such as China's one-child policy). These factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or sex-selective abortion. History of abortion "French Periodical Pills." An example of a clandestine advertisement published in an 1845 edition of the Boston Daily Times. Induced abortion can be traced to ancient times. There is evidence to suggest that, historically, pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods, including the administration of abortifacient herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques. The Hippocratic Oath, the chief statement of medical ethics for Hippocratic physicians in Ancient Greece, forbade doctors from helping to procure an abortion by pessary. Soranus, a second-century Greek physician, suggested in his work Gynaecology that women wishing to abort their pregnancies should engage in energetic exercise, energetic jumping, carrying heavy objects, and riding animals. He also prescribed a number of recipes for herbal baths, pessaries, and bloodletting, but advised against the use of sharp instruments to induce miscarriage due to the risk of organ perforation. It is also believed that, in addition to using it as a contraceptive, the ancient Greeks relied upon silphium as an abortifacient. Such folk remedies, however, varied in effectiveness and were not without risk. Tansy and pennyroyal, for example, are two poisonous herbs with serious side effects that have at times been used to terminate pregnancy. During the medieval period, physicians in the Islamic world documented detailed and extensive lists of birth control practices, including the use of abortifacients, commenting on their effectiveness and prevalence. They listed many different birth control substances in their medical encyclopedias, such as Avicenna listing 20 in The Canon of Medicine (1025) and Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi listing 176 in his Hawi (10th century). This was unparalleled in European medicine until the 19th century. Abortion in the 19th century continued, despite bans in both the United Kingdom and the United States, as the disguised, but nonetheless open, advertisement of services in the Victorian era suggests. In the 20th century the Soviet Union (1919), Iceland (1935) and Sweden (1938) were among the first countries to legalize certain or all forms of abortion. In 1935 Nazi Germany, a law was passed permitting abortions for those deemed "hereditarily ill," while women considered of German stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions. Social issues Sex-selective abortion and female infanticide Sonography and amniocentesis allows parents to determine sex before birth. The development of this technology has lead sex-selective abortion, or the targeted termination of female fetuses. It is suggested that sex-selective abortion might be partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some places. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia, and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in Mainland China, Taiwan, South Korea, and India. Banister, Judith. (1999-03-16). Son Preference in Asia - Report of a Symposium. Retrieved 2006-01-12. In India, the economic role of men, the costs associated with dowries, and a Hindu tradition which dictates that funeral rites must be performed by a male relative have led to a cultural preference for sons. Mutharayappa, Rangamuthia, Kim Choe, Minja, Arnold, Fred, & Roy, T.K. (1997). Son Preferences and Its Effect on Fertility in India. National Family Health Survey Subject Reports, Number 3. Retrieved 2006-01-12. The widespread availability of diagnostic testing, during the 1970s and '80s, led to advertisements for services which read, "Invest 500 rupees [for a sex test] now, save 50,000 rupees [for a dowry] later." In 1991, the male-to-female sex ratio in India was skewed from its biological norm of 105 to 100, to an average of 108 to 100. Researchers have asserted that between 1985 and 2005 as many as 10 million female fetuses may have been selectively aborted. The Indian government passed an official ban of pre-natal sex screening in 1994 and moved to pass a complete ban of sex-selective abortion in 2002. In the People's Republic of China, there is also a historic son preference. The implementation of the one-child policy in 1979, in response to population concerns, led to an increased disparity in the sex ratio as parents attempted to circumvent the law through sex-selective abortion or the abandonment of unwanted daughters. Sex-selective abortion might be an influence on the shift from the baseline male-to-female birth rate to an elevated national rate of 117:100 reported in 2002. The trend was more pronounced in rural regions: as high as 130:100 in Guangdong and 135:100 in Hainan. A ban upon the practice of sex-selective abortion was enacted in 2003. "China Bans Sex-selection Abortion." (2002-03-22). Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved 2006-01-12. Unsafe abortion Soviet poster circa 1925, promoting hospital abortions. Title translation: "Abortions performed by either trained or self-taught midwives not only maim the woman, they also often lead to death." Women seeking to terminate their pregnancies sometimes resort to unsafe methods, particularly where and when access to legal abortion is being barred. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines an unsafe abortion as being "a procedure...carried out by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment that does not conform to minimal medical standards, or both." Unsafe abortions are sometimes known colloquially as "back-alley" abortions. This can include a person without medical training, a professional health provider operating in sub-standard conditions, or the woman herself. Unsafe abortion remains a public health concern today due to the higher incidence and severity of its associated complications, such as incomplete abortion, sepsis, hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs. WHO estimates that 19 million unsafe abortions occur around the world annually and that 68,000 of these result in the woman's death. World Health Organization. (2004). "Unsafe abortion: global and regional estimates of unsafe abortion and associated mortality in 2000". Retrieved 2009-03-22. Complications of unsafe abortion are said to account, globally, for approximately 13% of all maternal mortalities, with regional estimates including 12% in Asia, 25% in Latin America, and 13% in sub-Saharan Africa. Salter, C., Johnson, H.B., and Hengen, N. (1997). Care for post abortion complications: saving women's lives. Population Reports, 25 (1). Retrieved 2006-02-22. A 2007 study published in the The Lancet found that, although the global rate of abortion declined from 45.6 million in 1995 to 41.6 million in 2003, unsafe procedures still accounted for 48% of all abortions performed in 2003.. Health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon. World Health Organization. (1998). Address Unsafe Abortion. Retrieved 2006-03-01. Abortion debate Pro-choice activists near the Washington Monument at the March for Women's Lives. Pro-life activists at the March for Life in 2007. The rally is held annually in Washington, DC. In the history of abortion, induced abortion has been the source of considerable debate, controversy, and activism. An individual's position on the complex ethical, moral, philosophical, biological, and legal issues is often related to his or her value system. The main positions are the pro-choice position, which argues in favor of access to abortion, and the pro-life position, which argues against access to abortion. Opinions of abortion may be best described as being a combination of beliefs on its morality, and beliefs on the responsibility, ethical scope, and proper extent of governmental authorities in public policy. Religious ethics also has an influence upon both personal opinion and the greater debate over abortion (see religion and abortion). Abortion debates, especially pertaining to abortion laws, are often spearheaded by advocacy groups belonging to one of two camps. In the United States, most often those in favor of greater legal restrictions on, or even complete prohibition of abortion, describe themselves as pro-life while those against legal restrictions on abortion describe themselves as pro-choice. Generally, the pro-life position argues that a human fetus is a human being with the right to live making abortion tantamount to murder. The pro-choice position argues that a woman has certain reproductive rights, especially the choice whether or not to carry a pregnancy to term. In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion. Debate also focuses on whether the pregnant woman should have to notify and/or have the consent of others in distinct cases: a minor, her parents; a legally married or common-law wife, her husband; or a pregnant woman, the biological father. In a 2003 Gallup poll in the United States, 79% of male and 67% of female respondents were in favor of legalized mandatory spousal notification; overall support was 72% with 26% opposed. The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. (2005-11-02). "Public Opinion Supports Alito on Spousal Notification Even as It Favors Roe v. Wade." Pew Research Center Pollwatch. Retrieved 2006-03-01. Public opinion A number of opinion polls around the world have explored public opinion regarding the issue of abortion. Results have varied from poll to poll, country to country, and region to region, while varying with regard to different aspects of the issue. A May 2005 survey examined attitudes toward abortion in 10 European countries, asking polltakers whether they agreed with the statement, "If a woman doesn't want children, she should be allowed to have an abortion". The highest level of approval was 81% (in the Czech Republic); the lowest was 47% (in Poland). TNS Sofres. (May 2005). European Values. Retrieved January 11, 2007. In North America, a December 2001 poll surveyed Canadian opinion on abortion, asking Canadians in what circumstances they believe abortion should be permitted; 32% responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstances, 52% that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14% that it should be legal in no circumstances. A similar poll in April 2009 surveyed people in the United States about U.S. opinion on abortion; 18% said that abortion should be "legal in all cases", 28% said that abortion should be "legal in most cases", 28% said abortion should be "illegal in most cases" and 16% said abortion should be "illegal in all cases". Pew Research Center.(2009). Retrieved 2009-05-02. A November 2005 poll in Mexico found that 73.4% think abortion should not be legalized while 11.2% think it should. Of attitudes in South America, a December 2003 survey found that 30% of Argentines thought that abortion in Argentina should be allowed "regardless of situation", 47% that it should be allowed "under some circumstances", and 23% that it should not be allowed "regardless of situation". A March 2007 poll regarding the abortion law in Brazil found that 65% of Brazilians believe that it "should not be modified", 16% that it should be expanded "to allow abortion in other cases", 10% that abortion should be "decriminalized", and 5% were "not sure". A July 2005 poll in Colombia found that 65.6% said they thought that abortion should remain illegal, 26.9% that it should be made legal, and 7.5% that they were unsure. Selected issues of the abortion debate Breast cancer hypothesis The abortion-breast cancer hypothesis (supporters call it the abortion-breast cancer link) posits that induced abortion increases the risk of developing breast cancer; it has been a controversial subject but the current scientific consensus has concluded that there is no significant association between first-trimester abortion and breast cancer risk. In early pregnancy, levels of estrogen increase, leading to breast growth in preparation for lactation. The hypothesis proposes that if this process is interrupted by an abortion before full maturity in the third trimester then more relatively vulnerable immature cells could be left than there were prior to the pregnancy, resulting in a greater potential risk of breast cancer. The hypothesis mechanism was first proposed and explored in rat studies conducted in the 1980s. Fetal pain debate Fetal pain, its existence, and its implications are part of a larger debate about abortion. Many researchers in the area of fetal development believe that a fetus is unlikely to feel pain until after the seventh month of pregnancy. Others disagree. "Study: Fetus feels no pain until third trimester", Associated Press via MSNBC (2005-08-24). Retrieved 2008-04-13. <ref Developmental neurobiologists suspect that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about 26 weeks) may be critical to fetal perception of pain. Johnson, Martin and Everitt, Barry. Essential reproduction Retrieved 2007-02-21. However, legislation has been proposed by pro-life advocates requiring abortion providers to tell a woman that the fetus may feel pain during an abortion procedure. Weisman, Jonathan. "House to Consider Abortion Anesthesia Bill", Washington Post 2006-12-05. Retrieved 2007-02-06. A review by researchers from the University of California, San Francisco in JAMA concluded that data from dozens of medical reports and studies indicate that fetuses are unlikely to feel pain until the third trimester of pregnancy. However a number of medical critics have since disputed these conclusions. At the end of the 20th century there was an emerging consensus among developmental neurobiologists that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about 26 weeks) is a critical event with regard to fetal perception of pain. Johnson, Martin and Everitt, Barry. Essential reproduction (Blackwell 2000), p. 215. Retrieved 2007-02-21. Other researchers such as Anand and Fisk have challenged this late date, positing that pain can be felt around 20 weeks. Paul, Annie. "The First Ache", New York Times 2008-02-10. Retrieved 2009-03-21. Because pain can involve sensory, emotional and cognitive factors, it may be "impossible to know" when painful experiences are perceived, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established. Johnson, Martin and Everitt, Barry. Essential reproduction (Blackwell 2000): "The multidimensionality of pain perception, involving sensory, emotional, and cognitive factors may in itself be the basis of conscious, painful experience, but it will remain difficult to attribute this to a fetus at any particular developmental age." Retrieved 2007-02-21. Effect upon crime rate A theory attempts to draw a correlation between the United States' unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall crime rate during the 1990s and the decriminalization of abortion 20 years prior. The suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a 1999 academic paper, The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime, authored by the economists Steven D. Levitt and John Donohue. They attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes: unwanted children, especially those born to mothers who are African-American, impoverished, adolescent, uneducated, and single. The change coincided with what would have been the adolescence, or peak years of potential criminality, of those who had not been born as a result of Roe v. Wade and similar cases. Donohue and Levitt's study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier, and those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions. Fellow economists Christopher Foote and Christopher Goetz criticized the methodology in the Donohue-Levitt study, noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as cocaine use, and recalculating based on incidence of crime per capita; they found no statistically significant results. Levitt and Donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted data set which took into account these concerns and reported that the data maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper. Such research has been criticized by some as being utilitarian, discriminatory as to race and socioeconomic class, and as promoting eugenics as a solution to crime. Levitt states in his book Freakonomics that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action—merely reporting data as economists. Mexico City Policy The Mexico City policy, also known as the "Global Gag Rule" required any non-governmental organization receiving US Government funding to refrain from performing or promoting abortion services in other countries. This had a significant effect on the health policies of many nations across the globe. The Mexico City Policy was instituted under President Reagan, suspended under President Clinton, reinstated by President George W. Bush, and suspended again by President Barack Obama on January 24, 2009. Religious Views Abortion law Before the scientific discovery in the nineteenth century that human development begins at fertilization, Garrison, Fielding. An Introduction to the History of Medicine, pages 566-567 (Saunders 1921). English common law forbade abortions after "quickening”, that is, after “an infant is able to stir in the mother's womb.” There was also an earlier period in England when abortion was prohibited "if the foetus is already formed" but not yet quickened. Both pre- and post-quickening abortions were criminalized by Lord Ellenborough's Act in 1803. Lord Ellenborough’s Act (1998). The Abortion Law Homepage. Retrieved February 20, 2007. In 1861, the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the Offences against the Person Act 1861, which continued to outlaw abortion and served as a model for similar prohibitions in some other nations. United Nations Population Division. (2002). Abortion Policies: A Global Review. Retrieved February 22, 2007. The Soviet Union, with legislation in 1920, and Iceland, with legislation in 1935, were two of the first countries to generally allow abortion. The second half of the 20th century saw the liberalization of abortion laws in other countries. The Abortion Act 1967 allowed abortion for limited reasons in the United Kingdom. In the 1973 case, Roe v. Wade, the United States Supreme Court struck down state laws banning abortion, ruling that such laws violated an implied right to privacy in the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada, similarly, in the case of R. v. Morgentaler, discarded its criminal code regarding abortion in 1988, after ruling that such restrictions violated the security of person guaranteed to women under the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canada later struck down provincial regulations of abortion in the case of R. v. Morgentaler (1993). By contrast, abortion in Ireland was affected by the addition of an amendment to the Irish Constitution in 1983 by popular referendum, recognizing "the right to life of the unborn". Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The right to life, the right to liberty, the right to security of person, and the right to reproductive health are major issues of human rights that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or absence of laws controlling abortion. Many countries in which abortion is legal require that certain criteria be met in order for an abortion to be obtained, often, but not always, using a trimester-based system to regulate the window of legality: In the United States, some states impose a 24-hour waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development, or require that parents be contacted if their minor daughter requests an abortion. Interactive maps comparing U.S. abortion restrictions by state LawServer In the United Kingdom, as in some other countries, two doctors must first certify that an abortion is medically or socially necessary before it can be performed. Other countries, in which abortion is normally illegal, will allow one to be performed in the case of rape, incest, or danger to the pregnant woman's life or health. A few nations ban abortion entirely: Chile, El Salvador, Ireland, Malta,and Nicaragua, although in 2006, the Chilean government began the free distribution of emergency contraception. Ross, Jen. (September 12, 2006). "In Chile, free morning-after pills to teens." The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2006-12-07. Gallardoi, Eduardo. (September 26, 2006). "Morning-After Pill Causes Furor in Chile." The Washington Post. Retrieved 2006-12-07. In Bangladesh, abortion is illegal, but the government has long supported a network of "menstrual regulation clinics", where menstrual extraction (manual vacuum aspiration) can be performed as menstrual hygiene. In places where abortion is illegal or carries heavy social stigma, pregnant women may engage in medical tourism and travel to countries where they can terminate their pregnancy. In the USA, it is not unusual for women to travel from one state to another for reasons of termination of pregnancy. In other animals Spontaneous abortion occurs in various animals. For example, in sheep, it may be caused by crowding through doors, or being chased by dogs. Spencer, James. Sheep Husbandry in Canada, page 124 (1911). In cows, abortion may be caused by contagious disease, such as Brucellosis or Campylobacter, but can often be controlled by vaccination. "Beef cattle and Beef production: Management and Husbandry of Beef Cattle”, Encyclopaedia of New Zealand (1966). Additionally, many other diseases are known to increase the risk of miscarriage in non-human animals. Abortion may also be induced in animals, in the context of animal husbandry. For example, abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly, or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant, or that are pregnant with twin foals. McKinnon, Angus et al. Equine Reproduction, page 563 (Wiley-Blackwell 1993). Feticide can occur in horses and zebras due to male harassment of pregnant mares or forced copulation, although the frequency in the wild has been questioned. Male Gray langur monkeys may attack females following male takeover, causing miscarriage. See also Abortion fund Anti-abortion violence Connolly v. DPP Fetal rights Late-term abortion Minors and abortion Paternal rights and abortion Population control Self-induced abortion Stem cell controversy References External links Abortion Policies: A Global Review MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Abortion The following information resources may be created by those with a non-neutral position in the abortion debate: The Guttmacher Institute Johnston's Archive: Abortion Statistics and Other Data

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Kubla_Khan

Draft of "Kubla Khan" "Kubla Khan; or, A Vision in a Dream: A Fragment" is a poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, which takes its title from the Mongol and Chinese emperor Kublai Khan of the Yuan Dynasty. Coleridge claimed he wrote the poem in the autumn of 1797 at a farmhouse near Exmoor, England, but it may have been composed on one of a number of other visits to the farm. It also may have been revised a number of times before it was first published in 1816. Structure and theme The poem's opening lines are often quoted, and it introduces the name Xanadu (or Shangdu, the summer palace of Kublai Khan): Coleridge claimed that the poem was inspired by an opium-induced dream (implicit in the poem's subtitle A Vision in a Dream) but that the composition was interrupted by a person from Porlock. Some have speculated that the vivid imagery of the poem stems from a waking hallucination, most likely opium-induced. Additionally a quotation from William Bartram Coleridge's and other notes about the poem is believed to have been a source of the poem. There is widespread speculation on the poem's meaning, some suggesting the author is merely portraying his vision while others insist on a theme or purpose. Others believe it is a poem stressing the beauty of creation, and some read sexual allusions throughout. Inspiration for this poem also comes from Marco Polo's description of Shangdu and Kublai Khan from his book Il Milione, which was included in Samuel Purchas' Pilgrimage, Vol. XI, 231. When he declared himself emperor the historical Kublai claimed he had the Mandate of Heaven, a traditional Chinese concept of rule by divine permission, and therefore gained absolute control over an entire nation. Between warring and distributing the wealth his grandfather Genghis Khan had won, Kublai spent his summers in Xandu (better known now as Shangdu, or Xanadu) and had his subjects build him a home suitable for a son of God. This story is described in the first two lines of the poem, "In Xanadu did Kubla Khan/A stately pleasure-dome decree" (1-2). The end of the third paragraph gives us another close-up view of Kubla. At his home Kublai had, on hand, some ten thousand horses, which he used as a means of displaying his power. Only he and those to whom he gave explicit permission (for committing miscellaneous acts of valour) were allowed to drink their milk. Hence the closing image of "the milk of Paradise". (54) See also Alph River and Xanadu Hills, geographic features in Antarctica named from the poem. References External links Full text of the poem Explicated for an undergraduate class "Kubla Khan" and the Embodied Mind, a detailed analysis of the poem

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Politics_of_Dominica

Politics of Dominica takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Dominica is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the House of Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Executive branch |President |Nicholas Liverpool | |7 October 2003 |- |Prime Minister |Roosevelt Skerritt |DLP |8 January 2004 |- |Leader of the Opposition |Ronald Green |UWP |8 August 2008 |} A president and prime minister make up the executive branch. Nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the leader of the opposition party, the president is elected for a 5-year term by the parliament. The president appoints as prime minister the leader of the majority party in the parliament and also appoints, on the prime minister's recommendation, members of the parliament from the ruling party as cabinet ministers. The prime minister and cabinet are responsible to the parliament and can be removed on a no-confidence vote. Legislative branch The House of Assembly has 32 members. 21 members are elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies. 9 members are senators appointed by the President; 5 on the advice of the Prime Minister and 4 on the advice of the leader of the opposition. A Speaker is elected by the elected members after an election. There is also 1 ex-officio member, the clerk of the house. The head of state - the president -is elected by the House of Assembly. The regional representatives decide whether senators are to be elected or appointed. If appointed, five are chosen by the president with the advice of the prime minister and four with the advice of the opposition leader. If elected, it is by vote of the regional representatives. Elections for representatives and senators must be held at least every 5 years, although the prime minister can call elections any time. Dominica has a two-party system, which means that there are two dominant political parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. Dominica was once a three-party system, but in the past few years the Dominica Labour Party and the greatly diminished Dominica Freedom Party have built a coalition. Political parties and elections Judicial branch Dominica's legal system is based on English common law. There are three magistrate's courts, with appeals made to the Eastern Caribbean court of appeal and, ultimately, to the Privy Council in London. The Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (located in Saint Lucia), one of the six judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction. Administrative divisions Councils elected by universal suffrage govern most towns. Supported largely by property taxation, the councils are responsible for the regulation of markets and sanitation and the maintenance of secondary roads and other municipal amenities. The island also is divided into 10 parishes, whose governance is unrelated to the town governments: Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, Saint Peter. International organization participation ACCT, ACP, ALBA, Caricom, CDB, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ITU, ITUC, NAM (observer), OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO Further reading Matthias Catón: "Dominica" in: Elections in the Americas. A Data Handbook, vol. 1, ed. by Dieter Nohlen. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005: pp. 223–237 ISBN 0-19-928357-5

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Politics_of_Luxembourg

Politics of Luxembourg takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Luxembourg is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is under the constitution of 1868, as amended, exercised by the government, by the Grand Duke and the Council of Government (cabinet), which consists of a prime minister and several other ministers. Usually the prime minister is the leader of the political party or coalition of parties having the most seats in parliament. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, elected directly to 5-year terms. Recent political history Since the end of World War II, the Christian Social People's Party (CSV) has usually been the dominant partner in governing coalitions. The Roman Catholic-oriented CSV resembles Christian Democratic parties in other West-European countries and enjoys broad popular support. The Socialist Party (LSAP) was a junior partner in most governments from 1974 either with the CSV from 1984–1999 or the DP from 1974-1979. The DP is a center party, drawing support from the professions, merchants, and urban middle class. Like other west European liberal parties, it advocates both social legislation and minimum government involvement in the economy. It also is strongly pro-NATO. The DP had been a junior partner in coalition governments with the CSV from 1999–2004 and 1979-1984, and senior partner in coalition governments with the LSAP from 1974-1979. The Communist Party (PCL), which received 10%-18% of the vote in national elections from World War II to the 1960s, won only two seats in the 1984 elections, one in 1989, and none in 1994. Its small remaining support lies in the "steel belt" of the industrialized south. The Green Party has received growing support since it was officially formed in 1983. It opposes both nuclear weapons and nuclear power and supports environmental and ecological preservation measures. This party generally opposes Luxembourg's military policies, including its membership in NATO. In the June 2004 parliamentary elections, the CSV won 24, the LSAP 14, the DP 10, the Green Party 7, and the ADR 5. The Left and the Communist Party lost their single seat in part due to their separate campaigns. The Democratic Party which had become the junior coalition partner in 1999 registered heavy losses. The long-reigning Christian Socialist (CSV) was the main winner, partly due to the personal popularity of the prime minister Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV). In July 2004, it chose the LSAP as its coalition partner. Jean Asselborn (LSAP) was appointed as the Vice Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Immigration. A complete list of all governments is maintained on the website of the Government of Luxembourg. Government website In 2008, a bitter controversy over euthanasia had parliament pass a measure which would restrict the veto powers of the grand-duke, who had opposed the pro-euthanasia law on the grounds of his private christian conscience, much like what had occurred in Belgium in the early 1990s on the topic of abortion. Executive branch | Grand Duke | Henri | | 7 October 2000 |- | Prime Minister | Jean-Claude Juncker | CSV | 26 January 1995 |- | Deputy Prime Minister | Jean Asselborn | LSAP | 31 July 2004 |} Luxembourg has a parliamentary form of government with a constitutional monarchy inherited by male-preference primogeniture. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is exercised by the Grand Duke or Grand Duchess and the cabinet, which consists of a Prime Minister and several other ministers. The Grand Duke has the power to dissolve the legislature and reinstate a new one. However, since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the nation. Constitution of Luxembourg. Government of Luxembourg. URL accessed 19 May 2006. The monarch is hereditary. The prime minister and vice prime minister are appointed by the monarch, following popular election to the Chamber of Deputies; they are responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. The government is currently a coalition of the CSV and LSAP. Legislative branch The Chamber of Deputies (Châmber vun Députéirten/Chambre des députés) has 60 members, elected for a five year term by proportional representation in four multi-seat constituencies. The Council of State (Conseil d'État) is an advisory body composed of 21 ordinary citizens appointed by the Grand Duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation. Structure. Conseil d'Etat. URL accessed 19 May 2006. The function of councillor ends after a continuous or discontinuous period of fifteen years or when the relevant person reaches the age of seventy-two. The responsibilities of the members of the Conseil d'Etat are extracurricular to their normal professional duties. Political parties and elections Judicial branch Luxembourg law is a composite of local practice, legal tradition, and French, Belgian, and German systems. The apex of the judicial system is the Superior Court of Justice (Cour Superieure de Justice), whose judges are appointed by the Grand Duke for life. The same goes for the Administrative Court (Tribunal Administratif). Administrative divisions The Grand Duchy is divided in 3 districts: Diekirch, Grevenmacher, Luxembourg. Military Luxembourg's contribution to its defence and to NATO consists of a small army. Being a landlocked country, it has no navy. It also has no air force. However 18 NATO AWACS airplanes ware registered as aircraft of Luxembourg as a matter of political and aviational convenience. Luxembourg - NATO AEW Force. 8 September 2005. Aeroflight.co.uk. URL accessed 9 May 2006. International Organization Membership Luxembourg is member of ACCT, Australia Group, Benelux, CE, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, NATO, NEA, NSG, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WEU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, Zangger Committee See also List of political parties in Luxembourg References

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Isopropyl_alcohol

Isopropyl alcohol (also propan-2-ol, 2-propanol, iso, isopro, isoprop, rubbing alcohol, or the abbreviation IPA) is a common name for isopropanol, a colorless, flammable chemical compound with a strong odor. It has the molecular formula C3H7OH and is the simplest example of a secondary alcohol, where the alcohol carbon is attached to two other carbons. It is an isomer of propanol. Production Isopropyl alcohol is produced by combining water and propene. There are two processes for achieving this: indirect hydration via the sulfuric acid process and direct hydration. The former process, which can use low-quality propylene, predominates in the USA while the latter process, which requires high-purity propylene, is more commonly used in Europe. These processes give predominantly isopropyl alcohol rather than 1-propanol because the addition of water or sulfuric acid to propylene follows Markovnikov's rule. The indirect process reacts propylene with sulfuric acid to form a mixture of sulfate esters. Subsequent hydrolysis of these esters produces isopropyl alcohol. Direct hydration reacts propylene and water, either in gas or liquid phases, at high pressures in the presence of solid or supported acidic catalysts. Both processes require that the isopropyl alcohol be separated from water and other by-products by distillation. Isopropyl alcohol and water form an azeotrope and simple distillation gives a material which is 87.9% by weight isopropyl alcohol and 12.1% by weight water. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th ed. pp 2143-2184 Pure (anhydrous) isopropyl alcohol is made by azeotropic distillation of the "wet" isopropyl alcohol using either diisopropyl ether or cyclohexane as azeotroping agents. Uses Isopropyl alcohol is cheaply available. Like acetone, it dissolves a wide range of nonpolar compounds. It is also relatively nontoxic and dries (evaporates) quickly. Thus it is used widely as a solvent and as a cleaning fluid (for dissolving lipophilic contaminants such as oil). Examples of this use include cleaning electronic devices such as contact pins (like those on ROM cartridges), magnetic tape and disk heads (such as those in audio and video tape recorders and floppy disk drives), the lenses of lasers in optical disc drives (e.g. CD, DVD) and removing thermal paste from IC packages (such as CPUs.) It is also used to clean LCD and glass computer monitor screens (at some risk to the anti-reflection coating of some screens), and used by many music shops to give second-hand or worn records newer-looking sheens (though it may leach plasticizer from vinyl, making it more rigid.) It cleans white boards and other unwanted ink related marks very well (at the risk of damaging the non-stick surface of the white board). Isopropyl alcohol also works well at removing smudges, dirt, and fingerprints from cell phones and PDAs. It is effective at removing residual glue from some sticky labels (but some other adhesives used on tapes and paper labels are resistant to it.) It can also be used to remove stains from most fabrics, wood, cotton, etc. Isopropyl alcohol is also used to remove brake fluid traces from hydraulic disk brake systems, so that the brake fluid (usually DOT 3,DOT 4 or mineral oil) does not contaminate the brake pads resulting in poor braking. As a preservative (for biological specimens) isopropyl alcohol provides a cost-effective (when compared to pure ethanol) and comparatively non-toxic alternative to formaldehyde and other synthetic preservatives. When used for the preservation of specimens in solution concentrations of 90-99% are optimal, though concentrations as low as 70% can be used in emergencies. Sterilizing pads typically contain a 60-70% solution of isopropanol in water. Isopropyl alcohol is also commonly used as a cleaner and solvent in industry. Isopropanol is a major ingredient in "dry-gas" fuel additive. In significant quantities, water is a problem in fuel tanks as it separates from the gasoline and can freeze in the supply lines at cold temperatures. The isopropanol does not remove the water from the gasoline; rather, the isopropanol solubilizes the water in the gasoline. Once soluble, the water does not pose the same risk as insoluble water as it will no longer accumulate in the supply lines and freeze. Isopropanol is often sold in aerosol cans as a windscreen de-icer. Isopropanol is used as a water-drying aide for treating otitis externa, better known as swimmers ear. http://www.mcw.edu/pediatricoto/CommonHealthProblems/OtitisExternaSwimmersEar.htm Chemistry Unlike ethanol or methanol, isopropanol can be separated from aqueous solutions by adding a salt such as sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, or any of several other inorganic salts, since the alcohol is much less soluble in saline solutions than in salt-free water Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed. monograph 5069 The process is colloquially called salting out, and causes concentrated isopropanol to separate into a distinct layer. Being a secondary alcohol, isopropanol can be oxidized to the corresponding ketone acetone. This can be achieved using oxidizing agents such as chromic acid, or by dehydrogenation of isopropanol over a heated copper catalyst: (CH3)2CH-OH → (CH3)2CO + H2 Isopropanol may be converted to 2-Bromopropane using phosphorus tribromide, or dehydrated to propylene by heating with sulfuric acid. Isopropanol is often used as a hydride source in the Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction. Like most alcohols, isopropyl alcohol reacts with active metals such as potassium to form alkoxides which can be called isopropoxides. The reaction with aluminium (initiated by a trace of mercury) is used to prepare the catalyst aluminium isopropoxide. Isopropanol has a maximum absorbance at 204 nm in an ultraviolet-visible spectrum. Safety Isopropyl alcohol vapor is more dense than air and is highly flammable with a very wide combustible range. It should be kept away from heat and open flame. When mixed with air or other oxidizers it can explode through deflagration. Isopropyl alcohol has also been reported to form explosive peroxides. Like many organic solvents, long term application to the skin can cause defatting. Toxicology Isopropyl alcohol is oxidized by the liver into acetone by alcohol dehydrogenase. Symptoms of isopropyl alcohol poisoning include flushing, headache, dizziness, CNS depression, nausea, vomiting, anesthesia, and coma. Use in well-ventilated areas and use protective gloves while using. Poisoning can occur from ingestion, inhalation, or absorption. Isopropyl alcohol is about twice as toxic as ethanol, though isopropyl alcohol does not cause an anion gap acidosis as do ethanol and methanol, though this may be seen as a result of hypotension and lactic acidosis. Such an acid gap is a chemical abnormality in the body fluids where elevated serum proton concentration (acidity) is balanced by an unusual anion that is not normally analysed, and the lowered pH causes depletion of bicarbonate anion. Isopropyl alcohol does produce an osmolal gap between the calculated and measured osmolalities of serum, as do the other alcohols. Overdoses may cause a fruity odor on the breath as a result of its metabolism to give acetone which is not further metabolized. Tiess, D: Z. ges. Hygiene 31, 530-531 (1985) Isopropyl alcohol is more potent than ethanol as a CNS depressant, and its metabolite, acetone, is a CNS depressant in its own right. Around 15g of isopropanol can have a toxic affect on a 70 kg human if left untreated, however it is not nearly as toxic as methanol or ethylene glycol. Calculated from TDLO listed at Oxford University MSDS, assuming weight of 70 kg See also Isopropyl alcohol (data page) References External links The US government's Occupational Safety and Health Administration's guidelines for isopropyl alcohol. MSDS sheet for Isopropyl Alcohol Vapor pressure and liquid density calculation Lab Manager Article on Working with Isopropyl Alcohol

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Motorola

Motorola, Inc. () is an American, multinational, Fortune 100, Fortune 500 2008: Motorola - MOT telecommunications company based in Schaumburg, Illinois. It is a manufacturer of wireless telephone handsets, also designing and selling wireless network infrastructure equipment such as cellular transmission base stations and signal amplifiers. Motorola's home and broadcast network products include set-top boxes, digital video recorders, and network equipment used to enable video broadcasting, computer telephony, and high-definition television. Its business and government customers consist mainly of wireless voice and broadband systems used to build private networks and public safety communications systems like Astro and Dimetra. History Local branch in Glostrup, Denmark. Motorola started in Chicago, Illinois as Galvin Manufacturing Corporation in 1928 with its first product being a battery eliminator. The name Motorola was adopted in 1930, and the word has been used as a trademark since the 1930s. Founders Paul Galvin and Joseph Galvin came up with the name Motorola when the company started manufacturing car radios (see "Birth of the Motorola Brand") in 1930; the name is a combination of "motor" and "Victrola." Many of Motorola's Products have been radio-related, starting with a battery eliminator for radios, through the first walkie-talkie in the world in 1940, defense electronics, cellular infrastructure equipment, and mobile phone manufacturing. In the same year, the company built its research and development program with Daniel Noble, a pioneer in FM radio and semiconductor technologies joined the company as director of research. In 1943, Motorola went public and in 1947, the name changed to its present name. The present logo was introduced in 1955. At this time, Motorola's main business was producing and selling television and radios. In 1952, Motorola opened its first international subsidiary in Toronto, Canada to produce radios and televisions. In 1953, Motorola established the Motorola Foundation to support leading universities in the United States. In 1955, years after Motorola started its research and development laboratory in Phoenix, Arizona to research new solid-state technology, Motorola introduced the world's first commercial high-power germanium-based transistor. Beginning in 1958 with Explorer 1, Motorola provided radio equipment for most NASA space-flights for decades including during the 1969 moon landing. A year later, it established a subsidiary to conduct licensing and manufacturing for international markets. In 1960, Motorola introduced the world's first "large-screen" (19-inch), transistorized, cordless portable television. In 1963, Motorola, which had very successfully begun making televisions in 1947 introduced the world's first truly rectangular color TV picture tube which quickly became the industry standard. In 1974, Motorola sold its television business. In 1976, Motorola moved to its present headquarters in Schaumburg. In September 1983, the firm made history when the FCC approved the DynaTAC 8000X telephone, the world's first-only commercial cellular device. The company was also strong in semiconductor technology, including integrated circuits used in computers. Motorola has been the main supplier for the microprocessors used in Atari ST, Commodore Amiga, Color Computer, and Apple Macintosh personal computers. The PowerPC family was developed with IBM and in a partnership with Apple (known as the AIM alliance). Motorola also has a diverse line of communication products, including satellite systems, digital cable boxes and modems. In 1986, Motorola invented the Six Sigma quality improvement process. This became a global standard. In 1990, General Instrument Corporation, which was later acquired by Motorola, proposed the first all-digital HDTV standard. In the same year, the company introduced the Bravo numeric pager which became the world's best-selling pager. In 1991, Motorola demonstrated the world's first working-prototype digital cellular system and phones using GSM standard in Hanover, Germany. In 1994, Motorola introduced the world's first commercial digital radio system that combined paging, data and cellular communications and voice dispatch in a single radio network and handset. In 1995, Motorola introduced the world's first two-way pager which allowed users to receive text messages and e-mail and reply with a standard response. On September 15, 1999, Motorola announced it would buy General Instrument in an $11 billion stock swap. General Instrument had long been the No. 1 cable TV equipment provider, supplying cable operators with end-to-end hybrid fiber coax cable solutions. This meant that GI offers all cable TV transmission network components from the head-end to the fiber optic transmission nodes to the cable set-top boxes, now at the availability of Motorola. In June 2000, Motorola and Cisco supplied the world's first commercial GPRS cellular network to BT Cellnet in the United Kingdom. The world's first GPRS cell phone was also developed by Motorola. In 2002, Motorola introduced the world's first wireless cable modem gateway which combined a high-speed cable modem router with an ethernet switch and wireless home gateway. In 2003, Motorola introduced the world's first handset to combine a Linux operating system and Java technology with "full PDA functionality". In June 2006, Motorola acquired the world-class software platform (AJAR) developed by the British company TTP Communications plc. Motorola acquires TTPCom AJAR Software Platform Products Motorola creates numerous products for use of the government, public safety officials, business installments, and the general public. These products include cell phones, laptops, computer processors, and radio communication devices. The Motorola RAZR line has sold over 120 million units bringing the company to the number two mobile phone slot in 2005. Divisional Products: http://www.motorola.com/content.jsp?globalObjectId=8892 Enterprise Mobility Solutions: Headquarters, located in Schaumburg, IL, comprises communications offered to government and public safety sectors and enterprise mobility business. Motorola develops analog and digital two-way radio, voice and data communications products and systems, mobile computing, advanced data capture, wireless infrastructure and RFID solutions to customers worldwide. Home & Networks Mobility: Headquarters, located in Horsham, PA, produces end-to-end systems that facilitate uninterrupted access to digital entertainment, information and communications services via wired and wireless mediums. Motorola develops digital video system solutions, interactive set-top devices, voice and data modems for digital subscriber line and cable networks, broadband access systems for cable and satellite television operators, and also wireline carriers and wireless service providers. Mobile Devices: Headquarters, located in Libertyville, IL, currently the least prosperous arm of the firm, designs wireless handsets, but also licenses much of its intellectual properties. This includes cellular and wireless systems and as well as integrated applications, and Bluetooth accessories. See also: List of Motorola products (including Freescale's semiconductors) Finances Motorola's handset division recorded a loss of $1.2 billion in the fourth quarter of 2007, while the company as a whole earned $100 million during that quarter. Motorola profit slides on mobile woes; shares hit 5-year low - MarketWatch It lost several key executives to rivals Motorola CTO Richard Nottenburg takes off - Engadget and the web site TrustedReviews has called the company's products repetitive and uninnovative. Motorola Phones Sales Crash 38 Per Cent - TrustedReviews Motorola laid off 3,500 workers in January 2008 Motorola to lay off 3,500 - Engadget Mobile , followed by a further 4,000 job cuts in June Motorola cuts another 4,000 jobs - Engadget Mobile and another 20% cut of its research division a few days later. slashing 20% of its research division In July 2008, a large number of executives left Motorola to work on Apple Inc.'s iPhone. Motorola sues former employee turned Apple exec for ganking trade secrets - Engadget The company's handset division was also put on offer for sale. Motorola insider tells all about the fall of a technology icon - Engadget In July 2008, analyst Mark McKechnie from American Technology Research said that Motorola "would be lucky to fetch $500 million" for selling its handset business and analyst Richard Windsor said that Motorola might have to pay someone to take the division off the company and that the company may even exit the handset market altogether. Its global market share has been on the decline; from 18.4% of the market in 2007, it had a share of just 9.7% by 2008. Spin-offs Television and radio manufacturing In 1974, Motorola divested itself of its television and radio-manufacturing division, which included the popular Quasar brand of electronics. This division was acquired by Matsushita, already well-known under its Panasonic brand in North America, where it was looking to expand. Iridium Motorola developed the first truly global communication network using a set of 66 satellites. The business ambitions behind this project and the need for raising venture capital to fund the project led to the creation of the Iridium company in the late 1990s. While the technology was proven to work, Iridium failed to attract sufficient customers and it filed for bankruptcy in 1999. Obligations to Motorola and loss of expected revenue caused Motorola to spin off the ON Semiconductor (ONNN) business August 4, 1999, raising for Motorola about $1.1 Billion. Motorola manufactured two satellite phone handsets for this network - the 9500 and 9505 as well as transceiver units. Some of these are still in production by an OEM but sold under the Iridium brand. Government and defense Further declines in business during 2000 and 2001, caused Motorola to spin off its government and defense business to General Dynamics. The business deal closed September 2001. Thus GD Decision Systems was formed (and later merged with General Dynamics C4 Systems) from Motorola's Integrated Information Systems Group. Semiconductor On October 16, 2003, Motorola announced that it would spin off its Semiconductor Products Sector into a separate company called Freescale Semiconductor, Inc.. The new company began trading on the New York Stock Exchange on July 16th of the following year. Automotive In July, 2006 Motorola completed the sale of its automotive business to Continental AG. Motorola’s automotive unit had annual sales of $1.6 billion (€1.33 billion) and employed 4,500. The divisions products included telematics systems used for vehicle navigation and safety services, engine and transmission control electronics, vehicle control, electronics and sensors used in steering, braking, and power doors and power windows. Biometrics In October, 2008, Motorola agreed to sell its Biometrics business to Safran, a French defense firm. Motorola's biometric business unit, headquartered in Anaheim, Calif. The deal is expected to close in Q1, 2009 Split On March 26, 2008, Motorola's board of directors approved a split into two different publicly traded companies. This came after talk of selling the handset division to another corporation. These new companies would comprise the business units of the current Motorola Mobile Devices and Motorola Broadband & Mobility Solutions. Originally it was expected that this action would be approved by regulatory bodies and complete by mid-2009, but the split has since been indefinitely delayed due to company restructuring problems and the 2008-2009 extreme economic downturn. Reardon, M.: "As losses return, Motorola delays its split", "CNET News", 2008-10-30, retrieved on 2009-04-26 Boycott and divestment In 2008, the US Campaign to End the Israeli Occupation launched its "Hang up on Motorola" boycott and divestment campaign . The campaign claims that Motorola supplies bomb fuses to Israel which were used in the civilian attack on the apartment building in Qana, Lebanon in 2006. In 2006, the New England United Methodist Church also investigated Motorola's ties with Israeli human rights violations and as a result has included the company on its divestiture list. In 2009, Hampshire College became the first university to divest from Motorola and other companies with links to Israel human rights violations. In April 2009 Motorola Israel Ltd. sold its Government Electronics Department. Quality systems The Six Sigma quality system was developed at Motorola even though it became best known through its use by General Electric. It was created by engineer Bill Smith, under the direction of Bob Galvin (son of founder Paul Galvin) when he was running the company. Motorola University is one of many places that provide Six Sigma training. Environmental record Motorola, Inc., along with the Arizona Water Co. has been identified as the sources of trichloroethylene (TCE) contamination that took place in Scottsdale, Arizona. The malfunction led to a ban on the use of water that lasted three days and affected almost 5000 people in the area. Motorola was found to be the main source of the TCE, an industrial solvent that is thought to cause cancer. The TCE contamination was caused by a faulty blower on an air stripping tower that was used to take TCE from the water, and Motorola has attributed the situation to operator error. http://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/2008/05/09/20080509sr-pvwater0510-ON.html The Arizona Republic Retrieved May 15, 2008 Sponsorships Motorola sponsored Scottish Premier League club Motherwell F.C. for 11 years. This long term deal ended after the company started to reduce its manufacturing operations in Scotland. The company also sponsored a cycling team that counted Lance Armstrong amongst its members. Ratings from interest groups Motorola received a 100% rating on the Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign in 2004, 2005, and 2006, starting in the third year of the report. References External links Motorola Official Website Motorola Careers Motorola as Member of GSMA be-x-old:Motorola jt:Motorola

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Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States

