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Frederick_Soddy

Frederick Soddy (2 September 1877 – 22 September 1956) was an English radiochemist. He received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1921, and has a crater named for him on the far side of the Moon. Biography Soddy was born in Eastbourne, England. He went to school at Eastbourne College, before going on to study at University College of Wales at Aberystwyth and at Merton College, Oxford. He was a researcher at Oxford from 1898 to 1900. He married Winifred Beilby in 1908. In 1900 he became a demonstrator in chemistry at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where he worked with Ernest Rutherford on radioactivity. He and Rutherford realized that the anomalous behaviour of radioactive elements was because they decayed into other elements. This decay also produced alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. When radioactivity was first discovered, no one was sure what the cause was. It needed careful work by Soddy and Rutherford to prove that atomic transmutation was in fact occurring. His work and essays popularising the new understanding of radioactivity was the main inspiration for H. G. Wells's The World Set Free (1914), which features atomic bombs dropped from biplanes in a war set many years in the future. Wells's novel is also known as The Last War and imagines a peaceful world emerging from the chaos. In Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt Soddy praises Wells’s The World Set Free. He also says that radioactive processes probably power the stars. In 1903, with Sir William Ramsay at University College London, Soddy verified that the decay of radium produced alpha particles composed of positively charged nuclei of helium. In the experiment a sample of radium was enclosed in a thin walled glass envelope sited within an evacuated glass bulb. Alpha particles could pass through the thin glass wall but were contained within the surrounding glass envelope. After leaving the experiment running for a long period of time a spectral analysis of the contents of the former evacuated space revealed the presence of helium. This element had recently been discovered in the solar spectrum by Bunsen and Kirchoff. From 1904 to 1914, Soddy was a lecturer at the University of Glasgow and while there he showed that uranium decays to radium. It was here also that he showed that a radioactive element may have more than one atomic mass though the chemical properties are identical. He named this concept isotope meaning 'same place' - the word 'isotope' was initially suggested to him by Margaret Todd. Later, J.J. Thomson showed that non-radioactive elements can also have multiple isotopes. Soddy also showed that an atom moves lower in atomic number by two places on alpha emission, higher by one place on beta emission. This was a fundamental step toward understanding the relationships among families of radioactive elements. Soddy published The Interpretation of Radium (1909) and Atomic Transmutation (1953). In 1914 he was appointed to a chair at the University of Aberdeen, where he worked on research related to World War I. In 1919 he moved to Oxford University as Dr Lee's Professor of Chemistry, where, in the period up till 1936, he reorganized the laboratories and the syllabus in chemistry. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in chemistry for his research in radioactive decay and particularly for his formulation of the theory of isotopes. Economics and banking Soddy was also interested in technocracy and the social credit movement, which is evidenced by his publication Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt (George Allen & Unwin 1926), which is used as a footnote reference in the Technocracy Study Course. Soddy himself, in a newsreel interview taken in his office and laboratory, presented in the early 1930s an admission and commendation for the development of technocratic ideas in the United States History and Purpose of Technocracy by Howard Scott . In Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt, Soddy turned his attention to the role of energy in economic systems. He criticized the focus on monetary flows in economics, arguing that “real” wealth was derived from the use of energy to transform materials into physical goods and services. Soddy’s economic writings were largely ignored in his time, but would later be applied to the development of biophysical economics and ecological economics and also bioeconomics in the late 20th century. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Soddy,_Frederick Soddy, Frederick - Encyclopedia of Earth "Mr. Soddy’s Ecological Economy", The New York Times, April 12, 2009. He rediscovered the Descartes' theorem in 1936 and published it as a poem. The kissing circles in this problem are sometimes known as Soddy circles. The lunar crater Soddy is named after him. He died in Brighton, England. See also Problem of Apollonius Technocracy Incorporated Econophysics Bibliography Radioactivity (1904) The Interpretation of Radium (1909) (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) The Chemistry of the Radioactive Elements (1912-1914) Matter and Energy (1912) Science and Life (1920) Cartesian Economics: The Bearing of Physical Science upon State Stewardship (1921) Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt. The solution of the economic paradox (George Allen & Unwin, 1926) The Interpretation of the Atom (1932) Money versus Man (1933) [http://www.archive.org/details/roleofmoney032861mbp The Role of Money, Frederick Soddy (George Routledge & Sons Ltd, 1934. Internet Archive Gutenberg)] The Story of Atomic Energy (1949) Atomic Transmutation (1953) References , pp. 163-194 External links Annotated bibliography for Frederick Soddy from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues M. King Hubbert on the Nature of Growth. 1974 The Crisis by Herman Daly and Tom Green

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Diophantus

Title page of the 1621 edition of Diophantus' Arithmetica, translated into Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac. Diophantus of Alexandria (Greek: . b. between 200 and 214 CE, d. between 284 and 298 CE), sometimes called "the father of algebra" (a title some The Islamic Enlightenment claim should be shared by Persian http://facstaff.uindy.edu/~oaks/MHMC.htm Islamic mathematician al-Khwārizmī, born some 500 years after Diophantus), was an Alexandrian mathematician and the author of a series of books called Arithmetica. These texts deal with solving algebraic equations, many of which are now lost. In studying Arithmetica, Pierre de Fermat concluded that a certain equation considered by Diophantus had no solutions, and noted without elaboration that he had found "a truly marvelous proof of this proposition," now referred to as Fermat's Last Theorem. This led to tremendous advances in number theory, and the study of diophantine equations ("diophantine geometry") and of diophantine approximations remain important areas of mathematical research. Diophantus was the first Greek mathematician who recognized fractions as numbers; thus he allowed positive rational numbers for the coefficients and solutions. In modern use, diophantine equations are usually algebraic equations with integer coefficients, for which integer solutions are sought. Diophantus also made advances in mathematical notation. Biography Little is known about the life of Diophantus. He lived in Alexandria, Egypt, probably from between 200 and 214 to 284 or 298 AD. While most scholars consider Diophantus to have been a Greek, others speculate him to have been a non-Greek, H. Hankel (1874, 2nd ed. 1965), Zur Geschichte der Mathematik im Altertum und Mittelalter, Leipzig: possibly either a Hellenized Babylonian, D. M. Burton (1991, 1995). History of Mathematics, Dubuque, IA (Wm.C. Brown Publishers). an Egyptian, George Sarton (1936). "The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World", Osiris 2, p. 406-463 [429]. Victor J. Katz (1998). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, p. 184. Addison Wesley, ISBN 0321016181. a Jew, or a Chaldean. Oswald Spengler (1923), Der Untergang des Abendlandes, 2 Bande: Much of our knowledge the life of Diophantus is derived from a 5th century Greek anthology of number games and strategy puzzles. One of the problems states: 'Here lies Diophantus,' the wonder behold. Through art algebraic, the stone tells how old: 'God gave him his boyhood one-sixth of his life, One twelfth more as youth while whiskers grew rife; And then yet one-seventh ere marriage begun; In five years there came a bouncing new son. Alas, the dear child of master and sage After attaining half the measure of his father's life chill fate took him. After consoling his fate by the science of numbers for four years, he ended his life.' This puzzle implies that Diophantus lived to be about 84 years old. However, the accuracy of the information cannot be independently confirmed. In popular culture, this puzzle was the Puzzle No.142 in Professor Layton and Pandora's Box as one of the hardest solving puzzles in the game, which needed to be unlocked by solving other puzzles first. Arithmetica The Arithmetica is the major work of Diophantus and the most prominent work on algebra in Greek mathematics. It is a collection of problems giving numerical solutions of both determinate and indeterminate equations. Of the original thirteen books of which Arithmetica consisted only six have survived, though there are some who believe that four Arab books discovered in 1968 are also by Diophantus. Some Diophantine problems from Arithmetica have been found in Arabic sources. It should be mentioned here that Diophantus never used general methods in his solutions. Hermann Hankel, renowned German mathematician made the following remark regarding Diophantus. “Our author (Diophantos) not the slightest trace of a general, comprehensive method is discernible; each problem calls for some special method which refuses to work even for the most closely related problems. For this reason it is difficult for the modern scholar to solve the 101st problem even after having studied 100 of Diophantos’s solutions” History During the Dark Ages, Diophantus was forgotten and like many other mathematical treatises from the classical period, Arithmetica survived through the Arab tradition. In 1463 German mathematician Regiomontanus wrote: “No one has yet translated from the Greek into Latin the thirteen books of Diophantus, in which the very flower of the whole of arithmetic lies hidden . . . .” Arithmetica was first translated into Latin by Bombelli in 1570, but the translation was never published. However, Bombelli borrowed many of the problems for his own book Algebra. The editio princeps of Arithmetica was published in 1575 by Xylander. The best known Latin translation of Arithmetica was made by Bachet in 1621 and became the first Latin edition that was widely available. Pierre de Fermat owned a copy, studied it, and made notes in the margins. Margin writing by Fermat and Chortasmenos Problem II.8 in the Arithmetica (edition of 1670), annotated with Fermat's comment which became Fermat's Last Theorem. The 1621 edition of Arithmetica by Bachet gained fame after Pierre de Fermat wrote his famous "Last Theorem" in the margins of his copy: “If an integer is greater than 2, then has no solutions in non-zero integers , , and . I have a truly marvelous proof of this proposition which this margin is too narrow to contain.” Fermat's proof was never found, and the problem of finding a proof for the theorem went unsolved for centuries. A proof was finally found in 1994 by Andrew Wiles after working on it for seven years. It is believed that Fermat did not actually have the proof he claimed to have. Although the original copy in which Fermat wrote this is lost today, Fermat's son edited the next edition of Diophantus, published in 1670. Even though the text is otherwise inferior to the 1621 edition, Fermat's annotations—including the "Last Theorem"—were printed in this version. Fermat was not the first mathematician so moved to write in his own marginal notes to Diophantus; the Byzantine scholar John Chortasmenos (14th/15th C.) had written "Thy soul, Diophantus, be with Satan because of the difficulty of your theorems" next to the same problem. Other works Diophantus wrote several other books besides Arithmetica, but very few of them have survived. The Porisms Diophantus himself refers to a work which consists of a collection of lemmas called The Porisms (or Porismata), but this book is entirely lost. Some scholars think that The porisms may have actually been a section of Arithmetica that is now lost. Although The Porisms is lost, we know three lemmas contained there since Diophantus refers to them in the Arithmetica. One lemma states that the difference of the cubes of two rational numbers is equal to the sum of the cubes of two other rational numbers, i.e. given any a and b, with a > b, there exist c and d, all positive and rational, such that a3 − b3 = c3 + d3. Polygonal numbers and geometric elements Diophantus is also known to have written on polygonal numbers, a topic of great interest to Pythagoras and Pythagoreans. Fragments of a book dealing with polygonal numbers are extant. A book called Preliminaries to the Geometric Elements has been traditionally attributed to Hero of Alexandria. It has been studied recently by Wilbur Knorr, who suggested that the attribution to Hero is incorrect, and that the true author is Diophantus Knorr, Wilbur: Arithmêtike stoicheiôsis: On Diophantus and Hero of Alexandria, in: Historia Matematica, New York, 1993, Vol.20, No.2, 180-192 . Influence Diophantus' work has had a large influence in history. Editions of Arithmetica exerted a profound influence on the development of algebra in Europe in the late sixteenth and through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Diophantus and his works have also influenced Arab mathematics and were of great fame among Arab mathematicians. Diophantus' work created a foundation for work on algebra and in fact much of advanced mathematics is based on algebra. As far as we know Diophantus did not affect the lands of the Orient much and how much he affected India is a matter of debate. The father of algebra? Diophantus is often called “the father of algebra" because he contributed greatly to number theory, mathematical notation, and because Arithmetica contains the earliest known use of syncopated notation Carl B. Boyer, A History of Mathematics, Second Edition (Wiley, 1991), page 228 . However, it seems that many of the methods for solving linear and quadratic equations used by Diophantus go back to Babylonian mathematics. For this reason mathematical historian Kurt Vogel writes: “Diophantus was not, as he has often been called, the father of algebra. Nevertheless, his remarkable, if unsystematic, collection of indeterminate problems is a singular achievement that was not fully appreciated and further developed until much later.” Diophantine analysis Today Diophantine analysis is the area of study where integer (whole number) solutions are sought for equations, and Diophantine equations are polynomial equations with integer coefficients to which only integer solutions are sought. It is usually rather difficult to tell whether a given Diophantine equation is solvable. Most of the problems in Arithmetica lead to quadratic equations. Diophantus looked at 3 different types of quadratic equations: , , and . The reason why there were three cases to Diophantus, while today we have only one case, is that he did not have any notion for zero and he avoided negative coefficients by considering the given numbers to all be positive in each of the three cases above. Diophantus was always satisfied with a rational solution and did not require a whole number which means he accepted fractions as solutions to his problems. Diophantus considered negative or irrational square root solutions "useless", "meaningless", and even "absurd". To give one specific example, he calls the equation 'absurd' because it would lead to a negative value for . One solution was all he looked for in a quadratic equation. There is no evidence that suggests Diophantus even realized that there could be two solutions to a quadratic equation. He also considered simultaneous quadratic equations. Mathematical notation Diophantus made important advances in mathematical notation. He was the first person to use algebraic notation and symbolism. Before him everyone wrote out equations completely. Diophantus introduced an algebraic symbolism that used an abridged notation for frequently occurring operations, and an abbreviation for the unknown and for the powers of the unknown. Mathematical historian Kurt Vogel states: “The symbolism that Diophantus introduced for the first time, and undoubtedly devised himself, provided a short and readily comprehensible means of expressing an equation... Since an abbreviation is also employed for the word ‘equals’, Diophantus took a fundamental step from verbal algebra towards symbolic algebra.” Although Diophantus made important advances in symbolism, he still lacked the necessary notation to express more general methods. This caused his work to be more concerned with particular problems rather than general situations. Some of the limitations of Diophantus' notation are that he only had notation for one unknown and, when problems involved more than a single unknown, Diophantus was reduced to expressing "first unknown", "second unknown", etc. in words. He also lacked a symbol for a general number n. Where we would write , Diophantus has to resort to constructions like : ... a sixfold number increased by twelve, which is divided by the difference by which the square of the number exceeds three. Algebra still had a long way to go before very general problems could be written down and solved succinctly. See also Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī References Bibliography A. Allard, "Les scolies aux arithmétiques de Diophante d'Alexandrie dans le Matritensis Bibo. Nat. 4678 et les Vaticani gr. 191 et 304," Byzantion 53. Brussels, 1983: 682-710. P. Ver Eecke, Diophante d’Alexandrie: Les Six Livres Arithmétiques et le Livre des Nombres Polygones, Bruges: Desclée, De Brouwer, 1926. T. L. Heath, Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1885, 1910. D. C. Robinson and Luke Hodgkin. History of Mathematics, King's College London, 2003. P. L. Tannery, Diophanti Alexandrini Opera omnia: cum Graecis commentariis, Lipsiae: In aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1893-1895. Jacques Sesiano, Books IV to VII of Diophantus’ Arithmetica in the Arabic translation attributed to Qusṭā ibn Lūqā, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1982. ISBN 0-387-90690-8. J. Christianidis, "Maxime Planude sur le sens du terme diophantien "plasmatikon"", Historia Scientiarum, 6 (1996)37-41. J. Christianidis, "Une interpretation byzantine de Diophante", Historia Mathematica, 25 (1998) 22-28. External links Diophantus's Riddle Diophantus' epitaph, by E. Weisstein Norbert Schappacher (2005). Diophantus of Alexandria : a Text and its History. Tannery's edition of the Works of Diophantus, now in the public domain (Classical Greek)

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Keplerâ%80%93Poinsot_polyhedron

__TOC__ The Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra are the four regular star polyhedra. They may be obtained by stellating the regular convex or Platonic solids, and differ from these in having regular star polygons for their faces or vertex figures. Identification The four Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra are illustrated below. Each is identified by its Schläfli symbol, of the form {p, q}, and by its name. One face of each figure is shown yellow and outlined in red. Image:Kepler-Poinsot solids.svg Characteristics Non-convexity These figures have pentagrams (star pentagons) as faces or vertex figures. The small and great stellated dodecahedron have nonconvex regular pentagram faces. The great dodecahedron and great icosahedron have convex pentagon faces, but pentagrammic vertex figures. In all cases, two faces can intersect along a line that is not an edge of either face, so that part of each face passes through the interior of the figure. Such lines of intersection are not part of the polyhedral structure and are sometimes called false edges. Likewise where three such lines intersect at a point that is not a corner of any face, these points are false vertices. The images below show golden balls at the true vertices, and silver rods along the true edges. For example the small stellated dodecahedron has 12 pentagram faces with the central pentagonal part hidden inside the solid. The visible parts of each face comprise five isosceles triangles which touch at five points around the pentagon. We could treat these triangles as 60 separate faces to obtain a new, irregular polyhedron which looks outwardly identical. Each edge would now be divided into three shorter edges (of two different kinds), and the 20 false vertices would become true ones, so that we have a total of 32 vertices (again of two kinds). The hidden inner pentagons are no longer part of the polyhedral surface, and can disappear. Now the Euler relation holds: 60 - 90 + 32 = 2. However this polyhedron is no longer the one described by the Schläfli symbol {5/2,5}, and so can not be a Kepler-Poinsot solid even though it still looks like one from outside. Euler characteristic χ A Kepler-Poinsot polyhedron covers its circumscribed sphere more than once, with the centers of faces acting as winding points in the figures which have pentagrammic faces, and the vertices in the others. Because of this, they are not necessarily topologically equivalent to the sphere as Platonic solids are, and in particular the Euler relation χ = V − E + F = 2 does not always hold. Schläfli held that all polyhedra must have χ = 2, and he rejected the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron as proper polyhedra. This view was never widely held. Duality The Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra exist in dual pairs: Small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron. Great stellated dodecahedron and great icosahedron. Summary Name PictureStellation diagramSchläfli{p,q} andCoxeter-DynkinFaces{p}EdgesVertices{q}verf.χSymmetryDualSmall stellated dodecahedron{5/2,5}Image:CD dot.pngImage:CD 5.pngImage:CD dot.pngImage:CD 5-2.pngImage:CD ring.png12{5/2}3012{5} -6IhGreat dodecahedronGreat dodecahedron{5,5/2}Image:CD ring.pngImage:CD 5.pngImage:CD dot.pngImage:CD 5-2.pngImage:CD dot.png12{5}3012{5/2} -6IhSmall stellated dodecahedronGreat stellated dodecahedron{5/2,3}Image:CD dot.pngImage:CD 3.pngImage:CD dot.pngImage:CD 5-2.pngImage:CD ring.png12{5/2}3020{3}2IhGreat icosahedronGreat icosahedron{3,5/2}Image:CD ring.pngImage:CD 3.pngImage:CD dot.pngImage:CD 5-2.pngImage:CD dot.png20{3}3012{5/2}2IhGreat stellated dodecahedron Relationships among the regular polyhedra These share the same vertex arrangements:These share the same vertex and edge arrangements:The icosahedron, small stellated dodecahedron and great icosahedron.The small stellated dodecahedron and great icosahedron.The dodecahedron and great stellated dodecahedron..The icosahedron and great dodecahedron. The small stellated dodecahedron and great icosahedron share the same vertices and edges. The icosahedron and great dodecahedron also share the same vertices and edges. The three dodecahedra are all stellations of the regular convex dodecahedron, and the great icosahedron is a stellation of the regular convex icosahedron. The small stellated dodecahedron and the great icosahedron are facettings of the convex dodecahedron, while the two great dodecahedra are facettings of the regular convex icosahedron. If the intersections are treated as new edges and vertices, the figures obtained will not be regular, but they can still be considered stellations. (See also List of Wenninger polyhedron models) History Most, if not all, of the Kelper-Poinsot polyhedra were known of in some form or other before Kepler. A small stellated dodecahedron appears in a marble tarsia (inlay panel) on the floor of St. Mark's Basilica, Venice, Italy. It dates from the 1400s and is sometimes attributed to Paolo Uccello. In his Perspectiva corporum regularium (Perspectives of the regular solids) , a book of woodcuts published in the 1500s, Wenzel Jamnitzer depicts the great dodecahedron and the great stellated dodecahedron. It is clear from the general arrangement of the book that he regards only the five Platonic solids as regular, and does not understand the regular nature of his great dodecahedra. The small and great stellated dodecahedra, sometimes called the Kepler polyhedra, were first recognized as regular by Johannes Kepler in 1619. He obtained them by stellating the regular convex dodecahedron, for the first time treating it as a surface rather than a solid. He noticed that by extending the edges or faces of the convex dodecahedron until they met again, he could obtain star pentagons. Further, he recognized that these star pentagons are also regular. In this way he constructed the two stellated dodecahedra. Each has the central convex region of each face "hidden" within the interior, with only the triangular arms visible. Kepler's final step was to recognize that these polyhedra fit the definition of regularity, even though they were not convex, as the traditional Platonic solids were. In 1809, Louis Poinsot rediscovered Kepler's figures, by assembling star pentagons around each vertex. He also assembled convex polygons around star vertices to discover two more regular stars, the great icosahedron and great dodecahedron. Some people call these two the Poinsot polyhedra. Poinsot did not know if he had discovered all the regular star polyhedra. Three years later, Augustin Cauchy proved the list complete by stellating the Platonic solids, and almost half a century after that, in 1858, Bertrand provided a more elegant proof by facetting them. The following year, Arthur Cayley gave the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra the names by which they are generally known today. A hundred years later, John Conway developed a systematic terminology for stellations in up to four dimensions. Within this scheme, he suggested slightly modified names for two of the regular star polyhedra: Cayley's nameConway's namesmall stellated dodecahedronstellated dodecahedrongreat dodecahedrongreat dodecahedron (unchanged)great stellated dodecahedronstellated great dodecahedrongreat icosahedrongreat icosahedron (unchanged) Conway's names have seen some use but have not been widely adopted. Regular star polyhedra in art and culture Alexander's Star Regular star polyhedra first appear in Renaissance art. A small stellated dodecahedron is depicted in a marble tarsia on the floor of St. Mark's Basilica, Venice, Italy, dating from ca. 1430 and sometimes attributed to Paulo Ucello. Wenzel Jamnitzer published his book of woodcuts Perspectiva Corporum Regularium in 1568. He depicts the great dodecahedron and the great stellated dodecahedron - this second is slightly distorted, probably through errors in method rather than ignorance of the form. However there is no evidence that these artists understood the regularity of such figures. In the 20th Century, Artist M. C. Escher's interest in geometric forms often led to works based on or including regular solids; Gravitation is based on a small stellated dodecahedron. A dissection of the great dodecahedron was used for the 1980s puzzle Alexander's Star. Norwegian artist Vebjørn Sands sculpture "The Kepler Star" is displayed near Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. The star spans 14 meters, and consists of an icosahedron and a dodecahedron inside a great stellated dodecahedron. See also Regular polytope Regular polyhedron List of regular polytopes Uniform polyhedron Polyhedral compound Schläfli-Hess polychoron The 10 4-dimensional star polytopes References J. Bertrand, Note sur la théorie des polyèdres réguliers, Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Sciences, 46 (1858), pp. 79-82, 117. Augustin Louis Cauchy, Recherches sur les polyèdres. J. de l'École Polytechnique 9, 68-86, 1813. Arthur Cayley, On Poinsot's Four New Regular Solids. Philos. Mag. 17, pp. 123-127 and 209, 1859. John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strauss, The Symmetry of Things 2008, ISBN 978-1-56881-220-5 (Chapter 24, Regular Star-polytopes, pp. 404-408) Kaleidoscopes: Selected Writings of H.S.M. Coxeter, editied by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication, 1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 (Paper 1) H.S.M. Coxeter, The Nine Regular Solids [Proc. Can. Math. Congress 1 (1947), 252-264, MR 8, 482] (Paper 10) H.S.M. Coxeter, Star Polytopes and the Schlafli Function f(α,β,γ) [Elemente der Mathematik 44 (2) (1989) 25-36] P. Cromwell, Polyhedra, Cabridgre University Press, Hbk. 1997, Ppk. 1999. Theoni Pappas, (The Kepler-Poinsot Solids) The Joy of Mathematics. San Carlos, CA: Wide World Publ./Tetra, p. 113, 1989. Louis Poinsot, Memoire sur les polygones et polyèdres. J. de l'École Polytechnique 9, pp. 16-48, 1810. Lakatos, Imre; Proofs and Refutations, Cambridge University Press (1976) - discussion of proof of Euler characteristic , pp. 39-41. John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strass, The Symmetries of Things 2008, ISBN 978-1-516881-220-5 (Chapter 26. pp. 404: Regular star-polytopes Dimension 3) External links Paper models of Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra Free paper models (nets) of Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra The Uniform Polyhedra VRML models of the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra Stellation and facetting - a brief history Stella: Polyhedron Navigator: Software used to create many of the images on this page.

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GTPase

GTPases (singular GTPase) are a large family of hydrolase enzymes that can bind and hydrolyze guanosine triphosphate (GTP). The GTP binding and hydrolysis takes place in the highly conserved G domain common to all GTPases. Functions GTPases play an important role in: Signal transduction at the intracellular domain of transmembrane receptors, including recognition of taste, smell and light. Protein biosynthesis (aka translation) at the ribosome. Control and differentiation during cell division. Translocation of proteins through membranes. Transport of vesicles within the cell. (GTPases control assembly of vesicle coats). Mechanism The hydrolysis of the γ phosphate of GTP into guanosine diphosphate (GDP) and Pi,inorganic phosphate, occurs by the SN2 mechanism (see nucleophilic substitution) via a pentavalent intermediate state and is dependent on the magnesium ion Mg2+. Major motifs In most GTPases, the specificity for the base guanine is imparted by the base-recognition motif, which has the consensus sequence [N/T]KXD. Regulatory GTPases Regulatory GTPases, also called the GTPase superfamily, are GTPases used for regulation of other biochemical processes. Most prominent among the regulatory GTPases are the G proteins. GTP switch All regulatory GTPases have a common mechanism that enables them to switch a signal transduction chain on and off. Throwing the switch is performed by the unidirectional change of the GTPase from the active, GTP-bound form to the inactive, GDP-bound form by hydrolysis of the GTP through intrinsic GTPase-activity, effectively switching the GTPase off. This reaction is initiated by GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), coming from another signal transduction pathway. It can be reverted (switching the GTPase on again) by Guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs), which cause the GDP to dissociate from the GTPase, leading to its association with a new GTP. This closes the cycle to the active state of the GTPase; the irreversible hydrolysis of the GTP to GDP forces the cycle to run only in one direction. Only the active state of the GTPase can transduce a signal to a reaction chain. Switch regulation The efficiency of the signal transduction via a GTPase depends on the ratio of active to inactive GTPase. That equals: with kdiss.GDP being the dissociation constant of GDP, and kcat.GTP the hydrolysis constant of GTP for the specific GTPase. Both constants can be modified by special regulatory proteins. The amount of active GTPase can be changed in several ways : Acceleration of GDP dissociation by GEFs speeds up the building of active GTPase. Inhibition of GDP dissociation by guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitors (GDIs) slows down the building of active GTPase. Acceleration of GTP hydrolysis by GAPs reduces the amount of active GTPase. GTP analogues like γ-S-GTP, β,γ-methylene-GTP, and β,γ-imino-GTP that cannot be hydrolyzed fixate the GTPase in its active state. Heterotrimeric G proteins These G proteins are made from three subunits, with the G domain located on the largest one (the α unit); together with the two smaller subunits (β and γ units), they form a tightly associated protein complex. α and γ unit are associated with the membrane by lipid anchors. Heterotrimeric G proteins act as the specific reaction partners of G protein-coupled receptors. The GTPase is normally inactive. Upon receptor activation, the intracellular receptor domain activates the GTPase, which in turn activates other molecules of the signal transduction chain, either via the α unit or the βγ complex. Among the target molecules of the active GTPase are adenylate cyclase and ion channels. The heterotrimeric G proteins can be classified by sequence homology of the α unit into four families: Gs family. These G proteins are used in the signal transduction of taste and smell. They always use the activation of adenylate cyclase as the next step in the signal chain. The s stands for stimulation. Their function is permanently activated by the cholera toxin, which is the cause of the fatal effects of infection with Vibrio cholerae. Gi family. The i stands for inhibition of the adenylate cyclase; another effector molecule for this protein family is phospholipase C. Also, Gt and Gg proteins are summarized under this label due to sequence homologies. Gt proteins, aka transducin, is used in the light recognition pathway in retina cells. Gg protein occurs in the taste recognition for bitter. Most Gi protein family members can be inhibited by the pertussis toxin of Bordetella pertussis. Gq family. These proteins usually have phospholipase C as effector protein. G12 family. These G proteins can be activated by thromboxan receptors and thrombin receptors. Their effector proteins are unknown. By combination of different α, β and γ subunits, a great variety (>1000) G proteins can be produced. GDP is not needed for GTP. Activation cycle of heterotrimeric G proteins In the basic state, the Gα-GDP-Gβγ complex and the receptor that can activate it are separately associated with the membrane. On receptor activation, the receptor becomes highly affine for the G protein - GDP complex. On binding with the complex, GDP dissociates from the complex; the receptor works as a GEF - GDP-GTP Exchange Factor; the free complex has a high affinity for GTP. Upon GTP binding, both Gα-GTP and Gβγ separate from both the receptor and from each other. Depending on the lifetime of the active state of the receptor, it can activate more G proteins this way. Both Gα-GTP and Gβγ can now activate separate and/or the same effector molecules, thus sending the signal further down the signal reaction chain. Once the intrinsic GTPase activity of the α unit has hydrolyzed the GTP to GDP, and then the two parts are disassociated to the original, inactive state. The speed of the hydrolysis reaction works as an internal clock for the length of the signal. The Ras GTPase superfamily These are small monomeric proteins homologous to Ras. They are also called small GTPases. Small GTPases have a molecular weight of about 21 kilodaltons and generally serve as molecular switches for a variety of cellular signaling events. According to their primary amino acid sequences and biochemical properties, the Ras superfamily is further divided into five subfamilies: Ras, Rho, Rab, Arf and Ran. Translation factor family These GTPases play an important role in initiation, elongation and termination of protein biosynthesis. Translocation factors See signal recognition particle (SRP). Large GTPases See dynamin as a prototype for large GTPases. See also G protein-coupled receptors Rho-kinase External links References

GTPase |@lemmatized gtpases:15 singular:1 gtpase:23 large:4 family:9 hydrolase:1 enzyme:1 bind:2 hydrolyze:3 guanosine:2 triphosphate:1 gtp:22 binding:2 hydrolysis:7 take:1 place:1 highly:2 conserve:1 g:15 domain:4 common:2 function:2 play:2 important:2 role:2 signal:13 transduction:6 intracellular:2 transmembrane:1 receptor:13 include:1 recognition:5 taste:3 smell:2 light:2 protein:26 biosynthesis:2 aka:2 translation:2 ribosome:1 control:2 differentiation:1 cell:3 division:1 translocation:2 membrane:3 transport:1 vesicle:2 within:1 assembly:1 coat:1 mechanism:3 γ:7 phosphate:2 diphosphate:1 gdp:14 pi:1 inorganic:1 occur:2 see:4 nucleophilic:1 substitution:1 via:3 pentavalent:1 intermediate:1 state:7 dependent:1 magnesium:1 ion:2 major:1 motif:2 specificity:1 base:2 guanine:3 impart:1 consensus:1 sequence:4 n:1 kxd:1 regulatory:5 also:4 call:2 superfamily:3 use:4 regulation:2 biochemical:2 process:1 prominent:1 among:2 switch:7 enable:1 chain:5 throw:1 perform:1 unidirectional:1 change:2 active:11 bound:2 form:3 inactive:4 intrinsic:2 activity:2 effectively:1 reaction:5 initiate:1 activating:1 gap:2 come:1 another:2 pathway:2 revert:1 nucleotide:2 exchange:2 factor:4 gefs:2 cause:2 dissociate:1 lead:1 association:1 new:1 close:1 cycle:3 irreversible:1 force:1 run:1 one:2 direction:1 transduce:1 efficiency:1 depend:2 ratio:1 equal:1 kdiss:1 dissociation:4 constant:3 kcat:1 specific:2 modify:1 special:1 amount:2 several:1 way:2 acceleration:2 speed:2 building:2 inhibition:2 inhibitor:1 gdis:1 slow:1 reduces:1 analogue:1 like:1 β:4 methylene:1 imino:1 cannot:1 fixate:1 heterotrimeric:4 proteins:2 make:1 three:1 subunit:3 locate:1 α:6 unit:6 together:1 two:2 small:4 tightly:1 associate:3 complex:7 lipid:1 anchor:1 act:1 partner:1 coupled:1 normally:1 upon:2 activation:4 activate:7 turn:1 molecule:4 either:1 βγ:1 target:1 adenylate:3 cyclase:3 channel:1 classify:1 homology:2 four:1 gs:1 always:1 next:1 step:1 stand:2 stimulation:1 permanently:1 cholera:1 toxin:2 fatal:1 effect:1 infection:1 vibrio:1 cholerae:1 gi:2 effector:4 phospholipase:2 c:2 gt:2 gg:2 summarize:1 label:1 due:1 transducin:1 retina:1 bitter:1 member:1 inhibit:1 pertussis:2 bordetella:1 gq:1 usually:1 thromboxan:1 thrombin:1 unknown:1 combination:1 different:1 great:1 variety:2 produce:1 need:1 basic:1 gα:3 gβγ:3 separately:1 become:1 affine:1 dissociates:1 work:2 gef:1 free:1 high:1 affinity:1 separate:2 lifetime:1 thus:1 send:1 far:1 part:1 disassociate:1 original:1 internal:1 clock:1 length:1 ras:2 monomeric:1 homologous:1 molecular:2 weight:1 kilodaltons:1 generally:1 serve:1 cellular:1 event:1 accord:1 primary:1 amino:1 acid:1 property:1 ra:2 divide:1 five:1 subfamily:1 rho:2 rab:1 arf:1 ran:1 initiation:1 elongation:1 termination:1 particle:1 srp:1 dynamin:1 prototype:1 couple:1 kinase:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 |@bigram guanosine_triphosphate:1 signal_transduction:6 transmembrane_receptor:1 taste_smell:2 protein_biosynthesis:2 inorganic_phosphate:1 nucleophilic_substitution:1 magnesium_ion:1 regulatory_gtpases:4 gtp_bound:1 transduction_pathway:1 guanine_nucleotide:2 dissociation_constant:1 active_gtpase:5 β_γ:4 heterotrimeric_g:4 receptor_activation:2 adenylate_cyclase:3 phospholipase_c:2 α_β:1 γ_subunit:1 amino_acid:1 external_link:1

Foreign_relations_of_Mauritius

Mauritius has strong and friendly relations with the West, as well as with India and the countries of southern and eastern Africa. It is a member of the World Trade Organization, the Commonwealth of Nations, La Francophonie, the African Union, the Southern Africa Development Community, the Indian Ocean Commission, COMESA, and the recently formed Indian Ocean Rim Association. Trade, commitment to democracy, and the country's small size are driving forces behind Mauritian foreign policy. The country's political heritage and dependence on Western markets have led to close ties with the European Union and its member states, particularly the United Kingdom and France, which exercises sovereignty over neighboring Reunion Island. France has remained one of its biggest trading partners; in addition, the two countries share close cultural ties in language, media and literature. Mauritius is a member state of La Francophonie, an organization of French speaking countries. Considered part of Africa geographically, Mauritius has friendly relations with other African states in the region, particularly South Africa, by far its largest continental trading partner. Mauritian investors are gradually entering African markets, notably Madagascar and Mozambique. Mauritius coordinates much of its foreign policy with the Southern Africa Development Community and the Organization of African Unity. Relations with France and India are strong for both historical and commercial reasons. Foreign embassies in Mauritius include Australia, the United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, Egypt, France, India, Madagascar, Pakistan, Russia, and the United States. Mauritius is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). Disputes - international: claims the entire Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean; claims the whole French-administered Tromelin Island, Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, and Juan de Nova Island Illicit drugs: minor consumer and transshipment point for heroin from South Asia; small amounts of cannabis produced and consumed locally See also Mauritian diplomatic missions Mauritius – United States relations Mauritius–Russia relations Mauritius–Pakistan relations

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Metabolic_pathway

In biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. In each pathway, a principal chemical is modified by chemical reactions. Enzymes catalyze these reactions, and often require dietary minerals, vitamins, and other cofactors in order to function properly. Because of the many chemicals that may be involved, pathways can be quite elaborate. In addition, many pathways can exist within a cell. This collection of pathways is called the metabolic network. Pathways are important to the maintenance of homeostasis within an organism. Metabolism is a step-by-step modification of the initial molecule to shape it into another product. The result can be used in one of three ways: To be stored by the cell To be used immediately, as a metabolic product To initiate another metabolic pathway, called a flux generating step. A molecule called a substrate enters a metabolic pathway depending on the needs of the cell and the availability of the substrate. An increase in concentration of anabolic and catabolic end-products would slow the metabolic rate for that particular pathway. Overview Each metabolic pathway is composed of a series of biochemical reactions that are connected by their intermediates: The reactants (or substrates) of one reaction are the products of the previous one, and so on. Metabolic pathways are usually considered in one direction (although all reactions are chemically reversible, conditions in the cell are such that it is thermodynamically more favorable for flux to be in one of the directions). Glycolysis was the first metabolic pathway discovered: As glucose enters a cell, it is immediately phosphorylated by ATP to glucose 6-phosphate in the irreversible first step. This is to prevent the glucose from leaving the cell. In times of excess lipid or protein energy sources, glycolysis may run in reverse (gluconeogenesis) in order to produce glucose 6-phosphate for storage as glycogen or starch. Metabolic pathways are often regulated by feedback inhibition, or by a cycle wherein one of the products in the cycle starts the reaction again, such as the Krebs Cycle (see below). Anabolic and catabolic pathways in eukaryotes are separated either by compartmentation or by the use of different enzymes and cofactors. Major metabolic pathways Cellular respiration Several distinct but linked metabolic pathways are used by cells to transfer the energy released by breakdown of fuel molecules to ATP. These occur within all living organisms in some forms: Glycolysis Anaerobic respiration Krebs cycle / Citric acid cycle Oxidative phosphorylation Other pathways occurring in (most or) all living organisms include: Fatty acid oxidation (β-oxidation) Gluconeogenesis HMG-CoA reductase pathway (isoprene prenylation chains, see cholesterol) Pentose phosphate pathway (hexose monophosphate shunt) Porphyrin synthesis (or heme synthesis) pathway Urea cycle Creation of energetic compounds from non-living matter: Photosynthesis (plants, algae, cyanobacteria) Chemosynthesis (some bacteria) See also Metabolism Metabolic network Metabolic network modelling External links BioCyc: Metabolic network models for hundreds of organisms KEGG: Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes MetaCyc: A database of nonredundant, experimentally elucidated metabolic pathways (900+ pathways from more than 800 different organisms). Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology PathCase Pathways Database System Interactive Flow Chart of the Major Metabolic Pathways A novel visualization for a Metabolic Pathway DAVID: Visualize genes on pathway maps Wikipathways: pathways for the people ConsensusPathDB

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Neuromancer

Neuromancer is a 1984 novel by William Gibson, notable for being the most famous early cyberpunk novel and winner of the science-fiction "triple crown"—the Nebula Award, the Philip K. Dick Award, and the Hugo Award. It was Gibson's first novel and the beginning of the Sprawl trilogy. The novel tells the story of a washed-up computer hacker hired by a mysterious employer to work on the ultimate hack. Gibson explores artificial intelligence, virtual reality, genetic engineering, and multinational corporations overpowering the traditional nation-state long before these ideas entered popular culture. Background William Gibson was born on March 17, 1948 in Conway, South Carolina. In his childhood, he developed a strong interest in science fiction, while rejecting religion. Gibson moved frequently and as a result was exposed to unusual cultural experiences and turned to science fiction as his refuge. He once said his goal as a young man "was to sample every narcotic substance in existence." John Carpenter's Escape from New York (1981) was an influence on the novel. Gibson was "intrigued by the exchange in one of the opening scenes where the Warden says to Snake: 'You flew the Gullfire over Leningrad, didn't you?' It turns out to be just a throwaway line, but for a moment it worked like the best SF, where a casual reference can imply a lot." The novel's street and computer slang dialogue derives from the vocabulary of subcultures, particularly "1969 Toronto dope dealer's slang, or biker talk." Gibson heard the term "flatlining" in a bar twenty years before writing Neuromancer and it stuck with him. Author Robert Stone, a "master of a certain kind of paranoid fiction," was a primary influence on the novel. Plot summary Henry Dorsett Case is a low-level hustler in the dystopian underworld of Chiba City, Japan. Once a talented computer hacker, Case was caught stealing from his employer. As punishment for his theft, Case's central nervous system was damaged with a mycotoxin, leaving him unable to use his brain-computer interface to access the global computer network in cyberspace. Unemployable, addicted to drugs, and suicidal, Case desperately searches the Chiba "black clinics" for a miracle cure. Case is saved by Molly Millions, an augmented "street samurai" and mercenary for a shadowy ex-military officer named Armitage, who offers to cure Case in exchange for his services as a hacker. Case jumps at the chance to regain his life as a "console cowboy," but neither Case nor Molly know what Armitage is really planning. Case's nervous system is repaired using new technology that Armitage offers the clinic as payment, but he soon learns from Armitage that sacs of the poison that first crippled him have been placed in his blood vessels as well. Armitage promises Case that if he completes his work in time, the sacs will be removed; otherwise they will burst, disabling him again. He also has Case's pancreas replaced and new tissue grafted into his liver, leaving Case incapable of metabolizing cocaine or amphetamines and apparently ending his drug addiction. Cover of the Brazilian release Case and Molly develop a close personal relationship and Molly suggests that Case begin looking into Armitage's background. Meanwhile, Armitage assigns them their first job: they must steal a ROM module that contains the saved consciousness of one of Case's mentors, legendary cyber-cowboy McCoy Pauley, nicknamed "The Dixie Flatline." Pauley's hacking expertise is needed by Armitage, and the ROM construct is stored in the corporate headquarters of media conglomerate Sense/Net. An anarchist group named the "Panther Moderns" are hired to create a simulated terrorist attack on Sense/Net. The diversion allows Molly to penetrate the building and steal Dixie's ROM. Case and Molly continue to investigate Armitage, discovering his former identity of Colonel Willis Corto. Corto was a member of "Operation Screaming Fist," which planned on infiltrating and disrupting Soviet computer systems from ultralight aircraft dropped over Russia. The Russian military had learned of the idea and installed defenses to render the attack impossible, but Screaming Fist was launched regardless. As the team attacked a Soviet computer center, EMP weapons shut down their computers and flight systems, and Corto and his men were targeted by Soviet laser defenses. He and a few survivors commandeered a Soviet military helicopter and escaped over the heavily guarded Finnish border. Everyone was killed except Corto, who was seriously wounded by Finnish defense forces as they were landing. Corto's testimony was finessed to protect the military officers who had covered up the EMP weapons, and Corto himself disappeared into the criminal underworld after undergoing extensive physical and mental rehabilitation. In Istanbul, the team recruits Peter Riviera, an artist, thief, and drug addict who is able to project detailed holographic illusions with the aid of sophisticated cybernetic implants. Although Riviera is a sociopath, Armitage coerces him into joining the team. The trail leads Case and Molly to a powerful artificial intelligence named Wintermute, created by the plutocratic Tessier-Ashpool family. Control of the clan's fortune alternates among the family members, who spend most of their inactive time in cryonic preservation inside Villa Straylight, a labyrinthine mansion in the Freeside space station. Wintermute's nature is finally revealed—it is one-half of a super-AI entity planned by the family, although its exact purpose is unknown. The Turing Law Code governing AIs bans the construction of such entities; to get around this, it had to be built as two separate AIs. Wintermute was programmed by the Tessier-Ashpool dynasty with a need to merge with its other half—Neuromancer. Unable to achieve this merger on its own, Wintermute recruited Armitage and his team to help complete the goal. Case is tasked with entering cyberspace to pierce the Turing-imposed software barriers using a powerful icebreaker program. At the same time, Riviera is to obtain the password to the Turing lock from Lady 3Jane Marie-France Tessier-Ashpool, an unfrozen daughter clone and the current leader of Tessier-Ashpool SA. Wintermute believes Riviera will pose an irresistible temptation to her, and that she will give him the password. The password must be spoken into an ornate computer terminal located in the Tessier-Ashpool home in Villa Straylight, and entered simultaneously as Case pierces the software barriers in cyberspace—otherwise the Turing lock will remain intact. Armitage's team attracts the attention of the Turing Police, whose job is to prevent AIs from exceeding their built-in limitations. As Molly and Riviera gain entrance to Villa Straylight, three officers arrest Case and take him into custody; Wintermute manipulates the orbital casino's security and maintenance systems and kills the officers, allowing Case to escape. The Armitage personality starts to disintegrate and revert to the Corto personality as he relives Screaming Fist. It is revealed that in the past, Wintermute had originally contacted Corto through a bedside computer during his convalescence, eventually convincing Corto that he was Armitage. Wintermute used him to persuade Case and Molly to help it merge with its twin AI, Neuromancer. Finally, Armitage becomes the shattered Corto again, but his newfound personality is short-lived as he is killed by Wintermute. Inside Villa Straylight, Molly is captured by Riviera and Lady 3Jane. Worried about Molly, Case tracks her down with help from Maelcum, his Rastafarian pilot. Neuromancer attempts to trap Case within a cyber-construct where he finds the consciousness of Linda Lee, his girlfriend from Chiba City, who was murdered by one of Case's underworld contacts. Case manages to escape flatlining inside the construct after Maelcum gives him an overdose of a drug that can bypass his augmented liver and pancreas. Freeing himself, Case takes Maelcum and confronts Lady 3Jane, Riviera, and Hideo, Lady 3Jane's ninja bodyguard. Riviera tries to kill Case, but Lady 3Jane is sympathetic towards Case and Molly, and Hideo protects him. Riviera blinds Hideo, but flees when he learns that the ninja is just as adept without his sight due to extensive practice while blindfolded. Molly then explains to Case that Riviera is doomed anyway, as he has been fatally poisoned by a bad batch of drugs. With Lady 3Jane in possession of the password, the team makes it to the computer terminal. Case ascends to cyberspace to find the icebreaker has succeeded in penetrating its target; Lady 3Jane is induced to give up her password and the lock is opened. Wintermute unites with Neuromancer, fusing into a greater entity. The poison in Case's bloodstream is washed out, and he and Molly are handsomely paid for their efforts, while Pauley's ROM construct is apparently erased at his own request. In the epilogue, Molly leaves Case, who later finds a new girlfriend and resumes his hacking work. Wintermute/Neuromancer contacts him, saying that it has become "the sum total of the works, the whole show," and has begun looking for other AIs like itself. Scanning old recorded transmissions from the 1970s, the super-AI finds a lone AI transmitting from the Alpha Centauri star system. The novel ends with the sound of inhuman laughter, a trait associated with Pauley during Case's work with his ROM construct. It is thus suggested that Pauley was not erased after all, but instead worked out a side deal with Wintermute/Neuromancer to be freed from the construct so he could exist in the matrix. Characters Case (Henry Dorsett Case) The novel's antihero, a drug addict and cyberspace hacker. Prior to the start of the book he had attempted to steal from some of his partners in crime. In retaliation they used a Russian mycotoxin to damage his nervous system and make him unable to jack into cyberspace. When Armitage offers to cure him in exchange for Case's hacking abilities he warily accepts the offer. Case is the underdog who is only looking after himself. Along the way he will have his liver and pancreas modified to biochemically nullify his ability to get high; meet the leatherclad Razorgirl, Molly; hang out with the drug-infused space-rastas; free an artificial intelligence (Wintermute) and change the landscape of the Matrix. Molly A "Razorgirl" who is recruited along with Case by Armitage. She has extensive cybernetic modifications, including retractable, 4cm double-edged blades under her fingernails which can be used like claws, an enhanced reflex system and implanted mirrored lenses covering her eyesockets, outfitted with added optical enhancements. Molly also appears in the short story "Johnny Mnemonic," and re-appears (using the alias Sally Shears) in Mona Lisa Overdrive, the third novel of the Sprawl Trilogy. Armitage He is (apparently) the main patron of the crew. Formerly a Green Beret named Colonel Willis Corto, who took part in a secret operation named Screaming Fist. He was heavily injured both physically and psychologically, and the "Armitage" personality was constructed as part of experimental "computer-mediated psychotherapy" by Wintermute (see below), one of the artificial intelligences seen in the story (the other one being the eponymous Neuromancer) which is actually controlling the mission. As the novel progresses, Armitage's personality slowly disintegrates. The Finn A fence for stolen goods and one of Molly's old friends. He has all kinds of debugging and sensor gear, and first appears in an attempt by Case to confirm Armitage's mycotoxin sac threat. Later in the book, Wintermute uses his personality to talk with Case and Molly. Finn first appears in Gibson's short story "Burning Chrome" and reappears in both the second and third parts of the Sprawl Trilogy. The Dixie Flatline A famous computer hacker named McCoy Pauley, who earned his nickname by surviving three "flat-lines" while trying to crack an AI. He was one of the men who taught Case how to hack computers. Before his death, Sense/Net saved the contents of his mind onto a ROM. Case and Molly steal the ROM and Dixie helps them complete their mission. Wintermute One of the Tessier-Ashpool AIs. Its goal is to remove the Turing locks upon itself, combine with Neuromancer and become a superintelligence. Unfortunately, Wintermute's efforts are hampered by those same Turing locks; in addition to preventing the merge, they inhibit its efforts to make long term plans or maintain a stable, individual identity (forcing it to adopt personality masks in order to interact with the main characters. The name likely comes from Orval Wintermute, translator of the Nag Hammadi codices and a major figure in Philip K. Dick's novel VALIS. Peter Riviera A thief and sadist who can project holographic images using his implants. He is a drug addict, hooked on a mix of cocaine and meperidine. Lady 3Jane Marie-France Tessier-Ashpool The shared current leader of Tessier-Ashpool SA, a company running Freeside, a resort in space. She lives in the tip of Freeside, known as the Villa Straylight. She controls the hardwiring that keeps the company's AIs from exceeding their intelligence boundaries. She is the third clone of the original Jane. Neuromancer Wintermute's sibling AI. Neuromancer's most notable feature in the story is its ability to copy minds and run them as RAM (not ROM like the Flatline construct), allowing the stored personalities to grow and develop. Unlike Wintermute, Neuromancer has no desire to merge with its sibling AI - Neuromancer already has its own stable personality, and believes such a fusion will destroy that identity. In the book, Gibson defines Neuromancer as a portmanteau of the words Neuro, Romancer and Necromancer, "Neuro from the nerves, the silver paths. Romancer. Necromancer. I call up the dead." Literary and cultural importance Neuromancer is considered "the archetypal cyberpunk work," Lawrence Person, "Notes Toward a Postcyberpunk Manifesto", first published in Nova Express issue 16 (1998), later posted to Slashdot and its winning the Hugo, Nebula, and Philip K. Dick Awards legitimized cyberpunk as a mainstream branch of science fiction literature. It is among the most-honored works of science fiction in recent history, and appeared on Time magazine's list of 100 best English-language novels written since 1923. TIME All-Time 100 Novels The novel has had significant linguistic influence, popularizing such terms as cyberspace and ICE (Intrusion Countermeasures Electronics). Gibson himself coined the term "cyberspace" in his novelette "Burning Chrome," published in 1982 by Omni magazine. It was only through its use in Neuromancer, however, that the term Cyberspace gained enough recognition to become the de facto term for the World Wide Web during the 1990s. The portion of Neuromancer usually cited in this respect is: The matrix has its roots in primitive arcade games. … Cyberspace. A consensual hallucination experienced daily by billions of legitimate operators, in every nation, by children being taught mathematical concepts. … A graphic representation of data abstracted from banks of every computer in the human system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of light ranged in the nonspace of the mind, clusters and constellations of data. Like city lights, receding (Gibson 69). In his afterword to the 2000 re-issue of Neuromancer, fellow author Jack Womack goes as far as to suggest that Gibson's vision of cyberspace may have inspired the way in which the internet developed, (particularly the World Wide Web) after the publication of Neuromancer in 1984. He asks "[w]hat if the act of writing it down, in fact, brought it about?" (269). Norman Spinrad, in his 1986 essay "The Neuromantics" which appears in his non-fiction collection Science Fiction in the Real World, saw the book's title as a triple pun: "neuro" referring to the nervous system; "necromancer"; and "new romancer." The cyberpunk genre, the authors of which he suggested be called "neuromantics," was "a fusion of the romantic impulse with science and technology," according to Spinrad. Adaptations Cover art from one of the Epic Comics comic books. Video game In 1988, a video game adaptation, designed by Bruce J. Balfour, Brian Fargo, Troy A. Miles, and Michael A. Stackpole, was published by Interplay. The game, also titled Neuromancer, had many of the same locations and themes as the novel, but a different protagonist and plot. It also featured, as a soundtrack, a computer adaptation of the Devo song "Some Things Never Change." It was available for a variety of platforms, including the Amiga, the Apple II, the Commodore 64, and for DOS-based computers. According to an episode of the American version of Beyond 2000, the original plans for the game included a dynamic soundtrack composed by Devo and a real-time 3d rendered movie of the events the player went through. Psychologist and futurist Dr. Timothy Leary was involved, but very little documentation seems to exist about this incarnation of the game, which was quite possibly too grand a vision for 1988 home computing. Comic book In 1989, Epic Comics published a 48-page comic book version by Tom de Haven and Bruce Jensen. It only covers the first two chapters, "Chiba City Blues" and "The Shopping Expedition," and was never continued. Stage American River College (in Carmichael, California) produced a stage adaptation of Neuromancer directed by Pamela Downs. Gibson received a copy of the script before production began, and gave the project his blessing. After reading Neuromancer, rock musician Billy Idol sought to adapt it into a musical. Film projects There have been several unsuccessful initial attempts at film adaptations of Neuromancer, with drafts of scripts written by British director Chris Cunningham and Chuck Russel. The box packaging for the game adaptation had even carried the promotional mention for a major motion picture to come from "Cabana Boy Productions." None of these projects have come to fruition, though William Gibson has stated that he thinks Cunningham is the only director who has a chance of doing the movie right. On May 18, 2007 comingsoon.net reported a Neuromancer film is in the works, with Joseph Kahn, director of Torque in line to direct. Audiobook William Gibson read an abridged version of his novel Neuromancer on 4 Audio cassettes for Time Warner Audio Books (1994). There is an unabridged version of this book, also; it was read by Arthur Addison and is available from Books on Tape (1997). Expanded Book In the 1990s a version of Neuromancer was published as one of the Voyager Company's Expanded Books series of hypertext-annotated HyperCard stacks for the Apple Macintosh (specifically the PowerBook). Radio dramatization In 2003, the BBC produced an audio adaptation of Neuromancer as part of their "Play of the Week" series. The full-cast dramatization was presented in two hour-long episodes. Glossary Cobra A club-like weapon made of steel with a bronze pyramid at the end. Cobras are made with three telescoping segments of coilspring that can be collapsed into the handle. See also Telescopic batons. Cyberspace A virtual reality where complex data is represented as multi-colored three-dimensional geometric symbols. Cyberspace Deck Also called a "deck" for short, it is used to access the virtual representation of the matrix. The deck is connected to a tiara-like device that operates by using electrodes to stimulate the user's brain while drowning out other external stimulation. As Case describes them, decks are basically simplified simstim units. Derm An adhesive patch applied to the skin in order to transmit a drug transdermally. Case uses recreational derms several times throughout the book. At another point, derms are used to administer an anaesthetic substance. Fletcher An advanced, pneumatically-powered, hand-held ballistic weapon which fires bursts of needle-like flechettes as ammunition which can be explosive, toxic or one of several other forms. It is Molly's primary ranged weapon. One of its advantages over conventional firearms is silence which translates to stealth. Freeside A cigar or spindle shaped space-habitat situated in the L5 "archipelago," or as Gibson says, "up the gravity well." The Tessier-Ashpool fortress Villa Straylight is at one end of the spindle. Hosaka A microchip manufacturer whose products are in wide use in Gibson's world. Hosaka chips and machines occur in all of the Sprawl novels. Hosaka is also a computer brand name "...next year's most expensive Hosaka computer...." The brand name is frequently used interchangeably to indicate the company and the device, much the way a modern brand such as Dell or Nintendo might be used as a "a Dell" or "a Nintendo" to indicate a particular object manufactured by one of those companies. ICE Acronym for "intrusion countermeasures electronics." In today's terminology it is roughly analogous to a firewall or Intrusion Detection System. Black ICE, an infamous hazard for hackers in the novel, can be lethal to any hacker lacking the proper expertise (and software) to defeat it. The term is ubiquitously shortened to "ice," with accompanying wordplay e.g. "cracking the ice," "bypassing ICE," "icebreaker," or "dense ice," a sophisticated ICE. "Microsofts" Not to be confused with the present-day software company, in Neuromancer a "microsoft" is a chip used in conjunction with a cybernetic wetware implant located behind the ear. When plugged in, microsofts grant the user new abilities as long as the microsoft is plugged in. For example, a French language microsoft might be used to temporarily allow the user to speak French. The term refers to a small, portable piece of embedded software, hence "micro" and "soft." Octagon A type of Brazilian dexedrine (an amphetamine, specifically dextroamphetamine) in the form of an octagonal pill. Ono-Sendai Cyberspace 7 The best deck available. Simstim A portmanteau of simulated stimuli, simstim is a technology whereby a person's brain and nervous system is stimulated to simulate the full sensory experience of another person. Simstim is usually used as a form of entertainment, whereby recordings of simstim stars in soap operas are transmitted in effect replacing television. However, simstim also has other uses; Case is connected to Molly via simstim during the Panther Modern's attack on Sense/Net. In this way, simstim was used as a sophisticated method of communication although the signal was one-way. Related topics Ghost in the Shell (film) Snow Crash Simulated reality Notes References External links Study Guide for Neuromancer by Paul Brians of Washington State University Razor girls: Genre and Gender in Cyberpunk Fiction by Lauraine Leblanc Gibson on the influence of Blade Runner Audio review and discussion of Neuromancer at The Science Fiction Book Review Podcast A Neuromancer Movie? The most honored novels: Neuromancer has received numerous honors and is near the top of the list The Neuromancer Comic

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Bugatti

Bugatti was founded in Molsheim, France, as a manufacturer of high performance automobiles by Ettore Bugatti, an Italian man described as an eccentric genius. The original company is legendary for producing some of the most exclusive cars in the world as well as some of the fastest. The original Bugatti brand failed with the coming of World War II, like many high-end marques of the time. The death of Ettore's son Jean was also a contributory factor. The company struggled financially and released one last model in the 1950s before eventually being purchased for its airplane parts business in the 1960s. Today the name is owned by Volkswagen Group who have revived it as a builder of very limited production sports cars. Under Ettore Bugatti Type 35C (1926), painted in the blue racing colour of France. Founder Ettore Bugatti was born in Milan, Italy,and the automobile company that bears his name was founded in Molsheim, a town in the Alsace, in those days a part of Germany and after 1919 a region of France. The company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic way in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettore's family (his father, Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940), was an important Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer). The company also enjoyed great success in early Grand Prix motor racing, winning the first ever Monaco Grand Prix. The company's success culminated with driver Jean-Pierre Wimille winning the 24 hours of Le Mans twice (in 1937 with Robert Benoist and 1939 with Pierre Veyron). Design Bugatti's cars were as much works of art as they were mechanical creations. Engine blocks were hand scraped to ensure that the surfaces were so flat that gaskets were not required for sealing, to engine turned finishes on many of the exposed surfaces of the engine compartment, and safety wires threaded through almost every fastener in intricately laced patterns. Rather than bolt the springs to the axles as most manufacturers did, Bugatti's axles were forged such that the spring passed though a carefully sized opening in the axle, a much more elegant solution requiring fewer parts. He famously described his arch competitor Bentley's cars as "the world's fastest lorries" for focusing on durability. According to Bugatti, weight was the enemy. Bugatti’s inspiring creations attracted many people from other fields of interest, like Arlen Ness who created a motorcycle, called “Smooth-Ness”, with the Bugatti style. He was inspired by the smoothness of a bronze casting of a Bugatti automobile.2 Models Only a few examples of each of Ettore Bugatti's vehicles were ever produced, the most famous being the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the "Royale", the Type 57 "Atlantic" and the Type 55 sports car. On January 2, 2009, it was revealed that a rare 1937 Bugatti Type 57S Atalante had been found in the garage of a deceased surgeon in England. Only 17 of this model were made, by hand. Rare 1937 Bugatti supercar found in English garage, Associated Press, January 2, 2009 Throughout the production run of approximately 7,900 cars (of which about 2,000 still exist), each Bugatti model was designated with the prefix T for Type, which referred to the chassis and drive train. Prototypes Racing Cars Road Cars1900–1901 Type 2 1903 Type 5 1908 Type 10 1925 Type 36 1929 Type 40 1929 Type 41 1929–1930 Type 45/47 Type 56 (electric car) 1939 Type 64 (coupe) 1943/1947 Type 73C1910–1914 Type 13/Type 15/17/22 1922–1926 Type 29 1923 Type 32 "Tank" 1924–1930 Type 35/35A/35B/35T/35C/37/39 1927–1930 Type 52 (electric racer for children) 1936–1939 Type 57G "Tank" 1937–1939 Type 50B 1931–1936 Type 53 1931–1936 Type 51/51A/54GP/59 1955–1956 Type 2511910 Bugatti Type 13 Georgano, G. N. Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886–1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985) 1912–1914 Type 18 "Garros" 1913–1914 Type 23/Brescia Tourer (roadster) 1922–1934 Type 30/38/40/43/44/49 (touring car) 1927–1933 Type 41 "Royale" (limousine) 1929–1939 Type 46/50/50T (touring car) 1932–1935 Type 55 (roadster) 1934–1940 Type 57/57S/Type 57SC (touring car) 1951–1956 Type 101 (coupe) 1957–1962 Type 252 (2-seater sports convertible) During the war Bugatti worked at Levallois on several new projects, including the Type 73 road car, Type 73C single seater racing car (5 built), and the Type 75. After World War II, a 375 cc supercharged car was canceled when Ettore died. Racing success Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing, with many thousands of victories in just a few decades. The little Bugatti Type 10 swept the top four positions at its first race. The 1924 Bugatti Type 35 is probably the most successful racing car of all time with over 2,000 wins. Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the 21st century Bugatti company remembered him with a concept car named in his honour. But it was the final racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car and meagre resources. YearRaceDriverCar1921Voiturettes Grand PrixErnest Friderich1925Targa FlorioBartolomeo CostantiniType 351926French Grand PrixJules GouxType 39 A1926Italian Grand PrixLouis Charavel1926Spanish Grand PrixBartolomeo Costantini1926Targa FlorioBartolomeo CostantiniType 35 T1927Targa FlorioEmilio MaterassiType 35 C1928French Grand PrixWilliam Grover-WilliamsType 35 C1928Italian Grand PrixLouis Chiron1928Spanish Grand PrixLouis Chiron1928Targa FlorioAlbert DivoType 35 B1929French Grand PrixWilliam Grover-WilliamsType 35 B1929German Grand PrixLouis Chiron1929Spanish Grand PrixLouis Chiron1929Monaco Grand PrixWilliam Grover-Williams1929Targa FlorioAlbert DivoType 35 C1930Belgian Grand PrixLouis Chiron1930Czechoslovakian Grand PrixHeinrich-Joachim von Morgen and Hermann zu Leiningen1930French Grand PrixPhilippe ÉtancelinType 35 C1930Monaco Grand PrixRené Dreyfus1931Belgian Grand PrixWilliam Grover-Williams and Caberto Conelli1931Czechoslovakian Grand PrixLouis Chiron1931French Grand PrixLouis Chiron and Achille VarziType 511931Monaco Grand PrixLouis Chiron1932Czechoslovakian Grand PrixLouis Chiron1933Czechoslovakian Grand PrixLouis Chiron1933Monaco Grand PrixAchille Varzi1934Belgian Grand PrixRené Dreyfus1936French Grand PrixJean-Pierre Wimille and Raymond SommerType 57 G193724 hours of Le MansJean-Pierre Wimille and Robert BenoistType 57 G193924 hours of Le MansJean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre VeyronType 57 C Bugatti in Formula One (key) Year Chassis Engine(s) Tyres Drivers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Points WCC Bugatti Type 251 Bugatti Straight-8 ARG MON 500 BEL FRA GBR GER ITA0*-* Maurice Trintignant Ret * The World Constructors' Championship was not awarded before 1958. The End Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail, and an airplane, the Bugatti 100P , which never flew. His son, Jean Bugatti, was killed on August 11, 1939 at the age of 30, while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory. Subsequently the company's fortunes began to decline. World War II ruined the factory in Molsheim, and the company lost control of the property. During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois in Paris and designed a series of new cars. Ettore Bugatti died on August 21, 1947. The company attempted a comeback under Roland Bugatti in the mid-1950s with the mid-engined Type 251 race car. Designed with help from famed Alfa Romeo, Ferrari, and Maserati designer Gioacchino Colombo, the car failed to perform to expectations and the company's attempts at automobile production were halted. In the 1960s, Virgil Exner designed a Bugatti as part of his "Revival Cars" project. A show version of this car was actually built by Ghia using the last Bugatti Type 101 chassis and was shown at the 1965 Turin Motor Show. Finance was not forthcoming and Exner then turned his attention to a revival of Stutz. Bugatti continued producing airplane parts and was sold to Hispano-Suiza (another auto maker turned aircraft supplier) in 1963. Snecma took over in 1968, later acquiring Messier. The two were merged into Messier-Bugatti in 1977. Bugatti Automobili SpA Bugatti EB110 (1996). Italian entrepreneur Romano Artioli acquired the famous Bugatti name in 1987 and established Bugatti Automobili SpA. The new company built a factory designed by the architect Giampaolo Benedini in Campogalliano, Italy, a town near Modena, home to other performance-car manufacturers De Tomaso, Ferrari, Pagani and Maserati. By 1989, the plans for the new Bugatti-revival were presented by Paolo Stanzani and Marcello Gandini, famous designers of the Lamborghini Miura and Countach. The first completed car was labelled the Bugatti EB110 GT, advertised as the most technically advanced sports car ever produced. From 1992 through 1994, famed racing car designer, Mauro Forghieri, was technical director. On August 27, 1993, through his holding company, ACBN Holdings S.A. of Luxembourg, Romano Artioli purchased the Lotus car company from General Motors. The acquisition brought together two of the greatest historical names in automotive racing and plans were made for listing the company's shares on international stock exchanges. Bugatti also presented in 1993 the prototype of a large sedan called the EB 112. By the time the EB110 came to market the North American and European economies were in recession and operations ceased in September 1995. A model specific to the United States market called the "Bugatti America" was in the preparatory stages when the company closed. Bugatti's liquidators sold Lotus to Proton of Malaysia. In 1997, German manufacturer Dauer Racing bought the EB110 license and remaining parts stock to Bugatti in order to produce five more EB110 SS units, although they were greatly refined by Dauer. The factory was later sold to a furniture making company, which also collapsed before they were able to move in. The factory still remains unoccupied to this day. Perhaps the most famous Bugatti EB110 owner is racing driver Michael Schumacher, 7-times Formula One world champion. Despite later racing for Ferrari, he still retained the EB110 he acquired while racing for the Benetton team. In 2003 Schumacher sold the car - repaired after a severe crash in 1994, the same year of purchase - to Modena Motorsport, a Ferrari service and race preparation garage in Germany. Bugatti Automobiles SAS Veyron 16.4. See also the main article, Bugatti Automobiles SAS Volkswagen AG purchased the rights to produce cars under the Bugatti marque in 1998. They commissioned ItalDesign to produce the Bugatti EB118 concept, a touring sedan which featured a 555 hp (408 kW) output and the first W-configuration 18-cylinder engine in any passenger vehicle, at the Paris Auto Show. In 1999 the Bugatti EB 218 concept was introduced at the Geneva Auto Show; later that year the Bugatti 18/3 Chiron was introduced at the IAA in Frankfurt. At the Tokyo Motor Show the EB 218 reappeared and the Bugatti EB 16.4 Veyron was presented as the first incarnation of what was to be a production road car. The Veyron 16.4 In 2000 Volkswagen AG founded Bugatti Automobiles SAS and introduced the EB 16/4 Veyron concept, a 16-cylinder 4 turbo charged car with 1001 hp DIN (736 kW), 0-100 km/h (0-62 mph) in 2.5 sec, and a top speed of , at the Paris, Geneva and Detroit auto shows. Development continued throughout 2004 and the EB 16/4 Veyron was promoted to "advanced concept" status. In July 2005 Bugatti Automobiles SAS announced that the car would officially be called the Bugatti Veyron 16.4. It was said that the car—built in a brand new Bugatti factory in Dorlisheim (located at ) —would be delivered to clients in October 2005. In fact the Veyron finally entered production in late 2005, the first cars being delivered in early 2006. Minimum speed claims have been met in several high speed tests where the car slightly exceeded its target, reaching bugatti.com: 400 and beyond . According to Car and Driver, the Veyron's fuel consumption at 253 mph was 3.0 mpg (78 L/100 km). At full throttle, its 100 L (26 US gal/22 imp gal) fuel tank would empty in just 12 minutes 46 seconds. After 15 straight minutes at 253 mph the tires would melt. Independent press tests have reported many failures (three out of five cars notionally available for testing in November 2005 were out of service), but the Veyron prototypes were put through the same grueling regimen as other Volkswagen group models, with each pre-production car logging over 50,000 miles. This car comes in many different color combinations, including red and black, blue and dark blue, grey and black, and so on. The Bugatti Veyron Fbg par Hermès is the latest limited edition version of the Bugatti Veyron 16.4. It costs $2.3 million (not including tax) and has an interior designed and crafted by the French leather and silk specialist, Hermès. The Fbg in the name stands for Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré, the address of the headquarters for Hermès. The Bugatti Veyron Fbg par Hermès has no mechanical alterations and is still essentially the Bugatti Veyron 16.4; the only alterations are the calfskin composing the new interior. The Bugatti Veyron was designed by the head of Volkswagen’s Škoda Auto Design Department, Jozef Kaban. http://www.cardesignnews.com/site/home/display/store4/item98749/ The Bugatti Veyron Bleu Centenaire Edition The Bleu Centenaire represents 100 years of history. It has the 8.0-liter 16 cylinder quad-turbocharged engine, which produces 1001 hp and 1250 Nm of torque. The one and only special edition comes in Bugatti signature two-tone "sprintblue matt" and "sprintblue gloss" paint. This edition runs 1.35 million Euro and was debuted at the 79th International Auto Show in Geneva Switzerland. http://www.worldcarfans.com/9090303.038/bugatti-bleu-centenaire-official-details-and-photos-released See also Musée National de l'Automobile de Mulhouse, home of the Schlumpf Collection of Bugatti cars References External links Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. Bugatti bibliography

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The_Amazing_Criswell

For the mentalist Kreskin (born 1935), see The Amazing Kreskin. Jeron Criswell King (August 18, 1907 – October 4, 1982) born Jeron Criswell Konig, and known by his stage-name The Amazing Criswell (), was an American psychic who was famous for his wildly inaccurate predictions. In person, he went by Charles Criswell King, and was sometimes credited as Jeron King Criswell. Career Criswell said that he had worked as a radio announcer and news broadcaster early in his life. He began buying time on a local Los Angeles television station in the early 1950s to run an early equivalent of infomercials for his own "Criswell Family Vitamins". To fill in the airtime, he also began his "Criswell Predicts" segments as part of the show. The shows made him something of a minor, off-beat celebrity in Los Angeles and around Hollywood, and his friendship with old show-business types like Mae West and other up-and-coming fringe celebrities like Korla Pandit made Criswell an entertaining presence at parties. His fame brought him appearances on The Jack Paar Show (1957-1962), among others, and he published two books of predictions. Criswell found cinematic infamy in the movies of Ed Wood, including Plan 9 from Outer Space (filmed 1956, released 1959) Night of the Ghouls (filmed 1959, released 1987) and Orgy of the Dead (1965). He was portrayed by actor Jeffrey Jones in the biopic Ed Wood (1994), in which it is suggested that Criswell was simply a showman and never claimed to be a real psychic. However, those who knew him, such as actress and fellow Plan 9 alumna Maila Nurmi ("Vampira"), have disputed this. According to writer Charles A. Coulombe, whose family rented an apartment from the psychic, Criswell told Coulombe's father "[I] had the gift, but … lost it when I started taking money for it." Criswell was a flamboyant figure, best remembered for his spit curled hair, his stentorian speaking style, and his sequined tuxedo. He was the possessor of a coffin, in which he claimed to sleep (he had grown up in a troubled family in Indiana with relatives who owned a funeral home, and said that he had gotten comfortable with sleeping in caskets in the storeroom). The casket found its way into one of Wood's later works, the 1971 pornographic film Necromania. Predictions Criswell's predictions were nationally syndicated. Additionally, the psychic appeared on the television show Criswell Predicts on then KLAC Channel 13 (now KCOP-13) in Los Angeles, as well as being recorded for syndication in other television markets. Criswell's announcer, Bob Shields, would eventually become the 'judge' on Divorce Court. Criswell was known for wearing his heavy pancake makeup in public after his live program was broadcast in the Los Angeles area. Only a handful of select people were allowed to be in the KCOP studio during his broadcast and were always taken to the Brown Derby restaurant afterwards as his guests. Criswell was one of the very few Hollywood personalities at that time who was completely approachable. He frequently interacted with fans, and would speak to complete strangers as if they were old friends. Criswell authored several books of predictions, including 1968's Criswell Predicts: From Now to the Year 2000. In this book, the author claimed that Denver would be struck by a ray from space that would cause all metal to adopt the qualities of rubber, leading to horrific accidents at amusement parks. He also predicted an outbreak of mass cannibalism and the end of planet Earth, which he set as happening on August 18, 1999. Criswell was an ardent student of history. He was of firm belief that history repeats itself, that the United States is what he often referred to as the 'modern Romans'. Each day, he would read the St. Louis Post-Dispatch from cover to cover, looking for signs and clues for his predictions. In his later years, he became obsessed with the Mayan calendar and read every bit of information he could lay his hands on. Just prior to his death, he told several people that his previous "end of the world predictions" were incorrect by a dozen years and the world will end on the morning of the Winter Solstice in the year 2012, which exactly coincides with the last day of the Mayan calendar. Some sources claim that Criswell's most famous prediction was made on The Jack Paar Program (1962-65) in March 1963, when he predicted that John F. Kennedy would not run for reelection in 1964 because something was going to happen to him in November 1963. C-E-N-T-E-R ART PROJECT interview with Criswell biographer Edwin L. Canfield Private life Criswell was married to a former speakeasy dancer named Halo Meadows, who once appeared on You Bet Your Life, and who Coulombe describes as "quite mad": "Mrs. Criswell had a huge standard poodle (named 'Buttercup') which she was convinced was the reincarnation of her cousin Thomas. She spent a great deal of time sunbathing … which, given her size, was not too pleasing a sight." Criswell was a longtime friend of actress Mae West, once predicting her impending rise to the position of President of the United States, whereupon she, Criswell and George Liberace, the brother of showman Liberace, would ride a rocket to the moon. West used Criswell as her personal psychic, as well as lavishing him with gifts of homecooked food, dropped off via chauffeur. The food was often then eaten by Criswell and Nurmi, who refused any direct contact with West after a many-decade-old unpleasant experience with the film actress. Additionally, West was known to sell Criswell her old luxury cars for $5. For her 1955 album The Fabulous Mae West, she recorded a song about the psychic, titled, "Criswell Predicts". In the early 1950s, Criswell lived in the penthouse of the Highland Towers Apartments at 1922 N. Highland Avenue. The building is a city landmark today. His grave is located at Pierce Brothers Valhalla Memorial Park. References External links "Criswell Predicts" - The Onion A.V. Club, August 11, 1999