The 'foreign policy of the United States is the policy by which the United States interacts with foreign nations. United States foreign policy is highly influential on the world stage, as it is the only remaining superpower. The global reach of the United States is backed by a 13 trillion dollar economy, the largest in the world of all countries formally recognized by the United States for which data is available is here; the military expenditures for said countries is available here; and the political details are available on the main United States page here here.</ref> The officially stated goals of the foreign policy of the United States, as mentioned in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the U.S. Department of State, are "to create a more secure, democratic, and prosperous world for the benefit of the American people and the international community." U.S. Dept of State - Foreign Policy Agenda In addition, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs states as some of its jurisdictional goals: "export controls, including nonproliferation of nuclear technology and nuclear hardware; measures to foster commercial intercourse with foreign nations and to safeguard American business abroad; International commodity agreements; international education; and protection of American citizens abroad and expatriation." Committee on Foreign Affairs: U.S. House of Representatives U.S. foreign policy has been the subject of much debate, criticism and praise both domestically and abroad. http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0204-01.htm Foreign policy powers of the President and Congress On August 15, 2008 President George W. Bush stated: "Bullying and intimidation are not acceptable ways to conduct foreign policy in the 21st century." Bush to Russia: 'Bullying and intimidation are not acceptable', Los Angeles Times Subject to the advice and consent role of the U.S. Senate, the President of the United States negotiates treaties with foreign nations, but treaties enter into force only if ratified by two-thirds of the Senate. U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 2, http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/constitution.html The President is also Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces, and as such has broad authority over the armed forces once they are deployed, however only Congress has authority to declare war, U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 8, http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/constitution.html and the civilian and military budget is written by the Congress. U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 7, http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/constitution.html The United States Secretary of State is the foreign minister of the United States and is the primary conductor of state-to-state diplomacy. Both the Secretary of State and ambassadors are appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. Congress also has power to regulate commerce with foreign nations. Brief history 1776–1898 Captain William Bainbridge paying the US tribute to the Dey of Algiers, circa 1800 From the establishment of the United States after the American Revolution until the Spanish-American War, U.S. foreign policy reflected the country's regional, as compared to global, focus. During the American Revolution, the United States established relations with several European powers, convincing France, Spain, and the Netherlands to intervene in its war against Britain, a mutual enemy. After the revolution, the U.S. moved to restore peace and resume its substantial trade with Great Britain in what is called the "Olive Branch Policy". Following French involvment in the Revolution, led by Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette, the United States maintained significant relations with France, as manifested by presenting the United States with the Statue of Liberty in 1886. In general, though, the United States followed an isolationist foreign policy until attacks against U.S. shipping by Barbary Coast corsairs spurred the country into developing a naval force projection capability, resulting in the First Barbary War in 1801. Early politicians debated the wisdom of developing a navy and becoming involved in international affairs, but the United States Navy was created to prevent further economic losses: payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary pirate states amounted to 20% of United States government annual revenues in 1800. Following that conflict, the United States engaged in a quasi-war with France and the War of 1812 with Great Britain. In response to the new independence of Spanish colonies in Latin America in the early 1800s, the United States established the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, a policy declaring its opposition to European interference in the Americas. Around the same time, U.S. expansion, ideologically fueled by "manifest destiny", led to the Indian Wars and war against Mexico, with the U.S. taking what are now the territories of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California, and to diplomatic conflict with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and Russia over the Oregon Territory and with Spain over Florida. In 1854, the U.S. used its Navy to force Japan to open to international trade. During the American Civil War, the Union states accused Britain and France of supporting the Confederate States. After the end of conflict with the British military in 1815, consolidating its territories following the Civil War and the withdrawal of the last remnants of French influence in the region in 1867 when Mexican forces deposed Emperor Maximilian, the United States was unchallenged regionally. This stability, combined with the country's natural resources and growing population, resulted in substantial domestic prosperity and growth of geopolitical influence. 1893 - 1914 On January 16, 1893, United States diplomatic and military personnel conspired with a small group of individuals to overthrow the constitutional government of the Hawaiian Kingdom and prepared to provide for annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the United States of America, under a treaty of annexation submitted to the US Senate, on February 15, 1893. Victory in the Spanish-American War of 1898, and the subsequent acquisition of Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam, marked the United States' shift from a regional to a more global power and ejected Spain from the Americas, South East Asia and Oceania. The Philippine-American War arose from the on-going Philippine Revolution against imperialism. John M. Gates, “War-Related Deaths in the Philippines”, Pacific Historical Review , v. 53, No. 3 (August, 1984), 367-378. The 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, proclaiming a right for the United States to intervene to stabilize weak states in the Americas, further weakened European influence in Latin America and established U.S. regional hegemony. Donald Rumsfeld as U.S. special envoy to the Middle East, meets Saddam Hussein on 19-20 December 1983. Rumsfeld visited again on 24 March 1984, the day the UN reported that Iraq had used mustard gas and tabun nerve agent against Iranian troops. U.S. past haunts Iraq war plans: reports detail U.S. weapons, intelligence aid to Saddam Hussein in '80s - World World War I (1914–1918) Despite its reluctance to directly involve itself in continental European affairs, the United States provided substantial loans to the Allies, but only entered World War I after attacks by German U-boats substantially interfered with U.S. shipping. During the peace conference at Versailles, U.S. attempts to shift international relations to an idealist by President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points,(e.g.Sykes–Picot Agreement) made during the war and geopolitical horse-trading. The United States benefited from its expanded visibility and role in international commerce but did not sign the treaty or participate in the League of Nations, which was created at the conference. U.S. domestic politics turned against idealist, international policies and the country returned to a more isolationist stance. The United States signed separate peace treaties with Germany, Austria, [www.firstworldwar.com/source/uspeacetreaty_austria.htm] and Hungary [www.firstworldwar.com/source/uspeacetreaty_hungary.htm] in August 1921. World War II (1941–1945) Similar to their involvement in WWI, the United States made significant loans to the Allies, and following the depression, its domestic industries boomed to produce war materials. The United States entered World War II in 1941, again on the Allied side, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declaration of war against the U.S. by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. After the war and devastation of its European and Asian rivals, the United States completed its transition from regional to global power. The United States was a major player in the establishment of the United Nations and became one of five permanent members of the Security Council, which holds greater power than the General Assembly. Cold War (1945–1991) From about the mid-40s until 1991, U.S. foreign policy was dominated by the Cold War, and characterized by its significant international military presence and greater diplomatic involvement. Seeking an alternative to the isolationist policies pursued after World War I, the United States defined a new policy called containment to oppose the spread of communism. The Cold War was characterized by a lack of global wars but a persistence of regional wars, often fought between client states and proxies of the United States and Soviet Union. During the Cold War, U.S. foreign policy objectives seeking to limit Soviet influence, involved the United States and its allies in the Korean War, the overthrow of the KGB supported Iranian government, the Vietnam War, the Six Day War and Yom Kippur War in the Middle East, and later, the policy of aiding anti-Soviet Mujahideen forces in Afghanistan (Operation Cyclone). Bin Laden comes home to roost, MSNBC.com Diplomatic initiatives included the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the opening of People's Republic of China and Detente. German Chancellor Angela Merkel and U.S. President George W. Bush By the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the U.S. had military and economic interests in every region of the globe. In March 1992, the New York Times received leaked parts of a "Defense Policy Guidance" document prepared by two principle authors at the U.S. Defense Department, Paul Wolfowitz and I. Lewis Libby. The policy document laid bare the post-cold war framework through which U.S. foreign policy would hence forth be guided. 1992 Wolfowitz U.S. Strategy Plan Document 1992 - present December 1991 marked both the collapse of the Soviet Union and the initiation of the Gulf War against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. After the Gulf War, many scholars, such as Zbigniew Brzezinski, claim the lack of a new strategic vision for U.S. foreign policy resulted in many missed opportunities for its foreign policy. During the 1990s, the United States mostly scaled back its foreign policy budget while focusing on its domestic economic prosperity. The United States also bombarded and participated in UN peacekeeping missions in the former Yugoslavia. After the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and Pentagon in Washington, D.C., the United States declared a "War on Terrorism." Since then, the United States launched wars against Afghanistan and Iraq (Second Gulf War) while pursuing Al-Qaeda and other militant organizations on a global level. Opinions of Iraq War Show Little Movement In his first formal television interview as President, Barack Obama addressed the Muslim world through an Arabic-language satellite TV network. He expressed interest and a commitment to repair relations that have deteriorated under the previous administration. Bush Doctrine The Bush Doctrine is a term used to describe the foreign policy doctrine of United States president George W. Bush. Scholars identify seven different "Bush Doctrines," including the willingness to use a "coalition of the willing" if the United Nations Security Council refuses to sanction violence, the doctrine of preemptive war, and the president's second-term "freedom agenda". Michael Abramowitz, "Many Versions of 'Bush Doctrine': Palin's Confusion in Interview Understandable, Experts Say" Washington Post September 13, 2008; Page A01 online Critics of the Bush Doctrine are suspicious of the increasing willingness of the US to use military force unilaterally. Critics Say Bush Doctrine Might Provoke 1st Strike It is also argued that the Bush Doctrine is too ideological and not pragmatic enough. There are further criticisms of the neoconservative foreign interventionism ideology. Neta C. Crawford, Just War Theory and the U.S. Counterterror War Foreign policy law In the United States, the term "treaty" is used in a more restricted legal sense than in international law. U.S. law distinguishes what it calls treaties, which are derived from the Treaty Clause of the United States Constitution, from congressional-executive agreements and executive agreements. All three classes are considered treaties under international law; they are distinct only from the perspective of internal United States law. The distinctions are primarily concerning their method of ratification (by 2/3rds of the Senate, by normal legislative process, or by the President alone) and their relationship to domestic law. Congressional-executive agreements vs. treaties Article II, Section 2 of the United States Constitution grants power to the President to make treaties with the "advice and consent" of two-thirds of the Senate. This is different from normal legislation which requires approval by simple majorities in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. However, throughout U.S. history, the President has also made "international agreements" through congressional-executive agreements (CEAs) that are ratified with only a majority from both houses of Congress, or sole-executive agreements made by the President alone. Though the constitution does not expressly provide for any alternative procedure and although some noted constitutional scholars, such as Laurence Tribe, believe that CEAs are unconstitutional, the Supreme Court of the United States has considered these agreements to be valid, and that any disagreements are a political question for the executive and legislative branches to work out amongst themselves. In addition, U.S. law distinguishes between self-executing treaties, which do not require additional legislative action, and non-self-executing treaties which do require the enactment of new laws. Domestic vs. international law The United States takes a different view from many other nations concerning the relationship between international and domestic law. Unlike nations that view international treaties and statutes as always superseding domestic law, international agreements instead are incorporated into the body of U.S. federal law. As a result, Congress can modify or repeal treaties by subsequent legislative action, even if this amounts to a violation of the treaty under international law. The 1900 Supreme Court ruling in the Paquete Habana declared that in the absence of clearly delineated, pre-existing statues (a "controlling executive act"), customary international law is applied. However, this also meant that if a law or statute already expressly allowed an action, it would be legal regardless of international law. This was further codified by the 1986 decision of the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals in Garcia-Mir v. Meese. In 1920, the Supreme Court ruled in Missouri v. Holland that international treaties carry the same weight as does any provision of the Constitution, and are binding on all states of the Union regardless of their own individual laws. This was seen as a possibly means of subverting constitutional provisions by way of a bilateral treaty. Nearly forty years later, though, in Reid v. Covert, the Court specified that any international agreement inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution is void under domestic law - the same as any other federal law in conflict with the Constitution - and while the Supreme Court could potentially rule a treaty provision to be unconstitutional and void under domestic law, it has never done so. The United States is not a party to the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. However, the State Department has taken the position that it is still binding, in that the Convention represents established customary law. The U.S. habitually includes in treaty negotiations the reservation that it will assume no obligations that are in violation of the U.S. Constitution, as mandated by the Supreme Court's ruling in Reid. However, the Vienna Convention provides that states are not excused from their treaty obligations on the grounds that they violate the state's constitution, unless the violation is manifestly obvious at the time of contracting the treaty. So for instance, if the Supreme Court found that a treaty violated the Constitution, it would no longer be binding on the United States under domestic law, but it would still be binding on the U.S. under international law - unless its unconstitutionality was manifestly obvious to other states at the time of the treaty's signing. It has also been argued by foreign governments and by international human rights advocates that many of these American reservations are so vague and broad as to be invalid. They are also invalid as being in violation of the Vienna Convention.<<< No longer true. See Medellín v. Texas Geography of the USA foreign policy Diplomatic relations Map indicating states and territories and their diplomatic relations with the U.S. President of the United States, George W. Bush (right) at Camp David in March 2003, hosting then British Prime Minister Tony Blair. The United States has one of the largest diplomatic presences of any nation. Almost every country in the world has both a U.S. embassy and an embassy of its own in Washington, D.C. Only a few countries do not have formal diplomatic relations with the United States. They are: Bhutan (the U.S. Embassy in New Delhi, India has consular responsibilities for Bhutan) Article on Bhutan Cuba Iran (the ambassador of Switzerland acts as intermediary between Iran and United States) North Korea Taiwan* (American Institute in Taiwan, under Taiwan Relations Act, is the de facto US Embassy) Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Western Sahara)* South Ossetia* Abkhazia* *These countries are not generally recognized (see List of unrecognized countries) In practical terms however, this lack of formal relations do not impede the U.S.'s communication with these nations. In the cases where no U.S. diplomatic post exists, American relations are usually conducted via the United Kingdom, Canada, Switzerland, or another friendly third-party. In the case of the Taiwan (Republic of China), de facto diplomatic relations are conducted through the American Institute in Taiwan. United States relations with Taiwan are generally cordial, but are not formal due to the recognition of the Peoples Republic of China as the sole Chinese regime. The U.S. also operates an "Interests Section in Havana". While this does not create a formal diplomatic relationship, it fulfils most other typical embassy functions. Territorial disputes The United States is involved with several territorial disputes, including maritime disputes with Canada over the Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Northwest Passage, and areas around Machias Seal Island and North Rock. "Transnational Issues". April 20, 2006. CIA World factbook. Accessed April 30, 2006. These disputes have become dormant recently, and are largely considered not to affect the strong relations between the two nations. Other disputes include: The U.S. Naval Base at Guantánamo Bay, which is leased from Cuba. Only mutual agreement or U.S. abandonment of the area can terminate the lease. Cuba contends that the lease is invalid as the Platt Amendment creating the lease was included in the Cuban Constitution under threat of force and thus is voided by article 52 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. However, even though the conditions surrounding the lease agreement can be debated, the fourth article of that same treaty specifies the non-retroactivity of its law on treaties made before it. Haiti claims Navassa Island. The U.S. has made no territorial claim in Antarctica (but has reserved the right to do so) and does not recognize the claims of any other nation. The Marshall Islands claim Wake Island. The U.S. maintains a Normal Trade Relations list and several countries are excluded from it, which means that their exports to the United States are subject to significantly higher tariffs. Allies A map of allies of the United States The United States is a founding member of NATO, the world's largest military alliance. The 28 nation alliance consists of Canada and much of Europe. Under the NATO charter, the United States is compelled to defend any NATO state that is attacked by a foreign power. NATO is restricted to within the North American and European areas. Starting in 1989, the United States also created a major non-NATO ally status (MNNA) for five nations; this number was increased in the late 1990s and following the September 11 attacks; it currently includes fourteen nations. Each such state has a unique relationship with the United States, involving various military and economic partnerships and alliances. In recent years, relations between the United States and India have improved. Shown here are Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh and George W. Bush exchanging handshakes in March 2006. The United States, has seven major non-NATO allies in the Greater Middle East region. In particular, Israel is provided by the US with billions in foreign aid annually (see Israel–United States relations). President Bush supported the 2006 Lebanon War and said Israel has a right to defend itself. Bush: 'Israel Has Right to Defend Itself' In January, 2007, the State Department informed Congress of preliminary findings that Israel may have violated agreements by using cluster bombs against civilian populated areas. A final determination has not been made. Israel has denied violating agreements, saying that it had acted in self-defense. CRS Report for Congress, Israel: Background and Relations with the United States Other MNNA and NATO allies include South Korea, Germany, Poland, Turkey, Pakistan, and Japan. Taiwan (Republic of China), does not have official diplomatic relations recognized and is no longer officially recognized by the State Department of the United States, but it conducts unofficial diplomatic relations through their de facto embassy, commonly known as the "Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office (TECRO)", and is considered to be a strong Asian ally of the United States. In 2005, U.S. President George W. Bush and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh signed a landmark agreement between the two countries on civilian nuclear energy cooperation. The deal is significant because India is not a member of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and detonated a nuclear device in 1974. The deal will greatly increase strategic and economic cooperation between the world's two largest democracies. LA Times article on Indo-US Deal .The U.S. has refused to give a similar deal to Pakistan, which also has nuclear capability. Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili with George W. Bush. "The United States of America will continue to support Georgia's democracy. South Ossetia and Abkhazia are part of Georgia, and the United States will work with our allies to ensure Georgia's independence and territorial integrity," Bush said. Bush Warns Russia: Breakaway South Ossetia, Abkhazia Are Part of Georgia, VOA News Barack Obama has pledged to "build a close strategic partnership" between the U.S. and India. Obama pledges partnership with India, MSN India - News U.S. State Secretary Condoleezza Rice signed the Defense Cooperation Agreement with Bulgaria, a new NATO member, in 2006. The treaty allows the U.S. (not NATO) to develop as joint US-Bulgarian facilities the Bulgarian air bases at Bezmer (near Yambol) and Graf Ignatievo (near Plovdiv), the Novo Selo training range (near Sliven), and a logistics centre in Aytos, as well as to use the commercial port of Burgas. At least 2,500 U.S. personnel will be located there. The treaty also allows the U.S. to use the bases "for missions in tiers country without a specific authorization from Bulgarian authorities," and grants U.S. militaries immunity from prosecution in this country. manir.info/article.php3?id_article=3651 OTAN - Le grand jeu des bases militaires en terre européenne, Manlio Dilucci, French translation published on May 9, 2006 in Le Grand Soir newspaper of an article originally published in Il Manifesto on April 30, 2006 Another agreement with Romania permits the U.S. to use the Mihail Kogălniceanu base and another one nearby. Prime Minister of Ukraine Yulia Tymoshenko meeting with Bush on April 1, 2008. Tymoshenko and Yushchenko both led the U.S.-applauded Orange Revolution. Ukraine's Orange Revolution and U.S. Policy Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili sees membership of the NATO as a premise of stability for Georgia. On March 9, 2007, President Saakashvili announced his plans to increase total Georgian troop strength in Iraq to 2000, making Georgia one of the biggest supporters of Coalition Forces, and keeping its troops in Kosovo and Afghanistan. Georgia to double troops in Iraq BBC Following the outbreak of war between Georgia and Russia on August 8, 2008, Mikheil Saakashvili said that Georgia was pulling its entire 2,000-strong contingent of troops from Iraq. During the 10th and 11th of August the US Air Force airlifted the whole contigent out of Iraq. There have been some concerns about Saakashvili monopolizing power since his coming to office in 2004. Tear gas used on Georgia protest, BBC News, 7 November 2007 Ukraine also has a close relationship with the United States. US President George W. Bush and both nominees for President of the United States in the 2008 election, U.S. senator Barack Obama and U.S. senator John McCain, did offer backing to Ukraine's membership of NATO. BBC NEWS | Europe | Bush to back Ukraine's Nato hopes Obama Statement on Ukraine's Commitment to Join NATO | U.S. Senator Barack Obama McCain Backs Tougher Line Against Russia - March 27, 2008 - The New York Sun Russian reactions are negative. Nato allies divided over Ukraine and Georgia, guardian.co.uk, December 2, 2008 At a Nato summit in Bucharest in April 2008 President Bush pressed NATO to ignore Russia’s objections and back membership for Ukraine and Georgia. Nato summit: George Bush backs Ukraine and Georgia for Nato, The Times, April 2, 2008 Ukraine is currently the only non-NATO member supporting every NATO mission. Bush backs Ukraine on Nato bid, BBC News, April 1, 2008 President Bush noted that the President of Ukraine Victor Yushchenko was the first foreign leader he called after his inaugural address. The Orange Revolution: One Year Later, Paula J. Dobriansky, Under Secretary for Democracy and Global Affairs, December 5, 2005 The UN Security Council remains divided on the question of Kosovo declaration of independence. Kosovo declared its independence on February 17, 2008, which Serbia opposes. Of the five members with veto power, USA, UK, and France recognized the declaration of independence, and China has expressed concern, while Russia considers it illegal. "In its declaration of independence, Kosovo committed itself to the highest standards of democracy, including freedom and tolerance and justice for citizens of all ethnic backgrounds," Bush said on February 19, 2008. Bush Hails Kosovo Independence, U.S. Department of State's Bureau of International Information Programs Bush insists Kosovo must be independent and receives hero's welcome in Albania, The Guardian Canada-United States relations The bilateral relationship between Canada and the United States is of extreme importance to both countries. About 75%-85% of Canadian trade is with the United States, and Canada is the United States' largest trading partner. While there are disputed issues between the two nations, relations are close and the two countries famously share the "world's longest undefended border." Canada was a close ally of the United States in both World Wars (though in both cases Canadian involvement preceded US involvement by several years), the Korean War, and the Cold War. Canada was an original member of NATO and the two countries' air defences are fused in NORAD. Puerto Rico Puerto Rico is a semi-autonomous territory of the United States. Puerto Ricans are subject to laws passed by the United States Congress without their consent and they are excluded from elections to Congress and President (although, as U.S. citizens, they are free to move to any of the 50 states and cast votes in elections there). According to the U.S. President's Task Force Report on the Political Status of Puerto Rico, (which was enabled by executive order from President Clinton in 2000 and was expressly endorsed by the George W. Bush Administration), Congress has "Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States". The Report by the President's task force on Puerto Rico's Status states that Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens. There is an elected local government for internal administration in which the Governor of Puerto Rico is elected every four years as the Head of Government. The President of the United States is regarded as the Head of State. Also a Resident Commissioner is elected to represent the people of Puerto Rico before the United States Congress. Puerto Rico is not a U.S. state but this has allowed Congress to exempt the Puerto Rican people from most federal income tax laws and to provide them with other tax preferences. There have been four plebiscites, all of which found support for the current Commonwealth status. Almost as many voters have favored statehood. Only 2.54% voted for independence in 1998. Raw materials need Persian Gulf An oil power plant in Iraq, which has world's second largest proven oil reserves. Iraq: Oil and Economy The U.S. currently produces about 40% of the oil that it consumes; its imports have exceeded domestic production since the early 1990s. Since the U.S.'s oil consumption continues to rise, and its oil production continues to fall, this ratio may continue to decline. Crude Oil and Total Petroleum Imports Top 15 Countries President George W. Bush has identified dependence on imported oil as an urgent "national security concern". Bush Leverage With Russia, Iran, China Falls as Oil Prices Rise, Bloomberg.com Two-thirds of the world's proven oil reserves are estimated to be found in the Persian Gulf. Shrinking Our Presence in Saudi Arabia, New York Times The End of Cheap Oil, National Geographic Despite its distance, the Persian Gulf region was first proclaimed to be of national interest to the United States during World War II. Petroleum is of central importance to modern armies, and the United States—as the world's leading oil producer at that time—supplied most of the oil for the Allied armies. Many US strategists were concerned that the war would dangerously reduce the US oil supply, and so they sought to establish good relations with Saudi Arabia, a kingdom with large oil reserves. Crude Designs: The Rip-Off of Iraq’s Oil Wealth The Persian Gulf region continued to be regarded as an area of vital importance to the United States during the Cold War. Three Cold War United States Presidential doctrines—the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, and the Nixon Doctrine—played roles in the formulation of the Carter Doctrine, which stated that the United States would use military force if necessary to defend its "national interests" in the Persian Gulf region. The war is about oil but it's not that simple, msnbc.com Carter's successor, President Ronald Reagan, extended the policy in October 1981 with what is sometimes called the "Reagan Corollary to the Carter Doctrine", which proclaimed that the United States would intervene to protect Saudi Arabia, whose security was threatened after the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War. The United States Navy and the Persian Gulf Some analysts have argued that the implementation of the Carter Doctrine and the Reagan Corollary also played a role in the outbreak of the 2003 Iraq War. What if the Chinese were to apply the Carter Doctrine?, Haaretz - Israel News Selling the Carter Doctrine, TIME Alan Greenspan claims Iraq war was really for oil, Times Online Oil giants to sign contracts with Iraq, The Guardian Africa USA are the main economic partner of Africa, behind China and France. Africa being rich in rare minerals (diamonds, uranium, cobalt), woods, as well as oil and agricultural productions (exotic fruits, cacao, coffee). Latin America In the Cold War era the U.S. establishment feared socialism and in some cases overthrew or undermined democratically elected governments perceived at the time as becoming left-wing or unfriendly to U.S. interests. Examples include the 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état, the 1973 Chilean coup d'état and the support of the Nicaraguan Contras. The '70s and '80s saw a shift of power towards corporations, and a polarization of the political election systems of many of the Latin American nations. Recently several left-wing parties have gained power through elections and have not been attacked. In particular Venezuela has been critical of the U.S.. Nicaragua, Bolivia, and Ecuador currently have governments sometimes seen as aligned with Venezuela. Left-wing governments in nations such as Brazil, Argentina, and Chile are more moderate. Governments in Peru and Colombia have closer relations with the U.S.. U.S. promotion of its version of democracy was emphasized by Jimmy Carter. Particularly in his first term, Ronald Reagan portrayed his policies in Central America as part of a struggle against Communism (see Salvadoran Civil War and Contras) and supported several brutal dictatorships. http://www.march.es/ceacs/publicaciones/working/archivos/1994_61.pdf After the Soviet collapse, both President George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton supported a version of democracy development in some countries. According to some theorists there is at least a superficial correlation between periods of democracy development and U.S. policy towards democracy in Latin America. Also earlier periods of U.S. democracy support occurred when democracies become more common. Such periods occurred during the 1920s, 1945-48, and 1958-63. Foreign aid Foreign assistance is a core component of the State Department's international affairs budget and is considered an essential instrument of U.S. foreign policy. There are four major categories of non-military foreign assistance: bilateral development aid, economic assistance supporting U.S. political and security goals, humanitarian aid, and multilateral economic contributions (eg., contributions to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund). Foreign Aid: An Introductory Overview of U.S. Programs and Policy In absolute dollar terms, the United States is the largest international aid donor ($22.7 billion in 2006), but as a percent of gross national income, its contribution is only 0.2%, proportionally much smaller than than contributions of countries such as Sweden (1.04%) and the United Kingdom (0.52%). The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) manages the bulk of bilateral economic assistance; the Treasury Department handles most multilateral aid. Military Military aid The U.S. provides military aid through many different channels. Counting the items that appear in the budget as 'Foreign Military Financing' and 'Plan Colombia', the U.S. spent approximately $4.5 billion in military aid in 2001, of which $2 billion went to Israel, $1.3 billion went to Egypt, and $1 billion went to Colombia. As of 2004, according to Fox News, the U.S. had more than 700 military bases in 130 different countries. Fox News, 1st November, 2004 Analysts Ponder U.S. Basing in Iraq Missile defense Presidents Bush and Putin at the 33rd G8 summit, June 2007. The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was a proposal by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983 Federation of American Scientists. Missile Defense Milestones. Accessed March 10, 2006. to use ground and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles, Johann Hari: Obama's chance to end the fantasy that is Star Wars, The Independent, November 13, 2008 later dubbed "Star Wars". Historical Documents: Reagan's 'Star Wars' speech, CNN Cold War The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of mutual assured destruction (MAD). Though it was never fully developed or deployed, the research and technologies of SDI paved the way for some anti-ballistic missile systems of today. "How Missile Defense Systems Will Work" In February 2007, the U.S. started formal negotiations with Poland and Czech Republic concerning construction of missile shield installations in those countries for a Ground-Based Midcourse Defense system Missile defense backers now cite Russia threat (in April 2007 57% of Poles opposed the plan). U.S. Might Negotiate on Missile Defense, washingtonpost.com According to press reports the government of the Czech Republic agreed (while 67% Czechs disagree) Citizens on U.S. Anti-Missile Radar Base in Czech Republic to host a missile defense radar on its territory while a base of missile interceptors is supposed to be built in Poland. Europe diary: Missile defence, BBC News Missile Defense: Avoiding a Crisis in Europe Russia threatened to place short-range nuclear missiles on the Russia’s border with NATO if the United States refuses to abandon plans to deploy 10 interceptor missiles and a radar in Poland and the Czech Republic. Russia piles pressure on EU over missile shield, Telegraph China, Russia sign nuclear deal, condemn US missile defense plans, International Herald Tribune In April 2007, Putin warned of a new Cold War if the Americans deployed the shield in Central Europe. Russia threatening new cold war over missile defence, The Guardian Putin also said that Russia is prepared to abandon its obligations under a Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty of 1987 with the United States. U.S., Russia no closer on missile defense, USATODAY.com On August 14, 2008, The United States and Poland announced a deal to implement the missile defense system in Polish territory, with a tracking system placed in the Czech Republic. Russia Lashes Out on Missile Deal, The New York Times, August 15, 2008 "The fact that this was signed in a period of very difficult crisis in the relations between Russia and the United States over the situation in Georgia shows that, of course, the missile defense system will be deployed not against Iran but against the strategic potential of Russia," Dmitry Rogozin, Russia's NATO envoy, said. Russia angry over U.S. missile shield, Al Jazeera English, August 15, 2008 Illicit drugs United States foreign policy is influenced by the efforts of the U.S. government to halt imports of illicit drugs, including cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine, and marijuana. This is especially true in Latin America, a focus for the U.S. War on Drugs. Those efforts date back to at least 1880, when the U.S. and China completed an agreement which prohibited the shipment of opium between the two countries. Over a century later, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act requires the President to identify the major drug transit or major illicit drug-producing countries. In September 2005 , the following countries were identified: Bahamas, Bolivia, Brazil, Burma, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Laos, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. Two of these, Burma and Venezuela are countries that the U.S. considers to have failed to adhere to their obligations under international counternarcotics agreements during the previous twelve months. Notably absent from the 2005 list were Afghanistan, the People's Republic of China and Vietnam; Canada was also omitted in spite of evidence that criminal groups there are increasingly involved in the production of MDMA destined for the United States and that large-scale cross-border trafficking of Canadian-grown marijuana continues. The U.S. believes that The Netherlands are successfully countering the production and flow of MDMA to the U.S. President George W. Bush and President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan. Karzai Protects Drug Lords, Former U.S. Official Says, CBS News Afghanistan is, as of March, 2008, the greatest illicit (in Western World standards) opium producer in the world, before Burma (Myanmar), part of the so-called "Golden Crescent". As much as one-third of Afghanistan's GDP comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including opium and its two derivatives, morphine and heroin, as well as hashish production. Opium production in Afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of more than a third, the United Nations has said. Afghan opium production at record high Some 3.3 million Afghans are now involved in producing opium. UN horrified by surge in opium trade in Helmand Former U.S. State Department Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs Thomas Schweich, in a New York Times article dated July 27, 2007, asserts that opium production is protected by the government of Hamid Karzai as well as by the Taliban, as all parties to political conflict in Afghanistan as well as criminals benefit from opium production, and, in Schweich's opinion, the U.S. military turns a blind eye to opium production as not being central to its anti-terrorism mission. "Is Afghanistan a Narco-State?" by Thomas Schweich, July 27, 2008, New York Times "Combating Synthetic Drugs, A Global Challenge: U.S. and International Responses", by Thomas A. Schweich, Joseph T. Rannazzisi, James O'Gara, U.S. State Department The Prime Minister for Kosovo, Hashim Thaçi, is alleged to have extensive criminal links. During the period of time when Thaçi was head of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), it was reported by the Washington Times to be financing its activities by trafficking heroin and cocaine into western Europe. "KLA finances fight with heroin sales Terror group is linked to crime network"; Jerry Seper. Washington Times. Washington, D.C.: May 3, 1999. pg. A.1 KLA Linked To Enormous Heroin Trade / Police suspect drugs helped finance revolt, The San Francisco Chronicle The Bush administration has consistently supported Kosovo independence from Serbia. Divisions Harden over Kosovo Independence History of exporting democracy through military intervention In the history of the United States, presidents have often used democracy as a justification for military intervention abroad, Also see this page. p. 391 although on a number of other occasions the U.S. overthrew democratically elected governments (See Operation Ajax, Operation PBSUCCESS, Covert U.S. Regime Change Actions). A number of studies have been devoted to the historical success rate of the U.S. in exporting democracy abroad. Most studies of American intervention have been pessimistic about the history of the United States exporting democracy. PDF file. Until recently, scholars have generally agreed with international relations professor Abraham Lowenthal that U.S. attempts to export democracy have been "negligible, often counterproductive, and only occasionally positive." In Exporting Democracy, Themes and Issues, edited by Abraham Lowenthal p. 243-265. p. 183 But some studies, such as a study by Tures find U.S. intervention has had mixed results, and another by Hermann and Kegley has found that military interventions have improved democracy in other countries. Opinion that U.S. intervention does not export democracy Professor Paul W. Drake writes that the United States first attempted to export democracy in Latin America through intervention from 1912 to 1932. Drake argues that this was contradictory because international law defines intervention as "dictatorial interference in the affairs of another state for the purpose of altering the condition of things." Democracy failed because democracy needs to develop out of internal conditions, and American leaders usually defined democracy as elections only. Further the United States Department of State disapproved of any rebellion of any kind, which were often incorrectly labeled "revolutions", even against dictatorships. p. 1, 4, 5. As historian Walter LaFeber states, "The world's leading revolutionary nation (the U.S.) in the eighteenth century became the leading protector of the status quo in the twentieth century." Mesquita and Downs evaluate the period between 1945 to 2004. They state that the U.S. has intervened in 35 countries, and only in one case, Colombia, did a "full fledged, stable democracy" develop within 10 years. Factors included limits on executive power, clear rules for the transition of power, universal adult suffrage, and competitive elections. Samia Amin Pei argues that nation building in developed countries usually begins to unravel four to six years after American intervention ends. Pei, quoting Polity, (a database on democracy in the world), agrees with Mesquita and Downs that most countries where the U.S. intervenes never become a democracies or become more authoritarian after 10 years. Professor Joshua Muravchik argues that U.S. occupation was critical for Axis power democratization after World War II, but America's failure to build democracy in the third world "prove... that U.S. military occupation is not a sufficient condition to make a country democratic." Penceny, p. 186. p. 91-118. The success of democracy in former Axis countries maybe because of these countries per-capita income. Steven Krasner of the CDDRL states that a high per capita income may help build a democracy, because no democratic country with a per-capita income which is above $6,000 has ever become an autocracy. Opinion that U.S. intervention has mixed results Tures examines 228 cases of American intervention from 1973 to 2005, using Freedom House data. A plurality of interventions, 96, caused no change in the country's democracy. In 69 instances the country became less democratic after the intervention. In the remaining 63 cases, a country became more democratic. Opinion that U.S. intervention effectively exports democracy Hermann and Kegley find that American military interventions which are designed to protect or promote democracy increase freedom in those countries. Penceny argues that the democracies created after military intervention are still closer to an autocracy than a democracy, quoting Przeworski "while some democracies are more democratic than others, unless offices are contested, no regime should be considered democratic." Therefore, Penceny concludes, it is difficult to know from the Hermann and Kegley study whether U.S. intervention has only produced less repressive autocratic governments or genuine democracies. Penceny, p. 193 Penceny states that the United States has attempted to export democracy in 33 of its 93 twentieth-century military interventions. Penceny, p. 2 Penceny argues that proliberal policies after military intervention have a positive impact on democracy. Review: Criticisms Critics of U.S. foreign policy suggest that U.S. foreign policy rhetoric contradicts some of the U.S. government's actions abroad. Some of these criticisms include: The long list of U.S. military involvements that stand in contrast to the rhetoric of promoting peace and respect for the sovereignty of nations. The many former and current dictatorships that receive or have received U.S. financial or military support, especially in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East, despite the U.S. claiming to support democracy and democratic principles. The U.S. import tariffs (to protect local industries from global competition) on foreign goods like wood and agricultural products, in contrast to stating support for free trade. Claims of generosity, in contrast to low spendings on foreign developmental aid (measured as percentage of GDP) when compared to other western countries (taking into consideration only government foreign aid, and not donations through private charities) Lack of support for environmental treaties, such as the Kyoto Protocol. Frequent mention of concern for human rights, despite refusing to ratify the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the widespread support of dictatorial governments whose military the U.S. may have formerly trained on methods of torture (notably in the infamous former School of the Americas), and support for paramilitary organizations, for example the Contras in Nicaragua. American exceptionalism - the sense that America is qualitatively different from other countries and the pertaining conviction that America cannot be judged by the same standard as other countries. For instance, that America is retaining its own nuclear weapons while trying to prevent nuclear proliferation is often seen as hypocritical. Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo with George W. Bush inspects the Malacanang Palace Honor Guards during the latter's 8-hour State Visit to the Philippines in October 2003 A general opposition to independent nationalism - countries focused primarily on domestic concerns, such as social reform. Criticisms of the effectiveness of U.S. foreign policy include: An inability to combine strategic military objectives and diplomatic and political objectives. In short, this means an ineffective follow-up to military operations by being unable or unwanting to determine diplomatic and political goals, resulting in unfavorable situations to either the United States or friendly involved parties. Examples include: the absence of any treaties or objectives for post-war Germany and Europe during the Second World War, resulting in the Soviet occupation of most of Eastern Europe; the absence of diplomatic/political objectives to follow-up on military victory in the Korean War resulting in an ongoing preservation of the 1953 status-quo; inadequately defined objectives for the Vietnam War, resulting in a Communist take-over of the region; and most recently the failure to develop plans to rebuild and restabilize Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, leading to the ongoing destabilization of the surrounding region and huge expenses required by the United States itself. Henry Kissinger, Diplomacy, Kissinger sees the gap between military action and political objectives as characteristic for U.S. foreign policy in the 20th century Charges of negative influence have been levied even in countries traditionally considered allies of the United States. Israel, Iran top 'negative list'By Nick Childs, 6 March 2007 Further, some opinions have stated that under the Nuremberg Principles, the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, which was not a war to defend against an imminent threat, but rather a war of aggression, constitutes the supreme international crime from which all other war crimes follow. Principles of International Law Recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal, 1950. on the website of the United Nations For example, Benjamin Ferencz, a chief prosecutor of Nazi war crimes at Nuremberg said George W. Bush should be tried for war crimes along with Saddam Hussein for starting "aggressive" wars—Saddam for his 1990 attack on Kuwait and Bush for his 2003 invasion of Iraq. Similarly, under the United Nations Charter, ratified by the U.S. and therefore binding on it, all UN member states including the U.S. are prohibited from using force against fellow member states (Iraq is a member of the UN) except to defend against an imminent attack or pursuant to explicit UN Security Council authorization (UN Charter; international law). "There was no authorization from the UN Security Council... and that made it a crime against the peace," said Francis Boyle, professor of international law, who also said the U.S. Army's field manual required such authorization for an offensive war. A frequent rebuttal to this criticism is the assertion that the United Nations gave the United States and its coalition partners the legal authority to remove Saddam Hussein from power in UN Security Council Resolution 1441, providing that Iraq would "face serious consequences as a result of its continued violations of its obligations." King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia with George W. Bush at the Prairie Chapel Ranch. Who Is the World’s Worst Dictator? Other realist critics, such as George F. Kennan, have argued that the responsibility of the United States is only to protect the rights of its own citizens, and that therefore Washington should deal with other governments on that basis alone. Realists charge that a claimed heavy emphasis on democratization or nation-building abroad was one of the major tenets of President Woodrow Wilson's diplomatic philosophy (despite not being mentioned in Wilson's Fourteen Points), Fourteen Points Speech and the failure of the League of Nations to enforce the will of the international community in the cases of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan in the 1930s, as well as the inherent weakness of the new states created at the Paris Peace Conference, demonstrated the folly of Wilson's idealism. However, an important explanation for the weakness of the League of Nations was the refusal of the U.S. to join the organization, driven primarily by strong renewed isolationist sentiment at home. Noam Chomsky writes that Thomas Carothers, who was in Reagan's State Department in the 1980s and who was involved with the Democracy Enhancement programs in Latin America primarily has concluded that the efforts were a failure, and in fact a systematic failure. "Where U.S. influence was the least there you found the most progress towards democracy.... But where the U.S. had influence, it sought only limited, top down forms of democracy that did not risk upsetting the traditional structures of power with which the United States had long been allied." There is also criticism of alleged human rights abuse, the most important recent examples of which are the multiple reports of alleged prisoner abuse and torture at U.S.-run detention camps in Guantánamo Bay (at "Camp X-ray") (in Cuba), Abu Ghraib (Iraq), secret CIA prisons (eastern Europe), and other places voiced by, e.g., the Council of Europe and Amnesty International. Amnesty International in its Amnesty International Report 2005 says that: "the detention facility at Guantánamo Bay has become the gulag of our times" . This Amnesty report also claimed that there was a use of double standards in the U.S. government: the U.S. president "has repeatedly asserted that the United States was founded upon and is dedicated to the cause of human dignity". (Theme of his speech to the UN General Assembly in September 2004). But some memorandums emerged after the Abu Ghraib scandal "suggested that the administration was discussing ways in which its agents could avoid the international ban on torture and cruel, inhuman or Degrading Treatment" . Government responses to these criticisms include that Abu Ghraib, Guantánamo Bay, and the network of secret Central Intelligence Agency jails in Eastern Europe and the Middle East were largely isolated incidents and not reflective of general U.S. conduct, and at the same time maintain that coerced interrogation in Guantánamo and Europe is necessary to prevent future terrorist attacks. U.S. generosity is not demonstrated in the relatively low governmental spendings on foreign developmental aid (measured as percentage of Gross domestic product (GDP) when compared to other western countries. In fact the U.S. ranks 21 of 22 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, assigning just 0.17% of GDP to overseas aid (compared with the most generous, Sweden, which gives 1.03%). US and Foreign Aid Assistance - Global Issues This is despite a promise made by OECD countries to raise overseas aid to 0.7% of GDP first made over 35 years ago and most recently reiterated at the 2002 global Financing for Development conference in Monterrey, Mexico. UN Millennium Project © 2005 | Fast Facts U.S. overseas aid was in fact reduced by 15.8% from 2005 to 2006. OECD Statistics Official aid statistics do not include charitable organizations. Through the many tax privileges that the United States grants to its nonprofit organizations, the government implicitly foots some portion of the bill anytime these organizations send money abroad for development purposes. However, though many Americans believe that the U.S. is the only nation which offers tax relief for charitable giving, nearly all of the 22 OECD countries also offer such incentives, in fact only Austria, Finland and Sweden do not. U.S. and Foreign Aid Assistance - Global Issues 79 percent of total foreign aid came from private foundations, corporations, voluntary organizations, universities, religious organizations and individuals, according to the annual Index of Global Philanthropy. According to the index the United States is the top donor in absolute amounts and the seventh of 22 in terms of GNI percentage. However, almost half the 'aid' measured by the Global Philanthropy Index is made up of remittances by foreign nationals in the United States and it is highly questionable whether these can be included as US giving. US and Foreign Aid Assistance - Global Issues Another index which ranks countries according to quality-adjusted aid and charitable giving, including private donations but not remittances, ranks the US 20 of 21 in terms of percentage of GDP which is donated to overseas aid. US and Foreign Aid Assistance - Global Issues Support Regarding support for various dictatorships, especially during the Cold War, a response is that they were seen as necessary evil, with the alternatives even worse Communist or fundamentalist dictatorships. David Schmitz challenges the notion that this violation of core American values actually served U.S. interests. Friendly tyrants resisted necessary reforms and destroyed the political center, while the 'realist' policy of coddling dictators brought a backlash among foreign populations with long memories. The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965-1989. David F. Schmitz. 2006. Do the sums, then compare U.S. and Communist crimes from the Cold War Telegraph, 11/12/2005, Niall Ferguson Halperin et al. writes that there is a widely held view that poor countries need to delay democracy until they develop. The argument went —as presented in the writings of Samuel Huntington and Seymour Martin Lipset— that if a poor country became democratic, because of the pressures in a democracy to respond to the interests of the people, they would borrow too much, they would spend the money in ways that did not advance development. These poor decisions would mean that development would not occur; and because people would then be disappointed, they would return to a dictatorship. Therefore, the prescription was, get yourself a benign dictator — it was never quite explained how you would make sure you had a dictator that spent the money to develop the country rather than ship it off to a Swiss bank account—wait until that produces development, which produces a middle class, and then, inevitably, the middle class will demand freedom, and you will have a democratic government. The study argues that this is wrong. Poor democracies perform better, including also on economic growth if excluding East Asia, than poor dictatorships. Morton Halperin, Joseph T. Siegle, Michael M. Weinstein, Joanne J. Myers The Democracy Advantage: How Democracies Promote Prosperity and Peace March 17, 2005 Many of the U.S.'s former enemies have democratized, and many have become U.S. allies. The Philippines (1946), South Korea (1948), West Germany (1949), Japan (1952), Austria (1955), the Panama Canal Zone (1979), the Federated States of Micronesia (1986), the Marshall Islands (1986), and Palau (1994) are examples of former possessions that have gained independence. Many nations in Eastern Europe have joined NATO. (Note, statements regarding degree of democracy are based on the classification at these times in the Polity data series). Many democracies have voluntary military alliances with United States. See NATO, ANZUS, Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, Mutual Defense Treaty with South Korea, and Major non-NATO ally. Those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military since they can count on U.S. protection. This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations. Research on the democratic peace theory has generally found that democracies, including the United States, have not made war on one another. There have been U.S. support for coups against some democracies, but for example Spencer R. Weart argues that part of the explanation was the perception, correct or not, that these states were turning into Communist dictatorships. Also important was the role of rarely transparent United States government agencies, who sometimes mislead or did not fully implement the decisions of elected civilian leaders. p. 221-224, 314. Empirical studies (see democide) have found that democracies, including the United States, have killed much fewer civilians than dictatorships. DEATH BY GOVERNMENT By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994. Online links: No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust?, Barbara Harff, 2003. Media may be biased against the U.S. regarding reporting human rights violations. Studies have found that New York Times coverage of worldwide human rights violations predominantly focuses on the human rights violations in nations where there is clear U.S. involvement, while having relatively little coverage of the human rights violations in other nations. For example, the bloodiest war in recent time, involving eight nations and killing millions of civilians, was the Second Congo War, which was almost completely ignored by the media. Finally, those nations with military alliances with the U.S. can spend less on the military and have a less active foreign policy since they can count on U.S. protection. This may give a false impression that the U.S. is less peaceful than those nations. Give peace a rating May 31 2007 From The Economist print edition Japan ranked as world's 5th most peaceful nation: report Japan Today, May 31 2007 Niall Ferguson argues that the U.S. is incorrectly blamed for all the human rights violations in nations they have supported. He writes that it is generally agreed that Guatemala was the worst of the US-backed regimes during the Cold War. However, the U.S. cannot credibly be blamed for all the 200,000 deaths during the long Guatemalan Civil War. The U.S. Intelligence Oversight Board writes that military aid was cut for long periods because of such violations, that the U.S. helped stop a coup in 1993, and that efforts were made to improve the conduct of the security services. Report on the Guatemala Review Intelligence Oversight Board. June 28, 1996. Today the U.S. states that democratic nations best support U.S. national interests. According to the U.S. State Department, "Democracy is the one national interest that helps to secure all the others. Democratically governed nations are more likely to secure the peace, deter aggression, expand open markets, promote economic development, protect American citizens, combat international terrorism and crime, uphold human and worker rights, avoid humanitarian crises and refugee flows, improve the global environment, and protect human health." According to former U.S. President Bill Clinton, "Ultimately, the best strategy to ensure our security and to build a durable peace is to support the advance of democracy elsewhere. Democracies don't attack each other." In one view mentioned by the U.S. State Department, democracy is also good for business. Countries that embrace political reforms are also more likely to pursue economic reforms that improve the productivity of businesses. Accordingly, since the mid-1980s, under President Ronald Reagan, there has been an increase in levels of foreign direct investment going to emerging market democracies relative to countries that have not undertaken political reforms. The United States officially maintains that it supports democracy and human rights through several tools Examples of these tools are as follows: A published yearly report by the State Department entitled "Supporting Human Rights and Democracy: The U.S. Record" in compliance with a 2002 law (enacted and signed by President George W. Bush, which requires the Department to report on actions taken by the U.S. Government to encourage respect for human rights. A yearly published "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices." In 2006 (under President George W. Bush), the United States created a "Human Rights Defenders Fund" and "Freedom Awards." The "Human Rights and Democracy Achievement Award" recognizes the exceptional achievement of officers of foreign affairs agencies posted abroad. The "Ambassadorial Roundtable Series", created in 2006, are informal discussions between newly-confirmed U.S. Ambassadors and human rights and democracy non-governmental organizations. The National Endowment for Democracy, a private non-profit created by Congress in 1983 (and signed into law by President Ronald Reagan which is mostly funded by the U.S. Government and gives cash grants to strengthen democratic institutions around the world See also Constitutional and International Law Advice and consent Afroyim v. Rusk Garcia-Mir v. Meese List of United States treaties Missouri v. Holland Paquete Habana Reid v. Covert Schneider v. Rusk Treaty Clause Diplomacy Council on Foreign Relations Cowboy diplomacy Diplomatic missions of the United States George Washington's Farewell Address Timeline of United States diplomatic history United States and the United Nations United States Agency for International Development United States, Chanceries of Foreign Governments Intelligence Allegations of CIA assistance to Osama bin Laden Covert U.S. regime change actions Extraordinary rendition by the United States Special Activities Division Torture and the United States Military 2003 invasion of Iraq American Interventions in the Middle East Bulgarian-American Joint Military Facilities Foreign Military Sales NATO United States Foreign Military Financing United States military aid Unlawful combatant War crimes committed by the United States Policy and Doctrine American Empire American exceptionalism Bush Doctrine Carter Doctrine China Containment Policy Containment Détente Human rights in the United States Human Rights Record of the United States Monroe Doctrine Nixon Doctrine Powell Doctrine Reagan Doctrine Special relationship United States and state terrorism References External links Foreign Relations and International Aid from UCB Libraries GovPubs “Hope and Memory”. 1801-2004 timeline of 163 U.S. interventions. Adbusters. Timeline of U.S. diplomatic history USC U.S.-China Institute, "Election '08 and the Challenge of China," web documentary, October 2008. USC U.S.-China Institute collection of speeches, government reports on U.S.-China relations Chris Zambelis and Brandon Gentry, "China Through Arab Eyes: American Influence in the Middle East," Parameters, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 1, Spring 2008, pp. 60–72. "How the World Sees America", Amar C. Bakshi, "Washington Post/Newsweek", 2007. Getting beyond the Bush Doctrine, Edward A. Kolodziej, Center for Global Studies, December, 2006. A site critical of U.S. foreign policy during the last 60 years America's Role in the World: Foreign Policy Choices for the Next President U.S. Political Parties and Foreign Policy, a Background Q&A by cfr.org, the website of the Council on Foreign Relations U.S. State Dept. Documentary: Foreign Relations of the United States Foreign Relations of the United States 1861-1960 (full text from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries) Introduction to U.S. foreign aid Foreign aid by country India as a New Global Power: An Action Agenda for the United States" An analysis of the strained love-hate relationship between U.S. and Pakistan by Prof. Adil Najam of the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy published in The News International Confidence in U.S. Foreign Policy Index Tracking survey of American public attitudes on foreign policy, conducted by Public Agenda with Foreign Affairs magazine. Speech by Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice on U.S. Policy in East Asia at the Heritage Foundation on October 25 2006 An interactive map of some examples of a sampling of U.S. Foreign Policy America and Taiwan, 1943-2004 Analysis of Congressional-Executive Agreements (Article by Steve Charnovitz from the American Journal of International Law) Nixon's Visit to China and how it Began a New Sino-American Relationship A PDF file of the Congressional Research Service report, Library of Congress, Treaties and other International Agreements: the Role of the United States Senate National Endowment for Democracy The Washington Diplomat newspaper Further reading History of exporting democracy * * Matthew J. Morgan A Democracy is Born: An Insider's Account of the Battle Against Terrorism in Afghanistan 2008 * * * Finds that democratization is unpredictable in the long-term. Alternative link. International history of exporting democracy. In the United States after idealism fails, the goal becomes a realist focus on stability and the protection of American interests. Uses Herbert K. Tillema, Foreign Overt Military Interventions, 1945-1991: OMILIST Codebook, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO; 1997. * This study points to 19 cases of U.S. intervention "in the last century," including Afghanistan, Austria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cambodia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Germany, Grenada, Haiti, Japan, the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nicaragua, Palau, Panama, the Philippines, Somalia, South Korea, and South Vietnam. In half of these cases democratic institutions remained, in the other half they did not. To determine the success of Iraq becoming a democracy, this study uses data compiled by Freedom House measuring democracy in 186 countries, during four years, the years 1996 through 2000. The study finds that democracies built by the U.S. begin to unravel in the decade after U.S. forces depart, because political elites begin to change the law to fit their own interests. This study points to 14 cases of U.S. intervention in the twentieth century. This book finds that when the U.S. interventions later supported elections, the democracy was more likely to succeed. This study points to 25 cases of U.S. intervention between 1898 and 1992. Review: PDF file. This study points to 30 U.S. interventions between 1945 and 1991. Also uses Herbert K. Tillema, Foreign Overt Military Interventions, 1945-1991: OMILIST Codebook, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO; 1997. Matthew J. Morgan "The American Military after 9/11: Society, State, and Empire" 2008

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Alfred_Russel_Wallace

Alfred Russel Wallace, OM, FRS (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist. He is best known for independently proposing a theory of natural selection which prompted Charles Darwin to publish his own theory. Wallace did extensive fieldwork, first in the Amazon River basin and then in the Malay Archipelago, where he identified the Wallace Line that divides Indonesia into two distinct parts, one in which animals closely related to those of Australia are common, and one in which the species are largely of Asian origin. He was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species and is sometimes called the "father of biogeography". Wallace was one of the leading evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century and made a number of other contributions to the development of evolutionary theory besides being co-discoverer of natural selection. These included the concept of warning colouration in animals, and the Wallace effect, a hypothesis on how natural selection could contribute to speciation by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridization. Wallace was strongly attracted to unconventional ideas. His advocacy of Spiritualism and his belief in a non-material origin for the higher mental faculties of humans strained his relationship with the scientific establishment, especially with other early proponents of evolution. In addition to his scientific work, he was a social activist who was critical of what he considered to be an unjust social and economic system in 19th-century Britain. His interest in biogeography resulted in his being one of the first prominent scientists to raise concerns over the environmental impact of human activity. Wallace was a prolific author who wrote on both scientific and social issues; his account of his adventures and observations during his explorations in Indonesia and Malaysia, The Malay Archipelago, was one of the most popular and influential journals of scientific exploration published during the 19th century. Biography Early life A photograph from Wallace's autobiography shows the building Wallace and his brother John designed and built for the Mechanics' Institute of Neath. Wallace was born in the village of Llanbadoc, near Usk, Monmouthshire, now part of Wales but at the time often considered part of England. Wilson The Forgotten Naturalist p. 1. He was the eighth of nine children of Thomas Vere Wallace and Mary Anne Greenell. His mother was from a respectable middle-class English family from Hertford. Thomas Wallace was of Scottish ancestry. His family, like many Scottish Wallaces, claimed a connection to William Wallace, a Scottish leader during the Wars of Scottish Independence in the 13th century. Thomas Wallace received a law degree, but never actually practiced law. He inherited some income-generating property, but bad investments and failed business ventures resulted in a steady deterioration of the family's financial position. When Wallace was five years old, his family moved to Hertford, north of London. There he attended Hertford Grammar School until financial difficulties forced his family to withdraw him in 1836. Wilson pp. 6–10. Wallace then moved to London to live and work with his older brother John, a 19-year-old apprentice builder. (In 1979, a plaque was placed at 44 St. Peter's Road in Croydon commemorating the fact that he lived there at one point during this period.) This was a stopgap measure until William, his oldest brother, was ready to take him on as an apprentice surveyor. While there, he attended lectures and read books at the London Mechanics' Institute, where he was exposed to the radical political ideas of social reformers like Robert Owen and Thomas Paine. He left London in 1837 to live with William and work as his apprentice for six years. At the end of 1839, they moved to Kington near the Welsh border before eventually settling at Neath in Glamorgan. Between 1840 and 1843, Wallace did surveying work in the countryside of the west of England and Wales. Raby Bright Paradise pp. 77–78. Slotten The Heretic in Darwin's Court pp. 11–14. By the end of 1843, William's business had declined due to difficult economic conditions. Wallace left in January, aged 20. One result of Wallace's early travels has been a modern controversy about his nationality. Since Wallace was born in Monmouthshire, Wales, some sources have considered him to be Welsh. However some historians have questioned this because neither of his parents were Welsh, his family only briefly lived in Monmouthshire, the Welsh people Wallace knew in his childhood considered him to be English, and because Wallace himself seems to have consistently referred to himself as English rather than Welsh. One Wallace scholar has stated that because of these facts the most reasonable interpretation was that he was an Englishman born in Wales. After a brief period of unemployment, he was hired as a master at the Collegiate School in Leicester to teach drawing, mapmaking, and surveying. Wallace spent a lot of time at the Leicester library where he read An Essay on the Principle of Population by Thomas Malthus and where one evening he met the entomologist Henry Bates. Bates was only 19 years old, but had already published a paper on beetles in the journal Zoologist. He befriended Wallace and started him collecting insects. Shermer In Darwin's Shadow p. 53. Slotten pp. 22–26. William died in March 1845, and Wallace left his teaching position to assume control of his brother's firm in Neath, but he and his brother John were unable to make the business work. After a couple of months, Wallace found work as a civil engineer for a nearby firm that was working on a survey for a proposed railway in the Vale of Neath. Wallace's work on the survey involved spending a lot of time outdoors in the countryside, allowing him to indulge his new passion for collecting insects. Wallace was able to persuade his brother John to join him in starting another architecture and civil engineering firm, which carried out a number of projects, including the design of a building for the Mechanics' Institute of Neath. William Jevons, the founder of that institute, was impressed by Wallace and persuaded him to give lectures there on science and engineering. In the autumn of 1846, he, aged 23, and John were able to purchase a cottage near Neath, where they lived with their mother and sister Fanny (his father had died in 1843). Slotten pp. 26–29. Wilson pp. 19–20. During this period, he read avidly, exchanging letters with Bates about the anonymous evolutionary treatise Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, Charles Darwin's Journal, and Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology. Raby Bright Paradise p. 78. Wallace My Life pp. 254, 256 Exploration and study of the natural world A map from The Malay Archipelago shows the physical geography of the archipelago and Wallace's travels around the area. The thin black lines indicate where Wallace travelled, and the red lines indicate chains of volcanoes. Inspired by the chronicles of earlier traveling naturalists, including Alexander von Humboldt, Charles Darwin and William Henry Edwards, Wallace decided that he too wanted to travel abroad as a naturalist. Slotten The Heretic in Darwin's Court pp. 34–37. In 1848, Wallace and Henry Bates left for Brazil aboard the Mischief. Their intention was to collect insects and other animal specimens in the Amazon rainforest and sell them to collectors back in the United Kingdom. They also hoped to gather evidence of the transmutation of species. Wallace and Bates spent most of their first year collecting near Belém do Pará, then explored inland separately, occasionally meeting to discuss their findings. In 1849, they were briefly joined by another young explorer, botanist Richard Spruce, along with Wallace's younger brother Herbert. Herbert left soon thereafter (dying two years later from yellow fever), but Spruce, like Bates, would spend over ten years collecting in South America. Wilson p. 36; Raby Bright Paradise pp. 89, 98–99, 120–121. Wallace continued charting the Rio Negro for four years, collecting specimens and making notes on the peoples and languages he encountered as well as the geography, flora, and fauna. Raby Bright Paradise pp. 89–95. On 12 July 1852, Wallace embarked for the UK on the brig Helen. After twenty-eight days at sea, balsam in the ship's cargo caught fire and the crew was forced to abandon ship. All of the specimens Wallace had on the ship, the vast majority of what he had collected during his entire trip, were lost. He could only save part of his diary and a few sketches. Wallace and the crew spent ten days in an open boat before being picked up by the brig Jordeson. Wilson pp. 42–43. Slotten pp. 87-88 After his return to the UK, Wallace spent eighteen months in London living on the insurance payment for his lost collection and selling a few specimens that had been shipped back to Britain prior to his starting his exploration of the Rio Negro. During this period, despite having lost almost all of the notes from his South American expedition, he wrote six academic papers (which included "On the Monkeys of the Amazon") and two books; Palm Trees of the Amazon and Their Uses and Travels on the Amazon. Wilson p. 45. He also made connections with a number of other British naturalists — most significantly, Darwin. Raby Bright Paradise, p. 148. An illustration from The Malay Archipelago depicts the flying frog Wallace discovered. From 1854 to 1862, age 31 to 39, Wallace travelled through the Malay Archipelago or East Indies (now Malaysia and Indonesia), to collect specimens for sale and to study nature. His observations of the marked zoological differences across a narrow strait in the archipelago led to his proposing the zoogeographical boundary now known as the Wallace line. Wallace collected more than 125,000 specimens in the Malay Archipelago (more than 80,000 beetles alone). More than a thousand of them represented species new to science. Shermer In Darwin's Shadow pp. 14. One of his better-known species descriptions during this trip is that of the gliding tree frog Rhacophorus nigropalmatus, known as Wallace's flying frog. While he was exploring the archipelago, he refined his thoughts about evolution and had his famous insight on natural selection. In 1858 he sent an article outlining his theory to Darwin; it was published, along with a description of Darwin's own theory, in the same year. Accounts of his studies and adventures there were eventually published in 1869 as The Malay Archipelago. The Malay Archipelago became one of the most popular journals of scientific exploration of the 19th century, kept continuously in print by its original publisher (Macmillan) into the second decade of the 20th century. It was praised by scientists such as Darwin (to whom the book was dedicated), and Charles Lyell, and by non-scientists such as the novelist Joseph Conrad, who called it his "favorite bedside companion" and used it as source of information for several of his novels, especially Lord Jim. Slotten p. 267. Return to the UK, marriage and children A photograph of A.R. Wallace taken in Singapore in 1862 In 1862, Wallace returned to the UK, where he moved in with his sister Fanny Sims and her husband Thomas. While recovering from his travels, Wallace organized his collections and gave numerous lectures about his adventures and discoveries to scientific societies such as the Zoological Society of London. Later that year, he visited Darwin at home, and became friendly with both Charles Lyell and Herbert Spencer. Shermer pp. 151–52. During the 1860s, Wallace wrote papers and gave lectures defending natural selection. He also corresponded with Darwin about a variety of topics, including sexual selection, warning colouration, and the possible effect of natural selection on hybridization and the divergence of species. Slotten pp. 249–58. In 1865, he began investigating spiritualism. Slotten p. 235. After a year of courtship, Wallace became engaged in 1864 to a young woman whom, in his autobiography, he would only identify as Miss L. However, to Wallace's great dismay, she broke off the engagement. Shermer In Darwin's Shadow p. 156. In 1866, Wallace married Annie Mitten. Wallace had been introduced to Mitten through Richard Spruce, who had befriended Wallace in Brazil and who was also a good friend of Annie Mitten's father, William Mitten, an expert in mosses. In 1872, Wallace built the Dell, a house of concrete, on land he leased in Grays in Essex, where he lived until 1876. The Wallaces had three children: Herbert (1867–1874) who died in childhood, Violet (1869–1945), and William (1871–1951). Slotten pp. 239–40. Financial struggles In the late 1860s and 1870s, Wallace was very concerned about the financial security of his family. While he was in the Malay Archipelago, the sale of specimens had brought in a considerable amount of money, which had been carefully invested by the agent who sold the specimens for Wallace. However, on his return to the UK, Wallace made a series of bad investments in railways and mines that squandered most of the money, and he found himself badly in need of the proceeds from the publication of The Malay Archipelago. Slotten pp. 265–67. Despite assistance from his friends, he was never able to secure a permanent salaried position such as curatorship of a museum. In order to remain financially solvent, Wallace worked grading government examinations, wrote 25 papers for publication between 1872 and 1876 for various modest sums, and was paid by Lyell and Darwin to help edit some of their own works. Slotten pp. 299-300. In 1876, Wallace needed a £500 advance from the publisher of The Geographical Distribution of Animals to avoid having to sell some of his personal property. Slotten p. 325. Darwin was very aware of Wallace's financial difficulties and lobbied long and hard to get Wallace awarded a government pension for his lifetime contributions to science. When the £200 annual pension was awarded in 1881, it helped to stabilize Wallace's financial position by supplementing the income from his writings. Slotten pp. 361–64. Social activism John Stuart Mill was impressed by remarks criticizing English society that Wallace had included in The Malay Archipelago. Mill asked him to join the general committee of his Land Tenure Reform Association, but the association dissolved after Mill's death in 1873. Wallace wrote only a handful of articles on political and social issues between 1873 and 1879, when, aged 56, he entered the debates over trade policy and land reform in earnest. He believed that rural land should be owned by the state and leased to people who would make whatever use of it that would benefit the largest number of people, thus breaking the often-abused power of wealthy landowners in English society. In 1881, Wallace was elected as the first president of the newly formed Land Nationalisation Society. In the next year, he published a book, Land Nationalisation; Its Necessity and Its Aims, on the subject. He criticized the UK's free trade policies for the negative impact they had on working class people. Slotten The Heretic in Darwin's Court pp. 365–72. In 1889, Wallace read Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy and declared himself a socialist. Slotten p. 436. These ideas led him to oppose both social Darwinism and eugenics, ideas supported by other prominent 19th-century evolutionary thinkers, on the grounds that contemporary society was too corrupt and unjust to allow any reasonable determination of who was fit or unfit. Slotten p. 437. In 1898, Wallace wrote a paper advocating a pure paper money system, unbacked by silver or gold, which impressed the economist Irving Fisher so much that he dedicated his 1920 book Stabilizing the Dollar to Wallace. Wallace wrote extensively on other social topics including his support for women's suffrage, and the dangers and wastefulness of militarism. Slotten pp. 366, 453, 487–88. Shermer pp. 23,279. Wallace continued his social activism for the rest of his life, publishing the book The Revolt of Democracy just weeks before his death. Wallace continued his scientific work in parallel with his social commentary. In 1880, he published Island Life as a sequel to The Geographic Distribution of Animals. In November 1886, Wallace began a ten-month trip to the United States to give a series of popular lectures. Most of the lectures were on Darwinism (evolution and natural selection), but he also gave speeches on biogeography, spiritualism, and socio-economic reform. During the trip, he was reunited with his brother John who had emigrated to California years before. He also spent a week in Colorado, with the American botanist Alice Eastwood as his guide, exploring the flora of the Rocky Mountains and gathering evidence that would lead him to a theory on how glaciation might explain certain commonalities between the mountain flora of Europe, Asia and North America, which he published in 1891 in the paper "English and American Flowers". He met many other prominent American naturalists and viewed their collections. His 1889 book Darwinism used information he collected on his American trip, and information he had compiled for the lectures. Shermer pp. 274–78. Slotten pp. 379–400. Death Wallace's unusual grave in Broadstone Cemetery, Broadstone, Dorset, which was restored by the A. R. Wallace Memorial Fund in 2000. It features a tall fossil tree trunk from Portland mounted on a block of Purbeck limestone. On 7 November 1913, Wallace died at home in the country house he called Old Orchard, which he had built a decade earlier. Slotten p. 490. He was 90 years old. His death was widely reported in the press. The New York Times called him "the last of the giants belonging to that wonderful group of intellectuals that included, among others, Darwin, Huxley, Spencer, Lyell, and Owen, whose daring investigations revolutionized and evolutionized the thought of the century." Another commentator in the same edition said “No apology need be made for the few literary or scientific follies of the author of that great book on the 'Malay Archipelago'.” Slotten p. 491. Some of Wallace's friends suggested that he be buried in Westminster Abbey, but his wife followed his wishes and had him buried in the small cemetery at Broadstone, Dorset. Several prominent British scientists formed a committee to have a medallion of Wallace placed in Westminster near where Darwin had been buried. The medallion was unveiled on 1 November 1915. Theory of evolution Early evolutionary thinking Unlike Darwin, Wallace began his career as a travelling naturalist already believing in the transmutation of species. The concept had been advocated by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Erasmus Darwin, and Robert Grant, among others. It was widely discussed, but not generally accepted by leading naturalists, and was considered to have radical, even revolutionary connotations. Larson Evolution p. 73. Bowler, Morus Making Modern Science p. 141. Prominent anatomists and geologists such as Georges Cuvier, Richard Owen, Adam Sedgwick, and Charles Lyell attacked it vigorously. McGowan The Dragon Seekers pp. 101, 154–155. Larson pp. 23–24, 37–38. It has been suggested that Wallace accepted the idea of the transmutation of species in part because he was always inclined to favour radical ideas in politics, religion and science, and because he was unusually open to marginal, even fringe, ideas in science. Shermer pp. 54. He was also profoundly influenced by Robert Chambers' work Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, a highly controversial work of popular science published anonymously in 1844 that advocated an evolutionary origin for the solar system, the earth, and living things. Slotten The Heretic in Darwin’s Court p. 31. Wallace wrote to Henry Bates in 1845: I have a rather more favourable opinion of the ‘Vestiges’ than you appear to have. I do not consider it a hasty generalization, but rather as an ingenious hypothesis strongly supported by some striking facts and analogies, but which remains to be proven by more facts and the additional light which more research may throw upon the problem. It furnishes a subject for every student of nature to attend to; every fact he observes will make either for or against it, and it thus serves both as an incitement to the collection of facts, and an object to which they can be applied when collected. Shermer p. 54. Wallace deliberately planned some of his field work to test the hypothesis that under an evolutionary scenario closely related species should inhabit neighbouring territories. During his work in the Amazon basin, he came to realize that geographical barriers — such as the Amazon and its major tributaries — often separated the ranges of closely allied species, and he included these observations in his 1853 paper "On the Monkeys of the Amazon". Slotten pp. 94. Near the end of the paper he asks the question "Are very closely allied species ever separated by a wide interval of country?" In February 1855, while working in the state of Sarawak on the island of Borneo, Wallace wrote "On the Law Which has Regulated the Introduction of Species", a paper which was published in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History in September 1855. In this paper, he gathered and enumerated general observations regarding the geographic and geologic distribution of species (biogeography). His conclusion that "Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species" has come to be known as the "Sarawak Law". Wallace thus answered the question he had posed in his earlier paper on the monkeys of the Amazon river basin. Although it contained no mention of any possible mechanisms for evolution, this paper foreshadowed the momentous paper he would write three years later. The paper shook Charles Lyell's belief that species were immutable. Although his friend Charles Darwin had written to him in 1842 expressing support for transmutation, Lyell had continued to be strongly opposed to the idea. Around the start of 1856, he told Darwin about Wallace's paper, as did Edward Blyth who thought it "Good! Upon the whole!… Wallace has, I think put the matter well; and according to his theory the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into species." Despite this hint, Darwin mistook Wallace's conclusion for the progressive creationism of the time and wrote that it was "nothing very new… Uses my simile of tree [but] it seems all creation with him." Lyell was more impressed, and opened a notebook on species, in which he grappled with the consequences, particularly for human ancestry. Darwin had already shown his theory to their mutual friend Joseph Hooker and now, for the first time, he spelt out the full details of natural selection to Lyell. Although Lyell could not agree, he urged Darwin to publish to establish priority. Darwin demurred at first, then began writing up a species sketch of his continuing work in May 1856.<ref>Desmond & Moore 1991, p. 438   Browne Charles Darwin: Voyaging pp. 537–546.</ref> Natural selection and Darwin By February 1858, Wallace had been convinced by his biogeographical research in the Malay Archipelago of the reality of evolution. As he later wrote in his autobiography: The problem then was not only how and why do species change, but how and why do they change into new and well defined species, distinguished from each other in so many ways; why and how they become so exactly adapted to distinct modes of life; and why do all the intermediate grades die out (as geology shows they have died out) and leave only clearly defined and well marked species, genera, and higher groups of animals? Wallace My Life pp. 361. According to his autobiography, it was while he was in bed with a fever that Wallace thought about Thomas Malthus's idea of positive checks on human population growth and came up with the idea of natural selection. Slotten pp. 144–145. Wallace said in his autobiography that he was on the island of Ternate at the time; but historians have questioned this, saying that on the basis of the collection registries he wrote at the time, he was more likely to have been on the island of Gilolo. Slotten pp. 144. Wallace describes it as follows: It then occurred to me that these causes or their equivalents are continually acting in the case of animals also; and as animals usually breed much more quickly than does mankind, the destruction every year from these causes must be enormous in order to keep down the numbers of each species, since evidently they do not increase regularly from year to year, as otherwise the world would long ago have been crowded with those that breed most quickly. Vaguely thinking over the enormous and constant destruction which this implied, it occurred to me to ask the question, why do some die and some live? And the answer was clearly, on the whole the best fitted live… and considering the amount of individual variation that my experience as a collector had shown me to exist, then it followed that all the changes necessary for the adaptation of the species to the changing conditions would be brought about… In this way every part of an animals organization could be modified exactly as required, and in the very process of this modification the unmodified would die out, and thus the definite characters and the clear isolation of each new species would be explained. Wallace My Life pp. 361–362. The Darwin-Wallace medal was issued by the Linnean society on the 50th anniversary of the reading of Darwin and Wallace's papers on natural selection. Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of the correspondents whose observations Darwin used to support his own theories. Although Wallace's first letters to Darwin have been lost, Wallace carefully kept the letters he received. Wallace, Letters and reminiscences 1916. p. 105 In the first letter, dated 1 May 1857, Darwin commented that Wallace's letter of 10 October which he had recently received, as well as Wallace's paper "On the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species" of 1855, showed that they were both thinking alike and to some extent reaching similar conclusions, and said that he was preparing his own work for publication in about two years time. Darwin, Francis, 1887, The life and letters of Charles Darwin p. 95 The second letter, dated 22 December 1857, said how glad he was that Wallace was theorising about distribution, adding that "without speculation there is no good and original observation" while commenting that "I believe I go much further than you". Darwin, Francis, 1887, The life and letters of Charles Darwin p. 108 Wallace trusted Darwin's opinion on the matter and sent him his February 1858 essay, "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type", with the request that Darwin would review it and pass it on to Charles Lyell if he thought it worthwhile. On 18 June 1858, Darwin received the manuscript from Wallace. While Wallace's essay did not employ Darwin's term "natural selection", it did outline the mechanics of an evolutionary divergence of species from similar ones due to environmental pressures. In this sense, it was very similar to the theory that Darwin had worked on for twenty years, but had yet to publish. Darwin sent the manuscript to Charles Lyell with a letter saying "he could not have made a better short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters… he does not say he wishes me to publish, but I shall, of course, at once write and offer to send to any journal." Slotten pp. 153–154  Darwin, Francis, 1887, The life and letters of Charles Darwin p. 116 Distraught about the illness of his baby son, Darwin put the problem to Charles Lyell and Joseph Hooker, who decided to publish the essay, despite the fact that Wallace had not intended it for publication, in a joint presentation together with unpublished writings which highlighted Darwin's priority. Wallace's essay was presented to the Linnean Society of London on 1 July 1858, along with excerpts from an essay which Darwin had disclosed privately to Hooker in 1847 and a letter Darwin had written to Asa Gray in 1857. Browne Charles Darwin: The Power of Place pp. 33–42. Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact, happy that he had been included at all. Darwin's social and scientific status was far greater than Wallace's, and it was unlikely that, without Darwin, Wallace's views on evolution would have been taken seriously. Lyell and Hooker's arrangement relegated Wallace to the position of co-discoverer, and he was not the social equal of Darwin or the other prominent British natural scientists. However, the joint reading of their papers on natural selection associated Wallace with the more famous Darwin. This, combined with Darwin's (as well as Hooker's and Lyell's) advocacy on his behalf, would give Wallace greater access to the highest levels of the scientific community. Shermer pp. 148–150. The reaction to the reading was muted, with the president of the Linnean remarking in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any striking discoveries; Browne Charles Darwin: The Power of Place pp. 40–42. but, with Darwin's publication of On the Origin of Species later in 1859, its significance became apparent. When Wallace returned to the UK, he met Darwin and the two remained friendly afterwards. Over the years, a few people have questioned this version of events. In the early 1980s, two books, one written by Arnold Brackman and another by John Langdon Brooks, even suggested that not only had there been a conspiracy to rob Wallace of his proper credit, but that Darwin had actually stolen a key idea from Wallace to finish his own theory. These claims have been examined in detail by a number of scholars who have not found them to be convincing. Slotten pp. 157-162 After the publication of Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, Wallace became one of its staunchest defenders. In one incident in 1863 that particularly pleased Darwin, Wallace published the short paper "Remarks on the Rev. S. Haughton's Paper on the Bee's Cell, And on the Origin of Species" in order to utterly demolish a paper by a professor of geology at the University of Dublin that had sharply criticized Darwin’s comments in the Origin on how hexagonal honey bee cells could have evolved through natural selection. Slotten pp. 197–99. Another notable defence of the Origin was "Creation by Law", a review Wallace wrote in 1867 for The Quarterly Journal of Science of the book The Reign of Law, which had been written by the Duke of Argyle as a refutation of natural selection. After an 1870 meeting of the British Association, Wallace wrote to Darwin complaining that there were "no opponents left who know anything of natural history, so that there are none of the good discussions we used to have." Slotten p. 261. Differences between Darwin's and Wallace's ideas on natural selection Historians of science have noted that, while Darwin considered the ideas in Wallace's paper to be essentially the same as his own, there were differences. Darwin emphasized competition between individuals of the same species to survive and reproduce, whereas Wallace emphasized environmental pressures on varieties and species forcing them to become adapted to their local environment. Larson p. 75. Bowler, Morus p. 149. Others have noted that another difference was that Wallace appeared to have envisioned natural selection as a kind of feedback mechanism keeping species and varieties adapted to their environment. They point to a largely overlooked passage of Wallace's famous 1858 paper: The action of this principle is exactly like that of the centrifugal governor of the steam engine, which checks and corrects any irregularities almost before they become evident; and in like manner no unbalanced deficiency in the animal kingdom can ever reach any conspicuous magnitude, because it would make itself felt at the very first step, by rendering existence difficult and extinction almost sure soon to follow. The cybernetician and anthropologist Gregory Bateson would observe in the 1970s that, though writing it only as an example, Wallace had "probably said the most powerful thing that’d been said in the 19th Century". Bateson revisited the topic in his 1979 book Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity, and other scholars have continued to explore the connection between natural selection and systems theory. Warning colouration and sexual selection In 1867, Darwin wrote to Wallace about a problem he was having understanding how some caterpillars could have evolved conspicuous colour schemes. Darwin had come to believe that sexual selection, an agency to which Wallace didn’t attribute the same importance as Darwin did, explained many conspicuous animal colour schemes. However, Darwin realized that this could not apply to caterpillars. Wallace responded that he and Henry Bates had observed that many of the most spectacular butterflies had a peculiar odour and taste, and that he had been told by John Jenner Weir that birds would not eat a certain kind of common white moth because they found it unpalatable. "Now, as the white moth is as conspicuous at dusk as a coloured caterpillar in the daylight", Wallace wrote back to Darwin that it seemed likely that the conspicuous colour scheme served as a warning to predators and thus could have evolved through natural selection. Darwin was impressed by the idea. At a subsequent meeting of the Entomological Society, Wallace asked for any evidence anyone might have on the topic. In 1869, Weir published data from experiments and observations involving brightly coloured caterpillars that supported Wallace’s idea. Warning colouration was one of a number of contributions Wallace made in the area of the evolution of animal colouration in general and the concept of protective colouration in particular. Slotten pp. 251–254. It was also part of a life-long disagreement Wallace had with Darwin over the importance of sexual selection. In his 1878 book Tropical Nature and Other Essays, he wrote extensively on the colouration of animals and plants and proposed alternative explanations for a number of cases Darwin had attributed to sexual selection. Slotten pp. 353–356. He revisited the topic at length in his 1889 book Darwinism. Wallace effect In 1889, Wallace wrote the book Darwinism, which explained and defended natural selection. In it, he proposed the hypothesis that natural selection could drive the reproductive isolation of two varieties by encouraging the development of barriers against hybridization. Thus it might contribute to the development of new species. He suggested the following scenario. When two populations of a species had diverged beyond a certain point, each adapted to particular conditions, hybrid offspring would be less well-adapted than either parent form and, at that point, natural selection will tend to eliminate the hybrids. Furthermore, under such conditions, natural selection would favour the development of barriers to hybridization, as individuals that avoided hybrid matings would tend to have more fit offspring, and thus contribute to the reproductive isolation of the two incipient species. This idea came to be known as the Wallace effect. Slotten pp. 413–415. Wallace had suggested to Darwin that natural selection could play a role in preventing hybridization in private correspondence as early as 1868, but had not worked it out to this level of detail. Slotten p. 404. It continues to be a topic of research in evolutionary biology today, with both computer simulation and empirical results supporting its validity. Application of theory to man, and role of teleology in evolution An illustration from the chapter on the application of natural selection to man in Wallace's 1889 book Darwinism shows a chimpanzee. In 1864, Wallace published a paper, "The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection'", applying the theory to humankind. Darwin had not yet publicly addressed the subject, although Thomas Huxley had in Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. Shortly afterwards, Wallace became a spiritualist. At about the same time, he began to maintain that natural selection cannot account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, and wit and humour. He eventually said that something in "the unseen universe of Spirit" had interceded at least three times in history. The first was the creation of life from inorganic matter. The second was the introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. And the third was the generation of the higher mental faculties in mankind. He also believed that the raison d'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit. Wallace Darwinism p. 477. These views greatly disturbed Darwin, who argued that spiritual appeals were not necessary and that sexual selection could easily explain apparently non-adaptive mental phenomena. While some historians have concluded that Wallace's belief that natural selection was insufficient to explain the development of consciousness and the human mind was directly caused by his adoption of spiritualism, other Wallace scholars have disagreed, and some maintain that Wallace never believed natural selection applied to those areas. Shermer pp. 157–160. Reaction to Wallace's ideas on this topic among leading naturalists at the time varied. Charles Lyell endorsed Wallace's views on human evolution rather than Darwin's. Larson p. 100. Shermer p. 160. However, many, including Huxley, Hooker, and Darwin himself, were critical of Wallace. Slotten pp. 280–96. As one historian of science has pointed out, Wallace's views in this area were at odds with two major tenets of the emerging Darwinian philosophy, which were that evolution was not teleological and that it was not anthropocentric. Shermer pp. 208–09. Assessment of Wallace's role in history of evolutionary theory In many accounts of the history of evolution, Wallace is mentioned only in passing as simply being the "stimulus" to publication of Darwin's own theory. Slotten p. 6. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a leading thinker on evolution in his day, whose ideas could not be ignored. One historian of science has pointed out that, through both private correspondence and published works, Darwin and Wallace exchanged knowledge and stimulated each other's ideas and theories over an extended period. Shermer p. 149. Wallace is the most-cited naturalist in Darwin's Descent of Man, often in strong disagreement. Slotten pp. 289–90. Wallace remained an ardent defender of natural selection for the rest of his life. By the 1880s, evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles, but Wallace and August Weismann were nearly alone among prominent biologists in believing that natural selection was the major driving force behind it. Larson p. 123. Bowler, Morus p. 154. In 1889, Wallace published the book Darwinism as a response to the scientific critics of natural selection. Slotten p. 409. Of all Wallace's books, it is cited by scholarly publications the most. Shermer p. 18. Spiritualism In a letter to his brother-in-law in 1861, Wallace wrote: …I remain an utter disbeliever in almost all that you consider the most sacred truths. I will pass over as utterly contemptible the oft-repeated accusation that sceptics shut out evidence because they will not be governed by the morality of Christianity… I am thankful I can see much to admire in all religions. To the mass of mankind religion of some kind is a necessity. But whether there be a God and whatever be His nature; whether we have an immortal soul or not, or whatever may be our state after death, I can have no fear of having to suffer for the study of nature and the search for truth, or believe that those will be better off in a future state who have lived in the belief of doctrines inculcated from childhood, and which are to them rather a matter of blind faith than intelligent conviction. Wallace was an enthusiast of phrenology. Slotten pp. 203–05. Early in his career, he experimented with hypnosis, then known as mesmerism. He used some of his students in Leicester as subjects, with considerable success. Slotten pp. 234–35. When he began his experiments with mesmerism, the topic was very controversial and early experimenters, such as John Elliotson, had been harshly criticized by the medical and scientific establishment. Wallace drew a connection between his experiences with mesmerism and his later investigations into spiritualism. In 1893, he wrote: I thus learnt my first great lesson in the inquiry into these obscure fields of knowledge, never to accept the disbelief of great men or their accusations of imposture or of imbecility, as of any weight when opposed to the repeated observation of facts by other men, admittedly sane and honest. The whole history of science shows us that whenever the educated and scientific men of any age have denied the facts of other investigators on a priori grounds of absurdity or impossibility, the deniers have always been wrong. Wallace began investigating spiritualism in the summer of 1865, possibly at the urging of his older sister Fanny Sims, who had been involved with it for some time. Slotten p. 231. After reviewing the literature on the topic and attempting to test the phenomena he witnessed at séances, he came to accept that the belief was connected to a natural reality. For the rest of his life, he remained convinced that at least some séance phenomena were genuine, no matter how many accusations of fraud sceptics made or how much evidence of trickery was produced. Historians and biographers have disagreed about which factors most influenced his adoption of spiritualism. It has been suggested by one biographer that the emotional shock he had received a few months earlier, when his first fiancée broke their engagement, contributed to his receptiveness to spiritualism. Slotten p. 236. Other scholars have preferred to emphasize instead Wallace's desire to find rational and scientific explanations for all phenomena, both material and non-material, of the natural world and of human society. Shermer pp. 199–201. Spiritualism appealed to many educated Victorians who no longer found traditional religious doctrine, such as that of the Church of England, acceptable yet were unsatisfied with the completely materialistic and mechanical view of the world that was increasingly emerging from 19th-century science. Slotten p. 4. However, several scholars who have researched Wallace's views in depth have emphasized that, for him, spiritualism was a matter of science and philosophy rather than religious belief. Among other prominent 19th-century intellectuals involved with spiritualism were the social reformer Robert Owen, who was one of Wallace’s early idols, Slotten p. 232. the physicists William Crookes and Lord Rayleigh, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan, and the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers. Shermer p. 183. Wallace's very public advocacy of spiritualism and his repeated defence of spiritualist mediums against allegations of fraud in the 1870s damaged his scientific reputation. It strained his relationships with previously friendly scientists such as Henry Bates, Thomas Huxley, and even Darwin, who felt he was overly credulous. Others, such as the physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter and zoologist E. Ray Lankester became openly and publicly hostile to Wallace over the issue. Wallace and other scientists who defended spiritualism, notably William Crookes, were subject to much criticism from the press, with The Lancet as the leading English medical journal of the time being particularly harsh. The controversy affected the public perception of Wallace’s work for the rest of his career. Slotten pp. 298–351. When, in 1879, Darwin first tried to rally support among naturalists to get a civil pension awarded to Wallace, Joseph Hooker responded: Wallace has lost caste considerably, not only by his adhesion to Spiritualism, but by the fact of his having deliberately and against the whole voice of the committee of his section of the British Association, brought about a discussion of on Spiritualism at one of its sectional meetings. That he is said to have done so in an underhanded manner, and I well remember the indignation it gave rise to in the B.A. Council. Slotten pp. 357–58. Hooker eventually relented and agreed to support the pension request. Slotten p. 362. Biogeography and ecology A map of the world from The Geographical Distribution of Animals shows Wallace's six biogeographical regions. In 1872, at the urging of many of his friends, including Darwin, Philip Sclater, and Alfred Newton, Wallace began research for a general review of the geographic distribution of animals. He was unable to make much progress initially, in part because classification systems for many types of animals were in flux at the time. Slotten p. 301. He resumed the work in earnest in 1874 after the publication of a number of new works on classification. Slotten p. 315. Extending the bird system developed by Sclater—which divided the earth into six separate geographic regions for describing species distribution—to cover mammals, reptiles and insects as well, Wallace created the basis for the zoogeographic regions still in use today. He discussed all of the factors then known to influence the current and past geographic distribution of animals within each geographical region. These included the effects of the appearance and disappearance of land bridges (such as the one currently connecting North America and South America) and the effects of periods of increased glaciation. He provided maps that displayed factors, such as elevation of mountains, depths of oceans, and the character of regional vegetation, that affected the distribution of animals. He also summarized all the known families and genera of the higher animals and listed their known geographic distributions. The text was organized so that it would be easy for a traveler to learn what animals could be found in a particular location. The resulting two-volume work, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, was published in 1876 and would serve as the definitive text on zoogeography for the next 80 years. Slotten pp. 320–25. In 1880, Wallace published the book Island Life as a sequel to The Geographical Distribution of Animals. It surveyed the distribution of both animal and plant species on islands. Wallace classified islands into three different types. Oceanic islands, such as the Galapagos and Hawaiian Islands (then known as the Sandwich Islands) formed in mid-ocean and had never been part of any large continent. Such islands were characterized by a complete lack of terrestrial mammals and amphibians, and their inhabitants (with the exceptions of migratory birds and species introduced by human activity) were typically the result of accidental colonization and subsequent evolution. He divided continental islands into two separate classes depending on whether they had recently been part of a continent (like Britain) or much less recently (like Madagascar) and discussed how that difference affected the flora and fauna. He talked about how isolation affected evolution and how that could result in the preservation of classes of animals, such as the lemurs of Madagascar that were remnants of once widespread continental faunas. He extensively discussed how changes of climate, particularly periods of increased glaciation, may have affected the distribution of flora and fauna on some islands, and the first portion of the book discusses possible causes of these great ice ages. Island Life was considered a very important work at the time of its publication. It was discussed extensively in scientific circles both in published reviews and in private correspondence. Slotten p. 361. Environmental issues Wallace’s extensive work in biogeography made him aware of the impact of human activities on the natural world. In Tropical Nature and Other Essays (1878), he warned about the dangers of deforestation and soil erosion, especially in tropical climates prone to heavy rainfall. Noting the complex interactions between vegetation and climate, he warned that the extensive clearing of rainforest for coffee cultivation in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and India would adversely impact the climate in those countries and lead to their eventual impoverishment due to soil erosion. Slotten pp. 352–353. In Island Life, Wallace again talked about deforestation and also the impact of invasive species. He wrote the following about the impact of European colonization on the island of Saint Helena: …yet the general aspect of the island is now so barren and forbidding that some persons find it difficult to believe that it was once all green and fertile. The cause of this change is, however, very easily explained. The rich soil formed by decomposed volcanic rock and vegetable deposits could only be retained on the steep slopes so long as it was protected by the vegetation to which it in great part owed its origin. When this was destroyed, the heavy tropical rains soon washed away the soil, and has left a vast expanse of bare rock or sterile clay. This irreparable destruction was caused, in the first place, by goats, which were introduced by the Portuguese in 1513, and increased so rapidly that in 1588 they existed in the thousands. These animals are the greatest of all foes to trees, because they eat off the young seedlings, and thus prevent the natural restoration of the forest. They were, however, aided by the reckless waste of man. The East India Company took possession of the island in 1651, and about the year 1700 it began to be seen that the forests were fast diminishing, and required some protection. Two of the native trees, redwood and ebony, were good for tanning, and, to save trouble, the bark was wastefully stripped from the trunks only, the remainder being left to rot; while in 1709 a large quantity of the rapidly disappearing ebony was used to burn lime for building fortifications! Wallace Island Life pp. 283–284. Other controversies Flat Earth wager In 1870, a Flat-Earth proponent named John Hampden offered a £500 wager in a magazine advertisement to anyone who could demonstrate a convex curvature in a body of water such as a river, canal, or lake. Wallace, intrigued by the challenge and short of money at the time, designed an experiment in which he set up two objects along a six-mile (10 km) stretch of canal. Both objects were at the same height above the water and in a straight line with a telescope he mounted on a bridge. When seen through the telescope, one object appeared higher than the other, showing the curvature of the earth. The judge for the wager, the editor of Field magazine, declared Wallace the winner, but Hampden refused to accept the result. He sued Wallace and launched a campaign, which persisted for several years, of writing letters to various publications and to organizations of which Wallace was a member denouncing him as a swindler and a thief. Wallace won multiple libel suits against Hampden, but the resulting litigation cost Wallace more than the amount of the wager and the controversy frustrated him for years. Shermer pp. 258–61. Anti-vaccination campaign In the early 1880s, Wallace was drawn into the debate over mandatory smallpox vaccination. Wallace originally saw the issue as a matter of personal liberty; but, after studying some of the statistics provided by anti-vaccination activists, he began to question the efficacy of vaccination. At the time, the germ theory of disease was very new and far from universally accepted. Moreover, no one knew enough about the human immune system to understand why vaccination worked. When Wallace did some research, he discovered some cases where supporters of vaccination had used questionable statistics. Always suspicious of authority, Wallace became convinced that reductions in the incidence of smallpox that had been attributed to vaccination were, in fact, due to better hygiene and improvements in public sanitation. He also suspected that physicians had a vested interest in promoting vaccination. Slotten pp. 422–36. Wallace and other anti-vaccinationists pointed out that vaccination, which was often done in a sloppy unsanitary manner, could be dangerous. Shermer p. 216. In 1890, Wallace gave evidence before a Royal Commission investigating the controversy. When the commission examined the material he had submitted to support his testimony, they found errors, including some questionable statistics. The Lancet stated that Wallace and the other anti-vaccination activists were being selective in their choice of statistics, ignoring large quantities of data inconsistent with their position. The commission found that smallpox vaccination was effective and should remain compulsory, though they did recommend some changes in procedures to improve safety, and that the penalties for people who refused to comply be made less severe. Years later, in 1898, Wallace wrote a pamphlet attacking the commission’s findings. It, in turn, was attacked by The Lancet, which stated that it contained many of the same errors as his evidence given to the commission. Martian canals In 1907, Wallace wrote the short book Is Mars Habitable? to criticize the claims made by Percival Lowell that there were Martian canals built by intelligent beings. Wallace did months of research, consulted various experts, and produced his own scientific analysis of the Martian climate and atmospheric conditions. Slotten p. 474. Among other things, Wallace pointed out that spectroscopic analysis had shown no signs of water vapour in the Martian atmosphere, that Lowell's analysis of Mars's climate was seriously flawed and badly overestimated the surface temperature, and that low atmospheric pressure would make liquid water, let alone a planet-girding irrigation system, impossible. Wallace originally became interested in the topic because his anthropocentric philosophy inclined him to believe that man would likely be unique in the universe. Shermer p. 294. Legacy and historical perception A portrait of Alfred Russel Wallace is shown above his signature on the frontispiece of Darwinism (1889). As a result of his writing, at the time of his death Wallace had been for many years a well-known figure both as a scientist and as a social activist. He was often sought out by journalists and others for his views on a variety of topics. Shermer pp. 292–294. He received honorary doctorates and a number of professional honours, such as election to the Royal Society, the Copley Medal, and one honour from the British monarch: the Order of Merit. Above all, his role as the co-discoverer of natural selection and his work on zoogeography marked him out as an exceptional figure. He was undoubtedly one of the greatest natural history explorers of the 19th century. Despite this, his fame faded quickly after his death. For a long time, he was treated as a relatively obscure figure in the history of science. A number of reasons have been suggested for this lack of attention, including his modesty, his willingness to champion unpopular causes without regard for his own reputation, and the discomfort of much of the scientific community with some of his unconventional ideas. Recently, he has become a less obscure figure with the publication of several biographies about him and anthologies of his writings, as well as the creation of a web page dedicated to Wallace scholarship. In 2007 a literary critic for New Yorker magazine observed that there had been at least five such biographies and two such anthologies published just since the year 2000. Awards, honours, and memorials Among the many awards presented to Wallace were the Order of Merit (1908), the Royal Society's Royal Medal (1868) and Copley Medal (1908), the Royal Geographical Society's Founder's Medal (1892) as well as the Linnean Society's Gold Medal (1892) and their Darwin-Wallace Medal (1908). Elected head of the anthropology section of the British Association in 1866. Elected president of the Entomological Society of London in 1870. Elected head of the biology section of the British Association in 1876. Awarded a civil pension of £200 a year, in large part due to lobbying by Darwin and Huxley, by British government in 1881. Elected to the Royal Society in 1893. Asked to chair the International Congress of Spiritualists (which was meeting in London) in 1898. In 1928, a house at Richard Hale School (at the time called Hertford Grammar School) was named after Wallace. Wallace attended Richard Hale as a student from 1828–36. On 1 November 1915, a medallion with his name on it was placed in Westminster Abbey. He is also honoured by having craters on Mars and the Moon named after him. A centre for biodiversity research in Sarawak named in his memory was proposed in 2005. The Geography and Biology building at Swansea University is named after Wallace. Writings by Wallace Wallace was a prolific author. In 2002, a historian of science published a quantitative analysis of Wallace's publications. He found that Wallace had published 22 full-length books and at least 747 shorter pieces, 508 of which were scientific papers (191 of them published in Nature). He further broke down the 747 short pieces by their primary subjects as follows. 29% were on biogeography and natural history, 27% were on evolutionary theory, 25% were social commentary, 12% were on Anthropology, and 7% were on spiritualism and phrenology. Shermer pp. 15–17. An online bibliography of Wallace's writings has more than 750 entries. Selected books Selected papers [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S008.htmOn the Monkeys of the Amazon], 1853 Speculates on the effect of rivers and other geographical barriers on the distribution of closely allied species. [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S020.htmOn the Law Which Has Regulated the Introduction of New Species], 1855 Wallace's thoughts on the laws governing the geographic distribution of closely allied species and the implications of those laws for the transmutation of species. [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S043.htmOn the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type], 1858 Paper on natural selection sent by Wallace to Darwin. [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S053.htmOn the Zoological Geography of the Malay Archipelago], 1859 Contains first description of Wallace Line. [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S083.htmRemarks on the Rev. S. Haughton's Paper on the Bee's Cell, And on the Origin of Species], 1863 Wallace's defence of the Origin'' on the topic of evolution of the hexagonal bee cell. the Physical Geography of the Malay Archipelago'', 1863 Paper on the geography and possible geographic history of Indonesia with concluding remarks on importance of biogeography and biodiversity that are frequently cited in modern conservation circles. and American Flowers'', 1891 Contains speculation on how glaciation may have affected distribution of mountain flora in North America and Eurasia. A more comprehensive list of Wallace's publications that are available online, as well as a full bibliography of all of Wallace's writings, has been compiled by the historian Charles H. Smith at the The Alfred Russel Wallace Page. See also Wallacea Operation Wallacea Fauna of Indonesia Flora of Indonesia List of independent discoveries History of evolutionary thought History of biology Notes References Vol. 1, Vol. 2. Further reading External links The Alfred Russel Wallace Page The Alfred Russel Wallace Website "Missing Link-Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Darwin's neglected double" by Jonathan Rosen, The New Yorker, February 12, 2007 Malay Archipelago'' illustrated edition at Papua WebProject Wallace at 100 Welsh Heroes BBC article on Wallace and Indonesia's efforts to honor him National Geographic Magazine, December 2008 - The Man Who Wasn't Darwin Biography "The Work In Darwin's Shadow" by Joel Achenbach, The Washington Post, February 9, 2009 Sister project links

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Glorantha

Glorantha is the Fantasy world created by Greg Stafford and since used as the background for several role-playing games, including RuneQuest (1st ed. 1978), Hero Wars (1st ed. 2000) and HeroQuest (1st ed. 2003). The world is characterised by its complex approach to mythology, heavily influenced by the universalist approaches of Joseph Campbell and Mircea Eliade, its Howardian ethos, its long and distinctive history as a setting for role-playing games, its community development and expansion, and (unusual among early American fantasy role-playing games) its relative lack of Tolkienesque influence. Stafford began imagining Glorantha in 1966 as a way to deepen his own understanding of mythology. He founded the company Chaosium to publish the board wargame White Bear and Red Moon in 1974, which was set in Glorantha. Chaosium later published other games in the setting, including the critically-acclaimed RuneQuest. Various later editions of RuneQuest, the narrative roleplaying game HeroQuest (the first edition of which was published as Hero Wars), and the computer game King of Dragon Pass were also set in Glorantha, as were several prominent fan efforts. Mongoose Publishing currently publishes a new version of RuneQuest. Stafford has also explored the Gloranthan setting in the fantasy novel King of Sartar STAFFORD Greg, King of Sartar, Berkley Publishing Group, February 1993, ISBN 0-933635-99-0 and a number of extended essays known collectively as "the Stafford Library". In Glorantha, magic operates from the everyday level of prayers and charms to the creation and maintenance of the world. Heroes make their way in the world, and may also venture into metaphysical realms to gain knowledge and power, at the risk of body and soul. In the more recent material competing magical outlooks, such as theism, shamanism and mysticism, exist to explain the world. Within each metaphysical system, adherents may also compete - such as when theistic worshipers of rival gods battle each other. The world is flat, with a dome-like sky, and it has been shaped in large and small ways by the mythic actions of the gods. The 'historical' world of Glorantha is in a more or less fallen state, having recovered only partially from a universal battle against Chaos in the mythic Godtime. Humans are the dominant race, but other sentient beings abound. Some, such as the mystic dragonewts, are unique to Glorantha. Familiar nonhuman races, such as elves and dwarves, are distinct from their common, Tolkienesque portrayals. Multimedia Glorantha Glorantha has been so far the background for 2 board-games (White Bear and Red Moon/Dragon Pass and Nomad Gods), two role-playing games (RuneQuest and HeroQuest), one computer game (King of Dragon Pass), one comic book series (Path of the Damned), five novels or collections of fiction (King of Sartar by Greg Stafford, The Collected/Complete Griselda by Oliver Dickinson, Gloranthan Visions by various authors, The Widow's Tale and Eurhol´s Vale & Other Tales by Penelope Love, and numerous pieces of myth and fiction created by the Glorantha community, featuring in magazines such as Tales of the Reaching Moon. Several hundred gaming miniatures by various licensees and about a dozen plush toys have also been produced at various times. History of the Gloranthan game world Unlike Dungeons & Dragons, the other approach to fantasy role-playing which traces its roots back to the 1960s and which derives from the wargaming scene, the roots of Glorantha lie in experiments with mythology, storytelling, and recreation and blending of ancient societies. Stafford's first imaginings of Glorantha date back to 1966, when he began his studies at Beloit College, as a vehicle for him to deepen his own understanding of mythology by creating his own mythology, and also (so he says) as a way of getting to know girls. Stafford was greatly influenced by the ideas on mythology of Joseph Campbell, and echoes of Campbell's work are to be found in many aspects of Glorantha; for instance the story of the "God Learners" can be seen as an exercise on the implications of Campbell's idea of a unifying monomyth, and the story of Prince Argrath an exploration of Campbell's The Hero with a Thousand Faces. More abstractly, Campbell's idea that myths are how we shape our lives deeply informs the picture of life in Glorantha throughout the game world's publication history. The first game system set in Glorantha was the board game White Bear and Red Moon. Stafford first tried to sell the game to established publishers, but despite being accepted by three different game companies, each attempt ended in failure; eventually he founded his own game company in 1974, the influential Chaosium, to publish his game. The game detailed the rise of the barbarian Prince Argrath to defend his homeland of Sartar against the red tide of the civilized Lunar Empire, and filled out the area of Dragon Pass; the game has undergone several reissues since that time. The next publication was also a board game, Nomad Gods, published by Chaosium in 1978, which detailed the raids and wars between the beast-riding spirit-worshiping tribes of Prax, a cursed land to the east of Dragon Pass. A French language edition was published by Oriflam under license from Chaosium under the name Les Dieux Nomades in 1994. The first edition of the role-playing game RuneQuest was released in 1978. In this edition of the game, the game world is "Glorontha" (sic). Several later editions were made; RuneQuest II in 1979 introduced many sophisticated game aids, such as Cults of Prax and Cults of Terror, and highly polished game scenarios, such as Griffin Mountain. Using materials such as Cults of Prax, players aligned their characters with any of several distinct religions, grounding those characters in the political, cultural, and metaphysical conflicts of Glorantha. Each religion offered a distinct worldview and cultural outlook, none of which are objectively correct. This approach of offering competing mythical histories and value systems continues in current Glorantha material. Cults of Terror focused on the worship of evil gods and adversaries, such as Vivamort, a vampire cult, and Lunar and Chaos cults. It did not review as well as its companion volume, being given 6 out of 10 in White Dwarf magazine. This review score was later corrected to 9 out of 10 in a subsequent issue to reflect the very positive nature of the original review. In an attempt to leverage the power of a much bigger gaming company, RuneQuest III was published with Avalon Hill in 1984. This edition both loosened the connection between RuneQuest and Glorantha, introducing 'Fantasy Europe' as the principal game world for Rune Quest, and much broadened the scope of Glorantha, which was treated as an alternative game world. Unfortunately, RuneQuest did not prosper with its association with Avalon Hill, and the relationship between Chaosium, who held the rights to Glorantha, and Avalon Hill, who held the rights to RuneQuest, finally broke down completely in 1995. A draft of the RuneQuest IV rules, called RuneQuest:Slayers, was written but never published. It has since been renamed RuneSlayers and released as a free download. It had little to do with the Glorantha setting. During this period of breakdown, Glorantha continued to evolve. The advent of popular use of the internet caused a boom in fan creations in Glorantha, supported by some unofficial business ventures, such as Reaching Moon Megacorp, and a lively convention scene. Loren Miller proposed his Maximum Game Fun principle as a basis for gaming, which soon became a game system in its own right, David Dunham proposed his PenDragon Pass system, a nearly freeform game system, and several ambitious freeform games were played at conventions, such as Home of the Bold with up to 80 participants. The computer game King of Dragon Pass was released by A-Sharp, allowing the player to play an Orlanthi hero who seeks to unite the clans and tribes of Dragon Pass in a kingdom; the game features exceptional depth of coverage of the area of Dragon Pass, and featured the first compelling public view of Stafford's ideas about the hero quest. Also Stafford was at this time publishing material about the history and mythology of Glorantha in non-game form as books such as King of Sartar and The Glorious (Re)Ascent of Yelm. Today, new official material is appearing for the HeroQuest game system, for a short while called the Hero Wars system. The game system, written by Robin Laws in collaboration with Greg Stafford, is radically different from RuneQuest in that it emphasises narrativist aspects of role-playing; in contrast, RuneQuest emphasised simulationist aspects. Because of this change in approach some RuneQuest fans found it difficult to adjust to HeroQuest. However, other long-term fans felt that the game fit Glorantha far better than RuneQuest. Another company, Mongoose Publishing, has obtained rights from Issaries to publish material concerning the world of Glorantha, focusing exclusively (and for the first time) on the little-explored Second Age of Gloranthan history. Their new edition of Runequest debuted in August 2006, and the first Gloranthan supplement for it was released in October 2006. The World of Glorantha There are a variety of cultures in Glorantha that have strikingly different perceptions of their world, the magic that pervades it and the major events that have shaped it. The Issaries website introduces Glorantha as: "Glorantha is an action-packed world of adventure. Gods and Goddesses struggle here, with nations of people nothing but their pawns. The stormy barbarians with their brutal but honest Storm God struggle against the Lunar Empire, led by the imperial Sun God and devious Moon Goddess. Glorantha is an exciting world of heroes. Legends are being made by great individuals, many who are not even human beings. Some work with the deities, other heroes and heroines fight against them. Glorantha is colorful and full of magic. Supernatural animals are found, ranging from unicorns to seven types of merfolk and the Goddess of Lions. Glorantha is immense. If explored, it has different worlds and dimensions, whole realms where Gods, spirits and sorcerous powers come from. Unlike many fantasy settings, Glorantha emphasises religion, myth and belief to a level rarely seen in roleplaying or fantasy fiction elsewhere. Glorantha shares some fantasy tropes such as dwarves, elves, trolls, giants, but has developed them differently to the more conventional versions based on the work of Tolkien. Dwarves are literally made of stone and exist as manifest rigid inflexible laws of creation, while elves are intelligent, mobile plants. Glorantha is full of surprises. Glorantha is as deep as you want it to be, or not. Hackers and choppers have what they want, while scholars and mythologists have a vast playground of new stories, legends and myths to enjoy." The world of Glorantha has various cultures analogous to Earth spread over two major landmasses and a widespread archipelago. The northern continent of Genertela has a feudal society of roughly medieval type to the west, an autocratic Oriental society to the east and a classical style Bronze Age culture in the center. The southern continent of Pamaltela is somewhat like Africa, but with many differences. Specifically Gloranthan Creatures Broo or Goatkin are creatures with the body of a man and the head of a goat, or some other animal. Broos are filthy creatures, always carriers of disease. They worship Malia, the Mother of Disease, in addition to their patroness, Thed, the goddess of rape and mother of Chaos. Broo have the ability to mate with any other species, with the child eating its way out of the host at full gestation. The newborn would distribute traits of parent and host. It just so happens that within Dragon Pass (where most players set their adventures), goats, sheep and cattle are prevalent, resulting in the common 'goat' appearance of broo. Scorpionmen are belligerent folk, who look like a sort of scorpion-human centaur.They are described as stupid, vicious and live in violent matriarchies with a religious emphasis on devouring. Ducks or Durulz are large intelligent ducks with arms instead of wings (or men cursed with feathers and webbed feet, depending on your point of view). They reside around rivers, mainly in Sartar, and have an unexplained mystical affinity with Death. Aldryami are Gloranthan plantmen, nature and sun worshipping-mainly worshipping Aldrya, deity of plants. Unlike Tolkienesque elves, they are alien, physically plant-like and often hostile to normal humans (meat men). Like many other fictional elf races, they are excellent archers. Mostali are a machine-like dwarf race, extremely xenophobic, orthodox and insular. Inventors of iron, which has many extraordinary magical properties in Glorantha. Uz, the trolls, are the race of darkness, large, intelligent, astoundingly omnivorous, with a very developed sonar-like sense (darksense). Their societies are matriarchal, and they worship a number of violent and sinister darkness gods, including Kyger Litor, mother of the Trolls. Dragonewts a magical race who comprise several forms of neotenic dragons, engaged in a cycle of self-improving reincarnation. Extremely alien and incomprehensible mindset. They must have oral surgery in order to speak human languages. See also King of Dragon Pass References Astinus, 1998. History of Role-playing: Part III - A golden age emerges. Peter Maranci, 2001. History of RuneQuest. Greg Stafford, 1997. Why Chaosium is. From Starry Wisdom #1. External links Glorantha.com - Issaries website containing information about Glorantha and HeroQuest Glorantha.org.uk's Links - Extensive list of Glorantha links on the net. Community resources WhiteWall Wiki, a community effort to describe the events of the Lunar siege of Whitewall, an Orlanthi stronghold south of Dragon Pass. Information about game systems based in Glorantha PenDragon Pass, the rules for David Dunham's system, which puts the Gloranthan world into the Pendragon Arthurian role-playing system.