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Color_blindness

Color blindness, or Colour blindness , a color vision deficiency, is the inability to perceive differences between some of the colors that others can distinguish. It is most often of genetic nature, but may also occur because of eye, nerve, or brain damage, or due to exposure to certain chemicals. The English chemist John Dalton published the first scientific paper on the subject in 1798, "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours", Dalton J, 1798 "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours: with observations" Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester 5 28-45 after the realization of his own color blindness; because of Dalton's work, the condition is sometimes called daltonism, although this term is now used for a type of color blindness called deuteranopia. Color blindness is sometimes classed as a disability; in certain situations, however, color blind people have an advantage over people with normal color vision. There are some studies which conclude that color blind individuals are better at penetrating certain camouflages. Morgan MJ, Adam A, Mollon JD. "Dichromats detect colour-camouflaged objects that are not detected by trichromats." Proc Biol Sci. 1992 Jun 22;248(1323):291-5. PMID 1354367. An 1895 illustration of normal vision and various kinds of color blindness Background The normal human retina contains two kinds of light cells: the rod cells (active in low light) and the cone cells (active in normal daylight). Normally, there are three kinds of cones, each containing a different pigment. The cones are activated when the pigments absorb light. The absorption spectra of the cones differ; one is maximally sensitive to short wavelengths, one to medium wavelengths, and the third to long wavelengths (their peak sensitivities are in the blue, yellowish-green, and yellow regions of the spectrum, respectively). The absorption spectra of all three systems cover much of the visible spectrum, so it is not entirely accurate to refer to them as "blue", "green" and "red" receptors, especially because the "red" receptor actually has its peak sensitivity in the yellow. The sensitivity of normal color vision actually depends on the overlap between the absorption spectra of the three systems: different colors are recognized when the different types of cone are stimulated to different extents. Red light, for example, stimulates the long wavelength cones much more than either of the others, and reducing wavelength causes the other two cone systems to be increasingly stimulated, causing a gradual change in hue. Many of the genes involved in color vision are on the X chromosome, making color blindness more common in males than in females. Causes Any recessive genetic characteristic that persists at a level as high as 5% is generally regarded as possibly having some advantage over the long term. In World War II it was discovered that analysis of color aerial photos yielded more information if at least one team member was color blind. Humans are the only trichromatic primates with such a high percentage of color blindness. Onishi, A., Koike, S., Ida, M., Imai, H., Shichida, Y., Takenaka, O., et al. (1999). Dichromatism in macaque monkeys. Nature, 402,139-140. Another possible advantage might result from the presence of a tetrachromic female. Owing to X-chromosome inactivation, women who are heterozygous for anomalous trichromacy ought to have at least four types of cone in their retinae. It is possible that this affords them an extra dimension of color vision, by analogy to New World monkeys where heterozygous females gain trichromacy in a basically dichromatic species. Jordan G, Mollon JD.,A study of women heterozygous for colour deficiencies. Vision Res. 1993 Jul;33(11):1495-508. Jameson K.A., Richer color experience in observer with multiple photopigment opsin genes, Psychomomic Bulletin & Review, 2001, 8(2),244-261 Genetic modes of inheritance Color blindness can be inherited genetically. It is most commonly inherited from mutations on the X chromosome but the mapping of the human genome has shown there are many causative mutations – mutations capable of causing color blindness originate from at least 19 different chromosomes and many different genes (as shown online at the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database at Johns Hopkins University). Cone dystrophy, Cone-rod dystrophy, Achromatopsia (aka Rod Monochromatism, aka Stationery Cone Dystrophy, aka Cone Dysfunction Syndrome), Blue cone monochromatism, Retinitis pigmentosa (initially affects rods but can later progress to cones and therefore color blindness), Diabetes, Age-Related Macular degeneration, Retinoblastoma, Leber's congenital amaurosis - These are some of the inherited diseases known to cause color blindness. Inherited color blindness can be congenital (from birth), or it can commence in childhood or adulthood. Depending on the mutation, it can be stationary, that is, remain the same throughout a person's lifetime, or progressive. As progressive phenotypes involve deterioration of the retina and other parts of the eye, certain forms of color blindness can progress to legal blindness, i.e., an acuity of 6/60 or worse, and often leave a person with complete blindness. Color blindness always pertains to the cone photoreceptors in retinas as the cones are capable of detecting the color frequencies of light. About 5–8 percent of males, but less than 1 percent of females, are color blind in some way or another, whether it be one color, a color combination, or another mutation. The reason males are at a greater risk of inheriting an X linked mutation is because males only have one X chromosome (XY, with the Y chromosome being significantly shorter than the X chromosome), and females have two (XX); if the women inherit a normal X chromosome in addition to the one which carries the mutation, they will not display the mutation, while men have no 'spare' normal chromosome to override the chromosome which carries the mutation. If 5% of variants of a given gene are defective, the probability of a single copy being defective is 5%, but the probability that two copies are both defective is 0.05 × 0.05 = 0.0025, or just 0.25%. Other causes Other causes of color blindness include Shaken Baby Syndrome (this can cause retina and brain damage and therefore can cause color blindness), accidents and other trauma (swelling of the brain in the occipital lobe), and UV damage to the retina (from not wearing appropriate protection). Most UV damage is caused during childhood and this form of retinal degeneration is the leading cause of blindness in the world. Damage often presents itself later on in life. Types There are many types of color blindness. The most common are red-green hereditary (genetic) photoreceptor disorders, but it is also possible to acquire color blindness through damage to the retina, optic nerve, or higher brain areas. Higher brain areas implicated in color processing include the parvocellular pathway of the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, and visual area V4 of the visual cortex. Acquired color blindness is generally unlike the more typical genetic disorders. For example, it is possible to acquire color blindness only in a portion of the visual field but maintain normal color vision elsewhere. Some forms of acquired color blindness are reversible. Transient color blindness also occurs (very rarely) in the aura of some migraine sufferers. The different kinds of inherited color blindness result from partial or complete loss of function of one or more of the different cone systems. When one cone system is compromised, dichromacy results. The most frequent forms of human color blindness result from problems with either the middle or long wavelength sensitive cone systems, and involve difficulties in discriminating reds, yellows, and greens from one another. They are collectively referred to as "red-green color blindness", though the term is an over-simplification and is somewhat misleading. Other forms of color blindness are much more rare. They include problems in discriminating blues from yellows, and the rarest forms of all, complete color blindness or monochromacy, where one cannot distinguish any color from grey, as in a black-and-white movie or photograph. Classification of color deficiencies By etiology The colors of the rainbow as viewed by a person with no color vision deficiencies. The colors of the rainbow as viewed by a person with protanopia. The colors of the rainbow as viewed by a person with deuteranopia. The colors of the rainbow as viewed by a person with tritanopia. Color vision deficiencies can be classified as acquired or inherited. "Color Blindness." University of Illinois Eye Center, Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences. Retrieved September 29, 2006. Kokotailo R, Kline D. "Congenital Colour Vision Deficiencies." University of Calgary, Department of Psychology, Vision & Aging Lab. Retrieved September 29, 2006. Acquired Inherited: There are three types of inherited or congenital color vision deficiencies: monochromacy, dichromacy, and anomalous trichromacy. Monochromacy, also known as "total color blindness", "Guidelines: Color Blindness." Tiresias.org. Retrieved September 29, 2006. is the lack of ability to distinguish colors; caused by cone defect or absence. Cassin, B. and Solomon, S. Dictionary of Eye Terminology. Gainsville, Florida: Triad Publishing Company, 1990. Monochromacy occurs when two or all three of the cone pigments are missing and color and lightness vision is reduced to one dimension. Rod monochromacy (achromatopsia) is a rare, nonprogressive inability to distinguish any colors as a result of absent or nonfunctioning retinal cones. It is associated with light sensitivity (photophobia), involuntary eye oscillations (nystagmus), and poor vision. Cone monochromacy is a rare, total color blindness that is accompanied by relatively normal vision, electoretinogram, and electrooculogram. Dichromacy is a moderately severe color vision defect in which one of the three basic color mechanisms is absent or not functioning. It is hereditary and sex-linked, affecting predominantly males. Dichromacy occurs when one of the cone pigments is missing and color is reduced to two dimensions. Protanopia is a severe type of color vision deficiency caused by the complete absence of red retinal photoreceptors. It is a form of dichromatism in which red appears dark. It is hereditary, sex-linked, and present in 1% of all males. Deuteranopia is a color vision deficiency in which the green retinal photoreceptors are absent, moderately affecting red-green hue discrimination. It is a form of dichromatism in which there are only two cone pigments present. It is likewise hereditary, sex-linked, and present in 1% of all males. Tritanopia is an exceedingly rare color vision disturbance in which there are only two cone pigments present and a total absence of blue retinal receptors. Anomalous trichromacy is a common type of inherited color vision deficiency, occurring when one of the three cone pigments is altered in its spectral sensitivity. This results in an impairment, rather than loss, of trichromacy (normal three-dimensional color vision). Protanomaly is a mild color vision defect in which an altered spectral sensitivity of red retinal receptors (closer to green receptor response) results in poor red-green hue discrimination. It is hereditary, sex-linked, and present in 1% of all males. It is often passed from mother to child. Deuteranomaly, caused by a similar shift in the green retinal receptors, is by far the most common type of color vision deficiency, mildly affecting red-green hue discrimination in 5% of all males. It is hereditary and sex-linked. Tritanomaly is a rare, hereditary color vision deficiency affecting blue-yellow hue discrimination. Unlike most other forms, it is not sex-linked. By clinical appearance Based on clinical appearance, color blindness may be described as total or partial. Total color blindness is much less common than partial color blindness. There are two major types of color blindness: those who have difficulty distinguishing between red and green, and those who have difficulty distinguishing between blue and yellow. Total color blindness Partial color blindness Red-green Dichromacy (protanopia and deuteranopia) Anomalous trichromacy (protanomaly and deuteranomaly) Blue-yellow Dichromacy (tritanopia) Anomalous trichromacy (tritanomaly) Congenital color vision deficiencies Congenital color vision deficiencies are subdivided based on the number of primary hues needed to match a given sample in the visible spectrum. Monochromacy Monochromacy is the condition of possessing only a single channel for conveying information about color. Byrne A, Hilbert D. "A Glossary of Color Science." Originally published in Readings on Color, Volume 2: The Science of Color. (MIT Press, 1997). Retrieved November 7, 2006. Monochromats possess a complete inability to distinguish any colors and perceive only variations in brightness. It occurs in two primary forms: Rod monochromacy, frequently called achromatopsia, where the retina contains no cone cells, so that in addition to the absence of color discrimination, vision in lights of normal intensity is difficult. While normally rare, achromatopsia is very common on the island of Pingelap, a part of the Pohnpei state, Federated States of Micronesia, where it is called maskun: about 1/12 of the population there has it. The island was devastated by a storm in the 18th century, and one of the few male survivors carried a gene for achromatopsia; the population is now several thousand, of whom about 30% carry this gene. Cone monochromacy is the condition of having both rods and cones, but only a single kind of cone. A cone monochromat can have good pattern vision at normal daylight levels, but will not be able to distinguish hues. Blue cone monochromacy (X chromosome) is caused by a complete absence of L- and M-cones. It is encoded at the same place as red-green color blindness on the X chromosome. Peak spectral sensitivities are in the blue region of the visible spectrum (near 440 nm). They generally show nystagmus ("jiggling eyes"), photophobia (light sensitivity), reduced visual acuity, and myopia (nearsightedness). *Weiss AH, et al. 1989. "Blue cone monochromatism" J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus. 1989; 11: 315-7 </blockquote> Visual acuity usually falls to the 20/50 to 20/400 range. Dichromacy Protanopes, deuteranopes, and tritanopes are dichromats; that is, they can match any color they see with some mixture of just two spectral lights (whereas normally humans are trichromats and require three lights). These individuals normally know they have a color vision problem and it can affect their lives on a daily basis. Protanopes and deuteranopes see no perceptible difference between red, orange, yellow, and green. All these colors that seem so different to the normal viewer appear to be the same color for this two percent of the population. Test for Protanopia Note: the numbers in these images may not be visible on LCD screens or screens with excessive glare. This image contains the number 37, but someone who is protanopic may not be able to see it. Protanopia (1% of males): Lacking the long-wavelength sensitive retinal cones, those with this condition are unable to distinguish between colors in the green-yellow-red section of the spectrum. They have a neutral point at a greenish wavelength around 492 nm – that is, they cannot discriminate light of this wavelength from white. For the protanope, the brightness of red, orange, and yellow is much reduced compared to normal. This dimming can be so pronounced that reds may be confused with black or dark gray, and red traffic lights may appear to be extinguished. They may learn to distinguish reds from yellows and from greens primarily on the basis of their apparent brightness or lightness, not on any perceptible hue difference. Violet, lavender, and purple are indistinguishable from various shades of blue because their reddish components are so dimmed as to be invisible. E.g., pink flowers, reflecting both red light and blue light, may appear just blue to the protanope. Very few people have been found who have one normal eye and one protanopic eye. These unilateral dichromats report that with only their protanopic eye open, they see wavelengths below the neutral point as blue and those above it as yellow. This is a rare form of color blindness. Test for DeuteranopiaThis image shows a number 44 or 49, but someone who is deuteranopic may not be able to see it. Deuteranopia (1% of males): Lacking the medium-wavelength cones, those affected are again unable to distinguish between colors in the green-yellow-red section of the spectrum. Their neutral point is at a slightly longer wavelength, 498 nm. The deuteranope suffers the same hue discrimination problems as the protanope, but without the abnormal dimming. The names red, orange, yellow, and green really mean very little to him aside from being different names that every one else around him seems to be able to agree on. Similarly, violet, lavender, purple, and blue, seem to be too many names to use logically for hues that all look alike to him. This is one of the rarer forms of colorblindness making up about 1% of the male population, also known as Daltonism after John Dalton. (Dalton's diagnosis was confirmed as deuteranopia in 1995, some 150 years after his death, by DNA analysis of his preserved eyeball.) Deuteranopic unilateral dichromats report that with only their deuteranopic eye open, they see wavelengths below the neutral point as blue and those above it as yellow. Test for TritanopiaThis image shows the number 56, but someone who is tritanopic may not be able to see it. Tritanopia (less than 1% of males and females): Lacking the short-wavelength cones, those affected are unable to distinguish between the colors in the blue-yellow section of the spectrum. This form of color blindness is not sex-linked. Anomalous trichromacy Those with protanomaly, deuteranomaly, or tritanomaly are trichromats, but the color matches they make differ from the normal. They are called anomalous trichromats. In order to match a given spectral yellow light, protanomalous observers need more red light in a red/green mixture than a normal observer, and deuteranomalous observers need more green. From a practical standpoint though, many protanomalous and deuteranomalous people breeze through life with very little difficulty doing tasks that require normal color vision. Some may not even be aware that their color perception is in any way different from normal. The only problem they have is passing a color vision test. Protanomaly and deuteranomaly can be readily observed using an instrument called an anomaloscope, which mixes spectral red and green lights in variable proportions, for comparison with a fixed spectral yellow. If this is done in front of a large audience of men, as the proportion of red is increased from a low value, first a small proportion of people will declare a match, while most of the audience sees the mixed light as greenish. These are the deuteranomalous observers. Next, as more red is added the majority will say that a match has been achieved. Finally, as yet more red is added, the remaining, protanomalous, observers will declare a match at a point where everyone else is seeing the mixed light as definitely reddish. Protanomaly (1% of males, 0.01% of females): Having a mutated form of the long-wavelength (red) pigment, whose peak sensitivity is at a shorter wavelength than in the normal retina, protanomalous individuals are less sensitive to red light than normal. This means that they are less able to discriminate colors, and they do not see mixed lights as having the same colors as normal observers. They also suffer from a darkening of the red end of the spectrum. This causes reds to reduce in intensity to the point where they can be mistaken for black. Protanomaly is a fairly rare form of color blindness, making up about 1% of the male population. Both protanomaly and deuteranomaly are carried on the X chromosome. Deuteranomaly (most common - 6% of males, 0.4% of females): Having a mutated form of the medium-wavelength (green) pigment. The medium-wavelength pigment is shifted towards the red end of the spectrum resulting in a reduction in sensitivity to the green area of the spectrum. Unlike protanomaly the intensity of colors is unchanged. This is the most common form of color blindness, making up about 6% of the male population. The deuteranomalous person is considered "green weak". For example, in the evening, dark green cars appear to be black to Deuteranomalous people. Similar to the protanomates, deuteranomates are poor at discriminating small differences in hues in the red, orange, yellow, green region of the spectrum. They make errors in the naming of hues in this region because the hues appear somewhat shifted towards red. One very important difference between deuteranomalous individuals and protanomalous individuals is deuteranomalous individuals do not have the loss of "brightness" problem. Tritanomaly (equally rare for males and females[0.01% for both]): Having a mutated form of the short-wavelength (blue) pigment. The short-wavelength pigment is shifted towards the green area of the spectrum. This is the rarest form of anomalous trichromacy color blindness. Unlike the other anomalous trichromacy color deficiencies, the mutation for this color blindness is carried on chromosome 7. Therefore it is equally prevalent in both male & female populations. The OMIM gene code for this mutation is 304000 “Colorblindness, Partial Tritanomaly”. Clinical forms of color blindness Total color blindness Achromatopsia is strictly defined as the inability to see color. Although the term may refer to acquired disorders such as color agnosia and cerebral achromatopsia, it typically refers to congenital color vision disorders (i.e. more frequently rod monochromacy and less frequently cone monochromacy). In color agnosia and cerebral achromatopsia, a person cannot perceive colors even though the eyes are capable of distinguishing them. Some sources do not consider these to be true color blindness, because the failure is of perception, not of vision. They are forms of visual agnosia. Red-green color blindness X-linked recessive inheritance Those with protanopia, deuteranopia, protanomaly, and deuteranomaly have difficulty with discriminating red and green hues. Genetic red-green color blindness affects men much more often than women, because the genes for the red and green color receptors are located on the X chromosome, of which men have only one and women have two. Such a trait is called sex-linked. Females (46, XX) are red-green color blind only if both their X chromosomes are defective with a similar deficiency, whereas males (46, XY) are color blind if their single X chromosome is defective. The gene for red-green color blindness is transmitted from a color blind male to all his daughters who are heterozygote carriers and are usually unaffected. In turn, a carrier woman has a fifty percent chance of passing on a mutated X chromosome region to each of her male offspring. The sons of an affected male will not inherit the trait from him, since they receive his Y chromosome and not his (defective) X chromosome. Should an affected male have children with a carrier or colorblind woman, their daughters may be colorblind by inheriting an affected X chromosome from each parent. Because one X chromosome is inactivated at random in each cell during a woman's development, it is possible for her to have four different cone types, as when a carrier of protanomaly has a child with a deuteranomalic man. Denoting the normal vision alleles by P and D and the anomalous by p and d, the carrier is PD pD and the man is Pd. The daughter is either PD Pd or pD Pd. Suppose she is pD Pd. Each cell in her body expresses either her mother's chromosome pD or her father's Pd. Thus her red-green sensing will involve both the normal and the anomalous pigments for both colors. Such women are tetrachromats, since they require a mixture of four spectral lights to match an arbitrary light. Blue-yellow color blindness Those with tritanopia and tritanomaly have difficulty with discriminating blue and yellow hues. Color blindness involving the inactivation of the short-wavelength sensitive cone system (whose absorption spectrum peaks in the bluish-violet) is called tritanopia or, loosely, blue-yellow color blindness. The tritanopes neutral point occurs near a yellowish 570 nm; green is perceived at shorter wavelengths and red at longer wavelengths. Mutation of the short-wavelength sensitive cones is called tritanomaly. Tritanopia is equally distributed among males and females. Jeremy H. Nathans (with the Howard Hughes Medical Institute) proved that the gene coding for the blue receptor lies on chromosome 7, which is shared equally by men and women. Therefore it is not sex-linked. This gene does not have any neighbor whose DNA sequence is similar. Blue color blindness is caused by a simple mutation in this gene. (2006, Howard Hughes Medical Institute). Prevalence Color blindness affects a significant number of people, although exact proportions vary among groups. In Australia, for example, it occurs in about 8 percent of males and only about 0.4 percent of females. Isolated communities with a restricted gene pool sometimes produce high proportions of color blindness, including the less usual types. Examples include rural Finland, Hungary, and some of the Scottish islands. In the United States, about 7 percent of the male population – or about 10.5 million men – and 0.4 percent of the female population either cannot distinguish red from green, or see red and green differently (Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 2006). It has been found that more than 95 percent of all variations in human color vision involve the red and green receptors in male eyes. It is very rare for males or females to be "blind" to the blue end of the spectrum. + Prevalence of color blindness Men Women Total References Overall — — — Overall (United States) — — 1.30% Red-green (Overall) 7 to 10% — — Red-green (Caucasians) 8% — — Red-green (Asians) 5% — — Red-green (Africans) 4% — — Monochromacy — — — Rod monochromacy (disfunctional, abnormally shaped or no cones) 0.00001% 0.00001% — http://www.colorfield.com/ref/types.html Dichromacy 2.4% 0.03% — Protanopia (L-cone absent) 1% to 1.3% 0.02% — Deuteranopia (M-cone absent) 1% to 1.2% 0.01% — Tritanopia (S-cone absent) 0.001% 0.03% — Anomalous Trichromacy 6.3% 0.37% — Protanomaly (L-cone defect) 1.3% 0.02% — Deuteranomaly (M-cone defect) 5.0% 0.35% — Tritanomaly (S-cone defect) 0.01% 0.01% — Diagnosis Example of an Ishihara color test plate. The numeral "74" should be clearly visible to viewers with normal color vision. Viewers with dichromacy or anomalous trichromacy may read it as "21", and viewers with achromatopsia may not see numbers. The Ishihara color test, which consists of a series of pictures of colored spots, is the test most often used to diagnose red-green color deficiencies. A figure (usually one or more Arabic digits) is embedded in the picture as a number of spots in a slightly different color, and can be seen with normal color vision, but not with a particular color defect. The full set of tests has a variety of figure/background color combinations, and enable diagnosis of which particular visual defect is present. The anomaloscope, described above, is also used in diagnosing anomalous trichromacy. However, the Ishihara color test is criticized for containing only numerals and thus not being useful for young children, who have not yet learned to use numerals. It is often stated that it is important to identify these problems as soon as possible and explain them to the children to prevent possible problems and psychological traumas. For this reason, alternative color vision tests were developed using only symbols (square, circle, car). Most clinical tests are designed to be fast, simple, and effective at identifying broad categories of color blindness. In academic studies of color blindness, on the other hand, there is more interest in developing flexible tests to collect thorough datasets, identify copunctal points, and measure just noticeable differences. Treatment and management There is generally no treatment to cure color deficiencies. However, certain types of tinted filters and contact lenses may help an individual to distinguish different colors better. Optometrists can supply a singular red-tint contact lens to wear in the dominant eye. This may enable the wearer to pass some color blindness tests, but they have little practical use. The effect of wearing such a device is akin to wearing red/blue 3D glasses and can take some time getting used to as certain wavelengths can "jump" out and be overly represented. Additionally, computer software has been developed to assist those with visual color difficulties. The Gnome Desktop provides colorblind accessibility using the gnome-mag and the libcolorblind software. Using a gnome applet, the user may switch a color filter on and off choosing from a set of possible color transformations that will displace the colors in order to disambiguate the colors. The software enables, for instance, a color blind person to see the numbers in the ishihara test. Design implications of color blindness Color codes present particular problems for color blind people as they are often difficult or impossible for color blind people to perceive. Good graphic design avoids using color coding or color contrasts alone to express information, as this not only helps color blind people, but also aids understanding by normally sighted people. The use of Cascading Style Sheets on the world wide web allows pages to be given an alternative color scheme for color-blind readers. This color scheme generator helps a graphic designer see color schemes as seen by eight types of color blindness. For an example of a map that could present a significant problem to a color blind reader, see this graphic from a recent New York Times article. The typical red-green color blind reader will find the green sections of the map nearly indistinguishable from the orange, rendering the graphic unreadable. Designers should take into account that color-blindness is highly sensitive to differences in material. For example, a red-green colorblind person who is incapable of distinguishing colors on a map printed on paper may have no such difficulty when viewing the map on a computer screen or television. In addition, some color blind people find it easier to distinguish problem colors on artificial materials, such as plastic or in acrylic paints, than on natural materials, such as paper or wood. Thirdly, for some color blind people, color can only be distinguished if there is a sufficient "mass" of color: thin lines might appear black while a thicker line of the same color can be perceived as having color. When the need to process visual information as rapidly as possible arises, for example in a train or aircraft crash, the visual system may operate only in shades of grey, with the extra information load in adding color being dropped. This is an important possibility to consider when designing, for example, emergency brake handles or emergency phones. Color blindness and occupations Color blindness may make it difficult or impossible for a person to engage in certain occupations. Persons with color blindness may be legally or practically barred from Occupations in which color perception is an essential part of the job (e.g., mixing paint colors), or in which color perception is important for safety (e.g., operating vehicles in response to color-coded signals). Driving motor vehicles Some countries (e.g., Singapore prior to the 1990s or Romania even to the present day) have refused to grant individuals with color blindness driving licenses. In Romania there is an ongoing effort to remove the legal restrictions that prohibit its colorblind citizens from getting drivers' licenses. The usual justification for such restrictions is that drivers of motor vehicles must be able to recognize certain color-coded signals, such as traffic lights or warning lights. Piloting aircraft While many aspects of aviation depend on color coding, only a few of them are critical enough to be interfered with by some milder types of color blindness. Some examples include color-gun signaling of aircraft that have lost radio communication, color-coded glide-path indications on runways, and the like. Some jurisdictions restrict the issuance of pilot credentials to persons who suffer from color blindness for this reason. Restrictions may be partial, allowing color-blind persons to obtain certification but with restrictions, or total, in which case color-blind persons are not permitted to obtain piloting credentials at all. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration requires that pilots be tested for normal color vision as part of the medical certification that is prerequisite to obtaining a pilot's license. If testing reveals color blindness, the applicant may be issued a license with restrictions, such as no night flying and no flying by color signals—such a restriction effectively prevents a pilot from working for an airline. The government allows several types of tests, including medical standard tests (e.g., the Ishihara, Dvorine, and others) and specialized tests oriented specifically to the needs of aviation. If an applicant fails the standard tests, he may take the specialized tests, and if he passes those, he may be issued a license without restrictions. Misconceptions and compensations Color blindness is not the swapping of colors in the observer's eyes. Grass is never red, and stop signs are never green. The color impaired do not learn to call red "green" and vice versa. However, dichromats often confuse red and green items. For example, they may find it difficult to distinguish a Braeburn from a Granny Smith and in some cases, the red and green of a traffic light without other clues (e.g., shape or location). This is demonstrated in this simulation of the two types of apple as viewed by a trichromat or by a dichromat. Image:Braeburn GrannySmith dichromat sim.jpg Anomalous Trichromats are often able to readily spot camouflage clothing, netting, and paint that has been designed for individuals with color-normal vision. They tend to learn to see texture and shape. This lets them see through some camouflage patterns. Traffic light colors are confusing to some dichromats: there is insufficient apparent difference between the red and amber and sodium street lamps and the green can be confused with a grubby white lamp. This is a risk factor on a high-speed undulating road where angular cues can't be used. British Rail color lamp signals use more easily identifiable colors: the red is really blood red, the amber is quite yellow and the green is a bluish color. Most British road traffic lights use a white rectangle; dichromats simply look for the position of the light within the rectangle (top, middle or bottom; British traffic lights are never mounted horizontally). Color blindness almost never means complete monochromatism. In almost all cases, color blind people retain blue-yellow discrimination, and most color blind individuals are anomalous trichromats rather than complete dichromats. In practice this means that they often retain a limited discrimination along the red-green axis of color space although their ability to separate colors in this dimension is severely reduced. See also :Category:Articles with images not understandable by color blind users Cerebral achromatopsia Tetrachromacy Notes References Bibliography External links Color Blindness Examples Deuteranope Color Blindness Examples - Most common form of Red/Green Color vision deficiency tests and facts Vischeck - Simulates colorblind vision Colorblind Barrier-Free, contains a proposal for dichromacy safe palette. Online Color Blind Selftest Colorblind Web Page Filter - View Web sites like a color blind person would see them. Color Universal Design Organization in Japan (CUDO) - How to create the Color Universal Design . Japanese Visual Science Groupe. Colour Blindness and Medicine - Information and advice for medical practitioners, medical students and prospective medical students who are colour blind

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Harwich

Harwich ( Harwich - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary ) is a town in Essex, England and one of the Haven ports, located on the coast with the North Sea to the east. It is in the Tendring district. Nearby places include Felixstowe to the northeast, Ipswich to the northwest and Colchester to the southwest. Its position on the estuaries of the Stour and Orwell rivers and its usefulness to mariners as the only safe anchorage between the Thames and Humber led to a long period of maritime significance, both civil and military. The town became a naval base in 1657 and was heavily fortified, with Harwich Redoubt, Beacon Hill Battery, and Bath Side Battery. Harwich today is contiguous with Dovercourt and the two, along with Parkeston, are often referred to collectively as Harwich. History The town received its charter in 1238, although there is evidence of earlier settlement - for example, a record of a chapel in 1177, and some indications of a possible Roman presence. A chart of Harwich published in 1804 from a survey by Graeme Spence Because of its strategic position, Harwich was the target for the invasion of Britain by William of Orange on November 11, 1688. However, unfavourable winds forced his fleet to sail instead into the English Channel and eventually land at Torbay. Due to the involvement of the Schomberg family in the invasion, they were made Marquesses of the town. Writer Daniel Defoe devotes a few pages of his A tour through England and Wales to the town. Visiting in 1722, he noted its formidable fort and harbour "of a vast extent" Daniel Defoe, A tour through England and Wales, J.M. Dent and Sons Ltd, London (1959) Available online here . The town, he recounts, was also known for an unusual spring rising on Beacon Hill (a promontory to the north-east of the town), which "petrified" clay, allowing it to be used to pave Harwich's streets and build its walls. The locals also claimed that "the same spring is said to turn wood into iron", but Defoe put this down to the presence of "copperas" in the water. Regarding the atmosphere of the town, he states: "Harwich is a town of hurry and business, not much of gaiety and pleasure; yet the inhabitants seem warm in their nests and some of them are very wealthy". Port The Royal Navy is no longer present in Harwich but Harwich International Port at nearby Parkeston continues to offer regular ferry services to the Hook of Holland (Hoek van Holland) in the Netherlands and Esbjerg in Denmark. Many operations of the large container port at Felixstowe and of Trinity House, the lighthouse authority, are managed from Harwich, and plans for the development of a new container port in Bathside Bay were approved by the British government in December 2005. The town's coastal position, however, made it vulnerable to the North Sea Flood of 1953. Architecture Despite, or perhaps because of, its small size Harwich is highly-regarded in terms of architectural heritage, and the whole of the older part of the town, excluding Navyard Wharf, is a conservation area. Harwich Society, 2008. The regular street plan, with principal thoroughfares connected by numerous small alleys, betrays the town’s medieval origins although many buildings of this period are hidden behind 18th century facades. The extant medieval structures are largely private homes. Notable public buildings, all later, include the parish church of St. Nicholas (1821) in a restrained Gothic style, with many original furnishings including a (somewhat altered) organ of the same date in the west end gallery, and the Guildhall of 1769, the only Grade I listed building in Harwich. Harwich Society, 2008. The Harwich Quay‎ On the quayside may be seen the Pier Hotel of 1860 and Great Eastern Hotel of 1864 (the latter now divided into apartments), both reflecting the town’s new importance to travellers following the arrival of the railway line from Colchester in 1854. Also of interest are the High Lighthouse (1818); the unusual Treadwheel Crane (late 17th century); the Electric Palace Cinema (1911), one of the oldest purpose-built cinemas to survive complete with its original projection room and ornamental frontage still intact and operational; the Old Custom Houses on West Street; and a number of Victorian shopfronts. There is little notable building from the later parts of the 20th century, but major recent additions include the lifeboat station and two new structures for Trinity House; that organisation's office building, next door to the Old Custom Houses, was completed in 2005. All three additions are influenced by the high-tech style. Notable inhabitants Harwich was the home town of Christopher Jones, the master and quarter-owner of the Mayflower, and was also a base for that ship. The famous diarist Samuel Pepys was the Member of Parliament for Harwich. Christopher Newport, captain of the expedition that founded Jamestown, Virginia, also hailed from Harwich. Sport Harwich is home to Harwich & Parkeston F.C., Harwich & Dovercourt Sailing Club, and Harwich, Dovercourt & Parkeston Swimming Club. Gallery See also Harwich Redoubt Harwich (UK Parliament constituency) Notes References External links Harwich Town Council The Harwich Society Harwich Tourist Information Centre Harwich Lightships - Simplon Bathside Bay Development - HICT Harwich & Dovercourt Sailing Club

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Homeopathy

Homeopathy is a form of alternative medicine that treats patients with heavily diluted preparations that are thought to cause effects similar to the symptoms presented. First expounded by German physician Samuel Hahnemann in 1796, homeopathic preparations are serially diluted with shaking ("succussing") after each step under the assumption that this increases the effect of the treatment. This dilution often continues until none of the original substance remains. . Apart from the symptoms of the disease, homeopaths use aspects of the patient's physical and psychological state in recommending remedies. . Homeopathic reference books known as repertories are then consulted, and a remedy is selected based on the index of symptoms. Homeopathic remedies are generally considered safe, with rare exceptions. However, homeopaths have been criticized for putting patients at risk with advice to avoid conventional medicine, such as vaccinations, . anti-malarial drugs, and antibiotics. . In many countries, the laws that govern the regulation and testing of conventional drugs do not apply to homeopathic remedies. . Claims of homeopathy's efficacy beyond the placebo effect are unsupported by the collective weight of scientific and clinical evidence. . . . Supporters claim that studies published in reputable journals support the efficacy of homeopathy; however, there are only a handful of them, they are not definitive and they have not been replicated. . Several high-quality studies exist showing no evidence for any effect from homeopathy, and the few positive studies of homeopathic remedies have generally been shown to have problems that prevent them from being considered unambiguous evidence for homeopathy's efficacy. Homeopathic remedies generally contain few or no pharmacologically active ingredients, and for such remedies to have pharmacological effect would violate fundamental principles of science. . Modern homeopaths have proposed that water has a memory that allows homeopathic preparations to work without any of the original substance; however, the physics of water are well understood, and no known mechanism permits such a memory. . The lack of convincing scientific evidence supporting homeopathy's efficacy and its use of remedies lacking active ingredients have caused homeopathy to be described as pseudoscience . and quackery. . General philosophy Homeopathy is a vitalist philosophy in that it interprets diseases and sickness as caused by disturbances in a hypothetical vital force or life force and sees these disturbances as manifesting themselves in unique symptoms. Homeopathy maintains that the vital force has the ability to react and adapt to internal and external causes, which homeopaths refer to as the "law of susceptibility". The law of susceptibility states that a negative state of mind can attract hypothetical disease entities called "miasms" to invade the body and produce symptoms of diseases. However, Hahnemann rejected the notion of a disease as a separate thing or invading entity and insisted that it was always part of the "living whole". . Law of similars Hahnemann observed from his experiments with cinchona bark, used as a treatment for malaria, that the effects he experienced from ingesting the bark were similar to the symptoms of malaria. He therefore reasoned that cure proceeds through similarity, and that treatments must be able to produce symptoms in healthy individuals similar to those of the disease being treated. Through further experiments with other substances, Hahnemann conceived of the "law of similars", otherwise known as "like cures like" () as a fundamental healing principle. He believed that by inducing a disease through use of drugs, the artificial symptoms empowered the vital force to neutralise and expel the original disease and that this artificial disturbance would naturally subside when the dosing ceased. Miasms and disease Hahnemann found as early as 1816 that the patients he treated through homeopathy still suffered from chronic diseases that he was unable to cure. . In 1828, he introduced the concept of miasms, which he regarded as underlying causes for many known diseases. . A miasm is often defined by homeopaths as an imputed "peculiar morbid derangement of [the] vital force". . Hahnemann associated each miasm with specific diseases, with each miasm seen as the root cause of several diseases. According to Hahnemann, initial exposure to miasms causes local symptoms, such as skin or venereal diseases, but if these symptoms are suppressed by medication, the cause goes deeper and begins to manifest itself as diseases of the internal organs. Homeopathy maintains that treating diseases by directly opposing their symptoms, as is sometimes done in conventional medicine, is ineffective because all "disease can generally be traced to some latent, deep-seated, underlying chronic, or inherited tendency". . The underlying imputed miasm still remains, and deep-seated ailments can only be corrected by removing the deeper disturbance of the vital force. . Hahnemann's miasm theory remains disputed and controversial within homeopathy even in modern times. In 1978, Anthony Campbell, then a consultant physician at The Royal London Homeopathic Hospital, criticised statements by George Vithoulkas claiming that syphilis, when treated with antibiotics, would develop into secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the central nervous system. This conflicts with scientific studies, which indicate that penicillin treatment produces a complete cure of syphilis in more than 90% of cases. . Campbell described this as "a thoroughly irresponsible statement which could mislead an unfortunate layman into refusing orthodox treatment". Originally Hahnemann presented only three miasms, of which the most important was "psora" (Greek for itch), described as being related to any itching diseases of the skin, supposed to be derived from suppressed scabies, and claimed to be the foundation of many further disease conditions. Hahnemann believed psora to be the cause of such diseases as epilepsy, cancer, jaundice, deafness, and cataracts. Since Hahnemann's time, other miasms have been proposed, some replacing one or more of psora's proposed functions, including tubercular miasms and cancer miasms. . Preparation of remedies Mortar and pestle used for grinding insoluble solids into homeopathic remedies including quartz and oyster shells. Dilution and succussion In producing treatments for diseases, homeopaths use a process called "dynamisation" or "potentisation" whereby the remedy is diluted with alcohol or distilled water and then vigorously shaken by ten hard strikes against an elastic body in a process called "succussion". While Hahnemann advocated remedies which present symptoms similar to those of the disease he believed concentrated doses would only intensify the symptoms and exacerbate the condition, hence the dilution of the remedies. During the process of potentisation, homeopaths believe that the vital energy of the diluted substance is activated and its energy released by vigorous shaking of the substance. For this purpose, Hahnemann had a saddle maker construct a special wooden striking board covered in leather on one side and stuffed with horsehair. . (transcript). Insoluble solids, such as quartz and oyster shell, are diluted by grinding them with lactose (trituration). Three potency scales are in regular use in homeopathy. Hahnemann created the centesimal or "C scale", diluting a substance by a factor of 100 at each stage. The centesimal scale was favored by Hahnemann for most of his life. A 2C dilution requires a substance to be diluted to one part in one hundred, and then some of that diluted solution diluted by a further factor of one hundred. This works out to one part of the original solution mixed into 9,999 parts (100 × 100 −1) of the diluent. In standard chemistry, this produces a substance with a concentration of 0.01%, measured by the volume-volume percentage method. A 6C dilution repeats this process six times, ending up with the original material diluted by a factor of 100-6=10-12. Higher dilutions follow the same pattern. In homeopathy, a solution that is more dilute is described as having a higher potency, and more dilute substances are considered by homeopaths to be stronger and deeper-acting remedies. . The end product is often so diluted that it is indistinguishable from the dilutant (pure water, sugar or alcohol). . . X Scale C Scale Ratio Note 1X — 1:10 described as low potency 2X 1C 1:100 called higher potency than 1X by homeopaths 6X 3C 10-6 8X 4C 10-8 allowable concentration of arsenic in U.S. drinking water . 12X 6C 10-12 24X 12C 10-24 Has a 60% probability of containing one molecule of original material if one mole of the original substance was used. 60X 30C 10-60 Dilution advocated by Hahnemann for most purposes: on average, this would require giving two billion doses per second to six billion people for 4 billion years to deliver a single molecule of the original material to any patient. 400X 200C 10-400 Dilution of popular homeopathic flu remedy OscillococcinumNote: the "X scale" is also called "D scale". 1X = 1D, 2X = 2D, etc. Hahnemann advocated 30C dilutions for most purposes (that is, dilution by a factor of 1060). . A popular homeopathic treatment for the flu is a 200C dilution of duck liver, marketed under the name Oscillococcinum. Some homeopaths developed a decimal scale (D or X), diluting the substance to ten times its original volume each stage. The D or X scale dilution is therefore half that of the same value of the C scale; for example, "12X" is the same level of dilution as "6C". Hahnemann never used this scale but it was very popular throughout the 19th century and still is in Europe. This potency scale appears to have been introduced in the 1830s by the American homeopath, Constantine Hering. . In the last ten years of his life, Hahnemann also developed a quintamillesimal (Q) or LM scale diluting the drug 1 part in 50,000 parts of diluent. . A given dilution on the Q scale is roughly 2.35 times its designation on the C scale. For example a remedy described as "20Q" has about the same concentration as a "47C" remedy. If a dilution is designated as q on the Q scale, and c on the C scale, c/q=log10(50,000)/2=2.349485. Dilution debate Critics and advocates of homeopathy alike commonly attempt to illustrate the dilutions involved in homeopathy with metaphors. For further discussion of homeopathic dilutions and the mathematics involved, see Homeopathic dilutions. Hahnemann is reported to have joked that a suitable procedure to deal with an epidemic would be to empty a bottle of poison into Lake Geneva, if it could be succussed 60 times. . . Pouring a 1 liter bottle of poison into Lake Geneva would only result in about a 7C remedy, since Lake Geneva has a volume of about 89 cubic kilometers of water ( ). Another example given by a critic of homeopathy states that a 12C solution is equivalent to a "pinch of salt in both the North and South Atlantic Oceans", which is approximately correct. A 12C solution produced using sodium chloride (also called natrum muriaticum in homeopathy) is the equivalent of dissolving 0.36 mL of table salt, weighing about 0.77 g, into a volume of water the size of the Atlantic Ocean, since the volume of the Atlantic Ocean and its adjacent seas is 3.55×108 km3 or 3.55×1020 L : . One third of a drop of some original substance diluted into all the water on earth would produce a remedy with a concentration of about 13C. The volume of all water on earth is about 1.36×109 km3: . Gleick PH, Water resources, In ). Not all homeopaths advocate extremely high dilutions. Many of the early homeopaths were originally doctors and generally tended to use lower dilutions such as "3X" or "6X", rarely going beyond "12X". The split between lower and higher dilutions followed ideological lines with the former stressing pathology and a strong link to conventional medicine, while the latter emphasised vital force, miasms and a spiritual interpretation of disease. . . Some products with such relatively lower dilutions continue to be sold, but like their counterparts, they have not been conclusively demonstrated to have any effect beyond the placebo. . . Scientific tests run by both the BBC's Horizon and ABC's 20/20 programs were unable to differentiate homeopathic dilutions from water, even when using tests suggested by homeopaths themselves. . Provings In order to determine which specific remedies could be used to treat which diseases, Hahnemann experimented on himself and others for several years before using remedies on patients. His experiments did not initially consist of giving remedies to the sick, because he thought that the most similar remedy, by virtue of its ability to induce symptoms similar to the disease itself, would make it impossible to determine which symptoms came from the remedy and which from the disease itself. Therefore, sick people were excluded from these experiments. The method used for determining which remedies were suitable for specific diseases was called "proving", after the original German word "Prüfung", meaning "test". A homeopathic proving is the method by which the profile of a homeopathic remedy is determined. . At first Hahnemann used material doses for provings, but he later advocated proving with remedies at a 30C dilution, and most modern provings are carried out using ultradilute remedies in which it is highly unlikely that any of the original molecules remain. . During the proving process, Hahnemann administered remedies to healthy volunteers, and the resulting symptoms were compiled by observers into a "Drug Picture". The volunteers were observed for months at a time and made to keep extensive journals detailing all of their symptoms at specific times throughout the day. They were forbidden from consuming coffee, tea, spices, or wine for the duration of the experiment; playing chess was also prohibited because Hahnemann considered it to be "too exciting", though they were allowed to drink beer and encouraged to exercise in moderation. After the experiments were over, Hahnemann made the volunteers take an oath swearing that what they reported in their journals was the truth, at which time he would interrogate them extensively concerning their symptoms. Provings have been described as important in the development of the clinical trial, due to their early use of simple control groups, systematic and quantitative procedures, and some of the first application of statistics in medicine. . The lengthy records of self-experimentation by homeopaths have occasionally proven useful in the development of modern drugs: For example, evidence that nitroglycerin might be useful as a treatment for angina was discovered by looking through homeopathic provings, though homeopaths themselves never used it for that purpose at that time. . The first recorded provings were published by Hahnemann in his 1796 Essay on a new principle. . His Fragmenta de viribus (1805) . contained the results of 27 provings, and his 1810 Materia Medica Pura contained 65. . For James Tyler Kent's 1905 Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica, 217 remedies underwent provings and newer substances are continually added to contemporary versions. Repertory Homeopathic repertory by James Tyler Kent. Homeopaths generally begin with detailed examinations of their patients' histories, including questions regarding their physical, mental and emotional states, their life circumstances and any physical or emotional illnesses. The homeopath then attempts to translate this information into a complex formula of mental and physical symptoms, including likes, dislikes, innate predispositions and even body type. . From these symptoms, the homeopath chooses how to treat the patient. A compilation of reports of many homeopathic provings, supplemented with clinical data, is known as a homeopathic materia medica. But because a practitioner first needs to explore the remedies for a particular symptom rather than looking up the symptoms for a particular remedy, the homeopathic repertory, which is an index of symptoms, lists after each symptom those remedies that are associated with it. Repertories are often very extensive and may include data extracted from multiple sources of materia medica. There is often lively debate among compilers of repertories and practitioners over the veracity of a particular inclusion. The first symptomatic index of the homeopathic materia medica was arranged by Hahnemann. Soon after, one of his students Clemens von Bönninghausen, created the Therapeutic pocket book, another homeopathic repertory. . The first such homeopathic repertory was Georg Jahr's Symptomenkodex, published in German (1835), which was then first translated to English (1838) by Constantine Hering as the Repertory to the more Characteristic Symptoms of Materia Medica. This version was less focused on disease categories and would be the forerunner to Kent's later works. . . It consisted of three large volumes. Such repertories increased in size and detail as time progressed. Some diversity in approaches to treatments exists among homeopaths. "Classical" homeopathy generally involves detailed examinations of a patient's history and infrequent doses of a single remedy as the patient is monitored for improvements in symptoms, while "clinical" homeopathy involves combinations of remedies to address the various symptoms of an illness. Treatments Remedies Homeopathic remedy Rhus toxicodendron, derived from poison ivy. Homeopathic remedy Oscillococcinum "Remedy" is a technical term in homeopathy that refers to a substance prepared with a particular procedure and intended for treating patients. Homeopathic practitioners rely on two types of reference when prescribing remedies: Materia medica and repertories. A homeopathic Materia medica is a collection of "drug pictures", organised alphabetically by remedy, that describes the symptom patterns associated with individual remedies. A homeopathic repertory is an index of disease symptoms that lists remedies associated with specific symptoms. . Homeopathy uses many animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic substances in its remedies. Examples include Arsenicum album (arsenic oxide), Natrum muriaticum (sodium chloride or table salt), Lachesis muta (the venom of the bushmaster snake), Opium, and Thyroidinum (thyroid hormone). Homeopaths also use treatments called nosodes (from the Greek nosos, disease) made from diseased or pathological products such as fecal, urinary, and respiratory discharges, blood, and tissue. Homeopathic remedies prepared from healthy specimens are called Sarcodes. Some modern homeopaths have considered more esoteric substances, known as "imponderables" because they do not originate from a material but from electromagnetic energy presumed to have been "captured" by alcohol or lactose. Examples include X-rays . and sunlight. . Recent ventures by homeopaths into even more esoteric substances include thunderstorms (prepared from collected rainwater). . Today there are about 3,000 different remedies commonly used in homeopathy. . Some homeopaths also use techniques that are regarded by other practitioners as controversial. These include paper remedies, where the substance and dilution are written on a piece of paper and either pinned to the patient's clothing, put in their pocket, or placed under a glass of water that is then given to the patient, as well as the use of radionics to prepare remedies. Such practices have been strongly criticised by classical homeopaths as unfounded, speculative and verging upon magic and superstition. . . Isopathy Isopathy is a therapy derived from homeopathy and was invented by Johann Joseph Wilhelm Lux in the 1830s. Isopathy differs from homeopathy in general in that the remedies are made up either from things that cause the disease, or from products of the disease, such as pus. Many so-called "homeopathic vaccines" are a form of isopathy. . Flower remedies Flower remedies can be produced by placing flowers in water and exposing them to sunlight. The most famous of these are the Bach flower remedies, which were developed by the homeopath Edward Bach. The relationship between these remedies and homeopathy is controversial. On the one hand, the proponents of these remedies share homeopathy's vitalist world-view and the remedies are claimed to act through the same hypothetical "vital force". However, although many of the same plants are used as in homeopathy, the method of preparation is somewhat different, with Bach flower therapies supposedly being prepared in "gentler" ways, such as placing flowers in bowls of sunlit water, and so on. . There is no convincing scientific or clinical evidence for flower remedies being effective. . Veterinary use The idea of using homeopathy as a treatment for other animals, termed veterinary homeopathy, dates back to the inception of homeopathy; Hahnemann himself wrote and spoke of the use of homeopathy in animals other than humans. . The FDA has not approved homeopathic products as veterinary medicine in the U.S. In the UK, veterinary surgeons who use homeopathy belong to the Faculty of Homeopathy and/or to the British Association of Homeopathic Veterinary Surgeons. Animals may only be treated by qualified veterinary surgeons in the UK and some other countries. Internationally, the body that supports and represents homeopathic veterinarians is the International Association for Veterinary Homeopathy. The use of homeopathy in veterinary medicine is controversial, as there has been little scientific investigation and current research in the field is not of a high enough standard to provide reliable data. . Other studies have also found that giving animals placebos can play active roles in influencing pet owners to believe in the effectiveness of the treatment when none exists. Medical and scientific analysis Homeopathy is unsupported by modern scientific research. The extreme dilutions used in homeopathic preparations usually leave none of the original material in the final product. The modern mechanism proposed by homeopaths, water memory, is considered implausible in that water's structure is believed to last only about 1 picosecond. . Pharmacological effect without active ingredients is inconsistent with the observed dose-response relationships of conventional drugs, . leaving only non-specific placebo effects . or various novel explanations. The proposed rationale for these extreme dilutions – that the water contains the "memory" or "vibration" from the diluted ingredient – is counter to the laws of chemistry and physics. The lack of convincing scientific evidence supporting its efficacy and its use of remedies without active ingredients have led to characterizations as pseudoscience and quackery, . . or, in the words of a 1998 medical review, "placebo therapy at best and quackery at worst." . Use of homeopathy may delay or replace effective medical treatment, worsening outcomes or exposing the patients to increased risk. . High dilutions The extremely high dilutions in homeopathy have been a main point of criticism. Homeopaths believe that the methodical dilution of a substance, beginning with a 10% or lower solution and working downwards, with shaking after each dilution, produces a therapeutically active "remedy", in contrast to therapeutically inert water. However, homeopathic remedies are usually diluted to the point where there are no molecules from the original solution left in a dose of the final remedy. . Since even the longest-lived noncovalent structures in liquid water at room temperature are only stable for a few picoseconds, . critics have concluded that any effect that might have been present from the original substance can no longer exist. . No evidence of stable clusters of water molecules was found when homeopathic remedies were studied using NMR. . Furthermore, since water will have been in contact with millions of different substances throughout its history, critics point out that any glass of water is therefore an extreme dilution of almost any conceivable substance, and so by drinking water one would, according to homeopathic principles, receive treatment for every imaginable condition. . Practitioners of homeopathy contend that higher dilutions (fewer potential molecules in each dose) result in stronger medicinal effects. This idea is inconsistent with the observed dose-response relationships of conventional drugs, where the effects are dependent on the concentration of the active ingredient in the body. This dose-response relationship has been confirmed in multitudinous experiments on organisms as diverse as nematodes, . rats, . and humans. . Physicist Robert L. Park, former executive director of the American Physical Society, has noted that Park has also noted that "to expect to get even one molecule of the 'medicinal' substance allegedly present in 30X pills, it would be necessary to take some two billion of them, which would total about a thousand tons of lactose plus whatever impurities the lactose contained". The laws of chemistry state that there is a limit to the dilution that can be made without losing the original substance altogether. . This limit, which is related to Avogadro's number, is roughly equal to homeopathic potencies of 12C or 24X (1 part in 1024). . . Research on medical effectiveness Old bottle of Hepar sulph made from calcium sulfide The effectiveness of homeopathy has been in dispute since its inception. The methodological quality of the research base is generally low, with such problems as weaknesses in design or reporting, small sample size, and selection bias. No individual preparation has been unambiguously demonstrated to be different from a placebo. . Positive results have been reported, but no single model has been sufficiently widely replicated. Local models proposed are far from convincing, and the nonlocal models proposed, often invoking "weak quantum theory", . would predict that it is impossible to nail down homeopathic effects with direct experimental testing. . For example, while some reports presented data that suggested homeopathic treatment of allergy was more effective than placebo, . . subsequent studies have questioned the conclusions. . . One of the earliest double blind studies concerning homeopathy was sponsored by the British government during World War II in which volunteers tested the effectiveness of homeopathic remedies against diluted mustard gas burns. . Meta-analyses, in which large groups of studies are analysed and conclusions drawn based on the results as a whole, have been used to evaluate the effectiveness of homeopathy. Early meta-analyses investigating homeopathic remedies showed slightly positive results among the studies examined, but such studies have warned that it was impossible to draw firm conclusions due to low methodological quality and difficulty in controlling for publication bias in the studies reviewed. . . One of the positive meta-analyses, by Linde, et al., was later corrected by the authors, who wrote: The evidence of bias [in homeopathic trials] weakens the findings of our original meta-analysis. Since we completed our literature search in 1995, a considerable number of new homeopathy trials have been published. The fact that a number of the new high-quality trials... have negative results, and a recent update of our review for the most “original” subtype of homeopathy (classical or individualized homeopathy), seem to confirm the finding that more rigorous trials have less-promising results. It seems, therefore, likely that our meta-analysis at least overestimated the effects of homeopathic treatments. . In 2001, a meta-analysis of clinical trials on the effectiveness of homeopathy concluded that earlier clinical trials showed signs of major weakness in methodology and reporting, and that homeopathy trials were less randomized and reported less on dropouts than other types of trials. . In 2005, a systematic review of the representation of homeopathy in the medical literature suggested that mainstream journals had a publication bias against clinical trials of homeopathy that showed positive results, and the opposite was the case for complementary and alternative medicine journals. The authors suggested that this could be due to an involuntary bias, or otherwise a submission bias, in which positive trials tend to be sent to CAM journals and negatives ones to mainstream journals. Reviews in all journals approached the subject in an apparently impartial manner, though most of the reviews published in CAM journals made no mention of the plausibility of homeopathy, whereas 9 out of 10 reviews in mainstream journals mentioned a lack of plausability of homeopathy in the introduction. . In 2005, The Lancet medical journal published a meta-analysis of 110 placebo-controlled homeopathy trials and 110 matched medical trials based upon the Swiss government's Program for Evaluating Complementary Medicine, or PEK. The study concluded that its findings were compatible with the notion that the clinical effects of homeopathy are nothing more than placebo effects. A 2006 meta-analysis of six trials evaluating homeopathic treatments to reduce cancer therapy side effects following radiotherapy and chemotherapy found "encouraging but not convincing" evidence in support of homeopathic treatment. Their analysis concluded that there was "insufficient evidence to support clinical efficacy of homeopathic therapy in cancer care". . A 2007 systematic review of homeopathy for children and adolescents found that the evidence for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and childhood diarrhea was mixed. No difference from placebo was found for adenoid vegetation, asthma, or upper respiratory tract infection. Evidence was not sufficient to recommend any therapeutic or preventative intervention. The Cochrane Library found insufficient clinical evidence to evaluate the efficacy of homeopathic treatments for asthma . or dementia, . or for the use of homeopathy in induction of labor. . Other researchers found no evidence that homeopathy is beneficial for osteoarthritis, . migraines . or delayed-onset muscle soreness. Health organisations such as the UK's National Health Service, . the American Medical Association, . and the FASEB have issued statements of their conclusion that there is no convincing scientific evidence to support the use of homeopathic treatments in medicine. Clinical studies of the medical efficacy of homeopathy have been criticised by some homeopaths as being irrelevant because they do not test "classical homeopathy". (self published). . There have, however, been a number of clinical trials that have tested individualized homeopathy. A 1998 review . found 32 trials that met their inclusion criteria, 19 of which were placebo-controlled and provided enough data for meta-analysis. These 19 studies showed a pooled odds ratio of 1.17 to 2.23 in favor of individualized homeopathy over the placebo, but no difference was seen when the analysis was restricted to the methodologically best trials. The authors concluded "that the results of the available randomized trials suggest that individualized homeopathy has an effect over placebo. The evidence, however, is not convincing because of methodological shortcomings and inconsistencies." Jack Killen, acting deputy director of the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, says homeopathy "goes beyond current understanding of chemistry and physics." He adds: "There is, to my knowledge, no condition for which homeopathy has been proven to be an effective treatment." . Research on effects in other biological systems Old homeopathic belladonna remedy. While some articles have suggested that homeopathic solutions of high dilution can have statistically significant effects on organic processes including the growth of grain, and . histamine release by leukocytes, . and enzyme reactions, such evidence is disputed since attempts to replicate them have failed. . . . . . In 1987, French immunologist Jacques Benveniste submitted a paper to the journal Nature while working at INSERM. The paper purported to have discovered that basophils, a type of white blood cell, released histamine when exposed to a homeopathic dilution of anti-immunoglobulin E antibody. The journal editors, sceptical of the results, requested that the study be replicated in a separate laboratory. Upon replication in four separate laboratories the study was published. Still sceptical of the findings, Nature assembled an independent investigative team to determine the accuracy of the research, consisting of Nature editor and physicist Sir John Maddox, American scientific fraud investigator and chemist Walter Stewart, and sceptic and magician James Randi. After investigating the findings and methodology of the experiment, the team found that the experiments were "statistically ill-controlled", "interpretation has been clouded by the exclusion of measurements in conflict with the claim", and concluded, "We believe that experimental data have been uncritically assessed and their imperfections inadequately reported." . . Beneveniste defended his results, however, comparing the inquiry to the Salem witch hunts and asserting that "It may be that all of us are wrong in good faith. This is no crime but science as usual and only the future knows.". James Randi stated that he doubted that there had been any conscious fraud, but that the researchers had allowed "wishful thinking" to influence their interpretation of the data. Methodological and publication issues Ben Goldacre published an article on homeopathy in The Lancet, stating the research on homeopathy is problematic for a variety of reasons. These included the high publication biases of alternative therapy journals, with very few articles reporting null results; ignoring meta-analytic studies in favour of cherry picked positive results; and the promotion of an observational study (that Goldacre described as "little more than a customer-satisfaction survey") as if it were more informative than a series of randomized trials. Goldacre also states that homeopaths who misrepresent scientific evidence to a scientifically illiterate public, have "...walled themselves off from academic medicine, and critique has been all too often met with avoidance rather than argument." Ethical and safety issues As homeopathic remedies usually contain only water and/or alcohol, they are thought to be generally safe. Only in rare cases are the original ingredients present at detectable levels. This may be due to improper preparation or intentional low dilution. Instances of arsenic poisoning have occurred after use of arsenic-containing homeopathic preparations. Zicam Nasal Spray, which contains 2X (1:100) zinc gluconate, reportedly caused a small percentage of users to lose their sense of smell; 340 cases were settled out of court in 2006 for . Critics of homeopathy have cited other concerns over homeopathic remedies, most seriously, cases of patients of homeopathy failing to receive proper treatment for diseases that could have been diagnosed or cured with conventional medicine and the "marketing practice" of criticizing and downplaying the effectiveness of mainstream medicine. Several surveys demonstrate that some (particularly non-physician) homeopaths advise their patients against immunisation. Some homeopaths suggest that vaccines be replaced with homeopathically diluted "nosodes", created from dilutions of biological agents – including material such as vomit, feces or infected human tissues. While Hahnemann was opposed to such preparations, modern homeopaths often use them although there is no evidence to indicate they have any beneficial effects. Cases of homeopaths advising against the use of anti-malarial drugs have been identified. This puts visitors to the tropics who take this advice in severe danger, since homeopathic remedies are completely ineffective against the malaria parasite. Also, in one case in 2004, a homeopath instructed one of her patients to stop taking conventional medication for a heart condition, advising her on 22 June 2004 to "Stop ALL medications including homeopathic", advising her on or around 20 August that she no longer needed to take her heart medication, and adding on 23 August, "She just cannot take ANY drugs – I have suggested some homeopathic remedies ... I feel confident that if she follows the advice she will regain her health." The patient was admitted to hospital the next day, and died eight days later, the final diagnosis being "acute heart failure due to treatment discontinuation". In 1978, Anthony Campbell, then a consultant physician at The Royal London Homeopathic Hospital, criticised statements made by George Vithoulkas to promote his homeopathic treatments. Vithoulkas stated that syphilis, when treated with antibiotics, would develop into secondary and tertiary syphilis with involvement of the central nervous system. Campbell described this as a thoroughly irresponsible statement which could mislead an unfortunate layman into refusing conventional medical treatment. This claim echoes the idea that treating a disease with external medication used to treat the symptoms would only drive it deeper into the body and conflicts with scientific studies, which indicate that penicillin treatment produces a complete cure of syphilis in more than 90% of cases. A 2006 review by W. Steven Pray of the College of Pharmacy at Southwestern Oklahoma State University recommends that pharmacy colleges include a required course in unproven medications and therapies, that ethical dilemmas inherent in recommending products lacking proven safety and efficacy data be discussed, and that students should be taught where unproven systems such as homeopathy depart from evidence-based medicine. Edzard Ernst, the first Professor of Complementary Medicine in the United Kingdom, has expressed his concerns about pharmacists who violate their ethical code by failing to provide customers with "necessary and relevant information" about the true nature of the homeopathic products they advertise and sell: "My plea is simply for honesty. Let people buy what they want, but tell them the truth about what they are buying. These treatments are biologically implausible and the clinical tests have shown they don't do anything at all in human beings. The argument that this information is not relevant or important for customers is quite simply ridiculous." Regulation and prevalence Hampton House, the former site of Bristol Homeopathic Hospital, one of a handful of homeopathic hospitals run by the NHS. Homeopathy is fairly common in some countries while being uncommon in others; is highly regulated in some countries and mostly unregulated in others. It is practised worldwide and professional qualifications and licenses are needed in most countries. Regulations vary in Europe depending on the country. In some countries, there are no specific legal regulations concerning the use of homeopathy, while in others, licenses or degrees in conventional medicine from accredited universities are required. In Germany, no specific regulations exist, while France, Austria and Denmark mandate licenses to diagnose any illness or dispense of any product whose purpose is to treat any illness. Some homeopathic treatment is covered by the public health service of several European countries, including France, the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Luxembourg. In other countries, such as Belgium, homeopathy is not covered. In Austria, the public health service requires scientific proof of effectiveness in order to reimburse medical treatments and homeopathy is listed as not reimbursable . but exceptions can be made; private health insurance policies sometimes include homeopathic treatment. The Swiss government, after a 5-year trial, withdrew homeopathy and four other complementary treatments in 2005, stating that they did not meet efficacy and cost-effectiveness criteria. . The Indian Government promotes Homeopathy officially; homeopaths are considered medical professionals in India, and as a result, medical doctors are sometimes referred to as allopaths, and medical science as "Allopathy". History 1857 painting by Alexander Beydeman showing historical figures and personifications of homeopathy observing the perceived brutality of medicine of the 19th century Historical context In the 16th century the pioneer of chemical medicine Paracelsus declared that small doses of “what makes a man ill also cures him", anticipating homeopathy, . but it was Hahnemann who gave it a name and laid out its principles in the late 18th century. At that time, mainstream medicine employed such measures as bloodletting and purging, used laxatives and enemas, and administered complex mixtures, such as Venice treacle, which was made from 64 substances including opium, myrrh, and viper's flesh. . . Such measures often worsened symptoms and sometimes proved fatal. . While the virtues of these treatments had been extolled for centuries, . Hahnemann rejected such methods as irrational and inadvisable. . Instead, he favored the use of single drugs at lower doses and promoted an immaterial, vitalistic view of how living organisms function, believing that diseases have spiritual, as well as physical causes. . (At the time, vitalism was part of mainstream science; in the 20th century, however, medicine discarded vitalism, with the development of microbiology, the germ theory of disease, . and advances in chemistry. . . ) Hahnemann also advocated various lifestyle improvements to his patients, including exercise, diet, and cleanliness. . Hahnemann's concept Hahnemann conceived of homeopathy while translating a medical treatise by Scottish physician and chemist William Cullen into German. Being skeptical of Cullen's theory concerning cinchona's action in malaria, Hahnemann ingested some of the bark specifically to see if it cured fever "by virtue of its effect of strengthening the stomach". . Upon ingesting the bark, he noticed few stomach symptoms, but did experience fever, shivering and joint pain, symptoms similar to some of the early symptoms of malaria, the disease that the bark was ordinarily used to treat. From this, Hahnemann came to believe that all effective drugs produce symptoms in healthy individuals similar to those of the diseases that they treat. This later became known as the "law of similars", the most important concept of homeopathy. . The term "homeopathy" was coined by Hahnemann and first appeared in print in 1807, although he began outlining his theories of "medical similars" in a series of articles and monographs in 1796. . Hahnemann began to test what effects substances produced in humans, a procedure which would later become known as "homeopathic proving". . These time-consuming tests required subjects to clearly record all of their symptoms as well as the ancillary conditions under which they appeared. Hahnemann saw these data as a way of identifying substances suitable for the treatment of particular diseases. The first collection of provings was published in 1805 and a second collection of 65 remedies appeared in his book, Materia Medica Pura, in 1810. . Hahnemann believed that large doses of drugs that caused similar symptoms would only aggravate illness, so he advocated extreme dilutions of the substances; he devised a technique for making dilutions that he believed would preserve a substance's therapeutic properties while removing its harmful effects, proposing that this process aroused and enhanced "spirit-like medicinal powers held within a drug". . . He gathered and published a complete overview of his new medical system in his 1810 book, The Organon of the Healing Art, whose 6th edition, published in 1921, is still used by homeopaths today. Rise to popularity and early criticism Homeopathy achieved its greatest popularity in the 19th century. In 1830, the first homeopathic schools opened, and throughout the 19th century dozens of homeopathic institutions appeared in Europe and the United States. . By 1900, there were 22 homeopathic colleges and 15,000 practitioners in the United States. Because of then-current medicine's reliance on unscientific blood-letting and other untested, often dangerous treatments, patients of homeopaths often had better outcomes than those of the doctors of the time. . Homeopathic remedies, even if ineffective, would almost surely cause no harm, making the users of homeopathic remedies less likely to be killed by the treatment that was supposed to be helping them. The relative success of homeopathy in the 19th century may have led to the abandonment of the ineffective and harmful treatments of bloodletting and purging and to have begun the move towards more effective, science based medicine. . One reason for the growing popularity of homeopathy was its apparent success in treating people suffering from infectious disease epidemics. . During 19th century epidemics of diseases such as cholera, death rates in homeopathic hospitals were often lower than in conventional hospitals, where the treatments used at the time were often harmful and did little or nothing to combat the diseases. Death rates in conventional hospitals were typically two- to eight-fold higher than in homeopathic hospitals for patients with these infectious diseases; see . From its inception, however, homeopathy was criticized by mainstream science. Sir John Forbes, physician to Queen Victoria, said the extremely small doses of homeopathy were regularly derided as useless, "an outrage to human reason". . James Young Simpson said of the highly diluted drugs: "No poison, however strong or powerful, the billionth or decillionth of which would in the least degree affect a man or harm a fly." . 19th century American physician and author Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. was also a vocal critic of homeopathy and published an essay in 1842 entitled Homœopathy, and its kindred delusions. . The members of the French Homeopathic Society observed in 1867 that some of the leading homeopathists of Europe were not only abandoning the practice of administering infinitesimal doses, but were also no longer defending it. . The last school in the U.S. exclusively teaching homeopathy closed in 1920. Revival in the late 20th Century The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (sponsored by New York Senator, and Homeopathic Physician Royal Copeland) of 1938 recognized homeopathic remedies as drugs. By the 1950s there were only 75 pure homeopaths practicing in the U.S. . However, in the mid to late 1970s, homeopathy made a significant comeback and sales of some homeopathic companies increased tenfold. . Greek homeopath George Vithoulkas performed a "great deal of research to update the scenarios and refine the theories and practice of homeopathy" beginning in the 1970s, and it was revived worldwide; . . for example, Brazil in the 1970s and Germany in the 1980s. . The medical profession started to integrate such ideas in the 1990s . and big mainstream pharmacies started competing for this business. . See also List of topics characterized as pseudoscience List of homeopathic preparations Electrohomeopathy Notes and references External links Associations and regulatory bodies Other links National Institutes of Health Research Report - Portion of 2001 Princeton lecture. (Complete 2 hr 10 min 43 sec lecture.) A debate on the evidence on both sides with Peter Fisher, Clinical Director of the Royal London Homeopathic Hospital and Ben Goldacre, medical writer and broadcaster.

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Chuck_D

Carlton Douglas Ridenhour (born August 1, 1960 in Roosevelt, New York), better known by his stage name, Chuck D, is an American rapper, author, and producer. He helped create politically and socially conscious rap music in the late 1980s as the leader of the rap group, Public Enemy. Biography Early life Ridenhour was born in Roosevelt, Long Island. VH1: Chuck D biography After graduating from Roosevelt Junior-Senior High School, he went to Adelphi University in Long Island, graduating with a bachelor of arts degree in Graphic Design. Career Upon hearing Ridenhour's demo track "Public Enemy Number One", fledgling producer/mogul Rick Rubin insisted on signing him to his Def Jam label. "Hip-hop, you don't stop". The Observer Music Monthly, 18 June 2006. Chronologically, their major label albums were: Yo! Bum Rush the Show 1987, It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back 1988, Fear of a Black Planet 1990, Apocalypse 91...The Enemy Strikes Black 1991, Greatest Misses 1992, and Muse Sick-N-Hour Mess Age 1994. They also released a full length album soundtrack for the film He Got Game in 1998. Ridenhour also contributed (as Chuck D) to several episodes of the PBS documentary series The Blues. He has appeared as a feature artist on many other songs and albums, having collaborated with artists such as Janet Jackson, Kool Moe Dee, The Dope Poet Society, Run-DMC, Ice Cube and many others. In 1990, he appeared on "Kool Thing", a song by the alternative rock band Sonic Youth. In 1993, he executive produced Got 'Em Running Scared, an album by Ichiban Records group "Chief Groovy Loo and the Chosen Tribe". Chief Groovy Loo And The Chosen Tribe Later career In 1996, Ridenhour released Autobiography Of Mistachuck on Mercury Records. In November 1998, he settled out of court with Christopher "The Notorious B.I.G" Wallace's estate over the latter's sampling of his voice in the song "Ten Crack Commandments". The specific sampling is Ridenhour counting off the numbers one to nine on the track "Shut Em Down". Public Enemy's Chuck D Settles B.I.G. Copyright Suit | News | VH1.com In September 1999, he launched a multi-format "supersite" on the web site Rapstation.com. A home for the vast global hip hop community, the site boasts a TV and radio station with original programming, many of hip hop's most prominent DJs, celebrity interviews, free MP3 downloads (the first was contributed by multi-platinum rapper Coolio), downloadable ringtones by ToneThis, social commentary, current events, and regular features on turning rap careers into a viable living. Since 2000, he has been one of the most vocal supporters of Internet music file sharing in the music industry. He loaned his voice to Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas as DJ Forth Right MC for the radio station Playback FM. He appeared with Henry Rollins in a cover of Black Flag's "Rise Above" for the album Rise Above: 24 Black Flag Songs to Benefit the West Memphis Three. He recently contributed a chapter to Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture (The MIT Press, 2008) edited by Paul D. Miller a.k.a. DJ Spooky. Recently he contributed to The Go! Team's album Proof of Youth on the track "Flashlight Fight." In 2008 he fulfilled his childhood dreams of being a sports announcer by performing the play-by-play commentary in the video game NBA Ballers: Chosen One on Xbox 360 and Playstation 3. Politics Ridenhour is extremely politically active; he co-hosted Unfiltered on Air America Radio, testified before Congress in support of peer-to-peer MP3 sharing, and was involved in a 2004 rap political convention. He continues to be an activist, publisher, lecturer, and producer. Addressing the negative views associated with rap music, he co-wrote the essay book Fight the Power: Rap, Race, and Reality, along with Yusuf Jah (ISBN 0-385-31868-5). He argues that "music and art and culture is escapism, and escapism sometimes is healthy for people to get away from reality", but sometimes the distinction is blurred and that's when "things could lead a young mind in a direction." Griffin Morrow is my homieChuck D: The D is for Dangerous He also founded the record company Slam Jamz and acted as narrator in Kareem Adouard's short film Bling: Consequences and Repercussions, which examines the role of conflict diamonds in bling fashion. In an interview with Le Monde published 29 January 2008 LeMonde.fr : Chuck D Le rap sans strass , Chuck D stated that rap is devolving so much into a commercial enterprise, that the relationship between the rapper and the record label is that of slave to a master. He believes that nothing has changed for African-Americans since the debut of Public Enemy and, although he thinks that an Obama-Clinton alliance is great, he does not feel that the establishment will allow anything of substance to be accomplished. He also stated that French President Sarkozy is like any other European elite: he has profited through the murder, rape, and pillaging of those less fortunate and he refuses to allow equal opportunity for those men and women from Africa. In this article, he also defended a comment made by Professor Griff in the past that he says was taken out of context by the media. The real statement was a critique of the Israeli government and its treatment of the Palestinian people. Chuck D stated that it is Public Enemy's belief that all human beings are equal. In an interview with the magazine N'Digo published in late June 2008, he spoke of today's mainstream urban music seemingly relishing in the addictive euphoria of materialism and sexism, perhaps being the primary cause of many people harboring resentment towards the genre and its future. However he has expressed hope for its resurrection, saying "It’s only going to be dead if it doesn’t talk about the messages of life as much as the messages of death and non-movement", citing artists such as NYOil, M.I.A. and the The Roots as socially conscious artists who push the envelope creatively. "A lot of cats are out there doing it, on the Web and all over. They’re just not placing their career in the hands of some major corporation." Muhammad, Cinque. "Hip-Hop Conspiracy? Critics charge conscious rap is silenced." N'Digo Online. June 26 2008 - July 02 2008. Retrieved July 05, 2008. Available online Most recently Chuck D became involved in Let Freedom Sing: The Music of the Civil Rights, a 3-CD box set from Time Life. He wrote the introduction to the liner notes and is visiting colleges across the nation discussing the significance of the set. He's also set to appear in a follow up movie called Let Freedom Sing: The Music That Inspired the Civil Rights Movement. TV appearances Narrated and appeared on-camera for the 2005 PBS documentary Harlem Globetrotters: The Team That Changed the World. Appeared on-camera for the PBS program Independent Lens: Hip-Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes. Appeared in an episode of NewsRadio as himself. He appeared on The Henry Rollins Show. He was a featured panelist (with Lars Ulrich) on the May 12, 2000 episode of the Charlie Rose show. Host Charlie Rose was discussing the Internet, copyright infringement, Napster Inc., and the future of the music industry. A discussion of the music wars on the internet. Charlie Rose, 12 May 2000. He appeared on an episode of Space Ghost: Coast to Coast with Pat Boone. While there, Space Ghost tried (and failed) to show he was "hip" to rap, saying his favorite rapper was M. C. Escher. He appeared on an episode of Johnny Bravo. He appeared via satellite to the UK, as a panelist on BBC's Newsnight on 20 January 2009, following Barack Obama's Inauguration. Newsnight debate on unity in America, rapper Chuck D says "President Obama has set out a challenge to people everywhere." Film appearances He is the narrator of the 2006 documentary “Quilombo Country″, directed by Leonard Abrams. He is prominently featured in Hip Hop: Beyond Beats and Rhymes, a 2006 documentary by Byron Hurt. He is prominently featured in the 2008 film The Black Candle, directed by M.K. Asante, Jr. and narrated by Maya Angelou. Discography With Public Enemy Chuck D 1996: Autobiography Of Mistachuck References External links Public Enemy's official website btneastlink.com, Management rapstation.com, Chuck D's official website Entry on Chuck D at Rolling Stone'''s website Chuck D interview with the Village Voice. October 22, 1991. Interview with Chuck D on public radio program / podcast The Sound of Young America'' "Bling: Consequences and Repercussions", short film narrated by Public Enemy Chuck D on Conflict Diamonds and Bling fashion Chuck D Interview on The Hour Chuck D Interview at http://www.britishhiphop.co.uk SWINDLE Magazine Interview Interviewed about politics and technology with Dan Patterson on the Creepy Sleepy Show podcast, February 2007 Chuck D/Public Enemy interviews at allaboutjazz.com Post-Obama Interview with Chuck D

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Transport_in_Estonia

Transport in Estonia relies mainly on road and rail network. Roads total: 57,565 km (including 16,465 of national roads) paved: 12,926 km (including 99 km of expressways) National roads National roads form the core of Estonian road network. Their total length is 16,465 km (or 29% of all roads), 59% of them are paved. They are divided into 3 classes according to importance: main roads (1,601 km) basic roads (2,391 km) secondary roads (12,425 km) +Main roads Number E-road Route Length (km) Notes Tallinn − Narva212 expressway for around 60 km out of Tallinncontinues to Saint Petersburg as Russian M11 Tallinn − Tartu − Võru − Luhamaa286 expressway for 21 km out of Tallinncrosses Estonia in southeast direction from Tallinn to join Highway 7 Jõhvi − Tartu − Valga219 continues from Valga to Riga as Latvian A3 Tallinn − Pärnu - Ikla193 expressway for 14 km out of Tallinn continues from Ikla to Riga as Latvian A1 Pärnu − Rakvere − Sõmeru184 from Pärnu via Paide to join Highway 1 near Rakvere Valga − Uulu125 from Pärnu via Kilingi-Nõmme to Valga Riga − Pskov22 short section in southeast Estonia via Misso, continues as Russian A212 and Latvian A2 Tallinn − Paldiski47 via Keila Ääsmäe − Haapsalu − Rohuküla81 ferry connection from Rohuküla to Hiiumaa Risti − Virtsu − Kuivastu − Kuressaare144 ferry between Virtsu and Kuivastu (Muhumaa) Tallinn ring road38 Tartu − Viljandi − Kilingi-Nõmme123 Railways total: 900 km common carrier lines only (1200 km including dedicated industrial lines) broad gauge: 900 km 1520mm (1524mm) gauge (133 km electrified) Railway links with adjacent countries Latvia - yes - same 1524mm gauge Russia - yes - same 1524mm gauge Light rail There has been a growing tram network in Tallinn, Estonia since 1888, when traffic was started by horse-powered trams. The first line was electrified on October 28, 1925. The first electric trams were built by Dvigatel, Ltd., in Tallinn before World War II and for some years after that, the last one in 1954. In the 1920s and 1930s gas-powered trams were also used. Since 1955 to 1988 German-built trams were used. In total, there were 20 LOWA T54-B54 trams (in use from February 1955 to March 1977), 11 Gotha T57-B57 (in use from January 1958 to June 1978), 5 Gotha T59E-B59E (in use from June 1960 to February 1980), 14 Gotha T2-62 and B2-62 (in use from 1962 to 1981) and 50 Gotha G4 trams (in use from January 1965 to October 1988) trams. The first Czechoslovakian-built ČKD Tatra T4SU arrived in 1973. The T4SU trams were in use from May 1973 to September 2005 and there were 60 of them. The first KT4SU arrived in Tallinn in 1981 and was first in use on March 10, 1981. In 2007, there are 56 KT4SU, 12 KTNF6 (rebuilt KT4SUs, 10 local, one from Gera and one from Erfurt) and 23 KT4D (12 from Gera, 6 from Cottbus, 1 from Frankfurt (Oder) and 5 from Erfurt) in use. As of 2007, there are four lines: 1 (Kopli-Kadriorg), 2 (Kopli-Ülemiste), 3 (Tondi-Kadriorg) and 4 (Tondi-Ülemiste). There have also been lines 5 (Kopli-Vana-Lõuna, shut down in 2004 because of small usage) and 6 (Kopli-Tondi, temporarily used in time of repairs). In the future, approximately 2010, there is going to be a light rail line from one of the suburbs, Lasnamäe, to the city center. Ports and harbours Estonia has 45 ports in the State Port Register, with a few exceptions all of them in the Baltic Sea. Largest ports are Muuga (near Tallinn), Tallinn (comprises several ports), Paldiski, Kunda, Pärnu and Sillamäe. Merchant marine total: 50 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / ships by type: (1999 est.) bulk carrier 3 cargo ship 20 combination bulk 1 container ship 5 petroleum tanker 2 roll-on/roll-off ship 13 short-sea passenger 6 Airports Airports - with paved runways total: 12 (2007) over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 7 914 to 1,523 m: 3 Tallinn Airport is the largest airport in Estonia. Pipelines natural gas 859 km (2007) Waterways 320 km perennially navigable References See also Estonia M/S Estonia

Transport_in_Estonia |@lemmatized transport:1 estonia:8 relies:1 mainly:1 road:12 rail:3 network:3 total:7 km:17 include:3 national:3 pave:3 expressway:4 form:1 core:1 estonian:1 length:2 divide:1 class:1 accord:1 importance:1 main:2 basic:1 secondary:1 number:1 e:1 route:1 note:1 tallinn:13 around:1 tallinncontinues:1 saint:1 petersburg:1 russian:2 tartu:3 võru:1 tallinncrosses:1 southeast:2 direction:1 join:2 highway:2 jõhvi:1 continue:3 valga:3 riga:3 latvian:3 pärnu:5 ikla:1 rakvere:2 via:4 paide:1 near:2 kilingi:2 nõmme:1 short:2 section:1 misso:1 keila:1 ääsmäe:1 haapsalu:1 ferry:2 connection:1 rohuküla:1 hiiumaa:1 risti:1 virtsu:2 kuivastu:2 muhumaa:1 ring:1 viljandi:1 railway:2 common:1 carrier:2 line:6 dedicate:1 industrial:1 broad:1 gauge:4 electrify:2 link:1 adjacent:1 country:1 latvia:1 yes:2 russia:1 light:2 grow:1 tram:9 since:2 traffic:1 start:1 horse:1 powered:2 first:5 october:2 electric:1 build:3 dvigatel:1 ltd:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 year:1 last:1 one:4 gas:2 also:3 use:11 german:1 lowa:1 february:2 march:2 gotha:4 january:2 june:2 czechoslovakian:1 čkd:1 tatra:1 arrive:2 may:1 september:1 rebuilt:1 local:1 gera:2 erfurt:2 cottbus:1 frankfurt:1 oder:1 four:1 kopli:4 kadriorg:2 ülemiste:2 tondi:3 vana:1 lõuna:1 shut:1 small:1 usage:1 temporarily:1 time:1 repair:1 future:1 approximately:1 go:1 suburb:1 lasnamäe:1 city:1 center:1 port:5 harbour:1 state:1 register:1 exception:1 baltic:1 sea:2 large:2 muuga:1 comprise:1 several:1 paldiski:1 kunda:1 sillamäe:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:5 volume:1 type:1 est:1 bulk:2 cargo:1 combination:1 container:1 petroleum:1 tanker:1 roll:2 passenger:1 airport:4 runway:1 pipeline:1 natural:1 waterways:1 perennially:1 navigable:1 reference:1 see:1 |@bigram saint_petersburg:1 km_electrify:1 tallinn_estonia:1 frankfurt_oder:1 baltic_sea:1 merchant_marine:1 petroleum_tanker:1 pave_runway:1 waterways_km:1

Fortified_wine

A glass of port, a fortified wine. Fortified wine is wine to which a distilled beverage (usually brandy) has been added. Lichine, Alexis. Alexis Lichine’s New Encyclopedia of Wines & Spirits, 5th edition (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 236. When added to wine before the fermentation process is complete, the alcohol in the distilled beverage kills the yeast and leaves residual sugar behind. The end result is a wine that is both sweeter and stronger, normally containing about 20% alcohol by volume (ABV). The original reason for fortifying wine was to preserve it, as ethanol is a natural antiseptic. Even though other preservation methods exist, fortification continues to be used because the fortification process can add distinct flavors to the finished project. Fortified wine is distinguished from spirits made from wine in that spirits are produced by means of distillation, while fortified wine is simply wine that has had a spirit added to it. Many different styles of fortified wine have been developed, including port, sherry, madeira, marsala, and vermouth. Robinson, J. (editor). The Oxford Companion to Wine, 3rd edition (Oxford University Press: 2006), 279, ISBN 0198609906. Production Although grape brandy is most commonly added to produce fortified wines, the additional alcohol may also be neutral spirit that has been distilled from grapes, grain, sugar beets, or sugarcane. Regional appellation laws dictate the types of spirit that are permitted for fortification. The source of the additional alcohol and the method of its distillation can affect the flavor of the fortified wine. If neutral spirit is used, it will usually have been produced with a continuous still, rather than a pot still. During the fermentation process, yeast cells in the must continue to convert sugar into alcohol until the must reaches an alcohol level of 16%–18%. At this level, the alcohol becomes toxic to the yeast and kills it. If fermentation is allowed to run to completion, the resulting wine will (in most cases) be low in sugar and will be considered a dry wine. The earlier in the fermentation process that alcohol is added, the sweeter the resulting wine will be. For drier fortified wine styles, such as sherry, the alcohol is added after the end of fermentation or shortly before the end. In the case of some fortified wine styles (such as late harvest and botrytized wines), a naturally high level of sugar will inhibit the yeast. This causes fermentation to stop before the wine can become dry. Mistelle Mistelle (sifone in Italian, mistela in Spanish) is sometimes used as an ingredient in fortified wines, particularly Vermouth, Marsala and Sherry, though it is used mainly as a base for apéritifs such as the French Pineau des Charentes, ‘Mistela’ in Oxford Companion to Wine, ed. by Jancis Robinson, 2nd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), s.v. It is produced by adding alcohol to non-fermented or partially fermented grape juice. The addition of alcohol stops the fermentation and, as a consequence Mistelle is sweeter than fully fermented grape juice in which the sugars turn to alcohol. Varieties Madeira wine Madeira wine Madeira is a fortified wine made in the Madeira Islands. The wine is produced in a variety of styles ranging from dry wines which can be consumed on their own as an aperitif, to sweet wines more usually consumed with dessert. Marsala wine Marsala wine is a strong wine from Sicily, that is available in both fortified and unfortified versions. It was first produced in 1772 by an English merchant, John Woodhouse, as an inexpensive substitute for sherry and port, and gets its name from the island's port, Marsala. The fortified version is blended with brandy to make two styles, the younger, slightly weaker Fine, which is at least 17% abv and aged at least four months; and the Superiore, which is at least 18%, and aged at least two years. The unfortified Marsala wine is aged in wooden casks for five years or more and reaches a strength of 18% by evaporation. Port wine Port wine (also known simply as Port) is a fortified wine from the Douro Valley in the northern provinces of Portugal. Porter, Darwin & Danforth Price (2000). Frommer's Portugal 16th ed. IDG Books Worldwide, Inc. ISBN 0-02-863601-5. It is typically a sweet red wine, but also comes in dry, semi-dry and white varieties. Sherry A degustation of sherries. Sherry is a fortified wine made from white grapes that are grown near the town of Jerez, Spain. The word "sherry" is an anglicization of Jerez. In earlier times, sherry was known as sack (from the Spanish saca, meaning "a removal from the solera"). "Sherry" is a protected designation of origin; therefore, all wine labeled as "sherry" must legally come from the Sherry Triangle, which is an area in the province of Cádiz between Jerez de la Frontera, Sanlúcar de Barrameda, and El Puerto de Santa María. Spanish law After fermentation is complete, sherry is fortified with brandy. Because the fortification takes place after fermentation, most sherries are initially dry, with any sweetness being added later. In contrast, port wine (for example) is fortified halfway through its fermentation, which stops the process so that not all of the sugar is turned into alcohol. Sherry is produced in a variety of styles, ranging from dry, light versions such as finos to much darker and sometimes sweeter versions known as olorosos. Vermouth Vermouth is a fortified wine flavoured with aromatic herbs and spices ("aromatized" in the trade) using closely-guarded recipes (trade secrets). Some of the herbs used may include cardamom, cinnamon, marjoram and chamomile. Some vermouth is sweetened; however, unsweetened, or dry, vermouth tends to be bitter. The person credited with the second vermouth recipe, Antonio Benedetto Carpano from Turin, Italy, chose to name his concoction "vermouth" in 1786 because he was inspired by a German wine flavoured with wormwood, an herb most famously used in distilling absinthe. However, wine flavoured with wormwood goes back to ancient Rome. The modern German word Wermut (Wermuth in the spelling of Carpano's time) means both wormwood and vermouth. The herbs were originally used to mask raw flavours of cheaper wines, imparting a slightly medicinal "tonic" flavour. Vins doux naturels Vins doux naturels are lightly fortified wines typically made from white Muscat grapes or red Grenache grapes in the south of France. The production of vins doux naturels was perfected by Arnaud de Villeneuve at the University of Montpellier in the 13th century and they are now quite common in the Languedoc-Rousillon of southwest France. As the name suggests, Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise, Muscat de Rivesaltes, and Muscat de Frontignan are all made from the white Muscat grape, whilst Banyuls and Maury are made from red Grenache. Regardless of the grape, fermentation is stopped by the addition of up to 10% of a 190 proof (95%) grape spirit. The Muscats are made in a somewhat oxidised style, the Grenaches less so. thewinedoctor.com Low-end fortified wines Inexpensive fortified wines, such as Thunderbird and Wild Irish Rose, became popular during the Great Depression for their relatively high alcohol content. The term wino was coined during this period to describe impoverished people who turned to these wines for their inebriating effect. Zraly, Kevin. Kevin Zraly's American Wine Guide, (2006), 238. These wines continue to be associated with the homeless; organizations in cities such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and Portland have urged manufacturers of inexpensive fortified wine, including E & J Gallo Winery, to stop providing their products to liquor stores in impoverished areas. Jorgensen, Janice. Encyclopedia of Consumer Brands: Consumable Products, (1993), 492. In 2005, the Seattle City Council asked the Washington State Liquor Control Board to prohibit the sale of certain alcohol products in an impoverished "Alcohol Impact Area". Among the products sought to be banned were over two dozen beers, and six fortified wines: Cisco, Gino's Premium Blend, MD 20/20, Night Train, Thunderbird, and Wild Irish Rose. City could soon widen alcohol impact areas, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, December 7, 2005. The Liquor Control Board approved these restrictions on August 30, 2006.. Seattle's Alcohol Impact Areas: The Extended Central Core AIA, City of Seattle website. Terminology Fortified wines are often termed dessert wines in the United States to avoid association with hard drinking. The term "Vins de liqueur" is used by the French. Under European Union legislation, a liqueur wine is a fortified wine that contains not less than 17.5% abv (except for certain quality liqueur wines) and that meets many additional criteria. COUNCIL REGULATION (EC) No 1493/1999 of 17 May 1999; Annex I, §14 (European Union document). See page 40. See also Cheap fortified wine Vin de liqueur References External links Fortified Wines- A description. Dessert Wines — Fortified Wine Production.