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Indian_Ocean

The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering about 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by Asia (including the Indian subcontinent, after which it is named); on the west by Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean (or, traditionally, by Antarctica). One component of the all-encompassing World Ocean, the Indian Ocean is delineated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian running south from Cape Agulhas, Limits of Oceans and Seas. International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953. and from the Pacific by the 147° east meridian. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf and, thus, has asymmetric ocean circulation. This ocean is nearly 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 square kilometres (28,400,000 mi²), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 cubic kilometers (70,086,000 mi³). Small islands dot the continental rims. Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar (formerly Malagasy Republic), the world's fourth largest island; Comoros; Seychelles; Maldives; Mauritius; and Sri Lanka. Indonesia borders it on the east. The ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict. Because of its size, however, no nation had successfully dominated most of it until the early 1800s when the United Kingdom controlled much of the surrounding land. The Indian Ocean, not including the Antarctic region. Geography The African, Indian, and Antarctic crustal plates converge in the Indian Ocean at the Rodrigues Triple Point. Their junctures are marked by branches of the mid-oceanic ridge forming an inverted Y, with the stem running south from the edge of the continental shelf near Mumbai, India. The eastern, western, and southern basins thus formed are subdivided into smaller basins by ridges. The ocean's continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometers (125 mi) in width. An exception is found off Australia's western coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 kilometres (600 mi). The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 metres (12,760 ft). Its deepest point, is in the Java Trench. North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the main basin is covered by pelagic sediments, of which more than half is globigerina ooze. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments. Glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes. A spring 2000 decision by the International Hydrographic Organisation delimited a fifth world ocean, stripping the southern portions of the Indian Ocean. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60° south latitude which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Indian Ocean remains the third-largest of the world's five oceans. Major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok Strait. Seas include Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Laccadive Sea, Mozambique Channel, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Strait of Malacca, and other tributary water bodies. Bathymetric map of the Indian Ocean Climate The climate north of the equator is affected by a Monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the Monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes striké the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Hydrology Among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Shatt al-Arab, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Juba and Ayeyarwady River. Currents are mainly controlled by the monsoon. Two large circular currents, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise, constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deep water circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, and Antarctic currents. North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly. Surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and south-western Australia. Pack ice and icebergs are found throughout the year south of about 65° south latitude. The average northern limit of icebergs is 45° south latitude. Sub surface features As the youngest of the major oceans Stow, D. A. V. (2006) Oceans : an illustrated reference Chicago : University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226776646 - page 127 for map of Indian Ocean and text it has active spreading ridges that are part of the worldwide system of mid-ocean ridges :- Carlsberg Ridge Southwest Indian Ridge Southeast Indian Ridge Central Indian Ridge The Ninety East Ridge runs north-south at meridian 90E, dissecting the Indian Ocean into eastern and western halves. Another submerged mountain range runs approximately north-south between the Atolls of the Maldives and the Chagos Archipelago. The Kerguelen Plateau is a large submerged continent, of volcanic origin, in the southern Indian Ocean. The Mascarene Plateau is 2000km long undersea plateau that lies east of Madagascar. Economy The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and Western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals, and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The warmth of the Indian Ocean keeps phytoplankton production low, except along the northern fringe and in a few scattered spots elsewhere; life in the ocean is thus limited. Fishing is confined to subsistence levels. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales. Oil and ship pollution threatens the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea, History The world's earliest civilizations in Mesopotamia (beginning with Sumer), ancient Egypt, and the Indian subcontinent (beginning with the Indus Valley civilization), which began along the valleys of the Tigris-Euphrates, Nile and Indus rivers respectively, had all developed around the Indian Ocean. Civilizations soon arose in Persia (beginning with Elam) and later in Southeast Asia (beginning with Funan). During Egypt's first dynasty (c. 3000 BC), sailors were sent out onto its waters, journeying to Punt, thought to be part of present-day Somalia. Returning ships brought gold and myrrh. The earliest known maritime trade between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley (c. 2500 BC) was conducted along the Indian Ocean. Phoenicians of the late 3rd millennium BC may have entered the area, but no settlements resulted. The Indian Ocean is far calmer and thus opened to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed Indonesian peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in Madagascar. In the second or first century BC, Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean. Hippalus is said to have discovered the direct route from Arabia to India around this time. During the first and second centuries intensive trade relations developed between Roman Egypt and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern India. Like the Indonesian peoples above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the ocean. The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this route and the ports and trade goods along the coasts of Africa and India around AD 70. From 1405 to 1433, Admiral Zheng He led large fleets of the Ming Dynasty on several voyages to the Western Ocean (Chinese name for the Indian Ocean) and reached the coastal country of East Africa. (see Zheng He for reference). In 1497, Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and became the first European to sail to India. The European ships, armed with heavy cannon, quickly dominated trade. Portugal at first attempted to achieve pre-eminence by setting up forts at the important straits and ports. But the small nation was unable to support such a vast project, and they were replaced in the mid-17th century by other European powers. The Dutch East India Company (1602-1798) sought control of trade with the East across the Indian Ocean. France and Britain established trade companies for the area. Eventually Britain became the principal power and by 1815 dominated the area. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 revived European interest in the East, but no nation was successful in establishing trade dominance. Since World War II the United Kingdom has withdrawn from the area, to be only partially replaced by India, the USSR, and the United States. The last two tried to establish hegemony by negotiating for naval base sites. Developing countries bordering the ocean, however, seek to have it made a "zone of peace" so that they may use its shipping lanes freely, though the United Kingdom and United States maintain a military base on Diego Garcia atoll in the middle of the Indian Ocean. On December 26, 2004, the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean were hit by a tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The waves resulted in more than 226,000 deaths and over 1 million people were left homeless some dead. Culture and literature The Indian Ocean is known as Ratnakara in the ancient Sanskrit literature. Ratnakara means "the maker(creator) of jewels". See Culture of the Indian Ocean Islands and Indian Ocean literature. Major ports and harbours See also Indian Ocean states List of islands in the Indian Ocean Seven seas References External links Oceanography Image of the Day , from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer Plot and download ocean observations The Regional Tuna Tagging Project-Indian Ocean with details of the importance of Tuna in the Indian Ocean Detailed maps of the Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean Trade: A Classroom Simulation Travel in the Indian Ocean be-x-old:Індыйскі акіян

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Propositional_calculus

In logic and mathematics, a propositional calculus or logic (also a sentential calculus) is a formal system in which formulae representing propositions can be formed by combining atomic propositions using logical connectives, and a system of formal proof rules allows certain formulae to be established as theorems. Terminology In general terms, a calculus is a formal system that consists of a set of syntactic expressions (well-formed formulæ or wffs), a distinguished subset of these expressions (axioms), plus a set of formal rules that define a specific binary relation, intended to be interpreted as logical equivalence, on the space of expressions. When the formal system is intended to be a logical system, the expressions are meant to be interpreted as statements, and the rules, known as inference rules, are typically intended to be truth-preserving. In this setting, the rules (which may include axioms) can then be used to derive ("infer") formulæ representing true statements from given formulæ representing true statements. The set of axioms may be empty, a nonempty finite set, a countably infinite set, or be given by axiom schemata. A formal grammar recursively defines the expressions and well-formed formulæ (wffs) of the language. In addition a semantics may be given which defines truth and valuations (or interpretations). The language of a propositional calculus consists of (1) a set of primitive symbols, variously referred to as atomic formulae, placeholders, proposition letters, or variables, and (2) a set of operator symbols, variously interpreted as logical operators or logical connectives. A well-formed formula (wff) is any atomic formula or any formula that can be built up from atomic formulæ by means of operator symbols according to the rules of the grammar. Outline The following outlines a standard propositional calculus. Many different formulations exist which are all more or less equivalent but differ in the details of (1) their language, that is, the particular collection of primitive symbols and operator symbols, (2) the set of axioms, or distinguished formulæ, and (3) the set of inference rules. Generic description of a propositional calculus A propositional calculus is a formal system , where: The alpha set is a finite set of elements called proposition symbols or propositional variables. Syntactically speaking, these are the most basic elements of the formal language , otherwise referred to as atomic formulæ or terminal elements. In the examples to follow, the elements of are typically the letters , , , and so on. The omega set is a finite set of elements called operator symbols or logical connectives. The set is partitioned into disjoint subsets as follows: . In this partition, is the set of operator symbols of arity . In the more familiar propositional calculi, is typically partitioned as follows: , . A frequently adopted convention treats the constant logical values as operators of arity zero, thus: . Some writers use the tilde (~) instead of (); and some use the ampersand (&) or instead of . Notation varies even more for the set of logical values, with symbols like {false, true}, {F, T}, or all being seen in various contexts instead of {0, 1}. The zeta set is a finite set of transformation rules that are called inference rules when they acquire logical applications. The iota set is a finite set of initial points that are called axioms when they receive logical interpretations. The language of , also known as its set of formulæ, well-formed formulas or wffs, is inductively or recursively defined by the following rules: Base: Any element of the alpha set is a formula of . If are formulæ and is in , then is a formula. Closed: Nothing else is a formula of . Repeated applications of these rules permits the construction of complex formulæ. For example: By rule 1, is a formula. By rule 2, is a formula. By rule 1, is a formula. By rule 2, is a formula. Example 1. Simple axiom system Let , where are defined as follows: The alpha set , is a finite set of symbols that is large enough to supply the needs of a given discussion, for example: Of the three connectives for conjunction, disjunction, and implication (, , and ), one can be taken as primitive and the other two can be defined in terms of it and negation (). Indeed, all of the logical connectives can be defined in terms of a sole sufficient operator. The biconditional () can of course be defined in terms of conjunction and implication, with defined as .Adopting negation and implication as the two primitive operations of a propositional calculus is tantamount to having the omega set partition as follows: An axiom system discovered by Jan Łukasiewicz formulates a propositional calculus in this language as follows. The axioms are all substitution instances of: The rule of inference is modus ponens (i.e. from and , infer ). Then is defined as , and is defined as . Example 2. Natural deduction system Let , where are defined as follows: The alpha set , is a finite set of symbols that is large enough to supply the needs of a given discussion, for example: The omega set partitions as follows: In the following example of a propositional calculus, the transformation rules are intended to be interpreted as the inference rules of a so-called natural deduction system. The particular system presented here has no initial points, which means that its interpretation for logical applications derives its theorems from an empty axiom set. The set of initial points is empty, that is, The set of transformation rules, , is described as follows: Our propositional calculus has ten inference rules. These rules allow us to derive other true formulae given a set of formulae that are assumed to be true. The first nine simply state that we can infer certain wffs from other wffs. The last rule however uses hypothetical reasoning in the sense that in the premise of the rule we temporarily assume an (unproven) hypothesis to be part of the set of inferred formulae to see if we can infer a certain other formula. Since the first nine rules don't do this they are usually described as non-hypothetical rules, and the last one as a hypothetical rule. Reductio ad absurdum (negation introduction) From , if accepting (q) leads to a proof that , infer . Double negative elimination From , infer . Conjunction introduction From and , infer . From and , infer . Conjunction elimination From , infer From , infer . Disjunction introduction From , infer From , infer . Disjunction elimination From , , , infer . Biconditional introduction From , , infer . Biconditional elimination From , infer ; From , infer . Modus ponens (conditional elimination) From , , infer . Conditional proof (conditional introduction) If accepting allows a proof of , infer . Basic and Derived Argument Forms Name Sequent Description Modus Ponens If p then q; p; therefore q Modus Tollens If p then q; not q; therefore not p Hypothetical Syllogism If p then q; if q then r; therefore, if p then r Disjunctive Syllogism Either p or q, or both; not p; therefore, q Constructive Dilemma If p then q; and if r then s; but p or r; therefore q or s Destructive Dilemma If p then q; and if r then s; but not q or not s; therefore not p or not r Bidirectional Dilemma If p then q; and if r then s; but p or not s; therefore q or not r Simplification p and q are true; therefore p is true Conjunction p and q are true separately; therefore they are true conjointly Addition p is true; therefore the disjunction (p or q) is true Composition If p then q; and if p then r; therefore if p is true then q and r are true De Morgan's Theorem (1) The negation of (p and q) is equiv. to (not p or not q) De Morgan's Theorem (2) The negation of (p or q) is equiv. to (not p and not q) Commutation (1) (p or q) is equiv. to (q or p) Commutation (2) (p and q) is equiv. to (q and p) Commutation (3) (p is equiv. to q) is equiv. to (q is equiv. to p) Association (1) p or (q or r) is equiv. to (p or q) or r Association (2) p and (q and r) is equiv. to (p and q) and r Distribution (1) p and (q or r) is equiv. to (p and q) or (p and r) Distribution (2) p or (q and r) is equiv. to (p or q) and (p or r) Double Negation p is equivalent to the negation of not p Transposition If p then q is equiv. to if not q then not p Material Implication If p then q is equiv. to not p or q Material Equivalence (1) (p is equiv. to q) means (if p is true then q is true) and (if q is true then p is true) Material Equivalence (2) (p is equiv. to q) means either (p and q are true) or (both p and q are false) Material Equivalence (3) (p is equiv. to q) means, both (p or not q is true) and (not p or q is true) Exportation from (if p and q are true then r is true) we can prove (if q is true then r is true, if p is true) Importation   Tautology (1) p is true is equiv. to p is true or p is true Tautology (2) p is true is equiv. to p is true and p is true Tertium non datur (Law of Excluded Middle) p or not p is true Law of Non-Contradiction p and not p is false, is a true statement Proofs in propositional calculus One of the main uses of a propositional calculus, when interpreted for logical applications, is to determine relations of logical equivalence between propositional formulæ. These relationships are determined by means of the available transformation rules, sequences of which are called derivations or proofs. In the discussion to follow, a proof is presented as a sequence of numbered lines, with each line consisting of a single formula followed by a reason or justification for introducing that formula. Each premise of the argument, that is, an assumption introduced as an hypothesis of the argument, is listed at the beginning of the sequence and is marked as a "premise" in lieu of other justification. The conclusion is listed on the last line. A proof is complete if every line follows from the previous ones by the correct application of a transformation rule. (For a contrasting approach, see proof-trees). Example of a proof To be shown that . One possible proof of this (which, though valid, happens to contain more steps than are necessary) may be arranged as follows: Example of a Proof Number Formula Reason 1 premise 2 From (1) by disjunction introduction 3 From (1) and (2) by conjunction introduction 4 From (3) by conjunction elimination 5 Summary of (1) through (4) 6 From (5) by conditional proof Interpret as "Assuming , infer ". Read as "Assuming nothing, infer that implies ", or "It is a tautology that implies ", or "It is always true that implies ". Soundness and completeness of the rules The crucial properties of this set of rules are that they are sound and complete. Informally this means that the rules are correct and that no other rules are required. These claims can be made more formal as follows. We define a truth assignment as a function that maps propositional variables to true or false. Informally such a truth assignment can be understood as the description of a possible state of affairs (or possible world) where certain statements are true and others are not. The semantics of formulae can then be formalized by defining for which "state of affairs" they are considered to be true, which is what is done by the following definition. We define when such a truth assignment satisfies a certain wff with the following rules: satisfies the propositional variable if and only if satisfies if and only if does not satisfy satisfies if and only if satisfies both and satisfies if and only if satisfies at least one of either or satisfies if and only if it is not the case that satisfies but not satisfies if and only if satisfies both and or satisfies neither one of them With this definition we can now formalize what it means for a formula to be implied by a certain set of formulae. Informally this is true if in all worlds that are possible given the set of formulae the formula also holds. This leads to the following formal definition: We say that a set of wffs semantically entails (or implies) a certain wff if all truth assignments that satisfy all the formulae in also satisfy . Finally we define syntactical entailment such that is syntactically entailed by if and only if we can derive it with the inference rules that were presented above in a finite number of steps. This allows us to formulate exactly what it means for the set of inference rules to be sound and complete: Soundness If the set of wffs syntactically entails wff then semantically entails Completeness If the set of wffs semantically entails wff then syntactically entails For the above set of rules this is indeed the case. Sketch of a soundness proof (For most logical systems, this is the comparatively "simple" direction of proof) Notational conventions: Let "G" be a variable ranging over sets of sentences. Let "A", "B", and "C" range over sentences. For "G syntactically entails A" we write "G proves A". For "G semantically entails A" we write "G implies A". We want to show: (A)(G)(if G proves A, then G implies A). We note that "G proves A" has an inductive definition, and that gives us the immediate resources for demonstrating claims of the form "If G proves A, then ...". So our proof proceeds by induction. I. Basis. Show: If A is a member of G, then G implies A. II. Basis. Show: If A is an axiom, then G implies A. III. Inductive step (induction on n, the length of the proof): (a) Assume for arbitrary G and A that if G proves A in n or fewer steps, then G implies A. (b) For each possible application of a rule of inference at step n+1, leading to a new theorem B, show that G implies B. Notice that Basis Step II can be omitted for natural deduction systems because they have no axioms. When used, Step II involves showing that each of the axioms is a (semantic) logical truth. The Basis step(s) demonstrate(s) that the simplest provable sentences from G are also implied by G, for any G. (The is simple, since the semantic fact that a set implies any of its members, is also trivial.) The Inductive step will systematically cover all the further sentences that might be provable—by considering each case where we might reach a logical conclusion using an inference rule—and shows that if a new sentence is provable, it is also logically implied. (For example, we might have a rule telling us that from "A" we can derive "A or B". In III.(a) We assume that if A is provable it is implied. We also know that if A is provable then "A or B" is provable. We have to show that then "A or B" too is implied. We do so by appeal to the semantic definition and the assumption we just made. A is provable from G, we assume. So it is also implied by G. So any semantic valuation making all of G true makes A true. But any valuation making A true makes "A or B" true, by the defined semantics for "or". So any valuation which makes all of G true makes "A or B" true. So "A or B" is implied.) Generally, the Inductive step will consist of a lengthy but simple case-by-case analysis of all the rules of inference, showing that each "preserves" semantic implication. By the definition of provability, there are no sentences provable other than by being a member of G, an axiom, or following by a rule; so if all of those are semantically implied, the deduction calculus is sound. Sketch of completeness proof (This is usually the much harder direction of proof.) We adopt the same notational conventions as above. We want to show: If G implies A, then G proves A. We proceed by contraposition: We show instead that If G does not prove A then G does not imply A. I. G does not prove A. (Assumption) II. If G does not prove A, then we can construct an (infinite) "Maximal Set", G*, which is a superset of G and which also does not prove A. (a)Place an "ordering" on all the sentences in the language. (e.g., alphabetical ordering), and number them E1, E2, ... (b)Define a series Gn of sets (G0, G1 ... ) inductively, as follows. (i)G0 = G. (ii) If {Gk, E(k+1)} proves A, then G(k+1) = Gk. (iii) If {Gk, E(k+1)} does not prove A, then G(k+1) = {Gk, E(k+1)} (c)Define G* as the union of all the Gn. (That is, G* is the set of all the sentences that are in any Gn). (d) It can be easily shown that (i) G* contains (is a superset of) G (by (b.i)); (ii) G* does not prove A (because if it proves A then some sentence was added to some Gn which caused it to prove A; but this was ruled out by definition); and (iii) G* is a "Maximal Set" (with respect to A): If any more sentences whatever were added to G*, it would prove A. (Because if it were possible to add any more sentences, they should have been added when they were encountered during the construction of the Gn, again by definition) III. If G* is a Maximal Set (wrt A), then it is "truth-like". This means that it contains the sentence "C" only if it does not contain the sentence not-C; If it contains "C" and contains "If C then B" then it also contains "B"; and so forth. IV. If G* is truth-like there is a "G*-Canonical" valuation of the language: one that makes every sentence in G* true and everything outside G* false while still obeying the laws of semantic composition in the language. V. A G*-canonical valuation will make our original set G all true, and make A false. VI. If there is a valuation on which G are true and A is false, then G does not (semantically) imply A. QED Another outline for a completeness proof If a formula is a tautology, then there is a truth table for it which shows that each valuation yields the value true for the formula. Consider such a valuation. By mathematical induction on the length of the subformulae, show that the truth or falsity of the subformula follows from the truth or falsity (as appropriate for the valuation) of each propositional variable in the subformula. Then combine the lines of the truth table together two at a time by using "(P is true implies S) implies ((P is false implies S) implies S)". Keep repeating this until all dependencies on propositional variables have been eliminated. The result is that we have proved the given tautology. Since every tautology is provable, the logic is complete. Interpretation of a truth-functional propositional calculus An interpretation of a truth-functional propositional calculus is an assignment to each propositional symbol of of one or the other (but not both) of the truth values truth (T) and falsity (F), and an assignment to the connective symbols of of their usual truth-functional meanings. An interpretation of a truth-functional propositional calculus may also be expressed in terms of truth tables. Hunter, Geoffrey, Metalogic: An Introduction to the Metatheory of Standard First-Order Logic, University of California Pres, 1971 For n distinct propositional symbols there are 2n distinct possible interpretations. For any particular symbol a, for example, there are 21=2 possible interpretations: 1) a is assigned T, or 2) a is assigned F. For the pair a, b there are 22=4 possible interpretations: 1) both are assigned T, 2) both are assigned F, 3) a is assigned T and b is assigned F, or 4) a is assigned F and b is assigned T. Since has , that is, denumerably many propositional symbols, there are 2=, and therefore uncountably many distinct possible interpretations of . Interpretation of a sentence of truth-functional propositional logic If Φ and Ψ are formulas of and is an interpretation of then: A sentence of propositional logic is true under an interpretation iff assigns the truth value T to that sentence. If a sentence is true under an interpretation, then that interpretation is called a model of that sentence. Φ is false under an interpretation iff Φ is not true under . A sentence of propositional logic is logically valid iff it is true under every interpretation Φ means that Φ is logically valid A sentence Ψ of propositional logic is a semantic consequence of a sentence Φ iff there is no interpretation under which Φ is true and Ψ is false. A sentence of propositional logic is consistent iff it is true under at least one interpretation. It is inconsistent if it is not consistent. Some consequences of these definitions: For any given interpretation a given formula is either true or false. No formula is both true and false under the same interpretation. Φ is false for a given interpretation iff Φ is true for that interpretation; and Φ is true under an interpretation iff Φ is false under that interpretation. If Φ and (Φ Ψ) are both true under a given interpretation, then Ψ is true under that interpretation. If Φ and (Φ Ψ), then Ψ. Φ is true under iff Φ is not true under . (Φ Ψ) is true under iff either Φ is not true under or Ψ is true under . A sentence Ψ of propositional logic is a semantic consequence of a sentence Φ iff (Φ Ψ) is logically valid, that is, Φ Ψ iff (Φ Ψ). Alternative calculus It is possible to define another version of propositional calculus, which defines most of the syntax of the logical operators by means of axioms, and which uses only one inference rule. Axioms Let , and stand for well-formed formulæ. (The wffs themselves would not contain any Greek letters, but only capital Roman letters, connective operators, and parentheses.) Then the axioms are as follows: Axioms Name Axiom Schema Description THEN-1 Add hypothesis , implication introduction THEN-2 Distribute hypothesis over implication AND-1 Eliminate conjunction AND-2   AND-3 Introduce conjunction OR-1 Introduce disjunction OR-2   OR-3 ( Eliminate disjunction NOT-1 ( Introduce negation NOT-2 Eliminate negation NOT-3 Excluded middle, classical logic IFF-1 ( Eliminate equivalence IFF-2 (   IFF-3 ( Introduce equivalence Axiom THEN-2 may be considered to be a "distributive property of implication with respect to implication."Axioms AND-1 and AND-2 correspond to "conjunction elimination". The relation between AND-1 and AND-2 reflects the commutativity of the conjunction operator.Axiom AND-3 corresponds to "conjunction introduction."Axioms OR-1 and OR-2 correspond to "disjunction introduction." The relation between OR-1 and OR-2 reflects the commutativity of the disjunction operator.Axiom NOT-1 corresponds to "reductio ad absurdum."Axiom NOT-2 says that "anything can be deduced from a contradiction."Axiom NOT-3 is called "tertium non datur" (Latin: "a third is not given") and reflects the semantic valuation of propositional formulae: a formula can have a truth-value of either true or false. There is no third truth-value, at least not in classical logic. Intuitionistic logicians do not accept the axiom NOT-3. Inference rule The inference rule is modus ponens: . Meta-inference rule Let a demonstration be represented by a sequence, with hypotheses to the left of the turnstile and the conclusion to the right of the turnstile. Then the deduction theorem can be stated as follows: If the sequence has been demonstrated, then it is also possible to demonstrate the sequence . This deduction theorem (DT) is not itself formulated with propositional calculus: it is not a theorem of propositional calculus, but a theorem about propositional calculus. In this sense, it is a meta-theorem, comparable to theorems about the soundness or completeness of propositional calculus. On the other hand, DT is so useful for simplifying the syntactical proof process that it can be considered and used as another inference rule, accompanying modus ponens. In this sense, DT corresponds to the natural conditional proof inference rule which is part of the first version of propositional calculus introduced in this article. The converse of DT is also valid: If the sequence has been demonstrated, then it is also possible to demonstrate the sequence in fact, the validity of the converse of DT is almost trivial compared to that of DT: If then 1: 2: and from (1) and (2) can be deduced 3: by means of modus ponens, Q.E.D. The converse of DT has powerful implications: it can be used to convert an axiom into an inference rule. For example, the axiom AND-1, can be transformed by means of the converse of the deduction theorem into the inference rule which is conjunction elimination, one of the ten inference rules used in the first version (in this article) of the propositional calculus. Example of a proof The following is an example of a (syntactical) demonstration, involving only axioms THEN-1 and THEN-2: Prove: A → A (Reflexivity of implication). Proof: 1. (A → ((B → A) → A)) → ((A → (B → A)) → (A → A)) Axiom THEN-2 with φ = A, χ = B → A, ψ = A 2. A → ((B → A) → A) Axiom THEN-1 with φ = A, χ = B → A 3. (A → (B → A)) → (A → A) From (1) and (2) by modus ponens. 4. A → (B → A) Axiom THEN-1 with φ = A, χ = B 5. A → A From (3) and (4) by modus ponens. Equivalence to equational logics The preceding alternative calculus is an example of a Hilbert-style deduction system. In the case of propositional systems the axioms are terms built with logical connectives and the only inference rule is modus ponens. Equational logic as standardly used informally in high school algebra is a different kind of calculus from Hilbert systems. Its theorems are equations and its inference rules express the properties of equality, namely that it is a congruence on terms that admits substitution. Classical propositional calculus as described above is equivalent to Boolean algebra, while intuitionistic propositional calculus is equivalent to Heyting algebra. The equivalence is shown by translation in each direction of the theorems of the respective systems. Theorems Φ of classical or intuitionistic propositional calculus are translated as equations Φ = 1 of Boolean or Heyting algebra respectively. Conversely theorems of Boolean or Heyting algebra are translated as theorems of classical or propositional calculus respectively, for which is a standard abbreviation. In the case of Boolean algebra can also be translated as , but this translation is incorrect intuitionistically. In both Boolean and Heyting algebra, inequality can be used in place of equality. The equality is expressible as a pair of inequalities and . Conversely the inequality is expressible as the equality , or as . The significance of inequality for Hilbert-style systems is that it corresponds to the latter's deduction or entailment symbol . An entailment is translated in the inequality version of the algebraic framework as Conversely the algebraic inequality is translated as the entailment The difference between implication and inequality or entailment or is that the former is internal to the logic while the latter is external. Internal implication between two terms is another term of the same kind. Entailment as external implication between two terms expresses a metatruth outside the language of the logic, and is considered part of the metalanguage. Even when the logic under study is intuitionistic, entailment is ordinarily understood classically as two-valued: either the left side entails, or is less-or-equal to, the right side, or it is not. Similar but more complex translations to and from algebraic logics are possible for natural deduction systems as described above and for the sequent calculus. The entailments of the latter can be interpreted as two-valued, but a more insightful interpretation is as a set, the elements of which can be understood as abstract proofs organized as the morphisms of a category. In this interpretation the cut rule of the sequent calculus corresponds to composition in the category. Boolean and Heyting algebras enter this picture as special categories having at most one morphism per homset, i.e. one proof per entailment, corresponding to the idea that existence of proofs is all that matters: any proof will do and there is no point in distinguishing them. Graphical calculi It is possible to generalize the definition of a formal language from a set of finite sequences over a finite basis to include many other sets of mathematical structures, so long as they are built up by finitary means from finite materials. What's more, many of these families of formal structures are especially well-suited for use in logic. For example, there are many families of graphs that are close enough analogues of formal languages that the concept of a calculus is quite easily and naturally extended to them. Indeed, many species of graphs arise as parse graphs in the syntactic analysis of the corresponding families of text structures. The exigencies of practical computation on formal languages frequently demand that text strings be converted into pointer structure renditions of parse graphs, simply as a matter of checking whether strings are wffs or not. Once this is done, there are many advantages to be gained from developing the graphical analogue of the calculus on strings. The mapping from strings to parse graphs is called parsing and the inverse mapping from parse graphs to strings is achieved by an operation that is called traversing the graph. Other logical calculi Propositional calculus is about the simplest kind of logical calculus in any current use. (Aristotelian "syllogistic" calculus, which is largely supplanted in modern logic, is in some ways simpler — but in other ways more complex — than propositional calculus.) It can be extended in several ways. The most immediate way to develop a more complex logical calculus is to introduce rules that are sensitive to more fine-grained details of the sentences being used. When the "atomic sentences" of propositional logic are broken up into terms, variables, predicates, and quantifiers, they yield first-order logic, or first-order predicate logic, which keeps all the rules of propositional logic and adds some new ones. (For example, from "All dogs are mammals" we may infer "If Rover is a dog then Rover is a mammal".) It makes sense to refer to propositional logic as "zeroth-order logic", when comparing it with first-order logic and second-order logic. With the tools of first-order logic it is possible to formulate a number of theories, either with explicit axioms or by rules of inference, that can themselves be treated as logical calculi. Arithmetic is the best known of these; others include set theory and mereology. Modal logic also offers a variety of inferences that cannot be captured in propositional calculus. For example, from "Necessarily p" we may infer that p. From p we may infer "It is possible that p". The translation between modal logics and algebraic logics is as for classical and intuitionistic logics but with the introduction of a unary operator on Boolean or Heyting algebras, different from the Boolean operations, interpreting the possibility modality, and in the case of Heyting algebra a second operator interpreting necessity (for Boolean algebra this is redundant since necessity is the De Morgan dual of possibility). The first operator preserves 0 and disjunction while the second preserves 1 and conjunction. Many-valued logics are those allowing sentences to have values other than true and false. (For example, neither and both are standard "extra values"; "continuum logic" allows each sentence to have any of an infinite number of "degrees of truth" between true and false.) These logics often require calculational devices quite distinct from propositional calculus. When the values form a Boolean algebra (which may have more than two or even infinitely many values), many-valued logic reduces to classical logic; many-valued logics are therefore only of independent interest when the values form an algebra that is not Boolean. Solvers Finding solutions to propositional logic formulas is an NP-complete problem. However, recent breakthroughs (Chaff algorithm, 2001) have led to the development of small, efficient SAT solvers, which are very fast for most cases. Recent work has extended the SAT solver algorithms to work with propositions containing arithmetic expressions; these are the SMT solvers. References Brown, Frank Markham (2003), Boolean Reasoning: The Logic of Boolean Equations, 1st edition, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Norwell, MA. 2nd edition, Dover Publications, Mineola, NY. Chang, C.C., and Keisler, H.J. (1973), Model Theory, North-Holland, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Kohavi, Zvi (1978), Switching and Finite Automata Theory, 1st edition, McGraw–Hill, 1970. 2nd edition, McGraw–Hill, 1978. Korfhage, Robert R. (1974), Discrete Computational Structures, Academic Press, New York, NY. Lambek, J. and Scott, P.J. (1986), Introduction to Higher Order Categorical Logic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Mendelson, Elliot (1964), Introduction to Mathematical Logic, D. Van Nostrand Company. See also Higher logical levels First-order logic Second-order logic Higher-order logic Related topics Ampheck Boolean algebra (logic) Boolean algebra (structure) Boolean algebra topics Boolean domain Boolean function Boolean-valued function Categorical logic Combinational logic Combinatory logic Conceptual graph Disjunctive syllogism Entitative graph Existential graph Frege's propositional calculus Implicational propositional calculus Intuitionistic propositional calculus Laws of Form Logical graph Logical value Minimal negation operator Multigrade operator Operation Parametric operator Peirce's law Propositional formula Symmetric difference Truth table Related works External links Klement, Kevin C. (2006), "Propositional Logic", in James Fieser and Bradley Dowden (eds.), Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Eprint. Introduction to Mathematical Logic Elements of Propositional Calculus forall x: an introduction to formal logic, by P.D. Magnus, covers formal semantics and proof theory for sentential logic. Propositional Logic (GFDLed) be-x-old:Злічэнне выказванняў

Propositional_calculus |@lemmatized logic:55 mathematics:1 propositional:58 calculus:50 also:18 sentential:2 formal:16 system:19 formulae:1 represent:4 proposition:5 form:11 combine:2 atomic:6 use:17 logical:26 connective:8 proof:29 rule:57 allow:6 certain:7 formula:35 establish:1 theorem:15 terminology:1 general:1 term:11 consist:3 set:53 syntactic:2 expression:6 well:6 formulæ:12 wffs:10 distinguished:1 subset:2 axiom:35 plus:1 define:20 specific:1 binary:1 relation:4 intend:4 interpret:9 equivalence:9 space:1 mean:16 statement:5 know:3 inference:24 typically:3 truth:26 preserving:1 setting:1 may:10 include:3 derive:5 infer:23 true:69 give:14 empty:3 nonempty:1 finite:12 countably:1 infinite:3 schema:2 grammar:2 recursively:2 language:13 addition:2 semantics:4 valuation:11 interpretation:29 consists:1 primitive:4 symbol:17 variously:2 refer:3 placeholder:1 letter:4 variable:8 operator:18 wff:5 build:3 accord:1 outline:3 following:6 standard:4 many:12 different:3 formulation:1 exist:1 less:2 equivalent:4 differ:1 detail:2 particular:3 collection:1 distinguish:2 generic:1 description:4 alpha:4 element:8 call:10 syntactically:5 speak:1 basic:2 otherwise:1 terminal:1 example:19 follow:20 omega:3 partition:5 disjoint:1 arity:2 familiar:1 frequently:2 adopt:3 convention:3 treat:2 constant:1 value:19 zero:1 thus:1 writer:1 tilde:1 instead:4 ampersand:1 notation:1 varies:1 even:3 like:3 false:17 f:6 see:4 various:1 context:1 zeta:1 transformation:5 acquire:1 application:6 iota:1 initial:3 point:4 receive:1 inductively:2 base:1 close:2 nothing:2 else:1 repeat:2 permit:1 construction:2 complex:4 simple:6 let:6 large:2 enough:3 supply:2 need:2 discussion:3 three:1 conjunction:14 disjunction:10 implication:14 one:15 take:1 two:8 negation:10 indeed:3 sole:1 sufficient:1 biconditional:3 course:1 operation:4 tantamount:1 discover:1 jan:1 łukasiewicz:1 formulate:4 substitution:2 instance:1 modus:10 ponens:9 e:7 natural:5 deduction:10 present:3 describe:4 ten:2 u:4 assume:6 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kohavi:1 zvi:1 switch:1 automaton:1 mcgraw:2 hill:2 korfhage:1 robert:1 discrete:1 computational:1 press:2 york:1 lambek:1 scott:1 categorical:2 cambridge:2 uk:1 mendelson:1 elliot:1 van:1 nostrand:1 company:1 level:1 relate:2 topic:2 ampheck:1 domain:1 combinational:1 combinatory:1 conceptual:1 entitative:1 existential:1 frege:1 implicational:1 minimal:1 multigrade:1 parametric:1 peirce:1 symmetric:1 link:1 klement:1 kevin:1 james:1 fieser:1 bradley:1 dowden:1 eds:1 internet:1 encyclopedia:1 philosophy:1 eprint:1 forall:1 x:2 magnus:1 gfdled:1 old:1 злічэнне:1 выказванняў:1 |@bigram propositional_calculus:34 logical_connective:5 countably_infinite:1 axiom_schema:2 symbol_arity:1 conjunction_disjunction:1 modus_ponens:9 reductio_ad:2 ad_absurdum:2 elimination_infer:5 modus_tollens:1 disjunctive_syllogism:2 q_equiv:8 equiv_q:8 excluded_middle:1 satisfies_satisfies:6 notational_convention:2 sentence_provable:2 alphabetical_order:1 mathematical_induction:1 truth_falsity:3 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Antipope_Felix_II

Antipope Felix II was installed as Pope in 355 after the Emperor Constantius II banished the reigning Pope, Liberius, for refusing to subscribe the sentence of condemnation against Saint Athanasius. In May 357 the Roman laity, which had remained faithful to Liberius, demanded that Constantius, who was on a visit to Rome, should recall Liberius. The Emperor planned to have Felix and Liberius rule jointly, but when Liberius returned Felix was forced to retire to Porto, near Rome, where, after making an unsuccessful attempt to establish himself again in Rome, he died on 22 November 365. Encyclopaedia Britannica: Felix (II) The Papal Schism between Liberius and Felix, 1-4 The Antipope Felix was later wrongly confused with a Roman martyr named Felix, with the result that he was included in lists of the Popes as Felix II and that the succeeding Popes of the same name (Pope Felix III and Pope Felix IV) were given wrong numerals, as was Antipope Felix V. Annuario Pontificio 2008 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2008 ISBN 978-88-209-8021-4), p. 9* The Catholic Encyclopedia (1909) suggested that the reason for what it calls "this distortion of the true facts" was that, according to the "Liber Pontificalis", which at this point may be registering a reliable tradition, Felix built a church on the Via Aurelia, which is where the Roman martyr of an earlier date was buried. Catholic Encyclopedia: Felix II A more recent source says that of the martyr Felix nothing is known except his name, that he was a martyr, and that he was buried in the cemetery on the Via Portuensis that bears his name. Calendarium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1969), p. 132 The Catholic Encyclopedia remarked that "the real story of the antipope was lost and he obtained in local Roman history the status of a saint and a confessor. As such he appears in the Roman Martyrology on 29 July." At that time (1909) the Roman Martyrology had the following text: "At Rome, on the Aurelian Way, St. Felix II, pope and martyr. Being expelled from his See by the Arian emperor Constantius for defending the Catholic faith, and being put to the sword privately at Cera in Tuscany, he died gloriously. His body was taken away from that place by clerics, and buried on the Aurelian Way. It was afterwards brought to the Church of the Saints Cosmas and Damian, where, under the Sovereign Pontiff Gregory XIII, it was found beneath the altar with the relics of the holy martyrs Mark, Marcellian, and Tranquillinus, and with the latter was put back in the same place on the 31st of July. In the same altar were also found the bodies of the holy martyrs Abundius, a priest, and Abundantius, a deacon, which were shortly after solemnly transferred to the church of the Society of Jesus, on the eve of their feast." This entry was based on what the Catholic Encyclopedia called later legends that confound the relative positions of Felix and Liberius. More recent editions of the Roman Martyrology have instead: "At Rome, at the third milestone on the Via Portuensis, in the cemetery dedicated to his name, Saint Felix, martyr." Martyrologium Romanum (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2001 ISBN 88-209-7210-7) The feast day of the Roman martyr Felix is 29 July. The antipope Felix died, as stated above, on a 22 November, and his death was not a martyr's, 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica: Felix II occurring when the Peace of Constantine had been in force for half a century. As well as the Roman Martyrology, the Roman Missal identified the Saint Felix of 29 July with the antipope. This identification, still found in the 1920 typical edition, 1920 typical edition of the Roman Missal, with feasts updated to the late 1920s does not appear in the 1962 typical edition. 1962 typical edition of the Roman Missal To judge by the Marietti printing of 1952, which omits the numeral "II" and the word "Papae", the correction had already been made by then. References External links The Papal Schism between Liberius and Felix (a primary source) Catholic Encyclopedia: Felix II Encyclopaedia Britannica: Felix (II) 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica: Felix II

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Kansas_City,_Missouri

Kansas City is the largest city in the U.S. state of Missouri. It encompasses in parts of Jackson, Clay, Cass, and Platte counties. The city also serves as the anchor city of the Kansas City Metropolitan Area, second largest in Missouri, and largest with territory in Kansas (Wichita is the largest metropolitan area anchored in Kansas). As of February 6, 2009, it was revealed that the US census had underestimated Kansas City's population, and re-released it to be 475,830, with a metro area of over two million. Annual Estimates of the Population of Metro and Micropolitan Areas Kansas City was founded in 1838 as the "Town of Kansas" A History of Kansas City, Missouri at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers and was incorporated in its present form in 1850. Situated opposite Kansas City, Kansas, the city was the location of several battles during the Civil War, including the Battle of Westport. The city is well known for its contributions to the musical styles of jazz and blues as well as to cuisine (Kansas City-style barbecue). Abbreviations and nicknames Kansas City Skyline from Liberty Memorial Kansas City, Missouri, is often abbreviated as "KCMO", or simply "KC" (both abbreviations often refer to the metro area). It is officially nicknamed the City of Fountains. With over 200 fountains, the city claims to have second most in the world, just behind Rome. The city also has more boulevards than any city except Paris and has been called "Paris of the Plains." Informal nicknames include BBQ Capital of the World, and residents are known as Kansas Citians. It is sometimes referred to colloquially as the Heart of America as it is near both the population center of the United States and the geographic center of the 48 contiguous states. History Kansas City, Missouri officially incorporated on March 28, 1853. The territory straddling the border between Missouri and Kansas at the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers was considered a good place to build settlements. Exploration and settlement Kansas City Pioneer Square monument in Westport features Pony Express founder Alexander Majors, Westport/Kansas City founder John Calvin McCoy and Mountainman Jim Bridger who owned Chouteau's Store. The first documented European visit to Kansas City was Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont, who was also the first European to explore the lower Missouri River. Criticized for his handling of a Native American attack of Fort Detroit, he had deserted his post as commander of the fort and was avoiding the French authorities. Bourgmont lived with a Native American wife in the Missouri village about east near Brunswick, Missouri, and illegally traded furs. In order to clear his name, he wrote "Exact Description of Louisiana, of Its Harbors, Lands and Rivers, and Names of the Indian Tribes That Occupy It, and the Commerce and Advantages to Be Derived Therefrom for the Establishment of a Colony" in 1713 followed in 1714 by "The Route to Be Taken to Ascend the Missouri River." In the documents he describes the junction of the "Grande Riv[iere] des Cansez" and Missouri River, being the first to refer to them by those names. French cartographer Guillaume Delisle used the descriptions to make the first reasonably accurate map of the area. The Spanish took over the region in the Treaty of Paris (1763) but were not to play a major role in the area other than taxing and licensing all traffic on the Missouri River. The French continued their fur trade on the river under Spanish license. The Chouteau family operated under the Spanish license at St. Louis in the lower Missouri Valley as early as 1765, but it would be 1821 before the Chouteaus reached Kansas City, when François Chouteau established Chouteau's Landing. After the Louisiana Purchase, Lewis and Clark visited the confluence of the Kansas and Missouri rivers, noting it was a good place to build a fort. In 1833 John McCoy established West Port along the Santa Fe Trail, three miles (5 km) away from the river. Then in 1834, McCoy established Westport Landing on a bend in the Missouri River to serve as a landing point for West Port. Soon after, the Kansas Town Company, a group of investors, began to settle the area, taking their name from an English spelling of "Cansez." In 1850 the landing area was incorporated as the Town of Kansas. By that time, the Town of Kansas, Westport, and nearby Independence, had become critical points in America's westward expansion. Three major trails – the Santa Fe, California, and Oregon – all originated in Jackson County. On February 22, 1853, the City of Kansas was created with a newly elected mayor. It had an area of and a population of 2,500. The boundary lines at that time extended from the middle of the Missouri River south to what is now Ninth Street, and from Bluff Street on the west to a point between Holmes Road and Charlotte Street on the east. Civil War The area was rife with animosity as the Civil War approached. Already situated in a state bitterly divided on the issue of slavery, southern sympathizers in Missouri immediately recognized the threat of Kansas petitioning to enter the Union under the new doctrine of popular sovereignty. Infuriated by the idea of Kansas becoming a free state, many from the area crossed into Kansas to sway the state towards allowing slavery, at first by ballot box and then by bloodshed. Bird's eye view of Kansas City, Missouri. January 1869. Drawn by A. Ruger, Merchants Lith. Co., currently located at the Irish Museum and Cultural Center in Union Station During the Civil War, the City of Kansas and its immediate environs were the focus of intense military activity. Although the First Battle of Independence in August 1862 resulted in a Confederate victory, the Southerners were unable to follow up their win in any significant fashion, as the City of Kansas was occupied by Union troops and proved too heavily fortified for them to assault. The Second Battle of Independence, part of Sterling Price's Missouri expedition of 1864, also resulted in a Confederate triumph. Once again the Southern victory proved hollow, as Price was decisively defeated in the pivotal Battle of Westport the next day, effectively ending Confederate efforts to occupy the city. Moreover, General Thomas Ewing, in response to a successful raid on nearby Lawrence, Kansas, led by William Quantrill, issued General Order No. 11, forcing the eviction of residents in four western Missouri counties—including Jackson—except those living in the city and nearby communities and those whose allegiance to the Union was certified by Ewing. Walnut St., Downtown Kansas City, Mo. 1906 Post-Civil War After the Civil War, the City of Kansas grew rapidly. The selection of the city over Leavenworth, Kansas, for the Hannibal & St. Joseph Railroad bridge over the Missouri River brought about significant growth. The population exploded after 1869, when the Hannibal Bridge, designed by Octave Chanute, opened. The boom prompted a name change to Kansas City in 1889 and the city limits to extend south and east. Westport became part of Kansas City on December 2, 1897. According to the US Census in 1900, Kansas City was the 22nd largest city in the country, with 163,752 residents. Kansas City, guided by architect George Kessler, became a forefront example of the City Beautiful movement, developing a network of boulevards and parks around the city. The relocation of Union Station to its current location in 1914 and the opening of the Liberty Memorial in 1923 gave the city two of its most identifiable landmarks. Further spurring Kansas City's growth was the opening of the innovative Country Club Plaza development by J.C. Nichols in 1925 as part of his Country Club District plan. Pendergast era At the turn of the century, political machines attempted to gain clout in the city, with the one led by Tom Pendergast emerging as the dominant machine by 1925. A new city charter passed that year made it easier for his Democratic Party machine to gain control of the city council (slimmed from 32 members to nine) and appoint a corrupt city manager. Several important buildings and structures were built during this time, to assist with the great depression—all led by Pendergast, including the Kansas City City Hall and the Jackson County Courthouse—both added new skyscrapers to the city's growing skyline. The machine fell in 1939 when Pendergast, riddled with health problems, pleaded guilty to tax evasion. The machine, however, gave rise to Harry S. Truman, who quickly became Kansas City's favorite son. Post-World War II sprawl Kansas City satellite map Kansas City's sprawl and the creation of suburbs originally began with the invention and implementation of streetcars into the city and the surrounding areas. Streetcar suburbs began to pop up and more and more detached, single family homes were built away from the main part of town. The city's first "Suburbs" were in the neighborhoods of Pendleton Heights and Quality Hill. However, the real sprawl and creation of suburbs didn't start until after the second world war. After World War II, the city experienced considerable sprawl, as the affluent populace left for suburbs like Johnson County, Kansas, and eastern Jackson County, Missouri. However, many also went north of the Missouri River, where Kansas City had incorporated areas between the 1940s to 1970s. The population of the urban core significantly dipped, while the metropolitan area as a whole gained population. The sprawl of the city mainly took shape after the "race riots" of the Civil Rights Movement in Kansas City. At this time, slums were also beginning to form in the inner city, and those who could afford to leave, left for the suburbs and outer edges of the city. The post-World War II idea of suburbs and the "American Dream" also contributed to the sprawl of the area. As the city continued to sprawl, the inner city also continued to decline. In 1940, the city had about 400,000 residents; by 2000, the same area was home to only about 180,000. From 1940 to 1960, the city more than doubled its physical size, while increasing its population by only about 75,000. By 1970, the city had a total area of approximately , more than five times its size in 1940. The Hyatt Regency walkway collapse was a major disaster that occurred on 17 July 1981 killing 114 people and injuring more than 200 others during a tea dance. At the time it was the deadliest structural collapse in U.S. history. Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 318.0 sq mi (823.7 km²). 313.5 sq mi (812.1 km²) of it is land and 4.5 sq mi (11.6 km²) of it (1.41%) is water. Much of urban Kansas City sits atop bluffs overlooking the rivers and river bottoms areas. Kansas City proper is bowl-shaped and is surrounded to the north and south by limestone and bedrock cliffs that were carved by glaciers. Kansas City is situated at the junction between the Dakota and Minnesota ice lobes during the maximum late Independence glaciation of the Pleistocene epoch. The Kansas and Missouri rivers cut wide valleys into the terrain when the glaciers melted and drained. A partially filled spillway valley crosses the central portion of Kansas City, Missouri. This valley is an eastward continuation of Turkey Creek valley. Union Station is located in this valley. The city's municipal water was recently rated the cleanest among the 50 largest cities in the United States, containing no detectable impurities. Climate Kansas City lies near the geographic center of the contiguous United States, at the confluence of the second largest river in the country, the Missouri River, and the Kansas River (also known as the Kaw River). This makes for a humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dfa) with moderate precipitation and extremes of hot and cold. Summers can be very humid, with moist air riding up from the Gulf of Mexico, and during July and August daytime highs can reach into the triple digits. Winters vary from mild days to bitterly cold, with lows reaching into the teens below zero a few times a year. Kansas City is situated in "Tornado Alley", a broad region where cold air from the Rocky Mountains and Canada collides with warm air from the Gulf of Mexico, leading to the formation of powerful storms. Kansas City has had many severe outbreaks of tornados, including the Ruskin Heights tornado in 1957, Kansas City Tornado Almanac, wdaftv4.com. Accessed September 2006. and the May 2003 tornado outbreak sequence, as well as other severe weather, most notably the Kansas City derecho in 1982. The region is also prone to ice storms, such as the 2002 ice storm during which hundreds of thousands lost power for days and (in some cases) weeks. KC powerless as icy barrage pummels the area, leaves behind disaster zone, Accessed September 10, 2006. Kansas City and its outlying areas are also subject to flooding, including the Great Flood of 1993 and the Great Flood of 1951. Cityscape Brush Creek on the Country Club Plaza at Night Kansas City, Missouri, is organized into a system of more than 240 http://www.kcmo.org/planning/pdf/focus/Neighborhood_Assessment_Reports/neighborhoodtypes.pdf neighborhoods, some with histories as independent cities or the sites of major events. Downtown, the center of the city, is currently undergoing major redevelopment. Near Downtown, the urban core of the city has a variety of neighborhoods, including historical Westport, Ivanhoe, Hyde Park, Squire Park the Crossroads Arts District, 18th and Vine Historic District, Pendleton Heights, Quality Hill, the West Bottoms and the River Market. Downtown |The city's tallest buildings and characteristic skyline are roughly contained inside the downtown freeway loop (shaded in red). Downtown Kansas City itself is established by city ordinance to stretch from the Missouri River south to 31st Street (beyond the bottom of this map), and from I-35 to Bruce R. Watkins A look down Downtown Kansas City streets today. Downtown Kansas City is an area of bounded by the Missouri River to the north, 31st Street to the south, Bruce R. Watkins Drive (U.S. Highway 71) to the east and I-35 to the west. Areas near Downtown Kansas City include the 39th Street District is known as Restaurant Row Kansas City - Restaurants - Restaurant Guide and features one of Kansas City's largest selections of independently owned restaurants and boutique shops. It is a center of literary and visual arts and bohemian culture. Crown Center is the headquarters of Hallmark Cards and a major downtown shopping and entertainment complex. It is connected to Union Station by a series of covered walkways. The Country Club Plaza, or simply "the Plaza", is an upscale, outdoor shopping and entertainment district. It was the first suburban shopping district in the United States "A walk through Kansas City history", Country Club Plaza website (online) , designed to accommodate shoppers arriving by automobile Garvin, Alexander (2002): The American City: What Works, what doesn't. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0071373675. Pages 119-125 , and is surrounded by apartments and condominiums, including a number of high rise buildings. The associated Country Club District to the south includes the Sunset Hill and Brookside neighborhoods, and is traversed by Ward Parkway, a landscaped boulevard known for its statuary, fountains and large, historic homes. Kansas City's Union Station is home to Science City, restaurants, shopping, theaters, and the city's Amtrak facility. After years of neglect and seas of parking lots, Downtown Kansas City currently is undergoing a period of change. Many residential properties recently have been or currently are under redevelopment. The Power & Light District, a new, nine-block entertainment district comprising numerous restaurants, bars, and retail shops, was developed by the Cordish Company of Baltimore, Maryland, Its first tenant opened on November 9, 2007, It is anchored by the Sprint Center, a 19,000 seat complex that has become a top draw for national entertainment tours Parks and parkways J.C. Nichols Memorial Fountain, by Henri-Léon Gréber, in Mill Creek Park, adjacent to the Country Club Plaza Kansas City has of spacious boulevards and parkways, 214 urban parks, 49 ornamental fountains, 152 ball diamonds, 10 community centers, 105 tennis courts, five golf courses, five museums and attractions, 30 pools, and 47 park shelters, all overseen by the city's Parks and Recreation department. Parks & Recreation, 2008 Reference Book Parks & Recreation, About Parks & Recreation The parkway and boulevard system winds its way through the city with broad, landscaped medians that include statuary and fountains. Much of the system, designed by George E. Kessler, was constructed from 1893 to 1915. Cliff Drive, in Kessler Park on the North Bluffs, is a designated State Scenic Byway. It extends from The Paseo and Independence Avenue through Indian Mound on Gladstone Boulevard at Belmont Boulevard with many historical points and architectural landmarks. Ward Parkway, on the west side of the city near State Line Road, is lined by many of the city's most handsome homes. The Paseo is a major north–south parkway that runs through the center of the city beginning at Cliff Drive. Swope Park is one of the nation's largest city parks, comprising 1,805 acres (2.82 sq. mi.), more than twice as big as New York's Central Park. TimeLine 150 It features a full-fledged zoo, a woodland nature and wildlife rescue center, two golf courses, two lakes, an amphitheatre, day-camp area, and numerous picnic grounds. Hodge Park, in the Northland, covers 1,029 acres (1.61 sq. mi.). This park includes the Shoal Creek Living History Museum, a village of more than 20 historical buildings dating from 1807 to 1885. Riverfront Park, on the banks of the Missouri River on the north edge of downtown, holds annual Fourth of July celebrations and other festivals during the year. At one time, nearly all residential streets were planted with a solid canopy of American elms, but Dutch elm disease devastated them. Most were replaced with varieties of other handsome shade trees. A program is underway currently to replace many of the fast-growing sweetgum trees with hardwood varieties. Focus Kansas City, Tri-Blenheim Neighbors United, report date: 29 April 2000 Demographics At the 2005-2007 American Community Survey Estimates, the city's population was 64.5% White (57.6% non-Hispanic White alone), 30.6% Black or African American, 1.2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 2.4% Asian, 0.2% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 3.6% from some other race and 2.4% from two or more races. 8.8% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of February 6, 2009, it was revealed that the US census had underestimated Kansas City's population, and re-released it to be 475,830 [6] with a metro area of over two million.[7] Economy Kansas City Federal Reserve Bank "J" insignia on the dollar bill Greater Kansas City is headquarters to four Fortune 500 companies (Sprint Nextel Corporation, H&R Block, Embarq Corporation, and YRC Worldwide Inc.) and additional Fortune 1000 corporations (Interstate Bakeries Corporation, Great Plains Energy, Aquila, AMC Theatres, DST Systems), Garmin International, Cerner Corp. and Russell Stover Candies. Two international law firms, Lathrop & Gage and Shook, Hardy & Bacon are also based in Kansas City.. Hallmark Cards's gross revenues certainly would qualify it for both lists, but it cannot be included because it is privately owned by the Hall family. Numerous agriculture companies operate out of the city . Dairy Farmers of America, the largest Dairy Co-op in the United States is located here.Kansas City Board of Trade is the principal trading Exchange for hard red winter wheat — the principal ingredient of bread. H&R Block's new oblong headquarters in downtown Kansas City The business community is serviced by two major business magazines, the Kansas City Business Journal (published weekly) and Ingram's Magazine (published monthly), as well as numerous other smaller publications, including a local society journal, the Independent (published weekly). Kansas City is literally "on the money." Bills issued by the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City are marked the letter "J" and/or number "10." The single dollar bills have Kansas City's name on them. The Kansas City Federal Reserve built a new bank building that opened in 2008 and relocated near Union Station.. Missouri is the only state to have two of the 12 Federal Reserve Bank headquarters (St. Louis also has a headquarters). Kansas City's effort to get the bank was helped by former Kansas City mayor James A. Reed who as senator broke a tie to get the Federal Reserve Act passed. A Foregone Conclusion: The Founding of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis by James Neal Primm - stlouisfed.org - Retrieved January 1, 2007. One of the largest drug manufacturing plants in the United States is the Sanofi-Aventis plant located in south Kansas City on the campus developed by Ewing Kauffman's Marion Laboratories. U.S. Manufacturing Sheet - sanofi-aventis.us - Retrieved August 25, 2008 Of late, it has been developing some academic and economic institutions related to animal health sciences, an effort most recently bolstered by the selection of Manhattan, Kansas, at one end of the Kansas City Star - Kansas Tops List for Biodefense Lab Kansas City Animal Health Corridor, as the site for the National Bio and Agro-Defense Facility, which is tasked, among other things, to research animal-related diseases. Ford Motor Company operates a large manufacturing facility just out side of Kansas City, which currently builds the Ford Escape, Mazda Tribute, Ford F-150, and Mercury Mariner. General Motors also build the Chevrolet Malibu at its Fairfax assembly plant. Law and government City government See also: List of mayors of Kansas City See also: Alcohol laws of Missouri Kansas City is home to the largest municipal government in the state of Missouri. The city has a city manager form of government, however the role of city manager has diminished over the years following excesses during the days of Tom Pendergast. The mayor is the head of the Kansas City City Council, which has 12 members (one member for each district, plus one at large member per district), and the mayor himself is the presiding member. Kansas City holds city elections on odd numbered years (every four years unless there is a special reason). The last major city-wide election was May 2007, meaning the next one will be in May 2011. The city council currently has a female majority for the first time in the city's history. From the late 19th century to the mid 20th century, Kansas City's municipal government was controlled by often corrupt political machines. Tom Pendergast was the most infamous leader of the party machine. The most nationally prominent Democrat associated with Pendergast's machine was Harry S Truman, who became a Senator, Vice President of the United States and then President of the United States from 1945-1953. Kansas City is the seat of the United States District Court for the Western District of Missouri, one of two federal district courts in Missouri (the other, the Eastern District, is in St. Louis). It also is the seat of the Western District of the Missouri Court of Appeals, one of three districts of that court (the Eastern District is in St. Louis and the Southern District is in Springfield). National political conventions Kansas City has hosted the 1900 Democratic National Convention, the 1928 Republican National Convention, which nominated Herbert Hoover from Iowa for President, and the memorable 1976 Republican National Convention, which nominated Kansas U.S. Senator Bob Dole for Vice President. Kansas City consistently votes Democratic in Presidential elections, however on the state and local level Republicans often find some success, especially in the Northland and other parts of Kansas City that are predominantly suburban. Federal representation Kansas City is represented by two members of the United States House of Representatives: Missouri's 5th congressional district – all of Kansas City proper in Jackson County plus Independence and portions of Cass County. Currently represented by Emanuel Cleaver (Democrat) Missouri's 6th congressional district – all of Kansas City proper north of the Missouri River and plus suburbs in eastern Jackson County beyond Independence and a vast stretch of suburbs and rural areas extending all the way to the Iowa border and more than . Currently represented by Sam Graves (Republican) The United States Postal Service operates post offices in Kansas City. The Kansas City Main Post Office is located at 300 West Pershing Road. "Post Office™ Location - KANSAS CITY." United States Postal Service. Retrieved on May 5, 2009. Crime Some of the earliest violence in Kansas City erupted during the American Civil War. Shortly after the city's incorporation in 1850, the period which has become known as Bleeding Kansas erupted, affecting border ruffians and Jayhawkers, who both lived in the city. During the war, Union troops burned all occupied dwellings in Jackson County south of Brush Creek and east of Blue Creek to Independence in an attempt to halt raids into Kansas. After the war, the Kansas City Times turned outlaw Jesse James into a folk hero in its coverage. James was born in the Kansas City metro area at Kearney, Missouri, and notoriously robbed the Kansas City Fairgrounds at 12th Street and Campbell Avenue. In the early 20th century under Democratic political "Boss" Tom Pendergast, Kansas City became the country's "most wide open town", with virtually no enforcement of prohibition. While this would give rise to Kansas City Jazz, it also led to the rise of the Kansas City mob (initially under Johnny Lazia), as well as the arrival of organized crime. The 1930s saw the Kansas City Massacre at Union Station, as well as a shootout between police and outlaws Bonnie and Clyde at the Red Crown Tavern near what is now Kansas City International Airport. In the 1970s, the Kansas City mob was involved in a gangland war over control of the River Quay entertainment district, in which three buildings were bombed and several gangsters were killed. Police investigations into the mob took hold after boss Nick Civella was recorded discussing gambling bets on Super Bowl IV (where the Kansas City Chiefs defeated the Minnesota Vikings). The war and investigation would lead to the end of mob control of the Stardust Casino, which was the basis for the film Casino (although the Kansas City connections are minimized in the movie). As of October 30, 2006, Kansas City ranks 21st on the Federal Bureau of Investigation's annual survey of crime rates for cities with populations over 400,000. 25 Safest Cities www.morganquinto.com Accessed November 2006 Kansas City ranked sixth in the rate of murders in that same study. The entire Kansas City metropolitan area has the fourth worst violent crime rate among cities with more than 100,000, with a rate of 614.7 violent crimes per 100,000 residents. Kevin Collison, "FBI crime data paint grim portrait", The Kansas City Star, September 26, 2006 On the other hand, many of the surrounding cities in the Kansas City Metropolitan Area reflect the opposite in crime statistics. Much of the city's murders and violent crimes occur in the city's inner core. The Kansas City Gangs are reasons why the violent crime rates in the core consistently have driven the city and metropolitan area down on "livability" indices, hindering initiatives in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s to revive downtown Kansas City. In the 2000s, Crime and Homicides spiked up due to organized crime or the gang activity in the inner city. However, attempts at revitalizing the downtown area have been more successful. Kansas City Area Development Council Other parts of the urban core with higher poverty levels remain places in which crime remains largely unabated. According to an analysis by The Kansas City Star and the University of Missouri-Kansas City appearing in a December 22, 2007 story, downtown has experienced the largest drop in crime of any neighborhood in the city during the current decade. Downtown News In 2009 Zip Code 64130 which straddles Brush Creek east of the Country Club Plaza was reported to account for 20 percent of Kansas Citians in prison for murder or voluntary manslaughter (101 killers). It is the biggest concentration of killers in the state of Missouri. Murder Factory: 64130, the ZIP code of notoriety in Missouri - St. Louis Post-Dispatch - January 26, 2009 (reprint of original Kansas City Star article by Tony Rizzo) Transportation First, it was at the confluence of the Missouri River and Kansas River and the launching pointing for travelers on the Santa Fe, Oregon, and California trails. Then with the construction of the Hannibal Bridge across the Missouri River it became the central location for 11 trunk railroads. More rail traffic in terms of tonnage still passes through the city than any other city in the country. TWA located its headquarters in the city and had ambitious plans to turn the city into an air hub for the world. Missouri and Kansas were the first states to start building interstates with Interstate 70. Interstate 435, which encircles the entire city, is the second longest beltway in the nation. Today, Kansas City and its metropolitan area has more miles of limited access highway lanes per capita than any other large metro area in the United States, over 27% more than second-place Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex, over 50% more than the average American metro area and nearly 75% more than the metropolitan area with the least: Las Vegas. The Sierra Club in particular blames the extensive freeway network for excessive sprawl and the decline of central Kansas City. 1998 Sprawl Report- Sprawl - Sierra Club On the other hand, the relatively uncongested freeway network contributes significantly to Kansas City's position as one of America's largest logistics hubs. http://www.kcsmartport.com/sec_news/media/documents/ShippingCentral.pdf Airports Kansas City International Airport Kansas City International Airport was built to the specifications of TWA to make a world hub for the supersonic transport and Boeing 747. Its passenger friendly design in which its gates were from the street has, since the September 11, 2001 attacks, required a costly overhaul to retrofit it to incorporate elements of a more conventional security system. Recent proposals have suggested replacing the three terminals with a new single terminal situated south of the existing runways, thus allowing the airport to operate during construction and to shave miles off the travel distance from downtown and the southern suburbs. Charles B. Wheeler Downtown Airport was the original headquarters of Trans World Airlines and houses the Airline History Museum. It is still used for general aviation and airshows. Public Transportation Like most American cities, Kansas City's mass transit system was originally rail-based. An electric trolley network ran through the city until 1957. The rapid sprawl in the following years led this privately run system to be shut down. The Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA) was formed with the signing of a Bi-State compact created by the Missouri and Kansas legislatures on December 28, 1965. The compact gives the KCATA responsibility for planning, construction, owning and operating passenger transportation systems and facilities within the seven-county Kansas City metropolitan area. These include the counties of Cass, Clay, Jackson, and Platte in Missouri, and Johnson, Leavenworth, and Wyandotte in Kansas. City Buses In July 2005, the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority (KCATA) launched Kansas City's first Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) line called "MAX" (Metro Area Express). MAX links the vibrant River Market, Downtown, Union Station, Crown Center and the Country Club Plaza. This corridor boasts over 150,000 jobs, as well as some of the area's most prestigious real estate and treasured cultural amenities. http://www.kcata.org/maps_schedules/max/ By design, MAX operates and is marketed more like a rail system than a local bus line. A unique identity was created for MAX, including 13 modern diesel buses and easily identifiable "stations". MAX features state-of-the-art technology to deliver customers a high level of reliability (real-time GPS tracking of buses, available at every station), speed (stoplights automatically change in their favor if buses are behind schedule) and comfort. http://www.kcata.org/light_rail_max/max_and_bus_rapid_transit/ Failed Light Rail Initiatives Kansas City does not currently have a subway or light rail system. Several proposals to build one have been rejected by voters in the past. However, the city is currently in the development phase of a starter light rail system. On November 7, 2006, Kansas City voters approved a ballot initiative brought forward by Clay Chastain from Virginia, proposing a city-wide light rail system paid for by a 3/8-cent sales tax that currently funds 40% of Kansas City's bus system. That sales tax, which will expire April 2009, would have been brought to vote for renewal, but the citizen petition for light rail occurred before this could happen. The initiative requires a light rail line running from the Kansas City Zoo, through the city's urban core, and out to Kansas City International Airport. In addition to the light rail system, the initiative requires a gondola system that will link Kansas City's Union Station with the Liberty Memorial, the purchase of 60 hybrid electric busses and the removal of street access through Penn Valley Park, adjacent to the Liberty Memorial. The KCATA estimates that to build the entire light rail system as written will cost between $1.4 and $1.6 billion. The original price tag presented to voters for the line was just below $800 million. The Chastain Plan was overturned by the City Council and is now in litagation. In August 2007, it was announced by the KCATA that an Alternatives Analysis study of the voter-approved light rail plan had a $415 million funding shortfall, even if the federal government paid half of planned construction costs. This study also revealed that the November 2006 plan had technical problems including issues with bridges, steep inclines, and sharp turns beyond typical tolerances. The City Council repealed the vote in November 2007 and placed an alternative plan on a November 2008 ballot. The KCATA completed its Alternatives Analysis in Spring 2008. The measure was defeated. A November 4, 2008 ballot measure to start a Light rail line failed. 54% voted against the measure. Former Trolley/Streetcar Lines Kansas City has a long history with streetcars and trolleys. From 1870-1957 Kansas City's streetcar system was among the top in the country, with over of track at its peak. Following the decision to scrap the system, many of its former streetcars have been serving other American cities for a long time. In 2007, ideas and plans arose to add normal trolley lines, as well as possibly fast streetcars to the city's Downtown for the first time in decades. These proposals are being seen as possible first steps in implementing a larger mass transit network, that would include light rail. Education Colleges and universities Several universities, colleges, and seminaries are located in Kansas City, including: University of Missouri–Kansas City, one of four University of Missouri campuses, serving more than 14,000 undergraduates Kansas City Art Institute, four-year college of fine arts and design founded in 1885. Rockhurst University, a notable Jesuit, Catholic university founded in 1910. Avila University, Catholic university of the Sisters of St. Joseph of Carondelet. Park University, private institution established in 1875; Park University Graduate School is located downtown. Metropolitan Community College (Kansas City), a 2-year college with several branches in the suburban metropolitan area. Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences. DeVry University Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Southern Baptist Convention Nazarene Theological Seminary, Church of the Nazarene Calvary Bible College and Theological Seminary Saint Paul School of Theology, Methodist. Unity Institute, Seminary for Unity School of Christianity http://unity.org/education/ui/index.html Primary and secondary schools Kansas City is served by several school districts, the largest being the Kansas City, Missouri Public Schools. There are also numerous private schools; Catholic schools in Kansas City are governed by the Diocese of Kansas City. Libraries and archives Linda Hall Library, internationally recognized independent library of science, engineering and technology, housing over one million volumes. Mid-Continent Public Library, largest public library system in Missouri, and among the largest collections in America. Kansas City Public Library, oldest library system in Kansas City. University of Missouri-Kansas City Libraries, four collections: Leon E. Bloch Law Library and Miller Nichols Library, both on Volker Campus; and Health Sciences Library and Dental Library, both on Hospital Hill in Kansas City. Rockhurst University Greenlease Library. The Black Archives of Mid-America, research center of the African American experience in the central Midwest. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), Central Plains Region, one of 18 national records facilities, holding millions of archival records and microfilms for Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska in a new facility adjacent to Union Station, open to the general public in 2008. Kansas City cuisine Kansas City is most famous for its steak and barbecue.The American Hereford Association bull and Kemper Arena and the Kansas City Live Stock Exchange Building in the former Kansas City Stockyard of the West Bottoms as seen from Quality Hill During the heyday of the Kansas City Stockyards, the city was known for its Kansas City steaks or Kansas City strip steaks. The most famous of the steakhouses is the Golden Ox in the Kansas City Live Stock Exchange in the stockyards in the West Bottoms. The stockyards, which were second only to those of Chicago in size, never recovered from the Great Flood of 1951 and eventually closed. The famed Kansas City Strip cut of steak is largely identical to the New York Strip cut, and is sometimes referred to just as a strip steak. Along with Texas, Memphis & North Carolina, Kansas City is a "world capital of barbecue." There are more than 90 barbecue restaurants http://www.experiencekc.com/barbeque.html in the metropolitan area and the American Royal each fall hosts what it claims is the world's biggest barbecue contest. The classic Kansas City-style barbecue was an inner city phenomenon that evolved from the pit of Henry Perry from the Memphis, Tennessee, area in the early 1900s and blossomed in the 18th and Vine neighborhood. Arthur Bryant's was to take over the Perry restaurant and added molasses to sweeten the recipe. In 1946 Gates and Sons Bar-B-Q was opened by one of Perry's cooks. The Gates recipe added even more molasses. Although Bryant's and Gates are the two definitive Kansas City barbecue restaurants they have just recently begun expanding outside of the Greater Kansas City Area. Fiorella's Jack Stack Barbecue is well-regarded by many both locally and nationally. In 1977 Rich Davis, a psychiatrist, test-marketed his own concoction called K.C. Soul Style Barbecue Sauce. He renamed it KC Masterpiece and in 1986 he sold the sauce to the Kingsford division of Clorox. Davis retained rights to operate restaurants using the name and sauce, with restaurants in the suburbs of Overland Park, Kansas, Independence, Missouri, and at the Legend's Mall. Architecture Community Christian Church, adjacent to the Country Club Plaza The city's skyline is what you might envision for a major Mid-West city with notable exceptions. The Nelson-Atkins Museum opened a stunning Euro-Style addition in 2008, The towering Power and Light building with its Art-Deco style and a glowing sky beacon. The new World Headquarters of H&R Block is a 20 story all glass oval which is bathed from top to bottom in a soft green light. The four Industrial art works atop the support towers of the Kansas City Convention Center (Bartle Hall) were once the subject of ridicule but now define the night skyline near the new Sprint Center, One Kansas City Place (the tallest office tower structure in Missouri), as well as the KCTV-Tower with its hundreds of lit bulbs (the tallest freestanding structure in Missouri and the Liberty Memorial The National World War I Memorial & Museum with its simulated flames and smoke billowing into the night skyline, Kansas City is home to significant national and international architecture firms including ACI/Boland, BNIM, 360 Architecture, Ellerbe Becket, HNTB and HOK Sport. Frank Lloyd Wright designed two private residences.:Further information: List of tallest buildings in Kansas City "City of Fountains" Crown Center, fountains at Crown Center One of the most surprising attractions in Kansas City is its unique collection of over 200 working fountains, second only to Rome. Some of the most notable are on the County Club Plaza. From French inspired traditional to modern, these fountains offer visitors to the city an unexpected bonus. Among the most notable : the Black Marble H&R Block fountain in front of Union Station with its synchronized water jets shooting high into the air, the Nichols Bronze Horses at the corner of Main and JC Nichols Parkway at the entrance to the Plaza Shopping District and the unique "family friendly" walk thru fountain at Hallmark Cards World Headquarters in Crown Center (pictured at right) Sites of interest Culture Performing Arts Kansas City has an extensive performing arts scene. Theatre companies Kansas City Repertory Theatre, the metropolitan area's top professional theatre company, on two stages: Spencer Theater, 630-seat theater at UMKC Performing Arts Center. Copaken Stage, 319-seat theater in downtown Kansas City in H&R Block Headquarters, new in 2007. Starlight Theatre, 8,105-seat outdoor theatre designed by Edward Delk presenting traveling Broadway theatre productions at Swope Park. Unicorn Theatre. American Heartland Theatre,. Center Theatre, . The Heart of America Shakespeare Festival, Metropolitan Ensemble Theatre, Symphony Kansas City Symphony, founded by R. Crosby Kemper Jr. in 1982 to superseded the Kansas City Philharmonic, which was founded 1933. The symphony currently is located at the Lyric Theatre in Downtown Kansas City, but will move to the new Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts, also downtown, when it is completed in December 2009. The current music director and lead conductor of the symphony is the world-renowned Michael Stern. Opera Lyric Opera of Kansas City, founded in 1970, offers one American contemporary opera production during its annual season consisting of either four or five productions. The Lyric Opera also is located at the Lyric Theatre, and also will move to the Kauffman Center for the Performing Arts in 2009. Civic Opera Theater of Kansas City, performs at the Folly Theater in downtown, and the UMKC Performing Arts Center. Ballet Kansas City Ballet, founded in 1957 by Tatiana Dokoudovska, is a ballet troupe comprising 25 professional dancers and apprentices. Between 1986 and 2000, it was combined with Dance St. Louis to form the State Ballet of Missouri, although it remained located in Kansas City. From 1980 to 1995, the Ballet was run by renowned dancer and choreographer Todd Bolender. Today, the Ballet offers an annual repertory split into three seasons which ranges from classical to contemporary ballets. Deborah Jowitt, Kansas City Ballet: Happy Fiftieth!, The Village Voice, March 18, 2008 The Ballet also is located at the Lyric Theatre, and also will move with the Symphony and Opera to the Kauffman Center in 2009. Music Jazz Entrance of the American Jazz Museum Kansas City jazz in the 1930s marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. In the 1970s, Kansas City attempted to resurrect the glory of the jazz era in a sanitized family friendly atmosphere. In the 1970s, an effort to open jazz clubs in the River Quay area of City Market along the Missouri ended in a gangland war in which three of the new clubs were blown up in what ultimately resulted in the removal of Kansas City mob influence in the Las Vegas casinos. The annual "Kansas City Blues and Jazz Festival", which attracts top jazz stars nationwide and large out-of-town audiences, is rated Kansas City's "best festival." The Pitch, Best of 2007: "Best Festival" - Kansas City's Blues and Jazz Festival. Local Music Kansas City's local music scene enjoyed a revival starting in the mid-1960s , based around rock and blues in addition to jazz. Live music venues can be found throughout the city, with the highest concentration in the Westport entertainment district centered on Broadway and Westport Road near the Country Club Plaza. More recently, punk and hip-hop acts have been popular. Recent rock groups originating in Kansas City and direct surrounding areas include, Puddle of Mudd, Shooting Star, The Get Up Kids, Camp Harlow, Shiner, Flee The Seen, The Life and Times, Reggie and the Full Effect, Coalesce, The Casket Lottery, The Gadjits, The Appleseed Cast, The Rainmakers, The Esoteric, Vedera, The Elders, Blackpool Lights The Republic Tigers. Native rappers include BLACK WALT, FlyDolla, Petey Sensay, Donta Slusha, Mac Lethal ,Tech N9ne, Shag Deezy, Solè, Jerrod Thomas, Skatterman & Snug Brim, Kutt Calhoun, TJ Hand, Ice Cold, Ron Ron, 2gunn Kevi, Krizz Kaliko, Paul Mussan, Mon E.G., The Popper, Young Greed, Bullet-Round, Sickening, 816 blokcstarz, Rich The Factor, Greedy, Fat Tone, Lil Reeko, De'Andre AKA Bigg Khrisco, Yung Bread, and Ryan & Jason. The Sandstone Amphitheatre, located near the Kansas City Speedway Municipal Auditorium and Bartle Hall Convention Center, Kansas City Irish culture scene There is a large community of Irish in Kansas City which numbers around 250,000 . The Irish Community includes a large number of bands, including Kansas City's own SSION, multiple newspapers, the numerous Irish stores, including Browne's Irish Market, the oldest Irish owned business in North America, and the Irish Museum and Cultural Center is the new center of the community. The first book that detailed the history of the Irish in Kansas City was Missouri Irish, Irish Settlers on the American Frontier, published in 1984. Media The Kansas City Star 's new printing plant that opened in June 2006. Print media The Kansas City Star is the area's primary newspaper. William Rockhill Nelson and his partner, Samuel Morss, first published the evening paper on September 18, 1880. The Star competed heavily with the morning Times before acquiring it in 1901. The "Times" name was discontinued in March 1990, when the morning paper was renamed the "Star." Harry Haskell, Boss-Busters and Sin Hounds: Kansas City and Its "Star" (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2007) ISBN 9780826217691 Weekly newspapers include The Call The Call (African American focused) and several weekly papers, including the Kansas City Business Journal, The Pitch and the bilingual paper "Dos Mundos". The city is served by two major faith-oriented newspapers: The Kansas City Metro Voice, serving the Christian community, and the Kansas City Jewish Chronicle, serving the Jewish community. Broadcast media Landmark KCTV-TV Tower on West 31st on Union Hill The Kansas City media market (ranked 32nd by Arbitron Arbitron, Inc., Spring '08 Blue Book, "2008 Market Survey Schedule: All Markets,", p. 4 and 31st by Nielsen TV by the Numbers, Nielsen People Meter Markets, November 6th, 2007: "Rank, Designated Market Area, Homes" ) includes 10 television channels, along with 30 FM and 21 AM radio stations. Kansas City broadcasters have been a stepping stone for many nationally recognized television and radio personalities, including Walter Cronkite, Rush Limbaugh, and Mancow Muller. Film community Kansas City has also been a locale for Hollywood productions and television programming. Also, between 1931 and 1982, Kansas City was home to the Calvin Company, a large movie production company that specialized in the making of promotional and sales training short films and commercials for large corporations, as well as educational movies for schools and training films for government. Calvin was also an important venue for the Kansas City arts, serving as training ground for many local filmmakers who went on to successful Hollywood careers, and also employing many local actors, most of whom earned their main income in other fields, such as radio and television announcing. Kansas City native Robert Altman got his start directing movies at the Calvin Company, and this experience led him to making his first feature film, The Delinquents, in Kansas City using many local thespians. The 1983 television movie The Day After was filmed in Kansas City and Lawrence, Kansas. The 1990s film Truman starring Gary Sinise was also filmed in various parts of the city. Other films shot in or around Kansas City include Article 99, Mr. & Mrs. Bridge, Kansas City, Paper Moon, In Cold Blood, Ninth Street, and Sometimes They Come Back (in and around nearby Liberty, Missouri). Sports Kansas City sports teams presently include the following: ClubSportFoundedLeagueVenueKansas City ChiefsAmerican Football1960 (1963 In Kansas City)National Football LeagueArrowhead StadiumKansas City RoyalsBaseball1969Major League BaseballKauffman StadiumKansas City ExplorersTennis1993World TeamTennisBarney Allis PlazaKansas City BrigadeArena Football2006Arena Football LeagueSprint CenterKansas City Roller WarriorsRoller Derby2004Women's Flat Track Derby AssociationHale Arena Truman Sports Complex, with Arrowhead and Kaufmann Stadiums, opened in 1972–73. Sprint Center opened in 2007 and hosts concerts and sports events downtown. Kansas City Wizards Kansas City is often the home of the Big 12 College Basketball Tournaments. Men's Basketball will be played at Sprint Center beginning in March 2008, while women's Basketball will be played at Municipal Auditorium. Lately, arenas in Dallas and Oklahoma City have hosted the tournament. Arrowhead Stadium serves as the venue for various intercollegiate football games. Often it is the host of the Big 12 Football Title Game. On the last weekend in October, the Fall Classic rivalry game between Northwest Missouri State University and Pittsburg State University takes place here. Usually, the Bearcats of Northwest and Gorillas of Pitt State are ranked one-two in the MIAA conference. In 2005, other games at Arrowhead included Arkansas State playing host to Missouri, and Kansas hosting Oklahoma. Kansas City used to have an NBA team. The team's original name was Kansas City-Omaha Kings because it played home games in both Kansas City and Omaha. However, after 1975 the team would exclusively play in Kansas City. After 1985, the Kansas City Kings would move to Sacramento to become today's Sacramento Kings. In 1974, the NHL ended its first expansion period by adding teams in Kansas City and Washington, D.C. Although they were better than their expansion brethren the Washington Capitals (who won only eight games in their inaugural season), the Kansas City Scouts began to suffer from an economic downturn in the Midwest. For their second season, the Scouts sold just 2,000 of 8,000 season tickets and were almost $1 million in debt. Due to their various on- and off-ice disappointments, the franchise moved to Denver and was renamed the Colorado Rockies. Casinos Missouri voters approved riverboat casino gaming on the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers by referendum with a 63% majority on November 3, 1992. The first casino facility in the state opened in September 1994 in North Kansas City by Harrah's Entertainment. Missouri Gaming Commission: The History of Riverboat Gambling in Missouri The combined revenues for the four casinos successfully operating in Kansas City exceeded $153 million per month in May 2008. The Kansas City Star, June 13, 2008: Missouri riverboat casinos’ revenue increases in May. The four casinos are: Ameristar Kansas City, the largest casino both in revenue and size in Kansas City, with hotel, 8 restaurants, live entertainment on 3 stages, and 18-screen movie theater. Argosy Kansas City, casino, hotel, spa, & restaurants. Harrah's North Kansas City, casino, hotel, 5 restaurants, Voodoo Lounge, & live entertainment at Toby Keith's. Isle of Capri Kansas City, casino & 4 restaurants. Notable people This is a list of people who were born or lived a significant part of their lives in Kansas City, Missouri or the Kansas City Metropolitan Area. Lashonda Jackson-Holmes – author Queen Bey – jazz blues singer jazz ambassador to kc and the united states of america Danielle Foster - Miss Oregon USA Sergio D. Acosta - Filmmaker Oleta Adams – singer Jonathan Aldridge - Professional Athlete & Entertainer Robert Altman – film director Nate Archibald– basketball player with the Kansas City Kings Brooke Ashley – adult actress and a former Miss Teen Kansas City runner up Ed Asner – actor Ashley Aull – 2006 Miss Kansas USA Burt Bacharach – pianist and composer H. Roe Bartle – former mayor of Kansas City and namesake of the Kansas City Chiefs Count Basie – jazz musician Kay Barnes– former mayor of Kansas City 1999-2007 Richard L. Berkley – politician, former mayor Noah Beery – actor Wallace Beery – actor Thomas Hart Benton – artist Danni Boatwright– ESPN host, Survivor: Guatemala winner, and former Miss Kansas USA George Brett – professional baseball player Walter Brown– Blues Musician Sylvia Browne – psychic and medium Joe Carter – famous Baseball player with the Cleveland Indians and Toronto Blue Jays, lives in town Don Cheadle – actor Hotel Rwanda, Ocean's Eleven, Crash Eminem – rapper Emanuel Cleaver – politician, current member of the U.S. House of Representatives for the Fifth District in the state of Missouri Andrea Ciliberti – 2005 Miss Missouri USA Earl Cole – Survivor: Fiji winner Evan S. Connell – author David Cook – American Idol 7 winner Chris Cooper – actor Jennifer Jo Cobb– Nascar Bush series driver Michael J. Cox – author Walter Cronkite – journalist, television news anchor Joan Crawford – actress Len Dawson – Kansas City Chiefs pro football hall of fame Quarterback and announcer and KMBC sports director Marisol Deluna – fashion designer, received a BFA degree from the Kansas City Art Institute Walt Disney – film producer, director, screenwriter, voice actor, and animator Melissa Etheridge – singer Scott Foley – actor Lisa Forbes – ex Miss Kansas USA and was in The Bachelor in Paris -- eliminated in the first round Thomas Frank – writer, editor Friz Freleng – film producer, director, animator, and cartoonist Matt Freije – NBA player Mark Funkhouser – mayor of Kansas City, Missouri Trent Green – Kansas City Chiefs Quarterback Maurice Greene – Olympic athlete Masten Gregory – auto racing Eddie Griffin – comedian and actor Deuce Bigalow Undercover Brother Karolyn Grimes – actress, Zu-Zu in the Frank Capra classic It's a Wonderful Life, lived in town for many years Donald J. Hall, Sr. – businessman Joyce Hall – businessman, founder of Hallmark Cards Jean Harlow – actress Jessica Harp – Country Music Singer and now member of the The Wreckers with Michelle Branch Jim Humphreys – prominent Texas rancher William Least Heat-Moon– author Robert A. Heinlein – science fiction author Shauntay Henderson – FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitive, convicted criminal Paul Henning – writer of The Beverly Hillbillies TV series, producer Ernest Hemingway – novelist and short story author Priest Holmes – professional football player for the Kansas City Chiefs Dick Howser– former manager of the Kansas City Royals Lamar Hunt – college football player and sports promoter; late owner and founder of the Kansas City Chiefs Ub Iwerks – animator and cartoonist Pete Johnson – jazz pianist Ewing Kauffman – American pharmaceutical magnate, philanthropist, and Major League Baseball owner. Bill Kenney– politician ex-Kansas City Chiefs player Craig Kilborn– actor Talk Show host Phill Kline – politician Tara Knott – Olympian Sarah Lancaster – actress Suzanne Lieurance – freelance writer Michael T. Lynch – author, freelance writer Bill Maas – ex NFL player Amanda Marsh – first winner of The Bachelor Claire McCaskill – politician senator Edie McClurg – actress Hal McRae – baseball player and manager with Kansas City Royals Courtney McCool – olympian Phil McGraw – psychologist and talk show host, lived in area as teen Jay McShann – Blues musician Denny Matthews – sportscaster, author Pat Metheny – jazz guitarist Dennis Moore– Congressman politician Paul Morrison – politician Tommy Morrison – Boxer Mancow Muller – radio host Mike Murphy – radio talk show host Richard B. Myers – United States Air Force General and former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff John Jordan "Buck" O'Neil – professional baseball player for the Negro American League with the Kansas City Monarchs Jesse Clyde Nichols – businessman, developer of commercial and residential real estate William F. Nolan – author Gordon Parks– writer director actor photographer Satchel Paige – baseball player Charlie Parker – jazz saxophonist Melissa Parsons - soda jerk, world traveller H.O. Peet – industrialist founder of Colgate-Palmolive Rodney Peete – ex-NFL player and now Fox Sports tv host Darrell Porter – professional baseball player, author Albert Pujols – baseball player who lives in Kansas City and plays for St. Louis Cardinals Joe Randa – professional baseball player Bullet Rogan – professional baseball player Paul Rudd – actor in such films as Clueless, The 40-Year-Old Virgin, and Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy Brandon Rush – NBA player Kareem Rush – NBA player Candy Samples – pornographic actress Rachel Saunders – 2005 Miss Kansas USA Melana Scantlin– former Miss Missouri USA and Average Joe star and also cohost of the World Series of Blackjack Crystal Smith – former playmate Sam Simmons– NFL player with Steelers Kate Spade – Fashion designer Casey Stengel – professional baseball player Dee Wallace-Stone – actress, mother in E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial Mike Sweeney – baseball player with Oakland Athletics Justin Swift– Detroit Lions NFL Football player Tony Temple– Cleveland Browns football player, leading rusher (281 yards) in Cotton Bowl while playing for the Missouri Tigers. Virgil Thomson– Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Lisa Writer – writer Derrick Thomas – professional football player for the Kansas City Chiefs Bobb'e J. Thompson – American child actor Calvin Trillin – journalist, humorist, and novelist Marion A. Trozzolo – businessman, River Quay Harry S. Truman – 33rd President of the United States (Independence, Missouri) Big Joe Turner – blues singer Henry Clay Van Noy – businessman, owner of the Van Noy Railway News and Hotel Company (today known as HMSHost) Matt Vogel – Muppets Performer and Sesame Street Muppeteer Amy Wagstaff – 1992 olympic swimmer Earl Watson– Basketball player Tom Watson – professional golfer Dianne Wiest – actress Jason Whitlock – sports journalist for the The Kansas City Star and former ESPN Contributor Charles Wheeler (politician) Former Kansas City Mayor Frank White – former professional baseball player Jason Wiles – actor (known for the role of Maurice 'Bosco' Boscorelli in the TV series Third Watch), film director Barry Winchell – Private First Class, murdered by a fellow soldier for his sexual orientation Chely Wright – Country Music singer Katie Wright – actress Smoky Joe Wood – a.k.a. The Kansas Cyclone; professional baseball player for the Boston Red Sox and Cleveland Indians Aaron Yates aka Tech N9ne; rapper Jonathan Coachman – wrestling commentator & former college basketball player Wes Scantlin - Lead singer and Rythymn Guitarist of the rock band Puddle of Mudd, cousin of Melana Scantlin Sister cities Liberty Memorial by night. As of April 2009, Kansas City has 13 sister cities: http://www.kcsistercities.org www.kcsistercities.org Seville, Spain (1967) Kurashiki, Japan (1972) Morelia, Mexico (1973) Freetown, Sierra Leone (1974) Tainan City, Republic of China (Taiwan)(1978) Xi'an, People's Republic of China (1989) Guadalajara, Mexico (1991) Hannover, Germany (1993) Port Harcourt, Nigeria (1993) Arusha, Tanzania (1995) San Nicolás de los Garza, Mexico (1997) Ramla, Israel (1998) Ville de Metz, France (2004) See also List of people from Kansas City 1968 Kansas City riot References External links Official City Website Official Travel and Tourism Site Kansas City Chamber of Commerce Kansas City Music and Cuisine

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Afyonkarahisar

Afyonkarahisar is a city in western Turkey, the capital of Afyon Province. Afyon is in mountainous countryside inland from the Aegean coast, south-west of Ankara along the Akar River. Elevation . Population (2008 census) 160,000. Being high up the weather in winter is cold and the roads are icy. Etymology The name is Turkish for the black castle opium, since opium was widely grown here and there is a castle on a black rock. Also known simply as Afyon. Older spellings include Karahisar-i Sahip Afium-Kara-hissar and Afyon Karahisar. The city was known as Afyon (opium), until the name was changed to Afyonkarahisar by the Turkish Parliament in 2004. History Photo of a 15th Century map showing Nicopolis. The top of the rock in Afyon has been fortified for a long, long time. It was known to the Hittites as Hapanuwa, and was later occupied by Phrygians, Lydians and Persians until it was conquered by Alexander the Great. After the death of Alexander the city (now known as Akroinon), was ruled by the Seleucids and the kings of Pergamon, then Rome and Byzantium. The Byzantine emperor Leo III after his victory over Arab besiegers in 740 renamed the city Nicopolis (Greek for the Victory City). The Seljuk Turks then arrived in 1071 and changed its name to Kara Hissar (the black castle) after the ancient fortress situated upon a volcanic rock 201 meters above the town. Following the dispersal of the Seljuks the town was occupied by the Sahipoğulları and then the Germiyan. The castle was much fought over during the Crusades and was finally conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Beyazid I in 1392 but was lost after the invasion of Timur Lenk in 1402. It was recaptured in 1428 or 1429. The area thrived during the Ottoman Empire, as the centre of opium production and Afyon became a wealthy city with the typical Ottoman urban mixture of Jews, Armenians, Greeks and Turks. During the 1st World War British prisoners of war who had been captured at Gallipoli were housed here in an empty Armenian church at the foot of the rock. During the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) campaign (part of the Turkish War of Independence) Afyon and the surrounding hills were occupied by French, Italian and then Greek forces. However, it was recovered on 27 August 1922, a key moment in the great Turkish counter-attack in the Aegean region. After 1923 Afyon became a part of the Republic of Turkey. The region was a major producer of opium (hence the name Afyon) until the late 1960s when under international pressure, from the USA in particular, the fields were burnt and production ceased. Afyon was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknote of 1927-1938. Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 1. Emission Group - Fifty Turkish Lira - I. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. Afyon today Afyon is the centre of an agricultural area and the city has a country town feel to it. There is little in the way of bars, cafes, live music or other cultural amenities, and the standards of education are low for a city in the west of Turkey. However Afyon Kocatepe University opened in the 1990s and this must surely lead to improvements eventually. Nowadays Afyon is known for its marble (in 2005 there were 355 marble quarries in the province of Afyon producing high quality white stone), its sucuk (peculiar sausages), its kaymak (meaning either cream or a white Turkish Delight) and various handmade weavings. There is also a large cement factory. This is a natural crossroads, the routes from Ankara to İzmir and from Istanbul to Antalya intersect here and Afyon is a popular stopping-place on these journeys. There are a number of well-established roadside restaurants for travellers to breakfast on the local cuisine. Some of these places are modern well-equipped hotels and spas; the mineral waters of Afyon are renowned for their healing qualities. There is also a long string of roadside kiosks selling the local Turkish delight. Afyon is also an important railroad junction between İzmir, Konya, Ankara and Istanbul. The cuisine of Afyon Main courses.... sucuk - the famed local speciality, a spicy beef sausage, eaten fried or grilled. The best known brands include Cumhuriyet. etli pide - a kind of minced beef pizza. ağzı açık or bükme - filo-style pastry stuffed with cheese or lentils. keşkek - boiled wheat and chick peas stewed with meat. and sweets.... local cream kaymak eaten with honey, with a bread pudding ekmek kadayif, or with pumpkin simmered in syrup. Best eaten at the famous Ikbal restaurants (either the old one in the town centre or the big place on the main road). Turkish delight. helva - sweetened ground sesame Places of interest The partly ruined fortress which has given the city its name Ulu Camii (the Great Mosque) Altigöz Bridge, like the Ulu Camii built by the Seljuks in the 13th century. the White Elephant - Afyon is twinned with the town of Hamm in Germany, and now has a large statue of Hamm's symbolic white elephant. With its rich architectural heritage, the city is a member of the European Association of Historic Towns and Regions . + Table of population increase Year 1911 1990 1995 2000 Population 18,000 95,643 103,000 128,516 Twin towns Hamm, Germany, since 2006 Famous residents The former President of the Republic of Turkey Ahmet Necdet Sezer. General İlker Başbuğ -very high-ranking military officer. Commander of the Turkish Army since August 30, 2006. Seda Sarıbaş See also Anatolian Tigers References External links Afyon Karahisar City council website Governor's office Afyonkarahisar community and information Afyon Blog and Afyonkarahisar City Daily Photo and Afyon Guide and Photo Album Afyon and the Phrygians Afyon Kocatepe University Department of forestry and the environment Afyon Science High School * * Afyon Zafer College

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Heroic_couplet

A heroic couplet is a traditional form for English poetry, commonly used for epic and narrative poetry; it refers to poems constructed from a sequence of rhyming pairs of iambic pentameter lines. The rhyme is always masculine. Use of the heroic couplet was first pioneered by Geoffrey Chaucer in the Legend of Good Women and the Canterbury Tales Hobsbaum, Philip. Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form. Routledge (1996) p.23 . Chaucer is also widely credited with first extensive use of iambic pentameter. A frequently-cited example illustrating the use of heroic couplets is this passage from Cooper's Hill by John Denham, part of his description of the Thames: O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream My great example, as it is my theme! Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull, Strong without rage, without o'erflowing full. The term "heroic couplet" is sometimes reserved for couplets that are largely closed and self-contained, as opposed to the enjambed couplets of poets like John Donne. The greatest masters of the heroic couplet in English, thus defined, are generally considered to be John Dryden and Alexander Pope. Major poems in the closed couplet, apart from the works of Dryden and Pope, are Samuel Johnson's The Vanity of Human Wishes, Oliver Goldsmith's The Deserted Village, and John Keats's Lamia. The form was immensely popular in the 18th century. The looser type of couplet, with occasional enjambment, was one of the standard verse forms in medieval narrative poetry, largely because of the influence of the Canterbury Tales. English heroic couplets, especially in Dryden and his followers, are sometimes varied by the use of the occasional alexandrine, or hexameter line, and triplet. Often these two variations are used together to heighten a climax. The breaking of the regular pattern of rhyming pentameter pairs brings about a sense of poetic closure. Here are three examples from Book IV of Dryden's translation of the Aeneid. Triplet Nor let him then enjoy supreme command; But fall, untimely, by some hostile hand, And lie unburied on the barren sand! (ll. 890-892) Alexandrine Her lofty courser, in the court below, Who his majestic rider seems to know, Proud of his purple trappings, paws the ground, And champs the golden bit, and spreads the foam around. (ll. 190-193) Alexandrine and Triplet My Tyrians, at their injur’d queen’s command, Had toss’d their fires amid the Trojan band; At once extinguish’d all the faithless name; And I myself, in vengeance of my shame, Had fall’n upon the pile, to mend the fun’ral flame. (ll. 867-871) Modern Use Twentieth century authors have occasionally made use of the heroic couplet, often as an allusion to the works of poets of previous centuries. An example of this is Vladimir Nabokov's novel Pale Fire, the first section of which is a 999 line, 4 canto poem largely written in loose heroic couplets but also allowing for frequent enjambment Ferrando, Ignasi Navarro. In-roads of Language: Essay in English Studies. Universitat Jaume I(1996) p.125 . Here is an example from the first canto. And then black night. That blackness was sublime. I felt distributed through space and time: One foot uon a mountaintop. one hand Under the pebbles of a panting strand, One ear in Italy, one eye in Spain, In caves, my blood, and in the stars, my brain. (Canto One. 147-153) References