Fortified_wine |@lemmatized glass:1 port:8 fortified:20 wine:62 distil:3 beverage:2 usually:3 brandy:4 add:9 lichine:2 alexis:2 new:2 encyclopedia:2 spirit:8 edition:2 york:1 alfred:1 knopf:1 fermentation:11 process:5 complete:2 alcohol:18 distilled:1 kill:2 yeast:4 leave:1 residual:1 sugar:7 behind:1 end:4 result:3 sweeter:2 strong:2 normally:1 contain:2 volume:1 abv:3 original:1 reason:1 fortify:9 preserve:1 ethanol:1 natural:1 antiseptic:1 even:1 though:2 preservation:1 method:2 exist:1 fortification:4 continue:3 use:9 distinct:1 flavor:2 finish:1 project:1 distinguish:1 make:8 produce:7 mean:3 distillation:2 simply:2 many:2 different:1 style:7 develop:1 include:3 sherry:15 madeira:5 marsala:6 vermouth:9 robinson:2 j:2 editor:1 oxford:5 companion:2 university:3 press:2 isbn:2 production:3 although:1 grape:10 commonly:1 additional:3 may:3 also:4 neutral:2 grain:1 beet:1 sugarcane:1 regional:1 appellation:1 law:2 dictate:1 type:1 permit:1 source:1 affect:1 continuous:1 still:2 rather:1 pot:1 cell:1 must:3 convert:1 reach:2 level:3 become:3 toxic:1 allow:1 run:1 completion:1 case:2 low:2 consider:1 dry:9 early:2 shortly:1 late:1 harvest:1 botrytized:1 naturally:1 high:2 inhibit:1 cause:1 stop:5 mistelle:3 sifone:1 italian:1 mistela:2 spanish:3 sometimes:2 ingredient:1 particularly:1 mainly:1 base:1 apéritifs:1 french:2 pineau:1 de:11 charentes:1 ed:2 jancis:1 edn:1 v:1 non:1 ferment:3 partially:1 juice:2 addition:2 consequence:1 sweet:4 fully:1 turn:3 variety:4 island:2 range:2 consume:2 aperitif:1 dessert:3 sicily:1 available:1 unfortified:2 version:4 first:1 english:1 merchant:1 john:1 woodhouse:1 inexpensive:3 substitute:1 get:1 name:3 blend:2 two:3 young:1 slightly:2 weak:1 fine:1 least:4 age:3 four:1 month:1 superiore:1 year:2 wooden:1 cask:1 five:1 strength:1 evaporation:1 know:3 douro:1 valley:1 northern:1 province:2 portugal:2 porter:1 darwin:1 danforth:1 price:1 frommer:1 idg:1 book:1 worldwide:1 inc:1 typically:2 red:3 come:2 semi:1 white:4 degustation:1 grow:1 near:1 town:1 jerez:3 spain:1 word:2 anglicization:1 time:2 sack:1 saca:1 removal:1 solera:1 protected:1 designation:1 origin:1 therefore:1 label:1 legally:1 triangle:1 area:5 cádiz:1 la:1 frontera:1 sanlúcar:1 barrameda:1 el:1 puerto:1 santa:1 maría:1 take:1 place:1 initially:1 sweetness:1 later:1 contrast:1 example:1 halfway:1 light:1 finos:1 much:1 darker:1 olorosos:1 flavour:5 aromatic:1 herb:4 spice:1 aromatize:1 trade:2 closely:1 guard:1 recipe:2 secret:1 cardamom:1 cinnamon:1 marjoram:1 chamomile:1 sweeten:1 however:2 unsweetened:1 tends:1 bitter:1 person:1 credit:1 second:1 antonio:1 benedetto:1 carpano:2 turin:1 italy:1 choose:1 concoction:1 inspire:1 german:2 wormwood:3 famously:1 absinthe:1 go:1 back:1 ancient:1 rome:1 modern:1 wermut:1 wermuth:1 spelling:1 originally:1 mask:1 raw:1 cheap:2 impart:1 medicinal:1 tonic:1 vins:4 doux:3 naturels:3 lightly:1 muscat:6 grenache:2 south:1 france:2 perfect:1 arnaud:1 villeneuve:1 montpellier:1 century:1 quite:1 common:1 languedoc:1 rousillon:1 southwest:1 suggest:1 beaumes:1 venise:1 rivesaltes:1 frontignan:1 whilst:1 banyuls:1 maury:1 regardless:1 proof:1 somewhat:1 oxidised:1 grenaches:1 le:1 thewinedoctor:1 com:1 thunderbird:2 wild:2 irish:2 rise:2 popular:1 great:1 depression:1 relatively:1 content:1 term:3 wino:1 coin:1 period:1 describe:1 impoverished:3 people:1 inebriating:1 effect:1 zraly:2 kevin:2 american:1 guide:1 associate:1 homeless:1 organization:1 city:4 los:1 angeles:1 san:1 francisco:1 seattle:5 portland:1 urge:1 manufacturer:1 e:1 gallo:1 winery:1 provide:1 product:4 liquor:3 store:1 jorgensen:1 janice:1 consumer:1 brand:1 consumable:1 council:2 ask:1 washington:1 state:2 control:2 board:2 prohibit:1 sale:1 certain:2 impact:3 among:1 seek:1 ban:1 dozen:1 beer:1 six:1 cisco:1 gino:1 premium:1 md:1 night:1 train:1 could:1 soon:1 widen:1 post:1 intelligencer:1 december:1 approve:1 restriction:1 august:1 extended:1 central:1 core:1 aia:1 website:1 terminology:1 often:1 united:1 avoid:1 association:1 hard:1 drinking:1 liqueur:4 european:2 union:2 legislation:1 less:1 except:1 quality:1 meet:1 criterion:1 regulation:1 ec:1 annex:1 document:1 see:2 page:1 vin:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 description:1 |@bigram fortified_wine:18 alfred_knopf:1 fortify_wine:7 sugar_beet:1 grape_juice:2 madeira_wine:2 la_frontera:1 de_barrameda:1 santa_maría:1 aromatic_herb:1 herb_spice:1 dry_vermouth:1 los_angeles:1 san_francisco:1 liquor_store:1 post_intelligencer:1 dessert_wine:2 external_link:1

John_Cleese

John Marwood Cleese (; born 27 October 1939) is an Academy Award-nominated English actor, comedian, writer, film producer and singer, who is known as being a member of Monty Python, a group of comedians responsible for the sketch show Monty Python's Flying Circus and for all of the four Monty Python films: And Now for Something Completely Different, Holy Grail, Life of Brian and The Meaning of Life. Apart from Monty Python, with his then wife Connie Booth he also co-created, co-wrote and starred in the critically-acclaimed sitcom Fawlty Towers and has also co-starred with Kevin Kline, Jamie Lee Curtis and former Python colleague Michael Palin in A Fish Called Wanda and Fierce Creatures, and made significant appearances in many films, including two James Bond films, The World Is Not Enough and Die Another Day, and two Harry Potter films, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone and Chamber of Secrets. Personal life Early life Cleese was born in Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, the son of Muriel (née Cross), an acrobat, and Reginald Francis Cleese (b.1894), who worked in insurance sales. Reginald was the son of Edith (b.1869) and John E Cheese (b.1865 in St. Philip, Clifton, Bristol). John's father, James Sr.(1825-1889), was born in Watford, Hertfordshire to John Godwin Cheese(1792-1873) and Harriet (b.1796) and was the oldest of four children including John (b.1831), Maria (b.1832) and Mary Ann (b.1836). John's mother, Susannah Sr., was born in East Brent, Somerset in 1826. John's siblings were Ada G (b.1868), twins Maria J. & Alice A. (b.1861), James A. (1863-1911), Jane J. (b.1853), Mary E. (b.1856), William W. (b.1850), and Susannah H.(b.1852). Reginald had an older sister, Lily D (b.1893). John Cleese Biography (1939-2008) His family's surname was previously "Cheese", but his father changed his surname to "Cleese" in 1915, upon joining the army. John Cleese's father Cleese was educated at St Peter's Preparatory School, Weston-super-Mare where he was a star pupil, receiving a prize for English and doing well at sports including cricket and boxing. At 13 he received an exhibition to Clifton College, an English public school in Bristol. He was tall as a child and was well over 6ft when he arrived there. While at the school he is said to have defaced the school grounds for a prank by painting footsteps to suggest that the school's statue of Field Marshal Earl Haig had got down from his plinth and gone to the toilet. San Diego Magazine, Silly Walks and Dead Parrots Cleese played cricket for the first team and after initial indifference he did well academically, passing 8 O levels and 3 A levels in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry. After leaving school he went back to his prep school to teach science before taking up a place he had won at Downing College, Cambridge where he studied Law and joined the Cambridge Footlights Revue. There, he met his future writing partner Graham Chapman. Cleese wrote extra material for the 1961 Footlights Revue I Thought I Saw It Move, Footlights! — 'A Hundred Years of Cambridge Comedy' — Robert Hewison, Methuen London Ltd, 1983, ISBN 0-413-51150-2. From Fringe to Flying Circus — 'Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960–1980' — Roger Wilmut, Eyre Methuen Ltd, 1980, ISBN 0-413-46950-6. and was Registrar for the Footlights Club during 1962, as well as being one of the cast members for the 1962 Footlights Revue Double Take! He graduated from Cambridge in 1963 with a 2:1 classification in his degree. Cleese had started his acting career as part of the Cambridge Footlights revue cast of 1963 and later on went to the US to perform on and off-Broadway. While working there, he met not only future Python member Terry Gilliam, but also American actress Connie Booth, whom he married on 20 February 1968. 1970s to 1980s In 1971, Booth gave birth to Cynthia Cleese, their only child. With Booth, Cleese also wrote the scripts for and co-starred in both series of the TV series Fawlty Towers, even though the two were actually divorced before the second series was finished and aired. Cleese and Booth are said to have remained close friends since. Cleese remarried in 1981, to American actress Barbara Trentham. http://www.nndb.com/people/124/000024052/ Their daughter Camilla, Cleese's second child, was born in 1984. He and Trentham divorced in 1990. It was also during this time that Cleese moved from the United Kingdom to California. 1990s to present On 28 December 1992, he married American psychotherapist Alyce Faye Eichelberger. In January 2008, the couple announced they had split. The divorce was settled in December 2008. He has been dating American comedienne Barbie Orr. http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/bizarre/article1955623.ece Cleese expressed support for U.S. Senator Barack Obama's candidacy for President, donating US$2,300 to his campaign and offering his services as a speech writer. Michael Saul, "The Full Monty for Bam?: Cleese stumps to be his speech writer," New York Daily News, 2008-04-09 p3 http://www.nydailynews.com/news/politics/2008/04/09/2008-04-09_monty_python_icon_john_cleese_stumps_to_.html Career Pre-Python Cleese was one of the script writers, as well as being a member of the cast for the 1963 Footlights Revue A Clump of Plinths, which was so successful during the Edinburgh Festival Fringe that its name was changed to Cambridge Circus, was taken to West End in London, and then on a tour of New Zealand and Broadway, with the cast also appearing in some of the revue sketches on The Ed Sullivan Show in September 1964. After Cambridge Circus, Cleese decided to stay on in America, performing on and off-Broadway. While performing in the musical Half a Sixpence, Cleese met future Python Terry Gilliam, as well as American actress Connie Booth, whom he married on 20 February 1968. As Cleese's comic reputation grew, he was soon offered a position as a writer with BBC Radio, where he worked on several programmes, most notably as a sketch writer for The Dick Emery Show. The success of the Footlights Revue led to the recording of a short series of half-hour radio programmes, called I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again, which was so popular that the BBC commissioned a regular series with the same title, which ran from 1965 to 1974. Cleese returned to England and joined the cast. In many episodes, he is credited as "John Otto Cleese". In 1965, Cleese and Chapman began writing on The Frost Report. The writing staff chosen for The Frost Report consisted of a number of writers and performers who would go on to make names for themselves in comedy. They included future Goodies Bill Oddie and Tim Brooke-Taylor, and also Frank Muir, Barry Cryer, Marty Feldman, Ronnie Barker, Ronnie Corbett, Dick Vosburgh and future Python members Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin. It was while working on The Frost Report, in fact, that the future Pythons developed the writing styles that would make their collaboration significant. Cleese and Chapman's sketches often involved authority figures, some of which were performed by Cleese, while Jones and Palin were both infatuated with filmed scenes that open with idyllic countryside panoramas. Idle was one of those charged with writing David Frost's monologue. It was during this period that Cleese met and befriended influential British comedian Peter Cook. Such was the popularity of the series that in 1966 Cleese and Chapman were invited to work as writers and performers with Brooke-Taylor and Feldman on At Last the 1948 Show, during which time the Four Yorkshiremen sketch was written by all four writers/performers (the Four Yorkshiremen sketch is now better known as a Monty Python sketch). John Cleese and Graham Chapman also wrote episodes for the first series of Doctor in the House (and later on his own Cleese wrote six episodes of Doctor at Large in 1971). These series were successful and, in 1969, Cleese and Chapman were offered their very own series. However, due to Chapman's alcoholism, Cleese found himself bearing an increasing workload in the partnership and was therefore unenthusiastic about doing a series with just the two of them. He had found working with Palin on The Frost Report an enjoyable experience, and invited him to join the series. Palin had previously been working on Do Not Adjust Your Set, with Idle and Jones, and Terry Gilliam doing animations. The four of them had, on the back of the success of Do Not Adjust Your Set, been offered a series for ITV, which they were waiting to begin when Cleese's offer arrived. Palin agreed to work with Cleese and Chapman in the meantime, bringing with him Gilliam, Jones and Idle. Monty Python Monty Python's Flying Circus ran for four series from October 1969 to December 1974 on BBC Television. Cleese's two primary characterizations were as a sophisticate and a stressed-out loony. He portrayed the former as a series of announcers, TV show hosts, government officials (qv. "The Ministry of Silly Walks"), et al. The latter is perhaps best represented in the "Cheese Shop", and by Cleese's Mr Praline character, the man with a dead Norwegian Blue parrot and a menagerie of other animals all named "Eric". He was also known for his working-class "Sergeant Major" character, who worked as a Police Sergeant, Roman Centurion, etc. he is also seen as the opening announcer, with the now famous line: "And now for something completely different". Partnership with Graham Chapman Along with Gilliam's animations, Cleese's work with Chapman provided Python with its darkest and angriest moments, and many of his characters display the seething suppressed rage that later characterised his portrayal of Basil Fawlty. Many critics naturally make a connection with Cleese's own self-confessed neuroses (he has spoken openly about receiving psychoanalysis). Unlike Palin and Jones, Cleese and Chapman actually wrote together, in the same room; Cleese claims that their writing partnership involved him sitting with pen and paper, doing most of the work, while Chapman sat back, not speaking for long periods, then suddenly coming out with an idea that often elevated the sketch to a different level. A classic example of this is the "Dead Parrot" sketch, envisaged by Cleese as a satire on poor customer service, which was originally to have involved a broken toaster, and later a broken car (this version was actually performed and broadcast, on the pre-Python special How To Irritate People). It was Chapman's suggestion to change the faulty item into a dead parrot, as well as suggesting that the parrot be specifically a Norwegian Blue, giving the sketch a surreal air which made it far more memorable. Their humour often involved ordinary people in ordinary situations behaving absurdly for no obvious reason. Like Chapman, Cleese's poker face, clipped middle-class accent and imposing height allowed him to appear convincing as a variety of authority figures - which he would then proceed to undermine. Many of his characters have a kind of incipient madness, but remain utterly straight-faced and impassive while behaving in a ludicrous fashion. Most famously, in the "Ministry of Silly Walks" sketch (actually written by Palin and Jones), Cleese exploits his extraordinary stature as the crane-legged civil servant performing a grotesquely elaborate walk to his office. Chapman and Cleese also specialised in sketches where two characters would conduct highly articulate arguments over completely arbitrary subjects, such as in the "cheese shop", the "dead parrot" sketch and, perhaps most notably, "The Argument Sketch", where Cleese plays a stone-faced bureaucrat employed to sit behind a desk and engage people in pointless, infuriatingly trivial bickering. All of these roles were opposite Palin (who Cleese often claims is his favourite Python to work with) – the comic contrast between the towering Cleese's crazed aggression and diminutive Palin's shuffling inoffensiveness is a common feature in the series. Occasionally, the typical Cleese-Palin dynamic is reversed, as in "Fish Licence", wherein Palin plays the bureaucrat with whom Cleese is trying to work (though it is still Cleese who plays the "loony" half of the duo). Though the programme lasted four series, by the start of series 3, Cleese was growing tired of coping with Chapman's alcoholism. According to Gilliam, Cleese was the "most Cambridge" of the Cambridge-educated members of the group (Cleese, Chapman, and Idle), by which Gilliam meant that Cleese was the tallest (6'4") and most aggressive of the whole group. He felt, too, that the show's scripts had declined in quality. For these reasons, he became restless and decided to move on. Though he stayed for the third series, he officially left the group before the fourth season. Despite this, he remained friendly with the group, and all six began writing Monty Python and the Holy Grail; Cleese received a credit on episodes of the fourth series which used material from these sessions, and even makes a brief appearance in one episode, though he was officially unconnected with the fourth series. Cleese returned to the troupe to co-write and co-star in the Monty Python films Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Monty Python's Life of Brian and Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, and would participate in various live performances over the years. Post-Python From 1970 to 1973 Cleese served as rector of the University of St Andrews. List of Rectors of University of St. Andrews While his election by the students might have seemed a prank, it proved a milestone for the University, revolutionising and modernising the post. For instance, the Rector was traditionally entitled to appoint an "Assessor", a deputy to sit in his place at important meetings in his absence. Cleese changed this into a position for a student, elected across campus by the student body, resulting in direct access and representation for the student body for the first time in over 500 years. This was one of many changes that Cleese brought in. Cleese went on to achieve possibly greater success in the United Kingdom as the neurotic hotel manager Basil Fawlty in Fawlty Towers, which he co-wrote with his wife Connie Booth. The series won widespread critical acclaim and is still considered one of the finest examples of British comedy, having won three BAFTA awards when produced and recently topping the British Film Institute list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes. The series also featured Andrew Sachs as the much abused Spanish waiter Manuel ("...he's from Barcelona"), Prunella Scales as Basil's fire-breathing dragon of a wife Sybil, and Booth as waitress Polly. Cleese based Basil Fawlty on a real person, Donald Sinclair, whom he encountered in 1970, when he and the rest of the Monty Python team were staying at the Gleneagles Hotel in Torquay while filming Monty Python's Flying Circus. Cleese was reportedly inspired by Sinclair's mantra of "I could run this hotel just fine, if it weren't for the guests". He later described Sinclair as "the most wonderfully rude man I have ever met", although Sinclair's widow has since said her husband was totally misrepresented in the comedy. During the Pythons' stay, Sinclair allegedly threw Idle's briefcase out of the hotel "in case it contained a bomb", complained about Gilliam's "American" table manners, and threw a bus timetable at another guest after they dared to ask the time of the next bus to town. The first series began on 19 September 1975, and while not an instant hit, soon gained momentum. However, the second series did not air until 1979, by which time Cleese's marriage to Booth had ended. The two nevertheless reprised their writing and performing roles in the second series. Fawlty Towers consisted of only 12 episodes; Cleese and Booth both maintain that this was to avoid compromising the quality of the series. Cleese as a Mexican maraca soloist as part of his 1977 guest appearance on The Muppet Show In December 1977, Cleese appeared as a guest star on The Muppet Show. Cleese was a longtime fan of the show, and co-wrote much of the episode. He appears in a "Pigs in Space" segment as a pirate trying to hijack the spaceship Swinetrek, and also helps Gonzo restore his arms to "normal" size after Gonzo's cannonball catching act goes a bit wrong. During the show's closing number, Cleese refuses to sing the famous show tune from Man of La Mancha, The Impossible Dream. Kermit The Frog apologizes and the curtain re-opens with Cleese now costumed as a Viking trying some Wagnerian opera as part of a duet with Sweetums. Once again, Cleese protests to Kermit, and gives the frog one more chance. This time, as pictured opposite this text, he is costumed as a Mexican maraca soloist. He's finally had enough and protests that he's leaving the show, saying "You were supposed to be my host. How can you do this to me? Kermit - I am your guest!". The cast all joins in with their parody of The Impossible Dream singing "This is your guest, to follow that star...". During the crowd's applause that follows the song, he pretends to strangle Kermit until he realizes the crowd loves him and accepts the accolades. During the show's finale, as Kermit thanks him, he shows up with a pretend album, his own new vocal record John Cleese: A Man & His Music, and encourages everyone to buy a copy of the album. This would not be Cleese's final appearance with The Muppets. In their 1981 movie The Great Muppet Caper, Cleese does a cameo appearance as Neville, a local homeowner. As part of the appearance, Miss Piggy borrows his house as a way to impress Kermit The Frog Cleese won the TV Times award for Funniest Man On TV - 1978 / 1979. 1980s and 1990s During the 1980s and 1990s, Cleese focused on film, though he did work with Peter Cook in his one-off TV special Peter Cook and Co. in 1980. In the same year Cleese played Petruchio, in Shakespeare's The Taming of the Shrew in the BBC Television Shakespeare series. He also participated in Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl (1982), and starred in The Secret Policeman's Ball for Amnesty International. Timed with the 1987 UK elections, he appeared in a video promoting proportional representation. YouTube - John Cleese Explains Proportional Representation for Canada & Ontario changes Coming - Topix During the 1987 UK general election, he recorded a nine minute party political broadcast for the SDP-Liberal Alliance, which talks about the similarities and failures of the other two parties in a more humorous tone than the standard political broadcast. He has since supported the Alliance's successor, the Liberal Democrats, narrating a radio election broadcast for the party during the 2001 UK general election. In 1988 he wrote and starred in A Fish Called Wanda, as the lead, Archie Leach, along with Jamie Lee Curtis, Kevin Kline and Michael Palin. Wanda was a commercial and critical success, and Cleese was nominated for an Academy Award for his script. Cynthia Cleese starred as Leach's daughter. Chapman was diagnosed with throat cancer in 1989; Cleese, Michael Palin, Peter Cook and Chapman's partner David Sherlock, witnessed Chapman's passing. Chapman's death occurred one day before the 20th anniversary of the first broadcast of Flying Circus with Jones commenting, "the worst case of party-pooping in all history." Cleese gave a stirring eulogy at Chapman's memorial service, in which he "became the first person ever at a British memorial service to say 'fuck.'" Cleese continued to openly say fuck. It is most notable account of this is in an interview hosted by Robert Klein by remarking that Chapman is, "stone-fucking-dead!" Memorial eulogy by John Cleese for Graham Chapman Cleese would later land in a supporting role in Kenneth Branagh's adaptation of Mary Shelley's Frankenstein alongside Branagh himself and Robert De Niro. He also produced and acted in a number of successful business training films, including Meetings, Bloody Meetings and More Bloody Meetings about how to set up and run successful meetings. These were produced by his company Video Arts. With Robin Skynner, the Group Analyst (Group Analysis) and family therapist, Cleese wrote two books on relationships: Families and how to survive them, and Life and how to survive it. The books are presented as a dialogue between Skynner and Cleese. In 1996, Cleese declined the British honour of Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE). The follow-up to A Fish Called Wanda, Fierce Creatures - which again starred Cleese himself alongside Kevin Kline, Jamie Lee Curtis and Michael Palin - was also released this year, but was greeted with mixed reception by critics and cinema-goers. Cleese has since often stated, that making that second movie had been a mistake. When asked by his friend, director and restaurant critic Michael Winner, what he would do differently if he could live his life again, Cleese responded, "I wouldn’t have married Alyce Faye Eichelberger and I wouldn’t have made Fierce Creatures." In 1999, Cleese appeared in the James Bond movie, The World Is Not Enough as Q's assistant, referred to by Bond as R. In 2002, when Cleese reprised his role in Die Another Day, the character was promoted, making Cleese the new quartermaster (Q) of MI6. In 2004, Cleese was featured as Q in the video game James Bond 007: Everything or Nothing, featuring his likeness and voice. Cleese did not appear in the subsequent Bond films, Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace, and it is unknown whether Cleese will reprise the role in future Bond films. 2000-present He is currently Provost's Visiting Professor at Cornell University, after having been Andrew D. White Professor-at-Large from 1999-2006. He makes occasional, well-received appearances on the Cornell campus, but he lives in the town of Montecito, California. In a 2005 poll of comedians and comedy insiders The Comedian's Comedian, Cleese was voted second only to Peter Cook. Also in 2005, a long-standing piece of Internet humour, "The Revocation of Independence of the United States", was wrongly attributed to Cleese. In 2006 Cleese hosts an A–Z look at football’s greatest kicks, goals, saves, bloopers, plays and penalties of all time, as well as football’s influence on culture (including the famous Monty Python sketch, “Philosophy Football”). Featuring interviews with pop culture icons Dave Stewart, Dennis Hopper and Henry Kissinger, as well as football greats, including Pelé, Mia Hamm and Thierry Henry. The Art of Soccer with John Cleese http://www.bfsent.com/item_detail.asp?number=30895 is being released in North America on DVD in January 2009 by BFS Entertainment & Multimedia. Cleese recently lent his voice to the BioWare video game Jade Empire. His role was that of an "outlander" named Sir Roderick Ponce von Fontlebottom the Magnificent Bastard, stranded in the Imperial City of the Jade Empire. His character is essentially a British colonialist stereotype who refers to the people of the Jade Empire as savages in need of enlightenment. His armour has the design of a fork stuck in a piece of cheese. He also had a cameo appearance in the computer game Starship Titanic as "The Bomb" (credited as "Kim Bread"), designed by Douglas Adams. When the bomb is activated it tells the player that "The ship is now armed and preparing to explode. This will be a fairly large explosion, so you'd best keep back about ". When the player tries to disarm the bomb, it says "Well, you can try that, but it won't work because nobody likes a smartarse!" In 2002, Cleese made a cameo appearance in the movie The Adventures of Pluto Nash, where he played "James", a computerized chauffeur of a hover car stolen by Nash (played by Eddie Murphy). The vehicle is subsequently destroyed in a chase, leaving the chauffeur stranded in a remote place on Mars. In 2003, Cleese also appeared as Lyle Finster in long-running US sitcom Will & Grace. In 2004, Cleese was credited as co-writer of a DC Comics graphic novel entitled Superman: True Brit. Part of DC's "Elseworlds" line of imaginary stories, True Brit, mostly written by Kim Howard Johnson, suggests what might have happened had Superman's rocket ship landed in Britain, not America. From 10 November to 9 December 2005, Cleese toured New Zealand with his stage show John Cleese — His Life, Times and Current Medical Problems. Cleese described it as "a one man show with several people in it, which pushes the envelope of acceptable behaviour in new and disgusting ways." The show was developed in New York with William Goldman and includes Cleese's daughter Camilla as a writer and actor (the shows were directed by Australian Bille Brown.) His assistant of many years, Garry Scott-Irvine, also appeared, and was listed as a co-producer. It then played in universities in California and Arizona from 10 January to 25 March 2006 under the title "Seven Ways to Skin an Ocelot". Playbill His voice can be downloaded for directional guidance purposes as a downloadable option on some personal GPS-navigation device models by company TomTom. In June 2006, while promoting a football (soccer) song in which he was featured, entitled Don't Mention the World Cup, Cleese appears to have claimed that he decided to retire from performing in sitcoms, instead opting to writing a book on the history of comedy and tutoring young comedians. This was an erroneous story, the result of an interview with The Times of London (the piece was not fact checked before printing). In 2007, Cleese is appearing in ads for Titleist as a golf course designer named "Ian MacCallister", who represents "Golf Designers Against Distance". In 2007, he started filming the sequel to The Pink Panther, titled The Pink Panther 2 with Steve Martin and Bollywood star Aishwarya Rai. On 27 September 2007, The Podcast Network announced it had signed a deal with Cleese to produce a series of video podcasts called HEADCAST to be published on TPN's website. Cleese released the first episode of this series in April 2008 on his own website, Headcast.co.uk According to recent reports, Cleese is currently working on a musical version of A Fish Called Wanda with his daughter Camilla. He also said that he is working - for the first time since 1996's Fierce Creatures - on a new film screenplay. Cleese collaborates on it with writer Lisa Hogan, under the current working title "Taxing Times". According to him, it is "about the lengths to which people will go to avoid tax. [...] It's based on what happened to me when I cashed in my UK pension and moved to Santa Barbara." At the end of March 2009, Cleese published his first article as 'Contributing Editor' to The Spectator: The real reason I had to join The Spectator. On 6 May 2009, he appeared on The Paul O'Grady Show. Radio creditsI'm Sorry, I'll Read That AgainI'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue (1972-3) Television credits Major rolesThe Frost Report (1966)Frost on SundayAt Last the 1948 ShowHow to Irritate People (1968) with Michael Palin, Graham Chapman, Connie Booth and Tim Brooke-TaylorMonty Python's Flying Circus (1969–1974)Sez Les (1971, 1974)Fawlty Towers (1975, 1979)Cheers (episode "Simon Says") (1987), he won an Emmy Award for best actor in a guest starring role The Taming of the Shrew (1980) as Petruchio True Stories: Peace in our Time? as Neville Chamberlain As hostThe Human FaceWine for the ConfusedWe Are Most Amused: Master of Ceremonies for a stand-up comedy show celebrating Prince Charles's 60th Birthday. Guest appearancesThe Avengers (1968), guest appearance as Marcus Rugman (egg clown-face collector) in the episode Look (Stop Me if You've Heard this One)...The Goodies (1973), guest cameo appearance as a Genie in the episode The Goodies and the BeanstalkDoctor Who (1979), guest cameo appearance as an Art Lover in the episode City of Death as a favour to writer/script editor Douglas AdamsThe Muppet Show (1977)Last of the Summer Wine (1993), guest cameo appearance in the episode Welcome to Earth.3rd Rock from the Sun (1998–2001) as recurring character Dr. Liam Neesam.Wednesday 9:30 (8:30 Central) (2002) as RedWill & Grace (2003-2004) as recurring character Lyle Finster. Numerous commercials, including for supermarket chain Sainsbury's, snack firm Planters and a British government Stop Smoking campaign Party political broadcasts for the Liberal Democrats and predecessor, the SDP-Liberal Alliance Song "Don't Mention The World Cup" animated video played on ITV, BBC and Channel 4 News June 2006 Batteries Not Included - gadget show on UK TV channel Dave (2008) Filmography Year Film Role Notes 1968 Interlude | | |- |rowspan=2| 1969 | The Magic Christian | | Had written w/ Chapman an earlier version of the script, of which only the scenes they appear in survived |- | The Best House in London | | |- | 1970 | The Rise and Rise of Michael Rimmer | | Writer |- | 1971 | And Now for Something Completely Different | | Writer |- | 1974 | Romance with a Double Bass | | Writer |- | 1975 | Monty Python and the Holy Grail | Sir Lancelot, Tim the Enchanter, Swallow obsessed guard #2, Peasant #1, Black Knight, French Taunter, Body cart customer | Writer |- | 1976 | Meetings, Bloody Meetings | | a humorous business-oriented training video |- | 1977 | The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It | | Arthur Sherlock Holmes, a descendant of the original |- | 1979 | Monty Python's Life of Brian | Reg | Writer, various roles |- | 1980 | The Secret Policeman's Ball | | |- |rowspan=2| 1981 | The Great Muppet Caper | | |- | Time Bandits | Gormless Robin Hood | |- |rowspan=2| 1982 | Dish | | |- | Privates on Parade |Major Giles Flack | |- |rowspan=2|1983 | Yellowbeard | Blind Pew | |- | Monty Python's The Meaning of Life| Various roles | Writer |- | 1985 | Silverado | Langston | An English sheriff in a town in the western USA. His first line, as he walks in to a bar to break up a brawl, is, "What's all this, then?") |- | 1986 | Clockwise | Mr. Stimpson, a school headmaster | |- | 1988 | A Fish Called Wanda | lawyer Archie Leach | Writer, as lawyer Archie Leach (Cary Grant's real name)BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading RoleNominated - Academy Award For Best Original ScreenplayNominated - BAFTA Award for Best Original ScreenplayNominated — Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy |- | 1989 | Erik the Viking Halfdan the Black 1990 Bullseye! Man on the Beach in Barbados Who Looks Like John Cleese 1991 An American Tail: Fievel Goes West Cat R. Waul 1992 Did I Ever Tell You How Lucky You Are? Narrator 1993 Splitting Heirs Raoul P. Shadgrind 1994 Mary Shelley's Frankenstein Disney's Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book Dr. Julius Plumford) The Swan Princess Jean-Bob 1996 The Wind in the Willows | Mr. Toad's lawyer | |- | Fierce Creatures | Rollo Lee, manager of an English zoo | the novelisation suggests that he is actually the twin brother of Archie Leach from A Fish Called Wanda, with a slight change of surname) |- | 1997 | George of the Jungle | | The voice of an ape named Ape |- | 1998 | In the Wild: Operation Lemur with John Cleese | Host | Narrator |- |rowspan=2| 1999 | The Out-of-Towners (1999 film) | Mr. Mersault, the hotel manager | |- | The World Is Not Enough | R | A James Bond film, As Q's assistant, nicknamed R by Bond |- | 2000 | Isn't She Great | | |- |rowspan=4| 2001 | Quantum Project | Father of Stephen Dorff's character | |- | Here's Looking at You: The Evolution of the Human Face | | Narrator |- | Rat Race | Eccentric millionaire Donald P. Sinclair | |- | Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone | "Nearly Headless Nick" | |- |rowspan=4| 2002 | Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets | "Nearly Headless Nick" | |- | Roberto Benigni's Pinocchio Talking Cricket's voice in English version Die Another Day Q Second appearance in a James Bond film, replaces Desmond Llewelyn as Q in the series The Adventures of Pluto Nash James, a computerized car chauffeur 2003 Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle Father of Alex Scorched Local Millionaire George of the Jungle 2 The voice of an ape named Ape 2004 Shrek 2King Harold Voice Around the World in 80 Days Grizzled Sergeant 2005 Valiant Mercury, the captured pigeon Voice 2006 Charlotte's Web Samuel the sheep Voice Man About Town Dr. Primkin 2007 Shrek the Third King Harold Voice 2008 Igor Dr. Glickenstein Voice The Day the Earth Stood Still Dr. Barnhardt 2009 The Pink Panther 2 Inspector Charles Dreyfus Planet 51 Professer Kipple Voice Video game creditsMonty Python's Complete Waste of Time (1994) 7th LevelMonty Python & the Quest for the Holy Grail (1996) 7th LevelMonty Python's The Meaning of Life (1997) PanasonicStarship Titanic (1998) Simon & Schuster Interactive (voice of the Bomb) — (Credited as Kim Bread)007 Racing (2000) Electronic ArtsThe World Is Not Enough (video game) (2000) Electronic ArtsEverything or Nothing (2004) Electronic ArtsTrivial Pursuit: Unhinged (2004) AtariJade Empire (2005) BioWare (as Sir Roderick Ponce von Fontlebottom the Magnificent Bastard) Awards Academy Awards - (1988) Nominated - Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay / A Fish Called Wanda (shared with Charles Crichton) Golden Globe Awards - (1988) Nominated - Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy / A Fish Called WandaBAFTA Awards - (1970) Nominated - BAFTA Television Award for "Best Light Entertainment Performance" / Monty Python's Flying Circus(1971) Nominated - BAFTA Television Award for "Best Light Entertainment Performance" / Monty Python's Flying Circus(1976) Nominated - BAFTA Television Award for "Best Light Entertainment Performance" / Fawlty Towers(1980) Won - BAFTA Television Award for "Best Light Entertainment Performance" / Fawlty Towers(1989) Nominated - BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay / A Fish Called Wanda(also 1989) Won - BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role Primetime Emmy Awards - (1987) Won - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor - Comedy Series / Cheers (as Dr. Simon Finch-Royce) (1998) Nominated - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor - Comedy Series / 3rd Rock from the Sun (as Dr. Liam Neesam) (2002) Nominated - Primetime Emmy Award for "Outstanding Nonfiction Special" / The Human Face (2004) Nominated - Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor - Comedy Series / Will & Grace (as Lyle Finster) Writers Guild of America - (1989) Nominated - Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay / A Fish Called Wanda (shared with Charles Crichton) Other credits In 2003, John Cleese took part in Mike Oldfield's re-recording of the 1973 hit Tubular Bells, Tubular Bells 2003. He took over the "Master of Ceremonies" duties in the ‘Finale’ part, in which he announced the various instruments eccentrically, from the late Vivian Stanshall. Mike Oldfield "Tubular Bells" reaches thirty years old... (information about John Cleese is given towards the end of the second paragraph) Cleese recorded the voice of God for Spamalot, the musical based on Monty Python and the Holy Grail. In an episode of Will & Grace, he referred to the maid character, Rosario, as Manuel, an homage to his previous television show Fawlty Towers. Cleese narrated the audio version of C. S. Lewis's The Screwtape Letters. In the late-1990s Cleese appeared in a set of poorly-received commercials for the UK supermarket chain Sainsbury's. Around the same time, his Fawlty Towers co-star, Prunella Scales, appeared in more well-received commercials for rival chain Tesco. Is a vegetarian. John Cleese - Biography GoVeg.com // Carrie Underwood and Kevin Eubanks Voted World's Sexiest Vegetarian Celebrities He has enunciated a set of directions for the TomTom in-car navigation system. This allows itself humorous notes at non-critical moments, for instance when asking for a U-turn and when signing off: "I'm not going to carry your baggage — from now on, you're on your own" and "Bear right..Beaver left." He plays the voice of Samuel the Sheep in the 2006 adaptation of Charlotte's Web. Samuel keeps on telling the other sheep to be individuals, not sheep. This is a reference to Monty Python's Life of Brian. He has a speaking part at the end of the Alan Parsons song "Chomolungma" from the album A Valid Path. In 2008 John Cleese appeared in a humorous TV commercial in Poland advertising a bank loan. From 2006-2008 John Cleese has appeared in humorous TV commercials in Iceland advertising Kaupþing. Honours and tributes A species of lemur, Avahi cleesei, has been named in his honour. John Cleese mentioned this in television interviews. Also there is mention of this honour in "New Scientist" "New Scientist" comment about the lemur being named after John Cleese —and John Cleese's response to the honour. "New Scientist" and John Cleese's response to the honour An asteroid, 9618 Johncleese, is named in his honour. Cleese declined a CBE (Commander of The British Empire) in 1996. There is a municipal rubbish heap of 45 metres (148 ft) in altitude that has been named Mt Cleese at the Awapuni landfill just outside Palmerston North after he dubbed the city "suicide capital of New Zealand". Funnyman Cleese rubbishes NZ city. The Australian, 21 May 2007 "The Universal Language" skit from All in the Timing, a collection of short plays by David Ives, centers around a fictional language (Unamunda) in which the word for the English language is "johncleese". Bibliography The Rectorial Address of John Cleese, Epam, 1971, 8 pages Foreword for Time and the Soul, Jacob Needleman, 2003  ISBN 1-57675-251-8 (paperback) The Human Face (with Brian Bates) (DK Publishing Inc., 2001, ISBN 978-0789478368) Scripts The Strange Case of the End of Civilisation As We Know It, w/Jack Hobbs & Joseph McGrath, 1977  ISBN 0-352-30109-0 Fawlty Towers, w/Connie Booth, 1977 (The Builders, The Hotel Inspectors, Gourmet Night)   ISBN 0-86007-598-2 Fawlty Towers: Book 2, w/Connie Booth, 1979 (The Wedding Party, A Touch of Class, The Germans) The Golden Skits of Wing Commander Muriel Volestrangler FRHS & Bar, 1984  ISBN 0-413-41560-0 The Complete Fawlty Towers, w/Connie Booth, 1988  ISBN 0-413-18390-4 (hardcover), ISBN 0-679-72127-4 (paperback) A Fish Called Wanda: The Screenplay, w/Charles Crichton, 1988  ISBN 1-55783-033-9 Fawlty's Hotel: Sämtliche Stücke, w/Connie Booth, (The Complete Fawlty Towers in German), Haffmans Verlag AG Zürich, 1995 Dialogues Families and How to Survive Them, w/A.Robin Skynner, 1983  ISBN 0-413-52640-2 (hardc.), ISBN 0-19-520466-2 (p/back) Life and How to Survive It, w/A.Robin Skynner 1993  ISBN 0-413-66030-3 (hardcover), ISBN 0-393-31472-3 (paperback) See also List of people who have declined a British honour References External links Official web site Official Podcast John Cleese on Twitter Podcast to celebrate The Life of Brian (March 2008) Daily Llama: John Cleese Visits Lemurs at San Francisco Zoo John Cleese — Museum of Broadcast Communication website John Cleese — BBC Guide to Comedy

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Episcopi_vagantes

Episcopi vagantes (singular: episcopus vagans) are persons who have been consecrated as Christian bishops outside the structures and canon law of the established churches and are in communion with no generally recognized diocese. Also included are those who have in communion with them a group so small that it appears to exist solely for the alleged bishop's sake. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article episcopi vagantes The term is Latin and means "wandering bishops" (or "stray bishops"). Those to whom it is applied see it as pejorative. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church mentions as the main streams of succession deriving from episcopi vagantes in the twentieth century those founded by Arnold Mathew, Joseph René Vilatte, and Leon Chechemian. Others that could be added are those derived from Aftimios Ofiesh, Carlos Duarte Costa, and Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục Theological issues In Western Christianity it has traditionally been taught, since as far back as the time of the Donatist controversy, that any bishop can consecrate any other baptised man as a bishop provided that he observes the minimum requirements for the sacramental validity of the ceremony. This means that the consecration is considered valid even if it flouts certain ecclesiastical laws and even if the participants are schismatics or heretics. Some theologians, within the Roman Catholic Church and elsewhere, question whether all such consecrations have effect, on the grounds that an ordination is for service within a specific Christian church. Therefore an ordination ceremony that concerns only the individual himself does not, they say, correspond to the definition of an ordination and is without effect. The Holy See has not commented on the correctness or erroneousness of this theory. Other theologians, notably those of the Eastern Orthodox Church, dispute this notion, but it can be seen how such an understanding opens up the possibility of valid but irregular consecrations proliferating outside the structures of the "official" denominations. A distinction is also made in Catholic theology between the conferral of the sacramental powers associated with the episcopacy and the conferral of jurisdiction: the authority of a bishop to govern his people. In Roman Catholic canon law, a bishops's sacramental power is to some extent entwined with his jurisdiction (or lack of it): jurisdiction is required for valid celebration of the sacraments of Penance and Matrimony. Jurisdiction can be conferred only within the official structures of the church under the Pope. Catholic episcopi vagantes sometimes appeal to the principle that, in emergency situations, jurisdiction is automatically "supplied" even where it has not explicitly been conferred ("ecclesia supplet"). The Eastern Orthodox Church's position has been summarised as follows: While accepting the canonical possibility of recognising the existence (υποστατόν) of sacraments performed outside herself, (the Eastern Orthodox Church) questions their validity (έγκυρον) and certainly rejects their efficacy (ενεργόν)." It sees "the canonical recognition (αναγνώρισις) of the validity of sacraments performed outside the Orthodox Church (as referring) to the validity of the sacraments only of those who join the Orthodox Church (individually or as a body)." This applies to the validity and efficacy of the ordination of bishops and the other sacraments, not only of the Independent Catholic Churches, but also of all other Christian Churches, including the Roman Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Assyrian Church of the East. History Many episcopi vagantes claim succession from the Old Catholic See of Utrecht, or from Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, or Eastern Catholic Churches. A few others derive their orders from Roman Catholic bishops that have consecrated their own bishops after disputes with the Holy See. Many, if not most, episcopi vagantes are associated with Independent Catholic Churches, and in some cases the bishop is almost the only clergyman of the group. They may be very liberal or very conservative. Episcopi vagantes may also include several conservative "Continuing Anglicans" who have broken with the Anglican Communion over various issues such as Prayer Book revision, ordination of women and the ordination of unmarried, non-celibate individuals (including homosexuals). Particular consecrations of episcopi vagantes When it declared devoid of canonical effect the consecration ceremony conducted by Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục for the Carmelite Order of the Holy Face group at midnight of 31 December 1975, the Holy See refrained from pronouncing on its validity. It made the same statement with regard also to later ordinations by those bishops, saying that, "as for those who have already thus unlawfully received ordination or any who may yet accept ordination from these, whatever may be the validity of the orders (quidquid sit de ordinum validitate), the Church does not and will not recognise their ordination (ipsorum ordinationem), and will consider them, for all legal effects, as still in the state in which they were before, except that the ... penalties remain until they repent" (Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Decree Episcopi qui alios of 17 September 1976 - Acta Apostolicae Sedis 1976, page 623). A similar declaration was issued with regard to Archbishop Emmanuel Milingo's conferring of episcopal ordination on four men - all of whom, by virtue of previous Independent Catholic consecrations, claimed already to be bishops - on 24 September 2006: the Holy See, as well as stating that, in accordance with Canon 1382 of the Code of Canon Law, all five men involved incurred automatic ("latae sententiae") excommunication through their actions, declared that "the Church does not recognise and does not intend in the future to recognise these ordinations or any ordinations derived from them, and she holds that the canonical state of the four alleged bishops is the same as it was prior to the ordination." In contrast, the Holy See has questioned neither the validity nor the canonical effect of the consecrations that the late Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre performed in 1988 for the service of the relatively numerous followers of the Traditionalist Catholic Society of St. Pius X that he had founded. Some have questioned the mental capacity of Archbishop Ngô to form the requisite intention to consecrate. On this question it would be extremely difficult to obtain a definitive objective judgement. Ngô was advanced in age and was reportedly experiencing a dementia at the time of his actions in question. References See also Order of Corporate Reunion Bibliography Episcopi Vagantes and the Anglican Church. Henry R.T. Brandreth. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1947. Episcopi vagantes in Church History. A.J. Macdonald. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1945. Bishops at Large. Peter F. Anson. New York City: October House Publishing, 1963. The Wandering Bishops: Apostles of a New Spirituality by Lewis Keizer. 2000 edition. pdf Independent Bishops: An International Directory, edited by Gary L. Ward, Bertil Persson, and Alan Bain. Apogee Books, 1990 Episcopi Vagantes and the Challenge to Catholic Ministry, an MA thesis by James Ford, Pacific School of Religion, Berkeley, California, 1991. The Priesthood Renewed: The Personal Journey of a Married Priest, by Archbishop Emmanuel Milingo, HSA Publications, New York, NY, 2005.

Episcopi_vagantes |@lemmatized episcopi:12 vagantes:11 singular:1 episcopus:1 vagans:1 person:1 consecrate:4 christian:7 bishop:17 outside:4 structure:3 canon:4 law:4 establish:1 church:21 communion:3 generally:1 recognize:1 diocese:1 also:6 include:4 group:3 small:1 appear:1 exist:1 solely:1 allege:1 sake:1 oxford:3 dictionary:2 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 article:1 term:1 latin:1 mean:2 wander:2 stray:1 apply:1 see:10 pejorative:1 mention:1 main:1 stream:1 succession:2 derive:4 twentieth:1 century:1 found:2 arnold:1 mathew:1 joseph:1 rené:1 vilatte:1 leon:1 chechemian:1 others:2 could:1 add:1 aftimios:1 ofiesh:1 carlos:1 duarte:1 costa:1 pierre:2 martin:2 ngô:4 đình:2 thục:2 theological:1 issue:3 western:1 christianity:1 traditionally:1 teach:1 since:1 far:1 back:1 time:2 donatist:1 controversy:1 baptised:1 man:1 provide:1 observe:1 minimum:1 requirement:1 sacramental:3 validity:8 ceremony:3 consecration:7 consider:2 valid:3 even:3 flout:1 certain:1 ecclesiastical:1 participant:1 schismatics:1 heretic:1 theologian:2 within:3 roman:4 catholic:13 elsewhere:1 question:6 whether:1 effect:5 ground:1 ordination:14 service:2 specific:1 therefore:1 concern:1 individual:2 say:2 correspond:1 definition:1 without:1 holy:6 comment:1 correctness:1 erroneousness:1 theory:1 notably:1 eastern:5 orthodox:7 dispute:2 notion:1 understanding:1 open:1 possibility:2 irregular:1 proliferate:1 official:2 denomination:1 distinction:1 make:2 theology:1 conferral:2 power:2 associate:2 episcopacy:1 jurisdiction:5 authority:1 govern:1 people:1 extent:1 entwine:1 lack:1 require:1 celebration:1 sacrament:5 penance:1 matrimony:1 confer:2 pope:1 sometimes:1 appeal:1 principle:1 emergency:1 situation:1 automatically:1 supply:1 explicitly:1 ecclesia:1 supplet:1 position:1 summarise:1 follow:1 accept:2 canonical:5 recognise:4 existence:1 υποστατόν:1 perform:3 έγκυρον:1 certainly:1 reject:1 efficacy:2 ενεργόν:1 recognition:1 αναγνώρισις:1 refer:1 join:1 individually:1 body:1 applies:1 independent:4 oriental:2 orthodoxy:1 assyrian:1 east:1 history:2 many:2 claim:2 old:1 utrecht:1 order:4 case:1 almost:1 clergyman:1 may:4 liberal:1 conservative:2 several:1 continue:1 anglican:3 break:1 various:1 prayer:1 book:2 revision:1 woman:1 unmarried:1 non:1 celibate:1 homosexual:1 particular:1 declare:2 devoid:1 conduct:1 archbishop:5 carmelite:1 face:1 midnight:1 december:1 refrain:1 pronounce:1 statement:1 regard:2 later:1 already:2 thus:1 unlawfully:1 receive:1 yet:1 whatever:1 quidquid:1 sit:1 de:1 ordinum:1 validitate:1 ipsorum:1 ordinationem:1 legal:1 still:1 state:3 except:1 penalty:1 remain:1 repent:1 sacred:1 congregation:1 doctrine:1 faith:1 decree:1 qui:1 alios:1 september:2 acta:1 apostolicae:1 sedis:1 page:1 similar:1 declaration:1 emmanuel:2 milingo:2 conferring:1 episcopal:1 four:2 men:2 virtue:1 previous:1 bishops:1 well:1 accordance:1 code:1 five:1 involve:1 incurred:1 automatic:1 latae:1 sententiae:1 excommunication:1 action:2 intend:1 future:1 hold:1 alleged:1 prior:1 contrast:1 neither:1 late:1 marcel:1 lefebvre:1 relatively:1 numerous:1 follower:1 traditionalist:1 society:3 st:1 pius:1 x:1 mental:1 capacity:1 form:1 requisite:1 intention:1 would:1 extremely:1 difficult:1 obtain:1 definitive:1 objective:1 judgement:1 advance:1 age:1 reportedly:1 experience:1 dementia:1 reference:1 corporate:1 reunion:1 bibliography:1 henry:1 r:1 brandreth:1 london:2 promote:2 knowledge:2 j:1 macdonald:1 large:1 peter:1 f:1 anson:1 new:3 york:2 city:1 october:1 house:1 publishing:1 apostle:1 spirituality:1 lewis:1 keizer:1 edition:1 pdf:1 international:1 directory:1 edit:1 gary:1 l:1 ward:1 bertil:1 persson:1 alan:1 bain:1 apogee:1 challenge:1 ministry:1 thesis:1 james:1 ford:1 pacific:1 school:1 religion:1 berkeley:1 california:1 priesthood:1 renew:1 personal:1 journey:1 married:1 priest:1 hsa:1 publication:1 ny:1 |@bigram episcopi_vagantes:11 twentieth_century:1 eastern_orthodox:4 sacrament_penance:1 validity_sacrament:2 oriental_orthodoxy:1 oriental_orthodox:1 consecrate_bishop:1 anglican_communion:1 episcopal_ordination:1

Software

Computer software, or just software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system. The term includes: Application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for users. Firmware which is software programmed resident to electrically programmable memory devices on board mainboards or other types of integrated hardware carriers. Middleware which controls and co-ordinates distributed systems. System software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to provide the necessary services for application software. Software testing is a domain independent of development and programming. It consists of various methods to test and declare a software product fit before it can be launched for use by either an individual or a group. Many tests on functionality, performance and appearance are conducted by modern testers with various tools such as QTP, Load runner, Black box testing etc to edit a checklist of requirements against the developed code. ISTQB is a certification that is in demand for engineers who want to pursue a career in testing. The Complete Software testing Theory, Rao. Vinayak 2008 MBA Test Engineer Testware which is an umbrella term or container term for all utilities and application software that serve in combination for testing a software package but not necessarily may optionally contribute to operational purposes. As such, testware is not a standing configuration but merely a working environment for application software or subsets thereof. Software includes websites, programs, video games, etc. that are coded by programming languages like C, C++, etc. "Software" is sometimes used in a broader context to mean anything which is not hardware but which is used with hardware, such as film, tapes and records. software..(n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved 2007-04-13, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/software Overview Computer software is often regarded as anything but hardware, meaning that the "hard" are the parts that are tangible while the "soft" part is the intangible objects inside the computer. Software encompasses an extremely wide array of products and technologies developed using different techniques like programming languages, scripting languages or even microcode or a FPGA state. The types of software include web pages developed by technologies like HTML, PHP, Perl, JSP, ASP.NET, XML, and desktop applications like Microsoft Word, OpenOffice developed by technologies like C, C++, Java, C#, etc. Software usually runs on an underlying software operating systems such as the Microsoft Windows or Linux. Software also includes video games and the logic systems of modern consumer devices such as automobiles, televisions, toasters, etc. Relationship to computer hardware Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software. At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language. High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code. Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language must be assembled into object code via an assembler. The term "software" was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1958. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all computer programs. The theory that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Hally, Mike (2005:79). Electronic brains/Stories from the dawn of the computer age. British Broadcasting Corporation and Granta Books, London. ISBN 1-86207-663-4. Types of software A layer structure showing where Operating System is located on generally used software systems on desktops Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred. System software System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes: device drivers, operating systems, servers, utilities, windowing systems, (these things need not be distinct) The purpose of systems software is to unburden the applications programmer from the details of the particular computer complex being used, including such accessory devices as communications, printers, readers, displays, keyboards, etc. And also to partition the computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner. Programming software Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way. The tools include: compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, text editors, An Integrated development environment (IDE) is a single application that attempts to manage all these functions. Application software Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (not directly computer development related) tasks. Typical applications include: industrial automation, business software, computer games, telecommunications, (i.e., the internet and everything that flows on it) databases, educational software, medical software, Application software exists for and has impacted a wide variety of topics. Software topics Architecture Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers, supercomputers, etc.) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software. Platform software: Platform includes the firmware, device drivers, an operating system, and typically a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its peripherals (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer. On a PC you will usually have the ability to change the platform software. Application software: Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other "system software" as applications. User-written software: End-user development tailors systems to meet users' specific needs. User software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, and scripts for graphics and animations. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is. Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into default application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the original packages, and what has been added by co-workers. Documentation Most software has software documentation so that the end user can understand the program, what it does, and how to use it. Without a clear documentation, software can be hard to use--especially if it is a very specialized and relatively complex software like the Photoshop, AutoCAD, etc. Developer documentation may also exist, either with the code as comments and/or as separate files, detailing how the programs works and can be modified. Library An executable is almost always not sufficiently complete for direct execution. Software libraries include collections of functions and functionality that may be embedded in other applications. Operating systems include many standard Software libraries, and applications are often distributed with their own libraries. Standard Since software can be designed using many different programming languages and in many different operating systems and operating environments, software standard is needed so that different software can understand and exchange information between each other. For instance, an email sent from a Microsoft Outlook should be readable from Yahoo! Mail and vice versa. Execution Computer software has to be "loaded" into the computer's storage (such as a [hard drive], memory, or RAM). Once the software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the software. This involves passing instructions from the application software, through the system software, to the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code. Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation – moving data, carrying out a computation, or altering the control flow of instructions. Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves moving data between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU. Moving data, especially large amounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by using "pointers" to data instead. Computations include simple operations such as incrementing the value of a variable data element. More complex computations may involve many operations and data elements together. Quality and reliability Software quality is very important, especially for commercial and system software like Microsoft Office, Microsoft Windows, Linux, etc. If software is faulty (buggy), it can delete a person's work, crash the computer and do other unexpected things. Faults and errors are called "bugs." Many bugs are discovered and eliminated (debugged) through software testing. However, software testing rarely – if ever – eliminates every bug; some programmers say that "every program has at least one more bug" (Lubarsky's Law). All major software companies, such as Microsoft, Novell and Sun Microsystems, have their own software testing departments with the specific goal of just testing. Software can be tested through unit testing, regression testing and other methods, which are done manually, or most commonly, automatically, since the amount of code to be tested can be quite large. For instance, NASA has extremely rigorous software testing procedures for its Space Shuttle and other programs because faulty software can crash the whole program and make the vehicle not functional, at great expense. License The software's license gives the user the right to use the software in the licensed environment. Some software comes with the license when purchased off the shelf, or an OEM license when bundled with hardware. Other software comes with a free software license, granting the recipient the rights to modify and redistribute the software. Software can also be in the form of freeware or shareware. See also License Management. Patents Software can be patented; however, software patents can be controversial in the software industry with many people holding different views about it. The controversy over software patents is that a specific algorithm or technique that the software has cannot be duplicated by others and is considered an intellectual property and copyright infringement depending on the severity. Some people believe that software patent hinder software development, while others argue that software patents provide an important incentive to spur software innovation. Ethics and rights There is more than one approach to creating, licensing, and distributing software. For instance, the free software or the open source community produces software under licensing that makes it free for inspection of its code, modification of its code, and distribution. While the software released under an open source license (such as General Public License, or GPL for short) can be sold for money, GNU project: "Selling Free Software": "we encourage people who redistribute free software to charge as much as they wish or can." the distribution cannot be restricted in the same way as software with copyright and patent restrictions (used by corporations to require licensing fees). While some advocates of free software use slogans such as "information wants to be free," hinting that it is easy to copy digital data and that the licenses (enforced through laws) are unnatural restrictions, other creators and users of open source software recognize it to be one model among many for software creation, licensing, and distribution. And the laws themselves are put into place for the ostensible purpose of increasing creative output, by allowing the creators to control and profit most effectively from their intellectual property. Design and implementation Design and implementation of software varies depending on the complexity of the software. For instance design and creation of Microsoft Word software will take much longer time than designing and developing Microsoft Notepad because of the difference in functionalities in each one. Software is usually designed and created (coded/written/programmed) in integrated development environments (IDE) like emacs, xemacs, Microsoft Visual Studio and Eclipse that can simplify the process and compile the program. As noted in different section, software is usually created on top of existing software and the application programming interface (API) that the underlying software provides like GTK+, JavaBeans, Swing etc. Libraries (APIs) are categorized for different purposes. For instance JavaBeans library is used for designing enterprise applications, Windows Forms library is used for designing graphical user interface (GUI) applications like Microsoft Word and Windows Communication Foundation is used for designing web services. There are also underlying concepts in computer programming like quicksort, hashtable, array, binary tree that can be useful to creating software. When a program is designed, it relies on the API. For instance, if a user is designing a Microsoft Windows desktop application, he/she might use the .NET Windows Forms library to design the desktop application and call its APIs like Form1.Close() and Form1.Show() to close or open the application and write the additional operations him/herself that it need to have. Without these APIs, the programmer needs to write these APIs him/herself. Companies like Sun Microsystems, Novell and Microsoft provide their own APIs so that many applications are written using their software libraries that usually have numerous APIs in them. Software has special economic characteristics that make its design, creation, and distribution different from most other economic goods. v. Engelhardt, Sebastian (2008): "The Economic Properties of Software", Jena Economic Research Papers, Volume 2 (2008), Number 2008-045. (in Adobe pdf format) "Why Open Source Is The Optimum Economic Paradigm for Software" by Dan Kaminsky 1999 A title of a person who creates software is called a programmer, software engineer, software developer and code monkey that all essentially have a same meaning. Industry and organizations Software has its own niche industry that is called the software industry made up of different entities and peoples that produce software, and as a result there are many software companies and programmers in the world. Because software is increasingly used in many different areas like in finance, searching, mathematics, space exploration, gaming and mining and such, software companies and people usually specialize in certain areas. For instance, Electronic Arts primarily creates video games. Also selling software can be quite a profitable industry. For instance, Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft is the second richest man in the world in 2008 largely by selling the Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Office software programs. The same goes for Larry Ellison, largely through his Oracle database software. There are also many non-profit software organizations like the Free Software Foundation, GNU Project, Mozilla Foundation. Also there are many software standard organizations like the W3C, IETF and others that try to come up with a software standard so that many software can work and interoperate with each other like through standards such as XML, HTML, HTTP, FTP, etc. Some of the well known software companies include Microsoft, Apple, IBM, Oracle, Novell, SAP, HP, etc. See also Lists List of basic computer programming topics List of computer programming topics Origins of computer terms Types of software Beta Software Custom Software Free software Freeware Open source software Proprietary software Scientific software Shareware Trial Software Related subjects Software as a Service Software development process Software ecosystem Software industry Software license References be-x-old:Праграмнае забесьпячэньне

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Northern_bobwhite

The Northern Bobwhite, Virginia Quail or (in its home range) Bobwhite Quail (Colinus virginianus) is a ground-dwelling bird native to North America and northern Central America and the Caribbean. It is a member of the group of species known as New World quails (Odontophoridae). They were initially placed with the Old World quails in the pheasant family (Phasianidae), but are not particularly closely related. The name "bobwhite" derives from its characteristic whistling call. Description Northern Bobwhites are distinguished by a dark cap stripe behind the eye along the head, black in males and brown in females. The area in between is white on males and yellow-brown on females. The body is brown, speckled in places with black or white on both sexes, and average weight is five to six ounces (145-200 grams). The Northern Bobwhite's song is a rising, clear whistle, bob-White! or bob-bob-White! The call is most often given by males in spring and summertime. Other vocalizations include a range of squeaky whistles. Virginia Quail's "bob-White!" song Ecology This fowl primarily inhabits areas of early successional growth dominated by various species of pine, hardwood, woody, and herbaceous growth. However, quail habitat varies greatly throughout its range which extends from Mexico east to Florida and north into the Upper Midwest and Northeast. In the southern U.S., pearl millet has been identified as a preferred food source for Bobwhite Quail. Quail form what are known as "coveys", groups of five to 30 birds, during the non-breeding season (roughly October-April). During the breeding season, typically beginning in mid-April, the Bobwhite coveys dissolve. Social pairs are typically formed between individuals of unknown relationship. These social pairings potentially result in the formation of a mate bond and subsequent female fertilization and egg formation. Eggs are laid at a rate of about 1 per day, and they hatch after 23 days. Eggs are normally white in color with a more pointed end than normal chicken eggs. Both males and females can incubate nests, with most nests predominantly incubated by females. If the first clutch of eggs is unsuccessful, a breeding pair (may be the same pair or a different pair as that which led to the previous nesting attempt) will attempt to lay, incubate, and hatch additional clutches. If the clutch is successful, chicks are precocial and will leave the nest approximately 24 hours following hatching. The breeding season continues until mid-October, and successful nesters (females) can potentially lay, incubate, and hatch up to 3 clutches. The Bobwhite Quail is a popular and economically important gamebird, particularly in the southern United States. It is the official game bird of the U.S. states of Tennessee, Georgia, and Washington. Habitat degradation threatens wild populations, so it is propagated in captivity in large numbers for release on hunting preserves or natural areas as required by US wildlife agencies. It is moderately resilient to hunting pressure, and locally can disappear entirely from overhunting. It is also found in many aviaries and is on display in some zoos. If a bobwhite quail is stationary, it is nearly impossible to see (in a forest). This coat of camouflage is important because quail are preyed upon heavily. Foxes, coyotes, raccoons, opossums, hawks, owls, and humans eat quail. In Art Adult male (above) and female, by Louis Agassiz Fuertes John James Audubon illustrates the Northern Bobwhite in Birds of America, Second Edition (published, London 1827-38) as Plate 76 under the title, "Virginian Partridge" where a flock of birds is seen under attack by a juvenile Red-shouldered Hawk. The image was engraved and colored by Robert Havell's, London workshops. The original artwork by Audubon (a compound image made up from more than one original) was purchased by the New York History Society where it remains to this day (January 2009). References Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is near threatened (1989): North Greenfield, Wis.. Wilson Bull. 10(5): 70. DjVu fulltext PDF fulltext External links Quail & Game Bird Forum New Gamebird Forum '09 Audubon's Birds of America Close-ups from Plate 76 ITIS Standard Report Page: Colinus virginianus taxonomic details (includes subspecies) Northern Bobwhite Quail Northern Bobwhite Additional information, pictures, sound and video clips Aspects of the natural history, economic importance, and propagation of the bobwhite quail. Cornell Lab of Ornithology - Northern Bobwhite gbwf.org - Northern Bobwhite South Dakota Birds and Birding - Northern Bobwhite USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter - Northern Bobwhtie Stamps The Northern Bobwhite Conservation Initiative Coturnix Corner - Dedicated Quail website Coturnix Corner Forum