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Division_of_labour

Division of labour or specialization is the specialization of cooperative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase the productivity of labour. Historically the growth of a more and more complex division of labour is closely associated with the growth of total output and trade, the rise of capitalism, and of the complexity of industrialization processes. Later, the division of labour reached the level of a scientifically-based management practice with the time and motion studies associated with Taylorism. Basically, it's a working society that does many different jobs. Example: A few people do farming, a few people do pottery, and a few people are blacksmiths. The society works together to make the city wealthier. Trade and Economic Interdependence The division of labor makes trade necessary and is the source of economic interdependence. Global Division of Labour There exist as yet few comprehensive studies of the global division of labour (an intellectual challenge for researchers), although the ILO and national statistical offices can provide plenty of data on request for those who wish to try. In one study, Deon Filmer estimated that 2,474 million people participated in the global non-domestic labour force in the mid-1990s. Of these, around 15%, or 379 million people, worked in industry, a third, or 800 million worked in services, and over 40%, or 1,074 million, in agriculture. The majority of workers in industry and services were wage & salary earners - 58 percent of the industrial workforce and 65 percent of the services workforce. But a big portion were self-employed or involved in family labor. Filmer suggests the total of employees worldwide in the 1990s was about 880 million, compared with around a billion working on own account on the land (mainly peasants), and some 480 million working on own account in industry and services. "ILO Global Employment Trends report" indicates that services have surpassed agriculture for the first time in human history: "In 2006 the service sector’s share of global employment overtook agriculture for the first time, increasing from 39.5 per cent to 40 per cent. Agriculture decreased from 39.7 per cent to 38.7 per cent. The industry sector accounted for 21.3 per cent of total employment." Types of Specialization Geographical Specialization: land use is naturally suited to specific situation. Labor Specialization: achieved when the production process is broken into tiny tasks. The idea is referred to as the division of labor. Advantages The productivity gains of the division of labour are important within any type of production process, ranging from pin manufacture to legal practice and medical care. The productivity gains are a result of a number of mechanisms, as follows: Frees workers to focus on tasks that they are best at Learning Curve efficiencies (see Experience curve effects for exact definition) More repetitions leads into learning faster ways to perform the task, causing More efficient in terms of time, which is equal to Increases productivity because training time is reduced and the worker is productive in a short amount of time. Concentration on one repetitive task makes workers more skilled at performing that task. Might also cause Steepening of the Learning Curve Reduces the time needed for training because the task is simplified Increase in meta-capabilities like ability to learn further new tasks Little time is spent moving between tasks so overall time wasted is reduced. The overall quality of the product will increasingly bring welfare gains to the consumer It becomes possible to influence how production takes place Marisa Ratto and Wendelin Schnedler, "Too Few Cooks Spoil the Broth: Division of Labor and Directed Production," The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 8(1), Topics, Article 27. Disadvantages Disconnection from effects of actions -- the worker may not feel responsible for the end result of the process in which he/she contributes to. Lack of motivation Productivity of labour may decrease while absenteeism may rise. Repetitive motion disorder: can be a factor in many manual jobs. Growing dependency: a break in production may cause problems to the entire process. Loss of flexibility: workers may have limited knowledge while not many jobs opportunities are available. Higher start-up costs: high initial costs necessary to buy the specialist machinery lead to a higher break-even point. Threats to the Division of Labour General competence As individuals of populations increase their competence in directing the basic things on which individuals' lives depend, the need for division of labor diminishes. For example, the traditional family farming lifestyle moves ordinary needs like food growing and clothing procurement into the independent sphere. Ease of use The mass manufacturing of goods and services with simpler needs allows a greater segment of the general population to use a greater number of goods and services. Many now go to supermarkets to buy ready-made gourmet meals. This means many can prepare gourmet foods themselves. This kind of thing is, paradoxically, a result of division of labor between food producers and consumers. While this paradox is not a total threat to division of labor, ease of use can limit it. Simpler living The individual's depending on less reduces the need for products and services. Movements that persuade to buy locally could promote a trend to simpler living, as this would promote agrarian living in specific. This means that more of the general population of a locality would be involved in growing foods and especially items that people really need. Early Theorists Plato In Plato's Republic we are instructed that the origin of the state lies in that "natural" inequality of humanity that is embodied in the division of labour. '"Well then, how will our state supply these needs? It will need a farmer, a builder, and a weaver, and also, I think, a shoemaker and one or two others to provide for our bodily needs. So that the minimum state would consist of four or five men...." (The Republic, Page 103, Penguin Classics edition.) Xenophon Xenophon, writing in the fourth century BC makes a passing reference to division of labour in his 'Cyropaedia' (aka Education of Cyrus). "Just as the various trades are most highly developed in large cities, in the same way food at the palace is prepared in a far superior manner. In small towns the same man makes couches, doors, ploughs and tables, and often he even builds houses, and still he is thankful if only he can find enough work to support himself. And it is impossible for a man of many trades to do all of them well. In large cities, however, because many make demands on each trade, one alone is enough to support a man, and often less than one: for instance one man makes shoes for men, another for women, there are places even where one man earns a living just by mending shoes, another by cutting them out, another just by sewing the uppers together, while there is another who performs none of these operations but assembles the parts, Of necessity, he who pursues a very specialised task will do it best." (Cited in The Ancient Economy by M. I. Finley. Penguin books 1992, p 135.) William Petty Sir William Petty was the first modern writer to take note of division of labour, showing its existence and usefulness in Dutch shipyards. Classically the workers in a shipyard would build ships as units, finishing one before starting another. But the Dutch had it organised with several teams each doing the same tasks for successive ships. People with a particular task to do must have discovered new methods that were only later observed and justified by writers on political economy. Petty also applied the principle to his survey of Ireland. His breakthrough was to divide up the work so that large parts of it could be done by people with no extensive training. Bernard de Mandeville Bernard de Mandeville discusses the matter in the second volume of The Fable of the Bees. This elaborates many matters raised by the original poem about a 'Grumbling Hive'. He says: But if one will wholly apply himself to the making of Bows and Arrows, whilst another provides Food, a third builds Huts, a fourth makes Garments, and a fifth Utensils, they not only become useful to one another, but the Callings and Employments themselves will in the same Number of Years receive much greater Improvements, than if all had been promiscuously followed by every one of the Five. David Hume David Hume talks about "partition of employments" in "A Treatise of Human Nature" (1739): When every individual person labours a-part, and only for himself, his force is too small to execute any considerable work; his labour being employ’d in supplying all his different necessities, he never attains a perfection in any particular art; and as his force and success are not at all times equal, the least failure in either of these particulars must be attended with inevitable ruin and misery. Society provides a remedy for these three inconveniences. By the conjunction of forces, our power is augmented: By the partition of employments, our ability encreases: And by mutual succour we are less expos’d to fortune and accidents. ’Tis by this additional force, ability, and security, that society becomes advantageous. Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau In his introduction to l’”Art de l’Épinglier” R. Réaumur and A. de Ferchault. Art de l'Épinglier avec des additions de M. Duhamel du Monceau et des remarques extraites des mémoires de M. Perronet, inspecteur général des Ponts et Chaussées. Paris, Saillant et Nyon, 1761. - The Art of the Pin-Maker - (1761), Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau writes about the "division of this work" Scan of the text of l'"Art de l'Épinglier", with the expression "division de ce travail". : There is nobody who is not surprised of the small price of pins; but we shall be even more surprised, when we know how many different operations, most of them very delicate, are mandatory to make a good pin. We are going to go through these operations in a few words to stimulate the curiosity to know their detail; this enumeration will supply as many articles which will make the division of this work. [...] The first operation is to have brass go through the drawing plate to calibrate it. [...] By "division of this work", Duhamel du Monceau is referring to the subdivisions of the text describing the various trades involved in the pin making activity. Adam Smith has most likely misunderstood the text in French, and thought that Duhamel du Monceau was talking about the "division of labour" Jean-Louis Peaucelle, Adam Smith et la division du travail : La naissance d'une idée fausse, Paris, L'Harmattan, 2007, ISBN 2296035493, 9782296035492 Google Books, p. 182. . Adam Smith In the first sentence of An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776), Adam Smith foresaw the essence of industrialism by determining that division of labor represents a qualitative increase in productivity. His example was the making of pins. Unlike Plato, Smith famously argued that the difference between a street porter and a philosopher was as much a consequence of the division of labour as its cause. Therefore, while for Plato the level of specialization determined by the division of labor was externally determined, for Smith it was the dynamic engine of economic progress. However, in a further chapter of the same book Smith criticises the division of labour saying it leads to a 'mental mutilation' in workers; they become ignorant and insular as their working lives are confined to a single repetitive task. The contradiction has led to some debate over Smith's opinion of the division of labour. The specialization and concentration of the workers on their single subtasks often leads to greater skill and greater productivity on their particular subtasks than would be achieved by the same number of workers each carrying out the original broad task. Smith saw the importance of matching skills with equipment - usually in the context of an organisation. For example, pin makers were organised with one making the head, another the body, each using different equipment. Similarly he emphasised a large number of skills, used in cooperation and with suitable equipment, were required to build a ship. In modern economic discussion the term human capital would be used. Smith's insight suggests that the huge increases in productivity obtainable from technology or technological progress are possible because human and physical capital are matched, usually in an organisation. See also a short discussion of Adam Smith's theory in the context of business processes. Karl Marx Increasing the specialization may also lead to workers with poorer overall skills and a lack of enthusiasm for their work. This viewpoint was extended and refined by Karl Marx. He described the process as alienation; workers become more and more specialised and work repetitious which eventually leads to complete alienation. Marx wrote that "with this division of labor", the worker is "depressed spiritually and physically to the condition of a machine". He believed that the fullness of production is essential to human liberation and accepted the idea of a strict division of labour only as a temporary necessary evil. Marx's most important theoretical contribution is his sharp distinction between the social division and the technical or economic division of labour. That is, some forms of labor co-operation are due purely to technical necessity, but others are purely a result of a social control function related to a class and status hierarchy. If these two divisions are conflated, it might appear as though the existing division of labour is technically inevitable and immutable, rather than (in good part) socially constructed and influenced by power relationships. It may be, for example, that it is technically necessary that both pleasant and unpleasant jobs must be done by a group of people. But from that fact alone, it does not follow that any particular person must do any particular (pleasant or unpleasant) job. If particular people get to do the unpleasant jobs and others the pleasant jobs, this cannot be explained by technical necessity; it is a socially made decision, which could be made using a variety of different criteria. The tasks could be rotated, or a person could be assigned to a task permanently, and so on. Marx also suggests that the capitalist division of labour will evolve over time such that the maximum amount of labour is productive labor, where productive labour is defined as labour which creates surplus value. In Marx's imagined communist society, the division of labour is transcended, meaning that balanced human development occurs where people fully express their nature in the variety of creative work that they do. Henry David Thoreau Thoreau has criticised the division of labour in his Walden (published in 1854), on the basis that it removes people from a sense of connectedness with society and with the world at large, including nature. He claims that the average man in a civilized society is less wealthy, in practice, than one in a "savage" society. The answer he gives is self-sufficiency, which he finds is enough to cover one's basic needs. as quoted by Harry Tobin 2nd. Thoreau's friend and mentor Ralph Waldo Emerson criticizes the division of labor in "The American Scholar"; a widely-informed, holistic citizenry is vital for the spiritual and physical health of the country. Émile Durkheim Émile Durkheim wrote about a fractionated, unequal world by dividing it along the lines of "human solidarity," its essential moral value is division of labour. In 1893 he published "The Division of Labour in Society", his fundamental statement of the nature of human society and its social development. According to Franz Borkenau it was a great increase in division of labour occurring in the 1800s after the Industrial Revolution that introduced the abstract category of work, which may be said to underlie, in turn, the whole modern, Cartesian notion that our bodily existence is merely an object of our (abstract) consciousness. Ludwig von Mises On the other hand, Marx's theories, including the negative claims regarding the division of labor have been criticized by the Austrian economists, such as Ludwig von Mises. The main argument here is the gains accruing from the division of labor far outweigh the costs; it is fully possible to achieve balanced human development within capitalism, and alienation is more a romantic fiction. After all, work is not all there is; there is also leisure time. Globalization The issue reaches its broadest scope in the controversies about globalization, which is often interpreted as a euphemism for the expansion of world trade based on comparative advantage. This would mean that countries specialise in the work they can do best. Critics however allege that international specialisation cannot be explained very well in terms of "the work nations do best", rather this specialisation is guided more by commercial criteria, which favour some countries over others. The OECD recently advised (28 June 2005) that: "Efficient policies to encourage employment and combat unemployment are essential if countries are to reap the full benefits of globalisation and avoid a backlash against open trade... Job losses in some sectors, along with new job opportunities in other sectors, are an inevitable accompaniment of the process of globalisation... The challenge is to ensure that the adjustment process involved in matching available workers with new job openings works as smoothly as possible." Modern debates In the modern world, those specialists most preoccupied in their work with theorising about the division of labour are those involved in management and organisation. In view of the global extremities of the division of labour, the question is often raised about what division of labour would be most ideal, beautiful, efficient and just. Labour hierarchy is to a great extent inevitable, simply because no one can do all tasks at once; but of course the way these hierarchies are structured can be influenced by a variety of different factors. The question to ask is what the hierarchy is a hierarchy of. It is often agreed that the most equitable principle in allocating people within hierarchies is that of true (or proven) competency or ability. This important Western concept of meritocracy could be read as an explanation or as a justification of why a division of labour is the way it is. In general, in capitalist economies, such things are not decided consciously. Different people try different things, and that which is most effective (produces the most and best output with the least input) will generally be adopted. Often techniques that work in one place or time do not work as well in another. This does not present a problem, as the only requirement of a capitalist system is that the value of your outputs exceed the value of your inputs. Sexual division of labour The clearest exposition of the principles of sexual division of labour across the full range of human societies can be summarised by a large number of logically complementary implicational constraints of the following form: if women of childbearing ages in a given community tend to do X (e.g., preparing soil for planting) they will also do Y (e.g., the planting) while for men the logical reversal in this example would be that if men plant they will prepare the soil. The 'Cross Cultural Analysis of the Sexual Division of Labor by White, Brudner and Burton (1977, public domain), using statistical entailment analysis, shows that tasks more frequently chosen by women in these order relations are those more convenient in relation to childrearing. This type of finding has been replicated in a variety of studies, including modern industrial economies. These entailments do not restrict how much work for any given task could be done by men (e.g., in cooking) or by women (e.g., in clearing forests) but are only least-effort or role-consistent tendencies. To the extent that women clear forests for agriculture, for example, they tend to do the entire agricultural sequence of tasks on those clearings. In theory, these types of constraints could be removed by provisions of child care, but ethnographic examples are lacking. See also Industrial Revolution Industrialisation Urbanization Sociology of Division of labour: Complex society Gender role Hierarchy Organisation Productive and unproductive labour Surplus product Taylorism Time use survey Further reading Gary S. Becker (1991). A Treatise on the Family, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-90698-5, ch. 2, "Division of Labor in Households and Families" Supplement "Human Capital, Effort, and the Sexual Division of Labor," Journal of Labor Economics, 3(1) Part 2 1985), pp. S33-S58. Harry Braverman, Labor and Monopoly Capital; The Degradation of Labor in the 20th Century Stephanie Coontz & Peta Henderson, Women's Work, Men's Property: The Origins of Gender and Class. Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society. Ralph Waldo Emerson, "The American Scholar." Deon Filmer, Estimating the World at Work, a background report. Richard Florida, The rise of the creative class. Richard Florida, The flight of the creative class. F. Froebel, F., J. Heinrichs and O. Krey, The New International Division of Labour. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Herbert Gintis, Samuel Bowles, Robert T. Boyd and Ernst Feghr. Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life. Robert E. Goodin, James Mahmud Rice, Antti Parpo and Lina Eriksson (2008), "Part V: Household Regimes Matter," Discretionary Time: A New Measure of Freedom, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. 197-257. André Gorz, The Division of Labour: The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism. Peter Groenewegen (1987). "division of labour," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 1, pp. 901-07. James Heartfield, "The Economy of Time" Bertell Ollman, Sexual and social revolution. Ali Rattansi, Marx and the Division of Labour. George Reisman, Capitalism: A Treatise On Economics. Murray Rothbard, Freedom, Inequality, Primitivism and the Division of Labor George J. Stigler (1951), "The Division of Labor is Limited by the Extent of the Market," Journal of Political Economy, 59(3), pp. 185-193. World Bank, World Development Report 1995. Washington DC. References External links Summary of Smith's example of pin-making

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Checksum

Effect of a typical checksum function (the Unix cksum utility). A checksum or hash sum is a fixed-size datum computed from an arbitrary block of digital data for the purpose of detecting accidental errors that may have been introduced during its transmission or storage. The integrity of the data can be checked at any later time by recomputing the checksum and comparing it with the stored one. If the checksums do not match, the data was certainly altered. The procedure that yields the checksum from the data is called a checksum function or checksum algorithm. A good checksum algorithm will yield a different result with high probability when the data is accidentally corrupted; if the checksums match, the data is very likely to be free of accidental errors. Checksum functions are related to hash functions, fingerprints, randomisation functions, and cryptographic hash functions. However, each of those concepts has different applications and therefore different design goals. Check digits and parity bits are special cases of checksums, appropriate for small blocks of data (such as Social Security numbers, bank account numbers, computer words, single bytes, etc.). Some error-correcting codes are based on special checksums that not only detect common errors but also allow the original data to be recovered in certain cases. Applications The goal of checksum algorithms is to detect accidental modification such as corruption to stored data or errors in a communication channel. They are not designed to detect intentional corruption by a malicious agent. Indeed, many checksum algorithms can be easily inverted, in the sense that one can easily modify the data so as to preserve its checksum. To guard against malicious changes one should use a cryptographic hash function. Checksum algorithms Parity byte or parity word The simplest checksum algorithm is the so-called longitudinal parity check, which breaks the data into "words" with a fixed number n of bits, and then computes the exclusive or of all those words. The result is appended to the message as an extra word. To check the integrity of a message, the receiver computes the exclusive or of all its words, including the checksum; if the result is not a word with n zeros, the receiver knows that a transmission error occurred. With this checksum, any transmission error that flips a single bit of the message, or an odd number of bits, will be detected as an incorrect checksum. However, an error that affects two bits will not be detected if those bits lie at the same position in two distinct words. If the affected bits are independently chosen at random, the probability of a two-bit error being undetected is 1/n. Modular sum A variant of the previous algorithm is to add all the "words" as unsigned binary numbers, discarding any overflow bits, and append the two's complement of the total as the checksum. To validate a message, the receiver adds all the words in the same manner, including the checksum; if the result is not a word full of zeros, an error must have occurred. This variant too detects any single-bit error, but the probability that a two-bit error will go undetected is a little less than 1/n. Position-dependent checksums The simple checksums described above fail to detect some common errors that affect many bits at once, such as changing the order of data words, or inserting or deleting words with all bits set to zero. The checksum algorithms that are most used in practice, such as Fletcher's checksum, Adler-32, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs), address these weaknesses by considering not only the value of each word but also its position in the sequence. This feature generally increases the cost of computing the checksum. General considerations A message that is m bits long can be viewed as a corner of the m-dimensional hypercube. The effect of a checksum algorithm that yields an n-bit checksum is to map each m-bit message to a corner of a larger hypercube, with dimension m+n. The 2m+n corners of this hypercube represent all possible received messages. The valid received messages (those that have the correct checksum) comprise a smaller set, with only 2m corners. A single-bit transmission error then corresponds to a displacement from a valid corner (the correct message and checksum) to one of the m adjacent corners. An error that affects k bits moves the message to a corner that is k steps removed from its correct corner. The goal of a good checksum algorithm is to spread the valid corners as far from each other as possible, so as to increase the likelihood that "typical" transmission errors will end up in an invalid corner. Checksum tools cksum, a Unix command that generates both a 32-bit CRC and a byte count for any given input file. Hashsum, an online cryptography calculator that includes several checksum algorithms. See also Check digit File verification Hamming code List of checksum algorithms Luhn algorithm Parity bit Frame check sequence

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Grammatical_case

In grammar, the case of a noun or pronoun indicates its grammatical function in a greater phrase or clause; such as the role of subject, of direct object, or of possessor. While most languages distinguish cases in some fashion, it is only customary to say that a language has cases when these are codified in the morphology of its nouns — that is, when nouns change their form to reflect their case. (Such a change in form is a kind of declension, hence a kind of inflection.) Cases are related to, but distinct from, thematic roles such as agent and patient; while certain cases in each language tend to correspond to certain thematic roles, cases are a syntactic notion whereas thematic roles are a semantic one. Cases in English Cases are not very prominent in modern English, except in its personal pronouns (a remnant of the more extensive case system of Old English). For other pronouns, and all nouns, adjectives, and articles, case is indicated only by word order, by prepositions, and by the clitic -'s. Taken as a whole, English personal pronouns are typically said to have three morphological cases: the nominative case (such subjective pronouns as I, he, she, we), used for the subject of a finite verb and sometimes for the complement of a copula; the accusative/dative case (such objective pronouns as me, him, her, us), used for the direct or indirect object of a verb, for the object of a preposition, for an absolute disjunct, and sometimes for the complement of a copula; and the genitive case (such possessive pronouns as my/mine, his, her(s), our(s)), used for a grammatical possessor. That said, these pronouns often have more than three forms; the possessive typically has both a determiner form (such as my, our) and a distinct independent form (such as mine, ours). Additionally, except for the interrogative personal pronoun who, they all have a distinct reflexive or intensive form (such as myself, ourselves). Simplified illustration of some common case categories On this memorial sign, an anniversary of the city of Balakhna, the word Balakhna on the right is in the nominative case, while in 500 Let Balakhne ('500 Years to Balakhna') on the front of the sign the dative is used. While not very prominent in English, cases feature much more saliently in many other Indo-European languages, such as Latin, Greek, German, Sanskrit, and Russian. Historically, the Indo-European languages had eight morphological cases, though modern languages typically have fewer, using prepositions and word order to convey information that had previously been conveyed using distinct noun forms. The eight historic cases are as follows, with examples: The nominative case, which corresponds to English's subjective case, indicates the subject of a finite verb: We went to the store. The accusative case, which together with the dative and ablative cases (below) corresponds to English's objective case, indicates the direct object of a verb: The clerk remembered us. The dative case indicates the indirect object of a verb: The clerk gave us a discount. The ablative case indicates movement from something, and/or cause: The victim went from us to see the doctor. He was unhappy because of depression. The genitive case, which corresponds to English's possessive case, indicates the possessor of another noun: Our citizens are proud of our country. The vocative case indicates an addressee: You there, are you O.K.? The locative case indicates a location: We live in China. The instrumental case indicates an object used in performing an action: We wiped the floor with it. All of the above are just rough descriptions; the precise distinctions vary from language to language, and are often quite complex. Case is arguably based fundamentally on changes to the noun to indicate the noun's role in the sentence. This is not how English works, where word order and prepositions are used to achieve this; as such it is debatable whether the above examples of English sentences can be said to be examples of 'case' in English. Examples from Latin and Sanskrit An example of a Latin case inflection is given below, using the singular forms of the Latin term for "sailor," which belongs to Latin's first declension. nauta (nominative) "[the] sailor" [as a subject] (e.g. nauta ibi stat the sailor is standing there) nautae (genitive) "the sailor's/of [the] sailor" (e.g. nomen nautae est Claudius the sailor's name is Claudius) nautae (dative) "to/for [the] sailor" [as an indirect object] (e.g. nautae donum dedi I gave a present to the sailor. nautam (accusative) "[the] sailor" [as a direct object] (e.g.nautam vidi I saw the sailor) nautā (ablative) "from/with/in/by [the] sailor" [in various uses not covered by the above] (e.g. sum altior nautā I am taller than the sailor). Grammatical case was analyzed extensively in Sanskrit, where it is known as karaka. Six varieties are defined by Pāṇini, largely in terms of their semantic roles, but with detailed rules specifying the corresponding morphosyntactic derivations: agent (kartri, often in the subject position, performing independently) patient (karman, often in object position) means (karaṇa, instrument) recipient (sampradāna, similar to the dative) source (apādāna, similar but not equal to the ablative) locus (adhikaraṇa, location or goal) For example, consider the following sentence: vrikśh[at] parṇ[am] bhūm[au] patati[from] the tree a leaf [to] the ground falls "a leaf falls from the tree to the ground" Here leaf is the agent, tree is the source, and ground is the locus, the corresponding declensions are reflected in the morphemes -am -at and -au respectively. Languages with rich nominal inflection typically have a number of identifiable declension classes, or groups of nouns that share a similar pattern of case inflection. While Sanskrit has six classes, Latin is traditionally said to have five declension classes. Such languages often exhibit free word order, since thematic roles are not dependent on position. Though English pronouns can have subject and object forms (he/him, she/her), nouns show only a singular/plural and a possessive/non-possessive distinction (e.g., chair, chairs, chair's, chairs'). Note that chair does not change form between "the chair is here" (subject) and "I saw the chair" (direct object). The n-declension is restricted to a few words like ox-oxen, brother-brethren, and child-children, though in Medieval English the s-declension and the n-declension were in stronger competition. Case and linguistic typology Languages are categorized into several case systems, based on their morphosyntactic alignment — how they group verb agents and patients into cases: Nominative-accusative (or simply accusative): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in the same case as the agent (subject) of a transitive verb; this case is then called the nominative case, with the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb being in the accusative case. Ergative-absolutive (or simply ergative): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in the same case as the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb; this case is then called the absolutive case, with the agent (subject) of a transitive verb being in the ergative case. Ergative-accusative (or tripartite): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is in its own case (the intransitive case), separate from that of the agent (subject) or patient (direct object) of a transitive verb (which is in the ergative case or accusative case, respectively). Active-stative (or simply active): The argument (subject) of an intransitive verb can be in one of two cases; if the argument is an agent, as in "He ate," then it is in the same case as the agent (subject) of a transitive verb (sometimes called the agentive case), and if it's a patient, as in "He tripped," then it is in the same case as the patient (direct object) of a transitive verb (sometimes called the patientive case). Trigger: One noun in a sentence is the topic or focus. This noun is in the trigger case, and information elsewhere in the sentence (for example a verb affix in Tagalog) specifies the role of the trigger. The trigger may be identified as the agent, patient, etc. Other nouns may be inflected for case, but the inflections are overloaded; for example, in Tagalog, the subject and object of a verb are both expressed in the genitive case when they are not in the trigger case. The following are systems that some languages use to mark case instead of, or in addition to, declension: Positional: Nouns are not inflected for case; the position of a noun in the sentence expresses its case. Adpositional: Nouns are accompanied by words that mark case. Some languages have very many cases; for example, Finnish has eighteen (see Finnish language noun cases), Hungarian has eighteen and Tsez can even be analyzed as having 126 cases. In Indo-European languages, each case often contains several different endings, some of which may even be derived from different roots. An ending is chosen depending on gender, number, whether the word is a noun or a modifier, and other factors. The lemma forms of words, which is the form chosen by convention as the canonical form of a word, is usually the most unmarked or basic case, which is typically the nominative, trigger, or absolutive case, whichever a language may have. See also Agreement (linguistics) Declension Grammatical voice Inflection List of grammatical cases Thematic role Case hierarchy Differential object marking

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Astronomical_unit

An astronomical unit (abbreviated as AU, au, a.u., or sometimes ua) is a unit of length roughly equal to the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun. It is approximately 150 million kilometres (93 million miles). The symbol ua is recommended by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, but au is more common in Anglosphere countries. The International Astronomical Union recommends au, . while international standard ISO 31-1 uses AU. In general, capital letters are only used for the symbols of units which are named after individual scientists, while au or a.u. can also mean atomic unit or even arbitrary unit; however, the use of AU to refer to the astronomical unit is widespread. See, for example, the Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, the American Heritage Dictionary, and the Oxford English Dictionary. The astronomical constant whose value is one astronomical unit is referred to as unit distance and given the symbol A. Definition Originally, the AU was defined as the length of the semi-major axis of the Earth's elliptical orbit around the Sun. In 1976, the International Astronomical Union revised the definition of the AU for greater precision, defining it as that length for which the Gaussian gravitational constant (k) takes the value when the units of measurement are the astronomical units of length, mass and time. Resolution No. 10 of the XVIth General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union, Grenoble, 1976. An equivalent definition is the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the Sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass, moving with a mean motion of radians per day, . or that length for which the heliocentric gravitational constant (the product GM☉) is equal to ()2 AU3/d2. It is approximately equal to the mean Earth–Sun distance. Modern determinations Very precise measurements of the relative positions of the inner planets can be made by radar and by telemetry from space probes. As with all radar measurements, these rely on measuring the time taken for light to be reflected from an object. These measured positions are then compared with those calculated by the laws of celestial mechanics: the calculated positions are often referred to as an ephemeris, and are always calculated in astronomical units. The comparison gives the speed of light in astronomical units, which is  AU/d (TDB). "2009 Selected Astronomical Constants" in . As the speed of light in metres per second (cSI) is fixed in the International System of Units, this measurement of the speed of light in AU/d (cAU) also determines the value of the astronomical unit in metres (A): The currently accepted estimate of the value of the astronomical unit in metres comes from the D405 ephemeris of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (1998): . .  m, based on JPL ephemeris time, which is believed to identical to 2006 barycentric dynamical time (TDB) and hence to the mean duration of the terrestrial second. The 1994 IAU recommended value is  m based on TDB or  m in "SI". . The latter value is calculated for a hypothetical observer measuring proper length and proper time at the barycentre of the solar system. The uncertainty in any single ephemeris can be even smaller: JPL D410 ephemeris implies A =  m, while the EPM2004 ephemeris of the Institute of Applied Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IAA–RAS) implies A =  m. . However, these estimates of the measurement uncertainty do not fully take into account the possibility of systematic differences between the different measurements. Very recent determinations include τA =  s (TDB), A =  m from the IAA–RAS EPM2006 ephemeris . and A =  m based on a comparison of JPL and IAA–RAS ephemerides. . Usage By definition, the astronomical unit is dependent on the heliocentric gravitational constant, that is the product of the gravitational constant G and the solar mass M☉. Neither G nor M☉ can be measured to high accuracy in SI units, but the value of their product is known very precisely from observing the relative positions of planets (Kepler's Third Law expressed in terms of Newtonian gravitation). Only the product is required to calculate planetary positions for an ephemeris, which explains why ephemerides are always calculated in astronomical units and not in SI units. The calculation of ephemerides also requires a consideration of the effects of general relativity. In particular, time intervals measured on the surface of the Earth (terrestrial time, TT) are not constant when compared to the motions of the planets: the terrestrial second (TT) appears to be longer in Northern Hemisphere winter and shorter in Northern Hemisphere summer when compared to the "planetary second" (conventionally measured in barycentric dynamical time, TDB). This is because the distance between the Earth and the Sun is not fixed (it varies between  AU and  AU) and, when the Earth is closer to the Sun (perihelion), the Sun's gravitational field is stronger and the Earth is moving faster along its orbital path. As the metre is defined in terms of the second, and the speed of light is constant for all observers, the terrestrial metre appears to change in length compared to the "planetary metre" on a periodic basis. The metre is defined to be a unit of proper length, but the SI definition does not specify the metric tensor to be used in determining it. Indeed, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) notes that "its definition applies only within a spatial extent sufficiently small that the effects of the non-uniformity of the gravitational field can be ignored." . As such, the metre is undefined for the purposes of measuring distances within the solar system. The 1976 definition of the astronomical unit is incomplete, in particular because it does not specify the frame of reference in which time is to be measured, but has proved practical for the calculation of ephemerides: a fuller definition that is consistent with general relativity has been proposed. . History Aristarchus of Samos estimated the distance to the Sun to be about 20 times the distance to the moon, whereas the true ratio is about 390. His estimate was based on the angle between the half moon and the sun, which he estimated as 87°. According to Eusebius of Caesarea in the Praeparatio Evangelica, Eratosthenes found the distance to the sun to be "σταδιων μυριαδας τετρακοσιας και οκτωκισμυριας" (literally "of stadia myriads 400 and 80000"). This has been translated either as 4,080,000 stadia (1903 translation by Edwin Hamilton Gifford), or as 804,000,000 stadia (edition of Édouard des Places, dated 1974-1991). Using the Greek stadium of 185 to 190 metres, the former translation comes to a far too low 755,000 km whereas the second translation comes to 148.7 to 152.8 million km (accurate within 2%). At the time the AU was introduced, its actual value was very poorly known, but planetary distances in terms of AU could be determined from heliocentric geometry and Kepler's laws of planetary motion. The value of the AU was first estimated with reasonable accuracy by Jean Richer and Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. By measuring the parallax of Mars from two locations on the Earth, they arrived at a figure of about 140 million kilometers. A somewhat more accurate estimate can be obtained by observing the transit of Venus. Jeremiah Horrocks had attempted to produce an estimate based on his observation of the 1639 transit (published in 1662), producing a figure of 95 million kilometres. A better method was devised by James Gregory and published in his Optica Promata. It was strongly advocated by Edmond Halley and was applied to the transits of Venus observed in 1761 and 1769, and then again in 1874 and 1882. Another method involved determining the constant of aberration, and Simon Newcomb gave great weight to this method when deriving his widely accepted value of 8.80″ for the solar parallax (close to the modern value of 8.794148″). The discovery of the near-Earth asteroid 433 Eros and its passage near the Earth in 1900–1901 allowed a considerable improvement in parallax measurement. The name "astronomical unit" appears first to have been used in 1903. Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary. Developments The unit distance A (the value of the astronomical unit in metres) can be expressed in term of other astronomical constants: where G is the Newtonian gravitational constant, M☉ is the solar mass, k is the Gaussian gravitational constant and D is the time period of one day. The sun is constantly losing mass by radiating away energy, so the orbits of the planets are steadily expanding outward from the sun. This has led to calls to abandon the astronomical unit as a unit of measurement. . However, in 2004, an analysis of radiometric measurements in the inner Solar System suggested that the secular increase in the unit distance was much larger, +15±4 metres per century. . Later estimates based on both radiometric and angular observations lowered this estimate to +7±2 metres per century, . but this is still far larger than can be accounted for by solar radiation and current theories of gravitation. . The possible variation in the gravitational constant based on radiometric measurements is of the order of parts in 1012 per century, or lower. . It has been suggested that the observed increase could be explained by the Dvali–Gabadadze–Porrati multi-dimensional braneworld scenario. . There have also been calls to redefine the astronomical unit in terms of a fixed number of metres. . Examples The distances are approximate mean distances. It has to be taken into consideration that the distances between celestial bodies change in time due to their orbits and other factors. The Earth is 1.00 ± 0.02 AU from the Sun. The Moon is 0.0026 ± 0.0001 AU from the Earth. Mars is 1.52 ± 0.14 AU from the Sun. Jupiter is 5.20 ± 0.05 AU from the Sun. Pluto is 39.5 ± 9.8 AU from the Sun. The Kuiper Belt begins at roughly 35 AU Beginning of Scattered disk at 45 AU (10 AU overlap with Kuiper Belt) Ending of Kuiper Belt at 50-55 AU 90377 Sedna's orbit ranges between 76 and 942 AU from the Sun; Sedna is currently () about 90 AU from the Sun. 94 AU: Termination shock between Solar winds/Interstellar winds/Interstellar medium. 100 AU: Heliosheath 108 AU: As of November 16, 2008, Voyager 1 is the furthest of any human-made objects from the Sun. 100-150 AU: Ending of Scattered Disc 500-3000 AU: Beginning of Hills cloud/"Inner Oort Cloud" 20,000 AU: Ending of Hills Cloud/"Inner Oort Cloud", beginning of "Outer Oort Cloud" 50,000 AU: possible closest estimate of the "Outer Oort Cloud" limits (0.8 ly) 100,000 AU: possible farthest estimate of the "Outer Oort Cloud" limits (1.6 ly). 125,000 AU: maximum extent of influence of the Sun's gravitational field (Hill/Roche sphere). beyond this is true interstellar space. This distance is roughly 1.8-2.0 light-years. Proxima Centauri (the nearest star to Earth, excluding our own Sun) is ~268 000 AU away from the Sun. The mean diameter of Betelgeuse is 2.57 AU. The distance from the Sun to the centre of the Milky Way is approximately 1.7 AU. Conversion factors 1 AU = 149 597 870.691 ± 0.006 km ≈ 92 955 807 mi ≈ 8.317 light minutes ≈ 499 light-seconds 1 light-second ≈ 0.002 AU 1 gigametre ≈ 0.007 AU 1 light-year ≈ 63 241 AU 1 parsec ≈ 206 265 AU See also Orders of magnitude (length) References External links The IAU and astronomical units Recommendations concerning Units (HTML version of the IAU Style Manual) Chasing Venus, Observing the Transits of Venus be-x-old:Астранамічная адзінка