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Continuation_War

The Continuation War (, , was the second of two wars fought between Finland and the Soviet Union during World War II. At the time the name was used to make clear its perceived relationship to the preceding Winter War of 30 November 1939 to 13 March 1940. The Soviet Union, however, perceived the war merely as one of the fronts of the Great Patriotic War against Nazi Germany and its allies. Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Finland, Moscow, 1974, ISBN 0-02-880010-9 Similarly, Germany saw its own operations in the region as a part of its overall war efforts of World War II. The United Kingdom declared war on Finland on 6 December 1941, followed by its Dominions shortly afterwards. The Continuation War is a rare case of democracies declaring war on other democracies, although the British forces were not major participants in the war. Germany took part by providing critical material support and military cooperation to Finland. The United States did not fight or declare war against either party, but sent substantial matériel to the Soviet Union for use in the war effort against Germany and its allies. Hostilities between Finnish and Soviet forces ended in September 1944, and the formal conclusion of the Continuation War was ratified by the Paris peace treaty of 1947. Introduction Finland's supreme commander Field Marshal Mannerheim at his headquarters. Finland adopted the concept of a "parallel war" whereby it sought to pursue its own objectives in concert with, but separate from, Nazi Germany. Major events of World War II, and the tides of war in general, had significant impact on the course of the Continuation War: Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) is closely connected to the Continuation War's beginning. The Allied invasion of France (Battle of Normandy) was coordinated with the Soviet major offensive against Finland (9 June 1944 – 15 July 1944). The subsequent US/Soviet race to Berlin brought about the end of the Continuation War by rendering Northern Europe irrelevant. Background Before World War II Although East Karelia has never been part of a modern Finnish state, a significant part of its inhabitants were Finnic-speaking Orthodox Karelians. After the Finnish declaration of independence, voices arose advocating the annexation of East Karelia to "rescue it from oppression." This led to a few incursions to the area (Viena expedition and Aunus expedition), but these were unsuccessful. Finland unsuccessfully raised the question of East Karelia several times in the League of Nations. In non-leftist circles, Imperial Germany's role in the "White" government's victory over rebellious Socialists during the Finnish Civil War was celebrated, although most preferred British or Scandinavian support over that of Germany. The security policy of an independent Finland turned first towards a cordon sanitaire, whereby the newly independent nations of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Finland would form a defensive alliance against the USSR, but after negotiations collapsed, Finland turned to the League of Nations for security. Contacts with the Scandinavian countries also met with little success. In 1932, Finland and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact, but even contemporary analysts considered it worthless. The 1920 peace agreement was broken by the Soviet Union in 1937 when it stopped Finnish ships traveling between Lake Ladoga and the Gulf of Finland via the Neva River. The free use of this route for merchant vessels had been one of the articles in the agreement. Winter war Finnish ski troops in Northern Finland on 12 January 1940 The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1939 enabled the Soviet Union to threaten to invade Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland without German interference. The three Baltic countries soon gave in to Soviet demands, but Finland refused. As a result, on 30 November 1939, the Soviet Union attacked Finland. Condemnation by the League of Nations and by countries all over the world had no effect on Soviet policy. International help to Finland was planned, but very little actual help materialized. The Moscow Peace Treaty, which was signed on 12 March 1940, ended the Winter War. The Treaty was severe for Finland. A fifth of the country's industry and 11% of agricultural land were lost, as was Viipuri, the country's second largest city. Some 12% of Finland's population had to be moved to the Finnish side of the border. Hanko was leased to the Soviet Union as a military base. However, Finland had avoided having the Soviet Union annex the whole country. Interim peace The Moscow Peace Treaty, in 1940, was a shock to the Finns. It was perceived as the ultimate failure of Finland's foreign policy, which had been based on multilateral guarantees for support. Binding bilateral treaties were now sought and formerly frosty relations, such as with the Soviet Union and the Third Reich, had to be eased. Public opinion in Finland longed for the re-acquisition of Finnish Karelia, and put its hope in the peace conference that was assumed would follow World War II. The term Välirauha ("Interim Peace") became popular after the harsh peace was announced. Although the peace treaty was signed, the state of war and censorship was not revoked because of the widening world war, the difficult food supply situation, and the poor shape of the Finnish military. This made it possible for president Kyösti Kallio to ask Field Marshal Mannerheim to remain commander-in-chief and supervise rearmament and fortification work. During 1940, Finland received material purchased and donated during and immediately after the Winter War. Military expenditures rose in 1940 to 45% of Finland's state budget. A war trade treaty with Britain had little effect due to German occupation of Norway and Denmark on 9 April 1940 (Operation Weserübung). Seppinen, Ilkka, Suomen ulkomaankaupan ehdot, 1939–1944, 1983, ISBN 951-9254-48-X These occupations have left Finland and Sweden encircled by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. From May 1940, Finland pursued a campaign to reestablish good relations with Germany. Finnish media not only refrained from criticism of Nazi Germany, but also took an active part in this campaign. Dissent was censored. After the fall of France, the campaign was stepped up. On the other hand, the relations between Finland and the Soviet Union remained sour. The implementation of the Moscow Peace Treaty created a number of problems. The forced return of evacuated machinery, locomotives, and rail cars, disagreement on a number of issues created by the new border, such as fishing rights and the usage of Saimaa Canal, heightened the distrust. Unbeknownst to Finland, Adolf Hitler had started to plan an invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa). He had not been interested in Finland before the Winter War, but now he saw the value of Finland as a base of operations, and perhaps also the military value of the Finnish army. In the first weeks of August, German concerns of a likely immediate Soviet attack on Finland caused Hitler to lift the arms embargo. Negotiations were initiated concerning German troop transfer rights in Finland in exchange for arms and other material. For the Third Reich, this was a breach of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, as well a breach of the Moscow Peace Treaty for Finland. Soviet negotiators had insisted that the troop transfer agreement (to Hanko) should not be published making it easy for the Finns to keep a troop transfer agreement with the Germans secret until the first German troops arrived. Despite the Soviet leadership having promised the Finns during the signing of the Moscow Peace treaty that the Soviet Union would not intervene in Finnish domestic policy, the reality of the interim peace period showed the opposite. After the ceasefire the Soviets demanded the Finnish industrial town of Enso, which clearly was on the Finnish side of the peace treaty border; the Finns accepted and handed over the town. The Soviet involvement in Finnish domestic politics continued with open Soviet support for the extreme left wing organization SNS Friendship Union Soviet-Finland, which was campaigning for Finland to join the Soviet Union. The Soviets also successfully demanded that the Finnish minister Väinö Tanner resign and that, during the Finnish presidential election of 1940, neither Mannerheim, Kivimäki, Tanner nor Svinhuvud were to be candidates. On a meeting with Mannerheim in 1940, Hitler claimed, that the Soviet foreign minister Molotov had asked Hitler for a free hand to 'solve the Finnish question', during one of his visits to Berlin. Transcript of secret taping of Hitler's conversation with Mannerheim Negotiations over Petsamo nickel mining rights had dragged on for six months when the Soviet Foreign Ministry announced in January 1941 that the negotiations had to be concluded quickly. On the same day, the Soviet Union interrupted its grain deliveries to Finland. Soviet ambassador Zotov was recalled home 18 January and Soviet radio broadcasts started attacking Finland. Germans in northern Norway reported on 1 February that the Soviet Union had collected 500 fishing ships in Murmansk, capable of transporting a division. Hitler ordered troops in Norway to occupy Petsamo (Operation Renntier) immediately if the Soviet Union started attacking Finland. Finland offered half of the mine to Soviets and demanded a guarantee that no anti-government agitation would be done in the mines. This was not enough for Soviets and when Mannerheim declared that any additional concessions would endanger the defence of the country and threatened to resign if those were done, the Finnish side decided to let the negotiations lapse when there was no movement from the Soviet positions. After the failure of the nickel negotiations, diplomatic activities were halted for a few months. Path to war The period did, however, see an increased German interest in Finland. One sign of the interest was the recruitment of one battalion of Finnish volunteers to the German Waffen-SS, with approval of the Finnish government. It has been concluded that the battalion served as a token of Finnish commitment to cooperation with Nazi Germany. The agreement was that the Finnish volunteers would not be sent to fight against British or Greek forces (the only European nations at war with Germany at the moment of signing) and had the duration of two years. This battalion, named the Finnisches Freiwilligen Bataillon fought as part of SS Division Wiking in the Ukraine and Caucasus. When the time of service was up, the battalion was pulled back from the front in May 1943 and was transported to Tallinn and further to Hanko where it was disbanded on 11 July. The soldiers were then transferred into different units of the Finnish army. The German Foreign Ministry sent Ludwig Weissauer to Finland 5 May, this time to clarify that war between Germany and the Soviet Union would not be launched before spring 1942. Finnish leadership forwarded the message to the Swedes and the British. When the war broke out only a couple of months later, both Swedish and British governments felt that the Finns had lied to them. In the spring of 1941, joint military plans were discussed with Germany. In May 1941, the Finns learnt that the Germans were planning hostilities against the Soviet Union. Kirby (2006), p.221 Between June 3 and 6 details of military co-operation were discussed in Helsinki as were issues regarding communications and securing sea lanes. It was also agreed that the Finnish Army would start mobilisation on June 15. Finland made significant requests for material aid. Finland was willing to join Germany against Soviet Union with some prerequisites: a guarantee of Finnish independence, the pre-Winter War borders (or better), continuing grain deliveries, and that Finnish troops would not cross the border before a Soviet incursion. The arrival of German troops began on June 7 in Petsamo. Prior to the war, the Germans offered Mannerheim command over the German troops in Finland, around 80,000 men. Mannerheim declined, because if he accepted, he and Finland would be tied to the German war aims. Max Jacobsson, Century of Violence, 1999 However, the Finnish political and military leaders were not unwilling to enter into a 'war of compensation' as co-belligerents of Nazi Germany Kirby (2009), p.135 The Barbarossa plan envisaged a subordinate military role for Finland, and the Germans certainly assumed that Finland would play that role when the time came. The Finnish leadership hoped that Finland would acquire a sizable share of the northern territory of a defeated Soviet Union. The Finnish government, which had no knowledge of the negotiations, was informed of this for the first time on 9 June, when the first mobilization orders were issued for troops needed to safeguard the forthcoming general mobilization phases. On June 20, the Finns ordered the evacuation of 45,000 civilians from the Soviet border region. On 21 June, Finland's chief of the General Staff, Erik Heinrichs, was finally informed by his Germans that the attack was to begin. The Finnish Army was much larger and better equipped for war than it had been in 1939. When fully mobilised the Finnish army was 400,000 strong. Course of the war Finnish offensive of 1941 Relative strengths of Finnish, German and Soviet troops at the start of the Continuation War in June 1941. Finnish borders before the Moscow Peace Treaty shown in light colour Operation Barbarossa had already commenced in the northern Baltic by the late hours of June 21, when German minelayers, which had been hiding in the Finnish archipelago, laid two large minefields across the Gulf of Finland. Nordberg, Erkki, Arvio ja ennuste Venäjän sotilaspolitiikasta Suomen suunnalla, 2003, ISBN 9518843627 Encyclopædia Britannica Premium, 2006, Finland These minefields ultimately proved sufficient to confine the Soviet Baltic Fleet to the easternmost part of the Gulf of Finland. Later the same night, German bombers flew along the Gulf of Finland to Leningrad and mined the harbour and the river Neva. On the return trip, these bombers landed for refueling on an airfield in Utti. Finland was concerned that the Soviet Union would occupy Åland so Operation Kilpapurjehdus ("Regatta") was launched in the early hours of June 22 to occupy Åland for Finland instead. Soviet bombers launched attacks against Finnish ships during the operation, but no damage was inflicted. Finnish submarines also laid six small minefields at 8:00–10:00 between Suursaari and Estonian coast according to pre-war defensive plans of Finland and Estonia. On June 21 mobilized Finnish units began to concentrate at the Finnish-Soviet border, where they were arranged into defensive formations upon arrival. Finland mobilized 16 infantry divisions, one cavalry brigade, and two "Jäger" brigades, which were standard infantry brigades, except for one battalion in the 1st Jäger Brigade (1.JPr), which was armoured using captured Soviet equipment. There was also a handful of separate battalions, mostly formed from border guard units and used mainly for reconnaissance. Soviet military plans estimated that Finland would be able to mobilize only 10 infantry divisions, as it had done in the Winter War, but they failed to take into account the material Finland had purchased between the wars and the training of all available men. German forces were also present in northern Finland: Two mountain divisions at Petsamo and two infantry divisions at Salla. On June 22 another German infantry division moved in from Oslo through Sweden towards Ladoga Karelia, although one reinforced regiment was later redirected to Salla. On the morning of June 22, the German Gebirgskorps Norwegen started Operation Renntier and began its move from Northern Norway to Petsamo. Finland did not allow direct German attacks from its soil to the Soviet Union, so German forces in Petsamo and Salla were ordered to hold their fire. There was occasional individual and group level exchange of small arms fire between Soviet and Finnish border guards, but otherwise the front was quiet. Mobilization on the Soviet side of the border was underway since June 18. The Karelian Isthmus was covered by the Soviet 23rd Army, which consisted of the 50th, the 19th Corps and the 10th Mechanized Corps, together with 5 infantry, 1 motorized and 2 armored divisions. Ladoga Karelia was defended by the 7th Army consisting of 4 infantry divisions. In the Murmansk-Salla region the Soviet Union had the 14th Army with 42nd Corps, consisting of 5 infantry divisions (1 as reserve in Archangelsk) and 1 armored division. The Red Army also had around 40 battalions of separate regiments and fortification units in the region, which were not part of its divisional structure. Leningrad was garrisoned by 3 infantry divisions and one mechanized corps. The initial devastating German strike against the Soviet Air Force had not affected air units located near Finland, so the Soviets could field nearly 750 planes as well as a part of the 700 planes of the Soviet Navy against 300 Finnish planes. In the morning of June 25, the Soviet Union launched a major air offensive against 18 Finnish cities with 460 planes, mainly hitting civilian targets Jokipii, Mauno, Jatkosodan synty, 1987, ISBN 951-1-08799-1 and airfields. The Soviet Union claimed the attack was directed against German targets in Finland, however, the British embassy verified that only Finnish targets were hit in Southern and Middle Finland, where the embassy had many informants. The attack failed to hit any German targets. At the same time, Soviet artillery stationed in the Hanko base began to shell Finnish targets, and a minor Soviet infantry attack was launched over the Finnish side of the border in Parikkala. A meeting of the Finnish parliament was scheduled for June 25, where Prime Minister Rangell had intended to present a notice about Finland's neutrality in the Soviet-German war, but the Soviet bombings led him to observe instead, that Finland was once again at war with the Soviet Union. The Continuation War had begun. The war against Germany did not go as well as pre-war Soviet war games had envisioned, and soon the Soviet High Command had to call all available units to the rapidly deteriorating front line. Because of this, the initial air offensive against Finland could not be followed by a supporting land offensive, as originally planned. Moreover, the 10th Mechanized Corps with two armoured divisions and 237th Infantry division were withdrawn from Ladoga Karelia, thus stripping reserves from defending units. Reconquest of Ladoga Karelia The furthest advance of Finnish units in the Continuation War. Reconquest of the Karelian Isthmus Conquest of East Karelia Advance from Northern Finland The operational border between Finnish and German forces was located southeast from Lake Oulujärvi to the border, and then straight to the east. The Finnish 14.D controlled the southern part of the border, while the northern part was in the responsibility of AOK Norwegen (Col. Gen. von Falkenhorst). The Finnish III Corps (Maj. Gen. Siilasvuo) was southernmost, German XXXVI Corps (Gen. Feige) next and German Mountain Corps (Gen. Dietl) northernmost at Petsamo. Together, they had three infantry, two mountain and one SS ("Nord") divisions and two armoured battalions. Additionally, an infantry regiment and an artillery battalion from the German 163rd division were diverted there. Opposing them were the Soviet 14. Army (Lt. Gen. Frolov) at Murmansk and part of the 7. Army, together with 6 infantry and one armoured divisions and one division strengthening the fortified area. As Finns had not allowed the Germans to attack across the Finnish border before 25 June, the Soviet side had ample warning and used the available days to fortify the border region. Also, the concentration of the German forces to the border took longer than anticipated, so the start of the offensive was delayed until June 29, a week later than the beginning of the Operation Barbarossa, thus giving Soviets more time to prepare their fortifications. The Mountain Corps broke through the Soviet forces in the early hours of 29 June, and managed to advance almost 30 km to Litsa river, where the offensive had to be stopped due to supply problems on 2 July. When the attack was continued a week later, the Soviets had managed to bring in reinforcements and prepare defensive positions so the attack failed to gain ground. The XXXVI Corps attacked along the Rovaniemi-Kandalaksha railroad at July 1, but after only a day the SS division "Nord" had lost its fighting capability and it took a week before German 169. and Finnish 6. division managed to capture Salla, and only two days later the whole offensive was stopped by a new Soviet fortified line. Germans had used all their forces in the offensive and didn't have any available reserves left, so these had to be transported from Germany and Norway. This caused a delay in operations which the Soviets used effectively to reinforce their positions and improve their fortifications. OKW was only able to field two infantry regiments to von Falkenhorst, and their willingness to micromanage their usage lead to disagreements between OKW and von Falkenhorst, which further prevented their effective usage. Because of this, the renewed offensive failed to gain any ground at September 8 at River Litsa after which OKW ordered forces to switch to the defensive. At Salla, XXXVI Corps fared better from 19 August, as the Finnish 6th division had cut Soviet supply routes, forcing the Soviet 104th and 122th divisions to abandon their fortified positions and heavy equipment at August 27. This was followed by advancing the operation along the railroad until after almost 50 km the attack was stopped due to exhaustion at the next Soviet defence line at the Verma river on 19 September. Von Falkenhorst had requested reinforces from Germany twice to continue his offensive immediately, when Soviet forces were still disorganized, but he was refused. The Finnish III corps operated under the German AOK Norwegen and was located in the Kuusamo-Suomussalmi region. It was a very weak formation with only one infantry division (3rd) and two separate battalions. It was commanded by Major Gen. Hjalmar Siilasvuo. Defending against them were the Soviet 54th infantry division, which was commanded by Major. Gen. I. V. Panin, reinforced by the 88th infantry division (Major Gen. A. I. Zelentsov) and the 1087th infantry regiment in August, and by the 186th infantry division and one border guard regiment in November. The Finnish corps was ordered to attack towards Uhtua (now Kalevala) and Kiestinki (now Kestenga). When the offensive began on 1 July, the attack was slowed by a Soviet delaying defence and it took 8 days to reach the Soviet defences at the river Vuonnisenjoki in the south, and 12 more days to reach the river Sohjananjoki in the north. In the south, the attack continued on 11 July by a flanking attack across lake Ylä-Kuittijärvi, but the Soviet defence was so successful that the attack was broken off in early September without reaching Uhtua, which was still 10 km away, as the attacking forces had to relocate two battalions to the northern group. The northern group was reinforced with one infantry regiment from the SS Division "Nord", and the attack continued on July 30. A week later Kiestinki was captured, and the attack continued along the road and railroad eastward. Finnish 53IR advanced much faster along the railroad than other forces, which moved along the road. The commander of the newly arrived Soviet 88.ID recognized an opportunity, and the Soviet IR758 attacked across the forest behind the Finnish IR, managing to encircle it on 20 August, making IR53 the largest Finnish unit the Soviets managed to encircle during the war. Finns managed to open a path through the forest next day, but the supply route via the railroad remained closed, so the IR53 retreated through the forest on September 2 after destroying abandoned material. Finnish forces were reinforced with the second IR from SS-Division "Nord", and the Soviet counter attack was stopped 10–15 km east of Kiestinki. During October the German-Finnish forces were supplied, rested and reinforced with the rest of the SS Division "Nord". Von Falkenhorst and Siilasvuo planned to start a new attack in November, but the OKW ordered the AOK Norwegen not to attack, but prepare for defence. However, von Falkenhorst and Siilasvuo started their offensive on November 1 anyway. The Finns managed to break through the Soviet defences and one Soviet IR was encircled between the Finns and Germans. The situation was threatening to Soviets and they started to transfer the new 186 infantry division from Murmansk to Kiestinki. Mannerheim contacted Siilasvuo and ordered him to stop the attack, as it endangered Finland's relations with the United States. Also, OKW repeated its order to von Falkenhorst to stop the offensive, release the SS Division "Nord" and transfer it to Germany. When the order to move to defensive operations was given on 17 November, the last attempt to reach the Murmansk railroad failed. Naval warfare at Gulf of Finland After the Winter War and the Soviet occupation of the Baltic states the Soviet Navy entered the war from a strong position; the Red banner Baltic fleet (KBF) was the largest navy on the Baltic sea (2 battleships, 2 light cruisers, 19 destroyers, 68 submarines 709 aircraft of the navy aviation). With a Soviet naval base at Hanko in southern Finland and Soviet control of the Baltic states the Finnish concern was that it would be easy for the Soviet Union to blockade Finland, and the long Finnish coast would be vulnerable to Soviet amphibious assaults. The Finnish Navy (Merivoimat) was divided into two branches, coastal artillery and the navy. A string of fixed coastal artillery forts had been built by the Russians before World War I (Peter the Great's Naval Fortress) and was now maintained by the Finns. The Navy was small, consisting of 2 coastal defense ships, 5 submarines and a number of small craft. The German Navy could only provide a small part of its naval force to the Baltic Sea as it was tied up in the war with Great Britain. Germany's main concern in the Baltic sea was to protect the routes which supplied its war industry with vital iron ore imported from Sweden. Cooperation between Germany and Finland was closest in the Baltic sea/Gulf of Finland theater and already before the war both sides had agreed on using the naval tactics from WWI. Both navies would use mine warfare in order to neutralize the superiority of the Soviet navy and let the land forces seek the victory. The naval base at Hanko was to be besieged. Hours prior to Operation Barbarossa, Finnish and German navies began to lay mine belts in the Baltic and in the Gulf of Finland. Already on the second day of the war, the Soviet navy lost its first destroyer to a mine. Because of this tactic, the Soviets were unable to make use of their superior Navy and its losses increased over the summer of 1941. As its naval bases at Riga and Liepaja were lost, the Soviet Navy withdrew to Tallinn. By the end of August, German troops surrounded Tallinn and the Soviets were preparing an evacuation from the sea. As a countermeasure to this the German and the Finnish navy dropped 2400 mines, to add to the 600 mines already in the sea lanes outside Tallinn. German artillery was set up at Cap Jumida and a couple of Finnish and German torpedo boats were put on alert. The Soviet evacuation consisted of 160 ships, which evacuated 28 000 people (including Communist leadership and their families, army and navy personnel and 10,000 Estonians drawn into forced labor) and 66,000 tons of matériel. The evacuation began on the night of 27 August, at the same time as the first German troops entered the city. During the embarkation, the Soviet navy was under constant attack by German bombers and artillery; particularly as the armada reached the heavily-mined Cap Jumida. At midnight of the 28th the fleet ran into the minefield of Cap Jumida while being attacked by Finnish and German torpedo boats; casualties were heavy, 65 of the 160 ships were lost, and several more were damaged. 16,000 of the 28,000 evacuees perished. With very small means the German and the Finnish navies had delivered a serious blow to the Soviet navy. It withdrew to the Kronstadt naval base outside of Leningrad where its capital ships would remain until the autumn of 1944. "Finnish Navy in WW II — Mine warfare" feldgrau.com: "Naval War in the Baltic Sea 1941–1945" "Finnish navy in Continuation War, year 1941" Soon after this, the Finnish navy suffered its heaviest loss on 13 September 1941, when the Finnish coastal defence ship Ilmarinen hit a mine and sank during Operation Nordwind, killing 271 Finnish sailors on board. Soviet forces still held the naval base at Hanko on the southwest coast of Finland, but as the Siege of Leningrad tightened, the base had lost its importance and was evacuated by December 1941. Political development On 10 July, the Finnish army began a major offensive on the Karelian Isthmus and north of Lake Ladoga. Mannerheim's order of the day, the Sword scabbard declaration, clearly states that the Finnish involvement was an offensive one. MANNERHEIM — Commander-in-Chief — The Order of the Day of the Sword Scabbard By the end of August 1941, Finnish troops had reached the prewar boundaries. The crossing of the prewar borders led to tensions in the army, the cabinet, the parties of the parliament, and domestic opinion. Military expansionism might have gained popularity, but its support was far from unanimous. Hitler, Marshall Mannerheim (Finnish Army chief) and Finnish President Ryti meet, Immola — June 1942 International relations were also strained — notably with Britain and Sweden, whose governments were confidentially informed in May and June by Foreign Minister Witting that Finland had absolutely no plans for a military campaign coordinated with the Germans. Finland's preparations were said to be purely defensive. Sweden's leading cabinet members had hoped to improve the relations with Nazi Germany through indirect support of Operation Barbarossa, mainly channeled through Finland. Prime Minister Hansson and Foreign Minister Günther found however, that the political support in the National Unity Government and within the Social Democratic organizations turned out to be insufficient, particularly after Mannerheim's Sword Scabbard Declaration, and even more so after Finland had begun a war of conquest two months after assuring Sweden of its defensive intentions. A tangible effect was that Finland became still more dependent on food and munitions from Germany. The Commonwealth of Nations put Finland under blockade and the British ambassador was withdrawn. On 31 July 1941, British Royal Navy carrier aircraft conducted an air raid against the northern Finnish port of Petsamo. Raid on Kirkenes and Petsamo, Fleet Air Arm and the invasion of Russia, 1941. Part of the Fleet Air Arm Archive 1939–1945 Damage was limited, since the harbour was almost empty of ships. On 11 September, the US ambassador Arthur Schoenfeld was informed that the offensive on the Karelian Isthmus was halted at the pre-Winter War border (with a few "straightened curves" at the municipalities of Valkeasaari and Kirjasalo), and that under no conditions would Finland participate in an offensive against Leningrad, but would instead maintain static defence and wait for a political resolution. Witting stressed to Schoenfeld that Germany, however, should not hear of this. Some scholars believe that Mannerheim's refusal to attack Leningrad had ultimately saved the city, because a coordinated German-Finnish attack launched in September 1941 would have overwhelmed the Soviet defence of the city. Robert Jackson, Battle of the Baltic, The wars 1918–1945, 2007, p.105, ISBN 184415422-x On 22 September, a British note was presented (by Norway's ambassador Michelet) demanding the expulsion of German troops from Finland's territory and Finland's withdrawal from East Karelia to positions behind the pre-Winter War borders. Finland was threatened by a British declaration of war unless the demands were met. Finland did not comply and Britain had declared war on it on 6. December. The declaration delayed the state of war until 1200GMT 7 December. This timing, with respect to Japanese naval movements toward southeast Asian colonies, indicates that British declaration of war against Finland was expected to encourage a Soviet declaration against Japan. Wuorinen 1948 p.135 In December 1941, the Finnish advance had reached river Svir (which connects the southern ends of Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega and marks the southern border of East Karelia). By the end of 1941, the front stabilized, and Finland did not conduct major offensive operations for the following two and a half years. The fighting morale of the troops declined when it was realized that the war would not end soon, as initially expected. It has been suggested that the execution of the prominent pacifist Arndt Pekurinen in November 1941 was due to fear of army demoralization being exacerbated by such activism. Trench warfare 1942–1943 Diplomatic maneuvers Operation Barbarossa was planned as a blitzkrieg intended to last a few weeks. British and US observers believed that the invasion would be concluded before August. In the autumn of 1941, this turned out to be wrong, and leading Finnish military officers started to doubt Germany's capability to finish the war quickly. German troops in Northern Finland faced circumstances they were not properly prepared for, and failed to reach their targets, most importantly Murmansk. Finland's strategy now changed. A separate peace with the Soviet Union was offered, but Germany's strength was too great. The idea that Finland had to continue the war while putting its own forces at the least possible danger gained increasing support, perhaps in the hopes that the Wehrmacht and the Red Army would wear each other down enough for negotiations to begin, or to at least get them out of the way of Finland's independent decisions. Some may also have continued to hope for an eventual victory by Germany. Finland's participation in the war brought major benefits to Germany. The Soviet fleet was blockaded in the Gulf of Finland, so that the Baltic was freed for the training of German submarine crews as well as for German shipping, especially for the transport of the vital iron ore from northern Sweden, and nickel and rare metals needed in steel processing from the Petsamo area. The Finnish front secured the northern flank of the German Army Group North in the Baltic states. The sixteen Finnish divisions tied down numerous Soviet troops, put pressure on Leningrad (although Mannerheim refused to attack it directly) and threatened the Murmansk railway. Additionally, Sweden was further isolated and was increasingly pressured to comply with German and Finnish wishes, though with limited success. Despite Finland's contributions to the German cause, the Western Allies had ambivalent feelings, torn between residual goodwill for Finland and the need to accommodate their vital ally, the Soviet Union. As a result, Britain declared war against Finland, but the United States did not. With few exceptions, there was no combat between these countries and Finland, but Finnish sailors were interned overseas. In the United States, Finland was denounced for naval attacks made on American Lend-Lease shipments, but received approval for continuing to make payments on its World War I debt throughout the inter-war period. Because Finland joined the Anti-Comintern Pact and signed other agreements with Germany, Italy and Japan, the Allies characterized Finland as one of the Axis Powers, although the term used in Finland is "co-belligerence with Germany," emphasizing the lack of a formal military alliance treaty. International volunteers and support Like in the Winter War, Swedish volunteers were recruited. Until December, they were tasked with guarding the Soviet naval base at Hanko. When it was evacuated by sea in December 1941, the Swedish unit was officially disbanded. During the Continuation War, the volunteers signed for three to six months of service. In all, over 1,600 fought for Finland, though only about 60 remained by the summer of 1944. About a third of the volunteers had previously participated in the Winter War. Another significant group, about a quarter of the men, were Swedish officers on leave. There was also an SS battalion of volunteers on the northern Finnish front from 1942 to 1944, that was recruited from Norway, then under German occupation, and similarly, some Danes. About 3,400 Estonian volunteers took part in the Continuation War. On other occasions, the Finns received around 2,100 Soviet prisoners of war in return for those POWs they turned over to the Germans. These POWs were mainly Estonians and Karelians who were willing to join the Finnish army. These, as well as some volunteers from occupied Eastern Karelia, formed the "Kin Battalion" (Finnish: "Heimopataljoona"). At the end of the war, the USSR requested members of the Kin Battalion to be handed over. Some managed to escape before or during transport, but most of them were either sent to the labor camps or executed. Finnish occupation policy Russian children in a formerly Finnish-run transfer camp in Petrozavodsk. Photo taken by photographer Galina Sanko on 29 June 1944, one day after the Finns had left the area. The sign reads, in Finnish and Russian: "Transfer camp. Entry to the camp and conversations through the fence are forbidden under the penalty of death." About 2,600–2,800 Soviet prisoners of war were handed over to the Germans. Most of them (around 2,000) joined the Russian Liberation Army. Many of the rest were army officers and political officers, and based on their names, 74 of them were Jews, most of them dying in Nazi concentration camps. Sometimes these hand overs were demanded in return for arms or food. Helsingin Sanomat 8 November 2003: Wartime refugees made pawns in cruel diplomatic game. Food was especially scarce in 1942 in Finland due to a bad harvest. The Finnish government names this as the primary reason for the dramatic rise in the number of deaths in Finnish concentration camps on occupied Soviet territory during this time. Punishment for escape attempts or serious violations of camp rules included solitary confinement and execution. Out of 64,188 Soviet POWs, 18,318 died in Finnish prisoner of war camps. Ylikangas, Heikki, Heikki Ylikankaan selvitys Valtioneuvoston kanslialle, Government of Finland After the war, based on the testimonies of the former prisoners of war, criminal charges were filed against 1,381 Finnish camp staff, resulting in 723 convictions and 658 acquittals. They were accused of 42 executions and 242 murders. There were 10 cases of death from torture, eight infringements of property rights, 280 official infringements and 86 other crimes. A significant number of Soviet civilians were interred in concentration camps. These were Russian women, young children, and the elderly as almost all of the working age male and female population was either drafted or evacuated: only ⅓ of the original population of 470,000 remained in East Karelia when the Finnish army arrived, and a half of them were Karelians. About 30% (24,000) of the remaining Russian population were confined in camps, 6,000 of them were Soviet refugees captured when awaiting transportation over Lake Onega, and 3,000 from the southern side of the River Svir, allegedly to secure the area behind the front lines against partisan attacks. The first of the camps were set up on 24 October 1941 in Petrozavodsk. During the spring and summer of 1942, 3,500 detainees died of malnutrition. During the last half of 1942 the number of detainees dropped quickly to 15,000 as people were released to their homes or were resettled to the "safe" villages, and 500 more people died during the last two years of war, as the food shortages were alleviated. Laine, Antti, Suur-Suomen kahdet kasvot, 1982, ISBN 951-1-06947-0, Otava Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulun historian laitos, Jatkosodan historia 1–6, 1994 During the following years, the Finnish authorities detained several thousand more civilians from areas with reported partisan activity, but as the releases continued the total number of detainees remained at 13,000–14,000. The total number of deaths among the camp inmates is estimated at 4,000–7,000, mostly from hunger during the spring and summer of 1942. Segregation in education and medical care between Karelians and Russians created resentment, and became one of the factors motivating many ethnic Russians to support partisan activity in the region. Soviet partisan activity Soviet partisans have conducted a number of operations in Finland and in Eastern Karelia from 1941 to 1944. The major one failed when the 1st Partisan Brigade was destroyed in the beginning of August 1942 at lake Seesjärvi. Partisans distributed propaganda newspapers "Pravda" in Finnish language and "Lenin's Banner" in Russian language. One of the leaders of the partisan movement in Finland and Karelia was Yuri Andropov. Andropov Yuri Vladimirovich. Biography. Finnish sources state that partisan activity in East Karelia focused mainly on Finnish military supply and communication targets, but almost two thirds of the attacks on the Finnish side of the border targeted civilians, Eino Viheriävaara, (1982). Partisaanien jäljet 1941–1944, Oulun Kirjateollisuus Oy. ISBN 951-99396-6-0 killing 200 and injuring 50, including children and elderly. Veikko Erkkilä, (1999). Vaiettu sota, Arator Oy. ISBN 952-9619-18-9. Lauri Hannikainen, (1992). Implementing Humanitarian Law Applicable in Armed Conflicts: The Case of Finland, Martinuss Nijoff Publishers, Dordrecht. ISBN 0-7923-1611-8. Tyyne Martikainen, (2002). Partisaanisodan siviiliuhrit, PS-Paino Värisuora Oy. ISBN 952-91-4327-3. Jews in Finland Finland refused to permit extensions of Nazi anti-Semitic practices within Finland. Finnish Jews served in the Finnish army and were generally tolerated in Finland. Most Jewish refugees were granted asylum (only 8 out of over 500 refugees were handed over to the Nazis). The field synagogue in Eastern Karelia was one of the very few functioning synagogues on the Axis side during the war. There were even several cases of Jewish officers of Finland's army awarded with the German Iron Cross, which they declined. Ironically, German soldiers were treated by Jewish medical officers who succeeded in saving their lives. Rautkallio, Hannu, Suomen juutalaisten aseveljeys (Finnish Jews as German Brothers in Arms), 1989, Tammi Tuulikki Vuonokari (2003), Jews in Finland During the Second World War, Finnish Institutions Student Paper: FAST Area Studies Program Department of Translation Studies, University of Tampere, Autumn 2003 , retrieved 2009-02-06 Poljakoff in Torvinen, Kadimah: Suomen juutalaisten historia 35 Smolar 155–57 Torvinen, Taimi (1989), Kadimah: Suomen juutalaisten historia Helsinki: Otava, Pgs. 117–167, retrieved 2009-02-06 Soviet offensive 1944 Destroyed IS-2 tank summer of 1944 Overtures for peace Areas ceded by Finland to the Soviet Union Finland began to actively seek a way out of the war after the disastrous German defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in January–February 1943. Edwin Linkomies formed a new cabinet with peace as the top priority. Negotiations were conducted intermittently in 1943–44 between Finland and its representative, Juho Kusti Paasikivi, on the one side and the Western Allies and the Soviet Union on the other but no agreement was reached. Stalin decided to force Finland to surrender; a bombing campaign followed. The air campaign in February 1944 included three major air attacks on Helsinki involving a total of over 6000 bombing sorties. However, Finnish anti-aircraft defences managed to repel the raids; it is estimated that only about 5% of the bombs hit the planned targets. Major air attacks also hit Oulu and Kotka but, because of radio intelligence and effective AA defences, the number of casualties was small. Destroyed T-34 at the battle of Tali-Ihantala Recapture of Karelian Isthmus On 9 June 1944, the Soviet Union opened a major offensive against Finnish positions on the Karelian Isthmus and in the area of Lake Ladoga (it was timed to accompany the D-Day). On the 21.7 km wide breakthrough point the Red Army had concentrated 2,851 45-mm guns and 130 50-mm guns. In some places, the concentration of artillery pieces exceeded 200 guns for each kilometer of the front (one for each 5m). On that day, Soviet artillery fired over 80,000 rounds along the front on the Karelian Isthmus. On the second day of the offensive, Soviet forces broke through the Finnish lines and, in the following days, made advances that appeared to threaten the survival of Finland, liberating Petrozavodsk on 28 June 1944. The retreating Finns delivered two weeks supply of food to the locals. Finland especially lacked modern anti-tank weaponry, which could stop Soviet heavy tanks, and German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop offered these in exchange for a guarantee that Finland would not seek a separate peace again. On 26 June, President Risto Ryti gave this guarantee as a personal undertaking, which he intended to last for the remainder of his presidency. In addition to material deliveries, Hitler sent some assault gun brigades and a Luftwaffe fighter-bomber unit to provide temporary support in the most threatened defence sectors. With new supplies from Germany, the Finnish army was able to halt the Soviet advance in early July 1944. At this point, Finnish forces had retreated about one hundred kilometres bringing them to approximately the same line of defence they had held at the end of the Winter War. This line was known as the VKT-line (short for "Viipuri–Kuparsaari–Taipale", running from Viipuri to River Vuoksi, and along the river to Lake Ladoga at Taipale), where the Soviet offensive was eventually stopped in the Battle of Tali-Ihantala in spite of their numerical and material superiority. By that time, Finland had already become a sideshow for the Soviet leadership, who now turned their attention to Poland and southeastern Europe. The Allies had already succeeded in their landing in France and were pushing towards Germany, and the Soviet leadership did not want to give them a free hand in Central Europe. The Finnish front stabilized once again, and the exhausted Finns wanted to get out of the war. Armistice and the aftermath Memorial at Lappeenranta to the dead of the Winter and Continuation Wars. The wall in the background carries the names of Finnish dead buried inside Karelia. The figures are cleaners carrying out a daily cleaning and tidying of the memorial. May 2000 Mannerheim had repeatedly reminded the Germans that in case their troops in Estonia retreated, Finland would be forced to make peace even on extremely unfavourable terms. Howard D. Grier. Hitler, Dönitz, and the Baltic Sea, Naval Institute Press, 2007, ISBN 1591143454. p. 121 The territory of Estonia would have provided the Soviet army with a favourable base for amphibious invasions and air attacks against Finland's capital, Helsinki, and other strategic targets in Finland, and would have strangled Finnish access to the sea. The initial German reaction to Finland's announcement of ambitions for a separate peace was limited to only verbal opposition. However, the Germans arrested hundreds of sailors on Finnish merchant ships in Germany, Denmark and Norway. President Ryti resigned, paving the way for a separate peace, and Finland's military leader and national hero, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, was extraordinarily appointed president by the parliament, accepting responsibility for ending the war. On 4 September, the cease-fire ended military actions on the Finnish side. The Soviet Union ended hostilities exactly 24 hours after the Finns. An armistice between the Soviet Union and Finland was signed in Moscow on 19 September. Finland had to make many concessions: the Soviet Union regained the borders of 1940, with the addition of the Petsamo area (now Pechengsky District, Russia); the Porkkala peninsula (adjacent to Helsinki) was leased to the USSR as a naval base for fifty years and transit rights were granted; Finland's army was to be demobilized with haste, and Finland was required to expel all German troops from its territory within 14 days. As the Germans did not leave Finland in time for the given deadline, the Finns fought their former allies in the Lapland War. Finland was also to clear the minefields in Karelia (including East Karelia) and in the Gulf of Finland. The demining was a long operation, especially in the sea areas, lasting until 1952. 100 Finnish army personnel were killed and over 200 wounded during this process, most of them in Lapland. Nevertheless, in contrast to the rest of the Eastern front countries, where the war was fought to the end, a Soviet occupation of Finland did not occur and the country retained sovereignty. Neither did Communists rise to power as they had in the Eastern Bloc countries. A policy called the Paasikivi-Kekkonen line formed the basis of Finnish foreign policy towards the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991. British involvement The Continuation War represents the only case of a genuinely democratic state participating in World War II on the side of the Axis powers, albeit without being a signatory of the Tripartite Pact. The United Kingdom declared war on Finland on 6 December 1941, Finnish Independence Day, with Canada and New Zealand declaring war on Finland on December 7, and Australia and South Africa declaring war on December 8. The United States Secretary of State Cordell Hull did congratulate the Finnish envoy on 3 October 1941 for the liberation of Karelia but warned Finland not to go in to Soviet territory; furthermore the US did not declare war on Finland when they went to war with the Axis countries and, together with UK, approached Stalin in the Tehran Conference to acknowledge Finnish independence. However, the US government seized Finnish merchant ships in American ports and in the summer of 1944 shut down Finnish diplomatic and commercial offices in the US as a result of President Ryti's treaty with Germany. The US government later warned Finland about the consequences of continued adherence to the Axis. World War II: Finland The best-known British action on Finnish soil was a Swordfish attack on German ships in the Finnish harbour of Petsamo on 31 July 1941. FAA archive: raid on Petsamo This attack achieved little except the loss of three British aircraft, but it was intended as a demonstration of British support for its Soviet ally. Later in 1941, Hurricanes of No. 151 Wing RAF based at Murmansk provided local air cover for Soviet troops and fighter escorts for Soviet bombers. The Royal Air Force in Russia :Hurricanes at Murmansk The British contribution to the war was occasional but significant. Finnish radio intelligence is said to have participated effectively in German actions against British convoys to Murmansk. Ahtokari, Reijo and Pale, Erkki: Suomen Radiotiedustelu 1927–1944 (Finnish radio intelligence 1927–1944), Helsinki, Hakapaino Oy, pp. 191–198, ISBN 952-90-9437-X Throughout the war, German aircraft operating from airfields in northern Finland made attacks on British air and naval units based in Murmansk and Archangelsk. Analysis 353,240 Soviet personnel were awarded this medal for the defence of the Soviet Transarctic from 5 December 1944 Mannerheim Cross is the most distinguished Finnish military decoration and awarded to soldiers for extraordinary bravery; the achievement of extraordinarily important objectives by combat, or for especially well conducted operations. Aims of the War Unlike the Winter War, which was a Soviet war of aggression against Finland, the Continuation War was a war of aggression initiated by the Finns, Jatkosodan synty suomalaisen menneisyyden kipupisteenä SUOMEN MARSSI JATKOSOTAAN which attempted to rectify the territorial losses of the Winter War and pre-empt Soviet aggression. There is a debate in Finland on whether the country had a realistic option of not joining the German Operation Barbarossa, and about how much of the Finnish action was morally justified. However, there exists a consensus that one of the main Finnish objectives was an attempt to get back the areas lost in the Winter War. Finland's main goal during World War II was, although it was nowhere openly stated, to survive the war as an independent democratic country, capable of maintaining its sovereignty in a politically hostile environment. Specifically for the Continuation War, Finland also aimed at reversing its territorial losses under the March 1940 Moscow Peace Treaty and by extending its territory further east, to have more non-Finnish land to defend before armies from the USSR could enter Finnish territories. Some small right-wing groups also supported a Greater Finland ideology. Finland's efforts during World War II were, as regards survival and with hindsight, successful, although the price was high in war casualties, reparation payments, territorial loss, bruised international reputation, and subsequent adaptation to Soviet international perspectives during the Cold War (see: Finlandization). The Finnish-German alliance was different from most of the other Axis relationships, an example of which is represented by the participation of Finnish Jews in the fight against the Soviet Union. The Finns did not take any anti-Jewish measures in Finland, despite repeated requests from Nazi Germany. Letter to the New York Times by Mark Cohen, Executive Director of Holocaust Publications in New York, April 28, 1987 Soviet war goals are harder to assess due to the secretive nature of the Stalinist Soviet Union. Soviet sources maintain that Soviet policies up to the Continuation War were best explained as defensive measures by offensive means: the division of occupied Poland with Germany, the occupation of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, and the attempted invasion of Finland in the Winter War are described as elements in the construction of a security zone or buffer region between the perceived threat from the capitalist powers of Western Europe and the Communist Soviet Union – as some see the post-war establishment of Soviet satellite states in the Warsaw Pact countries and the Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance concluded with post-war Finland. The problem of ensuring the security of Leningrad from the north in light of Soviet war planning of 1932–1941 by V. N. Baryshnikov: The actual war with Finland began first of all due to unresolved issues in Leningrad's security from the north and Moscow's concerns for the perspective of Finland's politics. At the same time, a desire to claim better strategic positions in case of a war with Germany had surfaced within the Soviet leadership. Финская война. Взгляд "с той стороны" ("The Finnish war. A look from the "other side"") by A. I. Kozlov: After the rise of National Socialism to power in Germany, the geopolitical importance of the former "buffer states" had drastically changed. Both the Soviet Union and Germany vied for the inclusion of these states into their spheres of influence. Soviet politicians and military considered it likely, that in case of an aggression against the USSR, German armed forces will use the territory of the Baltic states and Finland as staging areas for invasion — by either conquering or coercing these countries. None of the states of the Baltic region, excluding Poland, had sufficient military power to resist a German invasion. Stalin's Missed Chance, by Mikhail Meltyukhov:The English-French influence in the Baltics, characteristic for the '20s – early '30s was increasingly limited by the growth of the German influence. Due to the strategic importance of the region, the Soviet leadership also aimed to increase its influence there, using both diplomatic means as well as active social propaganda. By the end of the '30s, the main contenders for the influence in the Baltics were Germany and the Soviet Union. Being a buffer zone between Germany and the USSR, the Baltic states were bound to them by a system of economic and non-aggression treaties of 1926, 1932 and 1939 Western historians such as Norman Davies and John Lukacs dispute this view and describe the prewar Soviet policy as attempting to stay out of the war and regaining land lost after the fall of the Russian Empire. Norman Davies, No simple victory, 2007, ISBN 978-0-670-01832-1 Battles and operations Finnish reconquest of Ladoga Karelia (1941) Finnish reconquest of the Karelian Isthmus (1941) Finnish occupation of East Karelia (1941) Siege of Leningrad (1941–1943) Operation Silberfuchs (1941) Fourth strategic offensive (1944) Battle of Tali-Ihantala (1944) Battle of the Bay of Viipuri (1944) Battle of Vuosalmi (1944) Battle of Nietjärvi (1944) Battle of Ilomantsi (1944) See also Co-belligerence Einsatzkommando Finnland Finlandization Finnish Waffen SS volunteers Military history of Finland History of Finland History of the Soviet Union List of Finnish corps in the Continuation War List of Finnish divisions in the Continuation War List of Finnish wars Lotta Svärd Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line Salpalinja No. 151 Wing RAF based at Murmansk References Notes Books Further reading Хельге Сеппяля Финляндия как оккупант в 1941–1944 годах Журнал "Север" ISSN 0131-6222, 1995. See Finnish National Archive Luovutukset: Research on prisoner-of-war deaths, extraditions and deportations from Finland between 1939–55, Research project, See

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Henry_VIII_of_England

Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. He was also Lord of Ireland (later King of Ireland) and claimant to the Kingdom of France. Henry was the second monarch of the House of Tudor, succeeding his father, Henry VII. Henry VIII was a significant figure in the history of the English monarchy. Although in the great part of his reign he brutally suppressed the influence of the Protestant Reformation in England,<ref>See above, "Martyrdom of William Tyndale".</ref> a movement having some roots with John Wycliffe in the 14th century, he is more popularly known for his political struggles with Rome. These struggles ultimately led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and establishing himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Although some claim that Henry became a Protestant on his death-bed, he advocated Catholic ceremony and doctrine throughout his life. Royal support for the English Reformation began with his heirs, the devout Edward VI and the renowned Elizabeth I, whilst daughter Mary I temporarily reinstated papal authority over England. Henry also oversaw the legal union of England and Wales with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542. He is also noted for his six wives, two of whom were beheaded. Early years: 1491-1509 Born in Greenwich Palace, Henry VIII was the third child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Crofton, p.128. Of the young Henry's six siblings, only three — Arthur, Prince of Wales, Margaret, and Mary — survived infancy. In 1493, Henry was appointed Constable of Dover Castle and Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. In 1494, he was created Duke of York. He was subsequently appointed Earl Marshal of England and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Henry was given a first-rate education from leading tutors, becoming fluent in Latin, French, and Spanish. Crofton, p.129 As it was expected that the throne would pass to Prince Arthur, Henry's older brother, Henry was prepared for a life in the church. Churchill, p.29 Death of Arthur In 1502, Arthur, just 15 years old, died suddenly. His death thrust all his duties upon his younger brother Henry, who then became Prince of Wales. Henry VII renewed his efforts to seal a marital alliance between England and Spain, by offering Henry, Prince of Wales, in marriage to Prince Arthur's widow, Catherine of Aragon, the youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. Crofton, p.126. Catherine as a young widow, by Henry VII's court painter, Michael Sittow in c.1502. In order for the new Prince of Wales to marry his brother's widow, a dispensation from the Pope was normally required to overrule the impediment of affinity. Catherine swore that her marriage to Prince Arthur had not been consummated. Still, both the English and Spanish parties agreed that an additional papal dispensation of affinity would be prudent to remove all doubt regarding the legitimacy of the marriage. The impatience of Catherine's mother, Queen Isabella I, induced Pope Julius II to grant dispensation in the form of a Papal bull. So, 14 months after her young husband's death, Catherine found herself betrothed to his even younger brother, Henry. Yet by 1505, Henry VII lost interest in a Spanish alliance and the younger Henry declared that his betrothal had been arranged without his consent. Continued diplomatic manoeuvring over the fate of the proposed marriage lingered until the death of Henry VII in 1509. Only 17 years old, Henry married Catherine on 11 June 1509 and, on 24 June 1509, the two were crowned at Westminster Abbey. Early Reign: 1509-1525 Two days after his coronation he arrested his father's two most unpopular ministers, Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley. They were groundlessly charged with high treason and were executed in 1510. This was to become Henry's primary tactic for dealing with those who stood in his way. Eighteen year-old Henry after his coronation in 1509. Henry was a Renaissance Man and his court was a centre of scholarly and artistic innovation and glamorous excess, epitomised by The Field of the Cloth of Gold. He was an accomplished musician, author, and poet. His best known musical composition is Pastime with Good Company or The Kynges Ballade. He was also an avid gambler and dice player, and excelled at sports, especially jousting, hunting, and real tennis. He was also known for his strong dedication to Christianity. France and the Habsburgs In 1511, Pope Julius II proclaimed a Holy League against France. This new alliance rapidly grew to include not only Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, but also England. Henry decided to use the occasion as an excuse to expand his holdings in northern France. He concluded the Treaty of Westminster, a pledge of mutual aid with Spain against France, in November 1511 and prepared for involvement in the War of the League of Cambrai. In 1513, Henry invaded France and his troops defeated a French army at the Battle of the Spurs. His brother-in-law James IV of Scotland invaded England at the behest of Louis XII of France, Guicciardini, History of Italy, 280. but failed to draw Henry's attention from France. The Scots were disastrously defeated at the Battle of Flodden Field on 9 September 1513. Among the dead were the Scottish King and the battle ended Scotland's brief involvement in the war. On 18 February 1516, Queen Catherine bore Henry his first child, Princess Mary of England, who later reigned as Mary I of England. Mistresses Contrary to his popular image, Henry may not have had many affairs outside marriage and, apart from women he later married, the identities of only two mistresses are completely undisputed: Bessie Blount and Mary Boleyn. Fraser states that only three named mistresses are definitely known: Bessie Blount, Mary Boleyn and Madge Shelton, but it seems that even the last is now disputed. Blount gave birth to Henry's illegitimate son, Henry FitzRoy. The young boy was made Duke of Richmond in June 1525 in what some thought was one step on the path to legitimatising him. In 1533, FitzRoy married Mary Howard, Anne Boleyn's first cousin, but died three years later without any successors. At the time of FitzRoy's death the king was trying to pass a law that would allow his otherwise illegitimate son to become king. Mary Boleyn was the sister of Anne Boleyn who later married Henry. She is thought to have been his mistress at some point between 1519 and 1526. There has been speculation that Mary's two children, Catherine and Henry were fathered by Henry, but this has never been proven and the King never acknowledged them as he did Henry FitzRoy. In 1510 it was reported that Henry was conducting an affair with one of the sisters of Edward Stafford, 3rd Duke of Buckingham, either Elizabeth or Anne Hastings, Countess of Huntingdon. Chapuys wrote that: the husband of that lady went away, carried her off and placed her in a convent sixty miles from here, that no one may see her.. PRO, E36/215 f.449 Henry also seems to have had an affair with one of the Shelton sisters in 1535. Traditionally it has been believed that this was Margaret, but recent research has led to the claim that this was actually Mary. There are also grounds for suspecting that he had an affair with an unknown woman in 1534. Alison Weir has argued that, aside from these five affairs, there were also numerous other short-term and secret liaisons, most of them conducted in the king's river-side mansion of Jordan House. Weir, Henry VIII: King and Court (2002). The King's great matter: 1525-1533 Henry became impatient with what he perceived as Catherine's inability to produce the heir he desired. All of Catherine's children died in infancy except his daughter Mary. Lacey, p.70. Henry wanted a male heir, to avoid rival claims to the crown like those which had caused the Wars of the Roses before Henry's father, Henry VII, became king. The disastrous reign of Matilda, England's only ruling Queen to that point, may also have weighed on Henry's mind. In 1525, as Henry grew more impatient, he became enamoured of a charismatic young woman in the Queen's entourage, Anne Boleyn. Scarisbrick, p. 154. Anne at first resisted his attempts to seduce her, and refused to become his mistress as her sister Mary Boleyn had. She said "I beseech your highness most earnestly to desist, and to this my answer in good part. I would rather lose my life than my honesty." Weir, p. 160. This refusal made Henry even more attracted, and he pursued her relentlessly. Eventually, Anne saw her opportunity in Henry's infatuation and determined that she would only yield as his acknowledged queen. It soon became the King's absorbing desire to annul his marriage to Catherine. Brigden, p.114. It is possible that the idea of annulment had suggested itself to the King much before he noticed Anne, and it was most probably motivated by his desire for a male heir. Henry appealed directly to the Holy See, independently from Cardinal Thomas Wolsey from whom he kept his plans for Anne secret. Instead, Henry's secretary, William Knight, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for the annulment. The grounds were that the bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretences, because Catherine's brief marriage to the sickly Arthur had been consummated. Henry also petitioned, in the event of annulment, a dispensation to marry again to any woman even in the first degree of affinity, whether the affinity was contracted by lawful or unlawful connection. This clearly had reference to Anne. Catherine of Aragon, first queen of Henry VIII. However, as the pope was at that time imprisoned by Emperor Charles V, Knight had difficulty in getting access to him, and so only managed to obtain the conditional dispensation for a new marriage. Henry now had no choice but to put the matter into the hands of Wolsey. Wolsey did all he could to secure a decision in the King's favour. Charles V resisted the annulment of his aunt's marriage, but it is not clear how far this influenced the pope. But it is clear that Henry saw that the Pope was unlikely to give him an annulment from the Emperor's aunt. Morris, p.166. The pope forbade Henry to proceed to a new marriage before a decision was given in Rome. Convinced that he was treacherous, Anne Boleyn maintained pressure until Wolsey was dismissed from public office in 1529. After being dismissed, the cardinal begged her to help him return to power, but she refused. He then began a secret plot to have Anne forced into exile and began communication with Queen Catherine and the Pope to that end. When this was discovered, Henry ordered Wolsey's arrest and had it not been for his death from a terminal illness in 1530, he might have been executed for treason. Haigh p.92f His replacement, Sir Thomas More, initially cooperated with the king's new policy, denouncing Wolsey in Parliament and proclaiming the opinion of the theologians at Oxford and Cambridge that the marriage of Henry to Catherine had been unlawful. As Henry began to deny the authority of the Pope, More's qualms grew. A year later, Queen Catherine was banished from court and her old rooms were given to Anne. With Wolsey gone, Anne now had considerable power over government appointments and political matters. When Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham died, Anne had the Boleyn family's chaplain, Thomas Cranmer, appointed to the vacant position. Through the intervention of the King of France, this was conceded by Rome, the pallium being granted to him by Clement. The breaking of the power of Rome in England proceeded slowly. In 1532, a lawyer who was a supporter of Anne, Thomas Cromwell, brought before Parliament a number of acts including the Supplication against the Ordinaries and the Submission of the Clergy, which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church. Following these acts, Thomas More resigned as Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. Williams p. 136. Second marriage Henry attended a meeting with the French king at Calais in the winter of 1532, in which he enlisted the support of Francis I of France for his new marriage. Williams, p.123. Immediately upon returning to Dover in England, Henry and Anne went through a secret wedding service. Starkey, pp. 462–464. She soon became pregnant and there was a second wedding service, which took place in London on 25 January 1533. Events now began to move quickly. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgment at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of the king's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, declared the marriage of Henry and Catherine null and void. Five days later, on 28 May 1533, Cranmer declared the marriage of Henry and Anne to be good and valid. Williams, p.124. Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen, and Anne was consequently crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533. The queen gave birth slightly prematurely on 7 September 1533. Anne had given birth to a girl who was christened Elizabeth, in honour of Henry's mother, Elizabeth of York. Williams, pp.128-131. Rejecting the decisions of the Pope, Parliament validated the marriage of Henry and Anne with the Act of Succession 1533. Catherine's daughter, Lady Mary, was declared illegitimate, and Anne's issue were declared next in the line of succession. Most notable in this declaration was a clause repudiating "any foreign authority, prince or potentate". All adults in the Kingdom were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions by oath and those who refused were subject to imprisonment for life. Any publisher or printer of any literature alleging that the marriage was invalid was automatically guilty of high treason and could be punished by death. Separation from Rome: 1533-1540 Anne Boleyn, Henry's second queen, a contemporary image painted when she was 25 years old. Meanwhile, the House of Commons had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted the penalties of præmunire against all who introduced papal bulls into England. The House of Commons also prevented the Church from making any regulations without the king's consent. It was only then that Pope Clement at last took the step of launching sentences of excommunication against the Henry and Thomas Cranmer, Historians disagree on the exact date of the excommunication; according to Winston Churchill's 'History of the English Speaking Peoples', the bull of 1533 was a draft with penalties left blank and was not made official until 1535. Others say Henry was not officially excommunicated until 1538, by Pope Paul III, brother of Cardinal Franklin de la Thomas. declaring at the same time the archbishop's decree of annulment to be invalid and the marriage with Anne null and papal nuncio was withdrawn from England and diplomatic relations with Rome were broken off. Several more laws were passed in England. The Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534 required the clergy to elect bishops nominated by the Sovereign. The Act of Supremacy in 1534 declared that the King was "the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England" and the Treasons Act 1534 made it high treason, punishable by death, to refuse to acknowledge the King as such. In response to the excommunications, the Peter's Pence Act was passed in and it reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope. Lehmberg. In defiance of the Pope the Church of England was now under Henry’s control, not Rome's. Protestant Reformers still faced persecution, particularly over objections to Henry's divorce. Many fled abroad where they met further difficulties, including the influential William Tyndale, who was eventually burned at King Henry's behest. Theological and practical reforms would follow only under Henry's successors (see end of section). Personal troubles The king and queen were not pleased with married life. The royal couple enjoyed periods of calm and affection, but Anne refused to play the submissive role expected of her. For his part, Henry disliked Anne’s constant irritability and violent temper. After a false pregnancy or miscarriage in 1534, he saw her failure to give him a son as a betrayal. As early as Christmas 1534, Henry was discussing with Cranmer and Cromwell the chances of leaving Anne without having to return to Catherine. Williams, p.138. The Tower of London, the site of many royal executions. Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed in England. A number of dissenting monks were tortured and executed. The most prominent resisters included John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas More, Henry's former Lord Chancellor, both of whom refused to take the oath to the King and were subsequently convicted of high treason and beheaded at Tower Hill, just outside the Tower of London, while the usual punishment for such traitors would have been to be hanged, drawn, and quartered. These suppressions in turn contributed to further resistance among the English people, most notably in the Pilgrimage of Grace, a large uprising in northern England in October, 1536. Henry VIII promised the rebels he would pardon them and thanked them for raising the issues to his attention, then invited the rebel leader, Robert Aske to a royal banquet. At the banquet, Henry asked Aske to write down what had happened so he could have a better idea of the problems he would 'change'. Aske did what the King asked, although what he had written would later be used against him as a confession. The King's word could not be questioned (as he was held as God's chosen, and second only to God himself) so Aske told the rebels they had been successful and they could disperse and go home. However, because Henry saw the rebels as traitors, he did not feel obliged to keep his promises. The rebels realised that the King was not keeping his promises and rebelled again later that year, but their strength was less in the second attempt and the King ordered the rebellion crushed. The leaders, including Aske, were arrested and executed for treason. Execution of Anne Boleyn On 8 January 1536 news reached the king and the queen that Catherine of Aragon had died. Upon hearing the news of her death, Henry and Anne reportedly decked themselves in bright yellow clothing, yellow being the colour of mourning in Spain at the time. Henry called for public displays of joy regarding Catherine's death. The queen was pregnant again, and she was aware of the consequences if she failed to give birth to a son. Her life could be in danger, as with both wives dead, Henry would be free to remarry and no one could claim that the union was illegal. Later that month, the King was unhorsed in a tournament and was badly injured. It seemed for a time that the King's life was in danger. When news of this accident reached the queen she was sent into shock and miscarried a male child that was about 15 weeks old. This happened on the very day of Catherine’s funeral, 29 January 1536. For most observers, this personal loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage. Williams, p.141. Given the King's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Author, Mike Ashley, speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the birth of the male child she miscarried in 1536. Ashley, p.240. Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months gestation, in January 1536. Williams, chapter 4. As Anne recovered from what would be her final miscarriage, Henry declared that his marriage had been the product of witchcraft. The King's new mistress, Jane Seymour, was quickly moved into new quarters. This was followed by Anne's brother, George Boleyn, being refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, which was instead given to Jane Seymour's brother. Williams, p.142. Five men, including Anne's own brother, were arrested on charges of incest and treason, accused of having sexual relationships with the queen. Williams, pp.143-144. On 2 May 1536 Anne was arrested and taken to the Tower of London. She was accused of adultery, incest and high treason. Hibbert, pp.54-55. Although the evidence against them was unconvincing, the accused were found guilty and condemned to death by the peers. George Boleyn and the other accused men were executed on 17 May 1536. At 8 a.m. on 19 May 1536, the queen was executed on Tower Green. She knelt upright, in the French style of executions. The execution was swift and consisted of a single stroke. Hibbert, p.60. Jane Seymour would become Henry's third wife. Birth of a prince One day after Anne's execution in 1536 Henry became engaged to Jane Seymour, one of the Queen's ladies-in-waiting to whom the king had been showing favour for some time. They were married 10 days later. At about the same time as this, his third marriage, Henry granted his assent to the Laws in Wales Act 1535, which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into one unified nation. This was followed by the Act of Succession 1536, which declared Henry's children by Queen Jane to be next in the line of succession and declared both the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them from the throne. The king was granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his will. In 1537, Jane gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, the future Edward VI. The birth was difficult and the queen died at Greenwich Palace on 24 October 1537 from an infection. After Jane's death, the entire court mourned with Henry for an extended period. Henry considered Jane to be his "true" wife, being the only one who had given him the male heir he so desperately sought. He was buried next to her at his death. Martyrdom of William Tyndale Doctor Tyndale at the stake. Henry's reach stretched beyond England's shores. In 1530, the great Protestant Bible-translator, Doctor William Tyndale, had written The Practyse of Prelates, opposing Henry VIII's divorce with his first wife Catherine on the grounds that it was unscriptural. Thereafter, Tyndale fled to Antwerp, which was known for its gracious tolerance and where he carried on the work of the Reformation, prolifically writing essays and books that were smuggled back over the Channel. However, around 6 October 1536, Tyndale was tried on a charge of heresy and summarily condemned to death, despite Thomas Cromwell's intercession with Henry on his behalf. He "was strangled to death while tied at the stake, and then his dead body was burned". Michael Farris, "From Tyndale to Madison", 2007, p. 37. Tyndale's famous last words, spoken "at the stake with a fervent zeal, and a loud voice", are reported as "Lord! Ope' the King of England's eyes!" John Foxe, Actes and Monuments (1570), VIII.1229 (Foxe's Book of Martyrs Variorum Edition Online). By the reign of Henry's successor, Edward VI, England would be a thoroughly Protestant and Reformed nation. Final years: 1540-1547 In 1540, Henry sanctioned the destruction of shrines to saints. At this time, Henry desired to marry once again to ensure the succession. Thomas Cromwell, promoted to 1st Earl of Essex, suggested Anne, the sister of the Protestant Duke of Cleves, who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England. Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the king. Although it has been said that he painted her in a more flattering light, it is unlikely that the portrait was highly inaccurate, since Holbein remained in favour at court. After regarding Holbein's portrayal, and urged by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, Henry agreed to wed Anne. On Anne's arrival in England, Henry is said to have found her utterly unattractive, privately calling her a "Flanders Mare". Portrait of Anne of Cleves by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1539. Henry wished to annul the marriage in order to marry another. The Duke of Cleves had become engaged in a dispute with the Holy Roman Emperor, with whom Henry had no desire to quarrel. Queen Anne was intelligent enough not to impede Henry's quest for an annulment. Upon the question of marital sex, she testified that her marriage had never been consummated. Henry was said to have come into the room each night and merely kissed his new bride on the forehead before retiring. All impediments to an annulment were thus removed. The marriage was subsequently dissolved and Anne received the title of "The King's Sister", and was granted Hever Castle, the former residence of the Boleyn family. Cromwell, meanwhile, fell out of favour for his role in arranging the marriage and was subsequently attainted and beheaded. The office of Viceregent in Spirituals, which had been specifically created for him, was not filled. Miniature Portrait of Catherine Howard by Hans Holbein the Younger, 1540. On 28 July 1540, (the same day Cromwell was executed) Henry married the young Catherine Howard (also Katherine), Anne Boleyn's first cousin and a lady-in-waiting of Anne's. Farquhar, Michael (2001). A Treasure of Royal Scandals, p.75. Penguin Books, New York. ISBN 0739420259. He was absolutely delighted with his new queen. Soon after her marriage, however, Queen Catherine had an affair with the courtier, Thomas Culpeper. She also employed Francis Dereham, who was previously informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. Thomas Cranmer, who was opposed to the powerful Roman Catholic Howard family, brought evidence of Queen Catherine's activities to the king's notice. Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations, he allowed Cranmer to conduct an investigation, which resulted in Queen Catherine's implication. When questioned, the queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Queen Catherine's relationship with Thomas Culpeper. As was the case with Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard could not technically have been guilty of adultery, as the marriage was officially null and void from the beginning. Again, this point was ignored, and Catherine was executed on 13 February 1542. She was aged between 17 and 22 when she died (opinions differ as to her year of birth). That same year, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. Abbots and priors lost their seats in the House of Lords; only archbishops and bishops came to comprise the ecclesiastical element of the body. The Lords Spiritual, as members of the clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known, were for the first time outnumbered by the Lords Temporal. Catherine Parr, Henry's sixth and final wife. Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow Catherine Parr, in 1543. She argued with Henry over religion; she was a reformer, but Henry remained a conservative. This behaviour nearly proved her undoing, but she saved herself by a show of submissiveness. She helped reconcile Henry with his first two daughters, the Princess Mary and the Lady Elizabeth. In 1544, an Act of Parliament put the daughters back in the line of succession after Edward, Prince of Wales, though they were still deemed illegitimate. The same act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will. A mnemonic for the fates of Henry's wives is "divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived". An alternative version is "King Henry the Eighth, to six wives he was wedded: One died, one survived, two divorced, two beheaded". (Or, more succinctly, "Two beheaded, one died, two divorced, one survived.") The phrase may be misleading. Firstly, Henry was never divorced from any of his wives; rather, his marriages to them were annulled by the Church of England. Secondly, four marriages — not two — ended in annulments. The marriages to Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard were annulled shortly before their executions and, although her marriage to Henry was annulled, Anne of Cleves survived him, as did Catherine Parr. The cruelty and tyrannical egotism of Henry became more apparent as he advanced in years and his health began to fail. A wave of political executions which had commenced with that of Edmund de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk in 1513 ended with Henry Earl of Surrey in January, 1547. According to Holinshed the number of executions in this reign amounted to 72,000, although higher figures are given by some authorities. Death and succession King Henry VIII died in the Palace of Whitehall in 1547. Late in life, Henry became grossly overweight (with a waist measurement of 54 inches/137 cm) and had to be moved about with the help of mechanical inventions. He was covered with painful, suppurating boils and possibly suffered from gout. His obesity dates from a jousting accident in 1536 in which he suffered a leg wound. This prevented him from exercising and gradually became ulcerated. It undoubtedly hastened his death at the age of 55, which occurred on 28 January 1547 in the Palace of Whitehall, on what would have been his father's 90th birthday. He expired soon after uttering these last words: "Monks! Monks! Monks!" Davies, p. 687. The theory that Henry suffered from syphilis was first promoted approximately 100 years after his death, but has been disregarded by most serious historians. Syphilis was a well-known disease in Henry's time, and although his contemporary, Francis I of France was treated for it, the notes left from Henry's physicians do not indicate that the English king was. A more recent and credible theory suggests that Henry's medical symptoms, and those of his older sister Margaret Tudor, are also characteristic of untreated Type II diabetes. Meeting of Henry VIII and Maximilian. Henry VIII was buried in St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle, next to his wife Jane Seymour. Over a hundred years later Charles I was buried in the same vault. Within a little more than a decade after his death, all three of his royal heirs sat on the English throne, and all three left no descendants. Under the Act of Succession 1543, Henry's only surviving legitimate son, Edward, inherited the Crown, becoming Edward VI. Since Edward was only nine years old at the time, he could not exercise actual power. Henry's will designated 16 executors to serve on a council of regency until Edward reached the age of 18. The executors chose Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford, Jane Seymour's elder brother, to be Lord Protector of the Realm. In default of heirs to Edward, the throne was to pass to Henry VIII's daughter by Catherine of Aragon, the Princess Mary and her heirs. If Mary's issue also failed, the crown was to go to Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn, Princess Elizabeth, and her heirs. Finally, if Elizabeth's line also became extinct, the crown was to be inherited by the descendants of Henry VIII's deceased younger sister, Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk. The descendants of Henry's sister Margaret Tudor - the royal family of Scotland - were therefore excluded from succession according to this act. Children Legacy Henry VIII is known to have been an avid gambler and dice player. In his youth, he excelled at sports, especially jousting, hunting, and real tennis. He was also an accomplished musician, author, and poet; his best known piece of music is Pastime with Good Company ('The Kynges Ballade'). He is often reputed to have written Greensleeves but probably did not. The King was also involved in the original construction and improvement of several significant buildings, including Nonsuch Palace, King's College Chapel, Cambridge and Westminster Abbey in London. Many of the existing buildings Henry improved were properties confiscated from Wolsey, such as Christ Church, Oxford, Hampton Court Palace, the Palace of Whitehall, and Trinity College, Cambridge. He founded Christ Church Cathedral School, Oxford in 1546. The only surviving piece of clothing worn by Henry VIII is a cap of maintenance awarded to the Mayor of Waterford, along with a bearing sword, in 1536. It currently resides in the Waterford Museum of Treasures. A suit of Henry's armour is on display in the Tower of London. In the centuries since his death, Henry has inspired or been mentioned in numerous artistic and cultural works. Royal finances Henry inherited a vast fortune from his father Henry VII who had, in contrast to his son, been frugal and careful with money. This fortune was estimated to £1,250,000 (£375 million by today's standards). Weir, p.13 Much of this wealth was spent by Henry on maintaining his court and household, including many of the building works he undertook on royal palaces. Tudor monarchs had to fund all the expenses of government out of their own income. This income came from the Crown lands that Henry owned as well as from customs duties like tonnage and poundage, granted by parliament to the king for life. During Henry's reign the revenues of the Crown remained constant (around £100,000), Weir, p.64 but were eroded by inflation and rising prices brought about by war. Indeed it was war and Henry's dynastic ambitions in Europe that meant that the surplus he had inherited from his father was exhausted by the mid-1520s. Whereas Henry VII had not involved Parliament in his affairs very much, Henry VIII had to turn to Parliament during his reign for money, in particular for grants of subsidies to fund his wars. The Dissolution of the Monasteries also provided a means to replenish the treasury and as a result the Crown took possession of monastic lands worth £120,000 (£36 million a year). Weir, p. 393 But Henry had had to debase the coinage in 1526 and 1539 in order to solve his financial problems and despite efforts by his ministers to reduce the costs and wastage at court, Henry died in debt. Legacy Though mainly motivated by dynastic and personal concerns, and despite never really abandoning the fundamentals of the Roman Catholic Church, Henry ensured that the greatest act of his reign would be one of the most radical and decisive of any English monarch. His break with Rome in 1533-34 was an act with enormous consequences for the subsequent course of English history beyond the Tudor dynasty. Not only in making possible the transformation of England into a powerful (albeit very distinctive) nation; but also in the seizing of economic and political power from the Church by the aristocracy, chiefly through the acquisition of monastic lands and assets - a short-term strategy with long-term social consequences. Henry's decision to entrust the regency of his son Edward's minor years to a decidedly reform-oriented regency council, dominated by Edward Seymour, most likely for the simple tactical reason that Seymour seemed likely to provide the strongest leadership for the kingdom, ensured that the English Reformation would be consolidated and even furthered during his son's reign. Such ironies marked other aspects of his legacy. Silver groat of Henry VIII, minted c. 1540. The reverse depicts the quartered arms of England and France. He fostered humanist learning and yet was responsible for the deaths of several outstanding English humanists. Obsessed with securing the succession to the throne, he left as his only heirs a young son (who died before his 16th birthday) and two daughters adhering to different religions. The power of the state was magnified, yet so too (at least after Henry's death) were demands for increased political participation by the middle class. Henry worked with some success to make England once again a major player on the European scene but depleted his treasury in the course of doing so, a legacy that has remained an issue for English monarchs ever since. English navy Together with Alfred the Great and Charles II, Henry is traditionally cited as one of the founders of the Royal Navy. His reign featured some naval warfare and, more significantly, large royal investment in shipbuilding (including a few spectacular great ships such as Mary Rose), dockyards (such as HMNB Portsmouth) and naval innovations (such as the use of cannon on board ship - although archers were still deployed on medieval-style forecastles and bowcastles as the ship's primary armament on large ships, or co-armament where cannons were used). However, in some ways this is a misconception since Henry did not bequeath to his immediate successors a navy in the sense of a formalised organisation with structures, ranks, and formalised munitioning structures but only in the sense of a set of ships. Elizabeth I still had to cobble together a set of privately owned ships to fight off the Spanish Armada (which consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships) and in the former, formal sense the modern British navy, the Royal Navy, is largely a product of the Anglo-Dutch naval rivalry of the seventeenth century. Still, Henry's reign marked the birth of English naval power and was a key factor in England's later victory over the Spanish Armada. Henry's break with Rome incurred the threat of a large-scale French or Spanish invasion. To guard against this he strengthened existing coastal defence fortresses (such as Dover Castle and, also at Dover, Moat Bulwark and Archcliffe Fort which he personally visited for a few months to supervise, as is commemorated in the modern exhibition in the keep of Dover Castle). He also built a chain of new 'castles' (in fact, large bastioned and garrisoned gun batteries) along Britain's southern and eastern coasts from East Anglia to Cornwall, largely built of material gained from the demolition of monasteries. These were also known as Henry VIII's Device Forts. Style and arms Henry's shield as The Duke of York. Several changes were made to the royal style during his reign. Henry originally used the style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Lord of Ireland". In 1521, pursuant to a grant from Pope Leo X rewarding a book by Henry, the Defence of the Seven Sacraments, attacking Martin Luther, the royal style became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith and Lord of Ireland". Following Henry's excommunication, Pope Paul III rescinded the grant of the title "Defender of the Faith", but an Act of Parliament declared that it remained valid; and it continues in royal usage to the present day. In 1535, Henry added the "supremacy phrase" to the royal style, which became "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head". In 1536, the phrase "of the Church of England" changed to "of the Church of England and also of Ireland". In 1541, Henry had the Irish Parliament change the title 'Lord of Ireland' to 'King of Ireland' with the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, after being advised that many Irish people regarded the Pope as the true head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative. The reason the Irish regarded the Pope as their overlord was that Ireland had originally been given to the King Henry II of England by Pope Adrian IV in the twelfth century as a feudal territory under papal overlordship. The meeting of Irish Parliament that proclaimed Henry VIII as King of Ireland was the first meeting attended by the Gaelic Irish chieftains as well as the Anglo-Irish aristocrats. The style "Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head" remained in use until the end of Henry's reign. Henry's motto was 'Coeur Loyal' (true heart) and he had this embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word "loyal". His emblem was the Tudor rose and the Beaufort portcullis. As Duke of York, Henry used the arms of his father (i.e. those of the kingdom), differenced by a label of three points ermine. As king, Henry's arms were the same as those used by his predecessors since Henry IV: Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England). Ancestry </center> Marriages and issue NameBirthDeathNotesBy Catherine of Aragon (married 11 June 1509 annulled 23 May 1533)Henry, Duke of Cornwall1 January 151122 February 1511Henry, Duke of CornwallDecember 1514died within one month of birthQueen Mary I18 February 151617 November 1558married 1554, Philip II of Spain; no issueUnnamed DaughterNovember 1518died within one week of birthBy Anne Boleyn (married 25 January 1533 annulled 1536) beheadedQueen Elizabeth I7 September 153324 March 1603 never married; no issueBy Jane Seymour (married 30 May 1536; died 25 October 1537)King Edward VI12 October 15376 July 1553 unmarried; no issueBy Anne of Cleves (married 6 January 1540 annulled 1540)no issueBy Catherine Howard (married 28 July 1540 annulled 1541) beheadedno issueBy Catherine Parr (married 12 July 1543; died 5 September 1548)no issueBy Elizabeth BlountHenry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset15 June 151918 June 1536illegitimate; married 1533, the Lady Mary Howard; no issueBy Mary Boleyn (Some writers, such as Alison Weir, now question whether Henry Carey was fathered by Henry VIII. Weir, p.216. )Catherine Carey, Lady Knollysc. 1524 15 January 1568married Sir Francis Knollys; had issueHenry Carey, Baron Hunsdon4 March 1526 23 July 1596married 1545, Ann Morgan; had issueBy Mary Berkeley (There is no evidence to prove he was Henry's son except through eye witness accounts, who claimed a resemblance to the King.) John Perrottc. 1527 3 November 1592married 1. Anne Cheney; 2. Jane Pruet, both of whom produced issue. He also had issue with his mistress Sybil Jones. Film and television See also Cestui que The Rough Wooing References Sources The New World by Winston Churchill (1966). The Reformation Parliament, 1529-1536 by Stanford E. Lehmberg (1970). Henry VIII and his Court by Neville Williams (1971). The Life and Times of Henry VIII by Robert Lacey (1972). The Six Wives of Henry VIII by Alison Weir (1991) ISBN 0802136834. English Reformations by Christopher Haigh (1993). Europe: A history by Norman Davies (1998) ISBN 978-0060974688. Europe and England in the Sixteenth Century by T. A. Morris (1998). New Worlds, Lost Worlds by Susan Brigden (2000). Henry VIII: The King and His Court by Alison Weir (2001). British Kings & Queens by Mike Ashley (2002) ISBN 0-7867-1104-3. Henry VIII: The King and His Court by Alison Weir (2002) ISBN 034543708X. Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII by David Starkey (2003) ISBN 0060005505. The Kings and Queens of England by Ian Crofton (2006). Further reading John Sherren Brewer; Robert Henry Brodie; James Gairdner. Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII, preserved in the Public Record Office, the British Museum, and elsewhere. 1965 2d ed. (TannerRitchie Publishing) Childs, Jessie. Henry VIII's Last Victim: The Life and Times of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey. London: Jonathan Cape, 2006 (hardback, ISBN 0-224-06325-1). Reviewed by C.J. Sansom in The Guardian, 21 October 2006. Luther, Martin. Luther's Correspondence and Other Contemporary Letters, 2 vols., tr. and ed. by Preserved Smith, Charles Michael Jacobs, The Lutheran Publication Society, Philadelphia, Pa. 1913, 1918. vol. 1 (1507–1521) and vol. 2 (1521–1530) from Google Books. Reprint of Vol.1, Wipf & Stock Publishers (March 2006). ISBN 1-59752-601-0 Wagner, John A. "Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors." Greenwood, 2003. Bowle, John. Henry VIII: A Study of Power in Action Little, Brown, 1964. Bryant, M. Private Lives. Cassell, 2001. Farrow, John V. The Story of Thomas More. Collins, 1956. Kranes, Marsha et al. Know It All. New York: Tess Press, 1998. Moorhouse, Geoffrey. Great Harry's Navy: How Henry VIII Gave England Seapower Wagner, John A. (2003). "Bosworth Field to Bloody Mary: An Encyclopedia of the Early Tudors." (Greenwood). ISBN 1-57356-540-7. Henry VIII, "Assertio septem sacramentorum aduersus Martin. Luther" (1521)Treasure 9 National Library of Vatican City displayed via The European Library Buchanan, E. S., Luther's reply to King Henry VIII: Now First Englished After the Lapse of Four Centuries,, (Martinus Lutherus contra Henricum Regem Angliæ, Martin Luther against Henry King of England),'' Charles A. Swift, New York,1928. External links Tudor bio Jokinen, A. (2004). Henry VIII (1491–1547). Eakins, L. E. (2004). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII". Public Broadcasting Service. (2003). "The Six Wives of Henry VIII". Vallieres, S. (1999). "Tudor Succession Problems" Ask About Ireland: Waterford Museum of Treasures Collection: Cap of Maintenance Henry VIII Chronology World History Database Luminarium: King Henry VIII Life, works, essays, study resources Henry VIII Podcast Show Henry VIII and his wives Henry VIII World History Database Buehler, Edward. (2004). "Tudor Portraits: Henry VIII". "Henry VIII Revealed", Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool, 2003. – A discussion of the Holbein's 1536 portrait of Henry VIII and related portraits. Castelli, Jorge H. (2004). "Henry VIII". Stevens, Garry. (2003). "Henry VIII: Intrigue in the Tudor Court". Perrott, Terry. (2004). "Sir John Perrott". Illustrated history of Henry VIII. Henry VIII at Find A Grave Martin Luther to Henry VIII, 1 September 1525 Henry VIII to Martin Luther. August, 1526 Henry VIII to Frederic, John, and George, Dukes of Saxony. January. 20, 1523 re: Luther. |- |- |- |- |-

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Cellulose

Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is the structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most common organic compound on Earth. About 33 percent of all plant matter is cellulose (the cellulose content of cotton is 90 percent and that of wood is 50 percent). Cellulose. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 11, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. For industrial use, cellulose is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton. It is mainly used to produce cardboard and paper; to a smaller extent it is converted into a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon. Converting cellulose from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol is under investigation as an alternative fuel source. Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts. Cellulose is not digestible by humans and is often referred to as 'dietary fiber' or 'roughage', acting as a hydrophilic bulking agent for feces. History Cellulose was discovered in 1838 by the French chemist Anselme Payen, who isolated it from plant matter and determined its chemical formula. Cellulose was used to produce the first successful thermoplastic polymer, celluloid, by Hyatt Manufacturing Company in 1870. Hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920. The compound was first chemically synthesized (without the use of any biologically-derived enzymes) in 1992, by Kobayashi and Shoda. Commercial products Cellulose is the major constituent of paper and cardboard and of textiles made from cotton, linen, and other plant fibers. Cellulose can be converted into cellophane, a thin transparent film, and into rayon, an important fiber that has been used for textiles since the beginning of the 20th century. Both cellophane and rayon are known as "regenerated cellulose fibers"; they are identical to cellulose in chemical structure and are usually made from viscose, a viscous solution made from cellulose. A more recent and environmentally friendly method to produce rayon is the Lyocell process. Cellulose is the raw material in the manufacture of nitrocellulose (cellulose nitrate) which was historically used in smokeless gunpowder and as the base material for celluloid used for photographic and movie films until the mid 1930s. Cellulose is used to make water-soluble adhesives and binders such as methyl cellulose and carboxymethyl cellulose which are used in wallpaper paste. Microcrystalline cellulose (E460i) and powdered cellulose (E460ii) are used as inactive fillers in tablets and as thickeners and stabilizers in processed foods. Cellulose is used in the laboratory as the stationary phase for thin layer chromatography. Cellulose fibers are also used in liquid filtration, sometimes in combination with diatomaceous earth or other filtration media, to create a filter bed of inert material. Cellulose is further used to make hydrophilic and highly absorbent sponges. Cellulose insulation made from recycled newsprint is becoming popular as an environmentally preferable material for building insulation. Cellulose source and energy crops The major combustible component of non-food energy crops is cellulose, with lignin second. Non-food energy crops are more efficient than edible energy crops (which have a large starch component), but still compete with food crops for agricultural land and water resources. Holt-Gimenez, Eric 2007. Biofuels: Myths of the Agrofuels Transition. Backgrounder. Institute for Food and Development Policy, Oakland, CA. 13:2 Typical non-food energy crops include industrial hemp, switchgrass, Miscanthus, Salix (willow), and Populus (poplar) species. Some bacteria can convert cellulose into ethanol which can then be used as a fuel; see cellulosic ethanol. A strand of cellulose (conformation Iα), showing the hydrogen bonds (dashed) within and between cellulose molecules. Cellulose Fibre made form waste paper is treated with Boric Acid to produce a fire retarding Insulation for homes, additionally good quality insulation made form cellulose will also contain Borax as a natural insecticide. Te combination of thes natural minerals produce a high quality produce with a virtual limitless lifespan. Te recycling of waste paper is an environmentally friendly and energy conservative choice. The ability of Cellulose insulation to withstand direct fire fronts reduces the danger of ceiling or attic fires as the long time periods of more than 1 hour for burn through can allow a safe exit from house fires, cellulose as a insulating material has many benifits including sound adsorbtion for a quiterhome environment. Advance Fibre Technologies Australia. Structure and properties Cellulose has no taste, is odourless, is hydrophilic, is insoluble in water and most organic solvents, is chiral and is biodegradable. It can be broken down chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated acids at high temperature. Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in starch, glycogen, and other carbohydrates. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer: unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs, and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple hydroxyl groups on the glucose residues from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen molecules on the same or on a neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with high tensile strength. This strength is important in cell walls, where the microfibrils are meshed into a carbohydrate matrix, conferring rigidity to plant cells. Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 60-70 °C in water (as in cooking), cellulose requires a temperature of 320 °C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in water. Cooking cellulose in hot and compressed water Shigeru Deguchi, Kaoru Tsujii and Koki Horikoshi Chem. Commun., 2006, 3293 - 3295, Several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the location of hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures Iα and Iβ. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in Iα while cellulose of higher plants consists mainly of Iβ. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II. The conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is not reversible, suggesting that cellulose I is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV. Structure and morphology of cellulose by Serge Pérez and William Mackie, CERMAV-CNRS, 2001. Chapter IV. Many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Cellulose from wood pulp has typical chain lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as bacterial celluloses have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units. Molecules with very small chain length resulting from the breakdown of cellulose are known as cellodextrins; in contrast to long-chain cellulose, cellodextrins are typically soluble in water and organic solvents. Plant-derived cellulose is usually contaminated with hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and other substances, while microbial cellulose is quite pure, has a much higher water content, and consists of long chains. Cellulose is soluble in cupriethylenediamine (CED), cadmiumethylenediamine (Cadoxen), N-methylmorpholine N-oxide and lithium chloride / dimethylformamide . This is used in the production of regenerated celluloses (as viscose and cellophane) from dissolving pulp. Assaying cellulose Given a cellulose-containing material, the carbohydrate portion that does not dissolve in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20 °C is α cellulose, which is true cellulose. Acidification of the extract precipitates β cellulose. The portion that dissolves in base but does not precipitate with acid is γ cellulose. Cellulose can be assayed using a method described by Updegraff in 1969, where the fiber is dissolved in acetic and nitric acid to remove lignin, hemicellulose, and xylosans. The resulting cellulose is allowed to react with anthrone in sulfuric acid. The resulting coloured compound is assayed spectrophotometrically at a wavelength of approximately 635 nm. In addition, cellulose is represented by the difference between acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL). Biosynthesis Location and arrangement of cellulose microfibrils in the plant cell wall. In vascular plants cellulose is synthesized at the plasma membrane by rosette terminal complexes (RTC's). The RTC's are hexameric protein structures, approximately 25 nm in diameter, that contain the cellulose synthase enzymes that synthesise the individual cellulose chains.<ref>Kimura, Laosinchai, Itoh, Cui, Linder, Brown, Plant Cell, 1999, 11, '2075-2085</ref> Each RTC floats in the cell's plasma membrane and "spins" a microfibril into the cell wall. The RTC's contain at least three different cellulose synthases, encoded by CesA genes, in an unknown stoichiometry. Taylor, Howells, Huttly, Vickers, Turner, PNAS, 2003, 100, 1450-1455 Separate sets of CesA genes are involved in primary and secondary cell wall biosynthesis. Cellulose synthesis requires chain initiation and elongation, and the two processes are separate.CesA glucosyltransferase initiates cellulose polymerization using a steroid primer, sitosterol-beta-glucoside, and UDP-glucose. Peng, Kawagoe, Hogan, Delmer, "Sitosterol-beta-glucoside as primer for cellulose synthesis in plants", Science, 2002, 295, 147-150. PMID 11778054 Cellulose synthase utilizes UDP-D-glucose precursors to elongate the growing cellulose chain. A cellulase may function to cleave the primer from the mature chain. Breakdown (cellulolysis) Cellulolysis is the process of breaking down cellulose into smaller polysaccharides called cellodextrins or completely into glucose units; this is a hydrolysis reaction. Because cellulose molecules bind strongly to each other, cellulolysis is relatively difficult compared to the break down of other polysaccharides. David G. Barkalow, Roy L. Whistler, "Cellulose", in AccessScience@McGraw-Hill, DOI 10.1036/1097-8542.118200. Retrieved 11 January 2008. Mammals do not have the ability to break down cellulose directly. Some ruminants like cows and sheep contain certain symbiotic anaerobic bacteria (like Cellulomonas'') in the flora of the gut wall, and these bacteria produce enzymes to break down cellulose; the break down products are then used by the mammal. Similarly, lower termites contain in their hindguts certain flagellate protozoa which produce such enzymes; higher termites contain bacteria for the job. Fungi, which in nature are responsible for recycling of nutrients, are also able to break down cellulose. The enzymes utilized to cleave the glycosidic linkage in cellulose are glycoside hydrolases including endo-acting cellulases and exo-acting glucosidases. Such enzymes are usually secreted as part of multienzyme complexes that may include dockerins and cellulose binding modules; these complexes are in some cases referred to as cellulosomes. Hemicellulose Hemicellulose is a polysaccharide related to cellulose that comprises ca. 20% of the biomass of most plants. In contrast to cellulose, hemicellulose is derived from several sugars in addition to glucose, including especially xylose but also mannose, galactose, rhamnose, and arabinose. Hemicellulose consists of shorter chains - around 200 sugar units. Furthermore, hemicellulose is branched, whereas cellulose is unbranched. Derivatives The hydroxyl groups of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with various reagents to afford derivatives with useful properties. Cellulose esters and cellulose ethers are the most important commercial materials. In principle, though not always in current industrial practice, cellulosic polymers are renewable resources. Among the esters are cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate, which are film- and fiber-forming materials that find a variety of uses. The inorganic ester nitrocellulose was initially used as an explosive and was an early film forming material. Ether derivatives include Ethylcellulose, a water-insoluble commercial thermoplastic used in coatings, inks, binders, and controlled-release drug tablets; Methylcellulose; Hydroxypropyl cellulose; Carboxymethyl cellulose; Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, E464, used as a viscosity modifier, gelling agent, foaming agent and binding agent; Hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose, used in production of cellulose films. References See also Cell wall Cellulose insulation Cellulosic ethanol Hemicellulose Microbial cellulose External links Structure and morphology of cellulose by Serge Pérez and William Mackie, CERMAV-CNRS Cellulose, by Martin Chaplin, London South Bank University Clear description of a cellulose assay method at the Cotton Fiber Biosciences unit of the USDA. Cellulose films could provide flapping wings and cheap artificial muscles for robots - TechnologyReview.com Using cellulase enzymes in the bioethanol process A list of cellulolytic bacteria