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British_Museum

The centre of the museum was redeveloped in 2001 to become the Great Court, surrounding the original Reading Room. The British Museum is a museum of human history and culture situated in London. Its collections, which number more than seven million objects, - British Museum website are amongst the largest and most comprehensive in the world and originate from all continents, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. The museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759 in Montagu House in Bloomsbury, on the site of the current museum building. Its expansion over the following two and a half centuries has resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, the first being the British Museum of Natural History in South Kensington in 1887. Until 1997, when the current British Library building opened to the public, replacing the old British Museum Reading Room, the British Museum was unique in that it housed both a national museum of antiquities and a national library in the same building. The museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. As with all other national museums and art galleries in the Britain, the Museum charges no admission fee, although charges are levied for some temporary special exhibitions. British Museum - Admission and opening times Since 2001 the director of the Museum has been Neil MacGregor. BBC News | ARTS | National man for British Museum History Sir Hans Sloane, founder of the British Museum Sir Hans Sloane Though principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities today, the British Museum was founded as a "universal museum". Its foundations lie in the will of the physician and naturalist Sir Hans Sloane (1660–1753). During the course of his lifetime Sloane gathered an enviable collection of curiosities and whilst not wishing to see his collection broken up after death, he bequeathed it to King George II, for the nation, for the princely sum of £20,000. Creating a Great Museum: Early Collectors and The British Museum At that time, Sloane’s collection consisted of around 71,000 objects of all kinds British Museum - General history including some 40,000 printed books, 7,000 manuscripts, extensive natural history specimens including 337 volumes of dried plants, prints and drawings including those by Albrecht Dürer and antiquities from Egypt, Greece, Rome, the Ancient Near and Far East and the Americas. Gavin R de Beer, Sir Hans Sloane and the British Museum (London, 1953). Foundation (1753) On 7 June 1753 King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. The Foundation Act, added two other libraries to the Sloane collection. The Cottonian Library, assembled by Sir Robert Cotton, dated back to Elizabethan times and the Harleian library, the collection of the Earls of Oxford. They were joined in 1757 by the Royal Library, assembled by various British monarchs. Together these four "foundation collections" included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library Letter to Charles Long (1823), BMCE115/3,10. Scrapbooks and illustrations of the Museum. {Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, pg 346) including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum - national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public and aiming to collect everything. Sloane's collection, whilst including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The British Museum Images The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary and antiquarian element and meant that the British Museum now became both national museum and library. Cabinet of curiosities (1753-78) Montagu House The body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the site now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost and the unsuitability of its location. Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, pg 25 With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759 The British Museum Opened, History Today . In 1757 King George II gave the Old Royal Library and with it the right to a copy of every book published in the country, thereby ensuring that the Museum's library would expand indefinitely. The predominance of natural history, books and manuscripts began to lessen when in 1772 the Museum acquired its first antiquities of note; Sir William Hamilton's collection of Greek vases. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several further gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts and David Garrick's library of 1,000 printed plays, but yet contained few ancient relics recognisable to visitors of the modern museum. Indolence and energy (1778-1800) Colossal Marble Foot From 1778 a display of objects from the South Seas brought back from the round-the-world voyages of Captain James Cook and the travels of other explorers fascinated visitors with a glimpse of previously unknown lands. The bequest of a collection of books, engraved gems, coins, prints and drawings by Clayton Mordaunt Cracherode in 1800 did much to raise the Museum's reputation; but Montagu House became increasingly crowded and decrepit and it was apparent that it would be unable to cope with further expansion. BMCE1/5, 1175 (13 May 1820). Minutes of General Meeting of the Trustees, 1754-63. {Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History, pg 78) The museum’s first notable addition towards its collection of antiquities, since its foundation, was by Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803), British Ambassador to Naples, who sold his collection of Greek and Roman artefacts to the museum in 1784 together with a number of other antiquities and natural history specimens. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784 refers to the Hamilton bequest of a "Colossal Foot of an Apollo in Marble". It was one of two antiquities of Hamilton's collection drawn for him by Francesco Progenie, a pupil of Pietro Fabris, who also contributed a number of drawings of Mount Vesuvius sent by Hamilton to the Royal Society in London. Growth and change (1800-25) The Cyrus Cylinder. In the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. After the defeat of the French Campaign in the Battle of the Nile, in 1801, the British Museum acquired more Egyptian sculpture and in 1802 King George III presented the Rosetta Stone - key to the deciphering of hieroglyphs. Wondrous Curiosities - Ancient Egypt at the British Museum, pg 66-72 (Stephanie Moser, 2006, ISBN 0226542092 Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British Consul General in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, laid the foundations of the collection of Egyptian Monumental Sculpture. The Story of the British Museum, pg 24 (Marjorie Caygill, 2003, ISBN 0714127728) Many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1806, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of Elgin, ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1799 to 1803 removed the large collection of marble sculptures from the Parthenon, on the Acropolis in Athens and transferred them to the UK. In 1816 these masterpieces of western art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament and deposited in the museum thereafter. The British Museum - The Elgin Marbles, pg 85 (B.F.Cook, 2005, ISBN 0714121347 The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815. The Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The British Museum - Assyrian Sculpture, pg 6-7 (Julian Reade, 2004, ISBN 071412141X) In 1802 a Buildings Committee was set up to plan for expansion of the museum, and further highlighted by the donation in 1822 of the King's Library, personal library of King George III's, comprising 65,000 volumes, 19,000 pamphlets, maps, charts and topographical drawing. King's Library The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an eastern extension to the Museum "... for the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it ..." Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, pg 79 and put forward plans for today's quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the King's Library Gallery began in 1823. The extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. However, following the founding of the National Gallery, London in 1824, the proposed Picture Gallery was no longer needed, and the space on the upper floor was given over to the Natural History collections. The Story of the British Museum, pg 25 (Marjorie Caygill, 2003, ISBN 0714127728) The largest building site in Europe (1825-50) Left to Right: Montagu House, Townley Gallery and Sir Robert Smirke's west wing under construction (July 1828) The Grenville Library, (1875) The Museum became a construction site as Sir Robert Smirke's grand neo-classical building gradually arose. The King's Library, on the ground floor of the East Wing, was handed over in 1827, and was described as one of the finest rooms in London although it was not fully open to the general public until 1857, however, special openings were arranged during The Great Exhibition of 1851. In spite of dirt and disruption the collections grew, outpacing the new building. Archaeological excavations In 1840 the Museum became involved in its first overseas excavations, Charles Fellows's expedition to Xanthos, in Asia Minor, whence came remains of the tombs of the rulers of ancient Lycia, among them the Nereid and Payava monuments. In 1857 Charles Newton was to discover the 4th-century BC Mausoleum of Halikarnassos, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. In the 1840s and 1850s the Museum supported excavations in Assyria by A.H. Layard and others at sites such as Nimrud and Nineveh. Of particular interest to curators was the eventual discovery of Ashurbanipal's great library of cuneiform tablets, which helped to make the Museum a focus for Assyrian studies. Reade, Julian (2004). Assyrian Sculpture. London: The British Museum Press, pg 16 Sir Thomas Grenville (1755–1846) was a Trustee of The British Museum from 1830 assembled a fine library of 20,240 volumes, which he left to the Museum in his will. The books arrived in January 1847 in twenty-one horse-drawn vans. The only vacant space for this large library was a room originally intended for manuscripts, between the Front Entrance Hall and the Manuscript Saloon. The books remained here until the British Library moved to St Pancras in 1998. Collecting from the wider world (1850-75) The opening of the forecourt in 1852 marked the completion of Robert Smirke's 1823 plan, but already adjustments were having to be made to cope with the unforeseen growth of the collections. Infill galleries were constructed for Assyrian sculptures and Sydney Smirke's Round Reading Room, with space for a million books, opened in 1857. Because of continued pressure on space the decision was taken to move natural history to a new building in South Kensington, which would later become the British Museum of Natural History. Roughly contemporary with the construction of the new building was the career of a man sometimes called the "second founder" of the British Museum, the Italian librarian Anthony Panizzi. Under his supervision, the British Museum Library (now the British Library) quintupled in size and became a well-organised institution worthy of being called a national library. The quadrangle at the centre of Smirke's design proved to be a waste of valuable space and was filled at Panizzi's request by a circular Reading Room of cast iron, designed by Smirke's brother, Sydney Smirke. Panorama of the circular Reading Room Until the mid 19th century the Museum's collections were relatively circumscribed but, in 1851, with the appointment to the staff of Augustus Wollaston Franks to curate the collections, the Museum began for the first time to collect British and European medieval antiquities, prehistory, branching out into Asia and diversifying its holdings of ethnography. Overseas excavations continued and John Turtle Wood discovered the remains of the 4th century BC Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, another Wonder of the Ancient World. South from Ephesus - An Escape From The Tyranny Of Western Art, pg 33-34,(Brian Sewell, 2002, ISBN 1903933161) Scholarship and legacies (1875-1900) The natural history collections were an integral part of the British Museum until their removal to the new British Museum of Natural History, now the Natural History Museum, in 1887. With the departure and the completion of the new White Wing (fronting Montague Street) in 1884, more space was available for antiquities and ethnography and the library could further expand. This was a time of innovation as electric lighting was introduced in the Reading Room and exhibition galleries. In 1882 the Museum was involved in the establishment of the independent Egypt Exploration Fund (now Society) the first British body to carry out research in Egypt. A bequest from Miss Emma Turner in 1892 financed excavations in Cyprus. In 1897 the death of the great collector and curator, A.W. Franks, was followed by an immense bequest of 3,300 finger rings, 153 drinking vessels, 512 pieces of continental porcelain, 1,500 netsuke, 850 inro, over 30,000 bookplates and miscellaneous items of jewellery and plate, among them the Oxus Treasure. Caygill, Marjorie (2006). The British Museum: 250 Years. London: The British Museum Press, pg 5 In 1898 Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild bequeathed the glittering contents from his New Smoking Room at Waddesdon Manor. This consisted of almost 300 pieces of objets d'art et de vertu which included exquisite examples of jewellery, plate, enamel, carvings, glass and maiolica, in the tradition of a schatzkammer or treasure houses such as those formed by the Renaissance princes of Europe. Baron Ferdinand's will was most specific, and failure to observe the terms would make it void, the collection should be, New century, new building (1900-25) Opening of The White Wing, King Edward VII's Galleries (1914) By the last years of the nineteenth century, The British Museum's collections had increased so much that the Museum building was no longer big enough for them. In 1895 the trustees purchased the 69 houses surrounding the Museum with the intention of demolishing them and building around the West, North and East sides of the Museum. The first stage was the construction of the northern wing beginning 1906. All the while, the collections kept growing, Emily Torday collected in Central Africa, Aurel Stein in Central Asia, D.G. Hogarth, Leonard Woolley and T. E. Lawrence excavated at Carchemish. In 1918, because of the threat of wartime bombing, some objects were evacuated to a Postal Tube Railway at Holborn, the National Library of Wales (Aberystwyth) and a country house near Malvern. On the return of antiquities from wartime storage in 1919, some objects were found to have deteriorated. A temporary conservation laboratory was set up in May 1920 and became a permanent department in 1931. It is today the oldest in continuous existence. Permanent establishment of the Research Laboratory (now the oldest such establishment in continuous existence) http://www.britishmuseum.org/visit/datelist.html In 1923, the British Museum, welcomed over one million visitors. Disruption and reconstruction (1925-50) New mezzanine floors were constructed and book stacks rebuilt in an attempt to cope with the flood of books. In 1931 the art dealer Sir Joseph Duveen offered funds to build a gallery for the Parthenon sculptures. Designed by the American architect John Russell Pope, it was completed in 1938. The appearance of the exhibition galleries began to change as dark Victorian reds gave way to modern pastel shades. However, in August 1939, due to the imminence of war and the likelihood of air-raids the Parthenon Sculptures along with Museum's most valued collections were dispersed to secure basements, country houses, Aldwych tube station, the National Library of Wales and a quarry. The evacuation was timely, for in 1940 the Duveen Gallery was severely damaged by bombing. Cook, B.F. (2005). The Elgin Marbles. London: The British Museum Press, pg 92 The Museum continued to collect from all countries and all centuries: among the most spectacular additions were the 2,600 BC Mesopotamian treasure from , discovered during Leonard Woolley's 1922–34 excavations. Gold, silver and garnet grave goods from the Anglo-Saxon ship burial at Sutton Hoo (1939) and late Roman silver tableware from Mildenhall, Suffolk (1946). The immediate post-war years were taken up with the return of the collections from protection and the restoration of the museum after the blitz. Work also began on restoring the damaged Duveen Gallery. A new public face (1950-75) The re-opened Duveen Gallery, (1980) In 1953 the Museum celebrated its bicentenary. Many changes followed: the first full time in house designer and publications officer were appointed in 1964, A Friends organisation was set up in 1968, an Education Service established in 1970 and publishing house in 1973. In 1963 a new Act of Parliament introduced administrative reforms. It became easier to lend objects, the constitution of the Board of Trustees changed and the Natural History Museum became fully independent. By 1959 the Coins and Medals office suite, completely destroyed during the war, was rebuilt and re-opened, attention turned towards the gallery work with new tastes in design leading to the remodelling of Robert Smirke's Classical and Near Eastern galleries. Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, pg 270 In 1962 the Duveen Gallery was finally restored and the Parthenon Sculptures were moved back into it, once again at the heart of the museum. By the 1970s the Museum was again expanding. More services for the public were introduced; visitor numbers soared, with the temporary exhibition "Treasures of Tutankhamun" in 1972, attracting 1,694,117 visitors, the most successful in British history. In the same year the Act of Parliament establishing the British Library was passed, separating the collection of manuscripts and printed books from the British Museum. This left the Museum with antiquities; coins, medals and paper money; prints & drawings; and ethnography. A pressing problem was finding space for additions to the library which now required an extra 1 1/4 miles of shelving each year. The Government suggested a site at St Pancras for the new British Library but the books did not leave the museum until 1997. The Great Court emerges (1975-2000) Great Court - Quadrangle and Robert Smirke's Round Reading Room The departure of the British Library to a new site at St Pancras, finally achieved in 1998, provided the space needed for the books. It also created the opportunity to redevelop the vacant space in Robert Smirke's 19th-century central quadrangle into the Queen Elizabeth II Great Court – the largest covered square in Europe – which opened in 2000. The ethnography collections, which had been housed in the short-lived Museum of Mankind at 6 Burlington Gardens from 1970, were returned to new purpose-built galleries. The Museum again readjusted its collecting policies as interest in "modern" objects: prints, drawings, medals and the decorative arts reawakened. Ethnographical fieldwork was carried out in places as diverse as New Guinea, Madagascar, Romania, Guatemala and Indonesia and there were excavations in the Near East, Egypt, Sudan and the UK. The Weston Gallery of Roman Britain, opened in 1997, displayed a number of recently discovered hoards which demonstrated the richness of what had been considered an unimportant part of the Roman Empire. The Museum turned increasingly towards private funds for buildings, acquisitions and other purposes. Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press, pg 327 The Museum today African Garden - The British Museum Facade - created by BBC TV programme Ground Force The Museum was founded 250 years ago as an encyclopædia of nature and of art. Today it no longer houses collections of natural history, and the books and manuscripts it once held now form part of the independent British Library. The Museum nevertheless preserves its universality in its collections of artefacts representing the cultures of the world, ancient and modern. The original 1753 collection has grown to over thirteen million objects at the British Museum, 70 million at the Natural History Museum and 150 million at the British Library. The Round Reading Room, which was designed by the architect Sydney Smirke, opened in 1857. For almost 150 years researchers came here to consult the Museum's vast library. The Reading Room closed in 1997 when the national library (the British Library) moved to a new building at St Pancras. Today it has been transformed into the Walter and Leonore Annenberg Centre. This contains the Paul Hamlyn Library of books about the Museum's collections, which is open to all visitors. http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/libraries/#hamlyn With the bookstacks in the central courtyard of the museum now empty, the process of demolition for Lord Foster's glass-roofed Great Court could begin. The Great Court, opened in 2000, while undoubtedly improving circulation around the museum, was criticised for having a lack of exhibition space at a time when the museum was in serious financial difficulties and many galleries were closed to the public. At the same time the African and Oceanic collections that had been temporarily housed in 6 Burlington Gardens were given a new gallery in the North Wing funded by the Sainsbury family. http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/africangalleries/index.html Governance In technical terms, the British Museum is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport through a three-year funding agreement. Its head is the Director. The British Museum was run from its inception by a 'Principal Librarian' (when the book collections were still part of the Museum), a role that was renamed 'Director and Principal Librarian' in 1898, and 'Director' in 1973 (on the separation of the British Library). British Museum - Directors A board of 25 trustees (with the Director as their accounting officer for the purposes of reporting to Government) is responsible for the general management and control of the Museum, in accordance with the British Museum Act of 1963 and the Museums and Galleries Act of 1992. British Museum - Museum governance Prior to the 1963 Act, it was chaired by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor and the Speaker of the House of Commons. The board was formed on the Museum's inception to hold its collections in trust for the nation without actually owning them themselves, and now fulfil a mainly advisory role. Trustee appointments are governed by the regulatory framework set out in the code of practice on public appointments issued by the Office of the Commissioner for Public Appointments. For a list of current trustees, see here. Building The entrance to the museum The Greek Revival façade facing Great Russell Street is a characteristic building of Sir Robert Smirke, with 44 columns in the Ionic order 45 ft (13.7 m) high, closely based on those of the temple of Athena Polias at Priene in Asia Minor. The pediment over the main entrance is decorated by sculptures by Sir Richard Westmacott depicting The Progress of Civilisation, consisting of fifteen allegorical figures, installed in 1852. The construction commenced around the courtyard with the East Wing (The King's Library) in 1823–1828, followed by the North Wing in 1833–1838, which originally housed among other galleries a reading room, now the Wellcome Gallery. Work was also progressing on the northern half of the West Wing (The Egyptian Sculpture Gallery) 1826–1831, with Montagu House demolished in 1842 to make room for the final part of the West Wing, completed in 1846, and the South Wing with its great colonnade, initiated in 1843 and completed in 1847, when the Front Hall and Great Staircase were opened to the public. Building the British Museum, Marjorie Caygill & Christopher Date 1999 The Museum is faced with Portland stone, but the perimeter walls and other parts of the building were built using Haytor granite from Dartmoor in South Devon, transported via the unique Haytor Granite Tramway. Building London In 1846 Robert Smirke was replaced as the Museum's architect by his brother Sydney Smirke, whose major addition was the Round Reading Room 1854–1857; at 140 feet (42.6 m) in diameter it was then the second widest dome in the world, the Pantheon in Rome being slightly wider. The next major addition was the White Wing 1882–1884 added behind the eastern end of the South Front, the architect being Sir John Taylor. Proposed British Museum Extension, 1906 In 1895, Parliament gave the Museum Trustees a loan of £200,000 to purchase from the Duke of Bedford all 69 houses which backed onto the Museum building in the five surrounding streets - Great Russell Street, Montague Street, Montague Place, Bedford Square and Bloomsbury Street. Title deed of the 'perimeter properties' of The British Museum, BM Archives CA TD The Trustees planned to demolish these houses and to build around the West, North and East sides of the Museum new galleries that would completely fill the block on which the Museum stands. The architect Sir John James Burnet was petitioned to put forward ambitious long-term plans to extend the building on all three sides. Most of the houses in Montague Place were knocked down a few years after the sale. Of this grand plan only the Edward VII galleries in the centre of the North Front were ever constructed, these were built 1906-14 to the design by J.J. Burnet, and opened by King George V and Queen Mary in 1914. They now house the Museum's collections of Prints and Drawings and Oriental Antiquities. There was not enough money to put up more new buildings, and so the houses in the other streets are nearly all still standing. The British Museum, Great Court The Duveen Gallery, sited to the west of the Egyptian, Greek & Assyrian sculpture galleries, was designed to house the Elgin Marbles by the American Beaux-Arts architect John Russell Pope. Although completed in 1938, it was hit by a bomb in 1940 and remained semi-derelict for 22 years, before reopening in 1962. Other areas damaged during World War II bombing included: in September 1940 two unexploded bombs hit the Edward VII galleries, the King's Library received a direct hit from a high explosive bomb, incendiaries fell on the dome of the Round Reading Room but did little damage; on the night of 10 to 11 May 1941 several incendiaries fell on the south west corner of the Museum, destroying the book stack and 150,000 books in the courtyard and the galleries around the top of the Great Staircase – this damage was not fully repaired until the early 1960s. pages 65-66, Building the British Museum, Marjorie Caygill & Christopher Date 1999 The Queen Elizabeth II Great Court is a covered square at the centre of the British Museum designed by the engineers Buro Happold and the architects Foster and Partners. Norman Foster and the British Museum, Norman Foster, Deyan Sudjic & Spencer de Grey 2001 The Great Court opened in December 2000 and is the largest covered square in Europe. The roof is a glass and steel construction with 1,656 uniquely shaped panes of glass. At the centre of the Great Court is the Reading Room vacated by the British Library, its functions now moved to St Pancras. The Reading Room is open to any member of the public who wishes to read there. Today, the British Museum has grown to become one of the largest Museums in the world, covering an area of over 75,000 m² of exhibition space, showcasing approximately 50,000 items from its collection. http://www.taiwanheadlines.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=60974&CtNode=10 There are nearly one hundred galleries open to the public, representing 2 miles (3.2 km) of exhibition space, although the less popular ones have restricted opening times. However, the lack of a large temporary exhibition space has led to the £100 million North West Development Project to provide one and to concentrate all the Museum's conservation facilities into one Conservation Centre. This project was announced in July 2007, with the architects Rogers Stirk Harbour and Partners, and is expected for completion by 2011. Departments Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan The British Museum, Room 4 - Colossal Granite head of Amenhotep III (1350 BC) The British Museum houses the world's largest and most comprehensive collection of Egyptian antiquities outside the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. British Museum - World cultures A collection of immense importance for its range and quality, it includes objects of all periods from virtually every site of importance in Egypt and the Sudan. Together they illustrate every aspect of the cultures of the Nile Valley (including Nubia), from the Predynastic Neolithic period (c. 10,000 BC) through to the Coptic (Christian) times (12th century AD), a time-span over 11,000 years. The British Museum, Room 4 - Colossal bust of Ramesses II (1250 BC) Egyptian antiquities have formed part of the British Museum collection ever since its foundation in 1753 after receiving 160 Egyptian objects Reported in the list of Sloane's collection given to his executors in 1753. Reproduced in MacGregor (1994a:29) from Sir Hans Sloane. After the defeat of the French forces under Napoleon at the Battle of the Nile in 1801, the Egyptian antiquities collected were confiscated by the British army and presented to the British Museum in 1803. These works, which included the famed Rosetta Stone, were the first important group of large sculptures to be acquired by the Museum. Thereafter, the UK appointed Henry Salt as consul in Egypt who amassed a huge collection of antiquities. Most of the antiquities Salt collected were purchased by the British Museum and the Musée du Louvre. By 1866 the collection consisted of some 10,000 objects. Antiquities from excavations started to come to the Museum in the later 19th century as a result of the work of the Egypt Exploration Fund under the efforts of E.A. Wallis Budge. The collection stood at 57,000 objects by 1924. Active support by the Museum for excavations in Egypt continued to result in useful acquisitions throughout the 20th century until changes in antiquities laws in Egypt led to the suspension of policies allowing finds to be exported. The size of the Egyptian collections now stands at over 110,000 objects. A British Museum Egyptologist's View: The Return of Egyptian Antiquities is Not an Issue In autumn 2001 the eight million objects forming the Museum's permanent collection were further expanded by the addition of six million objects from the Wendorf Collection of Egyptian and Sudanese Prehistory. British Museum - Ancient Egypt and Sudan These were donated by Professor Fred Wendorf of Southern Methodist University in Texas, and comprise the entire collection of artefacts and environmental remains from his excavations between 1963 and 1997. They are in the care of the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan. The seven permanent Egyptian galleries at the British Museum, which include its largest exhibition space (Room 4, for monumental sculpture), can display only 4% of its Egyptian holdings. The second-floor galleries have a selection of the Museum's collection of 140 mummies and coffins, the largest outside Cairo. A high proportion of the collection comes from tombs or contexts associated with the cult of the dead, and it is these pieces, in particular the mummies, that remain among the most eagerly sought after exhibits by visitors to the Museum. Key highlights of the collections Include The Rosetta Stone (196 BC) Limestone statue of a husband and wife (1300 BC) Colossal bust of Ramesses II, the "Younger Memnon" (1250 BC) Colossal granite head of Amenhotep III (1350 BC) Colossal head from a statue of Amenhotep III (1350 BC) Colossal limestone bust of Amenhotep III (1350 BC) Fragment of the beard of the Great Sphinx (1300 BC) Mummy of 'Ginger' which dates to about 3300 BC List of the kings of Egypt from the Temple of Ramesses II (1250 BC) Limestone false door of Ptahshepses (2380 BC) Granite statue of Senwosret III (1850 BC) Mummy of Cleopatra from Thebes (100 AD) Amarna tablets (Collection of 95 out of 382 tablets found, second greatest in the world after the Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin (203 tablets)) (1350 BC) Amarna cuneiform tablets Obelisk of Pharaoh Nectanebo II (360–343 BC) The British Museum, Room 4 - Egyptian Sculpture Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities The British Museum, Room 18 - Parthenon Galleries, Temple of Athena Parthenos (447-438 B.C.) The Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities of the British Museum has one of the world's largest and most comprehensive collections of antiquities from the Classical world, with over 100,000 objects. These mostly range in date from the beginning of the Greek Bronze Age (about 3200BC) to the reign of the Roman Emperor Constantine I in the 4th century AD, with some pagan survivals. The Cycladic, Minoan and Mycenaean cultures are represented, and the Greek collection includes important sculpture from the Parthenon in Athens, as well as elements of two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Mausoleum at Halikarnassos and the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos. The British Museum, Room 83 - Roman Sculpture The Department also houses one of the widest-ranging collections of Italic and Etruscan antiquities and extensive groups of material from Cyprus. The collections of ancient jewellery and bronzes, Greek vases and Roman glass and silver are particularly important. Key highlights of the collections include: Athenian Akropolis The Parthenon Gallery (Elgin Marbles) The Parthenon Marbles are one of the finest manifestations of human creation. The Magnificent Relief Frieze showing the Panathenaic procession, from Ancient Greece, often praised as the finest achievement of Greek Architecture, its decorative sculptures are considered one of the high points of Greek art. The British Museum, Room 21 - Mausoleum of Halikarnassos Erechtheion One of six remaining Caryatids Surviving Column Athena Nike Surviving Frieze Slabs Bassae Sculptures Twenty three surviving blocks of the frieze from the interior of the temple are exhibited on an upper level. Mausoleum of Halikarnassos One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Two colossal free-standing figures identified as Maussollos and his wife Artemisia. Part of an impressive horse from the chariot group adorning the summit of the Mausoleum The Amazonomachy frieze - A long section of relief frieze showing the battle between Greeks and Amazons Temple of Artemis at Ephesos One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Asia Minor Nereid Monument Partial reconstruction of the Monument, a large and elaborate Lykian tomb from the site of Xanthos in south-west Turkey Payava Tomb from Xanthos in south west Turkey Wider Museum Collection Material from the Palace of Knossos Portland Vase The Warren Cup Discus-thrower (Discobolos) Tony Kitto, "The celebrated connoisseur: Charles Townley, 1737-1805" Minerva Magazine May/June 2005, in connection with a British Museum exhibition clebrating the bicentennial of the Townley purchase. Towneley Sculptures Department of the Middle East The British Museum, Room 7 - Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud The British Museum, Room 6 - Pair of Human Headed Winged Lions and Reliefs from Nimrud with The Gates of Balawat The British Museum, Room 10 - Human Headed Winged Bulls from Khorsabad, companion pieces in the Musée du Louvre The British Museum, Room 8 - Human Headed Winged Lion and Bull from Nimrud, companion pieces in Metropolitan Museum of Art. The British Museum, Room 6 - Assyrian Sculpture The British Museum, Room 55 - Cuneiform Collection, including the Epic of Gilgamesh. Formerly the Department of the Ancient Near East, the Department recently became the Department of the Middle East when the collections from the Islamic world were moved from the Department of Asia into this department. With approximately 330,000 objects British Museum - Department of Middle East - Research in the collection, the British Museum has the greatest collection of Mesopotamian antiquities outside Iraq. The holdings of Assyrian, Babylonian and Sumerian antiquities are among the most comprehensive in the world. The collections represent the civilisations of the ancient Near East and its adjacent areas. These include Mesopotamia, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Caucasus, parts of Central Asia, Syria, Palestine and Phoenician settlements in the western Mediterranean from the prehistoric period until the beginning of Islam in the 7th century. The collection includes six iconic winged human-headed statues from Nimrud and Khorsabad. Stone bas-reliefs, including the famous Royal Lion Hunt relief's (Room 10), that were found in the palaces of the Assyrian kings at Nimrud and Nineveh. The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh and Sumerian treasures found in Royal Cemetery's at Ur of the Chaldees. The earliest Mesopotamian objects to enter collections purchased by the British Museum in 1772 from Sir William Hamilton. The Museum also acquired at this early date a number of sculptures from Persepolis. The next significant addition (in 1825) was from the collection of Claudius James Rich. The collection was dramatically enlarged by the excavations of A. H. Layard at the Assyrian sites of Nimrud and Nineveh between 1845–1851. At Nimrud, Layard discovered the North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II, as well as three other palaces and various temples. He also opened in the Palace of Sennacherib at Nineveh with 'no less than seventy-one halls'. As a result a large numbers of Lamassu's, bas-reliefs, stelae, including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III were brought to the British Museum. Layard's work was continued by his assistant, Hormuzd Rassam and in 1852–1854 he went on to discover the North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh with many magnificent reliefs, including the famous Royal Lion Hunt scenes. He also discovered the Royal Library of Ashurbanipal, a large collection of cuneiform tablets of enormous importance. W. K. Loftus excavated in Nimrud between 1850–1855 and found a remarkable hoard of ivories in the Burnt Palace. Between 1878–1882 Rassam greatly improved the Museum's holdings with exquisite objects including the Cyrus Cylinder from Babylon, the bronze gates from Balawat, and a fine collection of Urartian bronzes. Rassam collected thousands of cuneiform tablets, today with the acquisition of further tablets in the 20th century, the collection now numbers around 130,000 pieces. In the 20th century excavations were carried out at Carchemish, Syria, between 1911–1914 and in 1920 by D. G. Hogarth and Leonard Woolley, the latter assisted by T. E. Lawrence. The Mesopotamian collections were greatly augmented by excavations in southern Iraq after the First World War. From Tell al-Ubaid in 1919 and 1923–1924, directed by H. R. Hall came the bronze furnishings of a Sumerian temple, including life-sized lions and a panel featuring the lion-headed eagle Indugud. Woolley went onto to excavate between 1922–1934, discovering the 'Royal Cemeteries' of the 3rd millennium BC. Some of the masterpieces include the 'Standard of Ur', the 'Ram in a Thicket', the 'Royal Game of Ur', and two bull-headed lyres. Although the collections centre on Mesopotamia most of the surrounding areas are well-represented. The Achaemenid collection was enhanced with the addition of the Oxus Treasure in 1897, by acquisition from the German scholar Ernst Herzfeld, and then by the work of Sir Aurel Stein. From Palmyra there is a large collection of nearly forty funerary busts, acquired in the 19th century. A group of stone reliefs from the excavations of Max von Oppenheim at Tell Halaf, purchased in 1920. More excavated material from the excavations of Max Mallowan at Chagar Bazar and Tell Brak in 1935–1938, and from Woolley at Alalakh in the years just before and after the Second World War. The collection of Palestinian material was strengthened with the acquisition in 1980 of around 17,000 objects found at Lachish by the Wellcome-Marston expedition of 1932–1938. A representative selection, including the most important pieces, are on display in 13 galleries and total some 4500 objects. The remainder form the study collection which ranges in size from beads to large sculptures. They include approximately 130,000 cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia. British Museum - History of the Collection: Middle East The museum's collection of Islamic art, including archaeological material, numbers about 40,000 objects, MWNF - Museum With No Frontiers one of the largest of its kind in the world. As such, it contains a broad range of Islamic pottery, paintings, tiles, metalwork, glass, seals, and inscriptions. Key Highlights of the Collections include Nimrud: Alabaster bas-reliefs from: The North-West Palace of Ashurnasirpal II Central- Palace of Tiglath-Pileser III South-West Palace of Esarhaddon Palace of Adad-Nirari III South-East Palace ('Burnt Palace') The Nabu Temple (Ezida) The Sharrat-Niphi Temple Temple of Ninurta Sculptures: Pair of Human Headed 'Lamassu' Lions (883-859 BC) Human Headed 'Lamassu' Bull (883-859 BC), sister piece in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Human Headed 'Lamassu' Lion (883-859 BC), sister piece in The Metropolitan Museum of Art Colossal Statue of a Lion (883-859 BC) Rare Head of Human Headed 'Lamassu', recovered from the South-West Palace of Esarhaddon The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III (858-824 BC) Nineveh: Alabaster bas-reliefs from: North-Palace of Ashurbanipal Royal Lion Hunt Scenes The 'Dying Lion', long been acclaimed as a masterpiece The 'Garden Party' Relief South-West Palace of Sennacherib Royal Library of Ashurbanipal: A large collection of cuneiform tablets of enormous importance approximately 22,000 inscribed clay tablets The Flood Tablet, relating part of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh Khorsabad: Alabaster bas-reliefs from the Palace of Sargon II Pair of Human Headed Winged 'Lamassu' Bulls Wider Collection: Cyrus Cylinder, from Babylon The Balawat Gates of Shalmaneser III A fine collection of Urartian bronzes, which now form the core of the Anatolian collection The Oxus Treasure The Standard of Ur The 'Ram in a Thicket' The Royal Game of Ur Queen's Lyre Department of Prints and Drawings The Department of Prints and Drawings holds the national collection of Western Prints and Drawings. It ranks as one of the largest collections in existence alongside the Musée du Louvre and the Hermitage as one of the top three collections of its kind. British Museum - Prints and Drawings The British Museum, Room 90 - Michelangelo, Epifania - Last surviving large scale cartoon by the artist Since its foundation in 1808 the Prints and Drawings collection has grown to international renown as one of the richest and most representative collections in the world. There are approximately 50,000 drawings and over two million prints. http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/newsroom/archive1999/landmarks.html The collection of Drawings covers the period 14th century to the present, and includes many works of the highest quality by the leading artists of the European school. The collection of Prints covers the tradition of fine printmaking from its beginnings in the 15th century up to the present, with near complete holdings of most of the great names before the 19th century. There are magnificent groups of drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, (including his only surviving full-scale cartoon), Dürer (a collection of 138 drawings is one of the finest in existence), Peter Paul Rubens, Rembrandt, Claude and Watteau, and virtually complete collections of the works of all the great printmakers including unsurpassed holdings of prints by Dürer (99 engravings, 6 etchings and a substantial number of his 346 woodcuts), Rembrandt and Goya. More than 30,000 British drawings and watercolours include important examples work by Hogarth, Sandby, Turner, Girtin, Constable, Cotman, Cox, Gillray, Rowlandson and Cruikshank, as well as all the great Victorians. There are about a million British prints including more than 20,000 satires and outstanding collections of works by William Blake and Thomas Bewick. Department of Asia Amravati Gallery The scope of the Department of Asia is extremely broad, its collections of over 75,000 objects covers the material culture of the whole Asian continent (from East, South, Central and South-East Asia) and from the Neolithic up to the present day. Collection page Embassy of Japan in the UK British Museum - Department of Asia Key highlights of the collections include: British Museum - Department of Asia - Related Highlight Objects The most comprehensive collection of sculpture from the Indian subcontinent in the world, including the celebrated Buddhist limestone reliefs from Amaravati British Museum - Room 33a: Amaravati An outstanding collection of Chinese antiquities, paintings, and porcelain, lacquer, bronze, jade, and other applied arts A fine collection of Buddhist paintings from Dunhuang and the Admonitions Scroll by Chinese artist Gu Kaizhi (344–406 AD) The most comprehensive collection of Japanese pre-20th century art in the western world Department of Africa, Oceania and the Americas The British Museum houses one of the world's greatest and most comprehensive collections of Ethnographic material from Africa, Oceania and the Americas, representing the cultures of indigenous peoples throughout the world. Over 350,000 objects British Museum - Africa, Oceania and the Americas spanning two million years tells the story of the history of man, from three major continents and many rich and diverse cultures. The British Museum, Room 24 - The Wellcome Trust Gallery with Hoa Hakananai'a in the centre The Sainsbury African Galleries display 600 objects from the greatest permanent collection of African arts and culture in the world. The three permanent galleries provide a substantial exhibition space for the Museum's African collection comprising over 200,000 objects. A curatorial scope that encompasses both archaeological and contemporary material, including both unique masterpieces of artistry and objects of everyday life. Highlights of the African collection include a magnificent brass head of a Yoruba ruler from Ife, Nigeria; Asante goldwork from Ghana and the Torday collection of Central African sculpture, textiles and weaponry. The Americas collection mainly consists of 19th and 20th century items although the Inca, Aztec, Maya and other early cultures are well represented; collecting of modern artefacts is ongoing. Department of Coins and Medals The British Museum is home to one of the world's finest numismatic collections, comprising about a million objects. The collection spans the entire history of coinage from its origins in the 7th century BC to the present day. There are approximately 9,000 coins, medals and banknotes on display around the British Museum. More than half of these can be found in the HSBC Money Gallery (Gallery 68), while the remainder form part of the permanent displays throughout the Museum. Department of Prehistory and Europe The prehistoric collections cover Europe, Africa and Asia, the earliest African artefacts being around 2 million years old. Coverage of Europe extends to the present day. Department of Conservation, Documentation and Science This department was founded in 1920. Conservation has six specialist areas: ceramics & glass; metals; organic material (including textiles); stone, wall paintings and mosaics; Eastern pictorial art and Western pictorial art. The science department has and continues to develop techniques to date artefacts, analyse and identify the materials used in their manufacture, to identify the place an artefact originated and the techniques used in their creation. The department also publishes its findings and discoveries. Libraries and Archives This department covers all levels of education, from casual visitors, schools, degree level and beyond. The Museum's various libraries hold in excess of 350,000 books, journals and pamphlets covering all areas of the museum's collection. Also the general Museum archives which date from its foundation in 1753 are overseen by this department; the individual departments have their own separate archives covering their various areas of responsibility. Controversy A few of the Elgin Marbles (also known as the Parthenon Marbles) from the East Pediment of the Parthenon. It is a point of controversy whether museums should be allowed to possess artefacts taken from other countries, and the British Museum is a notable target for criticism. The Elgin Marbles, Benin Bronzes and Rosetta Stone are among the most disputed objects in its collections, and organisations have been formed demanding the return of these artefacts to their native countries of Greece, Nigeria and Egypt respectively. The British Museum has refused to return these artefacts, stating that the "restitutionist premise, that whatever was made in a country must return to an original geographical site, would empty both the British Museum and the other great museums of the world". British Museum - Greek and Roman Antiquities The Museum has also argued that the British Museum Act of 1963 legally prevents any object from leaving its collection once it has entered it. Nevertheless, it has returned items such as the Tasmanian Ashes after a 20 year long battle with Australia. CBC.ca Arts - British Museum returns aboriginal ashes to Tasmania The British Museum continues to assert that it is an appropriate custodian and has an inalienable right to its disputed artefacts under British law. Disputed Items in the Collection Elgin Marbles - claimed by Greece and backed by UNESCO among others for restitution. The Parthenon Marbles (or Elgin Marbles) Restoration to Athens, Greece - Articles and Research Benin Bronzes - claimed by Nigeria, 30 pieces sold already by The British Museum privately in the 1960s. British Museum sold precious bronzes | The Guardian | Guardian Unlimited Ethiopian Tabots - claimed by Ethiopia. Brits negotiate future of sacred tablets 4 stolen drawings (Nazi plunder) - Compensation paid to Uri Peled in the amount of £175,000 by the British Museum. Channel 4 - News - Getting the Nazi stolen art back Achaemenid empire gold and silver artefacts from the Oxus Treasure - claimed by Tajikistan. Tajik president calls for return of treasure from British Museum | Art & Architecture | Guardian Unlimited Arts Aboriginal human remains - returned to Tasmania by the British museum. Mold's Golden Cape - claimed by Wales BBC News | WALES | Hopes for priceless relic's return Rosetta Stone - claimed by Egypt BBC NEWS | Entertainment | Arts | Egypt calls for return of Rosetta Stone Galleries Building Floor Plans Museum Galleries Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan Department of the Ancient Near East Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities Exhibitions Forgotten Empire Exhibition (October 2005 - January 2006) See also Employees of the British Museum People associated with the British Museum Notes a. Sculptures and applied art are in the Victoria and Albert Museum, the British Museum houses earlier art, non-Western art, prints and drawings, and art of a later date is at Tate Modern. The National Gallery, holds the National Collection of Western European Art, with Tate Britain deposited with British Art from 1500. b. By the Act of Parliament it received a name - the British Museum. The origin of the name is not known; the word 'British' had some resonance nationally at this period, so soon after the Jacobite rebellion of 1745; it must be assumed that the Museum was christened in this light. The question of the use of the term 'British' at this period has recently received some attention, e.g. Colley (1992), 85ff. There never has been a serious attempt to change the Museum's name. c. The estimated footage of the various libraries as reported to the Trustees has been summarised by Harris (1998), 3,6: Sloane 4,600, Harley 1,700, Cotton 384, Edwards 576, The Royal Library 1,890. d. This was perhaps rather unfortunate as the title to the house was complicated by the fact that part of the building had been erected on leasehold property (the Crown lease of which ran out in 1771); perhaps that is why George III paid such a modest price (nominally £28,000) for what was to become Buckingham Palace. See Colvin et al. (1976), 134. e. Understanding of the foundation of the National Gallery is complicated by the fact that there is no documented history of the institution. At first the National Gallery functioned effectively as part of the British Museum, to which the Trustees transferred most of their most important pictures (ex. portraits). Full control was handed over to the National Gallery in 1868, after the Act of Parliament of 1856 established the Gallery as an independent body. f. Ashmole, the Keeper of the Greek and Roman Antiquities appreciated the original top-lighting of these galleries and removed the Victorian colour scheme, commenting: The old Elgin Gallery was painted a deep terracotta red, which, though in some ways satisfactory, diminished its apparent size, and was apt to produce a depressing effect on the visitor. It was decided to experiment with lighter colours, and the walls of the large room were painted with what was, at its first application, a pure cold white, but which after a year's exposure had unfortunately yellowed. The small Elgin Room was painted with pure white tinted with prussian blue, and the Room of the metopes was painted with pure white tinted with cobalt blue and black; it was necessary, for practical reasons, to colour all the dadoes a darker colour Quoted Ashmole (1994), 125 g. Ashmole had never liked the Duveen Gallery: It is, I suppose, not positively bad, but it could have been infinitely better. It is pretentious, in that it uses the ancient Marbles to decorate itself. This is a long outmoded idea, and the exact opposite of what a sculpture gallery should do. And, although it incorporates them, it is out of scale, and tends to dwarf them with its bogus Doric features, including those columns, supporting almost nothing which would have made an ancient Greek artist architect whince. The source of daylight is too high above the sculptures, a fault that is only concealed by the amount of reflection from the pinkish marble walls. These are too similar in colour to the marbles...These half-dozen elementary errors were pointed out by everyone in the Museum, and by many scholars outside, when the building was projected. Ashmole (1994), 126 It was not until the 1980s that the installation, of a lighting scheme removed his greatest criticism of the building. h. The Cairo Museum has 150,000 artefacts, with leading collections reposited at the Musee du Louvre (60,000), Petrie Museum (80,000), The Metropolitan Museum of art (36,000), University of Pennsylvania (42,000), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (40,000), Museo Egizio, Turin (32,500 objects). References Further reading Anderson, Robert (2005). The Great Court and The British Museum. London: The British Museum Press Caygill, Marjorie (2006). The British Museum: 250 Years. London: The British Museum Press Caygill, Marjorie (2002). The Story of the British Museum. London: The British Museum Press Cook, B.F. (2005). The Elgin Marbles. London: The British Museum Press Jenkins, Ian (2006). Greek Architecture and its Sculpture in The British Museum. London: The British Museum Press Moser, Stephanie (2006). Wondrous Curiosities: Ancient Egypt at The British Museum. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press Reade, Julian (2004). Assyrian Sculpture. London: The British Museum Press Reeve, John (2003). The British Museum: Visitor's Guide. London: The British Museum Press Wilson, David, M. (2002). The British Museum: A History. London: The British Museum Press External links Official website of the British Museum A list of important dates in the British Museum's history from the official website London Landscape TV episode (5 mins) about the British Museum Bloomsbury 1759 Exhibition

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George_S._Kaufman

George Simon Kaufman (16 November 1889 - 2 June 1961) was an American playwright, theatre director and producer, humorist, and drama critic. Biography Early years Born to a Jewish family in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania he graduated from high school in 1907 and pursued legal studies, but grew disenchanted and took on a series of odd jobs. Kaufman then began his career as a journalist and drama critic. He was the drama editor for The New York Times. Career Theatre His Broadway debut was in 1918 with Someone in the House, written with Larry Evans and W.C. Percival. This play was panned, and it had the further handicap of opening on Broadway during a flu epidemic, when theatre attendance in New York City diminished drastically because the public were warned to avoid crowds. Kaufman sardonically advised his play's producers to print advertisements with this message: "Avoid crowds: see Someone in the House." It would be quite a long time before Kaufman had another flop. In every Broadway season from 1921 through 1958, there was a play written or directed by Kaufman. Since Kaufman's death in 1961, every decade has featured at least a couple of revivals of his work. There have also been productions based on Kaufman properties, such as the 1981 musical version of Merrily We Roll Along, adapted by George Furth and Stephen Sondheim. Kaufman was known as "The Great Collaborator" because he wrote very few plays alone. His most successful solo script was The Butter and Egg Man in 1925. With others, Kaufman was prolific: with Marc Connelly he wrote Merton of the Movies, Dulcy, and Beggar on Horseback; with Ring Lardner he wrote June Moon; with Edna Ferber he wrote The Royal Family, Dinner at Eight, and Stage Door; with John P. Marquand he wrote a stage adaptation of Marquand's novel The Late George Apley; and with Howard Teichmann he wrote The Solid Gold Cadillac. For a period Kaufman lived at 158 West 58th in New York City. The building would be the setting for Stage Door. It is less than two blocks from Broadway. It is now the Park Savoy Hotel and for many years was considered a single room occupancy hotel. His most successful collaborations were with Moss Hart, with whom he wrote many plays, including Once in a Lifetime, Merrily We Roll Along, You Can't Take It With You, his most-revived play, which won the Pulitzer Prize in 1937, and The Man Who Came to Dinner. Despite his claim that he knew nothing about music and hated it in the theatre, Kaufman collaborated on many musical theatre projects. His most successful such efforts include two Broadway shows crafted for the Marx Brothers, The Cocoanuts, written with Irving Berlin, and Animal Crackers, written with Morrie Ryskind, Bert Kalmar, and Harry Ruby. These two productions allowed the Marx Brothers to make the transition from their vaudeville roots into the more prominent worlds of "legitimate" musical comedy and film. Kaufman was one of the writers who excelled in writing intelligent nonsense for Groucho Marx, a process that was inevitably collaborative, given Groucho's skills at expanding upon the scripted material. Though the Marx Brothers were notoriously critical of their writers, Groucho and Harpo Marx expressed admiration and gratitude towards Kaufman. (Dick Cavett, introducing Groucho onstage at Carnegie Hall in 1972, told the audience that Groucho considered Kaufman to be "his god".) In spite of Kaufman's success as a co-writer and director of stage musicals (one of his biggest musical hits was Guys and Dolls, which he directed on Broadway but did not write), there is some truth to the legend about his lack of musical instincts. While The Cocoanuts was being developed in Atlantic City, Irving Berlin was hugely enthusiastic about a song he had written for the show. Kaufman was less enthusiastic, and refused to rework the libretto to include this number. The discarded song was Always, ultimately a huge hit for Berlin (in another show). The Cocoanuts would remain Irving Berlin's only Broadway musical -- until his very last one, Mister President -- which did not include at least one eventual hit song. Humor derived from political situations was of particular interest to Kaufman. He collaborated on the hit musical Of Thee I Sing (1931 Pulitzer Prize, the first musical so honored), and its sequel Let 'Em Eat Cake, as well as one troubled but eventually successful satire that had several incarnations, Strike Up the Band. Working with Kaufman on these ventures were Ryskind, George Gershwin, and Ira Gershwin. Also, Kaufman, with Moss Hart, wrote the book to I'd Rather Be Right, a musical starring George M. Cohan as Franklin Delano Roosevelt (the U.S. President at the time), with songs by Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart. He also co-wrote the 1935 comedy-drama First Lady. This inveterate collaborator also contributed to historically important New York revues, including The Band Wagon (not to be confused with the Astaire/Minnelli 1953 film) with Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz. His often anthologized sketch "The Still Alarm" from the revue The Little Show lasted long after this influential show closed. Another well-known sketch of his is "If Men Played Cards As Women Do." Hollywood Many of Kaufman's plays were adapted into Hollywood films. Among the more well-received were Dinner At Eight, Stage Door (almost completely rewritten for the film version) and You Can't Take It With You, which won the Best Picture Oscar in 1938. He also occasionally wrote directly for the movies, most significantly the screenplay for A Night at the Opera for the Marx Brothers. His only credit as a film director was The Senator Was Indiscreet (1947) starring William Powell. On the boards, Kaufman directed the original productions of The Front Page by Charles MacArthur and Ben Hecht, Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck, My Sister Eileen by Joseph Fields and Jerome Chodorov, Romanoff and Juliet by Peter Ustinov, and the Frank Loesser musical Guys and Dolls, for which he won the 1951 Best Director Tony Award. Kaufman produced many of his own plays as well as those of other writers. He also acted in the original production of his own Once In A Lifetime. After World War II, perhaps because his output and commercial success as a writer was declining, Kaufman devoted more energy to directing, producing, writing prose, and appearing on television. Kaufman was also a prominent rubber bridge player. Many of his humorous writings about bridge appeared in The New Yorker and have often been reprinted. They include Kibitzers' Revolt and the ingenious suggestion that bridge clubs should post information that North-South or East-West are holding good cards. Personal life Kaufman was a key member of the celebrated Algonquin Round Table, a circle of witty writers and show business people. From the 1920s through the 1950s, Kaufman was as well known for his personality as he was for his writing. The Moss Hart autobiography Act One certainly popularized Kaufman as a character. Hart portrayed Kaufman as a morose and intimidating figure, uncomfortable with any expressions of affection between human beings -- in life or on the page. This perspective, along with a number of taciturn observations made by Kaufman himself, led to a simplistic but commonly held belief that Hart was the emotional soul of the creative team while Kaufman was a misanthropic writer of punchlines. Despite the fact that Kaufman lived in the public eye alongside celebrities and journalists, he was a tireless worker, dedicated to the writing and rehearsal processes. He was particularly revered within the business as a "play doctor." Late in his life he managed to trade upon his long-developed persona by appearing as a television wag. Of one unsuccessful comedy he wrote, "There was laughter at the back of the theatre, leading to the belief that someone was telling jokes back there." Even though he was a sometime satirist, he remarked that "Satire is what closes on Saturday night." Much of Kaufman's fame occurred due to his mastery of sharp lines such as these, generally referred to in the press as "wise cracks." However, Kaufman was more than a writer of gags. He created scripts that revealed a mastery of dramatic structure; his characters were likable and theatrically credible. A noted philandering ladies' man, Kaufman found himself in the center of a scandal in 1936 when, in the midst of a child custody suit, the former husband of actress Mary Astor threatened to publish one of Astor's diaries purportedly containing extremely explicit details of an affair between Kaufman and the actress. The diary was eventually destroyed unread by the courts, but details of the supposed contents were published in Confidential magazine and various other scandal sheets. Kaufman later had a long affair with actress Natalie Schafer. Kaufman was married in 1917 to Beatrice Bakrow until her death in 1945. Four years later, he married actress Leueen MacGrath on 26 May 1949 with whom he collaborated on a number of plays before their divorce in 1957. Kaufman died in New York City at the age of seventy-one. References External links Algonquin Round Table Walking Tours Algonquin Round Table page at the Algonquin Hotel's web site Algonquin Circle Links Information on Kaufman's plays

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Metallic_bonding

Metallic bonding is found in metals like zinc. Metallic bonding is the electromagnetic interaction between delocalized electrons, called conduction electrons, and the metallic nuclei within metals. Understood as the sharing of "free" electrons among a lattice of positively-charged ions (cations), metallic bonding is sometimes compared with that of molten salts; however, this simplistic view holds true for very few metals. In a more quantum-mechanical view, the conduction electrons divide their density equally over all atoms that function as neutral (non-charged) entities. Metallic bonding accounts for many physical properties of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, thermal and electrical conductivity, opacity, and luster. metallic bonding metal structures Chemical Bonds PHYSICS 133 Lecture Notes Spring , 2004 Marion Campus Although the term metallic bond is often used in contrast to the term covalent bond, it is more preferable to use the term metallic bonding, because this type of bonding is collective in nature and a single "metallic bond" does not exist. (Note that covalent metal-metal bonds are well known for many metals and one example is the mercurous ion Hg22+, metallic bonding is a different type of bonding found in bulk metals.) History The nature of metals has fascinated humankind for many centuries, because these materials provided special people with tools of unsurpassed properties both in war and in peace. The reason for their properties and the nature of the bonding that keeps them together remained a mystery for centuries, even though great progress was made in their preparation and processing. As chemistry developed into a science it became clear that metals formed the large majority of the periodic table of the elements and great progress was made in the description of the salts that can be formed in reactions with acids. With the advent of electrochemistry it became clear that metals generally go into solution as positively charged ions and the oxidation reactions of the metals became well understood in the electrochemical series. A picture emerged of metals as positive ions held together by an ocean of negative electrons. With the advent of quantum mechanics this picture was given more formal interpretation in the form of the free electron model and its further extension, the nearly-free electron model. In both of these models the electrons are seen as a gas traveling through the lattice of the solid with an energy that is essentially isotropic in that it depends on the square of the magnitude, not the direction of the momentum vector k. In three-dimensional k-space, the set of points of the highest filled levels (the Fermi surface) should therefore be a sphere. In the nearly-free correction of the model, box-like Brillouin zones are added to k-space by the periodic potential experienced from the (ionic) lattice. The advent of X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis (initially DTA) made it possible to study the structure of crystalline solids, including metals and their alloys, and the construction of phase diagrams accessible. Despite all this progress the nature of intermetallic compounds and alloys largely remained a mystery and their study often empirical. Chemists generally steered away from anything that did not seem to follow Dalton's laws of multiple proportions and the problem was considered the domain of a different science, metallurgy. The almost-free electron model was eagerly taken up by some researchers in this field, notably Hume-Rothery in an attempt to explain why certain intermetallic alloys with certain compositions would form and others would not. Initially his attempts were quite successful. Basically his idea was to add electrons to inflate the spherical Fermi-balloon inside the series of Brillouin-boxes and determine when a certain box would be full. This indeed predicted a fairly large number of observed alloy compositions. Unfortunately, as soon as cyclotron resonance became available and the shape of the balloon could be determined, is was found that the assumption that the balloon was spherical did not hold at all, except perhaps in the case of cesium. This reduced much of the conclusions to an excellent example of how a wrong model can sometimes give a whole series of correct predictions. The free-electron debacle made researchers realize that the assumption of ions in a sea of free electrons needed modification and a number of quantum mechanical approaches like band structure calculations based on molecular orbitals or density functional theory were developed. In these models one departs either from the atomic orbitals of neutral atoms that share their electrons or in the case of DFT departs from the total electron density. The free-electron picture has nevertheless remained a dominant one in education. Electronic band structures became a major focus not only for the study of metals, but even more so for the study of semiconductors. Together with the electronic states, the vibrational states were also shown to form bands. Peierls showed that in the case of a one-dimensional row of metallic atoms, say hydrogen, an instability had to arise that would lead to the break up of such a chain into individual molecules. This sparked an interest in the general question: when is collective metallic bonding stable and when will a more localized form of bonding take its place? Much research went into the study of clustering of metal atoms. As powerful as the concept of the band structure proved to be in the description of metallic bonding it does have a drawback. It remains a one-electron approximation to a multitudinous many-body problem. In other words, the energy states of each electron are described as if all the other electrons simply form a homogeneous background. Researchers like Mott and Hubbard realized that this was perhaps appropriate for strongly delocalized s- and p-electrons but for d-electrons and even more f-electrons the interaction with electrons (and atomic displacements) in the local environment may become stronger than the delocalization that leads to broad bands. Thus the transition from localized unpaired electrons to itinerant ones partaking in metallic bonding became more comprehensible. The nature of metallic bonding The combination of two phenomena gives rise to metallic bonding: delocalization of electrons and the availability of a far larger number of delocalized energy states than of delocalized electrons. The latter could be called electron deficiency. Delocalization In 2D Delocalization—bonding that involves more than one pair of atoms held together by one pair of electrons—is most familiar from the example of benzene C6H6, where six electrons from six carbon atoms are engaged in joint aromatic bonding. However, there are other examples like the three-center two-electron bond, prevalent in boron chemistry. The principle can easily be extended over larger aromatic molecules like naphthalene, anthracene and if the process is taken to its extreme: graphite. The latter is an example of a system delocalized in two dimensions. Interestingly, there is an isoelectronic analog of benzene, B3N3H6 (borazine) for which the same argument holds. It has very similar properties to benzene. >Chemistry of the elements, N.N. Greenwood A. Earnshaw. Pergamon Press 1984 ISBN 0-08-022056-8 When extended indefinitely, hexagonal boron nitride, BN, is obtained, with a structure identical to that of graphite apart from the alternation between boron and nitrogen in each ring. This material is a semiconductor, exemplifying that delocalization is a necessary but not sufficient requirement for conductivity. Electrical conductivity does occur in graphite, because the π and π*-like bands overlap, making it a semimetal, with partly filled bands, fulfilling the other requirement for conductivity. In 3D Metal aromaticity in metal clusters is another example of delocalization, this time often in three-dimensional entities. Metals take the delocalization principle to its extreme and one could say that a crystal of a metal represents a single molecule over which all conduction electrons are delocalized in all three dimensions. This means that inside the metal one can generally not distinguish molecules so that the metallic bonding is neither intra- nor intermolecular. 'Nonmolecular' would perhaps be a better term. Metallic bonding is mostly non-polar, because even in alloys there is little difference among the electronegativities of the atoms participating in the bonding interaction (and in pure elemental metals, none at all). Thus metallic bonding is an extremely delocalized communal form of covalent bonding. In a sense metallic bonding is not a 'new' type of bonding at all therefore and it only describes the bonding as present in a chunk of condensed matter, be it crystalline solid, liquid or even glass. Metallic vapors by contrast are often atomic (Hg) or at times contain molecules like Na2 held together by a more conventional covalent bond. This is why it is not correct to speak of a single 'metallic bond'. The delocalization is most pronounced for s- and p-electrons. For cesium it is so strong that the electrons are virtually free from the cesium atoms to form a gas only constrained by the surface of the metal. For cesium therefore the picture of Cs+-ions held together by a negatively charged electron gas is not too inaccurate If the electrons were truly 'free' their energy would only depend on the magnitude of their wave vector k, not its direction. That is in k-space the Fermi level should form a perfect sphere. The shape of the Fermi level can be measured by cyclotron resonance and is never a sphere, not even for cesium,see: The Fermi Surface of Caesium. K. Okumura and I. M. Templeton, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Vol. 287, No. 1408 (Aug. 17, 1965), pp. 89-104 . For other elements the electrons are less free, in that they still experience the potential of the metal atoms, sometimes quite strongly. They require a more intricate quantum mechanical treatment (e.g. tight binding) in which the atoms are viewed as neutral much like the carbon atoms in benzene. For d- and especially f-electrons the delocalization is not strong at all and this explains why these electrons are able to continue behaving as unpaired electrons that retain their spin, adding interesting magnetic properties to these metals. Electron deficiency and mobility Metal atoms contain few electrons in their valence shells relative to their periods or energy levels. They are electron deficient elements and the communal sharing does not change that. There remain far more available energy states than there are shared electrons. Both requirements for conductivity are therefore fulfilled: strong delocalization and partly filled energy bands. Such electrons can therefore easily change from one energy state into a slightly different one. Thus, not only do they become delocalized, forming a sea of electrons permeating the lattice, but they are also able to migrate through the lattice when an external electrical field is imposed, leading to electrical conductivity. Without the field there are electrons moving equally in all directions. Under the field some will adjust their state slightly, adopting a different wave vector. Consequently, there will be more moving one way than the other and a net current will result. The freedom of conduction electrons to migrate also gives metal atoms, or layers of them, the capacity to slide past each other. Locally bonds can easily be broken and replaced by new ones after the deformation. This process does not affect the communal metallic bonding very much. This gives rise to metals' typical characteristic phenomena of malleability and ductility. This is particularly true for pure elements. In the presence of dissolved impurities the defects in the lattice that function as cleavage points may get blocked and the material becomes harder. Gold for example is very soft in pure form (24 kt), which is why for jewellery alloys of 18 kt or lower are preferred. Metals are typically also good conductors of heat, but the conduction electrons only contribute partly to this phenomenon. Collective (i.e. delocalized) vibrations of the atoms known as phonons that travel through the solid as a wave, contribute strongly. However, the latter also holds for a substance like diamond. It conducts heat quite well but not electricity. The latter is not a consequence of the fact that delocalization is absent in diamond, but simply that carbon is not electron deficient . The position of carbon in the middle of its period in the Periodic Table makes that there are precisely enough electrons to fill the energy states. Under a field electrons are not able to adopt a different wave vector because there are no empty states to move into. This makes a current impossible in this wide band gap semiconductor. However, as soon as charge carriers are introduced by doping the crystal with a suitable impurity the resulting charge carriers are as mobile as in a metal, though far fewer in number. Even without doping the vibrational motions (the phonons) are delocalized over the crystal explaining the heat conduction. Still the bonding in diamond is better described as covalent than as metallic if only because there is a very strong directional preference for tetrahedral stacking, producing a structure that is extremely hard to deform and by no means close packed. Clearly, the electron deficiency is an important point in distinguishing metallic from more conventional covalent bonding. Thus, we should amend the expression given above into: Metallic bonding is an extremely delocalized communal form of electron deficient Of course, electron deficiency is a relative term: it means fewer than half of the electrons needed to complete the next noble gas configuration. E.g. lithium is electron deficient with respect to neon, but electron rich with respect to the previous noble gas, helium. covalent bonding. Strength of the bond The atoms in metals have a strong attractive force between them. Much energy is required to overcome it. Therefore, metals often have high boiling points, tungsten (5828K) even extremely high. A remarkable exception are the elements of the zinc group: Zn, Cd,and Hg. Their electron configuration ends in ...ns2 and this comes to resemble a noble gas configuration like that of helium more and more when going down in the periodic table because the energy distance to the empty np orbitals becomes larger. These metals are therefore relatively volatile. Zinc for example is unsuitable for use in ultra high vacuum applications. Note that Science magazine published paper by Green in 2007 proves that M-M, where M is metal, can be synthesized other than group 12. Otherwise, metallic bonding can be very strong, even in the melt. Gallium is a good example of that. Even though it melts by the heat of one's hand just above room temperature, its boiling point is not far from that of copper. Molten gallium is therefore a very nonvolatile liquid thanks to its strong metallic bonding. The latter also exemplifies that metallic bonding due to its delocalization in all directions is often not very particular about the directionality of the bonding. There is typically a preference for close packing of the atoms, such as face or body centered cubic arrangements, but in the case of liquid gallium the stacking is not regular, at least not at long range and bond angles are easily changed. Given high enough cooling rates and appropriate alloy composition metallic bonding can even occur in glasses with an amorphous structure. Solubility and compound formation Metals are insoluble in water or organic solvents unless they undergo a reaction with them. Typically this is an oxidation reaction that robs the metal atoms of their itinerant electrons, destroying the metallic bonding. However metals are often readily soluble in each other while retaining the metallic character of their bonding. Gold for example dissolves easily in mercury, even at room temperature. Even in solid metals the solubility can be extensive. If the structures of the two metals are the same there can even be complete solid solubility as in the case of electrum, the alloys of silver and gold. At times however two metals will form alloys with different structures than either of the two parents. One could call these materials metal compounds, but because materials with metallic bonding are typically not molecular, Dalton's law of integral proportions is not valid and often a range of stoichiometric ratios can be achieved. It is better to abandon such concepts as 'pure substance' or 'solute' is such cases and speak of phases instead. The study of such phases has traditionally been more the domain of metallurgy than of chemistry, although the two fields overlap considerably. Localization and clustering: from bonding to bonds The metallic bonding in complicated compounds does not necessarily involve all constituent elements equally. It is quite possible to have an element or more that do not partake at all. One could picture the conduction electrons flowing around them like a river around an island or a big rock. It is possible to observe which elements do partake, e.g. by looking at the core levels in an XPS spectrum. If an element partakes its peaks tend to be skewed. Some intermetallic materials e.g. do exhibit metal clusters, reminiscent of molecules and these compounds are more a topic of chemistry than of metallurgy. The formation of the clusters could be seen as a way to 'condense out' (localize) the electron deficient bonding into bonds of a more localized nature. Hydrogen is an extreme example of this form of condensation. At high pressures it is a metal. The core of the planet Jupiter could be said to be held together by a combination of metallic bonding and high pressure induced by gravity. At lower pressures however the bonding becomes entirely localized into a regular covalent bond. The localization is so complete that the (more familiar) H2 gas results. A similar argument holds for an element like boron. Though it is electron deficient compared to carbon, it does not form a metal. Instead it has a number of complicated structures in which icosahedral B12 clusters dominate. Charge density waves are a related phenomenon. As these phenomena involve the movement of the atoms towards or away from each other, they can be interpreted as the coupling between the electronic and the vibrational states (i.e. the phonons) of the material. A different such electron-phonon interaction is thought to cause a very different result at low temperatures, that of superconductivity. Rather than blocking the mobility of the charge carriers by forming electron pairs in localized bonds, Cooper-pairs are formed that no longer experience any resistance to their mobility. Optical properties The presence of a ocean of mobile charge carriers has profound effects on the optical properties of metals. They can only be understood by considering the electrons as a collective rather than considering the states of individual electrons involved in more conventional covalent bonds. Light consists of a combination of an electrical and a magnetic field. The electrical field is usually able to excite an elastic response from the electrons involved in the metallic bonding. The result is that photons are not able to penetrate very far into the metal and are typically reflected. They bounce off, although some may also be absorbed. This holds equally for all photons of the visible spectrum, which is why metals are often silvery white or grayish with the characteristic specular reflection of metallic lustre. The balance between reflection and absorption determines how white or how gray they are, although surface tarnish can obscure such observations. Silver, a very good metal with high conductivity is one of the whitest. Notable exceptions are reddish copper and yellowish gold. The reason for their color is that there is an upper limit to the frequency of the light that metallic electrons can readily respond to, it is known as the plasmon frequency. For light that oscillates much faster than this limit the material becomes transparent: the charge carriers are simply too sluggish to follow the rapidly oscillating photons and let them pass unhindered. There are some materials like indium tin oxide (ITO) that are metallic conductors (actually degenerate semiconductors) for which this threshold is in the infrared Indium Tin Oxide Plasma Frequency Dependence on Sheet Resistance and Surface Adlayers Determined by Reflectance FTIR Spectroscopy Scott H. Brewer and Stefan Franzen* J. Phys. Chem. B, 106 (50), 12986 -12992, 2002. which is why they are transparent in the visible, but good mirrors in the IR. For silver the limiting frequency is in the far UV, but for copper and gold it is closer to the visible. This explains the colors of these two metals. At the surface of a metal resonance effects known as surface plasmons can result. They are collective oscillations of the conduction electrons like a ripple in the electronic ocean. However, even if photons have enough energy they usually do not have enough momentum to set the ripple in motion. Therefore, plasmons are hard to excite on a bulk metal. This is why gold and copper still look like lustrous metals albeit with a dash of color. However, in colloidal gold the metallic bonding is confined to a tiny metallic particle preventing the oscillation wave of the plasmon to 'run away'. The momentum selection rule is therefore broken and the plasmon resonance causes an extremely intense absorption in the green and a beautiful wine-red color. These colors are orders of magnitude more intense than ordinary absorptions seen in dyes and the like that involve individual electrons and their energy states. See also Metal aromaticity References

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Binomial_theorem

Pascal's triangle. Also called Tartaglia's triangle, and Yang Hui's Triangle, after others who invented the triangle. In mathematics, the binomial theorem is an important formula giving the expansion of powers of sums. Its simplest version states that for any real or complex numbers x and y, and any non-negative integer n. The binomial coefficient appearing in (1) may be defined in terms of the factorial function n!: Examples Taking n to be 2, 3, 4, or 5 in the binomial theorem yields Combinatorial proof Example The coefficient of in equals because there are three x,y strings of length 3 with exactly two y'''s, namely, corresponding to the three 2-element subsets of , namely, where each subset specifies the positions of the y in a corresponding string. General case Expanding yields the sum of the products of the form where each is x or y. Rearranging factors shows that each product equals for some k between 0 and n. For a given k, the following are proved equal in succession: the number of copies of in the expansion the number of n-character x,y strings having y in exactly k positions the number of k-element subsets of (this is either by definition, or by a short combinatorial argument if one is defining as ). This proves the binomial theorem. Inductive proof Another way to prove the binomial theorem (1) is with mathematical induction. When n = 0, we have For the inductive step, assume the theorem holds when the exponent is m. Then for n = m + 1 by the inductive hypothesis by multiplying through by a and bby pulling out the k = 0 term by letting j = k − 1 by pulling out the k = m + 1 term from the right hand side by combining the sums from Pascal's rule by adding in the 0 and m + 1 terms. A quick way to expand binomials To quickly expand binomials of the form The first term is (this follows directly from the generalized binomial theorem) and the coefficient of each subsequent term is the current coefficient multiplied by the current exponent of x, divided by the current term number. Exponents of x decrease each term, while exponents of y increase each term (from 0 in the first term) until the exponent of x is 0 and that of y is n. Example: The first term is To find the coefficient of the second term, multiply 1 (the current coefficient) by 10 (the current exponent of x), and divide by the current term number (1, since this is the first term) to get 10. The exponent of x decrements, and the exponent of y increments. The next term is therefore Similarly, the next coefficient is (10×9)/(2×1), which gives 45. After that, it is (10×9×8)/(3×2×1). This continues until (10×9×8×7×6)/(5×4×3×2×1), after which, the coefficients are symmetrical. The whole thing is Notice that the coefficients are perfectly symmetrical. This will happen when the coefficients of x and y within the parentheses of the original expression are the same. Recognizing this can save even more time. More formally, given a term The next term in the binomial is If the original expression instead was then the resulting expansion would be the same, except with (2x) in place of x in every place. The factor of 2 must get raised to the power of x in each term. The same holds true if either x or y is raised to a power inside the parentheses of the original expression. Newton's generalized binomial theorem Around 1665, Isaac Newton generalized the formula to allow exponents other than nonnegative integers. In this generalization, the finite sum is replaced by an infinite series. Namely, if x and y are real numbers with x > |y|, This is to guarantee convergence. Depending on r, the series may also converge sometimes when |x| = |y|. and r is any complex number, then When r is a nonnegative integer, the binomial coefficients for k > r are zero, so (2) specializes to (1), and there are at most r+1 nonzero terms. For other values of r, the series (2) has an infinite number of nonzero terms, at least if x and y are nonzero. The coefficients can also be written where is the Pochhammer symbol. This is important when one is working with infinite series and would like to represent them in terms of generalized hypergeometric functions. This form is used in applied mathematics, for example, when evaluating the formulas that model the statistical properties of the phase-front curvature of a light wave as it propagates through optical atmospheric turbulence. Taking r = −s leads to a particularly handy but non-obvious formula: Further specializing to s = 1 yields the geometric series formula. Generalizations Formula (2) can be generalized to the case where x and y are complex numbers. For this version, one should assume |x| > |y| and define the powers of x + y and x using a holomorphic branch of log defined on an open disk of radius |x| centered at x. Formula (2) is valid also for elements x and y of a Banach algebra as long as xy = yx, x is invertible, and ||y/x|| < 1. For a more extensive account of Newton's generalized binomial theorem, see binomial series. The binomial theorem in abstract algebra Formula (1) is valid more generally for any elements x and y of a semiring satisfying xy = yx. The theorem is true even more generally: alternativity suffices in place of associativity. The binomial theorem can be stated by saying that the polynomial sequence is of binomial type. Binomial number A binomial number is a number in the form of (for n at least 2). When the sign is minus or n is odd these binomial numbers can be factored algebraically: Examples: To factor simply, use History This formula and the triangular arrangement of the binomial coefficients are often attributed to Blaise Pascal, who described them in the 17th century, but they were known to many mathematicians who preceded him. The 4th century B.C. Greek mathematician Euclid knew a special case of the binomial theorem up to the second order, Binomial Theorem The Story of the Binomial Theorem, by J. L. Coolidge, The American Mathematical Monthly 56:3 (1949), pp. 147–157 as did the 3rd century B.C. Indian mathematician Pingala to higher orders. A more general binomial theorem and the so-called "Pascal's triangle" were known to the 10th-century A.D. Indian mathematician Halayudha, the 11th-century A.D. Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám, and 13th-century Chinese mathematician Yang Hui, who all derived similar results. The binomial theorem in popular culture In the Sherlock Holmes books, the villain Professor Moriarty is the author of A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem. The binomial theorem is mentioned in the Gilbert and Sullivan song "I am the Very Model of a Modern Major General". The binomial theorem appears in at least three different works by Monty Python - Coal Mine in Llandarogh Carmarthen, The Tale of Happy Valley, and the film Monty Python's The Meaning of Life. The binomial theorem is mentioned in the TV series NUMB3RS in episode #217 ("Mind Games") in Season 2. Contrary to popular belief, the generalized binomial theorem is not engraved on Isaac Newton's tomb in Westminster Abbey. In chapter 18 of Mikhail Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita", the black magic practitioner Woland says, "But by Newton's binomial theorem, I predict that he will die in nine month's time..." From this, "it's hardly Newton's binomial theorem" became a popular Russian expression. There is a short poem by Álvaro de Campos, heteronym of the Portuguese writer Fernando Pessoa about the binomial theorem that roughly translates into: "Newton's binomial is as beautiful as the Venus de Milo. The truth is few people notice it." In record 5 of Yevgeny Zamyatin's We'', the protagonist D-503 says, "...to me it's nothing more than the four equal angles, but for you that might be, I don't know, as tough as Newton's binomial theorem." See also Binomial distribution Binomial probability Binomial inverse theorem Binomial series Combination Stirling's approximation Multinomial theorem Negative binomial distribution Pascal's triangle Notes References Amulya Kumar Bag. Binomial Theorem in Ancient India. Indian J.History Sci.,1:68-74,1966. External links Binomial Theorem by Stephen Wolfram, and "Binomial Theorem (Step-by-Step)" by Bruce Colletti and Jeff Bryant, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.

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Battle_of_Peleliu

The Battle of Peleliu, codenamed Operation Stalemate II, was fought between the United States and Japan in the Pacific Theater of World War II, taking place between September and November 1944 on the island of Peleliu. The U.S. Forces, originally consisting of only the 1st Marine Division, later relieved by the Army's 81st Infantry Division, fought to capture an airstrip on the small coral island. U.S. Major General William Rupertus, commander of 1st Marine Division, predicted that the island would be secured within four days, but due to Japan's well-crafted fortifications and stiff resistance, the battle lasted for over two months. The battle remains one of the war's most controversial, due to its questionable strategic value and high death toll. When considering the number of men involved, Peleliu had the highest casualty rate of any battle in the Pacific War. Military History Online - Bloody Peleliu: Unavoidable Yet Unnecessary Background By the summer of 1944, victories in the Southwest and Central Pacific had brought the war even closer to Japan, with American bombers able to strike at the Japanese homeland. But there was disagreement by the U.S. Joint Chiefs over two proposed strategies to crush the Japanese Empire. One strategy proposed by General Douglas MacArthur called for the recapture of the Philippines, followed by the capture of Okinawa for an attack at the Japanese mainland. From there, the eventual invasion of Japan would come. Admiral Chester Nimitz, on the other hand, favored a more direct strategy of bypassing the Philippines, but seizing Okinawa and Formosa as staging areas to an attack on the Chinese mainland as well as the future invasion of Japan's southernmost islands. As for Peleliu, both commanders' strategies included the invasion of this island, but for different reasons, and the 1st Marine Division had already been chosen to make the assault. To settle this dispute, President Franklin D. Roosevelt traveled to Pearl Harbor to personally meet both commanders and hear their respective arguments. After a review of both positions, MacArthur's strategy was chosen. However, before MacArthur could retake the Philippines, the Palau Islands, Peleliu and Angaur specifically, were thought to be necessary for neutralization and building an airfield to protect his right flank. The necessity of the battle was called into question even before the battle commenced and was later considered to be entirely unnecessary. Preparations Japanese By the summer of 1944, the Palau Islands were occupied by approximately 30,000 Japanese troops, with around 11,000 men on Peleliu, made up of the 14th Infantry Division, and Korean and Okinawan laborers. Colonel Kunio Nakagawa, commander of the Division's 2nd Regiment, led the preparations for the island's defense. After their losses in the Solomons, Gilberts, Marshalls and Marianas, the Imperial Army put together an anti-amphibious research team to form a new island defense strategy. They chose to abandon their early beach-based perimeter defense tactics and reckless Banzai attacks. Their new strategy was to only disrupt the landings, form a "honeycomb" system of fortified positions inland, replace the fruitless banzai attacks with coordinated counterattacks, with the intent of bleeding out the Americans in a bloody, drawn-out war of attrition. Nakagawa concentrated his defenses inland, using the rough terrain to advantage, constructing a system of heavily fortified bunkers, caves and underground positions. Japanese fortifications The majority of Nakagawa's defenses were based at Peleliu's highest point, Umurbrogol mountain, a collection of hills and steep ridges. Located at the center of Peleliu, Umurbrogol overlooked a large portion of the island, including the crucial airfield. The Umurbrogol contained some 500 limestone caves, connected by tunnels. Many were former mining caverns that were militarized into defense positions. Engineers added sliding steel armor doors with multiple openings to equip both artillery and machine guns. The Japanese dug and blasted other positions of varying sizes throughout Umurbrogol, armed with 81 mm and 150 mm mortars, and 20 mm machine cannon, and backed by a light tank unit and an anti-aircraft detachment. The Japanese cave entrances were built slanted, to defend against grenade and flamethrower attacks. These caves and bunkers were connected through a vast system spread throughout central Peleliu, allowing the Japanese to evacuate and reoccupy the positions as needed, and take advantage of shrinking interior lines. On the beaches, the Japanese again used terrain to their advantage. The northern end of the landing beaches faced a coral promontory which overlooked the beaches from a small peninsula, a spot later known to the Americans simply as "The Point". Holes were blasted into the ridge to accommodate a 47 mm gun, and six 20 mm machine cannons. The positions were then sealed shut, leaving just a small firing slit with which to assault the beaches. Similar positions were crafted along the two mile (3 km) stretch of landing beaches. The Japanese covered the beaches with thousands of obstacles for the landing craft, mainly mines and a large number of heavy shells, buried with the fuses exposed to explode upon being run over. A battalion was placed along the beach to defend against the landing, however, the defenses on the beach were meant to simply delay the American advance, eventually leading them inland to be mauled along the fortified ridges and hills. American American Marines in combat. Unlike the Japanese, who drastically altered their tactics for the upcoming battle, the American's invasion plan was practically unaltered from their previous amphibious landings throughout the Pacific. They chose to land on the southwest beaches, due to its proximity to the airfield on South Peleliu. The 1st Marine Regiment, under Chesty Puller, was to land on the northern end of the beaches, the 5th Marine Regiment, under Harold "Bucky" Harris, would land in the center, and the 7th Marine Regiment, under Herman Hanneken, would land at the southern end. The division's artillery regiment, the 11th Marines, would land after the infantry regiments. The plan was for the 1st and 7th Regiments to push inland, guarding the 5th Regiment's left and right flank, allowing them to capture the airfield located directly to the center of the landing beaches. The 5th Marines were to push to the eastern shore, cutting the island in half. The 1st Marines would push north into the Umurbrogol, while the 7th Marines would clear the southern end of the island. Only one battalion was left behind in reserve, with the 81st Infantry available for support from Angaur, just south of Peleliu. On September 4, the Marines shipped off from their station on Pavuvu, just north of Guadalcanal, a trip across the Pacific to Peleliu. The Navy's Underwater Demolition Team went to work clearing the beaches of its obstacles, while the Navy began their pre-invasion bombardment of Peleliu on September 12. The battleships , , , and , heavy cruisers , , , and , light cruisers , and , three carriers, and five light carriers dropped 519 rounds of shells, 1,845 rounds of shells, 1,793 500-pound bombs, and 73,412 .50 caliber bullets onto the tiny island, only six square miles in size. The Americans believed the bombardment to be successful, as Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf claimed that the Navy had run out of targets. In reality, the majority of the Japanese positions were completely unharmed. Even the battalion left to defend the beaches were virtually unscathed. During the assault, the island's defenders used unusual firing discipline to avoid giving away their positions. The bombardment managed only to destroy Japan's aircraft on the island, as well as the buildings surrounding the airfield. The Japanese remained in their fortified positions, ready to attack the troops soon to be landing. Battle Landing The first wave of LVTs approach the beaches The Marines landed at 0832 on September 15, the 1st Marines to the north on "White Beach", and the 5th and 7th Marines to the center and south on "Orange Beach". As the landing craft approached the beaches, the Japanese opened the steel doors guarding their positions and let loose with heavy artillery fire. The positions on the coral promontories guarding each flank punished the Marines with 47 mm antiboat guns and 20 mm machine guns. "The first 3 waves got in good, the remaining waves caught hell." Statement made by Pfc. Marcel (Sal) M. Baldinger of the 1053rd Platoon, 3rd Battalion, 5th Marines, 1st Marine Division who landed in the first wave on "Orange Beach" By 0930, the Japanese had wiped out 60 LVT's and DUKW's. The 1st Marines were quickly bogged down by heavy fire from "The Point". Commander Chesty Puller narrowly escaped death when a high velocity shell landed a direct hit on his LVT. His entire communications section had been wiped out on its way to the beach by an identical hit from a 47 mm round. The 7th Marines to the south faced similar problems with gun emplacements on their flank. Many of their LVT's were knocked out in their approach, leaving their occupants to wade ashore through the coral reef in chest-deep or higher water while being raked by Japanese machine guns; casualties were horrific and many who did make it to the beach alive had lost their rifles and other essential gear. The 5th Marines made the most progress on D-Day, due to their distance from the heavy gun emplacements guarding the left and right flanks. They pushed forward toward the airfield, but were met with Nakagawa's first counterattack. His armored tank company raced across the airfield to push the Marines back, but were soon assaulted by every available tank, howitzer, Naval gun and dive bomber. Nakagawa's inefficient tanks were quickly wiped out, along with its accompanying infantrymen. At the end of D-Day, the Americans held their two mile (3 km) stretch of landing beaches, but little else. Their biggest push in the south managed to move a mile inland, but the 1st Marines to the north made very little progress due to the relentless attacks from The Point. The Marines had suffered 1,100 casualties on D-Day, with around 200 dead, and 900 wounded. Rupertus had believed the Japanese would quickly crumble since their perimeter had been broken, still unaware of their enemy's change of tactics. The airfield/South Peleliu A wounded Marine gets a drink from another Marine On D+1, the 5th Marines moved to capture the airfield and push toward the eastern shore. They quickly raced across the airfield under heavy artillery fire from the highlands to the north, suffering heavy casualties in the process. After capturing the airfield, they rapidly advanced to the eastern end of Peleliu, leaving the island's southern defenders to be wiped out by the 7th Marines. This area was hotly contested by the Japanese, who still occupied numerous pillboxes. Temperatures remained around 115°F (46°C), and the Marines soon suffered high casualties from heat exhaustion. Further complicating their situation, the Marines' only available water supply was contaminated with oil. Still, by D+8 the 5th and 7th Marines accomplished their objectives, holding the airfield and the southern portion of the island. Having quickly captured the airfield, the U.S. Forces put it to use as early as D+3. The "Grasshoppers" (VMO-1) soon began aerial spotting missions for Marine artillery and Naval gunfire. On September 26 (D+11), the Corsairs of the VMF-114 landed on the airstrip. The Corsairs began dive-bombing missions across Peleliu, and also brought two more useful weapons to the fight against Japanese fortifications. Corsairs fired rockets, to blow open cave entrances for the infantrymen, and also delivered napalm attacks—only the second time the weapon had been used in the Pacific. The napalm proved useful, burning away vegetation hiding spider holes, and killing their occupants. The Point Front line warning sign on Peleliu October 1944 The fortress atop The Point continued to cause heavy casualties across the landing beaches. Puller ordered Captain George Hunt, commander of K Company, 3rd Battalion, 1st Marines, to capture the position. He approached The Point short on supplies, having lost most of his machine guns while approaching the beaches. One of Hunt's platoons was pinned down for nearly an entire day in a vulnerable position between fortifications. The rest of his company was also in extreme danger after the Japanese cut a hole in their line, leaving his right flank cut off. Soon, a rifle platoon began knocking out each Japanese gun position, one by one. Using smoke grenades for cover, they swept through each hole, destroying the positions with rifle grenades. After knocking out the six machine gun positions, the Marines faced the 47 mm gun cave. A company lieutenant blinded the 47 mm gunner with a smoke grenade, allowing a corporal to throw a grenade through the cave's aperture. The grenade detonated the 47 mm's shells, forcing the cave's occupants out, where they were all shot. K Company had captured The Point, but Nakagawa sent counterattack after counterattack to recapture the valuable piece of terrain. The next thirty hours saw four major counterattacks against a sole company, critically low on supplies and out of water. The Marines soon had to resort to hand-to-hand combat to fend off the Japanese attackers. By the time reinforcements arrived, the company had been reduced to 18 men, suffering 157 casualties during the battle for The Point. Ngesebus Island The 5th Marines, after having secured the airfield, were sent to capture Ngesebus Island, just north of Peleliu. Ngesebus was occupied by many Japanese artillery positions, and was the site of an airfield still under construction. The tiny island was connected to Peleliu by a small causeway, but 5th Marines commander Bucky Harris opted instead to make a shore-to-shore amphibious landing, predicting the causeway to be an obvious target for the island's defenders. Harris coordinated a pre-landing bombardment of the island on September 28, carried out by Army 150 mm guns, Naval gunfire, howitzers from the 11th Marines, strafing runs from the VMF-114, and 75 mm fire from the approaching LVT's. Unlike the Navy's bombardment of Peleliu, Harris' assault on Ngesebus was highly successful, neutralizing the majority of the Japanese defenders. The Marines still faced opposition in the ridges and caves, but the island quickly fell, with minimal casualties for the 5th Marines. They had suffered only 15 killed and 33 wounded, and inflicted 470 casualties on the Japanese. Bloody Nose Ridge A Corsair drops napalm on Japanese positions atop Umurbrogol After capturing The Point, the 1st Marines moved north into the Umurbrogol pocket, named "Bloody Nose Ridge" by the Marines. Puller led his men in numerous assaults, but every attack was quickly neutralized by the Japanese. The 1st Marines were trapped within the narrow paths between the ridges, with each ridge fortification supporting the other with deadly crossfire. The Marines took increasingly high casualties as they slowly advanced through the ridges. The Japanese again showed unusual firing discipline, striking only when they could inflict mass casualties. As casualties mounted, Japanese snipers began to take aim at stretcher bearers, knowing that if two stretcher bearers were injured or killed, more would have to return to replace them, and the snipers could steadily pick off more and more Marines. In place of their banzai attacks, the Japanese would infiltrate the American lines at night to attack the Marines in their foxholes. The Marines built two-man foxholes, so one could sleep while the other kept watch for infiltrators. One particularly bloody battle on Bloody Nose came when the 1st Battalion, 1st Marines, under the command of Major Raymond Davis, attacked Hill 100. Over six days of fighting, the battalion would suffer 71% casualties. Captain Everett Pope and his company penetrated deep into the ridges, leading his remaining 90 men to seize what he thought was Hill 100. It took an entire day of bloody fighting to reach what he thought was the crest of the hill, but ending up being the nose of yet another ridge, occupied by more Japanese defenders. Trapped at the base of the ridge, Pope set up a small defense perimeter, which was attacked relentlessly by the Japanese throughout the night. The men soon ran out of bullets, and had to fight the attackers off with knives and fists, even resorting to throwing coral rock and empty boxes of ammunition at the Japanese. Pope and his men managed to hold out until dawn. When they evacuated the position, only 9 men remained. Pope would receive the Medal of Honor for his actions. Two marines rest during mopping up operations on Peleliu The Japanese eventually inflicted 60% casualties on Puller's 1st Marines, who lost 1749 out of approximately 3000 men. After six days of deadly fighting in the ridges of Umurbrogol, General Roy Geiger, commander of the III Amphibious Corps, sent elements of 81st Infantry Division to Peleliu to relieve the regiment. The 321st Regiment Combat Team landed on the western beaches of Peleliu, at the northern end of Umurbrogol mountain, on September 23. The 321st Regiment, and the 5th and 7th Marines all took their turn attacking the Umurbrogol, and all suffered similar casualties. By mid-October, the 5th and 7th Marines both lost around half their men while clawing their way through the ridges. Geiger then decided to evacuate the entire 1st Marine Division, to be replaced by more 81st troops. The 323rd Regimental Combat Team landed on October 15, and by the third week of October, most all of the Marines had been evacuated back to Pavuvu. The Army troops headed off to battle the remaining Japanese on Bloody Nose Ridge, fighting it out for another month before finally securing the island. At the end Nakagawa proclaimed "Our sword is broken and we have run out of spears". He then burnt his regimental colors and committed ritual suicide. He was posthumously promoted to Lieutenant General for his valor displayed on Peleliu. Aftermath Marines in a hospital on Guadalcanal after being wounded in the Battle of Peleliu The reduction of the Japanese pocket around Umurbrogol mountain is considered to be the most difficult fight that the U.S. military encountered in the entire Second World War. The 1st Marine Division was severely mauled and it remained out of action until the invasion of Okinawa on April 1, 1945. In total the 1st Division suffered over 6500 casualties during their month on Peleliu, over a third of their entire division. The 81st Infantry Division suffered over 3000 casualties during their tenure on the island. The battle was controversial due to its lack of strategic value. The airfield captured on Peleliu was of little use for the attack on the Philippines. The island was never used for a staging operation in subsequent invasions; the Ulithi Atoll, in the Caroline Islands north of the Palaus, was used as a staging base for the invasion of Okinawa. In addition, few news reports were made on the battle. Due to Rupertus' "3 days" prediction, only six reporters bothered coming ashore. The battle was overshadowed by MacArthur's return to the Philippines and the Allies push towards Germany in Europe. It was said the only useful aspect of the battle was the experience gained in battling the heavily fortified positions across the island. Japan would use these tactics with even greater success at Iwo Jima and Okinawa, inflicting the worst casualties of the Pacific War on the Marines and soldiers. On the recommendation of Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr., the planned occupation of Yap Island in the Palaus was cancelled. Halsey actually recommended that the landings on Peleliu and Angaur be cancelled, too, and their Marines and soldiers be thrown into Leyte Island instead. But Halsey was overruled by Nimitz. Honors and recognitions The nation's highest award: The Medal of Honor was presented to eight Marines in the fight for Peleliu, five of whom were decorated posthumously (indicated by *): *Corporal Lewis K. Bausell, 1st Battalion 5th Marines (1/5) Private First Class Arthur J. Jackson, 3rd Battalion 7th Marines (3/7) *Private First Class Richard E. Kraus, 8th Amphibian Tractor Battalion *Private First Class John D. New, 2nd Battalion 7th Marines (2/7) *Private First Class Wesley Phelps, 3rd Battalion 7th Marines (3/7) Captain Everett P. Pope, USMC, 1st Battalion 1st Marines (1/1) *Private First Class Charles H. Roan, 2nd Battalion 7th Marines (2/7) First Lieutenant Carlton R. Rouh, 1st Battalion 5th Marines (1/5) See also USS Peleliu, an amphibious assault ship named in memory of the battle. Damien Parer, Australian war photographer killed on September 17th filming a Marine advance. http://www.ww2australia.gov.au/farflung/parer.html Parer's last reel With the Old Breed, a memoir of the battle written by Eugene Sledge. Notes References Further reading External links

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Determinant

In algebra, a determinant is a function depending on n that associates a scalar, det(A), to an n×n square matrix A. The fundamental geometric meaning of a determinant is a scale factor for measure when A is regarded as a linear transformation. Determinants are important both in calculus, where they enter the substitution rule for several variables, and in multilinear algebra. For a fixed nonnegative integer n, there is a unique determinant function for the n×n matrices over any commutative ring R. In particular, this function exists when R is the field of real or complex numbers. Definition The determinant is a number associated to any square matrix, that is to say, a rectangular array of numbers, such that the (finite) number of rows and columns are equal. The definition of determinants of matrices will first be given for low-dimensional cases: the determinant of an 1-by-1 matrix A is the only entry of that matrix: det(A) = A11. The case of 2-by-2 and 3-by-3 matrices will be expounded below. These definitions are then subsumed in a general definition, valid for all n-by-n matrices. Some authors also define determinants of 0-by-0 matrices. There is only one 0-by-0 matrix and its determinant is one. See . The determinant of a matrix A, is denoted det(A) or |A|. It is also common to denote the determinant with elongated vertical bars: 2-by-2 matrices The area of the parallelogram is the absolute value of the determinant of the matrix formed by the vectors representing the parallelogram's sides. The 2×2 matrix has determinant det A = ad − bc. A matrix with real number entries also produces a representation of the oriented area of the parallelogram with vertices at (0,0), (a,b), (a + c, b + d), and (c,d). The oriented area is the same as the usual area, except that it is negative when the vertices are listed in clockwise order. The assumption here is that a linear transformation is applied to row vectors as the vector-matrix product , where is a column vector. The parallelogram in the figure is obtained by multiplying matrix A (which stores the co-ordinates of our parallelogram) with each of the row vectors and in turn. These row vectors define the vertices of the unit square. With the more common matrix-vector product the parallelogram has vertices at and (note that ). Thus when the determinant is equal to one, then the matrix represents an equi-areal mapping. 3-by-3 matrices The volume of this Parallelepiped is the absolute value of the determinant of the matrix formed by the rows r1, r2, and r3. The determinant of a 3×3 matrix is given by det (A) = aei − afh − bdi + bfg + cdh − ceg. The determinant of a 3x3 matrix can be calculated by its diagonals. The rule of Sarrus is a mnemonic for this formula: the sum of the products of three diagonal north-west to south-east lines of matrix elements, minus the sum of the products of three diagonal south-west to north-east lines of elements when the copies of the first two columns of the matrix are written beside it as below: This mnemonic does not carry over into higher dimensions. n-by-n matrices The determinant of a matrix of arbitrary size can be defined by the Leibniz formula (as explained in the next paragraph) or the Laplace formula (as explained at the end of the Properties section). The Leibniz formula for the determinant of an n-by-n matrix A is Here the sum is computed over all permutations σ of the numbers A permutation is a function that reorders this set of integers. For example, for n = 3, the original sequence 1, 2, 3 might be reordered to 2, 3, 1 or 3, 2, 1. It is a basic fact of combinatorics that there are n! = 1 · 2 · 3 · ... · n (n factorial) such permutations. The set of all such permutations is denoted Sn. To any such permutation σ one attaches the signature σ, it is +1 for even and −1 for odd permutations. Evenness or oddness can be defined as follows: the permutation is even (odd) if the new sequence can be obtained by an even number (odd, respectively) of switches of adjacent numbers. For example, starting from 1, 2, 3 and switching once one gets 1, 3, 2, switching once more yields 3, 1, 2, and finally, after a total of three (an odd number) switches, one gets 3, 2, 1. Therefore this permutation is odd. The permutation 2, 3, 1 is even (1, 2, 3 → 2, 1, 3 → 2, 3, 1, two switches). In any of the n factorial summands, the term is a shorthand for the product over the indicated matrix entries, where i ranges from 1 to n, or equivalently A1,σ(1) · A2,σ(2) · ... · An,σ(n). For small matrices, one gets back the formulae given in the previous sections. The formal extension to arbitrary dimensions was made by Levi-Civita, using a pseudo-tensor symbol (Levi-Civita symbol). An alternative, but equivalent definition of the determinant can be obtained by using the following theorem: Let Mn(K) denote the set of all matrices over the field K. There exists exactly one function with the two properties: is alternating multilinear with regard to columns; . One can then define the determinant as the unique function with the above properties. Applications Determinants are used to characterize invertible matrices (i.e., a matrix is invertible if and only if it has a non-zero determinant), and to explicitly describe the solution to a system of linear equations with Cramer's rule. This rule is denoted where the matrix is the matrix formed by the insertion of the solution column vector in the system of linear equations. They can be used to find the eigenvalues of the matrix A through the characteristic polynomial where I is the identity matrix of the same dimension as A. One often thinks of the determinant as assigning a number to every sequence of vectors in , by using the square matrix whose columns are the given vectors. With this understanding, the sign of the determinant of a basis can be used to define the notion of orientation in Euclidean spaces. The determinant of a set of vectors is positive if the vectors form a right-handed coordinate system, and negative if left-handed. Determinants are used to calculate volumes in vector calculus: the absolute value of the determinant of real vectors is equal to the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by those vectors. As a consequence, if the linear map is represented by the matrix A, and is any measurable subset of , then the volume of is given by . More generally, if the linear map is represented by the -by- matrix A, and is any measurable subset of , then the -dimensional volume of is given by . By calculating the volume of the tetrahedron bounded by four points, they can be used to identify skew lines. The volume of any tetrahedron, given its vertices a, b, c, and d, is (1/6)·|det(a − b, b − c, c − d)|, or any other combination of pairs of vertices that form a simply connected graph. Properties characterizing the determinant In addition to the Leibniz formula above, there is another way of calculating determinants of matrices. It is based on the following properties of determinants: If A is a triangular matrix, i.e. Ai,j = 0 whenever i > j or, alternatively, whenever i < j, then , the product of the diagonal entries of A. This is because, for triangular matrices, the product , for any permutation σ different from the identity permutation (the one not changing the order of the numbers 1, 2, ..., n) If B results from A by interchanging two rows or columns, then det(B) = −det(A). If B results from A by multiplying one row or column with a number c, then det(B) = c · det(A). If B results from A by adding a multiple of one row to another row, or a multiple of one column to another column, then These four properties can be used to compute determinants of any matrix, using Gaussian elimination. This is an algorithm that transforms any given matrix to a triangular matrix, only by using the operations in the last three items. Since the effect of these operations on the determinant can be traced, the determinant of the original matrix is known, once Gaussian elimination is performed. It is also possible to expand a determinant along a row or column using Laplace's formula, which is efficient for relatively small matrices. To do this along row , say, we write where the represent the matrix cofactors, i.e. is times the minor , which is the determinant of the matrix that results from A by removing the -th row and the -th column, and is the length of the matrix. Example The following compares various ways of calculating the determinant of the three-by-three matrix Method CalculationRule of Sarrus Laplace expansion, along the second column (for ease of calculation, it is best to choose a row or column with many zeros) Gauss algorithm B is obtained from A by adding −1/2 × the first row to the second, so that det(A) = det(B) C is obtained from B by adding the first to the third row, so that det(C) = det(B) D is gotten from C by exchanging the second and third row, so that det(D) = −det(C) The determinant of the (upper) triangular matrix D is the product of its entries on the main diagonal: (−2) · 2 · 4.5 = −18. Therefore det(A) = +18. Further properties The determinant of the identity matrix is one. The determinant of an n-by-n matrix with rank less than n is zero. In the sequel, let A and B be any n-by-n matrices. The determinant is a multiplicative map in the sense that the determinant of a matrix product equals the product of the determinants of the factors: det(AB) = det(A)det(B). This property implies the properties characterizing the determinant above, since any transformation as above can be realized by multiplying the given matrix with a certain elementary matrix, whose determinants are also known. This product formula is generalized by the Cauchy-Binet formula to products of non-square matrices. A matrix over a commutative ring R is invertible if and only if its determinant is a unit in R. In particular, if A is a matrix over a field such as the real or complex numbers, then A is invertible if and only if det(A) is not zero. In this case det(A−1) = det(A)−1. An important implication of the previous properties is the following: if A and B are similar, i.e., if there exists an invertible matrix X such that A = X−1BX, then det(A) = det(X)−1det(BX) = det(X)−1det(B)det(X) = det(B)det(X)−1det(X) = det(B). This means that the determinant is a similarity invariant. Because of this, the determinant of some linear transformation T : V → V for some finite dimensional vector space V is independent of the basis for V. The relationship is one-way, however: there exist matrices which have the same determinant but are not similar. Multiplying a matrix by r a number affects the determinant as follows: det(rA) = rndet(A). If A contains a zero row (or column), then det(A) = 0 If A contains two identical rows (or columns), then det(A) = 0 If A is triangular, then det(A) = a11 · a22 · ... · ann Expressed differently: the vectors v1,...,vn in Rn form a basis if and only if det(v1,...,vn) is non-zero. A matrix and its transpose have the same determinant: det(AT) = det(A). The determinants of a complex matrix and of its conjugate transpose are conjugate: det(A∗) = det(A)∗. This generalizes the previous property since the conjugate transpose is identical to the transpose for a real matrix. If A is a square n-by-n matrix with real or complex entries and if λ1, ..., λn are the (complex) eigenvalues of A listed according to their algebraic multiplicities, then This follows by putting λ=0 in the characteristic polynomial det(λI−A). Recall that det(−A) = (−1)ndet(A) and that the constant term in a polynomial equals (−1)n times the product of its zeros counting multiplicities. (Also see Jordan normal form.) Theorem: Let B be obtained from A by an elementary row (column) operation, then 1) If two rows (or columns) were switched, then 2) If a row (or column) of A was multiplied by a number , then 3) If a multiplie of a row (or column) was added to another row(or column), then Sylvester's determinant theorem Sylvester's determinant theorem states that for any m-by-n matrices A and B, det(Idm + ABT) = det (Idn + BT·A). For the case of column vectors a and b, i.e., m×1-matrices, this reads det(Idm + a·bT) = 1 + bT·a. More generally, for any invertible m-by-m matrix X, det(X + abT) = det (X) (1 + bT·X−1·a). Proofs can be found in http://web.archive.org/web/20080113084601/http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/hp/staff/www/matrix/proof003.html Block matrices Suppose A, B, C, and D are n×n-, n×m-, m×n-, and m×m-matrices, respectively. Then This can be seen from the Leibniz formula or by induction on n. Employing the following identity leads to A similar identity with factored out can be derived analogously. These identities were taken http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/hp/staff/dmb/matrix/proof003.html Relationship to trace From this connection between the determinant and the eigenvalues, one can derive a connection between the trace function, the matrix exponential function, and the determinant: det(exp(A)) = exp(tr(A)). Under the substitution A ↦ log (A), the matrix logarithm of A,the above equation yields det(A) = exp(tr(log(A))), which is closely related to the Fredholm determinant. Similarly, tr(A) = log(det(exp(A))). For low n, these read: det(A) = tr(A) for n=1; det(A) = 1/2 (tr(A)2 − tr(A2)); and for n=3: det(A) = 1/6 (tr(A)3 − 3 tr(A) tr(A)2 + 2 tr(A3)). They are closely related to Newton's identities. Derivative By definition, e.g., using the Leibniz formula, the determinant of real (or analogously for complex) square matrices is a polynomial function from Rn×n to R. As such it is everywhere differentiable. Its derivative can be expressed using Jacobi's formula: d det(A) = tr(adj(A) dA) where adj(A) denotes the adjugate of A. In particular, if A is invertible, we have d det(A) = det(A) tr(A−1 dA). Expressed in terms of the entries of A, these are Yet another equivalent formulation is det (A + εX) − det(A) = tr(adj(A)X)) ε + O(ε2) = det(A) tr(A−1X) ε + O(ε2), using big O notation. The special case where A = Id, the identity matrix, yields det (Id + εX) = 1 + tr(X) ε + O(ε2) = det(A) tr(A−1X) ε + O(ε2). This identity is used in describing the tangent space of certain matrix Lie groups. A useful property in the case of 3 x 3 matrices is the following: A may be written as where , , are vectors, then the gradient over one of the three vectors may be written as the cross product of the other two: Abstract formulation An n × n square matrix A may be thought of as the coordinate representation of a linear transformation of an n-dimensional vector space V. Given any linear transformation A: V → V, we can define the determinant of A as the determinant of any matrix representation of A. This is a well-defined notion (i.e. independent of a choice of basis) since the determinant is invariant under similarity transformations. The determinant of a linear transformation can be formulated in a coordinate-free manner, as follows: let V be n-dimensional vector space (with n finite). The n-th exterior power ΛnV is a one-dimensional vector space whose elements are written where each vi is a vector in V and the wedge product ∧ is antisymmetric (i.e., u ∧ v = − v ∧ u, so that in particular u ∧ u = 0). Any linear transformation A : V → V induces a linear transformation of ΛnV by v1 ∧ v2 ∧ ... ∧ vn ↦ Av1 ∧ Av2 ∧ ... ∧ Avn. Since ΛnV is one-dimensional this operation is just multiplication by some scalar that depends on A. This scalar is called the determinant of A. That is, det(A) is defined by the equation Av1 ∧ Av2 ∧ ... ∧ Avn = det(A) · v1 ∧ v2 ∧ ... ∧ vn To see that this definition agrees with the coordinate-dependent definition given above, one can use the characterization of the determinant given above: for example switching two columns changes the parity of the determinant; likewise, permuting the vectors in the exterior product v1 ∧ v2 ∧ ... ∧ vn to v2 ∧ v1 ∧ v3 ∧ ... ∧ vn, say, also alters the parity. Minors of a matrix can also be cast in this setting, by considering lower exterior products ΛkV with k < dim V. Algorithmic implementation The naive method of implementing an algorithm to compute the determinant is to use Laplace's formula for expansion by cofactors. This approach is extremely inefficient in general, however, as it is of order n! (n factorial) for an n×n matrix M. An improvement to order n3 can be achieved by using LU decomposition to write M = LU for triangular matrices L and U. Now, det M = det LU = det L det U, and since L and U are triangular the determinant of each is simply the product of its diagonal elements. Alternatively one can perform the Cholesky decomposition if possible or the QR decomposition and find the determinant in a similar fashion. If two matrices of order n can be multiplied in time M(n), where M(n)≥na for some a>2, then the determinant can be computed in time O(M(n)). J.R. Bunch and J.E. Hopcroft, Triangular factorization and inversion by fast matrix multiplication, Mathematics of Computation, 28 (1974) 231–236. This means, for example, that an O(n2.376) algorithm exists based on the Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm. Since the definition of the determinant does not need divisions, a question arises: do fast algorithms exist that do not need divisions? This is especially interesting for matrices over rings. Indeed algorithms with run-time proportional to n4 exist. An algorithm of Mahajan and Vinay, and Berkowitz is based on closed ordered walks (short clow). It computes more products than the determinant definition requires, but some of these products cancel and the sum of these products can be computed more efficiently. The final algorithm looks very much like an iterated product of triangular matrices. What is not often discussed is the so-called "bit complexity" of the problem, i.e. how many bits of accuracy you need to store for intermediate values. For example, using Gaussian elimination, you can reduce the matrix to upper triangular form, then multiply the main diagonal to get the determinant (this is essentially a special case of the LU decomposition as above), but a quick calculation will show that the bit size of intermediate values could potentially become exponential. One could talk about when it is appropriate to round intermediate values, but an elegant way of calculating the determinant uses the Bareiss Algorithm, an exact-division method based on Sylvester's identity to give a run time of order n3 and bit complexity roughly the bit size of the original entries in the matrix times n. History Historically, determinants were considered without reference to matrices: originally, a determinant was defined as a property of a system of linear equations. The determinant "determines" whether the system has a unique solution (which occurs precisely if the determinant is non-zero). In this sense, determinants were first used in the Chinese mathematics textbook The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art (九章算術, Chinese scholars, around the 3rd century BC). In Europe, two-by-two determinants were considered by Cardano at the end of the 16th century and larger ones by Leibniz and, in Japan, by Seki about 100 years later. Eves, H: "An Introduction to the History of Mathematics", pages 405, 493–494, Saunders College Publishing, 1990. In Japan, determinants were introduced to study elimination of variables in systems of higher-order algebraic equations. They used it to give short-hand representation for the resultant. After the first work by Seki in 1683, Laplace's formula was given by two independent groups of scholars: Tanaka, Iseki (算法発揮, Sampo-Hakki, published in 1690) and Seki, Takebe, Takebe (大成算経, taisei-sankei, written at least before 1710). However, doubts have been raised about how much they recognized the determinant as an independent object. In Europe, Cramer (1750) added to the theory, treating the subject in relation to sets of equations. The recurrent law was first announced by Bézout (1764). It was Vandermonde (1771) who first recognized determinants as independent functions. Campbell, H: "Linear Algebra With Applications", pages 111-112. Appleton Century Crofts, 1971 Laplace (1772) Expansion of determinants in terms of minors: Laplace, Pierre-Simon (de) "Researches sur le calcul intégral et sur le systéme du monde," Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences (Paris), seconde partie, pages 267-376 (1772). Muir, Sir Thomas, The Theory of Determinants in the Historical Order of Development [London, England: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1906]. gave the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors: Vandermonde had already given a special case. Immediately following, Lagrange (1773) treated determinants of the second and third order. Lagrange was the first to apply determinants to questions of elimination theory; he proved many special cases of general identities. Gauss (1801) made the next advance. Like Lagrange, he made much use of determinants in the theory of numbers. He introduced the word determinants (Laplace had used resultant), though not in the present signification, but rather as applied to the discriminant of a quantic. Gauss also arrived at the notion of reciprocal (inverse) determinants, and came very near the multiplication theorem. The next contributor of importance is Binet (1811, 1812), who formally stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of m columns and n rows, which for the special case of m = n reduces to the multiplication theorem. On the same day (November 30, 1812) that Binet presented his paper to the Academy, Cauchy also presented one on the subject. (See Cauchy-Binet formula.) In this he used the word determinant in its present sense, The first use of the word "determinant" in the modern sense appeared in: Cauchy, Augustin-Louis “Memoire sur les fonctions qui ne peuvent obtenir que deux valeurs égales et des signes contraires par suite des transpositions operées entre les variables qu'elles renferment," which was first read at the Institute de France in Paris on November 30, 1812, and which was subsequently published in the Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique, Cahier 17, Tome 10, pages 29-112 (1815). Origins of mathematical terms: http://jeff560.tripod.com/d.html summarized and simplified what was then known on the subject, improved the notation, and gave the multiplication theorem with a proof more satisfactory than Binet's. History of matrices and determinants: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Matrices_and_determinants.html With him begins the theory in its generality. The next important figure was Jacobi (from 1827). He early used the functional determinant which Sylvester later called the Jacobian, and in his memoirs in Crelle for 1841 he specially treats this subject, as well as the class of alternating functions which Sylvester has called alternants. About the time of Jacobi's last memoirs, Sylvester (1839) and Cayley began their work. The first use of vertical lines to denote a determinant appeared in: Cayley, Arthur "On a theorem in the geometry of position," Cambridge Mathematical Journal, vol. 2, pages 267-271 (1841). History of matrix notation: http://jeff560.tripod.com/matrices.html The study of special forms of determinants has been the natural result of the completion of the general theory. Axisymmetric determinants have been studied by Lebesgue, Hesse, and Sylvester; persymmetric determinants by Sylvester and Hankel; circulants by Catalan, Spottiswoode, Glaisher, and Scott; skew determinants and Pfaffians, in connection with the theory of orthogonal transformation, by Cayley; continuants by Sylvester; Wronskians (so called by Muir) by Christoffel and Frobenius; compound determinants by Sylvester, Reiss, and Picquet; Jacobians and Hessians by Sylvester; and symmetric gauche determinants by Trudi. Of the text-books on the subject Spottiswoode's was the first. In America, Hanus (1886), Weld (1893), and Muir/Metzler (1933) published treatises. See also Matrix determinant lemma Permanent Minor (linear algebra) Trace (linear algebra) Slater determinant Pseudo-determinant Notes References . External links MIT Linear Algebra Lecture on Determinants Linear Systems Chapter from "Fundamental Problems of Algorithmic Algebra" Chee Yap's chapter on Linear Systems describing implementation aspects of Determinant computation. Mahajan, Meena and V. Vinay, “Determinant: Combinatorics, Algorithms, and Complexity”, Chicago Journal of Theoretical Computer Science, v. 1997 article 5 (1997). Online Matrix Calculator Online Matrix calculator. Linear algebra: determinants. Compute determinants of matrices up to order 6 using Laplace expansion you choose. Matrices and Linear Algebra on the Earliest Uses Pages

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Check-raise

A check-raise in poker is a common deceptive play in which a player checks early in a betting round, hoping someone else will open. The player who checked then raises in the same round. This might be done, for example, when the first player believes that an opponent has an inferior hand and will not call a direct bet, but that he may attempt to bluff, allowing the first player to win more money than he would by betting straightforwardly. The key point is that if no one else is keen to bet, then the most a player can raise (in a limit game) by is one single bet. If someone else bets first, he can raise, therefore increasing the value of the pot by two bets. In a no-limit game, there is no restriction to the size of one's bet and a raise is likely to be much larger than the second player's bet. Of course, if no other player chooses to open, the betting will be checked around and the play will fail. While it can be an important part of one's poker strategy, this play is not allowed by a house rule in some home games and certain small-stakes casino games. It is also frequently not allowed in the game of California lowball. Check-raises can also be used as an intimidation technique over the course of a game; a player who has frequently been check-raised may be less likely to attempt to steal the pot. Not all players agree that a check-raise is an especially effective play, however. In Super/System, poker legend Doyle Brunson claims to check-raise very rarely in no-limit hold 'em; he contends that it is more profitable to simply bet a quality hand, regardless of whether his opponent will try to bluff. His reasoning for this is twofold: First, a failed check-raise gives other players the chance to see free cards that may improve their hand; second, it makes it obvious to other players that you potentially have a very strong hand. The latter, however, may be used as a strong bluff technique, although the opponent could put in a re-raise to scare off a bluff. See also Poker jargon Poker strategy Aggressive plays Bluffing plays Defense plays Drawing plays Isolation plays Position plays Protection plays Slow plays Stealing plays References

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