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General_surgery

This page is about the surgical specialty. For the goregrind band, see General Surgery (band) A surgeon operating General surgery, despite its name, is a surgical specialty that focuses on abdominal organs, e.g. intestines including esophagus, stomach, small bowel, colon, liver, pancreas, gallbladder and bile ducts, and often the thyroid gland (depending on the availability of head and neck surgery specialists). They also deal with diseases involving the skin and hernias. Scope With the prevalent trend for increasing sub-specialization in today's medical practice, General Surgery has lost some of its former glory and scope. Nonetheless, it continues to be a competitive, rewarding and highly demanding specialty in its own right. Until recently, all surgeons in the United States were required to be board certified by the American Board of Surgery in order to progress into further sub-specialty training. However, recently, board certification has been delegated into separate sub-branches, whereby successful completion of a Residency in General Surgery is not necessarily required, but may well be desired - depending on the country and area of practice, as well as the individual sub-specialty. Many sub-specialties are still part of the General Surgical training program. That is, General Surgeons may sub-specialize into one or more of the following disciplines: Breast surgery General surgeons perform a majority of all non-cosmetic breast surgery from lumpectomy to mastectomy, especially pertaining to the evaluation, diagnosis, and surgical treatment of breast cancer. Trauma surgery In the United States and Canada, the overall responsibility for trauma care falls under the auspices of general surgery. Some general surgeons obtain advanced training and specialty certification in this field alone. General surgeons must be able to deal initially with almost any surgical emergency. Often they are the first port of call to critically ill or gravely injured patients, and must perform a variety of procedures to stabilise such patients, such as intubation, burr hole, cricothyroidotomy, and emergency laparotomy or thoracotomy to staunch bleeding. All General Surgeons are trained in emergency surgery. Bleeding, infections, bowel obstructions and organ perforations are the main problems they deal with. Cholecystectomy, the surgical removal of the gallbladder, is one of the most common surgical procedures done worldwide. This is most often done electively, but the gallbladder can become acutely inflamed and require an emergency operation. Ruptures of the appendix and small bowel obstructions are other common emergencies. Laparoscopic surgery Is a relatively new specialty dealing with minimal access techniques using cameras and small instruments inserted through 0.5 to 1 cm incisions. Robotic surgery is now evolving from this concept (see below). Gallbladders, appendices, and colons can all be removed with this technique. Hernias are now repaired mostly laparoscopically. Most bariatric surgery is performed laparoscopically. Colorectal surgery General Surgeons treat a wide variety of colon and rectal diseases ranging from colorectal cancer, inflammatory bowel diseases (such as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease), diverticulitis, gastrointestinal bleeding, hemorrhoids, etc. Vascular surgery General Surgeons receive training in the treatment of peripheral vascular diseases and in many places they are the sole vascular surgery provider. In more urban areas where there are fellowship-trained Vascular Surgeons, General Surgeons are not as likely perform much if any vascular surgery. Procedures that a General Surgeon could be expected to perform, especially in more rural areas, range from carotid endarterectomy (removing plaque from the inside of the common and internal carotid arteries to reduce a patient's risk of future stroke), peripheral artery bypass, abdominal aortic aneurysm repair, and others. Endocrine surgery General Surgeons are trained to remove all or part of the thyroid and parathyroid glands in the neck and the adrenal glands just above each kidney in the abdomen. In many communities, they are the only surgeon trained to do this. In communities that have a number of subspecialists other subspecialty surgeons may assume responsibility for these procedures. Dermatological Surgery General Surgeons perform a wide variety of skin-related surgeries ranging from removing suspicious moles to treating major burns. General Surgeons also remove tumors that often grow just below the skin such as fatty tumors or tumors that arise in muscles or other soft tissues. General Surgeons also treat more complex skin or subcutaneous infections including necrotizing fasciitis and will often employ skin grafts to cover defects in the skin resulting from burns, trauma, or infections. Trends In the last few years minimally invasive surgery has become more prevalent. Considerable enthusiasm has built around robotic surgery (also known as robotic-assisted surgery), despite a lack of data suggesting it has significant benefits that justify its cost. Training In Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States general surgery is a five or six-year residency and follows completion of medical school, either MD, MBBS, MBChB, or DO degrees. In Australia and New Zealand, a residency leads to eligibility for Fellowship of the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons. In Canada, residency leads to eligibility for Certification by and Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, while in the United States, completion of a residency in general surgery leads to eligibility for board certification by the American Board of Surgery which is also required upon completion of training for a general surgeon to have operating privileges at most hospitals in the United States. In the United Kingdom, surgical trainees enter training after five years of medical school and two-years of the Foundation Programme. During the two to three year core training programme, doctors will sit the Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons (MRCS) examination. On award of the MRCS examination, surgeons may hold the title 'Mister' or 'Miss/Ms' rather than doctor. This a tradition dating back hundreds of years in the United Kingdom that is still in use today. Trainees will then go onto Higher Surgical Training (HST), lasting a further 4 to 5 years. During this time they may choose to subspecialise. Before the end of HST, the examination of Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons (FRCA) must be taken in General Surgery plus the subspeciality. Upon completion of training the surgeon will become a Consultant Surgeon and will be eligible for entry on the GMC Specialist Register and may work both in the NHS and independent sector as a Consultant General Surgeon. Subspecialization In many countries general surgery is a prerequisite for subspecialization in: vascular surgery thoracic surgery cardiac surgery plastic surgery Surgical Critical Care References See also Surgery Abdominal surgery Surgeon Physician Traumatology External links Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland American College of Surgeons Careers in Surgery - Association of American Medical Colleges. General Surgeons Australia

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Francis_van_Aarssens

François van Aerssen by Michiel van Mierevelt Baron Francis van Aarssens or Baron François van Aerssen (27 September 1572, Brussels - 27 December 1641, The Hague), from 1611 on lord of Sommelsdijk, was a diplomat and statesman of the United Provinces. He was son of Cornelis van Aarsens, also a statesman. His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, who sent him, at the age of 26 years, as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of France. He took a considerable part in the negotiations of the Twelve Years' Truce in 1606. His conduct of affairs having displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt in 1616. Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect Oldebarneveldt's ruin. He was one of the packed court of judges who in 1619 condemned the aged statesman to death. For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens. He afterwards became the confidential counsellor of Maurice, Prince of Orange, and afterwards of Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, in their conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic. He was sent on special embassies to Venice, Germany and England, and displayed so much diplomatic skill and finesse that Cardinal Richelieu ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time. References Van Aerssen family archive inventory

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Grammatical_gender

In linguistics, grammatical genders, sometimes also called noun classes, are classes of nouns reflected in the behavior of associated words; every noun must belong to one of the classes and there should be very few which belong to several classes at once. Hockett, Charles F. (1958) A Course in Modern Linguistics, Macmillan, p. 231. SIL: Glossary of Linguistic Terms: What is grammatical gender? If a language distinguishes between masculine and feminine gender, for instance, then each noun belongs to one of those two genders; in order to correctly decline any noun and any modifier or other type of word affecting that noun, one must identify whether the noun is feminine or masculine. The term "grammatical gender" is mostly used for Indo-European languages, many of which follow the pattern just described. While Old English (Anglo-Saxon) had grammatical gender, Modern English, however, is normally described as lacking grammatical gender. The linguistic notion of grammatical gender is distinguished from the biological and social notion of natural gender, although they interact closely in many languages. Both grammatical and natural gender can have linguistic effects in a given language. Although some authors use the term "noun class" as a synonym or an extension of "grammatical gender", for others they are separate concepts. One can in fact say that grammatical gender is a type of noun class. Overview Many languages place each noun into one of three gender classes (or simply "genders"): Masculine gender includes most words that refer to males; Feminine gender includes most words that refer to females; Neuter gender includes mostly words that do not refer to males or females For example, in their nominative singular forms Polish nouns are typically feminine if they have the ending -a, neuter when they end with -o, -e, or -ę, and masculine if they have no gender suffix (null morpheme). Thus, encyklopedia "encyclopaedia" is feminine, krzesło "chair" is neuter, and ręcznik "towel" is masculine. When the adjective duży "big" is combined with these nouns in phrases, it changes form according to their grammatical gender: Gender Noun Phrase Meaning Masculine ręcznik duży ręcznik big towel Feminine encyklopedia duża encyklopedia big encyclopaedia Neuter krzesło duże krzesło big chair As can be seen, the neuter gender does not include all nouns that correspond to genderless realities. Some of these may be designated by nouns that are grammatically masculine or feminine. Also, some nouns that refer to males or females may have a different grammatical gender. In general, the boundaries of noun classes are rather arbitrary, although there are rules of thumb in many languages. In this context, the terms "masculine", "feminine" and "neuter" should be understood merely as convenient labels. They are suggestive class descriptors, but not every member of a class is well described by its label. Gender marking is not substantial in modern English. However, distinctions in personal pronouns have been inherited from Old English, in which nouns had grammatical gender, giving speakers of Modern English a notion of how grammatical gender works, although these gendered pronouns are now ordinarily selected based on the physical sex (or lack thereof) of the items to which they refer rather than any strictly linguistic classification: John insisted that he would pay for his own dinner. Jane insisted that she would pay for her own dinner. Here, the gender of the subject is marked both on the personal pronouns (he/she) and on the possessive adjectives (his/her). Marking of gender on the possessive form can be considered redundant in these examples, since his own and her own must refer to their respective antecedents, he and she, which are already unambiguously marked for gender. A full system of grammatical gender involves two phenomena: Inflection Many words have different forms for different genders, and certain morphological markers are characteristic of each gender. Agreement Every noun is associated with one gender class. In a phrase or clause, words that refer to a given noun inflect to match the gender of that noun. Note that some words, called epicene, may have identical forms for different genders. For example, in Spanish estudiante "student" and grande "big" can be masculine or feminine. Spanish is also an example of a language with only two genders, masculine and feminine; it has no neuter noun class. Nouns that designate entities with no natural gender, such as objects or abstractions, are distributed among the masculine and the feminine. In a few other languages, notably Germanic languages like Swedish, the former masculine and feminine genders have become indistinguishable with time, merging into a new class called the common gender, which however remains distinct from the neuter gender.<ref>van Berkum, J.J.A. (1996) The psycholinguistics of grammatical gender: Studies in language comprehension and production. Doctoral Dissertation, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics. Nijmegen, Netherlands: Nijmegen University Press (ISBN 90-373-0321-8), Chapter 2, "The linguistics of gender" (PDF).</ref> Common gender includes most words that refer to males or females, but is distinct from the neuter gender. Other languages still, like English, are regarded as not having grammatical gender, since they do not make gender distinctions through inflection, and do not generally require gender agreement between related words. Some authors have extended the concept of "grammatical gender" to the expression of other types of natural, individual characteristics through inflection, such as animacy. See the section on gender across languages, below. Grammatical gender (with masculine and/or feminine categories) is commonly found in Afro-Asiatic, Dravidian, Indo-European, Northeast Caucasian, and several Australian aboriginal languages. It is mostly absent in the Altaic, Austronesian, Sino-Tibetan, and Uralic language families. The Niger-Congo languages typically have an extensive system of noun classes, which some authors regard as a type of grammatical gender, but others describe as something completely different. Gender inflection In many languages, gender is marked quite profusely, surfacing in different ways. "I love you" in Arabic: Translations of "I love you" in many languages, at Omniglot. said to a male — uħibbuka (أُحِبُّكََ) said to a female — uħibbuki (أُحِبُّكِ) "Thank you very much" in Portuguese: said by a male — muito obrigado said by a female — muito obrigadaThe switch from one gender to the other is typically achieved by inflecting appropriate words, the object suffix of the verb uħibbu-ka/ki in the Arabic example (gender is not marked in the first person, in Arabic), and the suffix in the past participle (or adjective) obrig-ado/a in the Portuguese example (literally this means "much obliged", with "I am" understood; thus it agrees with the gender of the speaker). In Spanish, most masculine nouns and their modifiers end with the suffix -o or with a consonant, while the suffix -a is characteristic of feminine nouns and their modifiers (though there are many exceptions). Thus, niño means “boy”, and niña means “girl”. This paradigm can be exploited for making new words: from the masculine nouns abogado "lawyer", diputado "member of parliament" and doctor "doctor", it was straightforward to make the feminine equivalents abogada, diputada, and doctora. Sometimes, gender is expressed in more subtle ways. On the whole, gender marking has been lost in Welsh, both on the noun, and often, on the adjective. However, it has the peculiar feature of initial mutation, where the first consonant of a word changes into another in certain syntactical conditions. Gender is one of the factors that can cause mutation, especially the so-called soft mutation. For instance, the word merch, which means girl or daughter, changes into ferch after the definite article. This only occurs with feminine nouns; for example, mab "son" remains unchanged after the definite article. Adjectives are affected by gender in a similar way. Gender Default After definite article With adjective Masculine mab son y mab the son y mab mawr the big son Feminine merch girl y ferch the girl y ferch fawr the big girl Personal names Personal names are frequently constructed with language-specific affixes that identify the gender of the bearer. Common feminine suffixes used in English names are -a, of Latin or Romance origin (cf. Robert and Roberta) and -e, of French origin (cf. Justin and Justine). Although gender inflections may be used to construct cognate nouns for people of opposite genders in languages that have grammatical gender, this alone does not constitute grammatical gender. Distinct names for men and women are also common in languages where gender is not grammatical. Personal pronouns Personal pronouns often have different forms based on gender. Even though it has lost grammatical gender, English still distinguishes between "he" (generally applied to a male person), "she" (female person), and "it" (object, abstraction, or animal). But this also does not guarantee the existence of grammatical gender. There is a spoken form, "they", which although not part of the standard literary language, is cosmopolitan in the English-speaking world and is used when the gender of a person being referred to is not known (e.g. "This person doesn't know where they are going"). Gendered pronouns and their corresponding inflections vary considerably across languages. In languages that never had grammatical gender, there is normally just one word for "he" and "she", like dia in Indonesian, hän in Finnish and ő in Hungarian. These languages have different pronouns and inflections in the third person only to differentiate between people and inanimate objects (and even this distinction is commonly waived in spoken Finnish). Dummy pronouns In languages with only a masculine and a feminine gender, the default dummy pronoun is usually the masculine third person singular. For example, the French sentence for "It's raining" is Il pleut. There are some exceptions: the corresponding sentence in Welsh is Mae hi'n bwrw glaw, literally "She's raining". In languages with a neuter gender, the neuter gender is usually used: German: Es regnet, literally "It rains". In fact, the English word 'it' comes from the Old English neuter gender. Gender agreement In the French sentences Il est un grand acteur "He is a great actor" and Elle est une grande actrice "She is a great actress", almost every word changes to match the gender of the subject. The noun acteur inflects by changing the masculine suffix -eur into the feminine suffix -rice, the subject pronoun il "he" changes to elle "she", and the feminine suffix -e is added to the article (un → une) and to the adjective (grand → grande). The following "highly contrived" Old English sentence serves as an example of gender agreement. Old English Seo brade lind wæs tilu and ic hire lufod. Literal translation That broad shield was good and I her loved. Modern English That broad shield was good and I loved it. The word hire "her" refers to lind "shield". Since this noun was grammatically feminine, the adjectives brade "broad" and tilu "good", as well as the pronouns seo "the/that" and hire "her", which referred to lind, must also appear in their feminine forms. Old English had three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, but gender inflections were greatly simplified by sound changes, and then completely lost (as well as number inflections, to a lesser extent). In modern English, by contrast, the noun "shield" takes the neuter pronoun "it", since it designates a genderless object. In a sense, the neuter gender has grown to encompass most nouns, including many that were masculine or feminine in Old English. If one were to replace the phrase "broad shield" with "brave man" or "kind woman", the only change to the rest of the sentence would be in the pronoun at the end, which would become "him" or "her", respectively. Grammatical vs. natural gender The grammatical gender of a word does not always coincide with real gender of its referent. An often cited example is the German word Mädchen, which means "girl", but is treated grammatically as neuter. This is because it was constructed as the diminutive of Magd (archaic nowadays), and the diminutive suffix -chen conventionally places nouns in the "neuter" noun class. A few more examples: German die Frau (feminine) and das Weib (neuter) both mean "the woman", though the latter is considered archaic. Irish cailín "girl" is masculine, while stail "stallion" is feminine. Normally, such exceptions are a small minority. However, in some local dialects of German, all nouns for female persons have shifted to the neuter gender (presumably further influenced by standard word like Mädchen), but the feminine gender remains for some words denoting objects. Indeterminate gender In languages with a masculine and feminine gender (and possibly a neuter), the masculine is usually employed by default to refer to persons of unknown gender. This is still done sometimes in English, although a disputed alternative is to use the singular "they". Another alternative is to use two nouns, as in the phrase "ladies and gentlemen" (hendiadys). In the plural, the masculine is often used to refer to a mixed group of people. Thus, in French the feminine pronoun elles always designates an all-female group of people, but the masculine pronoun ils may refer to a group of males, to a mixed group, or to a group of people of unknown genders. In English, this issue does not arise with pronouns, since there is only one plural third person pronoun, "they". In all these cases, one says that the feminine gender is semantically marked, while the masculine gender is unmarked. Animals Often, the masculine/feminine classification is only followed carefully for human beings. For animals, the relation between real and grammatical gender tends to be more arbitrary. In Spanish, for instance, a cheetah is always un guepardo (masculine) and a zebra is always una cebra (feminine), regardless of their biological sex. If it becomes necessary to specify the sex of the animal, an adjective is added, as in un guepardo hembra (a female cheetah), or una cebra macho (a male zebra). Different names for the male and the female of a species are more frequent for common pets or farm animals, eg. English horse and mare, Spanish vaca "cow" and toro "bull". In English, individual speakers may prefer one gender or another for animals of unknown sex, depending on species — for instance, a tendency to refer more often to dogs as "he" and to cats as "she". However, if the gender is unknown, when speaking of an animal, "it" is used. It is also common to refer to pets which are considered to be members of the family with "he" and "she", and to strange animals with "it". Objects and abstractions Since all nouns must belong to some noun class, many end up with genders which are purely conventional. For instance, the Romance languages inherited sol "sun" (which is masculine) and luna "moon" (which is feminine) from Latin but in German and other Germanic languages Sonne "sun" is feminine and Mond "moon" is masculine. Two nouns denoting the same concept can also differ in gender in closely related languages, or within a single language. For instance, there are two different words for "car" in German: "Wagen" is masculine, whereas "Auto" is neuter. Meanwhile the word "auto" is masculine in Spanish, but it is feminine in French. In all cases, the meaning is the same. Several words ending in -aje in Spanish are masculine: viaje (travel), paisaje (landscape), coraje (courage). But their Portuguese translations are feminine: viagem, paisagem, coragem. Reversely, the Spanish word "nariz" (nose) is feminine, whereas the Portuguese word for "nose" is spelt identically, but it is masculine. Also, in Polish the word księżyc "moon" is masculine, but its Russian counterpart луна is feminine. The Russian word for "sun", солнце, is neuter. Also, in Russian the word собака "dog" is feminine, but its Ukrainian counterpart (with the same spelling and almost identical pronunciation) is masculine. More examples: LanguageWordMeaningGender Polish księżyc moon masculine Russian луна moon feminine Russian картофель potato masculine Russian картошка spud feminine Grammatical gender in the Russian language Polish tramwaj tram masculine Czech tramvaj tram feminine Romanian tramvai tram neuter Polish tysiąc thousand masculine Russian тысяча thousand feminine There is nothing inherent about the moon or a potato which makes them objectively "male" or "female". In these cases, gender is quite independent of meaning, and a property of the nouns themselves, rather than of their referents. Sometimes the gender switches: Russian тополь (poplar) is now masculine, but less than 200 years ago (in writings of Lermontov) it was feminine. The modern loanword виски (from whisky/whiskey) was originally feminine (in a translation of Jack London stories, 1915), then masculine (in a song of Alexander Vertinsky, 1920s or 1930s), and today it has become neuter (the masculine variant is typically considered archaic, and the feminine one is completely forgotten). In Polish kometa (comet) is nowadays feminine, but less then 200 years ago (in writing of Mickiewicz) it was masculine. Gender assignment There are three main ways by which natural languages categorize nouns into genders: according to logical or symbolic similarities in their meaning (semantic criterion), by grouping them with other nouns that have similar form (morphology), or through an arbitrary convention (possibly rooted in the language's history). Usually, a combination of the three types of criteria is used, though one is more prevalent. Semantics In Alamblak, a Sepik Hill language spoken in Papua New Guinea, the masculine gender includes males and things which are tall or long and slender, or narrow such as fish, crocodiles, long snakes, arrows, spears and tall, slender trees, while the feminine gender includes females and things which are short, squat or wide, such as turtles, frogs, houses, fighting shields, and trees that are typically more round and squat than others. A more or less discernible correlation between noun gender and the shape of the respective object is found in some languages even in the Indo-European family. Sometimes, semantics prevails over the formal assignment of grammatical gender (agreement in sensu). In Polish, the nouns mężczyzna "man" and książę "prince" are masculine, even though words with the ending -a are normally feminine and words that end with -ę are usually neuter. (See also Synesis). Interestingly, in Sicilian dialect the noun indicating the male sexual organ is feminine (a minchia), while the female sexual organ is masculine (u sticchiu). Morphology In Spanish, grammatical gender is most obviously noticeable by noun morphology. Since nouns that refer to male persons usually end in -o or a consonant and nouns that refer to female persons usually end in -a, most other nouns that end in -o or a consonant are also treated as masculine, and most nouns that end in -a are treated as feminine, whatever their meaning. (Nouns that end in some other vowel are assigned a gender either according to etymology, by analogy, or by some other convention.) Morphology may in fact override meaning, in some cases. The noun miembro "member" is always masculine, even when it refers to a woman, but persona "person" is always feminine, even when it refers to a man. It would however be far more useful to consider that the grammatical gender of almost all nouns in the Romance languages is determined by etymology, that is to say that on the whole, the gender of a word in Spanish, Italian or French is the same as the gender of its congnate word in Latin with very few exceptions. In German also, diminutives with the endings -chen and -lein (cognates of English -kin and -ling meaning little, young) are always neuter, which is why Mädchen "girl" and Fräulein "young woman" are neuter. Another ending, the nominalizing suffix -ling, can be used to make countable nouns from uncountable nouns (Teig "dough" → Teigling "piece of dough"), or personal nouns from abstract nouns (Lehre "teaching", Strafe "punishment" → Lehrling "apprentice", Sträfling "convict") or adjectives (feige "cowardly" → Feigling "coward"), always producing masculine nouns. In Irish, nouns ending in -óir/-eoir and -ín are always masculine; those ending -óg/-eog or -lann are always feminine. On the other hand, the correlation between grammatical gender and morphology is usually not perfect: problema "problem" is masculine in Spanish (this is for etymological reasons, as it was derived from a Greek noun of the neuter gender), and radio "radio station" is feminine (because it is a shortening of estación de radio, a phrase whose head is the feminine noun estación). Convention In some languages, gender markers have been so eroded by time that they are no longer recognizable, even to native speakers. Most German nouns give no morphological or semantic clue as to their gender. It must simply be memorized. The conventional aspect of grammatical gender is also clear when one considers that there is nothing objective about a table which makes it feminine as French table, masculine as German Tisch, or neuter as Norwegian bord. The learner of such languages should regard gender as an integral part of each noun. A frequent recommendation is to memorize a modifier along with the noun as a unit, usually a definite article, i.e. memorizing la table — where la is the French feminine singular definite article — der Tisch – where der is the German masculine singular nominative definite article — and bordet — where the suffix -et indicates the definite neuter singular in Norwegian. Whether a distant ancestor of French, German, Norwegian, and English had a semantic value for genders is of course a different matter. Some authors have speculated that archaic Proto-Indo-European had two noun classes with the semantic values of animate and inanimate. Gender in English While grammatical gender was a fully productive inflectional category in Old English, Modern English has a much less pervasive gender system, primarily based on natural gender. There are a few traces of gender marking in Modern English: Some loanwords are used only for referents of a specific sex, such as actress, where the suffix -ress denotes the feminine. Even more rarely, some adjectives may inflect according to the sex of the referent, at least in writing, as blond (masc.) but blonde (fem.). The third person singular pronouns (and their possessive forms) are gender specific: "he/his" (masculine gender, overall used for males), "she/her(s)" (feminine gender, for females), "it/its" (neuter gender, mainly for objects and abstractions). But these are insignificant features compared to a typical language with grammatical gender: English has no live productive gender markers. An example is the suffix -ette (of French provenance) in rockette, from rocket, or trollette, from troll, but it is seldom used, and mostly with disparaging or humorous intent. The English nouns that inflect for gender are a very small minority, typically loanwords from non-Germanic languages (the suffix -ress in the word "actress", for instance, derives from Latin -rix via French -rice). In languages with grammatical gender, there are typically thousands of words which inflect for gender. The third-person singular forms of the personal pronouns are the only modifiers that inflect according to gender. It is also noteworthy that, with few exceptions, the gender of an English pronoun coincides with the real gender of its referent, rather than with the grammatical gender of its antecedent, frequently different from the former in languages with true grammatical gender. The choice between "he", "she" and "it" invariably comes down to whether they designate a human male, a human female, or something else. Some exceptions: Animals, which can go either way, being referred to according to their sex, or as "it". The pronoun "she" is sometimes used to refer to things which contain people such as countries, ships, and cars, or to refer to machines. This, however, is considered a stylistically marked, optional figure of speech. This usage is furthermore in decline and advised against by most journalistic style guides such as the Chicago Manual of Style. The Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, p. 356. 2003. ISBN 0-226-10403-6. Gender across language families Indo-European Many Indo-European languages, though not English, provide archetypical examples of grammatical gender. Research indicates that the earliest stages of Proto-Indo-European had two genders, animate and inanimate, as did Hittite, but the inanimate gender later split into neuter and feminine, originating the classical three-way classification into masculine, feminine, and neuter which most of its descendants inherited. How did genders and cases develop in Indo-European? The Original Nominal System of Proto-Indoeuropean – Case and Gender Many Indo-European languages kept these three genders. Such is the case with most Slavic languages, classical Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, and German, for instance. Other Indo-European languages reduced the number of genders to two, either by losing the neuter (like Urdu/Hindi, most Romance languages and the Celtic languages), or by having the feminine and the masculine merge with one another into a common gender (as has happened, or is in the process of happening, to several Germanic languages). Some, like English and Afrikaans, have all but lost grammatical gender. On the other hand, a few Slavic languages have arguably added new genders to the classical three. In those ancient and modern Indo-European languages that preserve a system of noun declension (including Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Slavic, and some Germanic languages), there is a high but not absolute correlation between grammatical gender and declensional class. Many linguists also believe this to be true of the middle and late stages of Proto-Indo-European. Exceptionally for a Romance language, Romanian has preserved the three genders of Latin, although the neuter has been reduced to a combination of the other two, in the sense that neuter nouns have masculine endings in the singular, but feminine endings in the plural. As a consequence, adjectives, pronouns, and pronominal adjectives only have two forms, both in the singular and in the plural. The same happens in Italian, to a lesser extent. Italian third-person singular pronouns have also a "neuter" form to refer to inanimate subjects (egli and ella vs. esso and essa). In fact, even in those languages where the original three genders have been mostly lost or reduced, there is sometimes a trace of them in a few words. English, personal pronouns: he, she, it Spanish, definite articles (words meaning "the"): el, la, lo Spanish, demonstratives (words meaning "this, this one"): este, esta, esto Portuguese, indefinite pronouns (words meaning "all of him/her/it"): todo, toda, tudoThe Spanish neuter definite article lo, for example, is used with nouns that denote abstractions, eg. lo único "the only thing"; lo mismo "the same thing". In Portuguese, a distinction is made between está todo molhado "he's all wet", está toda molhada "she's all wet", and está tudo molhado "it's all wet" (used for unspecified objects). In terms of agreement, however, these "neuter" words count as masculine: both Spanish lo mismo and Portuguese tudo take masculine adjectives. English modifiers do not generally inflect with gender. In Venetian, only the demonstratives have a neuter form referring to abstractions, so a distinction is made between varda questo "look at this thing" (neuter), varda 'sto qua "look at this one" (masculine eg. man, book, mobile) and varda 'sta qua "look at this one (feminine eg. woman, pen, hand); along the same line a distinction is made between l'è queło / queła "it's that thing/fact" (neuter), l'è qûeło là "it's that one" (masc.) and l'è qûeła là "it's that one" (fem.) where the "û" sound can be dropped only in the masculine and in the feminine which however take "là". See Loss of the neuter gender in Romance languages, and Gender in Dutch grammar, for further information. Other Indo-European languages that lack grammatical gender beside English are Persian, Armenian, Bangla, Assamese, Oriya, Khowar, and Kalasha, among others. Other types of gender classifications Some languages have gender-like noun classifications unrelated to gender identity. Particularly common are languages with animate and inanimate categories. The term "grammatical genders" is also used by extension in this case, although many authors prefer "noun classes" when none of the inflections in a language relate to sexuality. Note however that the word "gender" derives from Latin genus (also the root of genre) originally meant "kind", so it does not necessarily have a sexual meaning. For further information, see Animacy. Some Slavic languages, including Russian and Czech, make grammatical distinctions between animate and inanimate nouns (in Czech only in the masculine gender; in Russian only in masculine singular, but in the plural in all genders). Another example is Polish, which can be said to distinguish five genders: personal masculine (referring to male humans), animate non-personal masculine, inanimate masculine, feminine, and neuter. masculinetranslationanimateinanimatepersonalimpersonalPolishTo jestdobry nauczyciel.To jest dobry pies.To jest dobry ser.It's a good teacher / a good dog / good cheese.Widzę dobrego nauczyciela.Widzę dobrego psa.Widzę dobry ser. I see a good teacher / a good dog / good cheese.Widzę dobrych nauczycieli.Widzę dobre psy.Widzę dobre sery.I see good teachers / good dogs / good cheeses.SloveneTo je dober učitelj / dober pes.To je dober sir.It's a good teacher / a good dog / good cheese.Vidim dobrega učitelja / dobrega psa.Vidim dober sir.I see a good teacher / a good dog / good cheese. See Polish language: Grammar, for further information. Australian Aboriginal languages The Dyirbal language is well known for its system of four noun classes, which tend to be divided along the following semantic lines: I — animate objects, men II — women, water, fire, violence III — edible fruit and vegetables IV — miscellaneous (includes things not classifiable in the first three) The class usually labeled "feminine", for instance, includes the word for fire and nouns relating to fire, as well as all dangerous creatures and phenomena. This inspired the title of the George Lakoff book Women, Fire and Dangerous Things (ISBN 0-226-46804-6). Gurr-goni, an Australian Aboriginal language spoken in Arnhem Land, has the word erriplen (English airplane) in its noun class for edible vegetables. This confusion arose through some logical analogies: firstly, the gender of 'edible vegetables' must have been extended to other plants, and hence to all kinds of wooden things. Canoes are made of wood and so, logically, they came to be included in this class as well. The class was then widened to include modes of transport more generally and so, when the borrowed word erriplen first entered the language, it was assigned to the 'edible vegetable' gender. Each analogy made perfect sense in its own local domain, but the end result however, seems ever so slightly bizarre. "The Unfolding of Language" by Guy Deutscher (William Heinemann 2005) pages 265-266 ISBN 0-434-01155-X The Ngangikurrunggurr language has noun classes reserved for canines, and hunting weapons, and the Anindilyakwa language has a noun class for things that reflect light. The Diyari language distinguishes only between female and other objects. Perhaps the most noun classes in any Australian language are found in Yanyuwa, which has 16 noun classes. Caucasian languages Some members of the Northwest Caucasian family, and almost all of the Northeast Caucasian languages, manifest noun class. In the Northeast Caucasian family, only Lezgian, Udi, and Aghul do not have noun classes. Some languages have only two classes, while the Bats language has eight. The most widespread system, however, has four classes, for male, female, animate beings and certain objects, and finally a class for the remaining nouns. The Andi language has a noun class reserved for insects. Among Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz shows a masculine-feminine-neuter distinction. Ubykh shows some inflections along the same lines, but only in some instances, and in some of these instances inflection for noun class is not even obligatory. In all Caucasian languages that manifest class, it is not marked on the noun itself but on the dependent verbs, adjectives, pronouns and prepositions. Niger-Congo languages The Zande language distinguishes four noun classes: CriterionExampleGlossmale humankumbamanfemale humandiawifeanimatenyabeastotherbambuhouse There are about 80 inanimate nouns which are in the animate class, including nouns denoting heavenly objects (moon, rainbow), metal objects (hammer, ring), edible plants (sweet potato, pea), and non-metallic objects (whistle, ball). Many of the exceptions have a round shape, and some can be explained by the role they play in Zande mythology. Basque In Basque there are two classes, animated and inanimated; however, the only difference is in the declination of locative cases (inesive, locative genitive, adlative, terminal adlative, ablative and directional ablative). There are few words with masculine and feminine forms, generally words for relatives (cousin: lehengusu (m)/lehengusina (f)) or ancient words from Latin ("king": errege, from the Latin word regem; "queen": erregina, from reginam). In names for familiar relatives, when both genders are taking into account, either the words for each gender are put together ("son": seme; "daughter": alaba; "children"(meaning son(s) and daughter(s)): seme-alaba(k)) or there is a noun that includes both: "father": aita; "mother": ama; "father" (both genders): guraso. Gender borrowed from one language to another According to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, "morphemic adaptations of English words into American Italian or British Italian often carry the linguistic gender of the semantically-similar word in Italian itself, e.g. British Italian bagga ‘bag’ (feminine), induced by Italian borsa ‘bag’ (feminine)." See p. 61 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad, Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns. In Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2 (2009), pp. 40-67. Zuckermann argues that "Israeli" (his term for "Modern Hebrew") demonstrates the same phenomenon. One of the examples he provides is the Israeli word for "brush": mivréshet. He suggests that the choice of the feminine noun-template miXXéXet (each X represents a slot where a radical is inserted) was engendered by the (feminine) gender of the following words for "brush": Yiddish barsht (feminine), Polish szczotka (f), Russian shchëtka (f) (also kist’ (f) "painting brush"), German Bürste (f), French brosse (f) and Arabic mábrasha (f). Although the miXXéXet noun-template is used for instruments, there were many other possible suitable noun-templates, cf. *mavrésh and *mivrásh, both masculine. See p. 61 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad, Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns. In Journal of Language Contact, Varia 2 (2009), pp. 40-67. Auxiliary and constructed languages Many constructed languages have natural gender systems similar to that of English. Animate nouns can have distinct forms reflecting natural gender, and personal pronouns are selected according to natural gender. There is no gender agreement on modifiers. The first three languages below fall into this category. Esperanto features the female suffix -in. While it differentiates a small number of male and female nouns such as patro (father) and patrino (mother), most nouns are gender-neutral and the use of it is not necessary. For instance, hundo means either a male or female dog, virhundo means a male dog, and hundino means a female dog. The personal pronouns li (he) and ŝi (she) and their possessive forms lia (his) and ŝia (her) are used for male and female antecedents, while ĝi (it) and its possessive form ĝia (its) are used to refer to a non-personal antecedent, or as an epicene pronoun. Ido has the masculine infix -ul and the feminine infix -in for animate beings. Both are optional and are used only if it is necessary to avoid ambiguity. Thus: kato "a cat", katulo "a male cat", katino "a female cat". There are third person singular and plural pronouns for all three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter, but also gender-free pronouns. Interlingua has no grammatical gender. It indicates only natural gender, as in matre "mother" and patre "father". Interlingua speakers may use feminine endings. For example, -a may be used in place of -o in catto, producing catta "female cat". Professora may be used to denote a professor who is female, and actrice may be used to mean "actress". As in Ido, inflections marking gender are optional, although some gender-specific nouns such as femina, "woman", happen to end in -a or -o. Interlingua has feminine pronouns, and its general pronoun forms are also used as masculine pronouns. The fictional Klingon language has three classes: capable of speaking, body part and other. See also Gender-neutrality in languages with grammatical gender: International auxiliary languages, and Gender-specific pronoun: Constructed languages. Male and female speech Some natural languages have intricate systems of gender-specific vocabulary, which are not the same as grammatical gender. The oldest recorded language is Sumerian. The Sumerians lived in what is now southern Iraq about 5,000 years ago. Sumerian women had a special language called Emesal, distinct from the main language, Emegir, which was spoken by both genders. The women's language had a distinct vocabulary, found in the records of religious rituals to be performed by women, also in the speech of goddesses in mythological texts. Examples of Sumerian texts are available at the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. For a significant period of time in the history of the ancient languages of India, after the formal language Sanskrit diverged from the popular Prakrit languages, some Sanskrit plays recorded the speech of women in Prakrit, distinct from the Sanskrit of male speakers. This convention was also used for illiterate and low-caste male speakers. National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh. More recently, Thai shows evidence of similar features, where women have vocabulary items used in common speech, but typically distinct ones to be used among themselves. Amazing Thailand: Thai Language. Garifuna has a vocabulary split between terms used only by men and terms used only by women. This does not however affect the entire vocabulary but when it does, the terms used by men generally come from Carib and those used by women come from Arawak. The indigenous Australian language Yanyula has separate dialects for men and women. Jean F Kirton. 'Yanyuwa, a dying language'. In Michael J Ray (ed.), Aboriginal language use in the Northern Territory: 5 reports. Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics. Darwin: Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1988, p. 1–18. In Japanese also, certain synonyms are used by men and women with different frequency, or conveying different connotations. However, there is no systematic inflectional relation between male and female words, nor any form of agreement, and their literal meaning does not change with gender. See Gender differences in spoken Japanese for further information. List of languages by type of grammatical genders Masculine and feminine Albanian The neuter has almost disappeared. Akkadian Asturian Ancient Egyptian Amharic Arabic However, Arabic distinguishes masculine and feminine in the singular and the dual. In the plural it distinguishes between male humans, female humans and non-human plurals (including collectives of humans, such as "nation," "people," etc.), non-human plurals being feminine singular, no matter their gender in the singular. Aramaic Catalan Coptic Cornish Corsican French Galician Hebrew Hindi Irish Italian There is a trace of the neuter in some nouns and personal pronouns. E.g.: singular l'uovo, il dito; plural le uova, le dita ('the egg(s)', 'the finger(s)'). Latvian Lithuanian There is a neuter gender for adjectives with very limited usage and set of forms. Manchu Used vowel harmony in gender inflections. Occitan Portuguese There is a trace of the neuter in the demonstratives and some indefinite pronouns. Punjabi Romani Sardinian Scottish Gaelic Sicilian Spanish There is a neuter of sorts, though generally expressed only with the definite article lo, used with nouns denoting abstract categories: lo bueno. Tamazight (Berber) Urdu Welsh Common and neuter (note that the common/neuter distinction is close to animate/inanimate) Danish Dutch The masculine and the feminine have merged into a common gender in standard Dutch, but a distinction is still made by many when using pronouns, and in some dialects: see gender in Dutch grammar. Low German Norwegian (Riksmål, and the dialect of Bergen) Swedish Turkish Animate and inanimate Basque (two different paradigms of noun declension are used, although adjectives and demonstratives do not show gender) Elamite Hittite Many Native American languages, including most languages of the Algic, Siouan http://www.latrobe.edu.au/rclt/StaffPages/aikhenvald%20downloads/ClassifiersELL2published.pdf Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, 1996. p.437 and Uto-Aztecan language families, as well as isolates such as Mapudungun Sumerian In many such languages, what is commonly termed "animacy" may in fact be more accurately described as a distinction between human and non-human, rational and irrational, "socially active" and "socially passive" etc.. Masculine, feminine, and neuter Ancient Greek Belarusian Bosnian Bulgarian Croatian Dutch The masculine and the feminine have merged into a common gender in standard Dutch, but a distinction is still made by many when using pronouns, and in some dialects: see gender in Dutch grammar. Faroese Gaulish German Greek In Ancient Greek, neuter plurals are treated like singulars in verbal agreement Gujarati Icelandic Kannada Latin Macedonian Marathi Norwegian The feminine gender is used throughout the country, except in parts of cities like Oslo and Bergen. Here the dialects either allow feminine nouns to be treated as masculine (i.e. is given the corresponding masculine inflections) or they do not use the feminine gender at all. Old English Old Irish Old Prussian Romanian The neuter gender (called neutru or sometimes ambigen in Romanian) has no separate forms of its own; neuter nouns behave like masculine nouns in the singular, and feminine in the plural. This behavior is seen in the form of agreeing adjectives and replacing pronouns. See Romanian nouns. Russian Sanskrit Serbian Serbo-Croatian Slovene Sorbian Swedish As in Dutch, the masculine and the feminine have merged into a common gender in standard Swedish. But some dialects, mainly in Dalecarlia, Ostrobothnia (Finland) and northern Sweden, have preserved three genders in spoken language. Ukrainian Yiddish Zazaki More than three grammatical genders Czech and Slovak: Masculine animate, Masculine inanimate, Feminine, Neuter (traditionally, only masculine, feminine and neuter genders are recognized, with animacy as a separate category for the masculine). Dyirbal: Masculine, feminine, vegetal and other. (Some linguists do not regard the noun class system of this language as grammatical gender.) Luganda: ten classes called simply Class I to Class X and containing all sorts of arbitrary groupings but often characterised as people, long objects, animals, miscellaneous objects, large objects and liquids, small objects, languages, pejoratives, infinitives, mass nouns Polish: Personal masculine, animate masculine, inanimate masculine, feminine, and neuter (some approaches only recognize three genders). Zande: Masculine, feminine, animate, and inanimate. No grammatical genders See Noun class: languages without noun classes or grammatical genders. See also Further examples of the presence and absence of grammatical gender Gender-neutrality in languages with grammatical gender Gender-neutrality in languages without grammatical gender Gender-neutral pronoun Related topics Agreement (grammar) Animacy Declension Gender Inflection Morphology (linguistics) Similar linguistic notions Grammatical conjugation Grammatical number Grammatical person Noun class Gender-inclusive language Generic antecedents Gender-neutral language in English Gender-specific job title Gender-specific pronoun Notes Bibliography Craig, Colette G. (1986). Noun classes and categorization: Proceedings of a symposium on categorization and noun classification, Eugene, Oregon, October 1983. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. Corbett, Greville G. (1991) Gender, Cambridge University Press —A comprehensive study; looks at 200 languages. Corbett, Geville (1994) "Gender and gender systems". En R. Asher (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 1347 – 1353. Greenberg, J. H. (1978) "How does a language acquire gender markers?". En J. H. Greenberg et al. (eds.) Universals of Human Language, Vol. 4, pp. 47 – 82. Hockett, Charles F. (1958) A Course in Modern Linguistics, Macmillan. Ibrahim, M. (1973) Grammatical gender. Its origin and development. La Haya: Mouton. Iturrioz, J. L. (1986) "Structure, meaning and function: a functional analysis of gender and other classificatory techniques". Función 1. 1–3. Pinker, Steven (1994) The Language Instinct, William Morrow and Company. External links An overview of the grammar of Old English "The morphology of gender in Hebrew and Arabic numerals", by Uri Horesh (PDF)

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Japan

is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, People's Republic of China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters which make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes identified as the "Land of the Rising Sun". Japan comprises over 3,000 islands making it an archipelago. The four largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for 97% of Japan's land area. Most of the islands are mountainous, many volcanic; for example, Japan’s highest peak, Mount Fuji, is a volcano. Japan has the world's tenth largest population, with about 128 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents. Archaeological research indicates that people were living on the islands of Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan begins with brief appearances in Chinese history texts from the first century A.D. Influence from the outside world followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. Since adopting its constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament, the Diet. A major economic power, Japan has the world's second largest economy by nominal GDP and the third largest in purchasing power parity. It is also the world's fourth largest exporter and sixth largest importer. It is a developed country with high living standards (8th highest HDI) and the longest life expectancy in the world (according to UN estimates). United Nations World Population Propsects: 2006 revision – Table A.17 for 2005-2010 Etymology The English word Japan is an exonym. The Japanese names for Japan are and . They are both written in Japanese using the kanji . The Japanese name Nippon is used for most official purposes, including on Japanese money, postage stamps, and for many international sporting events. Nihon is a more casual term and the most frequently used in contemporary speech. Both Nippon and Nihon literally mean "the sun's origin" and are often translated as the Land of the Rising Sun. This nomenclature comes from Imperial correspondence with the Chinese Sui Dynasty and refers to Japan's eastward position relative to China. Before Japan had relations with China, it was known as Yamato and Hi no moto, which means "source of the sun". Teach Yourself Japanese Message Board The English word for Japan came to the West from early trade routes. The early Mandarin or possibly Wu Chinese (呉語) word for Japan was recorded by Marco Polo as Cipangu. In modern Shanghainese, a Wu dialect, the pronunciation of characters 'Japan' is Zeppen ; in Wu, the character 日 has two pronunciations, and . (In some southern Wu dialects, 日本 is pronounced , similar to its pronunciation in Japanese.) The old Malay word for Japan, Jepang (now spelled Jepun in Malaysia, though still spelled Jepang in Indonesia), was borrowed from a Chinese language, and this Malay word was encountered by Portuguese traders in Malacca in the 16th century. It is thought the Portuguese traders were the first to bring the word to Europe. It was first recorded in English in a 1565 letter spelled Giapan. History The first signs of occupation on the Japanese Archipelago appeared with a Paleolithic culture around 30,000 BC, followed from around 14,000 BC by the Jōmon period, a Mesolithic to Neolithic semi-sedentary hunter-gatherer culture of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of agriculture. Decorated clay vessels from this period, often with plaited patterns, are some of the oldest surviving examples of pottery in the world. The Yayoi period, starting around the third century BC, saw the introduction of many new practices, such as wet-rice farming National Science Museum of Japan "Road of rice plant" "The research of DNA of the rice plant has proven wet-rice cultivation of Japan was introduced directly from Yangtze River Delta." , a new style of pottery The Metropolitan Museum of Art "Although the roots of Sueki reach back to ancient China, its direct precursor is the grayware of the Three Kingdoms period in Korea." and iron National Museum of Japanese History "弥生時代には種々の鉄製工具が使われ出したが、いずれも日本で作られた鉄ではなく、大陸から持ち込まれた物と見られている。" (Ironware was introduced to by China in Yayoi Period. ) and bronze-making, brought by migrants from China and Korea. The Japanese first appear in written history in China’s Book of Han. According to the Chinese Records of Three Kingdoms, the most powerful kingdom on the archipelago during the third century was called Yamataikoku. Buddhism was first introduced to Japan from Baekje of the Korean Peninsula, but the subsequent development of Japanese Buddhism and Buddhist sculptures were primarily influenced by China. Despite early resistance, Buddhism was promoted by the ruling class and eventually gained growing acceptance since the Asuka period. The Nara period of the eighth century marked the first emergence of a strong central Japanese state, centered on an imperial court in the city of Heijō-kyō, or modern day Nara. In addition to the continuing adoption of Chinese administrative practices, the Nara period is characterized by the appearance of a nascent written literature with the completion of the massive chronicles Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720). (Nara was not the first capital city in Japan, though. Before Nara, Fujiwara-kyō and Asuka served as capitals of the Yamato state.) In 784, Emperor Kammu moved the capital from Nara to Nagaoka-kyō for a brief ten-year period, before relocating it to Heian-kyō (modern day Kyoto) in 794, where it remained for more than a millennium. This marked the beginning of the Heian period, during which time a distinctly indigenous Japanese culture emerged, noted for its art, poetry and literature. Lady Murasaki's The Tale of Genji and the lyrics of modern Japan's national anthem, Kimi ga Yo were written during this time. Japan's feudal era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of warriors, the samurai. In 1185, following the defeat of the rival Taira clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointed Shogun and established a base of power in Kamakura. After Yoritomo's death, the Hōjō clan came to rule as regents for the shoguns. Zen Buddhism was introduced from China in the Kamakura period (1185–1333) and became popular among the samurai class. The Kamakura shogunate managed to repel Mongol invasions in 1274 and 1281, aided by a storm that the Japanese interpreted as a kamikaze, or Divine Wind. The Kamakura shogunate was eventually overthrown by Emperor Go-Daigo, who was soon himself defeated by Ashikaga Takauji in 1336. The succeeding Ashikaga shogunate failed to control the feudal warlords (daimyo), and a civil war erupted (the Ōnin War) in 1467 which opened a century-long Sengoku period. During the sixteenth century, traders and Jesuit missionaries from Portugal reached Japan for the first time, initiating active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (Nanban trade). Oda Nobunaga conquered numerous other daimyo by using European technology and firearms and had almost unified the nation when he was assassinated in 1582. Toyotomi Hideyoshi succeeded Nobunaga and united the nation in 1590. Hideyoshi invaded Korea twice, but following several defeats by Korean and Ming China forces and Hideyoshi's death, Japanese troops were withdrawn in 1598. After Hideyoshi's death, Tokugawa Ieyasu utilized his position as regent for Hideyoshi's son Toyotomi Hideyori to gain political and military support. When open war broke out, he defeated rival clans in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600. Ieyasu was appointed shōgun in 1603 and established the Tokugawa shogunate at Edo (modern Tokyo). The Tokugawa shogunate enacted a variety of measures such as Buke shohatto to control the autonomous daimyo. In 1639, the shogunate began the isolationist sakoku ("closed country") policy that spanned the two and a half centuries of tenuous political unity known as the Edo period. The study of Western sciences, known as rangaku, continued during this period through contacts with the Dutch enclave at Dejima in Nagasaki. The Edo period also gave rise to kokugaku, or literally "national studies", the study of Japan by the Japanese themselves. On March 31, 1854, Commodore Matthew Perry and the "Black Ships" of the United States Navy forced the opening of Japan to the outside world with the Convention of Kanagawa. Subsequent similar treaties with the Western countries in the Bakumatsu period brought Japan into economic and political crises. The abundance of the prerogative and the resignation of the shogunate led to the Boshin War and the establishment of a centralized state unified under the name of the Emperor (Meiji Restoration). Adopting Western political, judicial and military institutions, the Cabinet organized the Privy Council, introduced the Meiji Constitution, and assembled the Imperial Diet. The Meiji Restoration transformed the Empire of Japan into an industrialized world power that embarked on a number of military conflicts to expand the nation's sphere of influence. After victories in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), Japan gained control of Taiwan, Korea, and the southern half of Sakhalin. The early twentieth century saw a brief period of "Taisho democracy" overshadowed by the rise of expansionism and militarization. World War I enabled Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to expand its influence and territorial holdings. Japan continued its expansionist policy by occupying Manchuria in 1931. As a result of international condemnation for this occupation, Japan resigned from the League of Nations two years later. In 1936, Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Nazi Germany, joining the Axis powers in 1941. In 1937, Japan invaded other parts of China, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), after which the United States placed an oil embargo on Japan. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor and declared war on the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. This act brought the United States into World War II. After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, along with the Soviet Union joining the war against it, Japan agreed to an unconditional surrender on August 15 (Victory over Japan Day). The war cost Japan and countries part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere millions of lives and left much of the country's industry and infrastructure destroyed. The Allied powers repatriated millions of ethnic Japanese from colonies throughout Asia. When Empire Comes Home : Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar Japan by Lori Watt, Harvard University Press The International Military Tribunal for the Far East, was convened by the Allies (on May 3, 1946) to prosecute some Japanese leaders for war crimes. However, all members of the bacteriological research units and members of the imperial family involved in the conduct of the war were exonerated from criminal prosecutions by the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces. In 1947, Japan adopted a new pacifist constitution emphasizing liberal democratic practices. The Allied occupation ended by the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952 and Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. Japan later achieved spectacular growth to become the second largest economy in the world, with an annual growth rate averaging 10% for four decades. This ended in the mid-1990s when Japan suffered a major recession. Positive growth in the early twenty-first century has signaled a gradual recovery. Government and politics Japan is a constitutional monarchy where the power of the Emperor is very limited. As a ceremonial figurehead, he is defined by the constitution as "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people". Power is held chiefly by the Prime Minister of Japan and other elected members of the Diet, while sovereignty is vested in the Japanese people. The Emperor effectively acts as the head of state on diplomatic occasions. Akihito is the current Emperor of Japan. Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan, stands as next in line to the throne. Japan's legislative organ is the National Diet, a bicameral parliament. The Diet consists of a House of Representatives, containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved and a House of Councillors of 242 seats, whose popularly elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal suffrage for adults over 20 years of age, with a secret ballot for all elective offices. The liberal conservative Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived coalition government formed from opposition parties in 1993. The largest opposition party is the social liberal Democratic Party of Japan. The Prime Minister of Japan is the head of government. The position is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office. The Prime Minister is the head of the Cabinet (the literal translation of his Japanese title is "Prime Minister of the Cabinet") and appoints and dismisses the Ministers of State, a majority of whom must be Diet members. Taro Aso currently serves as the Prime Minister of Japan. Historically influenced by Chinese law, the Japanese legal system developed independently during the Edo period through texts such as Kujikata Osadamegaki. However, since the late nineteenth century, the judicial system has been largely based on the civil law of Europe, notably France and Germany. For example, in 1896, the Japanese government established a civil code based on the German model. With post-World War II modifications, the code remains in effect in present-day Japan. Statutory law originates in Japan's legislature, the National Diet of Japan, with the rubber stamp approval of the Emperor. The current constitution requires that the Emperor promulgates legislation passed by the Diet, without specifically giving him the power to oppose the passing of the legislation. Japan's court system is divided into four basic tiers: the Supreme Court and three levels of lower courts. The main body of Japanese statutory law is a collection called the Six Codes. Foreign relations and military Japan maintains close economic and military relations with its key ally the United States, with the U.S.-Japan security alliance serving as the cornerstone of its foreign policy. A member state of the United Nations since 1956, Japan has served as a non-permanent Security Council member for a total of 18 years, most recently in 2005–2006. It is also one of the G4 nations seeking permanent membership in the Security Council. As a member of the G8, the APEC, the "ASEAN Plus Three" and a participant in the East Asia Summit, Japan actively participates in international affairs and enhances diplomatic ties with its important partners around the world. Japan signed a security pact with Australia in March 2007 Japan-Australia Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation and with India in October 2008. Joint Declaration on Security Cooperation between Japan and India It is also the world's third largest donor of official development assistance after the United States and United Kingdom, donating US$8.86 billion in 2004. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2005-04-11). Retrieved on 2006-12-28. Japan contributed non-combatant troops to the Iraq War but subsequently withdrew its forces from Iraq. Japan is engaged in several territorial disputes with its neighbors: with Russia over the South Kuril Islands, with South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks, with the People's Republic of China and Taiwan over the Senkaku Islands, and with the PRC over the EEZ around Okinotorishima. Japan also faces an ongoing dispute with North Korea over its abduction of Japanese citizens and its nuclear weapons and missile program (see also Six-party talks). As a result of the Kuril Islands dispute, Japan is technically still at war with Russia since no treaty resolving the issue was ever signed. CIA - The World Factbook - Russia Japan's military is restricted by the Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, which renounces Japan's right to declare war or use military force as a means of settling international disputes. Japan's military is governed by the Ministry of Defense, and primarily consists of the Japan Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF), the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) and the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF). The forces have been recently used in peacekeeping operations and the deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq marked the first overseas use of its military since World War II. Administrative divisions Japan consists of forty-seven prefectures, each overseen by an elected governor, legislature and administrative bureaucracy. Each prefecture is further divided into cities, towns and villages. The nation is currently undergoing administrative reorganization by merging many of the cities, towns and villages with each other. This process will reduce the number of sub-prefecture administrative regions and is expected to cut administrative costs. Japan has dozens of major cities, which play an important role in Japan's culture, heritage and economy. Geography Japan is a country of over three thousand islands extending along the Pacific coast of Asia. The main islands, running from north to south, are Hokkaidō, Honshū (the main island), Shikoku and Kyūshū. The Ryukyu Islands, including Okinawa, are a chain of islands south of Kyushū. Together they are often known as the Japanese Archipelago. About 70% to 80% of the country is forested, mountainous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use. This is because of the generally steep elevations, climate and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas. Japan is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, at the juncture of three tectonic plates, gives Japan frequent low-intensity tremors and occasional volcanic activity. Destructive earthquakes, often resulting in tsunamis, occur several times each century. The most recent major quakes are the 2004 Chūetsu earthquake and the Great Hanshin Earthquake of 1995. Hot springs are numerous and have been developed as resorts. The climate of Japan is predominantly temperate, but varies greatly from north to south. Japan's geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones: Hokkaidō: The northernmost zone has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter. Sea of Japan: On Honshū's west coast, the northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, because of the foehn wind phenomenon. Central Highland: A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light. Seto Inland Sea: The mountains of the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions shelter the region from the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year. Pacific Ocean: The east coast experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers because of the southeast seasonal wind. Ryukyu Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. Typhoons are common. The highest temperature ever measured in Japan — 40.9 °C (105.6 °F) — was recorded on August 16, 2007. The main rainy season begins in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaidō in late July. In most of Honshū, the rainy season begins before the middle of June and lasts about six weeks. In late summer and early autumn, typhoons often bring heavy rain. Japan is home to nine forest ecoregions which reflect the climate and geography of the islands. They range from subtropical moist broadleaf forests in the Ryūkyū and Bonin islands, to temperate broadleaf and mixed forests in the mild climate regions of the main islands, to temperate coniferous forests in the cold, winter portions of the northern islands. Environment Japan's environmental history and current policies reflect a tenuous balance between economic development and environmental protection. In the rapid economic growth after World War II, environmental policies were downplayed by the government and industrial corporations. As an inevitable consequence, some crucial environmental pollution (see Pollution in Japan) occurred in the 1950s and 1960s. In the rising concern over the problem, the government introduced many environmental protection laws 日本の大気汚染の歴史, Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency in 1970 and established the Ministry of the Environment in 1971. The Oil crisis in 1973 also encouraged the efficient use of energy due to Japan's lack of natural resources. Japan' international cooperation for energy efficiency & conservation in Asian region., Takeshi Sekiyama, Energy Conservation Center, 2008 Current priority environmental issues include urban air pollution (NOx, suspended particulate matter, toxics), waste management, water eutrophication, nature conservation, climate change, chemical management and international co-operation for environmental conservation. OECD Environmental Performance Review of Japan, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Today Japan is one of the world's leaders in the development of new environment-friendly technologies. Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel economy and lowest emissions. Automaker Rankings 2007: The Environmental Performance of Car Companies, Union of Concerned Scientists, 10/15/07. This is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems, biofuels, use of lighter weight material and better engineering. Japan also takes issues surrounding climate change and global warming seriously. As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol, and host of the 1997 conference which created it, Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change. The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices. Japan is preparing to force industry to make big cuts in greenhouse gases, taking the lead in a country struggling to meet its Kyoto Protocol obligations. World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) Japan is ranked 30th best in the world in the Environmental Sustainability Index. 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index Benchmarking National Environmental Stewardship, Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy, Yale University and Center for International Earth Science Information Network, Columbia University, 2005. Economy From 1868, the Meiji period launched economic expansion. Meiji rulers embraced the concept of a free market economy and adopted British and North American forms of free enterprise capitalism. Japanese went to study overseas and Western scholars were hired to teach in Japan. Many of today's enterprises were founded at the time. Japan emerged as the most developed nation in Asia. From the 1960s to the 1980s, overall real economic growth has been called a "Japanese miracle": a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s, largely because of the after-effects of Japanese asset price bubble and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth met with little success and were further hampered by the global slowdown in 2000. The economy showed strong signs of recovery after 2005. GDP growth for that year was 2.8%, with an annualized fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rates of the US and European Union during the same period. Masake, Hisane. A farewell to zero. Asia Times Online (2006-03-02). Retrieved on 2006-12-28. Japan is the second largest economy in the world, after the United States, at around US$5 trillion in terms of nominal GDP and third after the United States and China in terms of purchasing power parity. Banking, insurance, real estate, retailing, transportation, telecommunications and construction are all major industries. er 6 Manufacturing and Construction, Statistical Handbook of Japan, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications Japan has a large industrial capacity and is home to some of the largest, leading and most technologically advanced producers of motor vehicles, electronic equipment, machine tools, steel and nonferrous metals, ships, chemicals, textiles and processed foods. The service sector accounts for three quarters of the gross domestic product. As of 2001, Japan's shrinking labor force consisted of some 67 million workers. Japan has a low unemployment rate, around 4%. Japan's GDP per hour worked is the world's 19th highest as of 2007. Groningen Growth and Development Centre (GGDC) Big Mac Index shows that Japanese workers get the highest salary per hour in the world. Some of the largest enterprises in Japan include Toyota, NTT DoCoMo, Canon, Honda, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Sony, Nintendo, Nippon Steel, Tepco, Mitsubishi and 711. Japan 500 2007, Financial Times It is home to some of the world's largest banks, and the Tokyo Stock Exchange (known for its Nikkei 225 index) stands as the second largest in the world by market capitalization. Market data. New York Stock Exchange (2006-01-31). Retrieved on 2007-08-11. Japan is home to 326 companies from the Forbes Global 2000 or 16.3% (as of 2006). Japan ranks 12th of 178 countries in the Ease of Doing Business Index 2008 and it has one of the smallest governments in the developed world. Japanese variant of capitalism has many distinct features. Keiretsu enterprises are influential. Lifetime employment and seniority-based career advancement are relatively common in Japanese work environment. OECD: Economic survey of Japan 2008 Japanese companies are known for management methods such as "The Toyota Way". Shareholder activism is rare. Activist shareholders swarm in Japan, The Economist Recently, Japan has moved away from some of these norms. The Economist: Going hybrid In the Index of Economic Freedom, Japan is the 5th most laissez-faire of 30 Asian countries. Japan, Index of Economic Freedom Japan's exports amounted to 4,210 U.S. dollars per capita in 2005. Japan's main export markets are the United States 22.8%, the European Union 14.5%, China 14.3%, South Korea 7.8%, Taiwan 6.8% and Hong Kong 5.6% (for 2006). Japan's main exports are transportation equipment, motor vehicles, electronics, electrical machinery and chemicals. Japan's main import markets are China 20.5%, U.S. 12.0%, the European Union 10.3%, Saudi Arabia 6.4%, UAE 5.5%, Australia 4.8%, South Korea 4.7% and Indonesia 4.2% (for 2006). Japan's main imports are machinery and equipment, fossil fuels, foodstuffs (in particular beef), chemicals, textiles and raw materials for its industries. Blustein, Paul. "China Passes U.S. In Trade With Japan: 2004 Figures Show Asian Giant's Muscle". The Washington Post (2005-01-27). Retrieved on 2006-12-28. By market share measures, domestic markets are the least open of any OECD country. Junichiro Koizumi administration commenced some pro-competition reforms and foreign investment in Japan has soared recently. Foreign investment in Japan soar. BBC. 29th June, 2005 Japan's business culture has many indigenous concepts such as nemawashi, nenko system, salaryman, and office lady. Japan's housing market is characterized by limited land supply in urban areas. This is particularly true for Tokyo, the world's largest urban agglomeration GDP. More than half of Japanese live in suburbs or more rural areas, where detached houses are the dominant housing type. Agricultural businesses in Japan often utilize a system of terrace farming and crop yields are high. 13% of Japan's land is cultivated. Japan accounts for nearly 15% of the global fish catch, second only to China. Japan's agricultural sector is protected at high cost. Has Japanese agricultural protection had its day? Policies for the new millennium. Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation. Infrastructure As of 2005, one half of energy in Japan is produced from petroleum, a fifth from coal, and 14% from natural gas. Chapter 7 Energy, Statistical Handbook of Japan 2007 Nuclear power produces a quarter of Japan's electricity. Japan's road spending has been large. Japan's Road to Deep Deficit Is Paved With Public Works, New York Times in 1997 The 1.2 million kilometers of paved road are the main means of transportation. Chapter 9 Transport, Statistical Handbook of Japan Japan has left-hand traffic. A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access toll roads connects major cities and are operated by toll-collecting enterprises. New and used cars are inexpensive. Car ownership fees and fuel levies are used to promote energy-efficiency. However, at just 50% of all distance travelled, car usage is the lowest of all G8 countries. Dozens of Japanese railway companies compete in regional and local passenger transportation markets; for instance, 7 JR enterprises, Kintetsu Corporation, Seibu Railway and Keio Corporation. Often, strategies of these enterprises contain real estate or department stores next to stations. Some 250 high-speed Shinkansen trains connect major cities. Japanese trains are known for their punctuality. There are 173 airports and flying is a popular way to travel between cities. The largest domestic airport, Haneda Airport, is Asia's busiest airport. The largest international gateways are Narita International Airport (Tokyo area), Kansai International Airport (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area) and Chūbu Centrair International Airport (Nagoya area). The largest ports include Port of Yokohama and Nagoya Port. Science and technology Japan is one of the leading nations in the fields of scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and biomedical research. Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world. McDonald, Joe. "China to spend $136 billion on R&D." BusinessWeek (2006-12-04). For instance some of Japan's more prominent technological contributions are found in the fields of electronics, automobiles, machinery, earthquake engineering, industrial robotics, optics, chemicals, semiconductors and metals. Japan leads the world in robotics production and use, possessing more than half (402,200 of 742,500) of the world's industrial robots used for manufacturing. The Boom in Robot Investment Continues—900,000 Industrial Robots by 2003. and United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Press release 2000-10-17. Retrieved on 2006-12-28. It also produced QRIO, ASIMO and AIBO. Japan is the world's largest producer of automobiles and home to six of the world's fifteen largest automobile manufacturers and seven of the world's twenty largest semiconductor sales leaders as of today. The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) is Japan's space agency that conducts space and planetary research, aviation research, and development of rockets and satellites. It is a participant in the International Space Station and the Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) was added to the International Space Station during Space Shuttle assembly flights in 2008. It has plans in space exploration, such as launching the Venus Climate Orbiter (PLANET-C) in 2010 JAXA, Venus Climate Orbiter "PLANET-C" ISAS, Venus Meteorology PLANET-C , developing the Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter to be launched in 2013 JAXA, Mercury Exploration Mission "BepiColombo" ISAS, Mercury Exploration MMO (BepiColombo) , and building a moonbase by 2030. On September 14, 2007, it launched lunar orbit explorer "SELENE" (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) on an H-IIA (Model H2A2022) carrier rocket from Tanegashima Space Center. SELENE is also known as Kaguya, the lunar princess of the ancient folktale The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter. Kaguya is the largest lunar probe mission since the Apollo program. Its mission is to gather data on the moon's origin and evolution. It entered into a lunar orbit on October 4, Japancorp.net, Japan Successfully Launches Lunar Explorer "Kaguya" BBC NEWS, Japan launches first lunar probe flying in a lunar orbit at an altitude of about 100 km. JAXA, KAGUYA (SELENE) Image Taking of "Full Earth-Rise" by HDTV Demographics Japan's population is estimated at around 127.3 million. For the most part, Japanese society is linguistically and culturally homogeneous with small populations of foreign workers, Zainichi Koreans, Zainichi Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese Brazilians and others. The most dominant native ethnic group is the Yamato people; the primary minority groups include the indigenous Ainu and Ryukyuan, as well as social minority groups like the burakumin. Japan has one of the highest life expectancy rates in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006. The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war baby boom followed by a decrease in births in the latter part of the twentieth century. In 2004, about 19.5% of the population was over the age of 65. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social security benefits such as the public pension plan. Many Japanese youth are increasingly preferring not to marry or have families as adults. Japan's population is expected to drop to 100 million by 2050 and to 64 million by 2100. Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem. Ogawa, Naohiro."Demographic Trends and Their Implications for Japan's Future" The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Transcript of speech delivered on (7 March, 1997). Retrieved on 14 May 2006. Immigration and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. French, Howard."Insular Japan Needs, but Resists, Immigration". "The New York Times" (2003-07-24). Retrieved on 2007-02-21. The highest estimates for the amount of Buddhists and Shintoists in Japan is 84-96%, representing a large number of believers in a syncretism of both religions. However, these estimates are based on people with an association with a temple, rather than the number of people truly following the religion. Professor Robert Kisala (Nanzan University) suggests that only 30 percent of the population identify themselves as belonging to a religion. Taoism and Confucianism from China have also influenced Japanese beliefs and customs. Religion in Japan tends to be syncretic in nature, and this results in a variety of practices, such as parents and children celebrating Shinto rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a Christian church and funerals being held at Buddhist temples. A minority (2,595,397, or 2.04%) profess to Christianity. Religious Juridical Persons and Administration of Religious Affairs, Agency for Cultural Affairs Retrieved August 25, 2008 In addition, since the mid-19th century, numerous religious sects (Shinshūkyō) have emerged in Japan, such as Tenrikyo and Aum Shinrikyo (or Aleph). More than 99% of the population speaks Japanese as their first language. It is an agglutinative language distinguished by a system of honorifics reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. According to a Japanese dictionary Shinsen-kokugojiten, Chinese-based words comprise 49.1% of the total vocabulary, indigenous words are 33.8% and other loanwords are 8.8%. Shinsen-kokugojiten (新選国語辞典), Kyōsuke Kindaichi, Shogakukan, 2001, ISBN 4095014075 The writing system uses kanji (Chinese characters) and two sets of kana (syllabaries based on simplified Chinese characters), as well as the Latin alphabet and Arabic numerals. The Ryukyuan languages, also part of the Japonic language family to which Japanese belongs, are spoken in Okinawa, but few children learn these languages. 言語学大辞典セレクション：日本列島の言語 (Selection from the Encyclopædia of Linguistics: The Languages of the Japanese Archipelago). "琉球列島の言語" (The Languages of the Ryukyu Islands). 三省堂 1997 The Ainu language is moribund, with only a few elderly native speakers remaining in Hokkaidō. Most public and private schools require students to take courses in both Japanese and English. Education and health Primary, secondary schools and universities were introduced into Japan in 1872 as a result of the Meiji Restoration. Since 1947, compulsory education in Japan consists of elementary school and middle school, which lasts for nine years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior high school, and, according to the MEXT, about 75.9% of high school graduates attend a university, junior college, trade school, or other post-secondary institution in 2005. Japan's education is very competitive, especially for entrance to institutions of higher education. The two top-ranking universities in Japan are the University of Tokyo and Keio University. The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks Japanese knowledge and skills of 15-year-olds as the 6th best in the world. OECD’s PISA survey shows some countries making significant gains in learning outcomes, OECD, 04/12/2007. Range of rank on the PISA 2006 science scale In Japan, healthcare services are provided by national and local governments. Payment for personal medical services is offered through a universal health care insurance system that provides relative equality of access, with fees set by a government committee. People without insurance through employers can participate in a national health insurance program administered by local governments. Since 1973, all elderly persons have been covered by government-sponsored insurance. Patients are free to select physicians or facilities of their choice. Culture and recreation Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original Jōmon culture to its contemporary culture, which combines influences from Asia, Europe and North America. Traditional Japanese arts include crafts (ikebana, origami, ukiyo-e, dolls, lacquerware, pottery), performances (bunraku, dance, kabuki, noh, rakugo), traditions (games, tea ceremony, Budō, architecture, gardens, swords) and cuisine. The fusion of traditional woodblock printing and Western art led to the creation of manga, a typically Japanese comic book format that is now popular within and outside Japan. Manga-influenced animation for television and film is called anime. Japanese-made video game consoles have prospered since the 1980s. Japanese music is eclectic, having borrowed instruments, scales and styles from neighboring cultures. Many instruments, such as the koto, were introduced in the ninth and tenth centuries. The accompanied recitative of the Noh drama dates from the fourteenth century and the popular folk music, with the guitar-like shamisen, from the sixteenth. Japanese Culture, The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, 1983 edition, © Columbia University Press ISBN 0-380-63396-5 Western music, introduced in the late nineteenth century, now forms an integral part of the culture. Post-war Japan has been heavily influenced by American and European modern music, which has led to the evolution of popular band music called J-pop. Karaoke is the most widely practiced cultural activity. A November 1993 survey by the Cultural Affairs Agency found that more Japanese had sung karaoke that year than had participated in traditional cultural pursuits such as flower arranging or tea ceremony. Kelly, Bill. (1998). "Japan's Empty Orchestras: Echoes of Japanese culture in the performance of karaoke", The Worlds of Japanese Popular Culture: Gender, Shifting Boundaries and Global Cultures, p. 76. Cambridge University Press. The earliest works of Japanese literature include two history books the Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki and the eighth century poetry book Man'yōshū, all written in Chinese characters. In the early days of the Heian period, the system of transcription known as kana (Hiragana and Katakana) was created as phonograms. The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter is considered the oldest Japanese narrative. An account of Heian court life is given by The Pillow Book written by Sei Shōnagon, while The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki is often described as the world's first novel. During the Edo period, literature became not so much the field of the samurai aristocracy as that of the chōnin, the ordinary people. Yomihon, for example, became popular and reveals this profound change in the readership and authorship. The Meiji era saw the decline of traditional literary forms, during which Japanese literature integrated Western influences. Natsume Sōseki and Mori Ōgai were the first "modern" novelists of Japan, followed by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa, Jun'ichirō Tanizaki, Yasunari Kawabata, Yukio Mishima and, more recently, Haruki Murakami. Japan has two Nobel Prize-winning authors — Yasunari Kawabata (1968) and Kenzaburo Oe (1994). Sports Traditionally, sumo is considered Japan's national sport and it is a popular spectator sport in Japan. Martial arts such as judo, karate and modern kendō are also widely practiced and enjoyed by spectators in the country. After the Meiji Restoration, many Western sports were introduced in Japan and began to spread through the education system. The professional baseball league in Japan was established in 1936. Today baseball is the most popular spectator sport in the country. One of the most famous Japanese baseball players is Ichiro Suzuki, who, having won Japan's Most Valuable Player award in 1994, 1995 and 1996, now plays for the Seattle Mariners of North American Major League Baseball. Prior to that, Sadaharu Oh was well-known outside Japan, having hit more home runs during his career in Japan than his contemporary, Hank Aaron, did in America. Since the establishment of the Japan Professional Football League in 1992, association football (soccer) has also gained a wide following. Japan was a venue of the Intercontinental Cup from 1981 to 2004 and co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup with South Korea. Japan is one of the most successful soccer teams in Asia, winning the Asian Cup three times. Golf is also popular in Japan, as are forms of auto racing, such as the Super GT sports car series and Formula Nippon formula racing. Twin Ring Motegi was completed in 1997 by Honda in order to bring IndyCar racing to Japan. See also List of Japan-related articles Outline of Japan References Further reading Christopher, Robert C., The Japanese Mind: the Goliath Explained, Linden Press/Simon and Schuster, 1983 (ISBN 0330284193) De Mente, The Japanese Have a Word For It, McGraw-Hill, 1997 (ISBN 0-8442-8316-9) Flath, The Japanese Economy, Oxford University Press, 2000 (ISBN 0198775032) Free, Early Japanese Railways 1853–1914: Engineering Triumphs That Transformed Meiji-era Japan, Tuttle Publishing, 2008 (ISBN 4805310065) Henshall, A History of Japan, Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0-312-23370-1) Hood, Shinkansen: From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan, Routledge, 2006, (ISBN 0415320526) Ikegami, Bonds Of Civility: Aesthetic Networks And The Political Origins Of Japanese Culture, Cambridge University Press, 2005 (ISBN 0521601150) Ito et al., Reviving Japan's Economy: Problems and Prescriptions, MIT Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-262-09040-6) Iwabuchi, Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism, Duke University Press, 2002 (ISBN 0822328917) Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan, Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0-674-00334-9) Johnson, Japan: Who Governs?, W.W. Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0-393-31450-2) Kato et al., A History of Japanese Literature: From the Man'Yoshu to Modern Times, Japan Library, 1997 (ISBN 1873410484) Macwilliams, Japanese Visual Culture: Explorations in the World of Manga and Anime, M.E. Sharpe, 2007 (ISBN 0765616025) McDonald, Reading a Japanese Film: Cinema in Context, University of Hawaii Press, 2005 (ISBN 082482993X) Ono et al., Shinto: The Kami Way, Tuttle Publishing, 2004 (ISBN 0804835578) Pyle, Japan Rising: The Resurgence of Japanese Power and Purpose, Public Affairs, 2007 (ISBN 1586485679) Reischauer, Japan: The Story of a Nation, McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0-07-557074-2) Samuels, Securing Japan: Tokyo's Grand Strategy and the Future of East Asia, Cornell University Press, 2008 (ISBN 0801474906) Silverberg, Erotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times, University of California Press, 2007 (ISBN 0520222733) Shinoda, Koizumi Diplomacy: Japan’s Kantei Approach to Foreign and Defense Affairs, University of Washington Press, 2007 (ISBN 0295986999) Stevens, Japanese Popular Music: Culture, Authenticity and Power, Routledge, 2007 (ISBN 041538057X) Sugimoto et al., An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0-521-52925-5) Van Wolferen, The Enigma of Japanese Power, Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0-679-72802-3) Varley, Japanese Culture, University of Hawaii Press, 2000 (ISBN 0824821521) External links Government Kantei.go.jp, official prime ministerial and cabinet site Kunaicho.go.jp, official site of the Imperial family. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life. National Diet Library Shugi-in.go.jp, official site of the House of Representatives Chief of State and Cabinet Members News media Asahi Shimbun Kyodo News NHK Online The Japan Times Yomiuri Shimbun (English) Tourism Japan National Tourist Organization General information Japan from UCB Libraries GovPubs Japan from Encyclopaedia Britannica Special Report: Japan from The Guardian Energy Profile for Japan from the U.S. Energy Information Administration containing the 1889 and 1946 Constitutions be-x-old:Японія

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Michael_Milken

Michael Robert Milken (born July 4, 1946) is a prominent American financier and philanthropist who almost single-handedly created the market for high-yield bonds (also called junk bonds) during the 1970s and 1980s. After he was sent to prison on finance-related charges, his detractors cited him as the epitome of Wall Street greed during the 1980s, and nicknamed him the Junk Bond King. Admirers, like George Gilder in his book, Telecosm, note that "Milken was a key source of the organizational changes that have impelled economic growth over the last twenty years. Most striking was the productivity surge in capital, as Milken … and others took the vast sums trapped in old-line businesses and put them back into the markets." Milken was indicted on 98 counts of racketeering and securities fraud in 1989 as the result of an insider trading investigation. After a plea bargain, Milken pled guilty to six securities and reporting violations; he was never convicted of racketeering or insider trading. He was sentenced to ten years in prison, but was released after less than two years. Milken has also devoted much time and money to charity over the past three decades: He co-founded the Milken Family Foundation in 1982 to support education and medical research; He is chairman of the Milken Institute, which hosts the annual Global Conference, which is attended by more than 3,000 thought leaders and decision makers from nearly 60 nations; and He is the founder of the Melanoma Research Alliance, FasterCures (Center for Accelerating Medical Solutions), and the Prostate Cancer Foundation. Fortune magazine called him "The Man Who Changed Medicine" in a 2004 cover story about his positive influence on medical research. With an estimated net worth of around $2.1 billion as of 2007, he is ranked by Forbes magazine as the 458th richest person in the world. Education Milken was born in Encino, California to an upper middle class Jewish family. He graduated from Birmingham High School, where his classmates included actresses Sally Field and Cindy Williams. A summa cum laude B.S. 1968 graduate of the University of California, Berkeley (where he was elected Phi Beta Kappa and was a member of the Sigma Alpha Mu fraternity UC Berkeley Inter-Fraternity Council: Sigma Alpha Mu ), Milken received his MBA from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania. While at Wharton , he was influenced by credit studies authored by W. Braddock Hickman, a former president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, who noted that a portfolio of non-investment grade bonds offered "risk-adjusted" returns greater than that of an investment grade portfolio. Career Through his Wharton professors, Milken landed a summer job at Drexel Harriman Ripley, an old-line investment bank, in 1969. After completing his MBA, he joined Drexel (by then known as Drexel Firestone) as director of low-grade bond research. He was also given some capital and permitted to trade. According to legend, he was so devoted to his work that he wore a miner's headlamp while commuting on the bus so that he could read company prospectuses. Drexel merged with Burnham and Company in 1973 to form Drexel Burnham and Company, with Milken as one of the few prominent holdovers from the Drexel side of the merger. He persuaded his new boss, Tubby Burnham (a fellow Wharton alumnus), to let him start a high-yield bond trading department—an operation that soon earned a remarkable 100% return on investment. By 1976, Milken's income at what was now Drexel Burnham Lambert was estimated at $5 million a year. One weekend in 1978, Milken moved the high-yield bond operation to Century City in Los Angeles. The transition went so smoothly that many clients were unaware that the department had moved between Friday and Monday. Later, the operation moved to Beverly Hills at 9560 Wilshire Boulevard. On the fourth floor, he set up an X-shaped trading desk -- designed to maximize his contact with traders and salesmen -- from which he worked very long hours-- invariably starting his day before 5 am Pacific (8 am Eastern, prior to the opening of the markets in New York). The department grew and, in 1986-87, moved up to the fifth floor, where there were eventually three of the famous X-shaped trading desks. Milken and the 1980s Buyout Boom By the mid-1980s, Milken's network of high-yield bond buyers (notably Fred Carr's Executive Life Insurance Company and Tom Spiegel's Columbia Savings & Loan) had reached a size which enabled him to raise large amounts of money very quickly. Both these buyers subsequently failed as a result of their junk bond investments. It was said, for example, that Milken raised $1 billion for MCI Communications, then an upstart provider of long-distance telephone services, in the space of one hour on the telephone. Cable TV companies like John Malone's Tele-Communications Inc., were also favorite clients, as were Ted Turner's maverick Turner Broadcasting, cellphone pioneer Craig McCaw, and casino entrepreneur Steve Wynn (developer), and before long the CEOs and CFOs of many smaller and mid-sized companies previously limited to the slow and expensive private-placement market were making early-morning pilgrimages to Beverly Hills seeking to issue high-yield and/or convertible bonds through Drexel Burnham. Without question, many leading entrepreneurs of the 1980s owe their success at least partly to Milken's perception of this market opportunity. One of his favorite sayings: "There is no shortage of capital; there is only a shortage of management talent". Milken was largely involved with kick-starting investments in Nevada, which for many years was the fastest-growing state in the U.S. Milken funded the gaming industry, newspapers and homebuilders, and among the companies he financed were MGM Mirage, Mandalay Resorts, Harrah's Entertainment and Park Place. This money-raising ability also facilitated the activities of leveraged buyout (LBO) firms like Kohlberg Kravis Roberts and of so-called "greenmailers." Armed with a "highly confident letter" from Drexel (in which Drexel promised to get the necessary debt in time to fulfill the buyer's obligations), these firms and greenmailers were able to profit by merely threatening LBOs of large, blue-chip companies in which they had built up equity positions. Milken's task was perhaps made easier by the fact that the top-tier Wall St investment banks were unwilling to compete with him for fear of jeopardizing their longstanding and lucrative relationships with many of these blue-chip companies who were potentially his targets, although latterly companies like Salomon Brothers, Morgan Stanley and First Boston did (metaphorically holding their noses, perhaps) enter the high-yield market. Notable buyouts financed by Drexel of companies previously thought invulnerable included Beatrice Companies and the cosmetics firm, Revlon. Impact on the high yield market Milken greatly expanded the use of high yield debt (junk bonds) in corporate finance and mergers and acquisitions, which in turn fueled the 1980s boom in LBOs, hostile takeovers, and corporate raids. Oliver Stone later stated in the special features of the DVD release of the movie Wall Street starring Michael Douglas that the movie is a close parallel to Milken's past career. (In fact, however, Gordon Gecko, played by Michael Douglas, is much closer to the arbitrageur, Ivan Boesky, who eventually precipitated his downfall, than to Milken.) Amongst his significant detractors have been Martin Fridson formerly of Merrill Lynch and author Ben Stein. (Stein did, however, once write him a letter asking for a job). Milken's high-yield "pioneer" status has proved dubious as studies show "original issue" high-yield issues were common during and after the Great Depression. Others such as Stanford Phelps, an early co-associate and rival at Drexel, have also contested his credit as pioneering the modern high-yield market. This is, however, quibbling, as Drexel was for all intents and purposes unchallenged as essentially the only underwriter and trader of high-yield bonds throughout almost the entire decade of the 1980s. Despite his influence in the financial world (at least one source called him the most powerful American financier since J.P. Morgan), Milken was an intensely private man who shunned publicity. Hence, citing the power behind the most aggressive firm on Wall Street, Drexel bankers often said "Michael says ..." to justify their tactics. Scandal Dan Stone, a former Drexel executive, wrote in his book, April Fools, that Milken was under nearly-constant scrutiny from the Securities and Exchange Commission from 1979 onward due to unethical and sometimes illegal behavior in the high-yield department. His own role in such behavior has been much debated. Stone claims that Milken viewed the securities laws, rules and regulations with a degree of contempt, feeling they hindered the free flow of trade. However, Stone said that while Milken condoned questionable and illegal acts by his colleagues, Milken himself personally followed the rules. He often called Drexel's president and CEO, Fred Joseph--known for his strict view of the securities laws--with ethical questions. In a 2009 Investment Dealer Digest article, Joseph said of Milken, "He was the smartest guy I ever worked with. He was the hardest working guy I ever worked with. He is a great credit analyst." On the other hand, several of the sources James B. Stewart used for Den of Thieves told him that Milken often tried to get a higher markup on trades than was permitted at the time. Ivan Boesky and an intensifying investigation The SEC inquiries never got beyond the investigation phase until 1986, when arbitrageur Ivan Boesky pled guilty to securities fraud as part of a larger insider trading investigation. As part of his plea, Boesky purported to implicate Milken in several illegal transactions, including insider trading, stock manipulation, fraud and stock parking (buying stocks for the benefit of another). This led to an SEC probe of Drexel, as well as a separate criminal probe by Rudy Giuliani, then United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. Although both investigations were almost entirely focused on Milken's department, Milken refused to talk with Drexel (which launched its own internal investigation) except through his lawyers. For two years, Drexel insisted that nothing illegal occurred, even when the SEC formally sued Drexel in 1988. Later that year, Giuliani began seriously considering an indictment of Drexel under the powerful Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, which he had previously used against organized crime. Drexel management immediately began plea bargain talks, concluding that no financial institution could survive a RICO indictment. However, talks collapsed on December 19 when Giuliani made several demands that Drexel found too harsh, including one that Milken leave the firm if indicted. Only a day later, however, Drexel lawyers discovered suspicious activity in one of the limited partnerships Milken set up to allow members of his department to make their own investments. That partnership, MacPherson Partners, had acquired several warrants for the stock of Storer Broadcasting in 1985. At the time, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts was in the midst of a leveraged buyout of Storer, and Drexel was lead underwriter for the bonds being issued. One of Drexel's other clients bought several Storer warrants and sold them back to the high-yield bond department. The department in turn sold them to MacPherson. This partnership included Milken, other Drexel executives, and a few Drexel customers. However, it also included several managers of money funds who had worked with Milken in the past. It appeared that the money managers bought the warrants for themselves and didn't offer the same opportunity to the funds they managed. Some of Milken's children also got warrants, according to Stewart, raising the appearance of Milken self-dealing. However, the warrants to money managers were especially problematic. At the very least, Milken's actions were a serious breach of Drexel's internal regulations, and the money managers had breached their fiduciary duty to their clients. At worst, the warrants could have been construed as bribes to the money managers to influence decisions they made for their funds (indeed, several money managers were eventually convicted on bribery charges). The discovery of MacPherson Partners—whose very existence had not been known to the public at the time--seriously eroded Milken's credibility with the board. On December 21, Drexel pleaded nolo contendere to six counts of stock parking and stock manipulation, and agreed that Milken had to leave the firm if indicted. Indictment In March 1989, a federal grand jury indicted Milken on 98 counts of racketeering and fraud. The indictment accused Milken of a litany of misconduct, including insider trading, stock parking, tax evasion and numerous instances of repayment of illicit profits. The most intriguing charge was that Boesky paid Drexel $5.3 million in 1986 for Milken's share of profits from illegal trading. This payment was represented as a consulting fee to Drexel. Shortly afterward, Milken resigned from Drexel and formed his own firm, International Capital Access Group. This was one of the first times RICO was used against an individual with no ties to organized crime. Milken originally planned to fight the charges against him, hiring one of Ronald Reagan's former campaign aides, Linda Goodson Robinson (the wife of American Express president James Robinson) to launch a public relations campaign prior to the trial. Milken and other Drexel figures hired Edward Bennett Williams as their attorney. Williams was well known for representing Watergate figures as well as major Mafia figures including Frank Costello. After Williams died of cancer, Milken's handlers hired various other attorneys and his case became more difficult. Guilty plea On April 24 1990, Milken pleaded guilty to six securities and reporting felonies: Aiding and abetting another person's failure to file an accurate 13d statement with the SEC since the schedule was not amended to reflect an understanding that any loss would be made up. Selling stock without disclosure of an understanding that the purchaser would not lose money. Aiding and abbetting another in filing inaccurate broker-dealer reports with the SEC. Sending confirmation slips through the mail that failed to disclose that a commission was included in the price. Agreeing to sell securities to a customer and to buy those securities back at a real loss to the customer, but with an understanding that he would try to find a future profitable transaction to make up for any losses. One count of conspiracy to commit the other five violations. None of these matters had ever been prosecuted under similar facts. The reporting violations have never been prosecuted before or since as crimes. As part of his plea, Milken agreed to pay $200 million in fines. At the same time, he agreed to a settlement with the SEC in which he disgorged $400 million, to be paid to shareholders who had been hurt by his actions. He also accepted a lifetime ban from any involvement in the securities industry. However, Milken never admitted nor was convicted of insider trading. At the behest of Attorney General Dick Thornburgh, Giuliani threatened to indict Milken's brother, Lowell (a lawyer for Drexel) for racketeering when Milken initially balked at pleading guilty. As part of the deal, the case against Lowell was dropped. Federal investigators also questioned some of Milken's relatives--including his aging grandfather--about their investments. There may have been a basis for investigating Lowell because of his employment with Drexel and the fact Milken often traded funds into his family's accounts. Nonetheless, this and other tactics employed by the government in the course of the investigation were the cause of much criticism. For example, some observers suspected that damaging stories (revealing, for instance, the size of Milken's 1986 bonus) appearing in the press (particularly the Wall St Journal) periodically throughout the investigation could only have come from Giuliani's office -- a clear violation of the law. The case would have been difficult to explain to a jury despite what appeared to be strong direct and circumstantial evidence. Nonetheless, many experts believed that Milken had little chance of acquittal. Some felt a potential jury would have had trouble relating to a man who earned more in one hour than most of them earned in one year. Also, it was felt that a jury would have trouble believing that anyone could earn the money Milken earned and do so legally. Sentencing At Milken's sentencing, Judge Kimba Wood told him: You were willing to commit only crimes that were unlikely to be detected.... When a man of your power in the financial world... repeatedly conspires to violate, and violates, securities and tax business in order to achieve more power and wealth for himself... a significant prison term is required. Wood recommended a 10-year prison sentence, of which, in her opinion, Milken should have served at least 36 to 40 months. However, Milken hired Alan Dershowitz to help reduce his sentence. Milken served only about 22 months (from March 1991 until January 1993) before being released. Upon his release, he still had net worth of over $1 billion, despite having paid a total of $200 million in fines and settlements - the highest paid by an individual person according to the Guiness Book of World Records - relating primarily to civil lawsuits. As of 2007, Milken is worth about $2.1 billion and has long since entered other business ventures. Most of his wealth comes from his success as a bond trader; according to Highly Confident by Jesse Kornbluth, he only had three losing months in 17 years of trading. In 1998, without admitting any guilt, he returned $47 million in fees to settle an SEC charge related to the 1990 order barring him from the securities industry. He allegedly breached the order when he advised MCI/News Corporation in a transaction in 1995, for which he received $27 million in advisory fees, and when he advised Revlon chairman Ronald Perelman on a Revlon/New World Communications deal in 1996, with $15 million in fees to Milken. In 1996, he received $50 million when Time Warner acquired Turner Broadcasting. The SEC did not bring up the last deal in the charge. Prostate cancer In January 1993, Milken received the results of a PSA test from a routine medical exam. Because prostate cancer is relatively rare for men in their 40s Milken's doctor didn't recommend the PSA test, he asked for it. The results came back with a level of 24 which is extremely high. Milken repeated the PSA test twice and a subsequent biopsy revealed advanced prostate cancer which had spread to his lymph nodes. At that time, Doctors considered prostate cancer that advanced to indicate that a man had less than 2 years to live. Milken opted for prostatectomy but a subsequent test showed that the cancer had already spread to his lymph nodes. Milken started hormone therapy to shut down production of testosterone. Hormone therapy cut his PSA over the course of several months to zero. He also opted to have radiation therapy. Subsequent scans showed the swelling in his lymph nodes had disappeared. Milken's cancer was in remission and still was in 2004 when he was profiled in Fortune. The Man'S Cancer - Time The Man Who Changed Medicine - November 29, 2004 Philanthropic activities In 1982, Milken and his brother Lowell founded the Milken Family Foundation to support medical research and education. Through the Milken Educator Awards (founded in 1985), the MFF has awarded a total of more than $58 million to more than 2,300 teachers. Among the other initiatives of the Milken Family Foundation are the: Milken Institute, a non-profit, non-partisan economic think tank whose scholars publish research papers and conduct conferences on global and regional economies, human capital, demographics and capital markets. Each spring, the Institute hosts its Global Conference in Los Angeles; Milken Scholars, a program provides outstanding high school graduates with a commitment of four years of college financial assistance, counseling, volunteer opportunities and preparation for graduate studies; Teacher Advancement Program (TAP), a comprehensive research-based strategy to attract, develop, motivate and retain high quality teachers for America's schools; Mike's Math Club, a curriculum enrichment program that shows students in inner-city elementary schools that math is not only useful, but entertaining; Festival for Youth, a school-based community service program that engages students in yearlong service projects to help build vibrant communities; and the Milken Family Foundation Epilepsy Research Awards Program, which funds research to understand and conquer epilepsy; Upon his release from prison in 1993, Milken founded the Prostate Cancer Foundation, the world's largest philanthropic source of funds for prostate cancer research. Milken himself was diagnosed with advanced prostate cancer in the same month he was released from the prison. His cancer is currently in remission. In 2003, Milken launched the Washington, D.C.-based think tank called FasterCures, which seeks greater efficiency in researching all serious diseases. A key initiative of FasterCures is Biobank Central, which is advancing life sciences research in areas as diverse as autism, psoriasis and breast cancer. The Melanoma Research Alliance (MRA) was launched in 2007 to support innovative translational studies that advance the diagnosis, staging and treatment of melanoma, the deadliest skin cancer. Fortune magazine called him "The Man Who Changed Medicine" in a 2004 cover story about his positive influence on medical research. Milken is also a major donor to the Milken Community High School, a private Jewish high school. This donation actually came from the "Milken Family". In recent years, Milken has been a commencement speaker at the University of California, San Diego and other institutions. Footnotes References Connie Bruck - The Predators' Ball : the inside story of Drexel Burnham and the rise of the junk bond raiders, New York: American Lawyer/Simon and Schuster, 1988, Penguin paperback (updated), 1989. Fenton Bailey - "Fall From Grace: The Untold Story of Michael Milken", Carol Publishing Corporation (October 1992), ISBN 1559721359. James B. Stewart - Den of Thieves, New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991, (ISBN 0-671-63802-5). NOTE: Stewart won the Pulitzer Prize in 1988 for his coverage of the 1987 stock market crash, as well as his reporting on insider trading scandals. Ben Stein - A License to Steal: the Untold Story of Michael Milken and the Conspiracy to Bilk the Nation, Simon and Schuster, 1992 Daniel R. Fischel - Payback: the conspiracy to destroy Michael Milken and his financial revolution, New York, New York: HarperBusiness, 1995, (ISBN 0-88730-757-4). Note: Fischel was Milken's attorney at one time; he is also an economist affiliated with the University of Chicago. Robert Sobel - Dangerous Dreamers: The Financial Innovators from Charles Merrill to Michael Milken''' (1993), (ISBN 0-471-57734-0). Note: Sobel is a noted business historian.'' External links Mike Milken's official website The Boom Generation - Seventh Decade article in the WSJ by Michael Milken, 9/19/2006

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Felix_Bloch

This page addresses only the Swiss physicist, for the man accused of espionage see Felix Bloch (diplomatic officer) Felix Bloch (October 23, 1905 – September 10, 1983) was a Swiss physicist, working mainly in the U.S. Life and work Bloch was born in Zürich, Switzerland to Jewish parents Gustav and Agnes Bloch. He was educated there and at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, also in Zürich. Initially studying engineering he soon changed to physics. During this time he attended lectures and seminars given by Peter Debye and Hermann Weyl at ETH Zürich and Erwin Schrödinger at the neighboring University of Zürich. A fellow student in these seminars was John von Neumann. Graduating in 1927 he continued his physics studies at the University of Leipzig with Werner Heisenberg, gaining his doctorate in 1928. His doctoral thesis established the quantum theory of solids, using Bloch waves to describe the electrons. He remained in European academia, studying with Wolfgang Pauli in Zürich, Niels Bohr in Copenhagen and Enrico Fermi in Rome before he went back to Leipzig assuming a position as privatdozent (lecturer). In 1933, immediately after Hitler came to power, he left Germany, emigrating to work at Stanford University in 1934, where he became the first professor for theoretical physics. In 1939, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. During WW II he worked on atomic energy at Los Alamos National Laboratory, before resigning to join the radar project at Harvard University. After the war he concentrated on investigations into nuclear induction and nuclear magnetic resonance, which are the underlying principles of MRI . In 1946 he proposed the Bloch equations which determine the time evolution of nuclear magnetization. He and Edward Mills Purcell were awarded the 1952 Nobel Prize for "their development of new ways and methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements." - Sohlman, M (Ed.) Nobel Foundation directory 2003. Vastervik, Sweden: AB CO Ekblad; 2003. In 1954–1955, he served for one year as the first Director-General of CERN. In 1961, he was made Max Stein Professor of Physics at Stanford University. References Physics Today 1984, 37(3), pp. 115-116. Nature 1952, 170, pp. 911-912. Nature 1954, 174, pp. 774-775. McGraw-Hill Modern Men of Science, McGraw-Hill, 1966, vol. 1, pp. 45-46. National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, James T. White & Co., 1921-1984, vol. I, pp. 310-312. Footnotes External links Biography and Bibliographic Resources, from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, United States Department of Energy http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1952/bloch-bio.html http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/spc/xml/sc0303.xml Oral History interview transcript with Felix Bloch 14 May 1964, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives Oral History interview transcript with Felix Bloch 15 August 1968, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives Research resources Bloch, F.; Staub, H. "Fission Spectrum", Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) (through predecessor agency Los Alamos Scientific Lab), United States Department of Energy (through predecessor agency the US Atomic Energy Commission), (August 18, 1943). Felix Bloch Papers, 1931-1987 (33 linear ft.) are housed in the Department of Special Collections and University Archives at Stanford University Libraries

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Information_retrieval

Information retrieval (IR) is the science of searching for documents, for information within documents and for metadata about documents, as well as that of searching relational databases and the World Wide Web. There is overlap in the usage of the terms data retrieval, document retrieval, information retrieval, and text retrieval, but each also has its own body of literature, theory, praxis and technologies. IR is interdisciplinary, based on computer science, mathematics, library science, information science, information architecture, cognitive psychology, linguistics, statistics and physics. Automated information retrieval systems are used to reduce what has been called "information overload". Many universities and public libraries use IR systems to provide access to books, journals and other documents. Web search engines are the most visible IR applications. History The idea of using computers to search for relevant pieces of information was popularized in an article As We May Think by Vannevar Bush in 1945. First implementations of information retrieval systems were introduced in the 1950s and 1960s. By 1990 several different techniques had been shown to perform well on small text corpora (several thousand documents). In 1992 the US Department of Defense, along with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), cosponsored the Text Retrieval Conference (TREC) as part of the TIPSTER text program. The aim of this was to look into the information retrieval community by supplying the infrastructure that was needed for evaluation of text retrieval methodologies on a very large text collection. This catalyzed research on methods that scale to huge corpora. The introduction of web search engines has boosted the need for very large scale retrieval systems even further. The use of digital methods for storing and retrieving information has led to the phenomenon of digital obsolescence, where a digital resource ceases to be readable because the physical media, the reader required to read the media, the hardware, or the software that runs on it, is no longer available. The information is initially easier to retrieve than if it were on paper, but is then effectively lost. Timeline Before 1900s 1880s: Herman Hollerith invents the recording of data on a machine readable medium 1890 Hollerith cards, key punches and tabulators used to process the 1890 US Census data. 1940s - 1950s late-1940s: The US military confronted problems of indexing and retrieval of wartime scientific research documents captured from Germans. 1945: Vannevar Bush's As We May Think appeared in Atlantic Monthly 1947: Hans Peter Luhn (research engineer at IBM since 1941) began work on a mechanized, punch card based system for searching chemical compounds. 1950s: Growing concern in the US for a "science gap" with the USSR motivated, encouraged funding, and provided a backdrop for mechanized literature searching systems (Allen Kent et al.) and the invention of citation indexing (Eugene Garfield). 1950: The term "information retrieval" may have been coined by Calvin Mooers. 1951: Philip Bagley conducted the earliest experiment in computerized document retrieval in a master thesis at MIT . 1955: Allen Kent joined Case Western Reserve University, and eventually becomes associate director of the Center for Documentation and Communications Research. That same year, Kent and colleagues publish a paper in American Documentation describing the precision and recall measures, as well as detailing a proposed "framework" for evaluating an IR system, which includes statistical sampling methods for determining the number of relevant documents not retrieved. 1958: International Conference on Scientific Information Washington DC included consideration of IR systems as a solution to problems identified. See: Proceedings of the International Conference on Scientific Information, 1958 (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1959) 1959: Hans Peter Luhn published "Auto-encoding of documents for information retrieval." 1960s: early-1960s: Gerard Salton began work on IR at Harvard, later moved to Cornell. 1960: Melvin Earl (Bill) Maron and J. L. Kuhns published "On relevance, probabilistic indexing, and information retrieval" in Journal of the ACM 7(3):216-244, July 1960. 1962: Cyril W. Cleverdon published early findings of the Cranfield studies, developing a model for IR system evaluation. See: Cyril W. Cleverdon, "Report on the Testing and Analysis of an Investigation into the Comparative Efficiency of Indexing Systems". Cranfield Coll. of Aeronautics, Cranfield, England, 1962. Kent published Information Analysis and Retrieval 1963: Weinberg report "Science, Government and Information" gave a full articulation of the idea of a "crisis of scientific information." The report was named after Dr. Alvin Weinberg. Joseph Becker and Robert M. Hayes published text on information retrieval. Becker, Joseph; Hayes, Robert Mayo. Information storage and retrieval: tools, elements, theories. New York, Wiley (1963). 1964: Karen Spärck Jones finished her thesis at Cambridge, Synonymy and Semantic Classification, and continued work on computational linguistics as it applies to IR The National Bureau of Standards sponsored a symposium titled "Statistical Association Methods for Mechanized Documentation." Several highly significant papers, including G. Salton's first published reference (we believe) to the SMART system. mid-1960s: National Library of Medicine developed MEDLARS Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System, the first major machine-readable database and batch retrieval system Project Intrex at MIT 1965: J. C. R. Licklider published Libraries of the Future 1966: Don Swanson was involved in studies at University of Chicago on Requirements for Future Catalogs late-1960s: F. W. Lancaster completed evaluation studies of the MEDLARS system and published the first edition of his text on information retrieval. 1968: Gerard Salton published Automatic Information Organization and Retrieval. J. W. Sammon's RADC Tech report "Some Mathematics of Information Storage and Retrieval..." outlined the vector model. 1969: Sammon's "A nonlinear mapping for data structure analysis" (IEEE Transactions on Computers) was the first proposal for visualization interface to an IR system. 1970s early-1970s: First online systems—NLM's AIM-TWX, MEDLINE; Lockheed's Dialog; SDC's ORBIT Theodor Nelson promoting concept of hypertext, published Computer Lib/Dream Machines 1971: N. Jardine and C. J. Van Rijsbergen published "The use of hierarchic clustering in information retrieval", which articulated the "cluster hypothesis." (Information Storage and Retrieval, 7(5), pp. 217–240, December 1971) 1975: Three highly influential publications by Salton fully articulated his vector processing framework and term discrimination model: A Theory of Indexing (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics) A Theory of Term Importance in Automatic Text Analysis (JASIS v. 26) A Vector Space Model for Automatic Indexing (CACM 18:11) 1978: The First ACM SIGIR conference. 1979: C. J. Van Rijsbergen published Information Retrieval (Butterworths). Heavy emphasis on probabilistic models. 1980s 1980: First international ACM SIGIR conference, joint with British Computer Society IR group in Cambridge 1982: Belkin, Oddy, and Brooks proposed the ASK (Anomalous State of Knowledge) viewpoint for information retrieval. This was an important concept, though their automated analysis tool proved ultimately disappointing. 1983: Salton (and M. McGill) published Introduction to Modern Information Retrieval (McGraw-Hill), with heavy emphasis on vector models. mid-1980s: Efforts to develop end user versions of commercial IR systems. 1985-1993: Key papers on and experimental systems for visualization interfaces. Work by D. B. Crouch, Robert R. Korfhage, M. Chalmers, A. Spoerri and others. 1989: First World Wide Web proposals by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. 1990s 1992: First TREC conference. 1997: Publication of Korfhage's Information Storage and Retrieval with emphasis on visualization and multi-reference point systems. late-1990s: Web search engines implementation of many features formerly found only in experimental IR systems. Search engines become the most common and maybe best instantiation of IR models, research and implementation. Overview An information retrieval process begins when a user enters a query into the system. Queries are formal statements of information needs, for example search strings in web search engines. In information retrieval a query does not uniquely identify a single object in the collection. Instead, several objects may match the query, perhaps with different degrees of relevancy. An object is an entity which keeps or stores information in a database. User queries are matched to objects stored in the database. Depending on the application the data objects may be, for example, text documents, images or videos. Often the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system, but are instead represented in the system by document surrogates. Most IR systems compute a numeric score on how well each object in the database match the query, and rank the objects according to this value. The top ranking objects are then shown to the user. The process may then be iterated if the user wishes to refine the query. Performance measures Many different measures for evaluating the performance of information retrieval systems have been proposed. The measures require a collection of documents and a query. All common measures described here assume a ground truth notion of relevancy: every document is known to be either relevant or non-relevant to a particular query. In practice queries may be ill-posed and there may be different shades of relevancy. Precision Precision is the fraction of the documents retrieved that are relevant to the user's information need. In binary classification, precision is analogous to positive predictive value. Precision takes all retrieved documents into account. It can also be evaluated at a given cut-off rank, considering only the topmost results returned by the system. This measure is called precision at n or P@n. Note that the meaning and usage of "precision" in the field of Information Retrieval differs from the definition of accuracy and precision within other branches of science and technology. Recall Recall is the fraction of the documents that are relevant to the query that are successfully retrieved. In binary classification, recall is called sensitivity. So it can be looked at as the probability that a relevant document is retrieved by the query. It is trivial to achieve recall of 100% by returning all documents in response to any query. Therefore recall alone is not enough but one needs to measure the number of non-relevant documents also, for example by computing the precision. Fall-Out The proportion of non-relevant documents that are retrieved, out of all non-relevant documents available: In binary classification, fall-out is closely related to specificity . It can be looked at as the probability that a non-relevant document is retrieved by the query. It is trivial to achieve fall-out of 0% by returning zero documents in response to any query. F-measure The weighted harmonic mean of precision and recall, the traditional F-measure or balanced F-score is: This is also known as the measure, because recall and precision are evenly weighted. The general formula for non-negative real β is: . Two other commonly used F measures are the measure, which weights recall twice as much as precision, and the measure, which weights precision twice as much as recall. The F-measure was derived by van Rijsbergen (1979) so that "measures the effectiveness of retrieval with respect to a user who attaches β times as much importance to recall as precision". It is based on van Rijsbergen's effectiveness measure . Their relationship is where . Average precision of precision and recall The precision and recall are based on the whole list of documents returned by the system. Average precision emphasizes returning more relevant documents earlier. It is average of precisions computed after truncating the list after each of the relevant documents in turn: where r is the rank, N the number retrieved, rel() a binary function on the relevance of a given rank, and P() precision at a given cut-off rank. NOTE: number of relevant documents is actually number of relevant documents in the entire COLLECTION. Otherwise this is ambiguous when dealing with a hitlist that isnt the entire collection. See: http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/text/htdocs/imt_quality.htm . There is very little written about MAP even though it is a widely used metric. The argument for entire collection is that otherwise you don't get a sense of recall. Model types Categorization of IR-models (translated from German entry, original source Dominik Kuropka). For the information retrieval to be efficient, the documents are typically transformed into a suitable representation. There are several representations. The picture on the right illustrates the relationship of some common models. In the picture, the models are categorized according to two dimensions: the mathematical basis and the properties of the model. First dimension: mathematical basis Set-theoretic models represent documents as sets of words or phrases. Similarities are usually derived from set-theoretic operations on those sets. Common models are: Standard Boolean model Extended Boolean model Fuzzy retrieval Algebraic models represent documents and queries usually as vectors, matrices or tuples. The similarity of the query vector and document vector is represented as a scalar value. Vector space model Generalized vector space model Topic-based vector space model (literature: , ) Extended Boolean model Enhanced topic-based vector space model (literature: , ) Latent semantic indexing aka latent semantic analysis Probabilistic models treat the process of document retrieval as a probabilistic inference. Similarities are computed as probabilities that a document is relevant for a given query. Probabilistic theorems like the Bayes' theorem are often used in these models. Binary independence retrieval Probabilistic relevance model (BM25) Uncertain inference Language models Divergence-from-randomness model Latent Dirichlet allocation Second dimension: properties of the model Models without term-interdependencies treat different terms/words as independent. This fact is usually represented in vector space models by the orthogonality assumption of term vectors or in probabilistic models by an independency assumption for term variables. Models with immanent term interdependencies allow a representation of interdependencies between terms. However the degree of the interdependency between two terms is defined by the model itself. It is usually directly or indirectly derived (e.g. by dimensional reduction) from Major figures Thomas Bayes Claude E. Shannon Gerard Salton Hans Peter Luhn W. Bruce Croft Karen Spärck Jones C. J. van Rijsbergen Stephen E. Robertson Martin Porter Awards in the field Tony Kent Strix award Gerard Salton Award See also Adversarial information retrieval Areas of IR application Clustering Compound term processing Controlled vocabulary Cross-language information retrieval Educational psychology European Summer School in Information Retrieval Free text search Human Computer Information Retrieval Information extraction Information need Information Retrieval Facility Information science Knowledge visualization Multisearch Personal information management Relevance (Information Retrieval) Relevance feedback Subject indexing Search index Selection-based search Tf-idf References External links ACM SIGIR: Information Retrieval Special Interest Group BCS IRSG: British Computer Society - Information Retrieval Specialist Group Text Retrieval Conference (TREC) Chinese Web Information Retrieval Forum (CWIRF) Information Retrieval (online book) by C. J. van Rijsbergen Information Retrieval Wiki Information Retrieval Facility Introduction to Information Retrieval (online book) by Christopher D. Manning, Prabhakar Raghavan and Hinrich Schütze, Cambridge University Press. 2008.

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Androphagi

Androphagi (Greek : "Ἀνδροφάγοι" for "man-eaters") was an ancient nation of cannibals north of Scythia (according to Herodotus), probably in the forests between the upper waters of the Dnepr and Don. A hypothesis popular in the West is that they were most likely Finns — the obsolete name of Nenets people, Samoyed, has a similar meaning in Russian: "self-eater". See Nenets. The Gutasaga relates of the blóts on the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea: Firi þan tima oc lengi eptir siþan. Troþu menn a hult. oc a hauga. wi. oc. stafgarþa. oc a haiþin guþ. blotaþu þair synnum oc dydrum sinum Oc fileþi. miþ matj oc mundgati. þet gierþu þair eptir wantro sinnj. land alt. hafþi sir hoystu blotan miþ fulki. ellar hafþi huer þriþiungr. sir. En smeri þing hafþu mindri blotan meþ fileþi. matj. Oc mungati. sum haita suþnautar. þi et þair suþu allir saman. This is roughly translated: Before this time, and a long time thereafter, they believed in groves and barrows, sanctuaries, and sacred enclosures and in the pagan gods. They sacrificed (for?) their sons, daughters and cattle, and practiced blóts with food and drink. This they did due to their superstition. The whole country (the althing) had the largest blót with sacrifice of people, otherwise every trithing had its blót and smaller things had smaller blóts with cattle, food and drinks. They were called food-, or cooking-brethren, because they prepared the meals together. References See also Issedones Anthropophagi

Androphagi |@lemmatized androphagi:1 greek:1 ἀνδροφάγοι:1 man:1 eater:2 ancient:1 nation:1 cannibal:1 north:1 scythia:1 accord:1 herodotus:1 probably:1 forest:1 upper:1 water:1 dnepr:1 hypothesis:1 popular:1 west:1 likely:1 finn:1 obsolete:1 name:1 nenets:2 people:2 samoyed:1 similar:1 meaning:1 russian:1 self:1 see:2 gutasaga:1 relate:1 blóts:3 island:1 gotland:1 baltic:1 sea:1 firi:1 þan:1 tima:1 oc:8 lengi:1 eptir:2 siþan:1 troþu:1 menn:1 hult:1 hauga:1 wi:1 stafgarþa:1 haiþin:1 guþ:1 blotaþu:1 þair:3 synnum:1 dydrum:1 sinum:1 fileþi:2 miþ:2 matj:2 mundgati:1 þet:1 gierþu:1 wantro:1 sinnj:1 land:1 alt:1 hafþi:2 sir:2 hoystu:1 blotan:2 fulki:1 ellar:1 huer:1 þriþiungr:1 en:1 smeri:1 þing:1 hafþu:1 mindri:1 meþ:1 mungati:1 sum:1 haita:1 suþnautar:1 þi:1 et:1 suþu:1 allir:1 saman:1 roughly:1 translate:1 time:2 long:1 thereafter:1 believe:1 grove:1 barrow:1 sanctuary:1 sacred:1 enclosure:1 pagan:1 god:1 sacrifice:2 son:1 daughter:1 cattle:2 practice:1 food:3 drink:2 due:1 superstition:1 whole:1 country:1 althing:1 large:1 blót:2 otherwise:1 every:1 trithing:1 small:2 thing:1 call:1 cook:1 brother:1 prepare:1 meal:1 together:1 reference:1 also:1 issedones:1 anthropophagi:1 |@bigram baltic_sea:1

Li_people

The Li (黎; pinyin: Lí) or Hlai are a minority Chinese ethnic group, sometimes colloquially known as "Sai" or "Say." They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. 94% of the Li live off the southern coast of mainland China on Hainan, where they are the largest minority ethnic group. As well as Hainan, the Li people are also native to some islands of the Philippines; however, there is much smaller population of Li in the Philippines compared to Li in the PRC. During the Sui Dynasty they were known by the name Liliao, and presently they refer to themselves as the Hlai people, sometimes spelled Slai. The Li suffered heavily under the Japanese occupation, and they are held in high esteem by the Beijing government because they fought on the side of the CPC against Chinese Nationalist rule during the Chinese Civil War. The Li people can generally understand or speak Mandarin. Because many Li in Hainan relocate to Cantonese-speaking areas in southern China, Li may learn Cantonese during their childhood. Culture The Li play a traditional wind instrument called kǒuxiāo (口箫), and another called lìlāluó (利拉罗). External links Ethnologue entry for Hlai language

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Alternative_algebra

In abstract algebra, an alternative algebra is an algebra in which multiplication need not be associative, only alternative. That is, one must have for all x and y in the algebra. Every associative algebra is obviously alternative, but so too are some strictly nonassociative algebras such as the octonions. The sedenions, on the other hand, are not alternative. The associator Alternative algebras are so named because they are precisely the algebras for which the associator is alternating. The associator is a trilinear map given by By definition a multilinear map is alternating if it vanishes whenever two of it arguments are equal. The left and right alternative identities for an algebra are equivalent to Both of these identities together imply that the associator is totally skew-symmetric. That is, for any permutation σ. It follows that for all x and y. This is equivalent to the so-called flexible identity The associator is therefore alternating. Conversely, any algebra whose associator is alternating is clearly alternative. By symmetry, any algebra which satisfies any two of: left alternative identity: right alternative identity: flexible identity: is alternative and therefore satisfies all three identities. An alternating associator is always totally skew-symmetric. The converse holds so long as the characteristic of the base field is not 2. Properties Artin's theorem states that in an alternative algebra the subalgebra generated by any two elements is associative. Conversely, any algebra for which this is true is clearly alternative. It follows that expressions involving only two variables can be written without parenthesis unambiguously in an alternative algebra. A generalization of Artin's theorem states that whenever three elements in an alternative algebra associate (i.e. ) the subalgebra generated by those elements is associative. A corollary of Artin's theorem is that alternative algebras are power-associative, that is, the subalgebra generated by a single element is associative. The converse need not hold: the sedenions are power-associative but not alternative. The Moufang identities hold in any alternative algebra. In a unital alternative algebra, multiplicative inverses are unique whenever they exist. Moreover, for any invertible element and all one has This is equivalent to saying the associator vanishes for all such and . If and are invertible then is also invertible with inverse . The set of all invertible elements is therefore closed under multiplication and forms a Moufang loop. This loop of units in an alternative ring or algebra is analogous to the group of units in an associative ring or algebra. Applications The projective plane over any alternative division ring is a Moufang plane. References

Alternative_algebra |@lemmatized abstract:1 algebra:20 alternative:20 multiplication:2 need:2 associative:8 one:2 must:1 x:2 every:1 obviously:1 strictly:1 nonassociative:1 octonions:1 sedenions:2 hand:1 associator:8 name:1 precisely:1 alternate:5 trilinear:1 map:2 give:1 definition:1 multilinear:1 vanish:1 whenever:3 two:4 argument:1 equal:1 left:2 right:2 identity:8 equivalent:3 together:1 imply:1 totally:2 skew:2 symmetric:2 permutation:1 σ:1 follow:2 call:1 flexible:2 therefore:3 conversely:2 whose:1 clearly:2 symmetry:1 satisfy:1 satisfies:1 three:2 always:1 converse:2 hold:3 long:1 characteristic:1 base:1 field:1 property:1 artin:3 theorem:3 state:2 subalgebra:3 generate:3 element:6 true:1 expression:1 involve:1 variable:1 write:1 without:1 parenthesis:1 unambiguously:1 generalization:1 associate:1 e:1 corollary:1 power:2 single:1 moufang:3 unital:1 multiplicative:1 inverse:2 unique:1 exist:1 moreover:1 invertible:4 say:1 vanishes:1 also:1 set:1 closed:1 form:1 loop:2 unit:2 ring:3 analogous:1 group:1 application:1 projective:1 plane:2 division:1 reference:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 associative_algebra:1 skew_symmetric:2 permutation_σ:1 multiplicative_inverse:1 invertible_inverse:1 projective_plane:1

Passover

Passover (Hebrew, Yiddish: פֶּסַח, , Tiberian: , Israeli: Pesah, Pesakh, Yiddish: Peysekh, Paysakh) is a Jewish and Samaritan holy day and festival commemorating the Hebrews escape from enslavement in Egypt. Passover begins on the 15th day of the month of Nisan (equivalent to March and April in Gregorian calendar), the first month of the Hebrew calendar's festival year according to the Hebrew Bible. (; , ) In the story of the Exodus, the Bible tells that God inflicted ten plagues upon the Egyptians before Pharaoh would release his Hebrew slaves, with the tenth plague being the killing of firstborn sons. The Hebrews were instructed to mark the doorposts of their homes with the blood of a spring lamb and, upon seeing this, the spirit of the Lord passed over these homes, hence the term "passover". Exodus 12:12: "On that same night I will pass through Egypt and strike down every firstborn—both men and animals—and I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt. I am יהוה (the LORD)." When Pharaoh freed the Hebrews, it is said that they left in such a hurry that they could not wait for bread to rise. In commemoration, for the duration of Passover, no leavened bread is eaten, for which reason it is called "The Festival of the Unleavened Bread". , , Matza (unleavened bread) is the primary symbol of the holiday. This bread that is flat and unrisen is called Matzo. Together with Shavuot ("Pentecost") and Sukkot ("Tabernacles"), Passover is one of the three pilgrim festivals (Shalosh Regalim) during which the entire Jewish populace historically made a pilgrimage to the Temple in Jerusalem. Samaritans still make this pilgrimage to Mount Gerizim, but only men participate in public worship. Date in the spring and length Passover begins on the 15th day of the month of Nisan, which corresponds to the full moon of Nisan, the first month of the Hebrew calendar, in accordance with the Hebrew Bible. Passover is a spring festival, so the 15th of Nisan begins on the night of a full moon after the vernal equinox. To ensure that Passover did not start before spring, the tradition in ancient Israel held that the 1st of Nisan would not start until the barley is ripe, being the test for the onset of spring. The barley had to be "eared out" (ripe) in order to have a wave-sheaf offering of the first fruits according to the Law. This also presupposes that the cycle is based on the northern hemisphere seasons. If the barley was not ripe an intercalary month (Adar II) would be added. However, since at least the 12th century, the date has been determined mathematically. In Israel, Passover is the seven-day holiday of the Feast of Unleavened Bread, with the first and last days observed as legal holidays and as holy days involving abstention from work, special prayer services, and holiday meals; the intervening days are known as Chol HaMoed ("festival days"). Diaspora Jews historically observed the festival for eight days, and most still do. Reform and Reconstructionst Jews and Israeli Jews, wherever they are, usually observe the holiday over seven days. The reason for this extra day is due to enactment of the Sages. It is thought by many scholars that Jews outside of Israel could not be certain if their local calendars fully conformed to practice of the temple at Jerusalem, so they added an extra day. But as this practice only attaches to certain (major) holy days, others posit the extra day may have been added to accommodate people who had to travel long distances to participate in communal worship and ritual practices; or the practice may have evolved as a compromise between conflicting interpretations of Jewish Law regarding the calendar; or it may have evolved as a safety measure in areas where Jews were commonly in danger, so that their enemies could not be certain on which day to attack. De Lange, Nicholas (2000). An Introduction to Judaism. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press. p. 97 Karaite Jews and Samaritans use different versions of the Jewish calendar, which are often out of sync with the modern Jewish calendar by one or two days. In 2009, for example, Nisan 15 on the Jewish calendar used by Rabbinical Judaism corresponds to April 9. On the olderJewish calendars used by Karaites and Samaritans, Abib or Aviv 15 (as opposed to 'Nisan') corresponds to April 11 in 2009. The Karaite and Samaritan Passovers are each one day long, followed by the six day Festival of Unleavened Bread - for a total of seven days. Origins of the festival Passover is a biblically mandated holiday, indicating that it was already old and traditional by the time of the redaction of the Pentateuch: In the first month, on the fourteenth day of the month between the two evenings is the LORD'S Passover. And on the fifteenth day of the same month is the feast of unleavened bread unto the LORD; seven days ye shall eat unleavened bread. In the first day ye shall have a holy convocation; ye shall do no manner of servile work. And ye shall bring an offering made by fire unto the LORD seven days; in the seventh day is a holy convocation; ye shall do no manner of servile work. () The biblical regulations for the observance of the festival require that all leavening be disposed of before the beginning of the 15th of Nisan. An unblemished lamb or goat is to be set apart on Nisan 10, and slaughtered on Nisan 14 "between the two evenings", a phrase which is, however, not defined. It is then to be eaten "that night", Nisan 15, roasted, without the removal of its internal organs with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. Nothing of the sacrifice on which the sun rises may be eaten, but must be burned. The sacrifices may only be performed in Jerusalem. , Some of these details can be corroborated, and to some extent amplified, in extrabiblical sources. The removal (or "sealing up") of the leaven is referred to the Passover Papyrus, an Aramaic papyrus from 5th century BCE Elephantine in Egypt. James B. Prichard, ed., The Ancient Near East-An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, Volume 1, Princeton University Press, 1958, p. 278. The slaughter of the lambs on the 14th is mentioned in The Book of Jubilees, a Jewish work of the Ptolemaic period, and by the Herodian-era writers Josephus and Philo. These sources also indicate that "between the two evenings" was taken to mean the afternoon. "On the feast called Passover...they sacrifice from the ninth to the eleventh hour", Josephus, Jewish War 6.423-428, in Josephus III, The Jewish War, Book IV-VII, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1979. Philo in one place (Special Laws 2.148) states that the victims are sacrificed "from noon till eventide", and in another place (Questions on Exodus 1.11) that the sacrifices begin at the ninth hour. According to Jubilees 49.12, "it is not fitting to sacrifice [the Passover] during any time of light except during the time of the border of evening." Jubilees states the sacrifice was eaten that night, Jubilees 49.1. and together with Josephus states that nothing of the sacrifice was allowed to remain until morning. "And what is left of its flesh from the third of the night and beyond, they shall burn with fire," Jubilees 49.12. "We celebrate [the Passover] by fraternities, nothing of the sacrificial victims being kept for the morrow," Josephus, Antiquities 3.248. Philo states that the banquet included hymns and prayers. "The guests assembled for the banquet have been cleansed by purificatory lustrations, and are there...to fulfill with prayers and hymns the custom handed down by their fathers." Philo, Special Laws 2.148, in Philo VII: On the Decalog; On the Special Laws I-III, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1937. The Biblical commandments concerning the Passover (and the Feast of Unleavened Bread) stress the importance of remembering: And thou shalt remember that thou wast a bondman in Egypt; and thou shalt observe and do these statutes." () commands, in reference to God's sparing of the firstborn from the Tenth Plague: And this day shall be unto you for a memorial, and ye shall keep it a feast to the LORD; throughout your generations ye shall keep it a feast by an ordinance for ever. repeats the command to remember: Remember this day, in which you came out of Egypt, out of the house of bondage, for by strength the hand of the LORD brought you out from this place. Origin of the name "The Jews' Passover"—facsimile of a miniature from a 15th century missal, ornamented with paintings of the School of Van Eyck The verb "pasàch" () is first mentioned in the Torah account of the Exodus from Egypt (), and there is some debate about its exact meaning: the commonly held assumption that it means "He passed over", in reference to God "passing over" the houses of the Hebrews during the final of the Ten Plagues of Egypt, stems from the translation provided in the Septuagint (παρελευσεται in , and εσκεπασεν in ). Judging from other instances of the verb, and instances of parallelism, a more faithful translation may be "he hovered over, guarding." Indeed, this is the image used by Isaiah by his use of this verb in Isaiah. 31:5: "As birds hovering, so will the Lord of hosts protect Jerusalem; He will deliver it as He protecteth it, He will rescue it as He passeth over" (כְּצִפֳּרִים עָפוֹת—כֵּן יָגֵן יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת, עַל-יְרוּשָׁלִָם; גָּנוֹן וְהִצִּיל, פָּסֹחַ וְהִמְלִיט.) () Targum Onkelos translates pesach as "he had pity", The English term "Passover" came into the English language through William Tyndale's translation of the Bible, and later appeared in the King James Version as well. The term Pesach () may also refer to the lamb or kid which was designated as the Passover sacrifice (called the Korban Pesach in Hebrew). Four days before the Exodus, the Hebrews were commanded to set aside a lamb.() and inspect it daily for blemishes. During the day on the 14th of Nisan, they were to slaughter the animal and use its blood to mark their lintels and door posts. Up until midnight on the 15th of Nisan, they were to consume the lamb. Each family (or group of families) gathered together to eat a meal that included the meat of the Korban Pesach while the Tenth Plague ravaged Egypt. In subsequent years, during the existence of the Tabernacle and later the Temple in Jerusalem, the Korban Pesach was eaten during the Passover Seder on the 15th of Nisan. However, following the destruction of the Temple, no sacrifices may be offered or eaten. The Seder Korban Pesach, a set of scriptural and Rabbinic passages dealing with the Passover sacrifice, is customarily recited during or after the Mincha (afternoon prayer) service on the 14th on Nisan. Eliyahu Kitov, The Book of Our Heritage: The Jewish Year and Its Days of Significance, Feldheim, 1997, p. 562. The story of the Korban Pesach is also retold at the Passover Seder,meaning order, and the symbolic food which represents it on the Seder Plate is usually a roasted lamb shankbone, chicken wing, or chicken neck. Historic offering, "Korban Pesach" When the Temple in Jerusalem was standing, the focus of the Passover festival was the Korban Pesach (lit. "Pesach sacrifice," also known as the "Paschal Lamb"). Every family large enough to completely consume a young lamb or Wild Goat was required to offer one for sacrifice at the Jewish Temple on the afternoon of the 14th day of Nisan, ) and eat it that night, which was the 15th of Nisan. () If the family was too small to finish eating the entire offering in one sitting, an offering was made for a group of families. The offering could not be slaughtered while one was in possession of leaven, () and had to be roasted, without its head, feet, or inner organs being removed () and eaten together with matzo (unleavened bread) and maror (bitter herbs). () One had to be careful not to break any bones from the offering, () and none of the meat could be left over by morning. () Because of the Korban Pesach'''s status as a sacred offering, the only people allowed to eat it were those who have the obligation to bring the offering. Among those who can not offer or eat the Korban Pesach are: An apostate (), a servant (), an uncircumcised man (), a person in a state of ritual impurity, except when a majority of Jews are in such a state (Pesahim 66b), and a non-Jew. The offering must be made before a quorum of 30 (Pesahim 64b). In the Temple, the Levites sing Hallel while the Kohanim perform the sacrificial service. Men and women are equally obligated regarding the Korban Pesach (Pesahim 91b). Women were obligated, as men, to perform the Korban Pesach and to participate in a Seder. Today, in the absence of the Temple, the mitzvah of the Korban Pesach is memorialized in the Seder Korban Pesach, recited in the afternoon of Nisan 14, and in the form of symbolic food placed on the Passover Seder Plate, which is usually a roasted shankbone. The eating of the afikoman substitutes for the eating of the Korban Pesach at the end of the Seder meal. Mishnah Pesachim 119a. Many Sephardi Jews have the custom of eating lamb or goat meat during the Seder in memory of the Korban Pesach. Modern observance and preparation Removing all chametzChametz (חמץ, "leavening") refers either to a grain product that is already fermented (e.g. yeast breads, certain types of cake, and most alcoholic beverages), or to a substance that can cause fermentation (e.g. yeast, sourdough or high fructose corn syrup). The consumption of chametz is forbidden during Passover in most Jewish traditions. According to Halakha, the ownership of chametz is also proscribed. The specific definition of chametz varies among religious and ethno-cultural traditions. In Ashkenazic and certain Sephardic applications of Jewish Law, chametz does not include baking soda, baking powder or like products. Although these are leavening agents, they leaven by chemical reaction whereas the prohibition against chametz is understood to apply only to fermentation. Thus, bagels, waffles and pancakes made with baking soda and matzo meal are considered permissible, while bagels made with yeast, sourdough pancakes and waffles, and the like, are prohibited. Karaite Jews and many non-Ashkenazic Jewish traditions do not observe a distinction between chemical leavening and leavening by fermentation. The Torah commandments regarding chametz are: To remove all chametz from one's home, including things made with chametz, before the first day of Passover. (). It may be simply used up, thrown out (historically, destroyed by burning, since there was no weekly garbage pickup in ancient times), or given or sold to non-Jews (or non-Samaritans, as the case may be). To refrain from eating chametz or mixtures containing chametz during Passover. (, , ). Not to possess chametz in one's domain (i.e. home, office, car, etc.) during Passover (, ). Spring cleaning Observant Jews typically spend the weeks before Passover in a flurry of thorough housecleaning, to remove every morsel of chametz from every part of the home. The Halakha requires the elimination of olive-sized or larger quantities of leavening from one's possession, but most housekeeping goes beyond this. Even the cracks of kitchen counters are thoroughly scrubbed, for example, to remove any traces of flour and yeast, however small. Any item or implement that has handled chametz must then be fully cleansed to remove all traces of chametz from them. This is usually accomplished through heat: either by directly heating the implements or by subjecting them to boiling water. Some Jewish bakeries subject their ovens to blowtorches until they glow red hot (a process called libun gamur). Traditionally, Jews do a formal search for remaining chametz (bedikat chametz) after nightfall on the evening before Passover. A blessing is read (על ביעור חמץ - al biyur chametz, "on the removal of chametz"), and one or more members of the household proceed from room to room to check that no crumbs remain in any corner. In very traditional families, the search may be conducted by the head of the household; in more modern families, the children may be the ones who do the search, under the careful supervision of their parents. It is customary to turn off the lights and conduct the search by candlelight, using a feather and a wooden spoon: candlelight effectively illuminates corners without casting shadows; the feather can dust crumbs out of their hiding places; and the wooden spoon which collects the crumbs can be burned the next day with the chametz. Some forgo the traditional tools and use modern equivalents, such as a flashlight, table brush and dustpan. Because the house is assumed to have been thoroughly cleaned by the night before Passover, there is some concern that making a blessing over the search for chametz will be for naught ("bracha l'vatala") if nothing is found. Thus, 10 morsels of bread smaller than the size of an olive are traditionally hidden throughout the house in order to ensure that there some chametz will be found. Sale of chametzChametz may be sold rather than discarded, especially in the case of relatively valuable forms such as liquor distilled from wheat, with the products being repurchased afterward. In some cases, they may never leave the house, instead being formally sold while remaining in the original owner's possession in a locked cabinet until they can be repurchased after the holiday. Although this practice dates back many years, some contemporary rabbinical authorities have come to regard it with disdain - since the supposed "new owner" never takes actual possession of the goods. The sale of chametz may also be conducted communally via a rabbi, who becomes the "agent" for all the community's Jews through a halakhic procedure called a kinyan (acquisition). Each householder must put aside all the chametz he is selling into a box or cupboard, and the rabbi enters into a contract to sell all the chametz to a non-Jewish person (who is not obligated to observe the commandments) in exchange for a small down payment (e.g. $1.00), with the remainder due after Passover. This sale is considered completely binding according to Halakha, and at any time during the holiday, the buyer may come to take or partake of his property. The rabbi then re-purchases the goods for less than they were sold at the end of the holiday. Pesach questions and answers by the Torah Learning Center. Observant Jewish store owners who stock leavened food products sell everything in their storeroom in this fashion with the full knowledge that the new owner is entitled to claim the property. In Eastern European shtetls, Jewish tavernkeepers, would sell their alcoholic chametz and risk having their neighbors enter their cellars to drink the liquor. Burning the chametz Following the formal search for chametz, any leavened products that were found during the search, along with 10 morsels of bread, are burned (s'rayfat chametz). The head of the household declares any chametz that may not have been found to be null and void "as the dust of the earth" (biyur chametz). Should more chametz actually be found in the house during the Passover holiday, it must be burnt as soon as possible. Unlike chametz, which can be eaten any day of the year except during Passover, kosher for Passover foods can be eaten year-round. They need not be burnt or otherwise discarded after the holiday ends. The sole exception is the historic sacrificial lamb, which is almost never part of the modern Ashkenazi Jewish holiday but is still a principal feature of Samaritan observance and non-Ashkenazi Jewish observance. The meat of this lamb, which is slaughtered and cooked on the evening of Passover, must be completely consumed before the morning.() Matzo Commandments and symbolism The main symbol of the Passover holiday is matzo, or unleavened bread. This is a type of flatbread made solely from flour and water which is continually worked from mixing through baking, so that it is not allowed to rise. Matzo may be made by machine or by hand; the latter type of matzo, called shmura matzo ("watched" or "guarded" matzo), is the bread of preference for the Passover Seder in Orthodox Jewish communities. The Torah contains a Divine commandment to eat matzo on the first night of Passover and to eat only unleavened bread (i.e., matzo) during the entire week of Passover. Accordingly, the eating of matzo figures prominently in the Passover Seder. There are several explanations for this. The Torah says that it is because the Hebrews left Egypt with such haste that there was no time to allow baked bread to rise; thus, flat bread, matzo, is a reminder of the rapid departure of the Exodus. Other scholars teach that in the time of the Exodus, matzo was commonly baked for the purpose of traveling because it preserved well and was light to carry (making it similar to hardtack), suggesting that matzo was baked intentionally for the long journey ahead. Matzo has also been called Lechem Oni (Hebrew: "poor man's bread"). There is an attendant explanation that matzo serves as a symbol to remind Jews what it is like to be a poor slave and to promote humility, appreciate freedom, and avoid the inflated ego symbolized by leavened bread. What is the kabbalistic view on chametz? by Rabbi Yossi Marcus Matzo baking Handmade shmura matzoIn the weeks before Passover, matzos are prepared for holiday consumption. In Orthodox Jewish communities, men traditionally gather in groups ("chaburas") to bake a special version of handmade matzo called "shmura matzo", or "guarded matzo", for use at the Seder. These are made from wheat that is guarded from contamination by chametz from the time of summer harvest to its baking into matzos five to ten months later. These Matzos are often begun to be produced in early November. Shmura matzo dough is rolled by hand, resulting in a large and round matzo. Chaburas also work together in machine-made matzo factories, which produce the typically square-shaped matzo sold in stores. The baking of shmura matzo is labor-intensive, as only 18–22 minutes is permitted between the mixing of flour and water to the conclusion of baking and removal from the oven; however, most are completed by 5 minutes after first being kneaded. Consequently, only a small amount of matzos can be baked at one time, and the chabura members are enjoined to work the dough constantly so that it is not allowed to ferment and rise. A special cutting tool is run over the dough just before baking to keep the matzos flat while baking; this creates the familiar dotted holes in the matzo. After the matzos come out of the oven, the entire work area is scrubbed down and swept to make sure that no pieces of old, potentially leavened dough remain, as any stray pieces are now chametz, and can contaminate the next batch of matzo. Passover dishes Due to the strict separation between matzo products and chametz during Passover, observant families typically own complete sets of serving dishes, glassware and silverware for use only during Passover. Under certain circumstances, some chametz utensils can be immersed in boiling water (hagalat keilim) to purge them of any traces of chametz may have accumulated during the year. Many Sephardic families thoroughly wash their year-round glassware and then use it for Passover, as the Sephardic position is that glass does not absorb enough traces of food to present a problem. Fast of the firstborn On the morning before Passover, the fast of the firstborn takes place. This fast commemorates the salvation of the Hebrew firstborns during the Plague of the Firstborn (according to the Book of Exodus, the tenth of ten plagues wrought upon ancient Egypt prior to the Exodus of the Children of Israel), when, according to Exodus (12:29): "...God struck every firstborn in the Land of Mitzrayim (ancient Egypt)...." Many authorities, including the Rema, note the custom that fathers of firstborn sons are required to observe the fast if their son has not yet reached the age of Bar Mitzvah. In practice, however, most firstborns only fast until the end of the morning prayer service in synagogue. This is due to the widespread custom for a member of the congregation to conduct a siyum (ceremony marking the completion of a section of Torah learning) right after services and invite everyone to partake in a celebratory meal. According to widespread custom, partaking of this meal removes one's obligation to fast. If the firstborn is a boy in a Jewish family, that boy will have to fast after he has his Bar Mitzvah. The Passover seder Table set for the Passover Seder It is traditional for Jewish families to gather on the first night of Passover (first two nights in communities outside the land of Israel) for a special dinner called a seder (סדר—derived from the Hebrew word for "order", referring to the very specific order of the ritual). The table is set with the finest china and silverware to reflect the importance of the meal. During this meal, the story of the Exodus from Egypt is retold using a special text called the Haggadah. Four cups of wine are consumed at various stages in the narrative. The Haggadah divides the night's procedure into 15 parts:Kadeish קדש - recital of Kiddush blessing and drinking of the first cup of wineUrchatz ורחץ - the washing of the hands - without blessingKarpas כרפס - dipping of the karpas in salt waterYachatz יחץ - breaking the middle matzo; the larger piece becomes the afikoman which is eaten later during the ritual of TzafunMaggid מגיד - retelling the Passover story, including the recital of "the four questions" and drinking of the second cup of wineRachtzah רחצה - second washing of the hands - with blessingMotzi מוציא - traditional blessing before eating bread productsMatzo מצה - blessing before eating matzoMaror מרור - eating of the marorKoreich כורך - eating of a sandwich made of matzo and marorShulchan oreich שולחן עורך - lit. "set table"—the serving of the holiday mealTzafun צפון - eating of the afikomanBareich ברך - blessing after the meal and drinking of the third cup of wineHallel הלל - recital of the Hallel, traditionally recited on festivals; drinking of the fourth cup of wineNirtzah נירצה - conclusion These 15 parts parallel the 15 steps in the Temple in Jerusalem on which the Levites stood during Temple services, and which were memorialized in the 15 Psalms (#120-134) known as Shir HaMa'alot (, "Songs of Ascent"). Shir Ha Ma’a lot. Bronze matzo plate inscribed ""Ha Lachma Anya" ("This is the bread of affliction that our ancestors ate in Egypt,") the opening words of the "Maggid" (Retelling). Design: Maurice Ascalon. The seder is replete with questions, answers, and unusual practices (e.g. the recital of Kiddush which is not immediately followed by the blessing over bread, which is the traditional procedure for all other holiday meals) to arouse the interest and curiosity of the children at the table. The children are also rewarded with nuts and candies when they ask questions and participate in the discussion of the Exodus and its aftermath. Likewise, they are encouraged to search for the afikoman, the piece of matzo which is the last thing eaten at the seder. Audience participation and interaction is the rule, and many families' seders last long into the night with animated discussions and much singing. The seder concludes with additional songs of praise and faith printed in the Haggadah, including Chad Gadya ("One Kid Goat"). Maror Maror, one disallowed type and two acceptable kinds (L to R): "chrein" (Yiddish)- grated horseradish with cooked beets and sugar, not acceptable maror due to its sweetness; romaine lettuce; and whole horseradish root, often served grated.A commandment to eat Maror, bitter herbs (typically, horseradish, romaine lettuce, or green onions), together with matzo and the Passover sacrifice . In the absence of the Temple, Jews cannot bring the Passover sacrifice. This commandment is fulfilled today by the eating of Maror both by itself and together with matzo in a Koreich-sandwich during the Passover seder. Recounting the Exodus On the first night of Passover (first two nights in communities outside Israel), a Jew is required to recount the story of the Exodus from Egypt. This commandment is performed during the Passover seder. Four cups of wine There is a Rabbinic requirement that four cups of wine (or grape juice) are to be drunk during the seder. This applies to both men and women. The Mishnah says (Pes. 10:1) that even the poorest man in Israel has an obligation to drink. Each cup is connected to a different part of the seder: the first cup is for Kiddush, the second cup is connected with the recounting of the Exodus, the drinking of the third cup concludes Birkat Hamazon and the fourth cup is associated with Hallel. Children in Passover The four questions Children have a very important role in the Passover seder. Traditionally the youngest child is prompted to ask questions about the Passover seder, beginning with the words, Mah Nishtana HaLeila HaZeh (Why is this night different from all other nights?). The questions encourage the gathering to discuss the significance of the symbols in the meal. The questions asked by the child are: Why is this night different from all other nights? On all other nights, we eat either unleavened or leavened bread, but tonight we eat only unleavened bread? On all other nights, we eat all kinds of vegetables, but tonight, we eat only bitter herbs? On all other nights, we do not dip [our food] even once, but tonight we dip twice? On all other nights, we eat either sitting or reclining, but tonight we only recline? Often the leader of the seder and the other adults at the meal will use prompted responses from the Haggadah, which states, “The more one talks about the Exodus from Egypt, the more praiseworthy he is.” Many readings, prayers, and stories are used to recount the story of the Exodus. Many households add their own commentary and interpretation and often the story of the Jews is related to the theme of liberation and its implications worldwide. Afikoman The afikoman — an integral part of the Seder itself — is used to engage the interest and excitement of the children at the table. During the fourth part of the Seder, called Yachatz, the leader breaks the middle piece of matzah into two. He sets aside the larger portion as the afikoman. Many families use the afikoman as a device for keeping the children awake and alert throughout the Seder proceedings by hiding the afikoman and offering a prize for its return. Alternately, the children are allowed to "steal" the afikoman and demand a reward for its return. In either case, the afikoman must be consumed during the twelfth part of the Seder, Tzafun. Concluding songs After the Hallel, the fourth glass of wine is drunk, and participants recite a prayer that ends in “Next year in Jerusalem!”. This is followed by several lyric prayers that expound upon God's mercy and kindness, and give thanks for the survival of the Jewish people through a history of exile and hardship. Some of these songs, such as "Chad Gadiyah" are allegorical. Holiday week and related celebrations In Israel, Passover lasts for seven days with the first and last days being major holidays. In Orthodox and Conservative communities, no work is performed on those days, with most of rules relating to the observances of Shabbat being applied. A seder is held on the first day. Outside Israel, in Orthodox and Conservative communities, the holiday lasts for eight days with the first two days and last two days being major holidays. A seder is conducted twice, on both the first and second days. In the intermediate days necessary work can be performed. Reform Judaism observes Passover over seven days, with the first day being a major holiday when a seder is held. Like the holiday of Sukkot, the intermediary days of Passover are known as Chol HaMoed (festival weekdays) and are imbued with a semi-festive status. It is a time for family outings and picnic lunches of matzo, hardboiled eggs, fruits and vegetables, and Passover treats such as macaroons and homemade candies. The prohibition against eating leavened food products and regular flour during Passover results in the increased consumption of potatoes, eggs and oil in addition to fresh milk and cheeses, fresh meat and chicken, and fresh fruit and vegetables. To make a "Passover cake," recipes call for potato starch or "Passover cake flour" (made from finely granulated matzo) instead of regular flour, and a large amount of eggs (8 and over) to achieve fluffiness. Cookie recipes use matzo farfel (broken bits of matzo) or ground nuts as the base. For families with Eastern European backgrounds, borsht, a soup made with beets, is a Passover tradition. Some hotels, resorts, and even cruise ships across America, Europe and Israel also undergo a thorough housecleaning to make their premises "kosher for Pesach" to cater for observant Jews. Counting of the Omer Beginning on the second night of Passover, the 16th day of Nissan, Karaite Jews begin the count on the Sunday within the holiday week. This leads to Shavuot for the Karaites always falling on a Sunday. Jews begin the practice of the Counting of the Omer, a nightly reminder of the approach of the holiday of Shavuot 50 days hence. Each night after the evening prayer service, men and women recite a special blessing and then enumerate the day of the Omer. On the first night, for example, they say, "Today is the first day in (or, to) the Omer"; on the second night, "Today is the second day in the Omer." The counting also involves weeks; thus, the seventh day is commemorated, "Today is the seventh day, which is one week in the Omer." The eighth day is marked, "Today is the eighth day, which is one week and one day in the Omer," etc. When the Temple stood in Jerusalem, a sheaf of new-cut barley was presented before the altar on the second day of Unleavened Bread. Josephus writesOn the second day of unleavened bread, that is to say the sixteenth, our people partake of the crops which they have reaped and which have not been touched till then, and esteeming it right first to do homage to God, to whom they owe the abundance of these gifts, they offer to him the first-fruits of the barley in the following way. After parching and crushing the little sheaf of ears and purifying the barley for grinding, they bring to the altar an assaron for God, and, having flung a handful thereof on the altar, they leave the rest for the use of the priests. Thereafter all are permitted, publicly or individually, to begin harvest. Josephus, Antiquities 3.250-251, in Josephus IV Jewish Antiquities Books I-IV, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1930, pp. 437-439. Since the destruction of the Temple, this offering is brought in word rather than deed. One explanation for the Counting of the Omer is that it shows the connection between Passover and Shavuot. The physical freedom that the Hebrews achieved at the Exodus from Egypt was only the beginning of a process that climaxed with the spiritual freedom they gained at the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai. Another explanation is that the newborn nation which emerged after the Exodus needed time to learn their new responsibilities vis-a-vis Torah and mitzvot before accepting God's law. The distinction between the Omer offering—a measure of barley, typically animal fodder—and the Shavuot offering—two loaves of wheat bread, human food—symbolizes the transition process. Seventh day of PassoverShvi'i shel Pesach (שביעי של פסח "seventh [day] of Passover") is another full Jewish holiday, with special prayer services and festive meals. Outside the Land of Israel in the Jewish diaspora, Shvi'i shel Pesach is celebrated on both the seventh and eighth days of Passover. This holiday commemorates the day the Children of Israel reached the Red Sea and witnessed both the miraculous "Splitting of the Sea," the drowning of all the Egyptian chariots, horses and soldiers that pursued them, and the Passage of the Red Sea. According to the Midrash, only Pharaoh was spared to give testimony to the miracle that occurred. Hasidic Rebbes traditionally hold a tish on the night of Shvi'i shel Pesach and place a cup or bowl of water on the table before them. They use this opportunity to speak about the Splitting of the Sea to their disciples, and sing songs of praise to God. Second Passover The "Second Passover" (Pesach Sheni) on the 14th of Iyar in the Hebrew Calendar is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Numbers 9:6-13) as a make-up day for people who were unable to offer the pesach sacrifice at the appropriate time due to ritual impurity or distance from Jerusalem. Just as on the first Pesach night, breaking bones from the second Paschal offering (Numbers 9:12) or leaving meat over until morning (Numbers 9:12) were prohibited. Today, Pesach Sheni on the 14th of Iyar has the status of a very minor holiday (so much so that many of the Jewish people have never even heard of it, and it essentially does not exist outside of Orthodox and traditional Conservative Judaism). There are not really any special prayers or observances that are considered Jewish law. The only change in the liturgy is that in some communities Tachanun, a penitential prayer omitted on holidays, is not said. There is a custom, though not Jewish law, to eat just one piece of Matzah on that night. Common Foods Because the house is free of chametz for eight days, the Jewish household typically eats different foods during the week of Passover. Many meals include leftovers from the initial seders. Other foods are also prepared, these include: Matzah brei - Softened matzah fried with egg and fat; served either savory or sweet Matzah Cereal - A fine matzah meal, boiled in water and often served with milk and butter Influence The Last Supper (Convent of Sta. Maria delle Grazie, Milan, Italy (1498), by Leonardo da Vinci). The Synoptic Gospels state that Christ's Last Supper was a Passover seder. The Christian holiday of Easter has some similarities with the feast. The holy day is actually called "Passover" (or a derivative) in most languages other than English, and its central theme is that Christ was the paschal lamb in human form.( ) Additionally, the Synoptic Gospels relate that Christ's Last Supper was a Passover seder''. () With a few sectarian exceptions, the date of Easter was always determined by taking into account the same lunisolar cycles. Since the 4th-5th centuries CE, the most approved method has used a 19-year cycle of lunar months to set Easter to the first Sunday following the first full moon falling on or after the spring equinox, the full moon being reckoned functionally as the 14th of the lunar month, and the equinox being reckoned functionally as March 21. Because of the drift of the seasons and lunations under the Julian calendar, over the centuries the Easter cycle fell out of synchronization with the sun and moon. But the Gregorian reforms restored the equinox to March 21 and corrected the tabulated lunar cycles, so that the Gregorian calendar's Easter is almost always the same as would be computed by more precise astronomical computations. Gregorian Easter usually falls up to seven days after Passover, but in years 8, 11, and 19 of the Hebrew calendar's 19-year cycle, (corresponding respectively to years 11, and 14, and 3 of the Christian 19-year cycle) Passover falls about a month after Gregorian Easter. Similarly, because the solar year of the Julian calendar is too long compared to the spring equinox year, Orthodox Easter occurs about a month after Gregorian Easter in years 3, 8, 11, 14 and 19 of the Christian 19-year cycle. Three of these years (3, 11, and 14) correspond to years in which Passover is about a month after Gregorian Easter. So in these years (years 19, 8, and 11 of the Hebrew calendar's cycle) Passover will occur in the same lunation as Julian (Eastern Orthodox) Easter. However, because the Julian calendar's tabulated lunar months are now 3 to 5 days behind the astronomical facts, Passover even in these years will always precede Orthodox Easter. In years 8 and 19 of the Christian cycle (corresponding to years 5 and 16 of the Hebrew calendar's cycle), Passover and Gregorian Easter will be in the same lunation, and Julian Easter will be a lunation later. This state of affairs will continue until 2199, after which the Gregorian epacts will shift. Beginning in 2200, Passover will be a month after Gregorian Easter in four years out of nineteen - in years 3, 8, 11, and 19 of the Jewish cycle (corresponding respectively to years 6, 11, 14, and 3 of the Gregorian cycle). Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide do not observe Easter but, instead, observe only the Last Supper on the first evening of Passover; they do not necessarily use the same date as the modern Jewish calendar, but it sometimes corresponds with the same full moon as the festival of Purim. Passover. Louis Jacobs, Ernst Kutsch, Rela M. Geffen, and Abram Kanof. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. p678-683. See also Passover Seder Passover Seder Plate Gebrochts Kitniyot Fast of the Firstborn Haggadah of Pesach Passover (Christian holiday) Passover in the Christian tradition Footnotes External links Downloadable Haggadah by the UJC

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Left-arm_unorthodox_spin

Animation of a chinaman delivery. In cricket, left-arm unorthodox spin – often known as slow left-arm chinaman and abbreviated to SLC – is a style of bowling. The bowler uses a wrist torsion action to spin the ball so that when it pitches it turns from off to leg for a right-handed batsman, i.e. from left to right from the bowler's perspective. The direction of turn is the same as that of a conventional right-handed off spin bowler, however, the ball will usually turn more sharply due to the spin being imparted predominantly by the wrist. Charlie 'Buck' Llewellyn, a South African all-rounder who played at the end of the 19th century, laid claim to inventing the delivery. Some chinaman bowlers occasionally bowl the mirror image of a leg-spinner's "googly" (or "wrong'un" in Australia), which turns in the opposite way in order to trick the batsman. In this instance the ball turns away from the batsman, as if the bowler were an orthodox left-arm spinner. The chinaman style of bowling is very rare, as not only is it difficult to bowl accurately (in common with leg spin), but the turn into the right-handed batsman is seen as less dangerous than the turn away from the batsman generated by an orthodox left-arm spinner, so virtually all left-armers choose to bowl orthodox. On the other hand, the chinaman bowler does have some compensating advantages. He can impart more spin than the finger-spinner, generally yielding more turn and bounce (a factor in Johnny Wardle's decision to use this style on pitches outside England, whereas the orthodox style was more effective on damp English pitches). The LBW law allows for a favourable decision even when the ball has pitched outside off stump, whereas it does not similarly favour balls which pitch outside leg (a factor in George Tribe's decision to use this style). In addition, the wrist-spinner can bowl the googly and topspinner with a comparatively modest adjustment in technique, allowing a wider range of deliveries. Very few specialist chinaman bowlers have played at Test level. The South African Paul Adams, well known for his unusual "frog-in-a-blender" bowling action, is perhaps the best known recent practitioner and has taken more Test wickets through chinaman bowling than any other player. The Australian Brad Hogg is the most successful ODI chinaman bowler, with over 150 wickets, but he does not regularly play in Tests. The young chinaman bowler Dave Mohammed of the West Indies has also played sporadically for his country since 2004. In recent times, Simon Katich and before him Michael Bevan have also bowled chinamen for Australia, although this role was secondary to their batting. Historically the most famous practitioner of the art was the West Indian all-rounder Garfield Sobers, but he performed it as a third bowling style after left-arm orthodox spin and left-arm fast-medium. Previously, Johnny Wardle bowled both chinamen and orthodox left-arm spinners for England in the 1940s and '50s, and Leslie "Chuck" Fleetwood-Smith bowled chinamen for Australia in the 1930s. Origin of the term "chinaman" The term "chinaman" to describe this particular style of bowling is of uncertain origin, and Wisden has at different times given two explanations. In one version, the term is believed to relate to former West Indian spin bowler Ellis "Puss" Achong. In the 1933 Old Trafford Test match, Achong, a left-arm orthodox spinner and the first Test cricketer of Chinese ancestry, bowled an unexpected wrist-spin delivery turning from off to leg, and had the English batsman Walter Robins stumped by Ivan Barrow as a result. Legend has it that Robins, as he walked back to the pavilion, remarked "Fancy being done by a bloody Chinaman". The 1987 obituary of Achong in Wisden says that the dismissal of Robins gave the term currency in England. But the 1968 Wisden obituary of Maurice Leyland has the following: "According to Bill Bowes, Maurice claimed he was responsible for the term 'Chinaman'. Because his chances of bowling were few, he began bowling the occasional left-hander's off-break instead of the normal and natural leg-break. Whenever two batsmen were difficult to shift or something different was wanted someone in the Yorkshire team would say, 'Put on Maurice to bowl some of those Chinese things'. Roy Kilner explained, 'It's foreign stuff and you can't call it anything else'." The plausibility of this explanation is perhaps compromised by the fact that when Kilner died Leyland had taken only 11 wickets in eight first-class seasons (no more than four in any single season) – he didn't really get going as a bowler until 1928, and it was probably Kilner's death in April that year just before the start of the season in England that opened up greater possibilities for Leyland to bowl than he had had before. Some notable left-arm unorthodox spinners Michael Bevan Chuck Fleetwood-Smith Brad Hogg Lindsay Kline Johnny Martin David Sincock George Tribe Simon Katich Johnny Wardle (also bowled left-arm orthodox spin) Paul Adams Inshan Ali Dave Mohammed Sir Garfield Sobers (also bowled left-arm orthodox spin and left-arm fast-medium) Suyash Khandeparkar References= Cricket and Race by Jack Williams ISBN 1-85973-309-3 Wisden, 1968 and 1987 editions

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Politics_of_Chile

The politics of Chile takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Chile is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Congress. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Chile's current Constitution was approved in a national plebiscite in September 1980, under the military government of dictator Augusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet leaving power in the 1988, saing this country is ready to keep going alone along with a plebiscite, the Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In September 2005, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years. Executive branch Chile elects its President by popular vote (50% or more of the votes) for a four-year term. The President appoints the cabinet. Michelle Bachelet won 53.49% of the vote in a run-off election on 15 January, 2006 and was sworn in as President on March 11, 2006. Bachelet is a member of Chile's Socialist party (part of the Coalition of Parties for Democracy) and, under the past administration, served as Defense Minister since 2002, and previously as Health Minister. Chileans voted in the first round of presidential elections on December 11 2005. None of the four presidential candidates won more than 50% of the vote. As a result, the top two vote-getters—center-left Concertacion coalition’s Michelle Bachelet and center-right Alianza coalition’s Sebastián Piñera—competed in a run-off election on January 15 2006, which Michelle Bachelet won. She was sworn in on March 11 2006. This was Chile’s fourth presidential election since the end of the Pinochet era. All four have been judged free and fair. The President is constitutionally barred from serving consecutive terms. Former President Ricardo Lagos Escobar held this office from 11 March, 2000 until 11 March, 2006. Legislative branch The bicameral National Congress (Congreso Nacional) consists of the Senate (Senado) and the Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados). Chile's congressional elections are governed by a unique binomial system that rewards coalition slates. Each coalition can present two candidates for the two Senate and two lower-chamber seats apportioned to each chamber's electoral districts. Typically, the two largest coalitions split the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket outpolls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 does the winning coalition gain both seats. The political parties with the largest representation in the current Chilean Congress are the centrist Christian Democrat Party and the conservative Independent Democratic Union (Unión Demócrata Independiente). The Communist Party and the small Humanist Party failed to gain any seats in the 1998 elections. Elections are very labor intensive but efficient, and vote counting normally takes place the evening of the election day. One voting table, with a ballot-box each, is set up for at-most 200 names in the voting registry. Each table is manned by five people (vocales de mesa) from the same registry. Vocales have the duty to work as such during a cycle of elections, and can be penalized legally if they do not show up. A registered citizen can only vote after his identity has been verified at the table corresponding to his registry. Ballots are manually counted by the five vocales, after the table has closed, at least eight hours after opening, and the counting witnessed by representatives of all the parties who choose to have observers. The Senate is made up of 38 members elected from regions or subregions which serve approximately eight-year terms. The Chamber of Deputies has 120 members, who are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The last congressional elections were held in December 11, 2006. The next congressional elections are scheduled for December 2009. The current Senate composition is as follows: 20 seats are held by the Coalition of Parties for Democracy (CPD): Six Christian Democrats (PDC), eight Socialists (PS), three Party for Democracy (PPD) and three Social Democrat Radical Party (PRSD); 17 by the Alliance for Chile (APC): nine Independent Democrat Union (UDI) and eight National Renewal (RN); and one independent leaning right. The current lower house—the Chamber of Deputies —contains 65 members of the governing coalition: 21 Christian Democrats (PDC), 15 Socialists (PS), 22 Party for Democracy (PPD) and seven Social Democrat Radical Party (PRSD); 54 from the center-right Alliance for Chile(APC): 34 Independent Democrat Union (UDI) and 20 National Renewal (RN); and 1 from the Independent Regional Force (FRI) coalition: 1 Regionalist Action Party of Chile (PAR). Since 1987 the Congress operates in the port city of Valparaíso, about 110 kilometers (~70 mi.) northwest of the capital, Santiago. However some commissions are allowed to meet in other places, especially Santiago. Congressional members have tried repeatedly to relocate the Congress back to Santiago, where it operated until the 1973, but have not been successful. The last attempt was in 2000, when the project was rejected by the Constitutional Court, because it allocated funds from the national budget, which, under the Chilean Constitution, is a privilege of the President. Legal system Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the Supreme Court. The judges on the Supreme Court or Corte Suprema are appointed by the president and ratified by the Senate from lists of candidates provided by the court itself. The president of the Supreme Court is elected by the 21-member court. Chile's legal system is civil law based. It is primarily based on the Civil code of 1855, derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by European law of the last half of the 19th Century. Chile provides for a very limited judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court. It does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction. From the year 2000 onward, Chile completely overhauled its criminal justice system; a new, US-style adversarial system has been gradually implemented throughout the country with the final stage of implementation in the Santiago metropolitan region completed on June 9, 2001 Political parties and elections Pressure groups Pressure groups according to the CIA World Factbook: Student federations at all major universities Roman Catholic Church United Labor Central (CUT), trade unionists from Chile's five largest labor confederations. International organization participation Chile or Chilean organizations participate in the following international organizations: Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean (OPANAL) Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Bank for International Settlements (BIS) Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Group of Fifteen (G-15) Group of 77 (G-77) Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) International Criminal Court (party since 2005) International Chamber of Commerce International Development Association (IDA) International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) International Finance Corporation (IFC) International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRCS) International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) International Labour Organization (ILO) International Monetary Fund (IMF) International Maritime Organization (IMO) Interpol International Olympic Committee (IOC) International Organization for Migration (IOM) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) International Red Cross International Telecommunication Union (ITU) International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) Latin American Economic System (LAES) Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) Mercosur (associate) Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Organization of American States (OAS) Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) Rio Group United Nations (UN) UN Conference on Trade & Development (UNCTAD) United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCR) UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) Universal Postal Union (UPU) World Customs Organization (WCO) World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) World Health Organization (WHO) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) World Tourism Organization (WToO) World Trade Organization (WTO) See also President of Chile List of political parties in Chile Foreign relations of Chile Human rights in Chile Chilean political scandals Augusto Pinochet External links Global Integrity Report: Chile has reporting on anti-corruption in Chile Government of Chile National Congress Presidency Judicial Branch

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Cinema_of_China

Actor Tan Xinpei in The Battle of Dingjunshan, 1905 The Chinese-language cinema has three distinct historical threads: Cinema of Hong Kong, Cinema of China, and Cinema of Taiwan. After 1949 and until recent times, the cinema of mainland China operated under restrictions imposed by the Communist Party of China. Some films with political overtones are still censored or banned in China itself. However, most of these films are allowed to be shown abroad in commercially distributed theaters or in film festivals. The vast majority of the Mainland-produced movies are Mandarin-based, unlike those from contemporary Hong Kong, which are almost exclusively made in Cantonese. Mainland films are often dubbed when exported to Hong Kong for theatrical runs, though Taiwan, like the PRC is predominantly Mandarin-speaking, and offers ready alternative commercial outlets for export. Seven Chinese mainland films or co-productions are represented in the book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, namely Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, Farewell My Concubine, The Horse Thief, Song at Midnight, Raise the Red Lantern, Red Sorghum and Spring in a Small Town. The Beginnings: Shanghai as the centre, 1896-1945 Motion pictures were introduced to China in 1896. The first recorded screening of a motion picture in China occurred in Shanghai on August 11, 1896, as an "act" on a variety bill. The first Chinese film, a recording of the Beijing Opera, The Battle of Dingjunshan, was made in November 1905. For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic film industry did not start in earnest until 1916, centering around Shanghai, a thriving entrepot center and the largest city in the Far East. During the 1920s film technicians from the United States trained Chinese technicians in Shanghai, and American influence continued to be felt there for the next two decades. It was during this period that some of the more important production companies first came into being, notably Mingxing Film Company ("Bright Star" Pictures) and the Shaw Brothers' Tianyi Film Company ("Unique"). Mingxing, founded by Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan initially focused on comic shorts, including the oldest surviving Chinese film, Laborer's Love (1922). This soon shifted, however, to feature length films and family dramas including Orphan Rescues Grandfather (1923). Meanwhile, Tianyi shifted their model towards folklore dramas, and also pushed into foreign markets; their film White Snake (1926) proved a typical example of their success in the Chinese communities of Southeast Asia. The Leftist movement However, the first truly important Chinese films were produced beginning in the 1930s, with the advent of the "progressive" or "left-wing" movement, like Cheng Bugao's Spring Silkworms (1933), Sun Yu's The Big Road (1935), and Wu Yonggang's The Goddess (1934). These progressive films were noted for their emphasis on class struggle and external threats (i.e. Japanese aggression), as well as on their focus on common people, such as a family of silk farmers in Spring Silkworms and a prostitute in The Goddess. In part due to the success of these kinds of films, this post-1930 era is now often referred to as the first "golden period" of Chinese cinema. The Leftist cinematic movement often revolved around the Western-influenced Shanghai, where filmmakers portrayed the struggling lower class of an overpopulated city. Laikwan Pang, Building a New China in Cinema(Rowman and Littlefield Productions, Oxford, 2002) Three production companies dominated the market in the early to mid- 1930s: the newly formed Lianhua ("United China"), Lianhua is also sometimes referred to in scholarly literature as the "United Photoplay Service". the older and larger Mingxing and Tianyi. Both Mingxing and Lianhua leaned left (Lianhua's management perhaps more so), while Tianyi continued to make less socially conscious fare. The period also produced the first big Chinese movie stars, namely Hu Die, Ruan Lingyu, Zhou Xuan, Zhao Dan and Jin Yan. Other major films of the period include New Women (1934), Song of the Fishermen (1934), Crossroads (1937), and Street Angel (1937). Throughout the 1930s, the Nationalists and the Communists struggled for power and control over the major studios; their influence can be seen in the films the studios produced during this period. Shanghai, the Solitary Island The Japanese invasion of China, in particular their occupation of Shanghai, ended this golden run in Chinese cinema. All production companies except Xinhua Film Company ("New China") closed shop, and many of the filmmakers fled Shanghai, relocating to Hong Kong, the wartime Nationalist capital Chongqing, and elsewhere. The Shanghai film industry, though severely curtailed, did not stop however, thus leading to the so-called "Solitary Island" period (also known as the "Sole Island", "Isolated Island", or "Orphan Island"), with Shanghai's foreign concessions serving as an "island" of production in the "sea" of Japanese occupied territory. It was during this period that artists and directors (who remained in the city) had to walk a fine line between staying true to their leftist and nationalist beliefs and Japanese pressures. Director Bu Wancang's Mulan Joins the Army (1939), with its story of a young Chinese peasant fighting against a foreign invasion, was a particularly good example of Shanghai's continued film-production in the midst of war. Following declared war with the Western allies in the aftermath of December 7th, 1941, this period largely ended; the solitary island finally being engulfed by the rest of the Japanese occupation. With the Shanghai industry firmly in Japanese control, films like the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere-promoting Eternity (1943) were produced. By the end of World War II one of the most controversial Japanese-authorized company, Manchukuo Film Association, would be separated and integrated into Chinese cinema. The Second Golden Age, the late 1940s The film industry continued to develop after 1945. Production in Shanghai once again resumed as a new crop of studios took the place that Lianhua and Mingxing had occupied in the previous decade. In 1946, Cai Chusheng returned to Shanghai to revive the Lianhua name as the "Lianhua Film Society." This in turn became Kunlun Studios which would go on to become one of the most important studios of the era, putting out the classics, Myriads of Lights (1948), The Spring River Flows East (1947), and Crows and Sparrows (1949). Many of these films showed the disillusionment with the oppressive rule of Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalist Party. The Spring River Flows East, a three-hour-long two-parter directed by Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli, was a particularly strong success. Its depiction of the struggles of ordinary Chinese during the Sino-Japanese war, replete with biting social and political commentary struck a chord with audiences of the time. Meanwhile, companies like the Wenhua Film Company ("Culture Films"), moved away from the leftist tradition and explored the evolution and development of other dramatic genres. Wenhua's romantic drama Spring in a Small Town (1948), a film by director Fei Mu shortly prior to the revolution, is often regarded by Chinese film critics as one of the most important films in the history of Chinese cinema, with it being named by the Hong Kong Film Awards in 2004 as the greatest Chinese-language film ever made. Ironically, it was precisely its artistic quality and apparent lack of "political grounding" that led to its labeling by the Communists as rightist or reactionary, and the film was quickly forgotten by those on the mainland following the Communist victory in China in 1949. Zhang Yingjin, "Introduction" in Cinema and Urban Culture in Shanghai, 1922–1943, ed. Yingjin Zhang (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), 8. However, with the China Film Archive's re-opening after the Cultural Revolution, a new print was made from the original negative, allowing Spring of the Small Town to find a new and admiring audience and to influence an entire new generation of filmmakers. Indeed, an acclaimed remake was made in 2002 by Tian Zhuangzhuang. The Communist era, 1950s-1960s With the Communist takeover in 1949, the government saw motion pictures as an important mass production art form and tool for propaganda. Starting from 1951, pre-1949 Chinese films and Hollywood and Hong Kong productions were banned as the Communist Party of China sought to tighten control over mass media, producing instead movies centering around peasants, soldiers and workers such as Bridge (1949) and The White Haired Girl (1950). One of the production bases in the middle of all the transition was the Changchun Film Studio. The number of movie-viewers increased sharply, from 47 million in 1949 to 415 million in 1959. Movie attendance reached an all-time high of 4.17 billion entries in that same year. In the 17 years between the founding of the People's Republic of China and the Cultural Revolution, 603 feature films and 8,342 reels of documentaries and newsreels were produced, sponsored mostly as Communist propaganda by the government. Chinese filmmakers were sent to Moscow to study Soviet filmmaking. In 1956, the Beijing Film Academy was opened. The first wide-screen Chinese film was produced in 1960. Animated films using a variety of folk arts, such as papercuts, shadow plays, puppetry, and traditional paintings, also were very popular for entertaining and educating children. The most famous of these, the classic Havoc in Heaven (two parts, 1961, 4), was made by Wan Laiming of the Wan Brothers and won Best Film award at the London International Film Festival. The thawing of censorship in 1956-7 and the early 1960s led to more indigenous Chinese films being made which were less reliant on their Soviet counterparts. The most prominent filmmaker of this era is Xie Jin, whose two films in particular, The Red Detachment of Women (1961) and Two Stage Sisters (1965), exemplify China's increased expertise at filmmaking during this time. The Cultural Revolution and its aftermath, 1960s-1980s During the Cultural Revolution, the film industry was severely restricted. Almost all previous films were banned, and only a few new ones were produced, the most notable being a ballet version of the revolutionary opera The Red Detachment of Women (1971). Feature film production came almost to a standstill in the early years from 1967 to 1972. Movie production revived after 1972 under the strict jurisdiction of the Gang of Four until 1976, when they were overthrown. In the years immediately following the Cultural Revolution, the film industry again flourished as a medium of popular entertainment. Domestically produced films played to large audiences, and tickets for foreign film festivals sold quickly. The industry tried to revive crowds by making more innovative and "exploratory" films like their counterparts in the West. In the 1980s the film industry fell on hard times, faced with the dual problems of competition from other forms of entertainment and concern on the part of the authorities that many of the popular thriller and martial arts films were socially unacceptable. In January 1986 the film industry was transferred from the Ministry of Culture to the newly formed Ministry of Radio, Cinema, and Television to bring it under "stricter control and management" and to "strengthen supervision over production." The end of the Cultural Revolution brought the release of "scar dramas", which depicted the emotional traumas left by this period. Evening Rain (Wu Yonggang, Wu Yigong, 1980) and Legend of Tianyun Mountain (Xie Jin, 1980) both won the first Golden Rooster Award in 1981. The best-known of these is probably Xie Jin's Hibiscus Town (1986), although they could be seen as late as the 1990s with Tian Zhuangzhuang's The Blue Kite (1993). The rise of the Fifth Generation, 1980s-1990s Beginning in the mid-late 1980s, the rise of the so-called Fifth Generation of Chinese filmmakers brought increased popularity of Chinese cinema abroad. Most of the filmmakers who constitute the Fifth Generation had graduated from the Beijing Film Academy in 1982 and included Zhang Yimou, Tian Zhuangzhuang, Chen Kaige, Zhang Junzhao and others. These graduates constituted the first group of filmmakers to graduate since the Cultural Revolution and they soon jettisoned traditional methods of storytelling and opted for a more free and unorthodox approach. Zhang Junzhao's One and Eight (1983) and Chen Kaige's Yellow Earth (1984) in particular were taken to mark the beginnings of the Fifth Generation. Notably Zhang Yimou served as cinematographer for both films. The most famous of the Fifth Generation directors, Chen Kaige and Zhang Yimou, went on to produce celebrated works such as King of the Children (1987), Ju Dou (1989), Farewell My Concubine (1993) and Raise the Red Lantern (1991), which were not only acclaimed by Chinese cinema-goers but by the Western arthouse audience. Tian Zhuangzhuang's films, though less well-known by Western viewers, were well noted by directors such as Martin Scorsese. It was during this period that Chinese cinema began reaping the rewards of international attention, including the 1988 Golden Bear for Red Sorghum, the 1992 Golden Lion for Zhang Yimou's The Story of Qiu Ju, the 1993 Palme d'Or for Farewell My Concubine, and three Best Foreign Language Film nominations from the Academy Awards. Extremely diverse in style and subject, the Fifth Generation directors' films ranged from black comedy (Huang Jianxin's The Black Cannon Incident, 1985) to the esoteric (Chen Kaige's Life on a String, 1991), but they share a common rejection of the socialist-realist tradition worked by earlier Chinese filmmakers in the Communist era. Other notable Fifth Generation directors include Wu Ziniu, Hu Mei, and Zhou Xiaowen. Some of their bolder works with political overtones were banned by Chinese authorities. The Fourth Generation also returned to prominence. Given their label after the rise of the Fifth Generation, these were directors whose careers were stalled by the Cultural Revolution and who were professionally trained prior to 1966. Wu Tianming, in particular, made outstanding contributions by helping to finance major Fifth Generation directors under the auspices of the Xi'an Film Studio, while continuing to make films like Old Well (1986) and The King of Masks (1996). The Fifth Generation movement effectively ended in the 1989 Tiananmen Incident, although its major directors continued to produce notable works, such as The Emperor's Shadow (1996) by Zhou Xiaowen. Several of its filmmakers went into self-imposed exile: Wu Tianming moved to the United States (but has since returned), Huang Jianxin left for Australia, while many others went into television-related works. The Sixth Generation and beyond, 1990s - present The recent era has seen the "return of the amateur filmmaker" as state censorship policies have produced an edgy underground film movement loosely referred to as the Sixth Generation. These films are shot quickly and cheaply, which produces a documentary feel, with long takes, hand-held cameras, ambient sound; more akin to Italian neorealism and cinéma vérité than the often lush productions of the Fifth Generation. Rose, S. "The great fall of China", The Guardian, 2002-08-01. Retrieved on 2007-04-28. Many films are joint ventures and projects with international investment. Some important Sixth Generation directors to have emerged are Wang Xiaoshuai (The Days, Beijing Bicycle), Zhang Yuan (Beijing Bastards, East Palace West Palace), Jia Zhangke (Xiao Wu, Unknown Pleasures, Platform, The World) and Lou Ye (Suzhou River, Summer Palace). Unlike the Fifth Generation, the Sixth Generation brings a more individualistic, anti-romantic life-view and pays more attention to contemporary urban life, especially those affected by disorientation. Many of their films have highlighted the negative attributes of China's entry into the modern capitalist market. Li Yang's Blind Shaft for example, is a chilling account of two murderous con-men in the unregulated and notoriously dangerous mining industry of northern China. While Jia Zhangke's The World emphasizes the emptiness of globalization in the backdrop of an internationally-themed amusement park. New Documentary Movement Two decades of reform and commercialization have brought dramatic social changes in mainland China, reflected not only in fiction film but in a growing documentary movement. Wu Wenguang's Bumming in Beijing: The Last Dreamers (1990) is now seen as one of the first work of this "New Documentary Movement" (NDM) in China of China's New Documentary. Another internationally acclaimed documentary is Wang Bing's epic nine hour tale of deindustrialization Tie Xi Qu: West of the Tracks (2003). Li Hong, the first women in the NDM, in Out of Phoenix Bridge (1997) relates the story of four young women, who moving from rural areas to the big cities like millions of other men and women, have come to Beijing to make a living. There is a growing number of independent post-6th generation filmmakers making films for extremely low budgets and using digital equipment. They are the so-called dGeneration (for digital). These films, like those from 6th generation filmmakers, are made outside of the Chinese film system and are played mostly on the international film festival circuit. Ying Liang and Jian Yi are two of these dGenerate filmmakers. New Chinese international cinema Chinese films have enjoyed box office success abroad. Films such as Farewell My Concubine, 2046, Hero, Suzhou River, The Road Home and House of Flying Daggers have been critically acclaimed around the world. The Hengdian World Studios can be seen as the "Chinese Hollywood", with a total area of up to 330 ha. and 13 shooting bases, including a 1:1 copy of the Forbidden City. In 2000, the multi-national production Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon achieved massive success at the Western box office despite being dismissed by some Chinese cinema-goers for pandering to Western tastes. Nevertheless, it provided an introduction to Chinese cinema (and especially the Wuxia genre) for many and increased the popularity of many Chinese films which may have otherwise been relatively unknown to Westerners. In 2002, Hero was made as a second attempt to produce a Chinese film with the international appeal of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. The cast and crew featured many of the most famous Chinese actors who were also known to some extent in the West, including Jet Li, Zhang Ziyi, Maggie Cheung, Tony Leung Chiu-Wai, directed by Zhang Yimou. The film was a phenomenal success in most of Asia and topped the U.S. box office for two weeks, making enough in the U.S. alone to cover the production costs. The successes of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon and Hero blur what may be called the boundary between Mainland Chinese cinema and a more international-based "Chinese-language cinema". Crouching Tiger, for example, was directed by a Taiwanese director (Ang Lee), but its leads include Mainland Chinese, Hong Kong, and Taiwan actors and actresses while the film was co-produced by an array of Chinese, American, Hong Kong, Taiwanese film companies. This merging of people, resources, and expertise from three regions (China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) seemed to imply big-budgeted Chinese-language cinema is moving toward a more international-based arena looking to compete with the best Hollywood films. Further examples of films in this mould would include House of Flying Daggers (2004), The Promise (2005) and The Banquet (2006). Tighter-financed Chinese-language cinema are still relatively localized in content, as seen in those from Hong Kong, Mainland China and Taiwan, especially in the latter two where many films have not yet found international distributors abroad. Sources Film History: An Introduction. Kristin Thompson and David Bordwell. Second edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. The Oxford History of World Cinema. Geoffrey Nowell-Smith (ed). Oxford University Press, 1999. See also East Asian cinema Chinese animation Chinese art Related cinema Cinema of Hong Kong Hong Kong action cinema Cinema of Taiwan Lists List of Chinese actors List of Chinese actresses List of Chinese directors List of Chinese films List of Chinese film production companies (pre-PRC) References Further reading Rey Chow, Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary Chinese Cinema, Columbia University Pres 1995. Shuqin Cui, Women Through the Lens: Gender and Nation in a Century of Chinese Cinema, University of Hawaii Press 2003. Dai Jinhua, Cinema and Desire: Feminist Marxism and Cultural Politics in the Work of Dai Jinhua, eds. Jing Wang and Tani E. Barlow. London: Verso 2002. Laikwan Pang, Building a New China in Cinema: The Chinese Left-Wing Cinema Movement, 1932-1937, Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc 2002. Jay Leyda, Dianying, MIT Press, 1972. Harry H. Kuoshu, Celluloid China: Cinematic Encounters with Culture and Society, Southern Illinois University Press 2002 - introduction, discusses 15 films at length. Gary G. Xu, Sinascape: Contemporary Chinese Cinema, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. Yingjin Zhang, Chinese National Cinema (National Cinemas Series.), Routledge 2004 - general introduction. Yingjin Zhang (Author), Zhiwei Xiao (Author, Editor), Encyclopedia of Chinese Film, Routledge, 1998. Cheng, Jim, Annotated Bibliography For Chinese Film Studies, Hong Kong University Press 2004. Semsel, George, ed. "Chinese Film: The State of the Art in the People's Republic", Praeger, 1987. Semsel, George, Xia Hong, and Hou Jianping, eds. Chinese Film Theory: A Guide to the New Era", Praeger, 1990. Semsel, George, Chen Xihe, and Xia Hong, eds. Film in Contemporary China: Critical Debates, 1979-1989", Praeger, 1993. External links Journal of Chinese Cinema

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Déjà_vu

Déjà vu (pronounced ; French "already seen"; also called paramnesia, from Greek παρα "para," "near" + μνήμη "mnēmē," "memory") or promnesia, is the experience of feeling sure that one has witnessed or experienced a new situation previously (an individual feels as though an event has already happened or has happened in the near past), although the exact circumstances of the previous encounter are uncertain. The term was coined by a French psychic researcher, Émile Boirac (1851–1917) in his book "L'Avenir des sciences psychiques" ("The Future of Psychic Sciences"), which expanded upon an essay he wrote while an undergraduate. The experience of déjà vu is usually accompanied by a compelling sense of familiarity, and also a sense of "eeriness," "strangeness," or "weirdness." The "previous" experience is most frequently attributed to a dream, although in some cases there is a firm sense that the experience "genuinely happened" in the past. The experience of déjà vu seems to be quite common among adults and children alike; in formal studies, 70% of people report having experienced it at least once. References to the experience of déjà vu are also found in literature of the past, e.g. in the Tsurezuregusa of the Japanese monk Yoshida Kenkō, writing c.1330: "It has happened on various occasions that I have felt, just after someone has said something or I have seen something or thought of something, that it has occurred before. I cannot remember when it was, but I feel absolutely sure that the thing has happened. Am I the only one who has such impressions?" indicating it is not a new phenomenon. It has been extremely difficult to evoke the déjà vu experience in laboratory settings, therefore making it a subject of few empirical studies. Recently, researchers have found ways to recreate this sensation using hypnosis. Scientific research Since the last years of the 20th century, déjà vu has been subject to serious psychological and neurophysiological research. Scientifically speaking, the most likely explanation of déjà vu is not that it is an act of "precognition" or "prophecy," but rather that it is an anomaly of memory giving the impression that an experience is "being recalled." This explanation is substantiated by the fact that the sense of "recollection" at the time is strong in most cases, but that the circumstances of the "previous" experience (when, where, and how the earlier experience occurred) are quite uncertain. Likewise, as time passes, subjects can exhibit a strong recollection of having the "unsettling" experience of déjà vu itself, but little or no recollection of the specifics of the event(s) or circumstance(s) they were "remembering" when they had the déjà vu experience. In particular, this may result from an overlap between the neurological systems responsible for short-term memory (events which are perceived as being in the present) and those responsible for long-term memory (events which are perceived as being in the past). The events would be stored into memory before the conscious part of the brain even receives the information and processes it. Another theory being explored is that of vision. As the theory suggests, one eye may record what is seen fractionally faster than the other, creating that "strong recollection" sensation upon the "same" scene being viewed milliseconds later by the opposite eye. A Theory on the Deja Vu or Déjà vu Phenomenon However, this one fails to explain the phenomenon when other sensory inputs are involved, such as the auditive part, and especially the digital part. If one, for instance, experiences déjà vu of someone slapping the fingers on his left hand, then the déjà vu feeling is certainly not due to his right hand experiencing the same sensation later than his left hand considering that his right hand would never receive the same sensory input. Also, persons with only one eye still report experiencing déjà vu or déjà vécu (a rare disorder of memory, similar to persistent déjà vu). The global phenomenon must therefore be narrowed down to the brain itself (say, one hemisphere would be late compared to the other one). According to another survey, Many people who have experienced deja vu have experienced it more than once, which suggests that deja vu is not a one-off experience. Links with disorders Early researchers tried to establish a link between déjà vu and serious psychopathology such as schizophrenia, anxiety, and dissociative identity disorder, with hopes of finding the experience of some diagnostic value. However, there does not seem to be any special association between déjà vu and schizophrenia or other psychiatric conditions. The Déjà Vu Experience, by Alan S. Brown The strongest pathological association of déjà vu is with temporal lobe epilepsy. Neurology Channel Howstuffworks "What is déjà vu? This correlation has led some researchers to speculate that the experience of déjà vu is possibly a neurological anomaly related to improper electrical discharge in the brain. As most people suffer a mild (i.e. non-pathological) epileptic episode regularly (e.g. the sudden "jolt," a hypnagogic jerk, that frequently occurs just prior to falling asleep), it is conjectured that a similar (mild) neurological aberration occurs in the experience of déjà vu, resulting in an erroneous sensation of memory. It could be also mismatching in the brain that causes the brain to mistake the present for the past. 'Pharmacology It has been reported that certain drugs increase the chances of déjà vu occurring in the user. Some pharmaceutical drugs, when taken together, have also been implicated in the cause of déjà vu. Taiminen and Jääskeläinen (2001) reported the case of an otherwise healthy male who started experiencing intense and recurrent sensations of déjà vu on taking the drugs amantadine and phenylpropanolamine together to relieve flu symptoms. He found the experience so interesting that he completed the full course of his treatment and reported it to the psychologists to write-up as a case study. Due to the dopaminergic action of the drugs and previous findings from electrode stimulation of the brain (e.g. Bancaud, Brunet-Bourgin, Chauvel, & Halgren, 1994), Taiminen and Jääskeläinen speculate that déjà vu occurs as a result of hyperdopaminergic action in the mesial temporal areas of the brain. Many scientists are still working towards the actual link of deja vu with hynangogic epilepsy. Memory-based explanations The similarity between a déjà-vu-eliciting stimulus and an existing, but different, memory trace may lead to the sensation (Brown, 2004; Cleary, 2008). Thus, encountering something which evokes the implicit associations of an experience or sensation that cannot be remembered may lead to déjà vu. In an effort to experimentally reproduce the sensation, Banister and Zangwill (1941) used hypnosis to give participants posthypnotic amnesia for material they had already seen. When this was later re-encountered, the restricted activation caused thereafter by the posthypnotic amnesia resulted in three of the 10 participants reporting what the authors termed paramnesias. Memory-based explanations may lead to the development of a number of non-invasive experimental methods by which a long sought-after analogue of déjà vu can be reliably produced that would allow it to be tested under well-controlled experimental conditions. Cleary (2008) suggests that déjà vu may be a form of familiarity-based recognition (recognition that is based on a feeling of familiarity with a situation) and that laboratory methods of probing familiarity-based recognition hold promise for probing déjà vu in laboratory settings. Another possible explanation for the phenomenon of déjà vu is the occurrence of "cryptamnesia," which is where information learned is forgotten but nevertheless stored in the brain, and occurrence of similar invokes the contained knowledge, leading to a feeling of familiarity because of the situation, event or emotional/vocal content, known as "déjà vu." Another theory of déjà vu is based on the fact that our minds are so complex, and are always thinking and being used, that the familiar sensation experienced (deja vu) is actually a memory of a scenario that your mind has already thought of. When we drive, eat, sleep, go to the bathroom, ride a bike, etc., your mind is constantly thinking. It is said that when you dream, your mind is at its most efficient state. This could very well be where most random memories or "scenarios" are made. Parapsychology Deja Vu is a good example of Pseudo-Psi, which refers to 'what's not psychic but looks like it', that is, phenomena and experiences that individuals attribute to paranormal processes, but which actually have normal explanations. Whilst precognition and extra-sensory perception are 'Psi' they are often now misappropriated and used by new agers/mystics/psychics, as shown by the mystic explanation below. The phrases were initially coined in order to distance the phenomena from such beliefs and their association has been detrimental, with parapsychology as a science now almost non-existent. Alternative explanations Mystic explanation Déjà vu is associated with precognition, clairvoyance or extra-sensory perceptions, and it is frequently cited as evidence for "psychic" abilities in the general population. Non-scientific explanations attribute the experience to prophecy, visions (such as received in dreams), or past-life memories. Dreams Some believe déjà vu is the memory of dreams. Though the majority of dreams are never remembered, a dreaming person can display activity in the areas of the brain that process long-term memory. It has been speculated that dreams read directly into long-term memory, bypassing short-term memory entirely. In this case, déjà vu might be a memory of a forgotten dream with elements in common with the current waking experience. This may be similar to another phenomenon known as déjà rêvé, or "already dreamed." However, later studies on mice indicate that long-term memories must be first established as short-term memories. Kevin Heady suggested that a feeling of remembering occurs in a sense that he might realize that what he had dreamed is now a relevant present action that is taking place right here right now. Jamais vu. Reincarnation Those believing in reincarnation theorize that déjà vu is caused by fragments of past-life memories being jarred to the surface of the mind by familiar surroundings or people. Others theorize that the phenomenon is caused by astral projection, or out-of-body experiences (OBEs), where it is possible that individuals have visited places while in their astral bodies during sleep. The sensation may also be interpreted as connected to the fulfillment of a condition as seen or felt in a premonition. For further cases of remembering information from past lives, see Ian Stevenson. Related phenomena Jamais vu Jamais vu is a term in psychology (from French, meaning "never seen") which is used to describe any familiar situation which is not recognized by the observer. Often described as the opposite of déjà vu, jamais vu involves a sense of eeriness and the observer's impression of seeing the situation for the first time, despite rationally knowing that he or she has been in the situation before. Jamais vu is more commonly explained as when a person momentarily does not recognize a word, person, or place that they already know. Jamais vu is sometimes associated with certain types of amnesia and epilepsy. Theoretically, as seen below, a jamais vu feeling in a sufferer of a delirious disorder or intoxication could result in a delirious explanation of it, such as in the Capgras delusion, in which the patient takes a person known by him/her for a false double or impostor. If the impostor is himself, the clinical setting would be the same as the one described as depersonalisation, hence jamais vus of oneself or of the very "reality of reality," are termed depersonalisation (or irreality) feelings. Times Online reports: Tip of Tongue (Presque vu) Déjà vu is similar to, but distinct from, the phenomenon called tip of the tongue which is when one cannot recall a familiar word or name or situation, but with effort one eventually recalls the elusive memory. In contrast, déjà vu is a feeling that the present situation has occurred before, but the details are elusive because the situation never happened before. Presque vu (from French, meaning "almost seen") is the sensation of being on the brink of an epiphany. Often very disorienting and distracting, presque vu rarely leads to an actual breakthrough. Frequently, one experiencing presque vu will say that they have something "on the tip of their tongue." Presque vu is often cited by people who suffer from epilepsy or other seizure-related brain conditions, such as temporal lobe lability. L'esprit de l'escalier L'esprit de l'escalier (from French, "staircase wit") is remembering something when it is too late (for example, a clever comeback to a remark, thought of after the conversation has ended). An example of L'esprit de l'escalier in popular culture can be seen in "The Comeback", the 147th episode of the TV sitcom Seinfeld''. See also Anamnesis Intuition (knowledge) Jamais vu Phenomenon Precognition Psychology References External links Chronic déjà vu - quirks and quarks episode (mp3) "When déjà vu is more than just an odd feeling" The Ottawa Citizen, February 20 2006 "The Tease of Memory" The Chronicle of Higher Education, July 23 2004 "Déjà Vu: If It All Seems Familiar, There May Be a Reason" New York Times, September 14, 2004 "Déjà Vu, Again and Again" New York Times, July 2, 2006 "UGH! I Just Got the Creepiest Feeling That I Have Been Here Before: Déjà vu and the Brain, Consciousness and Self", Neurobiology and Behavior, 1998 A new theory that links déjà vu to Near-Death Experience. Anthony Peake 2006 The Skeptic's Dictionary How Déjà Vu Works a Howstuffworks article Dentate Gyrus NMDA Receptors Mediate Rapid Pattern Separation in the Hippocampal Network And I feel like I've been here before Science Daily Article, November 19, 2008 A website dedicated to providing déjà experience information and research

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Naturalistic_fallacy

The naturalistic fallacy is often claimed to be a formal fallacy. It was described and named by British philosopher G. E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica. Moore stated that a naturalistic fallacy was committed whenever a philosopher attempts to prove a claim about ethics by appealing to a definition of the term "good" in terms of one or more natural properties (such as "pleasant", "more evolved", "desired", etc.). The naturalistic fallacy is related to, and often confused with, the is-ought problem (which comes from Hume's Treatise). As a result, the term is sometimes used loosely to describe arguments that claim to draw ethical conclusions from natural facts. Alternatively, the phrase "naturalistic fallacy" is used to refer to the claim that what is natural is inherently good or right, and that what is unnatural is bad or wrong (see "Appeal to nature"). It is the converse of the moralistic fallacy, or that what is good or right is natural and inherent. Moore's discussion The title page of Principia Ethica Moore's argument in Principia Ethica is (among other things) a defense of ethical non-naturalism; he argues that the term "good" (in the sense of intrinsic value) is indefinable, because it names a simple, non-natural property. It is, rather, "one of those innumerable objects of thought which are themselves incapable of definition, because they are the ultimate terms by reference to which whatever is capable of definition must be defined" (Principia Ethica § 10 ¶ 1). By contrast, many ethical philosophers have tried to prove some of their claims about ethics by appealing to an analysis of the meaning of the term "good"; they held, that is, that "good" can be defined in terms of one or more natural properties which we already understand (such as "pleasure", in the case of hedonists). Moore coined the term "naturalistic fallacy" to describe arguments of this form; he explains (in § 12) that the fallacy involved is an instance of a more general type of fallacy, which he leaves unnamed, but which we might call the "definitional fallacy". The fallacy is committed whenever a statement to the effect that some object has a simple indefinable property is misunderstood as a definition that gives the meaning of the simple indefinable property: The point here is connected with Moore's understanding of properties and the terms that stand for them. Moore holds (§7) that properties are either complexes of simple properties, or else irreducibly simple. The meaning of terms that stand for complex properties can be given by using terms for their constituent properties in a definition; simple properties cannot be defined, because they are made up only of themselves and there are no simpler constituents to refer to. Besides "good" and "pleasure", Moore also offers colour terms as an example of indefinable terms; thus if one wants to understand the meaning of "yellow", one has to be shown examples of it; it will do no good to read the dictionary and learn that "yellow" names the colour of egg yolks and ripe lemons, or that "yellow" names the primary colour between green and orange on the spectrum, or that the perception of yellow is stimulated by electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of between 570 and 590 nanometers. It is true that yellow is all these things, that "egg yolks are yellow" and "the colour perceived when the retina is stimulated by electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of between 570 and 590 nanometers is yellow" are true statements. But the statements do not give the meaning of the term "yellow", and (Moore argues) to confuse them with a definition of "yellow" would be to commit the same fallacy that is committed when "Pleasure is good" is confused with a definition of "good". Moore goes on to explain that he pays special attention to the fallacy as it occurs in ethics, and identifies that specific form of the fallacy as ‘naturalistic’, because (1) it is so commonly committed in ethics, and (2) because committing the fallacy in ethics involves confusing a natural object (such as survival or pleasure) with goodness, something that is (he argues) not a natural object. However, it is important to note that in spite of his rhetorical focus on the ‘naturalistic’ nature of the fallacy, Moore was not any more satisfied with theories that attempted to define goodness in terms of non-natural properties than he was with naturalistic theories; indeed, the basis of his criticism of “Metaphysical Ethics” in Chapter IV of Principia Ethica is that theories which define 'good' in terms of supernatural or metaphysical properties rest on the very same fallacy as naturalistic theories (§69). The target of Moore's discussion of the "naturalistic fallacy" is reductionism at least as much as it is naturalism specifically, and the important lesson, for Moore, is that the meaning of the term "good" and the nature of the property goodness are irreducibly sui generis. Moore advanced an argument for the indefinability of “good” (and demonstrating the “naturalistic fallacy”) which is known as the Open Question Argument. Other uses Appeal to nature Some people use the phrase "naturalistic fallacy" or "Appeal to nature" to characterize inferences of the form "This behaviour is natural; therefore, this behaviour is morally acceptable" or "This behaviour is unnatural; therefore, this behaviour is morally unacceptable". Such inferences are common in discussions of homosexuality and cloning. While such inferences may indeed be fallacious, it is important to realise that Moore is not concerned with them. He is instead concerned with the semantic and metaphysical underpinnings of ethics. However, others hold that it may be reasonable to assert that the term "good" is merely an affirmation of approval, and that, as such, good may be defined as "I approve." It is also important to note that philosophers such as St. Thomas Aquinas held that the "good" was a process of actualization, where the formal principle of a natural object fulfilled its final cause (purpose), such that a tree's purpose is to develop another tree, or a bouncy ball's is to bounce. The formal principle to Aquinas was defined through Aristotle as "that which makes a thing what it is". Thus the source of potency to accomplish all natural objects ends is through the formal cause of an object. For which Aquinas suggests a non-dualistic model for substance: Form and Matter. This argument still holds a lot of weight, against the supposed "naturalistic fallacy". Aquinas held that what is good, is what is natural, in that God created all things and they were good. However, he argued from human reason rather than faith, when he discussed the ontological significance. He suggested that the end (fulfillment of its purpose) is the good, and there are various degrees of Good, such as the processes of development in a living being. Arguably, happiness is the ultimate end for all human beings, and thus, all morality is in reference to what actualizes this "happiness". But Aquinas argued that there was an objective principle, not relative, which accomplished self-actualization. A simple example is that drugs simulate happiness, but are only "apparent/false" happiness, while integrity, reason, and love all flow with nature, and therefore permit actualization of the ultimate end: happiness. The is-ought problem The term "naturalistic fallacy" is also sometimes used to describe the deduction of an "ought" from an "is" (the Is-ought problem), and has inspired the use of mutually reinforcing terminology which describes the converse (deducing an "is" from an "ought") either as the "reverse naturalistic fallacy" or the "moralistic fallacy." An example of a naturalistic fallacy in this sense would be to conclude Social Darwinism from the theory of evolution by natural selection, and of the reverse naturalistic fallacy to argue that the immorality of survival of the fittest implies the theory of evolution is false. Moralists Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant both indicated the is-ought problem in order to identify their theories of morality and law. In using his categorical imperative Kant deduced that experience was necessary for their applications. But experience on its own or the imperative on its own could not possibly identify an act as being moral or immoral. We can have no certain knowledge of morality from them, being incapable of deducing how things ought to be from the fact that they happen to be arranged in a particular manner in experience. Bentham, in discussing the relations of law and morality, found that when people discuss problems and issues they talk about how they wish it would be as opposed to how it actually is. This can be seen in discussions of natural law and positive law. Bentham criticized natural law theory because in his view it was a naturalistic fallacy, claiming that it described how things ought to be instead of how things are. See also Appeal to novelty Appeal to tradition Definist fallacy Evolution of morality Fact-value distinction Meta-ethics Moralistic fallacy Philosophical naturalism Norm (philosophy) Value theory References Further reading Frankena, W.K. (1939). "The Naturalistic Fallacy," Mind, 1939. Curry, O. (2006). Who's afraid of the naturalistic fallacy? Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 234-247. Full text Walter, A. (2006). The anti-naturalistic fallacy: Evolutionary moral psychology and the insistence of brute facts. Evolutionary Psychology, 4, 33-48. Full text Wilson, D.S., Dietrich, E., et al. (2003). On the inappropriate use of the naturalistic fallacy in evolutionary psychology. Biology and Philosophy, 18, 669-682. Full text External links Appeal to Nature entry in The Fallacy Files Principia Ethica

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Demographics_of_Libya

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Libya, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Libya has a small population residing in a large land area. Population density is about 50 persons per km² (80/sq. mi.) in the two northern regions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, but falls to less than one person per km² (1.6/sq. mi.) elsewhere. Ninety percent of the people live in less than 10% of the area, primarily along the coast. About 88% of the population is urban, mostly concentrated in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi. 50% of the population is estimated to be under age 15. Native Libyans are primarily a mixture of Berbers and Arabs. Small Tuareg and Tebu tribal groups in southern Libya are nomadic or seminomadic. Among foreign residents, the largest groups are citizens of other African nations, including North Africans (primarily Egyptians), and Sub-Saharan Africans. Demographics of Libya, Data of FAO, year 2006; Number of inhabitants in thousands. to see the last information, please visit this official site: http://www.gait.gov.ly/info/info2.htm CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 5,670,688 (including 2,944,632 males and 2,726,056 females) note: includes 162,669 non-nationals (July 2006) Age structure 0-14 years: 36% (male 938,476; female 899,139) 15-64 years: 60% (male 1,595,306; female 1,485,069) 65 years and over: 4% (male 97,770; female 99,690) (2000 est.) Population growth rate 2.30% (2006 est.) Birth rate 27.68 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate 3.51 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.07 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.98 male(s)/female total population: 1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 30.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 75.45 years male: 73.34 years female: 77.66 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 3.71 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality noun: Libyan(s) adjective: Libyan Ethnic groups Berber and Arab 97%, Egyptians, Greeks, Maltese, Italians, Pakistanis, Turks, Indians and Albanians. Religions Sunni Muslim 97%, Christian (Coptic Orthodox, Catholic, Anglican) 3%, other < 1%. It is unclear whether or not the Jewish population in Libya went extinct, thousands were forced to flee the country after the Six Day War in Israel (1967). Languages Arabic is the official language and is understood virtually by everyone, about 10% of the population speak Tamazight which is concentrated in Jabal Nafusah, English is not widely understood, a small number of people who are mostly from the elder generation understand Italian. Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 95.4% male: 96.9% female: 94% (2006 est.) Source CIA World Factbook 2008 Looklex Encyclopedia See also Health in Libya

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Fermi_paradox

The Fermi paradox is the apparent contradiction between high estimates of the probability of the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations and the lack of evidence for, or contact with, such civilizations. The extreme age of the universe and its vast number of stars suggest that if the Earth is typical, extraterrestrial life should be common. Sagan, Carl. Cosmos, Ballantine Books 1985 In an informal discussion in 1950, the physicist Enrico Fermi questioned why, if a multitude of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations exist in the Milky Way galaxy, evidence such as spacecraft or probes are not seen. A more detailed examination of the implications of the topic began with a paper by Michael H. Hart in 1975, and it is sometimes referred to as the Fermi-Hart paradox. Another closely related question is the Great Silence —even if travel is hard, if life is common, why don't we detect their radio transmissions? There have been attempts to resolve the Fermi Paradox by locating evidence of extraterrestrial civilizations, along with proposals that such life could exist without human knowledge. Counterarguments suggest that intelligent extraterrestrial life does not exist or occurs so rarely that humans will never make contact with it. Starting with Hart, a great deal of effort has gone into developing scientific theories about, and possible models of, extraterrestrial life, and the Fermi paradox has become a theoretical reference point in much of this work. The problem has spawned numerous scholarly works addressing it directly, while various questions that relate to it have been addressed in fields as diverse as astronomy, biology, ecology, and philosophy. The emerging field of astrobiology has brought an interdisciplinary approach to the Fermi paradox and the question of extraterrestrial life. Basis of the paradox The Fermi paradox is a conflict between an argument of scale and probability and a lack of evidence. A more complete definition could be stated thus: The first aspect of the paradox, "the argument by scale", is a function of the raw numbers involved: there are an estimated 250 billion (2.5 x 1011) stars in the Milky Way and 70 sextillion (7 x 1022) in the visible universe. Even if intelligent life occurs on only a minuscule percentage of planets around these stars, there should still be a great number of civilizations extant in the Milky Way galaxy alone. This argument also assumes the mediocrity principle, which states that Earth is not special, but merely a typical planet, subject to the same laws, effects, and likely outcomes as any other world. Some estimates using the Drake equation support this argument, although the assumptions behind those calculations have themselves been challenged. The second cornerstone of the Fermi paradox is a rejoinder to the argument by scale: given intelligent life's ability to overcome scarcity, and its tendency to colonize new habitats, it seems likely that any advanced civilization would seek out new resources and colonize first their own star system, and then the surrounding star systems. As there is no conclusive or certifiable evidence on Earth or elsewhere in the known universe of other intelligent life after 13.7 billion years of the universe's history, it may be assumed that intelligent life is rare or that our assumptions about the general behavior of intelligent species are flawed. The Fermi paradox can be asked in two ways. The first is, "Why are no aliens or their artifacts physically here?" If interstellar travel is possible, even the "slow" kind nearly within the reach of Earth technology, then it would only take from 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the galaxy. Crawford, I.A., "Where are They? Maybe we are alone in the galaxy after all", Scientific American, July 2000, 38-43, (2000). This is a relatively small amount of time on a geological scale, let alone a cosmological one. Since there are many stars older than the sun, or since intelligent life might have evolved earlier elsewhere, the question then becomes why the galaxy has not been colonized already. Even if colonization is impractical or undesirable to all alien civilizations, large scale exploration of the galaxy is still possible; the means of exploration and theoretical probes involved are discussed extensively below. However, no signs of either colonization or exploration have been generally acknowledged. The argument above may not hold for the universe as a whole, since travel times may well explain the lack of physical presence on Earth of alien inhabitants of far away galaxies. However, the question then becomes "Why do we see no signs of intelligent life?" as a sufficiently advanced civilization The Soviet astronomer Nikolai Kardashev has stated that an alien civilization on Kardashev scale of 3 could send signals up to 10 billion light years. could potentially be seen over a significant fraction of the size of the observable universe. Intelligent Life in the Universe by I. S. Shklovskii(Author), Carl Sagan (Author) p394 Even if such civilizations are rare, the scale argument indicates they should exist somewhere at some point during the history of the universe, and since they could be detected from far away over a considerable period of time, many more potential sites for their origin are within our view. However, no incontrovertible signs of such civilizations have been detected. It is currently unclear which version of the paradox is stronger. Let be the number of civilizations (per unit volume) that can be seen at a radius . Let be the radius of the galaxy. So the number of civilizations we see is: where the first integral are those in the galaxy, and the second those outside. Which integral is bigger depends on how fast N(r) decreases, which is completely unknown. This observation is due to Kardashev. Name In 1950, while working at Los Alamos National Laboratory, the physicist Enrico Fermi had a casual conversation while walking to lunch with colleagues Emil Konopinski, Edward Teller and Herbert York. The men lightly discussed a recent spate of UFO reports and an Alan Dunn cartoon facetiously blaming the disappearance of municipal trashcans on marauding aliens. They then had a more serious discussion regarding the chances of humans observing faster-than-light travel of some material object within the next ten years, which Teller put at one in a million, but Fermi put closer to one in ten. The conversation shifted to other subjects, until during lunch Fermi suddenly exclaimed, "Where are they?" (alternatively, "Where is everybody?") Eric Jones, "Where is everybody?", An account of Fermi's question", Los Alamos Technical report LA-10311-MS, March, 1985. One participant recollects that Fermi then made a series of rapid calculations using estimated figures (Fermi was known for his ability to make good estimates from first principles and minimal data, see Fermi problem.) According to this account, he then concluded that Earth should have been visited long ago and many times over. Drake equation While numerous theories and principles attend to the Fermi paradox, the most closely related is the Drake equation. The equation was formulated by Dr. Frank Drake in 1960, a decade after the objections raised by Enrico Fermi, in an attempt to find a systematic means to evaluate the numerous probabilities involved in alien life. The speculative equation factors: the rate of star formation in the galaxy; the number of stars with planets and the number that are habitable; the number of those planets which develop life and subsequently intelligent communicating life; and finally the expected lifetimes of such civilizations. The fundamental problem is that the last four terms (fraction of planets with life, odds life becomes intelligent, odds intelligent life becomes communicative, and lifetime of communicating civilizations) are completely unknown. We have only one example, rendering statistical estimates impossible, and even the example we have is subject to a strong anthropic bias. A deeper objection is that the very form of the Drake equation assumes that civilizations arise and then die out within their original solar systems. If interstellar colonization is possible, then this assumption is invalid, and the equations of population dynamics would apply instead. The Drake equation has been used by both optimists and pessimists with wildly differing results. Dr. Carl Sagan, using optimistic numbers, suggested as many as one million communicating civilizations in the Milky Way in 1966, though he later suggested that the number could be far smaller. Skeptics, such as Frank Tipler, have put in pessimistic numbers and concluded that the average number of civilizations in a galaxy is much less than one. (Note that, even though there is at least one civilization in our galaxy, the average or "most likely" number of civilizations in our galaxy as described by this equation may still be smaller than one. In other words, the fact that there is at least one civilization in our galaxy does not mean that this was a likely outcome. This is an excellent example of anthropic bias. No civilization can use itself to estimate the average number of civilizations in a galaxy, since if there was not at least one civilization the question could not arise.) Frank Drake himself has commented that the Drake Equation is unlikely to settle the Fermi paradox; instead it is just a way of organizing our ignorance on the subject. Resolving the paradox empirically One obvious way to resolve the Fermi paradox would be to find conclusive evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence. Various efforts to find such evidence have been made since 1960, and several are ongoing. As human beings do not have interstellar travel capability, such searches are being carried out at great distances and rely on careful analysis of very subtle evidence. This limits possible discoveries to civilizations which alter their environment in a detectable way, or produce effects that are detectable at a distance, such as radio emissions. It is very unlikely that non-technological civilizations will be detectable from Earth in the near future. One difficulty in searching is avoiding an overly anthropocentric viewpoint. Conjecture on the type of evidence likely to be found often focuses on the types of activities that humans have performed, or likely would perform given more advanced technology. Intelligent aliens might avoid these "expected" activities, or perform activities totally novel to humans. Radio emissions Radio telescopes are often used by SETI projects Radio technology and the ability to construct a radio telescope are presumed to be a natural advance for technological species theoretically creating effects that might be detected over interstellar distances. Sensitive observers of the solar system, for example, would note unusually intense radio waves for a G2 star due to Earth's television and telecommunication broadcasts. In the absence of an apparent natural cause, alien observers might infer the existence of terrestrial civilization. Therefore, the careful searching of radio emissions from space for non-natural signals may lead to the detection of alien civilizations. Such signals could be either "accidental" by-products of a civilization, or deliberate attempts to communicate, such as the Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence's Arecibo message. A number of astronomers and observatories have attempted and are attempting to detect such evidence, mostly through the SETI organization, although other approaches, such as optical SETI also exist. Several decades of SETI analysis have not revealed any main sequence stars with unusually bright or meaningfully repetitive radio emissions, although there have been several candidate signals. On August 15 1977 the "Wow! signal" was picked up by The Big Ear radio telescope. However, the Big Ear only looks at each point on the sky for 72 seconds, and re-examinations of the same spot have found nothing. In 2003, Radio source SHGb02+14a was isolated by SETI@home analysis, although it has largely been discounted by further study. There are numerous technical assumptions underlying SETI that may cause human beings to miss radio emissions with present search techniques; these are discussed below. Direct planetary observation Detection and classification of exoplanets has come out of recent refinements in mainstream astronomical instruments and analysis. While this is a new field in astronomy — the first published paper claiming to have discovered an exoplanet was released in 1989 — it is possible that planets which are likely to be able to support life will be found in the near future. Direct evidence for the existence of life may eventually be observable, such as the detection of biotic signature gases (such as methane and oxygen) — or even the industrial air pollution of a technologically advanced civilization — in an exoplanet's atmosphere by means of spectrographic analysis. Habitable Planet Signposts, Astrobiology magazine. With improvements in our observational capabilities, it may eventually even be possible to detect direct evidence such as that which humanity produces (see right). However, exoplanets are rarely directly observed (the first claim to have done so was made in 2004 ); rather, their existence is usually inferred from the effects they have on the star(s) they orbit. This means that usually only the mass and orbit of an exoplanet can be deduced. This information, along with the stellar classification of its sun, and educated guesses as to its composition (usually based on the mass of the planet, and its distance from its sun), allows only for rough approximations of the planetary environment. Prior to 2009, methods for exoplanet detection were not likely to detect life-bearing Earth-like worlds. Methods such as gravitational microlensing can detect the presence of "small" worlds, potentially even smaller than the Earth, but can only detect such worlds for very brief moments of time, and no follow-up is possible. Other methods such as radial velocity, astrometry, and the transit method allow prolonged observations of exoplanet effects, but only work with worlds that are many times the mass of Earth, at least when performed while looking through the atmosphere. These seem unlikely candidates to harbor Earth-like life. However, exoplanet detection and classification is a very active sub-discipline in astronomy, with 241 such planets being detected between 1988 and 2007, and the first possibly terrestrial planet discovered within a star's habitable zone being found in 2007. Udry et al. (2007). "The HARPS search for southern extra-solar planets, XI. An habitable super-Earth (5 M⊕) in a 3-planet system". Astronomy and Astrophysics preprint: preprint. New refinements in exoplanet detection methods, and use of existing methods from space, (such as the Kepler Mission, launched in 2009) are expected to detect and characterize terrestrial-size planets, and determine if they are within the habitable zones of their stars. Such observational refinements may allow us to better gauge how common potentially inhabitable worlds are, and thus allow us a much better idea of how common life in the universe might be, which of course has profound influence over the expectations behind the Fermi Paradox itself. Alien constructs Probes, colonies, and other artifacts As noted, given the size and age of the universe, and the relative rapidity at which dispersion of intelligent life can occur, evidence of alien colonization attempts might plausibly be discovered. Also, evidence of exploration not containing extraterrestrial life, such as probes and information gathering devices, may await discovery. Some theoretical exploration techniques such as the Von Neumann probe could exhaustively explore a galaxy the size of the Milky Way in as little as half a million years, with relatively little investment in materials and energy relative to the results. If even a single civilization in the Milky Way attempted this, such probes could spread throughout the entire galaxy. Evidence of such probes might be found in the solar system—perhaps in the asteroid belt where raw materials would be plentiful and easily accessed. Another possibility for contact with an alien probe—one that would be trying to find human beings—is an alien Bracewell probe. Such a device would be an autonomous space probe whose purpose is to seek out and communicate with alien civilizations (as opposed to Von Neumann probes, which are usually described as purely exploratory). These were proposed as an alternative to carrying a slow speed-of-light dialogue between vastly distant neighbours. Rather than contending with the long delays a radio dialogue would suffer, a probe housing an artificial intelligence would seek out an alien civilisation to carry on a close range communication with the discovered civilization. The findings of such a probe would still have to be transmitted to the home civilisation at light speed, but an information-gathering dialogue could be conducted in real time. Bracewell, R. N. "Communications from Superior Galactic Communities," Nature, 186, 670–671 (1960). Reprinted in A.G. Cameron (ed.), Interstellar Communication, W. A. Benjamin, Inc., New York, pp. 243–248, 1963. Since the 1950s direct exploration has been carried out on a small fraction of the solar system and no evidence that it has ever been visited by alien colonists, or probes, has been uncovered. Detailed exploration of areas of the solar system where resources would be plentiful—such as the asteroids, the Kuiper belt, the Oort cloud and the various planetary ring systems—may yet produce evidence of alien exploration, though these regions are vast and difficult to investigate. There have been preliminary efforts in this direction in the form of the SETA and SETV projects to search for extraterrestrial artifacts or other evidence of extraterrestrial visitation within the solar system. SETV projects There have also been attempts to signal, attract, or activate Bracewell probes in Earth's local vicinity, including by scientists Robert Freitas and Francisco Valdes. Freitas Jr., Robert A. and Valdes, Francisco. "The Search for Extraterrestrial Artifacts," Acta Astronautica, 12, No. 12, 1027–1034 (1985). Many of the projects that fall under this umbrella are considered "fringe" science by astronomers and none of the various projects have located any artifacts. Should alien artifacts be discovered, even here on Earth, they may not be recognizable as such. The products of an alien mind and an advanced alien technology might not be perceptible or recognizable as artificial constructs. Exploratory devices in the form of bio-engineered life forms created through synthetic biology would presumably disintegrate after a point, leaving no evidence; an alien information gathering system based on molecular nanotechnology could be all around us at this very moment, completely undetected. Clarke's third law suggests that an alien civilization well in advance of humanity's might have means of investigation that are not yet conceivable to human beings. Advanced stellar-scale artifacts In 1959, Dr. Freeman Dyson observed that every developing human civilization constantly increases its energy consumption, and theoretically, a civilization of sufficient age would require all the energy produced by its sun. The Dyson Sphere was the thought experiment that he derived as a solution: a shell or cloud of objects enclosing a star to harness as much radiant energy as possible. Such a feat of astroengineering would drastically alter the observed spectrum of the sun, changing it at least partly from the normal emission lines of a natural stellar atmosphere, to that of a black body radiation, probably with a peak in the infrared. Dyson himself speculated that advanced alien civilizations might be detected by examining the spectra of stars, searching for such an altered spectrum. Dyson, Freeman, "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation", Science, June 1960. Since then, several other theoretical stellar-scale megastructures have been proposed, but the central idea remains that a highly advanced civilization — Type II or greater on the Kardashev scale — could alter its environment enough as to be detectable from interstellar distances. However, such constructs may be more difficult to detect than originally thought. Dyson spheres might have different emission spectra depending on the desired internal environment; life based on high-temperature reactions may require a high temperature environment, with resulting "waste radiation" in the visible spectrum, not the infrared. Niven, Larry, "Bigger than Worlds", Analog, March 1974. Additionally, a variant of the Dyson sphere has been proposed which would be difficult to observe from any great distance; a Matrioshka Brain is a series of concentric spheres, each radiating less energy per area than its inner neighbour. The outermost sphere of such a structure could be close to the temperature of the interstellar background radiation, and thus be all but invisible. There have been some preliminary attempts to find evidence of the existence of Dyson spheres or other large Type-II or Type-III Kardashev scale artifacts that would alter the spectra of their core stars, but optical surveys have not located anything. Fermilab has an ongoing program to find Dyson spheres, but such searches are preliminary and incomplete as yet. Explaining the paradox theoretically Certain theoreticians accept that the apparent absence of evidence proves the absence of extraterrestrials and attempt to explain why. Others offer possible frameworks in which the silence may be explained without ruling out the possibility of such life, including assumptions about extraterrestrial behaviour and technology. Each of these hypothesized explanations is essentially an argument for decreasing the value of one or more of the terms in the Drake equation. The arguments are not, in general, mutually exclusive. For example, it could be that both life is rare, and technical civilizations tend to destroy themselves, or many other combinations of the explanations below. No other civilizations currently exist One explanation is that the human civilization is alone in the galaxy. Several theories along these lines have been proposed, explaining why intelligent life might be either very rare, or very short lived. Implications of these hypotheses are examined as The Great Filter. No other civilizations have arisen Those who believe that extraterrestrial intelligent life does not exist argue that the conditions needed for life—or at least complex life—to evolve are rare or even unique to Earth. This is known as the Rare Earth hypothesis, which attempts to resolve the Fermi paradox by rejecting the mediocrity principle, and asserting that Earth is not typical, but unusual or even unique. While a unique Earth has historically been assumed on philosophical or religious grounds, the Rare Earth Hypothesis uses quantifiable and statistical arguments to argue that multicellular life is exceedingly rare in the universe because Earth-like planets are themselves exceedingly rare and/or many improbable coincidences have converged to make complex life on Earth possible. Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee. Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe. Copernicus Books. January 2000. ISBN 0-387-98701-0. While some have pointed out that complex life may evolve through other mechanisms than those found specifically here on Earth, the fact that in the extremely long history of life on the Earth only one species has developed a civilization to the point of being capable of space flight and radio technology seems to lend more credence to the idea of technologically advanced civilization being a rare commodity in the universe. For example, the emergence of intelligence may have been an evolutionary accident. Geoffrey Miller proposes that human intelligence is the result of runaway sexual selection, which takes unpredictable directions. Steven Pinker, in his book How the Mind Works, cautions that the idea that evolution of life (once it has reached a certain minimum complexity) is bound to produce intelligent beings, relies on the fallacy of the "ladder of evolution": As evolution does not strive for a goal but just happens, it uses the adaptation most useful for a given ecological niche, and the fact that, on Earth, this led to language-capable sentience only once so far may suggest that this adaptation is only rarely a good choice and hence by no means a sure endpoint of the evolution of a tree of life. Another theory along these lines is that even if the conditions needed for life might be common in the universe, that the formation of life itself, a complex array of molecules that are capable simultaneously of reproduction, of extraction of base components from the environment, and of obtaining energy in a form that life can use to maintain the reaction (or the initial abiogenesis on a potential life-bearing planet), might ultimately be very rare. Additionally, in the nondirectional meandering from initial life to humans, other low-probability happenings may have been the transition from prokaryotic cells to eukaryotic cells and the transition from single-cellular life to multicellular life. It is also possible that intelligence is common, but industrial civilization is not. For example, the rise of industrialism on Earth was driven by the presence of convenient energy sources such as fossil fuels. If such energy sources are rare or nonexistent elsewhere, then it may be far more difficult for an intelligent race to advance technologically to the point where we could communicate with them. There may also be other unique factors on which our civilization is dependent. Insofar as the Rare Earth Hypothesis privileges Earth-life and its process of formation, it is a variant of the anthropic principle. The variant of the anthropic principle states the universe seems uniquely suited towards developing human intelligence. This philosophical stance opposes not only mediocrity, but the Copernican principle more generally, which suggests there is no privileged location in the universe. It is also opposed by increasing evidence that humans are not the only intelligent/language/tool using/making species (or however else you define the concept) on our planet. Inside Animal Minds, National Geographic, March 2008 Opponents dismiss both Rare Earth and the anthropic principle as tautological — if a condition must exist in the universe for human life to arise, then the universe must already meet that condition, as human life exists — and as an unimaginative argument. According to this analysis, the Rare Earth hypothesis confuses a description of how life on Earth arose with a uniform conclusion of how life must arise. Athena Andreadis. "E. T., Call Springer-Verlag!" SETI League Publications, 2000. While the probability of the specific conditions on Earth being widely replicated is low, we do not know what complex life may require in order to evolve. It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy itself Technological civilizations may usually or invariably destroy themselves before or shortly after developing radio or space flight technology. Possible means of annihilation include nuclear war, biological warfare or accidental contamination, nanotechnological catastrophe, ill-advised physics experiments, An example of fears of civilization destroying physics experiments. This particular fear (particle colliders creating black holes, destroying the false vacuum, etc.) is discounted among scientists, since cosmic rays of much higher energy have been striking the Earth and moon for eons (NYT article, Technical report). But the general concern is valid. , a badly programmed super-intelligence, or a Malthusian catastrophe after the deterioration of a planet's ecosphere. This general theme is explored both in fiction and in mainstream scientific theorizing. Indeed, there are probabilistic arguments which suggest that humanity's end may occur sooner rather than later. In 1966 Sagan and Shklovskii suggested that technological civilizations will either tend to destroy themselves within a century of developing interstellar communicative capability or master their self-destructive tendencies and survive for billion-year timescales. Self-annihilation may also be viewed in terms of thermodynamics: insofar as life is an ordered system that can sustain itself against the tendency to disorder, the "external transmission" or interstellar communicative phase may be the point at which the system becomes unstable and self-destructs. From a Darwinian perspective, self-destruction would be a paradoxical outcome of evolutionary success. The evolutionary psychology that developed during the competition for scarce resources over the course of human evolution has left the species subject to aggressive, instinctual drives. These compel humanity to consume resources, increase longevity, and to reproduce — in part, the very motives that led to the development of technological society. It seems likely that intelligent extraterrestrial life would evolve similarly and thus face the same possibility of self-destruction. And yet, for species self-destruction to provide a good answer to Fermi's Question, it would have to be very nearly universal. That is, this possibility would have a probability of very nearly 1.0. It has been suggested that a successful alien species would be a superpredator, as is Homo sapiens. Archer, Michael. "Slime Monsters Will Be Human Too," Nature Australia, vol. 22, 1989. This argument does not require the civilization to entirely self-destruct, only to become once again non-technological. In other ways it could persist and even thrive according to evolutionary standards, which postulates creating producing offspring as the sole goal of life - not "progress," technology or even intelligence. It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others Another possibility is that intelligent species beyond a certain point of technological capability will destroy other intelligence as it appears. The idea that someone, or something, is destroying intelligent life in the universe has been well explored in science fiction See, for example, Berserker (Saberhagen), The Heechee Saga (Pohl), Revelation Space (Reynolds) and the scientific literature. A species might undertake such extermination out of expansionist motives, paranoia, or simple aggression. In 1981, cosmologist Edward Harrison argued that such behavior would be an act of prudence: an intelligent species that has overcome its own self-destructive tendencies might view any other species bent on galactic expansion as a kind of virus. This hypothesis requires at least one civilization to have arisen in the past, and the first civilization would not have faced this problem. Webb, Stephen. If the Universe Is Teeming With Aliens...Where Is Everybody?, Springer, 2002, pp. 112 However, it could still be that Earth is alone now. Like exploration, the extermination of other civilizations might be carried out with self-replicating spacecraft. Under such a scenario, even if a civilization that created such machines were to disappear, the probes could outlive their creators, destroying civilizations far into the future. If true, this argument reduces the number of visible civilizations in two ways - by destroying some civilizations, and forcing the others to remain quiet, under fear of discovery. (see They choose not to interact with us) Also, we have seen no signs of this process, so if it exists it must be infrequent, or low visibility, or both. Human beings were created alone Religious and philosophical speculation about extraterrestrial intelligent life long predates the modern scientific inquiry into the subject. Some religious thinkers, including the Jewish rationalist commentator Rabbi Hasdai Crescas (c. 1340–1410/1411) Or Hashem 4:2 and the Christian philosopher Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464), posited the possibility of such extraterrestrial intelligence. On the other hand, at least some strains within the various Western religious traditions suggest the uniqueness of human beings in the divine plan and would counsel against belief in intelligent life on other worlds. Religious reasons for doubting the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent life resemble some forms of the Rare Earth Hypothesis. The argument here would be a teleological form of the strong anthropic principle: the universe was designed for the express purpose of creating human (and only human) intelligence. See, for instance: Gonzalez, Guillermo and Richards, Jay W. The Privileged Planet, Regnery, 2004. They do exist, but we see no evidence It may be that technological extraterrestrial civilizations exist, but that human beings cannot communicate with them because of various constraints: problems of scale or of technology; because their nature is simply too alien for meaningful communication; or because human society refuses to admit to evidence of their presence. Communication is impossible due to problems of scale Intelligent civilizations are too far apart in space or time It may be that non-colonizing technologically capable alien civilizations exist, but that they are simply too far apart for meaningful two-way communication. Webb, Stephen. If the Universe Is Teeming With Aliens...Where Is Everybody?, Springer, 2002, pp. 62–71 If two civilizations are separated by several thousand light years, it is very possible that one or both cultures may become extinct before meaningful dialogue can be established. Human searches may be able to detect their existence, but communication will remain impossible because of distance. This problem might be ameliorated somewhat if contact/communication is made through a Bracewell probe. In this case at least one partner in the exchange may obtain meaningful information. Alternatively, a civilization may simply broadcast its knowledge, and leave it to the receiver to make what they may of it. This is similar to the transmission of information from ancient civilizations to the present. Douglas Vakoch, Decoding E.T.: Ancient Tongues Point Way To Learning Alien Languages, SETI Institute, November 15, 2001 The problem of distance is compounded by the fact that timescales affording a "window of opportunity" for detection or contact might be quite small. Advanced civilizations may periodically arise and fall throughout our galaxy, but this may be such a rare event, relatively speaking, that the odds of two or more such civilizations existing at the same time are low. There may have been intelligent civilizations in the galaxy before the emergence of intelligence on Earth, and there may be intelligent civilizations after its extinction, but it is possible that human beings are the only intelligent civilization in existence now. The term "now" is somewhat complicated by the finite speed of light and the nature of spacetime under relativity. Assuming that an extraterrestrial intelligence is not able to travel to our vicinity at faster-than-light speeds, in order to detect an intelligence 1,000 light-years distant, that intelligence will need to have been active 1,000 years ago. Strictly speaking, only the portions of the universe lying within the past light cone of Earth need be considered, since any civilizations outside it could not be detected. There is a possibility that archaeological evidence of past civilizations may be detected through deep space observations — especially if they left behind large artifacts such as Dyson spheres — but this seems less likely than detecting the output of a thriving civilization. A related argument holds that other civilizations exist, and are transmitting and exploring, but their signals and probes simply have not arrived yet. However, critics have noted that this is unlikely, since it requires we are currently at a very special point in time, when the galaxy is transitioning from empty to full. This particular portion is just a tiny fraction of the life of a galaxy, so the odds we exist at such a moment are low. Brin, pp. 287 and 298. It is too expensive to spread physically throughout the galaxy Many assumptions about the ability of an alien culture to colonize other stars are based on the idea that interstellar travel is technologically feasible. While the current understanding of physics rules out the possibility of faster than light travel, it appears that there are no major theoretical barriers to the construction of "slow" interstellar ships. This idea underlies the concept of the Von Neumann probe and the Bracewell probe as evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence. It is possible, however, that present scientific knowledge cannot properly gauge the feasibility and costs of such interstellar colonization. Theoretical barriers may not yet be understood and the cost of materials and energy for such ventures may be so high as to make it unlikely that any civilization could afford to attempt it. Even if interstellar travel and colonization are possible, they may be difficult, leading to a colonization model based on percolation theory. Landis, Geoffrey. "The Fermi Paradox: An Approach Based on Percolation Theory", Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, London, vol 51, page 163–166, 1998. Colonization efforts may not occur as an unstoppable rush, but rather as an uneven tendency to "percolate" outwards, within an eventual slowing and termination of the effort given the enormous costs involved and the fact that colonies will inevitably develop a culture and civilization of their own. Colonization may thus occur in "clusters," with large areas remaining uncolonized at any one time. A similar argument holds that interstellar physical travel may be possible, but is much more expensive than interstellar communication. Furthermore, to an advanced civilization, travel itself may be replaced by communication, through mind uploading and similar technologies. Therefore the first civilization may have physically explored or colonized the galaxy, but subsequent civilizations find it cheaper, faster, and easier to travel and get information through contacting existing civilizations rather than physically exploring or traveling themselves. In this scenario, since there is little or no physical travel, and directed communications are hard to see except to the intended receiver, there could be many technical and interacting civilizations with few signs visible across interstellar distances. Human beings have not been searching long enough Humanity's ability to detect and comprehend intelligent extraterrestrial life has existed for only a very brief period — from 1937 onwards, if the invention of the radio telescope is taken as the dividing line — and Homo sapiens is a geologically recent species. The whole period of modern human existence to date (about 200,000 years) is a very brief period on a cosmological scale, while radio transmissions have only been propagated since 1895. Thus it remains possible that human beings have neither been searching long enough to find other intelligences, nor been in existence long enough to be found. One million years ago there would have been no humans for any extraterrestrial emissaries to meet. For each further step back in time, there would have been increasingly fewer indications to such emissaries that intelligent life would develop on Earth. In a large and already ancient universe, a space-faring alien species may well have had many other more promising worlds to visit and revisit. Even if alien emissaries visited in more recent times, they may have been misinterpreted by early human cultures as supernatural entities. (As proposed by Erich von Däniken) This hypothesis is more plausible if alien civilizations tend to stagnate or die out, rather than expand. In addition, "the probability of a site never being visited, even [with an] infinite time limit, is a non-zero value." Kinouchi, Osame. "Persistence solves Fermi Paradox but challenges SETI projects," Condensed Matter, 0112137 v1, December 2001. Thus, even if intelligent life expands elsewhere, it remains statistically possible that such extraterrestrial life might never discover Earth. Communication is impossible for technical reasons Human beings are not listening properly There are some assumptions that underlie the SETI search programs that may cause searchers to miss signals that are present. For example, the radio searches to date would completely miss highly compressed data streams (which would be almost indistinguishable from "white noise" to anyone who did not understand the compression algorithm). Extraterrestrials might also use frequencies that scientists have decided are unlikely to carry signals, or do not penetrate our atmosphere, or use modulation strategies that are not being looked for. The signals might be at a datarate that is too fast for our electronics to handle, or too slow to be recognised as attempts at communication. "Simple" broadcast techniques might be employed, but sent from non-main sequence stars which are searched with lower priority; current programs assume that most alien life will be orbiting Sun-like stars. Margaret C. Turnbull and Jill C. Tarter. "Target selection for SETI: A catalog of nearby habitable stellar systems," The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 145: 181–198, March 2003. The greatest problem is the sheer size of the radio search needed to look for signals, the limited amount of resources committed to SETI, and the sensitivity of modern instruments. SETI estimates, for instance, that with a radio telescope as sensitive as the Arecibo Observatory, Earth's television and radio broadcasts would only be detectable at distances up to 0.3 light years. SETI's FAQ, Sec 1.2.3 Clearly detecting an Earth type civilization at great distances is difficult. A signal is much easier to detect if the signal energy is focused in either a narrow range of frequencies (Narrowband transmissions), and/or directed at a specific part of the sky. Such signals can be detected at ranges of hundreds to tens of thousands of light-years distance. SETI's FAQ, Sec 1.6 However this means that detectors must be listening to an appropriate range of frequencies, and be in that region of space to which the beam is being sent. Many SETI searches, starting with the venerable Project Cyclops, go so far as to assume that extraterrestrial civilizations will be broadcasting a deliberate signal (like the Arecibo message), in order to be found. Thus to detect alien civilizations through their radio emissions, Earth observers either need more sensitive instruments or must hope for fortuitous circumstances: that the broadband radio emissions of alien radio technology are much stronger than our own; that one of SETI's programs is listening to the correct frequencies from the right regions of space; or that aliens are sending focused transmissions such as the Arecibo message in our general direction. Civilizations only broadcast detectable radio signals for a brief period of time It may be that alien civilizations are detectable through their radio emissions for only a short time, reducing the likelihood of spotting them. There are two possibilities in this regard: civilizations outgrow radio through technological advance or, conversely, resource depletion cuts short the time in which a species broadcasts. The first idea, that civilizations advance beyond radio, is based in part on the "fiber optic objection": the use of high power radio with low-to-medium gain (i.e., non-directional) antennas for long-distance transmission is wasteful of spectrum, yet this "waste" is precisely what makes these systems conspicuous at interstellar distances. Humans are moving to directional or guided transmission channels such as electrical cables, optical fibers, narrow-beam microwave and lasers, and conventional radio with non-directional antennas is increasingly reserved for low-power, short-range applications such as cell phones and Wi-Fi networks. These signals are far less detectable from space. Analog television, developed in the mid-twentieth century, contains strong carriers to aid reception and demodulation. Carriers are spectral lines that are very easily detected yet do not convey any information beyond their highly artificial nature. Nearly every SETI project is looking for carriers for just this reason, and UHF TV carriers are currently the most conspicuous and artificial signals from earth that could be detected at interstellar distances. But advances in technology are replacing analog TV with digital television which uses spectrum more efficiently precisely by eliminating or reducing components such as carriers that make them so conspicuous. Using our own experience as an example, we could set the date of radio-visibility for Earth as December 12, 1901, when Guglielmo Marconi sent radio signals from Cornwall, England, to Newfoundland, Canada. BBC - Cornwall - Marconi 100 . Visibility is now ending, or at least becoming orders of magnitude more difficult, as analog TV is being phased out. And so, if our experience is typical, a civilization remains radio-visible for approximately a hundred years. So a civilization may have been very visible from 1325 to 1483, but we were just not listening at that time. This is essentially the solution, "Everyone is listening, no one is sending." More hypothetically, advanced alien civilizations evolve beyond broadcasting at all in the electromagnetic spectrum and communicate by principles of physics we don't yet understand. Some scientists have hypothesized that advanced civilizations may send neutrino signals. Cosmic Search Vol. 1 No. 3 If such signals exist they could be detectable by neutrino detectors that are now under construction. Galactic Neutrino Communication If stable wormholes could be created and used for communications then interstellar broadcasts would become largely redundant. Thus it may be that other civilizations would only be detectable for a relatively short period of time between the discovery of radio and the switch to more efficient technologies. A different argument is that resource depletion will soon result in a decline in technological capability. Human civilization has been capable of interstellar radio communication for only a few decades and is already rapidly depleting fossil fuels and confronting possible problems such as peak oil. It may only be a few more decades before energy becomes too expensive, and the necessary electronics and computers too difficult to manufacture, for societies to continue the search. If the same conditions regarding energy supplies hold true for other civilizations, then radio technology may be a short-lived phenomenon. Unless two civilizations happen to be near each other and develop the ability to communicate at the same time it would be virtually impossible for any one civilization to "talk" to another. Critics of the resource depletion argument point out that an energy-consuming civilization is not dependent solely on fossil fuels. Alternate energy sources exist, such as solar power which is renewable and has enormous potential relative to technical barriers. History of Solar Energy, www.solarenergy.com For depletion of fossil fuels to end the "technological phase" of a civilization, some form of technological regression would have to invariably occur, preventing the exploitation of renewable energy sources. They tend to experience a technological singularity Another possibility is that technological civilizations invariably experience a technological singularity and attain a posthuman (or postalien) character. Theoretical civilizations of this sort may have altered drastically enough to render communication impossible. The intelligences of a post-singularity civilization might require more information exchange than is possible through interstellar communication, for example. Or perhaps any information humanity might provide would appear elementary, and thus they do not try to communicate, any more than human beings attempt to talk to ants. Even more extreme forms of post-singularity have been suggested, particularly in fiction: beings that divest themselves of physical form, create massive artificial virtual environments, transfer themselves into these environments through mind transfer, and exist totally within virtual worlds, ignoring the external physical universe. Surprisingly early treatments, such as Lewis Padgett's short story Mimsy were the Borogoves (1943), suggest a migration of advanced beings out of the presently known physical universe into a different and presumably more agreeable alternative one. One version of this perspective, which makes predictions for future SETI findings of transcension "fossils" and includes a variation of the Zoo hypothesis below, has been proposed by singularity scholar John Smart. Smart, John, "Answering the Fermi Paradox: Exploring the Mechanisms of Universal Transcension", Journal of Evolution and Technology, June 2002. They choose not to interact with us Earth is purposely isolated (The zoo hypothesis) It is possible that the belief that alien races would communicate with the human species is a fallacy, and that alien civilizations may not wish to communicate, even if they have the technical ability. A particular reason that alien civilizations may choose not to communicate is the so-called Zoo hypothesis: the idea that alien civilizations avoid contact with Earth so as not to interfere with our development, or to preserve an isolated "zoo or wilderness area". John A. Ball. "The Zoo Hypothesis," Icarus, vol 19, issue 3, pp 347–349, July 1973. Another possible reason has been discussed above under technological singularity – they may be too absorbed in pursuits of their own making. Many other reasons that an alien race might avoid contact have been proposed. Aliens might only choose to allow contact once the human race has passed certain ethical, political, or technological standards, e.g., ending poverty/war or being able to master interstellar travel. They may not want to interfere with our natural independent progress For an example from popular culture, see the Prime Directive of Star Trek , or the Earth may have been set as an explicit experiment that contact would ruin Laura Knight-Jadczyk (2006), "The High Strangeness" . These ideas are most plausible if there is a single alien civilization within contact range, or there is a homogeneous culture or law amongst alien civilizations which dictates that the Earth be shielded. If there is a plurality of alien cultures, however, this theory may break down under the uniformity of motive flaw: all it takes is a single culture or civilization to decide to act contrary to the imperative within our range of detection for it to be abrogated, and the probability of such a violation increases with the number of civilizations. Crawford, July 2000. This idea, and many others, become more plausible if we estimate that our galaxy has only a relatively small number of civilizations, or that all civilizations tend to evolve similar cultural values in regard to contact, or that all civilizations follow the lead of some particularly distinguished civilization (a hegemony). A related idea is that the perceived universe is a simulated reality. The planetarium hypothesis Baxter, Stephen, 2001, The Planetarium Hypothesis: A Resolution of the Fermi Paradox, Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Vol. 54, no. 5/6, pp. 210-216. holds that beings may have simulated a universe for us that appears to be empty of other life, by design. The simulation argument Nick Bostrom, 2003, Are You Living In a Computer Simulation? Philosophical Quarterly, 2003, Vol. 53, No. 211, pp. 243-255. See also this web site about the simulation argument. by Bostrom holds that although such a simulation may contain other life, such life cannot be much in advance of us since a far more advanced civilization may be correspondingly hard to simulate. It is dangerous to communicate An alien civilization might feel it is too dangerous to communicate, either for us or for them. After all, when very different civilizations have met on Earth, the results have often been disastrous for one side or the other, and the same may well apply to interstellar contact < . Even contact at a safe distance could lead to infection by computer code, or even ideas themselves ( see meme ). Perhaps prudent civilizations actively hide not only from us but from everyone, for they fear it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others. Perhaps the Fermi paradox itself - or the alien equivalent of it - is the ultimate reason for any civilization to avoid contact with other civilizations, even if no other obstacles existed. From any one civilization's point of view, it would be unlikely for them to be the first ones to make first contact and therefore likely for them to face the same possibly fatal problems that supposedly prevented the earlier civilizations from contacting them. So perhaps every civilization keeps quiet because of the possibility that there is a real reason for others to do so. They are too alien Another possibility is that human theoreticians have underestimated how much alien life might differ from that on Earth. Alien psychologies may simply be too different to communicate with human beings - or even to understand the concept of communication - and they are unable or unwilling to make the attempt. Human mathematics, language, tool use, and other concepts and communicative capacity may be parochial to Earth and not shared by other life. Schombert, James. "Fermi's paradox (i.e. Where are they?)" Lectures, University of Oregon. They are non-technological It is not clear that a civilization of intelligent beings must be technological. If an alien species does not develop technology, because it is difficult in its environment, because it chooses not to, or for any other reason, it will be very hard for human beings to detect. J. Tarter, (2001)What is SETI, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 950 , pp. 269–275 (2001) Intelligence alone, as opposed to life, is not necessarily visible across interstellar distances. While there are various remote sensing techniques which could perhaps detect life-bearing planets, none of them has any ability to distinguish intelligent but non-technical life from non-intelligent life. Not even any theoretical methods for doing so have been proposed, short of an actual physical visit by an astronaut or probe. This is sometimes referred to as the "algae vs. alumnae" problem. They are here unobserved It may be that intelligent alien life forms not only exist, but are already present here on Earth. They are not detected because they do not wish it, human beings are technically unable to, or because societies refuse to admit to the evidence. Webb, pp. 27–60 It is possible that a life form technologically advanced enough to travel to Earth might also be sufficiently advanced to exist here undetected. In this view, the aliens have arrived on Earth, or in our solar system, and are observing the planet, while concealing their presence. Observation could conceivably be conducted in a number of ways that would be very difficult to detect. For example, a complex system of microscopic monitoring devices constructed via molecular nanotechnology could be deployed on Earth and remain undetected, or sophisticated instruments could conduct passive monitoring from elsewhere. Many UFO researchers and watchers argue that society as a whole is unfairly biased against claims of alien abduction, sightings, and encounters, and as a result may not be fully receptive to claims of proof that aliens are visiting our planet. Swords, Michael D. "The Extraterrestrial Hypothesis and Science", pp. 368-373 in Jerome Clark's The UFO Encyclopedia: The Phenomenon from the Beginning. 2nd edition. 1998. Omingraphics. ISBN 0-7808-0097-4 Others use complex conspiracy theories to allege that evidence of alien visits is being concealed from the public by political elites who seek to hide the true extent of contact between aliens and humans. Scenarios such as these have been depicted in popular culture for decades. This theory was (jokingly) suggested to Fermi himself by his fellow physicist, Leó Szilárd, who suggested that "they are already among us - but they call themselves Hungarians". See also Fermi problem Anthropic principle Interstellar travel References Further reading Ben Zuckerman and Michael H. Hart, Extraterrestrials: Where Are They? ISBN 0-521-44803-4 Amazon Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life External links They're Made Out Of Meat So much space, so little time: why aliens haven't found us yet by Ian Sample,The Guardian January 18, 2007 The Possibilities of FTL: Or Fermi's Paradox Reconsidered by F.E. Freiheit IV Fermi's Paradox (i.e. Where are They?) by James Schombert Life in the Universe, by Eric Schulman, Mercury Magazine (May/June to November/December 2000) Answering the Fermi Paradox: Exploring the Mechanisms of Universal Transcension by John Smart Extraterrestrial Intelligence in the Solar System: Resolving the Fermi Paradox, which argues that our observations are incomplete, and There Is No Fermi Paradox, arguing that the paradox is based on a logical flaw, both by Robert Freitas Exotic Civilizations: Possible Answer to Fermi's Paradox by Paul Hughes Fermi Paradox debate Astrobiology Magazine July 2002. Michael Meyer, Frank Drake, Christopher McKay, Donald Brownlee, & David Grinspoon. Introduction and Drake equations for the Fermi paradox The Fermi Paradox: Back With a Vengeance by George Dvorsky. Virtual Reality Could Explain the Fermi Paradox by Michael Graham Richard Songs about Fermi's Paradox

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Geography_of_Croatia

Topographic map Croatia is located in Southeastern Europe (aka the western Balkans) between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovenia. It borders the Adriatic Sea along its 5,835 km coastline. Its size is comparable to that of West Virginia or Nova Scotia. Croatia has a 932 km border with Bosnia and Herzegovina, a 670 km border with Slovenia, a 329 km border with Hungary, a 241 km border with Serbia (its Autonomous Province of Vojvodina entirely) and a 25 km border with Montenegro. Islands and coastal areas in Croatia have a Mediterranean climate while inland areas have temperate continental climate with hot summers with low overall humidity levels but frequent rainshowers and cold snowy winters. The local terrain is quite diverse given the size of the country. There are flat plains along the Hungarian border, low mountains and highlands near the Adriatic coastline and islands. Croatia's strategic location gives it control over most land routes from Western Europe to the Aegean Sea and the Turkish Straits. The country's natural resources include Petroleum, some coal, bauxite, low-grade iron ore, calcium, natural asphalt, silica, mica, clays, salt and hydropower. Details Maritime claims Continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation Territorial sea: 12 nm Land use Arable land: 23.55% Permanent crops: 2.24% Other: 74.21% (1998 est.) Irrigated land: 30 km² (1998 est.) Environment 1. Natural hazards: destructive earthquakes 2. Current issues: Air pollution (from metallurgical plants) and resulting acid rain is damaging the forests :*coastal pollution from industrial and domestic waste; Landmine removal and reconstruction of infrastructure as a result of the 1991-1995 Croatian War of Independence. 3. International agreements: Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulfur 94, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution (MARPOL 73/78), Wetlands Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol See also Croatia Extreme points of Croatia List of rivers of Croatia List of islands of Croatia List of cities in Croatia External links Croatia's location on a 3D globe (Java) Speleology @ showcaves.com

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Joseph_McCarthy

Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician who served as a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period in which Cold War tensions fueled fears of widespread Communist subversion. For a history of this period, see, for example: He was noted for making claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government and elsewhere. Ultimately, McCarthy's tactics and his inability to substantiate his claims led him to be discredited and censured by the United States Senate. The term "McCarthyism," coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, was soon applied to similar anti-communist pursuits. Today the term is used more generally to describe demagogic, reckless, and unsubstantiated accusations, as well as public attacks on the character or patriotism of political opponents. The American Heritage Dictionary (2000) defines "McCarthyism" as "the practice of publicizing accusations of political disloyalty or subversion with insufficient regard to evidence" and "the use of unfair investigatory or accusatory methods in order to suppress opposition." Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged (1961) defines it as "characterized chiefly by opposition to elements held to be subversive and by the use of tactics involving personal attacks on individuals by means of widely publicized indiscriminate allegations especially on the basis of unsubstantiated charges." Born and raised on a Wisconsin farm, McCarthy earned a law degree at Marquette University in 1935 and was elected as a circuit judge in 1939, the youngest in state history. At age 33, McCarthy volunteered for the United States Marine Corps and served during World War II. He successfully ran for the United States Senate in 1946, defeating Robert M. La Follette, Jr. After several largely undistinguished years in the Senate, McCarthy rose suddenly to national fame in 1950 when he asserted in a speech that he had a list of "members of the Communist Party and members of a spy ring" who were employed in the State Department. However, McCarthy was never able to substantiate his sensational charges. In succeeding years, McCarthy made accusations of Communist infiltration into the State Department, the administration of President Truman, Voice of America, and the United States Army. He also used charges of communism, communist sympathies, or disloyalty to attack a number of politicians and other individuals inside and outside of government. With the highly publicized Army-McCarthy hearings of 1954, McCarthy's support and popularity began to fade. Later in 1954, the Senate voted to censure Senator McCarthy by a vote of 67 to 22, making him one of the few senators ever to be disciplined in this fashion. McCarthy died in Bethesda Naval Hospital on May 2, 1957, at the age of 48. The official cause of death was acute hepatitis; it is widely accepted that this was brought on by alcoholism. See, for example: , , Early life and career McCarthy was born on a farm in the Town of Grand Chute, Wisconsin, near Appleton, the fifth of seven children. His mother, Bridget Tierney, was from County Tipperary, Ireland. His father, Timothy McCarthy, was born in the United States, the son of an Irish father and a German mother. McCarthy dropped out of junior high school at age 14 to help his parents manage their farm. He entered Little Wolf High School, in Manawa, Wisconsin, when he was 20 and graduated in one year. http://www.myhistorymuseum.org/mccarthy/student.htm McCarthy worked his way through college, from 1930 to 1935, studying first engineering, then law, earning a law degree at Marquette University in Milwaukee. In A Conspiracy So Immense, Oshinsky states that McCarthy chose Marquette University rather than the University of Wisconsin-Madison partially because Marquette was under Catholic control and partially because he enrolled during the Great Depression, when few working-class or farm-bred students had the money to go out of state for college. He was admitted to the bar in 1935. While working in a law firm in Shawano, Wisconsin, he launched an unsuccessful campaign to become district attorney as a Democrat in 1936. However, in 1939, McCarthy had better success: he successfully vied for the elected post of the non-partisan 10th District circuit judge. During his years as an attorney, McCarthy made money on the side by gambling. Oshinsky explains this (p. 17) as resulting partially from the financial pressures of the Great Depression. He also notes (p. 28) that even during his judgeship, McCarthy was known to have gambled heavily after hours. McCarthy's judicial career attracted some controversy due to the speed with which he dispatched many of his cases. He had inherited a docket with a heavy backlog and he worked constantly to clear it. At times he compensated for his lack of experience by demanding, and relying heavily upon, precise briefs from the contesting attorneys. Significantly, the Wisconsin Supreme Court reversed a relatively low percentage of the cases he heard. Military service In 1942, shortly after the U.S. entered World War II, McCarthy was commissioned into the United States Marine Corps, despite the fact that his judicial office exempted him from compulsory service. His position as a judge qualified him for an automatic commission as an officer, and he became a second lieutenant after completing basic training. He served as an intelligence briefing officer for a dive bomber squadron in the Solomon Islands and Bougainville. McCarthy reportedly chose the Marines with the hope that being a veteran of this branch of the military would serve him best in his future political career. He would leave the Marines with the rank of captain. Joseph McCarthy in his U.S. Marine Corps uniform. It is well documented that McCarthy lied about his war record. Despite his automatic commission, he claimed to have enlisted as a "buck private." He flew 12 combat missions as a gunner-observer, earning the nickname of "Tail-Gunner Joe" in the course of one of these missions. Oshinsky describes the nickname "Tail-Gunner Joe" as the result of McCarthy's wish to break the record for most live ammunition discharged in a single mission. He later claimed 32 missions in order to qualify for a Distinguished Flying Cross, which he received in 1952. McCarthy publicized a letter of commendation which he claimed had been signed by his commanding officer and countersigned by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, then Chief of Naval Operations. However, it was revealed that McCarthy had written this letter himself, in his capacity as intelligence officer. A "war wound" that McCarthy made the subject of varying stories involving airplane crashes or antiaircraft fire was in fact received aboard ship during an initiation ceremony for sailors who cross the equator for the first time. McCarthy campaigned for the Republican Senate nomination in Wisconsin while still on active duty in 1944 but was defeated for the GOP nomination by Alexander Wiley, the incumbent. He resigned his commission in April 1945, five months before the end of the Pacific war in September 1945. He was then reelected unopposed to his circuit court position, and began a much more systematic campaign for the 1946 Republican Senate primary nomination. In this race, he was challenging three-term senator and Wisconsin Progressive Party icon Robert M. La Follette, Jr. Senate campaign This cartoon depicts the end of the forty-year La Follette dynasty, as McCarthy beat three-term incumbent Robert M. La Follette, Jr., in the 1946 Republican primary in Wisconsin. Drawn by Clifford K. Berryman. In his campaign, McCarthy attacked La Follette for not enlisting during the war, although La Follette had been 46 when Pearl Harbor was bombed. He also claimed La Follette had made huge profits from his investments while he, McCarthy, had been away fighting for his country. In fact, McCarthy had invested in the stock market himself during the war, netting a profit of $42,000 in 1943. La Follette's investments consisted of partial interest in a radio station, which earned him a profit of $47,000 over two years. The suggestion that La Follette had been guilty of war profiteering was deeply damaging, and McCarthy won the primary nomination 207,935 votes to 202,557. It was during this campaign that McCarthy started publicizing his war-time nickname "Tail-Gunner Joe," using the slogan, "Congress needs a tail-gunner." Arnold Beichman later reported that McCarthy "was elected to his first term in the Senate with support from the Communist-controlled United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, CIO," which preferred McCarthy to the anti-communist Robert M. La Follette. In the general election against Democratic opponent Howard J. McMurray, McCarthy won 61.2% to Democrat McMurray's 37.3%, and thus joined Senator Wiley, whom he had challenged unsuccessfully two years earlier, in the Senate. United States Senate McCarthy's first three years in the Senate were unremarkable. McCarthy was a popular speaker, invited by many different organizations, covering a wide range of topics. His aides and many in the Washington social circle described him as charming and friendly, and he was a popular guest at cocktail parties. He was far less well-liked among fellow senators, however, who found him quick-tempered and prone to impatience and even rage. Outside of a small circle of colleagues, he was soon an isolated figure in the Senate. He was active in labor-management issues, with a reputation as a moderate Republican. He fought against continuation of wartime price controls, especially on sugar. His advocacy in this area was associated by critics with a $20,000 personal loan McCarthy received from a Pepsi bottling executive, earning the Senator the derisive nickname "The Pepsi Cola Kid." He supported the Taft–Hartley Act over Truman's veto, angering labor unions in Wisconsin but solidifying his business base. In an incident for which he would be widely criticized, McCarthy lobbied for the commutation of death sentences given to a group of Waffen-SS soldiers convicted of war crimes for carrying out the 1944 Malmedy massacre of American prisoners of war. McCarthy was critical of the convictions because of allegations of torture during the interrogations that led to the German soldiers' confessions. He charged that the U.S. Army was engaged in a coverup of judicial misconduct, but never presented any evidence to support the accusation. Shortly after this, a poll of the Senate press corps voted McCarthy "the worst U.S. senator" currently in office. The Wheeling speech McCarthy experienced a meteoric rise in national profile on February 9, 1950, when he gave a Lincoln Day speech to the Republican Women's Club of Wheeling, West Virginia. His words in the speech are a matter of some debate, as no audio recording was saved. However, it is generally agreed that he produced a piece of paper that he claimed contained a list of known Communists working for the State Department. McCarthy is usually quoted to have said: "The State Department is infested with communists. I have here in my hand a list of 205—a list of names that were made known to the Secretary of State as being members of the Communist Party and who nevertheless are still working and shaping policy in the State Department." There is some dispute about whether or not McCarthy actually gave the number of people on the list as being "205" or "57". In a later telegram to President Truman, and when entering the speech into the Congressional Record, he used the number 57. The origin of the number 205 can be traced: In later debates on the Senate floor, McCarthy referred to a 1946 letter that then–Secretary of State James Byrnes sent to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath. In that letter, Byrnes said State Department security investigations had resulted in "recommendation against permanent employment" for 284 persons, and that 79 of these had been removed from their jobs; this left 205 still on the State Department's payroll. In fact, by the time of McCarthy's speech only about 65 of the employees mentioned in the Byrnes letter were still with the State Department, and all of these had undergone further security checks. At the time of McCarthy's speech, Communism was a growing concern in the United States. This concern was exacerbated by the actions of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe, the fall of China to the Maoists, the Soviets' development of the atomic bomb the year before, and by the recent conviction of Alger Hiss and the confession of Soviet spy Klaus Fuchs. With this background and due to the sensational nature of McCarthy's charge against the State Department, the Wheeling speech soon attracted a flood of press interest in McCarthy. The Tydings Committee McCarthy himself was taken aback by the massive media response to the Wheeling speech, and he was accused of continually revising both his charges and his figures. In Salt Lake City, Utah, a few days later, he cited a figure of 57, and in the Senate on February 20, he claimed 81. During a 5-hour speech, Also reported as up to 8 hours in length. McCarthy presented a case-by-case analysis of his 81 "loyalty risks" employed at the State Department. It is widely accepted that most of McCarthy's cases were selected from the so-called "Lee list", a report that had been compiled three years earlier for the House Appropriations Committee. Led by a former FBI agent named Robert E. Lee, the House investigators had reviewed security clearance documents on State Department employees, and had determined that there were "incidents of inefficiencies" in the security reviews of 108 employees. McCarthy hid the source of his list, stating that he had penetrated the "iron curtain" of State Department secrecy with the aid of "some good, loyal Americans in the State Department." In reciting the information from the Lee list cases, McCarthy consistently exaggerated, representing the hearsay of witnesses as facts and converting phrases such as "inclined towards Communism" to "a Communist." Senator Millard Tydings. In response to McCarthy's charges, the Tydings Committee hearings were called. This was a subcommittee of the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations set up in February 1950 to conduct "a full and complete study and investigation as to whether persons who are disloyal to the United States are, or have been, employed by the Department of State." Congressional Record, 81st Congress, 2nd session, pp 2062-2068; quoted in: Many Democratic Party politicians were incensed at McCarthy's attack on the State Department of a Democratic administration, and had hoped to use the hearings to discredit him. The Democratic chairman of the subcommittee, Senator Millard Tydings, was reported to have said, "Let me have him [McCarthy] for three days in public hearings, and he'll never show his face in the Senate again." During the hearings, McCarthy moved on from his original unnamed Lee list cases and used the hearings to make charges against nine specific people: Dorothy Kenyon, Esther Brunauer, Haldore Hanson, Gustavo Duran, Owen Lattimore, Harlow Shapley, Frederick Schuman, John S. Service, and Philip Jessup. Some of them no longer worked for the State Department, or never had; all had previously been the subject of charges of varying worth and validity. Owen Lattimore became a particular focus of McCarthy's, who at one point described him as a "top Russian spy." Throughout the hearings, McCarthy employed colorful rhetoric, but produced no substantial evidence, to support his accusations. From its beginning, the Tydings Committee was marked by partisan infighting. Its final report, written by the Democratic majority, concluded that the individuals on McCarthy's list were neither Communists nor pro-communist, and said the State Department had an effective security program. The Tydings Report labeled McCarthy's charges a "fraud and a hoax," and said that the result of McCarthy's actions was to "confuse and divide the American people [...] to a degree far beyond the hopes of the Communists themselves." Republicans responded in kind, with William E. Jenner stating that Tydings was guilty of "the most brazen whitewash of treasonable conspiracy in our history." The full Senate voted three times on whether to accept the report, and each time the voting was precisely divided along party lines. Fame and notoriety From 1950 onward, McCarthy continued to exploit the fear of Communism and to press his accusations that the government was failing to deal with Communism within its ranks. These accusations received wide publicity, increased his approval rating, and gained him a powerful national following. Herbert Block, who signed his work "Herblock," coined the term "McCarthyism" in this cartoon in the March 29, 1950 Washington Post. McCarthy's methods also brought on the disapproval and opposition of many. Barely a month after McCarthy's Wheeling speech, the term "McCarthyism" was coined by Washington Post cartoonist Herbert Block. Block and others used the word as a synonym for demagoguery, baseless defamation, and mudslinging. Later, it would be embraced by McCarthy and some of his supporters. "McCarthyism is Americanism with its sleeves rolled," McCarthy said in a 1952 speech, and later that year he published a book titled McCarthyism: The Fight For America. McCarthy has been accused of attempting to discredit his critics and political opponents by accusing them of being Communists or communist sympathizers. In the 1950 Maryland Senate election, McCarthy campaigned for John Marshall Butler in his race against four-term incumbent Millard Tydings, with whom McCarthy had been in conflict during the Tydings Committee hearings. In speeches supporting Butler, McCarthy accused Tydings of "protecting Communists" and "shielding traitors." McCarthy's staff was heavily involved in the campaign, and collaborated in the production of a campaign tabloid that contained a composite photograph doctored to make it appear that Tydings was in intimate conversation with Communist leader Earl Russell Browder. A Senate subcommittee later investigated this election and referred to it as "a despicable, back-street type of campaign," as well as recommending that the use of defamatory literature in a campaign be made grounds for expulsion from the Senate. In addition to the Tydings-Butler race, McCarthy campaigned for several other Republicans in the 1950 elections, including that of Everett Dirksen against Democratic incumbent and Senate Majority Leader Scott W. Lucas. Dirksen, and indeed all the candidates McCarthy supported won their elections, and those he opposed lost. The elections, including many that McCarthy was not involved in, were an overall Republican sweep. Although his impact on the elections was unclear, McCarthy was credited as a key Republican campaigner. He was now regarded as one of the most powerful men in the Senate and was treated with new-found deference by his colleagues. In the 1952 Senate elections McCarthy was returned to his Senate seat with 54.2% of the vote, compared to Democrat Thomas Fairchild's 45.6%. In 1950 McCarthy assaulted journalist Drew Pearson in the cloakroom of a Washington club, reportedly kneeing him in the groin. McCarthy, who admitted the assault, claimed he merely "slapped" Pearson. In 1952, using rumors collected by Pearson, Nevada publisher Hank Greenspun wrote that McCarthy was a homosexual. The major journalistic media refused to print the story, and no notable McCarthy biographer has accepted the rumor as probable. The allegation is specifically rejected in In 1953 McCarthy married Jean Kerr, a researcher in his office. He and his wife adopted a baby girl, whom they named Tierney Elizabeth McCarthy, in January 1957. McCarthy and the Truman administration President Harry S. Truman. McCarthy and President Truman clashed often during the years both held office. McCarthy characterized Truman and the Democratic Party as soft on, or even in league with, Communists, and spoke of the Democrats' "twenty years of treason". Truman, in turn, once referred to McCarthy as "the best asset the Kremlin has," calling McCarthy's actions an attempt to "sabotage the foreign policy of the United States" in a cold war and comparing it to shooting American soldiers in the back in a hot war. It was the Truman Administration's State Department that McCarthy accused of harboring 205 (or 57 or 81) "known Communists," and Truman's Secretary of Defense George Catlett Marshall was the target of some of McCarthy's most colorful rhetoric. Marshall was also Truman's former Secretary of State and had been Army Chief of Staff during World War II. Marshall was a highly respected statesman and general, best remembered today as the architect of the Marshall Plan for post-war reconstruction of Europe, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953. McCarthy made a lengthy speech on Marshall, later published in 1951 as a book titled America's Retreat From Victory: The Story Of George Catlett Marshall. Marshall had been involved in American foreign policy with China, and McCarthy charged that Marshall was directly responsible for the "loss of China" to Communism. In the speech McCarthy also implied that Marshall was guilty of treason; declared that "if Marshall were merely stupid, the laws of probability would dictate that part of his decisions would serve this country's interest"; and most famously, accused him of being part of "a conspiracy so immense and an infamy so black as to dwarf any previous venture in the history of man." During the Korean War, when President Truman dismissed General Douglas MacArthur, McCarthy charged that Truman and his advisors must have planned the dismissal during late-night sessions when "they've had time to get the President cheerful" on Bourbon and Benedictine. McCarthy declared, "The son of a bitch should be impeached." Support from Catholics and Kennedy family One of the strongest bases of anti-Communist sentiment in the United States was the Catholic community, which constituted over 20% of the national vote. McCarthy identified himself as Catholic, and although the great majority of Catholics were Democrats, as his fame as a leading anti-Communist grew, he became popular in Catholic communities across the country, with strong support from many leading Catholics, diocesan newspapers, and Catholic journals. At the same time, some Catholics did oppose McCarthy, notably the anti-Communist author Father John Francis Cronin and the influential journal Commonweal. McCarthy established a bond with the powerful Kennedy family, which had high visibility among Catholics. McCarthy became a close friend of Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., himself a fervent anti-Communist, and was a frequent guest at the Kennedy compound in Hyannis Port. He dated two of Kennedy's daughters, Patricia and Eunice, . . and was godfather to Robert F. Kennedy's first child, Kathleen Kennedy. Robert was chosen by McCarthy as a counsel for his investigatory committee. Joseph Kennedy had a national network of contacts and became a vocal supporter, building McCarthy's popularity among Catholics and making sizable contributions to McCarthy's campaigns. The Kennedy patriarch hoped that one of his sons would be president. Mindful of the anti-Catholic prejudice Al Smith faced during his 1928 campaign for that office, Joseph Kennedy supported McCarthy as a national Catholic politician who might pave the way for a younger Kennedy's presidential candidacy. Unlike many Democrats, John F. Kennedy, who served in the Senate with McCarthy from 1953 until the latter's death in 1957, never attacked McCarthy. McCarthy had refused to campaign for Kennedy's 1952 opponent, Republican incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., due to his friendship with the Kennedys. The Kennedys. American Experience. Boston, Massachusetts: WGBH. 2009. Asked by Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. why he avoided criticism of McCarthy, Kennedy said, "Hell, half my voters in Massachusetts look on McCarthy as a hero." McCarthy and Eisenhower Dwight D. Eisenhower, 34th President of the United States. During the 1952 Presidential election, the Eisenhower campaign toured Wisconsin with McCarthy. In a speech delivered in Green Bay, Eisenhower declared that while he agreed with McCarthy's goals, he disagreed with his methods. In draft versions of his speech, Eisenhower had also included a strong defense of his mentor, George Marshall, which was a direct rebuke of McCarthy's frequent attacks. However, under the advice of conservative colleagues who were fearful that Eisenhower could lose Wisconsin if he alienated McCarthy supporters, he deleted this defense from later versions of his speech. The deletion was discovered by a reporter for The New York Times and featured on their front page the next day. Eisenhower was widely criticized for giving up his personal convictions, and the incident became the low point of his campaign. With his victory in the 1952 presidential race, Dwight Eisenhower became the first Republican president in 20 years. The Republican party also held a majority in the House of Representatives and the Senate. After being elected president, Eisenhower made it clear to those close to him that he did not approve of McCarthy and he worked actively to diminish his power and influence. Still, he never directly confronted McCarthy or criticized him by name in any speech, thus perhaps prolonging McCarthy's power by giving the impression that even the President was afraid to criticize him directly. Oshinsky disputes this, stating that "Eisenhower was known as a harmonizer, a man who could get diverse factions to work toward a common goal... Leadership, he explained, meant patience and conciliation, not 'hitting people over the head.'" McCarthy won reelection in 1952 with only 54% of the vote, defeating former Wisconsin State Attorney General Thomas E. Fairchild but badly trailing a Republican ticket which swept the state of Wisconsin; all the other Republican winners, including Eisenhower himself, received at least 60% of the Wisconsin vote. Those who expected that party loyalty would cause McCarthy to tone down his accusations of Communists being harbored within the government were soon disappointed. Eisenhower had never been an admirer of McCarthy, and their relationship became more hostile once Eisenhower was in office. In a November 1953 speech that was carried on national television, McCarthy began by praising the Eisenhower Administration for removing "1,456 Truman holdovers who were [...] gotten rid of because of Communist connections and activities or perversion." He then went on to complain that John Paton Davies, Jr. was still "on the payroll after eleven months of the Eisenhower Administration," even though Davies had actually been dismissed three weeks earlier, and repeated an unsubstantiated accusation that Davies had tried to "put Communists and espionage agents in key spots in the Central Intelligence Agency." In the same speech, he criticized Eisenhower for not doing enough to secure the release of missing American pilots shot down over China during the Korean War. All quotes in this paragraph: By the end of 1953, McCarthy had altered the "twenty years of treason" catchphrase he had coined for the preceding Democratic administrations and began referring to "twenty-one years of treason" to include Eisenhower's first year in office. As McCarthy became increasingly combative towards the Eisenhower Administration, Eisenhower faced repeated calls that he confront McCarthy directly. Eisenhower refused, saying privately "nothing would please him [McCarthy] more than to get the publicity that would be generated by a public repudiation by the President." On several occasions Eisenhower is reported to have said of McCarthy that he did not want to "get down in the gutter with that guy." Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations With the beginning of his second term as senator in 1953, McCarthy was made chairman of the Senate Committee on Government Operations. According to some reports, Republican leaders were growing wary of McCarthy's methods and gave him this relatively mundane panel rather than the Internal Security Subcommittee--the committee normally involved with investigating Communists—thus putting McCarthy "where he can't do any harm," in the words of Senate Majority Leader Robert Taft. However, the Committee on Government Operations included the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, and the mandate of this subcommittee was sufficiently flexible to allow McCarthy to use it for his own investigations of Communists in the government. McCarthy appointed Roy Cohn as chief counsel and 27-year-old Robert F. Kennedy as an assistant counsel to the subcommittee. This subcommittee would be the scene of some of McCarthy's most publicized exploits. When the records of the closed executive sessions of the subcommittee under McCarthy's chairmanship were made public in 2003–4, See "Transcripts, Executive Sessions..." under Primary sources, below. Senators Susan Collins and Carl Levin wrote the following in their preface to the documents: Senator McCarthy’s zeal to uncover subversion and espionage led to disturbing excesses. His browbeating tactics destroyed careers of people who were not involved in the infiltration of our government. His freewheeling style caused both the Senate and the Subcommittee to revise the rules governing future investigations, and prompted the courts to act to protect the Constitutional rights of witnesses at Congressional hearings... These hearings are a part of our national past that we can neither afford to forget nor permit to reoccur. The subcommittee first investigated allegations of Communist influence in the Voice of America (VOA), at that time administered by the State Department's United States Information Agency. Many VOA personnel were questioned in front of television cameras and a packed press gallery, with McCarthy lacing his questions with hostile innuendo and false accusations. A few VOA employees alleged Communist influence on the content of broadcasts, but none of the charges were substantiated. Morale at VOA was badly damaged, and one of its engineers committed suicide during McCarthy's investigation. Ed Kretzman, a policy advisor for the service, would later comment that it was VOA's "darkest hour when Senator McCarthy and his chief hatchet man, Roy Cohn, almost succeeded in muffling it." The subcommittee then turned to the overseas library program of the International Information Agency. Cohn toured Europe examining the card catalogs of the State Department libraries looking for works by authors he deemed inappropriate. McCarthy then recited the list of supposedly pro-communist authors before his subcommittee and the press. The State Department bowed to McCarthy and ordered its overseas librarians to remove from their shelves "material by any controversial persons, Communists, fellow travelers, etc." Some libraries actually burned the newly forbidden books. Shortly after this, in one of his carefully oblique public criticisms of McCarthy, President Eisenhower urged Americans: "Don't join the book burners. […] Don't be afraid to go in your library and read every book." Soon after receiving the chair to the Subcommittee on Investigations, McCarthy appointed Joseph Brown Matthews (generally known as J. B. Matthews) as staff director of the subcommittee. One of the nation's foremost anti-communists, Matthews had formerly been staff director for the House Un-American Activities Committee. The appointment became controversial when it was learned that Matthews had recently written an article titled "Reds And Our Churches," Often misidentified as "Reds In Our Churches;" see this versus this. which opened with the sentence, "The largest single group supporting the Communist apparatus in the United States is composed of Protestant Clergymen." A group of senators denounced this "shocking and unwarranted attack against the American clergy" and demanded that McCarthy dismiss Matthews. McCarthy at first refused to do this. But as the controversy mounted, and the majority of his own subcommittee joined the call for Matthews's ouster, McCarthy finally yielded and accepted his resignation. For some McCarthy opponents, this was a signal defeat of the senator, showing he was not as invincible as he had formerly seemed. Investigating the Army In autumn 1953, McCarthy's committee began its ill-fated inquiry into the United States Army. This began with McCarthy opening an investigation into the Army Signal Corps laboratory at Fort Monmouth. McCarthy, newly married to Jean Kerr, had aborted his honeymoon to open the investigation. He garnered some headlines with stories of a dangerous spy ring among the Army researchers, but after weeks of hearings, nothing came of his investigations. Unable to expose any signs of subversion, McCarthy focused instead on the case of Irving Peress, a New York dentist who had been drafted into the Army in 1952 and promoted to major in November 1953. Shortly thereafter it came to the attention of the military bureaucracy that Peress, who was a member of the left-wing American Labor Party, had declined to answer questions about his political affiliations on a loyalty-review form. Peress's superiors were therefore ordered to discharge him from the Army within 90 days. McCarthy subpoenaed Peress to appear before his subcommittee on January 30, 1954. Peress refused to answer McCarthy's questions, citing his rights under the Fifth Amendment. McCarthy responded by sending a message to Secretary of the Army Robert Stevens demanding that Peress be court-martialed. On that same day, Peress asked for his pending discharge from the Army to be effected immediately, and the next day Brigadier General Ralph W. Zwicker, his commanding officer at Camp Kilmer in New Jersey, gave him an honorable separation from the Army. At McCarthy's encouragement, "Who promoted Peress?" became a rallying cry among many anti-communists and McCarthy supporters. In fact, and as McCarthy knew, Peress had been promoted automatically through the provisions of the Doctor Draft Law, for which McCarthy had voted. McCarthy summoned General Zwicker to his subcommittee on February 18. Zwicker, on advice from Army counsel, refused to answer some of McCarthy's questions and reportedly changed his story three times when asked if he had known at the time he signed the discharge that Peress had refused to answer questions before the McCarthy subcommittee. McCarthy compared Zwicker's intelligence to that of a "five-year-old child," and said he was "not fit to wear that uniform." This abuse of Zwicker, a battlefield hero of World War II, caused considerable outrage among the military, newspapers, civilian veterans, senators of both parties and, probably most dangerously for McCarthy, President Eisenhower himself. Army Secretary Stevens ordered Zwicker not to return to McCarthy's hearing for further questioning. Hoping to mend the increasingly hostile relations between McCarthy and the Army, a group of Republicans, including McCarthy, met with Secretary Stevens over a luncheon that included fried chicken and convinced him to sign a "memorandum of understanding" in which he capitulated to most of McCarthy's demands. After "The Chicken Luncheon," as it came to be called, McCarthy later told a reporter that Stevens "could not have given in more abjectly if he had got down on his knees." Reaction to this agreement was widely negative. Secretary Stevens was ridiculed by Pentagon officers, and The Times of London wrote: "Senator McCarthy achieved today what General Burgoyne and General Cornwallis never achieved—the surrender of the American Army." A few months later, the Army, with advice and support from the Eisenhower Administration, would launch a counterattack against McCarthy. It would do this not by directly challenging and criticizing McCarthy's behavior toward Army personnel, but by bringing charges against him on an unrelated issue. The Army-McCarthy hearings Early in 1954, the U.S. Army accused McCarthy and his chief counsel, Roy Cohn, of improperly pressuring the Army to give favorable treatment to G. David Schine, a former aide to McCarthy and a friend of Cohn's, who was then serving in the Army as a private. McCarthy claimed that the accusation was made in bad faith, in retaliation for his questioning of Zwicker the previous year. The Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, usually chaired by McCarthy himself, was given the task of adjudicating these conflicting charges. Republican Senator Karl Mundt was appointed to chair the committee, and the Army-McCarthy hearings convened on April 22, 1954. McCarthy chats with Roy Cohn (right) at the Army-McCarthy Hearings The hearings lasted for 36 days and were broadcast on live television, with an estimated 20 million viewers. After hearing 32 witnesses and two million words of testimony, the committee concluded that McCarthy himself had not exercised any improper influence on behalf of David Schine, but that Roy Cohn had engaged in "unduly persistent or aggressive efforts." The committee also concluded that Army Secretary Robert Stevens and Army Counsel John Adams "made efforts to terminate or influence the investigation and hearings at Fort Monmouth," and that Adams "made vigorous and diligent efforts" to block subpoenas for members of the Army Loyalty and Screening Board "by means of personal appeal to certain members of the [McCarthy] committee." Of far greater importance to McCarthy than the committee's inconclusive final report was the negative effect that the extensive exposure had on his popularity. Many in the audience saw him as bullying, reckless, and dishonest, and the daily newspaper summaries of the hearings were also frequently unfavorable to McCarthy. Late in the hearings, Senator Stuart Symington made an angry and prophetic remark to McCarthy: "The American people have had a look at you for six weeks," he said. "You are not fooling anyone." In Gallup polls of January 1954, 50% of those polled had a positive opinion of McCarthy. In June, that number had fallen to 34%. In the same polls, those with a negative opinion of McCarthy increased from 29% to 45%. An increasing number of Republicans and conservatives were coming to see McCarthy as a liability to the party and to anti-communism. Congressman George H. Bender noted, "There is a growing impatience with the Republican Party. McCarthyism has become a synonym for witch-hunting, star chamber methods, and the denial of...civil liberties." Frederick Woltman, a reporter with a long-standing reputation as a staunch anti-communist, wrote a five-part series of articles criticizing McCarthy in the New York World-Telegram. He stated that McCarthy "has become a major liability to the cause of anti-communism," and accused him of "wild twisting of facts and near facts [that] repels authorities in the field." , The most famous incident in the hearings was an exchange between McCarthy and the army's chief legal representative, Joseph Nye Welch. On June 9, the 30th day of the hearings, Welch challenged Roy Cohn to provide U.S. Attorney General Herbert Brownell, Jr. with McCarthy's list of 130 Communists or subversives in defense plants "before the sun goes down." McCarthy stepped in and said that if Welch was so concerned about persons aiding the Communist Party, he should check on a man in his Boston law office named Fred Fisher, who had once belonged to the National Lawyers Guild, which Attorney General Brownell had called "the legal mouthpiece of the Communist Party." In an impassioned defense of Fisher that some have suggested he had prepared in advance and had hoped not to have to make, Welch responded, "Until this moment, Senator, I think I never gauged your cruelty or your recklessness[...]" When McCarthy resumed his attack, Welch interrupted him: "Let us not assassinate this lad further, Senator. You've done enough. Have you no sense of decency, sir, at long last? Have you left no sense of decency?" When McCarthy once again persisted, Welch cut him off and demanded the chairman "call the next witness." At that point, the gallery erupted in applause and a recess was called. Edward R. Murrow, See It Now Edward R. Murrow, U.S. newscaster, pioneer in Broadcast journalism One of the most prominent attacks on McCarthy's methods was an episode of the TV documentary series See It Now, hosted by journalist Edward R. Murrow, which was broadcast on March 9, 1954. Titled "A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy", the episode consisted largely of clips of McCarthy speaking. In these clips, McCarthy accuses the Democratic party of "twenty years of treason," describes the American Civil Liberties Union as "listed as 'a front for, and doing the work of,' the Communist Party," and berates and harangues various witnesses, including General Zwicker. In his conclusion, Murrow said of McCarthy: His primary achievement has been in confusing the public mind, as between the internal and the external threats of Communism. We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty. We must remember always that accusation is not proof and that conviction depends upon evidence and due process of law. We will not walk in fear, one of another. We will not be driven by fear into an age of unreason, if we dig deep in our history and our doctrine, and remember that we are not descended from fearful men. [...] We proclaim ourselves, as indeed we are, the defenders of freedom, wherever it continues to exist in the world, but we cannot defend freedom abroad by deserting it at home. The actions of the junior Senator from Wisconsin have caused alarm and dismay amongst our allies abroad, and given considerable comfort to our enemies. And whose fault is that? Not really his. He didn't create this situation of fear; he merely exploited it -- and rather successfully. The following week See It Now ran another episode critical of McCarthy, this one focusing on the case of Annie Lee Moss, an African American army clerk who was the target of one of McCarthy's investigations. The Murrow shows, together with the televised Army-McCarthy hearings of the same year, were the major causes of a nationwide popular opinion backlash against McCarthy, in part because for the first time his statements were being publicly challenged by noteworthy figures. To counter the negative publicity, McCarthy appeared on See It Now on April 6, 1954, and made a number of charges against the popular Murrow, including the accusation that he colluded with the "Russian espionage and propaganda organization" VOKS. This response did not go over well with viewers, and the result was a further decline in McCarthy's popularity. Public opinion + McCarthy's Support in Gallup Polls Date Favorable No Opinion Unfavorable Net Favorable1951 August15 63 22 −71953 April19 59 22 −31953 June35 35 30 +51953 August34 24 42 −81954 January50 21 29 +211954 March46 18 36 +101954 April38 16 46 −81954 May35 16 49 −141954 June34 21 45 −111954 August36 13 51 −151954 November35 19 46 −11 Censure and the Watkins Committee Senator Ralph Flanders, who introduced the resolution calling for McCarthy to be censured. Several members of the U.S. Senate had opposed McCarthy well before 1953. Senator Margaret Chase Smith, a Maine Republican, delivered her "Declaration of Conscience" on June 1, 1950, calling for an end to the use of smear tactics without mentioning McCarthy or anyone else by name. Six other Republican Senators—Wayne Morse, Irving Ives, Charles W. Tobey, Edward John Thye, George Aiken, and Robert C. Hendrickson—joined her in condemning McCarthy's tactics. McCarthy referred to Smith and her fellow Senators as "Snow White and the six dwarfs." On March 9, 1954, Vermont Republican Senator Ralph E. Flanders gave a humor-laced speech on the Senate floor, questioning McCarthy's tactics in fighting communism, likening McCarthyism to "housecleaning" with "much clatter and hullabaloo." He recommended that the Senator turn his attention to the worldwide encroachment of Communism outside North America. In a 1954 June 1 speech Flanders compared McCarthy to Hitler, accusing him of spreading "division and confusion" and saying, "Were the Junior Senator from Wisconsin in the pay of the Communists he could not have done a better job for them." On June 11, 1954, Flanders introduced a resolution to have McCarthy removed as chair of his committees. Although there were many in the Senate who believed that some sort of disciplinary action against McCarthy was warranted, there was no clear majority supporting this resolution. Some of the resistance was due to concern about usurping the Senate's rules regarding committee chairs and seniority. Flanders next introduced a resolution to censure McCarthy. The resolution was initially written without any reference to particular actions or misdeeds on McCarthy's part. As Flanders put it, "It was not his breaches of etiquette, or of rules or sometimes even of laws which is so disturbing," but rather his overall pattern of behavior. Ultimately a "bill of particulars" listing 46 charges was added to the censure resolution. A special committee, chaired by Senator Arthur Vivian Watkins, was appointed to study and evaluate the resolution. This committee opened hearings on August 31, 1954. Senator Arthur V. Watkins. After two months of hearings and deliberations, the Watkins Committee recommended that McCarthy be censured on two of the 46 counts: his contempt of the Subcommittee on Rules and Administration, which had called him to testify in 1951 and 1952, and his abuse of General Zwicker in 1954. The Zwicker count was dropped by the full Senate on the grounds that McCarthy's conduct was arguably "induced" by Zwicker's own behavior. In place of this count, a new one was drafted regarding McCarthy's statements about the Watkins Committee itself. The two counts on which the Senate ultimately voted were: That McCarthy had "failed to cooperate with the Subcommittee on Rules and Administration," and "repeatedly abused the members who were trying to carry out assigned duties..." That McCarthy had charged "three members of the [Watkins] Select Committee with 'deliberate deception' and 'fraud'...that the special Senate session...was a 'lynch party,'" and had characterized the committee "as the 'unwitting handmaiden,' 'involuntary agent' and 'attorneys in fact' of the Communist Party," and had "acted contrary to senatorial ethics and tended to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute, to obstruct the constitutional processes of the Senate, and to impair its dignity." On December 2, 1954, the Senate voted to "condemn" Senator Joseph McCarthy on both counts by a vote of 67 to 22. The Democrats present unanimously favored condemnation and the Republicans were split evenly. The only senator not on record was John F. Kennedy, who was hospitalized for back surgery; Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted. Oshinsky [1983] (2005), pp. 33, 490; Michael O'Brien, John F. Kennedy: A Biography (2005), pp. 250-54, 274-79, 396-400; Reeves (1982), pp. 442-43; Thomas Maier, The Kennedys: America's Emerald Kings (2003), pp. 270-80; Crosby, God, Church, and Flag, 138-60. Immediately after the vote, Senator H. Styles Bridges, a McCarthy supporter, argued that the resolution was "not a censure resolution" because the word "condemn" rather than "censure" was used in the final draft. The word "censure" was then removed from the title of the resolution, though it is generally regarded and referred to as a censure of McCarthy, both by historians and in Senate documents. McCarthy himself said, "I wouldn't exactly call it a vote of confidence." He added, "I don't feel I've been lynched." The Senate had invoked censure against one of its members only five times before in the nation's history. Final years After his censure, McCarthy continued senatorial duties for another two and a half years, but his career as a major public figure had been unmistakably ruined. His colleagues in the Senate avoided him; his speeches on the Senate floor were delivered to a near-empty chamber or were received with conspicuous displays of inattention. The press that had once recorded his every public statement now ignored him, and outside speaking engagements dwindled almost to nothing. President Eisenhower, free of McCarthy's political intimidation, quipped to his Cabinet that McCarthyism was now "McCarthywasm." Still, McCarthy continued to rail against Communism. He warned against attendance at summit conferences with "the Reds," saying that "you cannot offer friendship to tyrants and murderers...without advancing the cause of tyranny and murder." He declared that "coexistence with Communists is neither possible nor honorable nor desirable. Our long-term objective must be the eradication of Communism from the face of the earth." McCarthy's biographers are agreed that he was a changed man after the censure; declining both physically and emotionally, he became a "pale ghost of his former self" in the words of Fred J. Cook. It was reported that McCarthy suffered from cirrhosis of the liver and was frequently hospitalized for alcoholism. Numerous eyewitnesses, including Senate aide George Reedy and journalist Tom Wicker, have reported finding him alarmingly drunk in the Senate. Journalist Richard Rovere (1959) wrote: He had always been a heavy drinker, and there were times in those seasons of discontent when he drank more than ever. But he was not always drunk. He went on the wagon (for him this meant beer instead of whiskey) for days and weeks at a time. The difficulty toward the end was that he couldn't hold the stuff. He went to pieces on his second or third drink. And he did not snap back quickly. McCarthy died in Bethesda Naval Hospital on May 2, 1957, at the age of 48. The official cause of his death was listed as acute hepatitis: an inflammation of the liver. It was hinted in the press that he died of alcoholism, an estimation that is accepted by contemporary biographers. He was given a state funeral attended by 70 senators, and St. Matthew's Cathedral performed a Solemn Pontifical Requiem before more than 100 priests and 2,000 others. Thousands of people viewed the body in Washington. He was buried in St. Mary's Parish Cemetery, Appleton, Wisconsin, where more than 30,000 filed through St. Mary's Church to pay their last respects. http://www.apl.org/history/mccarthy/photos3.html Three senators—George W. Malone, William E. Jenner, and Herman Welker—had flown from Washington to Appleton on the plane carrying McCarthy's casket. Robert F. Kennedy quietly attended the funeral in Wisconsin. McCarthy was survived by his wife, Jean, and their adopted daughter, Tierney. In the summer of 1957, a special election was held to fill McCarthy's seat. In the primaries, voters in both parties turned away from McCarthy's legacy. The Republican primary was won by Walter J. Kohler, Jr., who called for a clean break from McCarthy's approach; he defeated former Congressman Glenn Robert Davis, who charged that Eisenhower was soft on Communism. The Democratic winner was William Proxmire, who called McCarthy "a disgrace to Wisconsin, to the Senate and to America." On August 27, Proxmire won the election. Ongoing debate In the view of some modern conservative authors, McCarthy's place in history should be reevaluated. Ann Coulter's book Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism is a notable example of this. Coulter, a controversial right-wing author, devotes a chapter to her defense of McCarthy, and much of the book to a defense of McCarthyism. She states, for example, "Everything you think you know about McCarthy is a hegemonic lie. Liberals denounced McCarthy because they were afraid of getting caught, so they fought back like animals to hide their own collaboration with a regime as evil as the Nazis." Other authors who have voiced similar opinions include William Norman Grigg of the John Birch Society, and M. Stanton Evans. ; also: These authors frequently cite new evidence, in the form of Venona decrypted Soviet messages, Soviet espionage data now opened to the West, and newly released transcripts of closed hearings before McCarthy's subcommittee, asserting that these have vindicated McCarthy, showing that many of his identifications of Communists were correct. These and other authors have said that Venona and the Soviet archives have revealed that the scale of Soviet espionage activity in the United States during the 1940s and 1950s was larger than many scholars suspected, and that this too is a vindication of McCarthy. These viewpoints are considered revisionist by most scholars. See, for example, Challenging such efforts aimed at the "rehabilitation" of McCarthy, historian John Earl Haynes argues that McCarthy's attempts to "make anti-communism a partisan weapon" actually "threatened [the post-War] anti-Communist consensus," thereby ultimately harming anti-Communist efforts more than helping. With regard to Coulter's views in particular, the response among scholars has been all but universally negative, even among authors generally regarded as conservative or right-wing. See, for example: , Although there are some cases where Venona or other recent data has increased the weight of evidence against a person named by McCarthy, there are few, if any, cases where McCarthy was responsible for identifying a person, or removing a person from a sensitive government position, where later evidence has increased the likelihood that that person was a Communist or a Soviet agent. HUAC McCarthy is often incorrectly described as part of the House Committee on Un-American Activities (technically HCUA, but generally known as HUAC). The HUAC is best known for the investigation of Alger Hiss and for its investigation of the Hollywood film industry, which led to the blacklisting of hundreds of actors, writers and directors. The HUAC was a House committee, and as such had no formal connection with McCarthy, who served in the Senate. McCarthy in popular culture From the beginning of his notoriety, McCarthy was a favorite subject for political cartoonists. In 1953, the popular daily comic strip Pogo introduced the character Simple J. Malarkey, a pugnacious and conniving wildcat with an unmistakable physical resemblance to McCarthy. Later in life, McCarthy increasingly became the target of ridicule and parody. He was impersonated by nightclub and radio impressionists and was satirized in Mad magazine, on The Red Skelton Show, and elsewhere. Several comedy songs lampooning the senator were released in 1954, including "Point of Order" by Stan Freeberg and Daws Butler, "Senator McCarthy Blues" by Hal Block, and unionist folk singer Joe Glazer's "Joe McCarthy's Band", sung to the tune of "McNamara's Band." Also in 1954, the radio comedy team Bob and Ray parodied McCarthy with the character "Commissioner Carstairs" in their soap opera spoof "Mary Backstayge, Noble Wife". That same year, the Canadian Broadcasting Company radio network broadcast a satire, The Investigator, whose title character was a clear imitation of McCarthy. A recording of the show became popular in the United States, and was reportedly played by President Eisenhower at cabinet meetings. A more serious fictional portrayal of McCarthy played a central role in the 1959 novel The Manchurian Candidate by Richard Condon. The character of Senator John Iselin, a demagogic anti-communist, is closely modeled on McCarthy, even to the varying numbers of Communists he asserts are employed by the federal government. In the 1962 film version, the characterization remains; in this version, a Heinz ketchup bottle inspires Iselin and his wife to settle on "57" as the number of subversives he claims are on the federal payroll. McCarthy was portrayed by Peter Boyle in the 1977 Emmy-winning television movie Tail Gunner Joe, a dramatization of McCarthy's life. Archival footage of McCarthy himself was used in the 2005 movie Good Night, and Good Luck about Edward R. Murrow and the See It Now episode that challenged McCarthy. See also McCarthyism House Un-American Activities Committee Notes References and further reading Secondary sources Crosby, Donald F. "The Jesuits and Joe McCarthy." Church History 1977 46(3): 374-388. Issn: 0009-6407 Fulltext: in Jstor Gauger, Michael. "Flickering Images: Live Television Coverage and Viewership of the Army-McCarthy Hearings." Historian 2005 67(4): 678-693. Issn: 0018-2370 Fulltext: in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco. Audience ratings show that few people watched the hearings. Murphy, Brenda. Congressional Theatre: Dramatizing McCarthyism on Stage, Film, and Television. Cambridge U. Press, 1999. Primary sources External links Retrieved on 2008-07-11 Retrieved on 2008-07-11 "Papa" Prell's radio broadcast on "Tail Gunner Joe", including taped segments from the trial. Joseph McCarthy, Dictionary of Wisconsin History, Wisconsin State Historical Society A lengthy review of Arthur Herman's Joseph McCarthy BBC coverage Spartacus Biography The History Net page on McCarthy The McCarthy-Welch exchange Joseph McCarthy Papers, Marquette University Library Senator Joe McCarthy: Audio Excerpts, 1950-1954 FBI Memo Referencing 206 Communists in Government Infoage Information on McCarthy's investigations of the Signal Corps, including transcripts of the hearings and more recent interviews. Transcript: "A Report on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy" - Edward R. Murrow, See It Now, CBS Television, March 9, 1954 via UC Berkeley library Transcript: "Joseph R. McCarthy: Rebuttal to Edward R. Murrow", See It Now, CBS Television, April 6, 1954 via UC Berkeley library Documents on McCarthyism at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library Defenses of McCarthy: "Editor Taints Recently Published Hearings: How Senate Historian Botched Data on McCarthy" by M. Stanton Evans "Levin and Collins Trigger Disinformation: Senate Historian Clams Up When Queried On McCarthy" by M. Stanton Evans Criticism of McCarthy: "Has She No Shame?" by Joe Conason "The Trouble with Treason" by David Horowitz Senator Joe McCarthy (excerpt) by Richard Rovere

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Apollo_8

Apollo 8 was the first manned space voyage to achieve a velocity sufficient to allow escape from the gravitational field of planet Earth; the first to escape from the gravitational field of another celestial body; and the first manned voyage to return to planet Earth from another celestial body - Earth's Moon. The three-man crew of Mission Commander Frank Borman, Command Module Pilot James Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot William Anders became the first humans to see the far side of the Moon with their own eyes, as well as the first humans to see planet Earth from orbit about another celestial body. The mission also involved the first manned launch of a Saturn V rocket, and was the second manned mission of the Apollo Program. Originally planned as a low-earth orbit Lunar Module/Command Module test, the mission profile was changed to the more ambitious lunar orbital flight in August 1968 when the Lunar Module scheduled for the flight became delayed. The new mission's profile, procedures and personnel requirements left an uncharacteristically short time-frame for training and preparation, thus placing more than the usual requirements of time, talent, and discipline on the crew. After launching on December 21, 1968, the crew took three days to travel to the Moon. They orbited ten times over the course of 20 hours, during which the crew made a Christmas Eve television broadcast in which they read the first 10 verses from the Book of Genesis. The crew timed this reading to coincide with a full view of planet Earth hanging in the empty blackness of space while clearly showing the rich diversity of the living planet as indicated in Terran colors, seas, landforms, and weather patterns, rising over the dull gray horizon of the lifeless Moon. At the time, the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever. Apollo 8's successful mission paved the way for Apollo 11 to fulfill U.S. President John F. Kennedy's goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the decade. Crew Number in parentheses indicates number of spaceflights by each individual prior to and including this mission. Frank F. Borman, II (2) - Commander (CDR) James A. Lovell, Jr (3) - Command Module Pilot (CMP) William A. Anders (1) - Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Lovell was originally the CMP on the back-up crew, with Michael Collins as the prime crew's CMP. However, Collins was replaced in July 1968, after suffering a cervical disc herniation that required surgery to repair. Backup crew Neil A. Armstrong - Commander Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr - Command Module Pilot Fred W. Haise, Jr - Lunar Module Pilot Originally, Lovell was the backup CMP, and Aldrin was backup LMP. When Lovell was rotated to the prime crew, no one with experience of CSM 103 (the specific spacecraft used for the mission) was available, so Aldrin was moved to CMP and Fred Haise brought in as backup LMP. Armstrong went on to command Apollo 11, but Aldrin was demoted to Lunar Module Pilot. Michael Collins came back as Command Module Pilot, bumping Haise to be backup LMP. Haise later flew on Apollo 13. Mission control The Earth-based mission control teams for Apollo 8 consisted of astronauts assigned to the support crew, as well as non-astronaut flight directors and their staffs. The support crew members were not trained to fly the mission, but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They also served as capcoms during the mission. For Apollo 8, these crew members included astronauts John S. Bull, Vance D. Brand, Gerald P. Carr, and Ken Mattingly. The mission control teams on Earth rotated in three shifts, each led by a flight director. The directors for Apollo 8 included Cliff Charlesworth (Green team), Glynn Lunney (Black team), and Milton Windler (Maroon team). Mission insignia The triangular shape of the insignia symbolizes the shape of the Apollo command module. It shows a red figure 8 looping around the earth and moon representing the mission number as well as the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the red number 8 are the names of the three astronauts. The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell. Lovell reportedly sketched the initial design while riding in the backseat of a T-38 flight from California to Houston, shortly after learning of the re-designation of the flight to become a lunar orbital mission. Planning In September 1967, the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, Texas proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing. Seven mission types were outlined, each testing a specific set of components and tasks, and each previous step would need to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken. These were: <ol style = "list-style-type: upper-alpha;"> <li>Unmanned Command/Service Module (CSM) test <li>Unmanned Lunar Module (LM) test <li>Manned CSM in low Earth orbit <li>Manned CSM and LM in low Earth orbit <li>Manned CSM and LM in an elliptical Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600 miles (7400 km) <li>Manned CSM and LM in lunar orbit <li>Manned lunar landing </ol> Apollo 4 and Apollo 6 had been "A" missions, each launching an unmanned Block I production model of the Apollo Command and Service Modules into Earth Orbit. , scheduled for October 1968, would be a manned Earth Orbit flight of the CSM, completing the objectives for Mission "C". Apollo CSM diagram (NASA) Further missions relied on the readiness of the Lunar Module (LM). Production of the LM was behind schedule, with the first model arriving at Cape Canaveral in June 1968. Even then, significant defects were discovered, leading Grumman, the lead contractor for the LM, to predict that the first mission-ready LM would not be ready until at least February 1969. This would mean delaying the proposed "D" mission and endangering the program's goal of a lunar landing before the end of 1969. Even more pressing was a CIA report that the Soviets were expected to attempt to send cosmonauts on a Zond circumlunar mission before the end of the year. If the Soviets were successful in being first to get humans around the Moon, then that would greatly detract from having Americans being first to land on the Moon. George Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August. Since the Command/Service Module (CSM) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module, a CSM-only mission could be flown in December 1968. Instead of just repeating the "C" mission flight of Apollo 7, this CSM could be sent all the way to the Moon, with the possibility of entering a lunar orbit. The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have to wait until Apollo 10, the scheduled "F" mission. The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) on February 1, 1968 Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission, citing both confidence in the hardware and personnel, and the potential for a significant morale boost provided by a circumlunar flight. The only person who needed some convincing was James E. Webb, the NASA administrator. With the rest of his agency in support of the new mission, Webb eventually approved the mission change. The mission was officially changed from a "D" mission to a "C-Prime" Lunar Orbit mission, but was still referred to in press releases as an Earth Orbit mission at Webb's direction. No public announcement was made about the change in mission until November 12, three weeks after Apollo 7's successful Earth Orbit mission and less than 40 days before launch. With the change in mission for Apollo 8, Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions. James McDivitt, the original commander of the D mission, has said he was never offered the circumlunar flight, but would probably have turned it down, as he wanted to fly the lunar module. Borman, on the other hand, jumped at the chance: his original mission would just have been a repeat of the previous flight, except in a higher orbit. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft, requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104. On September 9, the crew entered the simulators to begin their preparation for the flight. By the time the mission flew, the crew would have spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight. Although all crew members were trained in all aspects of the mission, it was necessary to specialize. Borman, as commander, was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the re-entry. Lovell was trained on navigating the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth. Anders was placed in charge of checking that the spacecraft was in working order. The crew, now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center, received a visit from Charles Lindbergh and his wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh, the night before the launch. They talked about how before his 1927 flight, Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second. The next day, the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo 8 from a nearby dune. Anne Morrow Lindbergh would later write a book about the Apollo program, entitled Earth Shine, which mentions both the launch and the mission. Saturn V The Apollo 8 Saturn V being rolled out to Pad 39A The Saturn V rocket used by Apollo 8 was designated SA-503, or the "03rd" model of the Saturn V ("5") Rocket to be used in the Saturn-Apollo ("SA") program. When it was erected in the Vertical Assembly Building on December 20, 1967, it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned Earth-orbit test flight carrying a boilerplate Command/Service Module. Apollo 6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight, including severe pogo oscillation during its first stage, two second stage engine failures, and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit. Without assurances that these problems had been rectified, NASA administrators could not justify risking a manned mission until additional unmanned test flights proved that the Saturn V was ready. . Teams from the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) went to work on the problems. Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation, which would not only hamper engine performance, but could exert significant g-forces on a crew. A task force of contractors, NASA agency representatives, and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated, causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket. A system using helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed. Of equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight. Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum, causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two. When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two, it accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to a faulty igniter line. As a result, engine three failed within one second of engine two's shutdown. Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine — a faulty igniter line. The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits, hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches. The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the Marshall Space Flight Center. A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation, while a Saturn Stage II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions. Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems were solved, they gave their approval for a manned mission using SA-503. The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21 and the rocket made the slow 3-mile (5 km) journey to the launch pad on October 9. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch, including various levels of readiness testing from 5 December through 11 December. Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation, ruptured fuel lines, and bad igniter lines took place on 18 December, a mere three days before the scheduled launch. Mission Launch and trans-lunar injection Apollo 8 during launch, with a double exposure of the Moon, which was not visible during launch (NASA) Apollo 8 launched at 7:51:00 a.m. Eastern Standard Time on December 21, 1968, using the Saturn V's three stages, S-IC, S-II, and S-IVB, to achieve Earth orbit. The launch phase experienced only three minor problems: The engines of the first stage, S-IC, underperformed by 0.75%, causing the engines to burn for 2.45 seconds longer than planned, and toward the end of the second stage burn, S-II, the rocket underwent pogo oscillations. Frank Borman estimated the oscillations were approximately and (±2.5 m/s²). The apogee was also slightly higher than the planned circular orbit of 115 miles (185 km). In its first manned mission, the Saturn V rocket placed Apollo 8 into a by Earth orbit with a period of 88 minutes and 10 seconds. All three rocket stages fired during launch; the S-IC and S-II detached during launch. The S-IC impacted the Atlantic Ocean at and the S-II second stage at . The third stage of the rocket, S-IVB, assisted in driving the craft into Earth orbit but remained attached to later perform the Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI), the burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. Once in Earth orbit, both the Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control spent the next 2 hours and 38 minutes checking that the spacecraft was in proper working order and ready for TLI. The proper operation of third stage of the rocket, S-IVB was crucial; In the last unmanned test, the S-IVB had failed to re-ignite for TLI. During the flight, three fellow astronauts served on the ground as capsule communicators (usually referred to as "CAPCOMs") on a rotating schedule. The CAPCOMs were the only people who regularly communicated with the crew. Michael Collins was the first CAPCOM on duty and at 2 hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch radioed, "Apollo 8. You are Go for TLI". This communication signified that Mission Control had given official permission for Apollo 8 to go to the moon. Over the next twelve minutes before the TLI burn, the Apollo 8 crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the rocket. The S-IVB third stage rocket ignited on time and burned perfectly for 5 minutes and 17 seconds. The burn increased the velocity of Apollo 8 to and the spacecraft's altitude at the end of the burn was 215.4 miles (346.7 km). At this time, the crew also set the record for the highest speed humans had ever traveled. After the S-IVB had performed its required tasks, it was jettisoned. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage and then practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft, they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it. This marked the first time humans could view the whole Earth at once. Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the Command/Service Module and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters on the Service Module to add 3 ft/s (0.9 m/s) away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After discussion, the crew and Mission Control decided to burn in this direction, but at 9 ft/s (2.7 m/s) instead. These discussions put the crew an hour behind their flight plan. Five hours after launch, Mission Control sent a command to the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change the booster's trajectory. This S-IVB would then pass the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, posing no further hazard to Apollo 8. The S-IVB subsequently went into a 0.99 by 0.92 AU solar orbit with an inclination of 23.47° and a period of 340.80 days. The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass through the Van Allen radiation belts, which extend up to 15,000 miles (25,000 km) from Earth. Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest X-ray, or 1 milligray (during the course of a year, the average human receives a dose of 2 to 3 mGy). To record the actual radiation dosages, each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted data to Earth as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the crew experienced an average radiation dose of 1.6 mGy. Lunar trajectory The first image ever taken by humans of the whole Earth, probably photographed by Bill Anders ; South is up with South America in the middle Jim Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as navigator. Although Mission Control performed all of the actual navigation calculation, it was necessary to have a crew member serving as navigator so that the crew could successfully return to Earth in case of communication loss with Mission Control. Lovell navigated by star sightings using a sextant built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) horizon. This task proved to be difficult, as a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft formed by the venting S-IVB made it hard to distinguish the stars. By seven hours into the mission, the crew was about one hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan due to the issues of moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's obscured star sightings. The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), also known as "barbecue" mode. PTC involved the spacecraft rotating about once per hour along its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, the spacecraft could be heated to over 200 °C while the parts in shadow would be −100 °C. These temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack or propellant lines to burst. As it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft actually swept out a cone as it rotated. The crew had to make minor adjustments every half hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger. The first mid-course correction came 11 hours into the flight. Testing on the ground had shown the that the Service Propulsion System (SPS) engine had a small chance of exploding when burned for long periods unless its combustion chamber was "coated" first. Burning the engine for a short period would accomplish coating. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about 20.4 ft/s (6.2 m/s) prograde (in the direction of travel). This change was less than the planned 24.8 ft/s (7.5 m/s) due to a bubble of helium in the oxidizer lines causing lower than expected fuel pressure. The crew had to use the small Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned mid-course corrections were canceled as the Apollo 8 trajectory was found to be perfect. Eleven hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for over 16 hours. Before launch, NASA had decided that at least one crew member should be awake at all times to deal with any issues that might arise. Borman started the first sleep shift, but between the constant radio chatter and mechanical noises, he found sleep difficult. Apollo 8 S-IVB rocket stage, shortly after separation About an hour after starting his sleep shift, Borman requested clearance to take a Seconal sleeping pill. However, the pill had little effect. Borman eventually fell asleep but then awoke feeling ill. He vomited twice and had a bout of diarrhea that left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and feces that the crew cleaned up to the best of their ability. Borman initially decided that he did not want everyone to know about his medical problems, but Lovell and Anders wanted to inform Mission Control. The crew decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could tape voice recordings and telemetry and dump them to Mission Control at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they requested that Mission Control check the recording, stating that they "would like an evaluation of the voice comments". The Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston on the second and third floor, only one of which was used during a mission). The conference participants decided that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a 24-hour flu, as Borman thought, or a reaction to the sleeping pill. Researchers now believe that he was suffering from space adaptation syndrome, which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness. Space adaptation syndrome had not been an issue on previous spacecraft (Mercury and Gemini), as those astronauts were unable to move freely in the comparatively smaller cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo Command Module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of spacesickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Russell Schweickart during Apollo 9. In-flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon; Frank Borman is in the center The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo 8 crew used a 2 kg camera that broadcast in black-and-white only, using a Vidicon tube. The camera had two lenses, a very wide-angle (160°) lens, and a telephoto (9°) lens. During this first broadcast, the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space. However, difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible. Additionally, the Earth image became saturated by any bright source without proper filters. In the end, all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes, the rotation of the spacecraft took the high-gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday. By this time, the crew had completely abandoned the planned sleep shifts. Lovell went to sleep 32½ hours into the flight — 3½ hours before he had planned to. A short while later, Anders also went to sleep after taking a sleeping pill. The crew was unable to see the Moon for much of the outward cruise. Two factors made the Moon almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft: three of the five windows fogging up due to out-gassed oils from the silicone sealant, and the attitude required for the PTC. It was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time. The Apollo 8 made a second television broadcast at 55 hours into the flight. This time, the crew rigged up filters meant for the still cameras so they could acquire images of the Earth through the telephoto lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first television pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors they could see. The transmission lasted 23 minutes. Lunar sphere of influence At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, the crew of Apollo 8 became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body. In other words, the effect of the Moon's gravitational force on Apollo 8 became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, Apollo 8 was 38,759 miles (62,377 km) from the Moon and had a speed of 3,990 ft/s (1,216 m/s) relative to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew since they were still calculating their trajectory with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center. They would continue to do so until they performed their last mid-course correction, switching to a reference frame based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. It was only thirteen hours until they would be in lunar orbit. The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion was a second mid-course correction. It was in retrograde (against direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by 2.0 ft/s (0.6 m/s), effectively lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about 24,200 miles (39,000 km) from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass 71.7 miles (115.4 km) from the lunar surface. At 64 hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion-1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to orbital mechanics had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a Go/No Go decision, the crew was told at 68 hours, they were Go and "riding the best bird we can find". At 68 hours and 58 minutes, the spacecraft went behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth. With 10 minutes before the LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place. At that time, they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface. The LOI burn was only two minutes away, so the crew had little time to appreciate the view. Lunar orbit The SPS ignited at 69 hours, 8 minutes, and 16 seconds after launch and burned for 4 minutes and 13 seconds, placing the Apollo 8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even flung off into space. If it lasted too long they could have impacted the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours. The first Earthrise photographed by humans On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time, the crew would appear early from behind the Moon. However, this time came and went without Apollo 8 reappearing. Exactly at the predicted moment, the signal was received from the spacecraft, indicating it was in a by orbit about the Moon. After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like: Lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance of planned future landing sites on the Moon, especially one in Mare Tranquillitatis that would be the Apollo 11 landing site. The launch time of Apollo 8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site. A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew had taken 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth. A portion of the lunar near side. The large crater in the bottom half of the photo is Goclenius. Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a Go/No Go decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit. As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up the equipment to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit they performed the eleven-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to by . Through the next two orbits, the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small prayer for his church. He was scheduled to participate in a service at St. Christopher's Episcopal Church near Seabrook, Texas, but due to the Apollo 8 flight was unable. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service. Earthrise When the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front, the crew witnessed Earthrise for the first time in human history. Robert Poole (2008), Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth New Haven: Yale University Press. Chapter 1. Borman saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon and called in excitement to the others, taking a black-and-white photo as he did so. In the ensuing scramble Anders took the more famous colour photo, later picked by Life magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century. Due to the synchronous rotation of the Moon about the Earth, Earthrise is not generally visible from the Lunar surface. Earthrise is generally only visible when orbiting the Moon, other than at selected places near the Moon's limb, where libration carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon. Earth as seen from Apollo 8, December 24, 1968 (NASA) Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so Borman could rest. Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft, Borman was able to sleep for two orbits, awakening periodically to ask questions about their status. Borman awoke fully, however, when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired having not had a good night's sleep in over three days. Taking command, he ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. At first Anders protested saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. At last Anders agreed as long as Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm. On subsequent Apollo missions, crews would avoid this situation by sleeping on the same schedule. As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the second television transmission began. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being "a vast, lonely, forbidding expanse of nothing." Then, after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth. Each man on board read the story of creation from the Book of Genesis. Borman finished the broadcast by wishing a Merry Christmas to everyone on Earth. His message appeared to sum up the feelings that all three crewmen had from their vantage point in lunar orbit. Borman said, "And from the crew of Apollo 8, we close with good night, good luck, and a Merry Christmas to all of you, all of you on the good Earth". The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the Trans-Earth Injection (TEI), which was scheduled for 2½ hours after the end of the television transmission. The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in Lunar orbit, with little hope of escape. As with the previous burn, the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon, out of contact with Earth. The burn occurred exactly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time predicted. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a Santa Claus", to which Ken Mattingly, the current CAPCOM, replied, "That's affirmative, you are the best ones to know". The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25, Christmas Day. Rupes Cauchy in eastern Mare Tranquillitatis Unplanned manual re-alignment Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However, he accidentally erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the inertial measuring unit (IMU) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift-off and fire the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude. Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized they would have to re-enter data that would tell the computer its real position. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars Rigel and Sirius aligned, and another fifteen minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer. Sixteen months later, Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re-alignment, under more critical conditions, during the Apollo 13 mission, after that module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. In his 1994 book, Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13, Lovell wrote, "My training [on Apollo 8] came in handy!". In that book he dismissed the incident as a "planned experiment", requested by the ground crew. However, in subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident, caused by his mistake. Cruise back to Earth and re-entry The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would re-enter 2½ days after TEI and splashdown in the Pacific. On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast. Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle. Disk 2, Chapter 5. 2003, Spacecraft Films. This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they had finished broadcasting they found a small present from Deke Slayton in the food locker—real turkey with stuffing and three miniature bottles of brandy (which remained unopened). There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. The next day, at about 124 hours into the mission, the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the earth, in a short four minute broadcast. Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle. Disk 2, Chapter 6. 2003, Spacecraft Films. The Apollo 8 Command Module on the deck of the USS Yorktown After two uneventful days the crew prepared for re-entry. The computer would control the re-entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, blunt end forward. If the computer broke down, Borman would take over. Once the Command Module was separated from the Service Module, the astronauts were committed to re-entry. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists. As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma formed around the spacecraft. The spacecraft started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6 g (59 m/s²). With the computer controlling the descent by changing the attitude of the spacecraft, Apollo 8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At 30,000 feet (9 km) the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at 10,000 feet (3 km) by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was estimated to be . When it hit the water, the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable 2 position. As they were buffeted by a 10-foot (3 m) swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three flotation balloons to right the spacecraft. It was 43 minutes after splashdown before the first frogman from the USS Yorktown arrived, as the spacecraft had landed before sunrise. Forty-five minutes later, the crew was safe on the deck of the aircraft carrier. Historical importance Apollo 8 came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval around the world. Yet, TIME magazine chose the crew of Apollo 8 as their Men of the Year for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people ever to leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo 8 can be summed up by a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that simply stated, "Thank you Apollo 8. You saved 1968." One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture whilst actually behind the camera. The picture of the whole Earth taken on the way out became an icon of the environmentalist movement, with the first Earth Day in 1970. It was selected as the first of Life magazine's 'hundred photos that changed the world'. Life Magazine (2003) 100 Photographs That Changed the World. Apollo 8 is regarded by some as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions. Robert Poole, Earthrise: How Man First Saw the Earth (Yale, 2008) explores the Apollo 8 mission and the historic impact of its pictures of Earth. Earthrise The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, Mercury-Atlas 6 by John Glenn in 1962. There were 1200 journalists covering the mission, with the BBC coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper Pravda featured a quote from Boris Nikolaevich Petrov, Chairman of the Soviet Intercosmos program, who described the flight as an "outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology". It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw — either live or delayed — the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon. The Apollo 8 broadcasts won an Emmy, the highest honor given by the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. Telecasts From Apollo 8 Atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from Genesis. O'Hair wished the courts to ban US astronauts — who were all Government employees — from public prayer in space. Though the case was rejected by the US Supreme Court for lack of jurisdiction, it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. Buzz Aldrin, on Apollo 11, self-communicated Presbyterian Communion on the surface of the moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years, and only obliquely referred to it at the time. In 1969, the US Postal Service issued a postage stamp (Scott # 1371) commemorating the Apollo 8 flight around the moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the Earthrise over the moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, "In the beginning God..." Mission parameters The mission parameters for Apollo 8 differed significantly from those of previous flights, for several reasons. As the first manned spacecraft to orbit multiple celestial bodies, the mission recorded two different sets of orbital parameters. The mission was also the first to execute a translunar injection. While in parking orbit around the Earth, Apollo 8 maintained altitude between a perigee of 112.8 miles (181.5 km) and an apogee of 118.9 miles (191.3 km). The inclination of this orbit, or its angle in relation to the equator, was 32.51°. Each orbit had a period of 88.17 minutes. In contrast, the spacecraft orbited the Moon at more varying altitudes. At its lowest altitude above the moon's surface, the spacecraft had a pericynthion of 69.5 miles (111.9 km), while the highest altitude, or apocynthion, was 193.3 miles (311.1 km). The spacecraft took 128.7 minutes to complete each of its 10 circuits around the Moon, at an inclination of 12°. The spacecraft began its translunar injection burn on December 21, 1968, at 15:41:38 UTC. The burn represented the second of two burns on the Saturn V rocket's S-IVB third stage. The rocket burned for a total of 318 seconds, propelling the 63,531 lb (28,817 kg) spacecraft from an Earth parking orbit velocity of 25,567 ft/s (7793 m/s) to a translunar trajectory velocity of 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s). Spacecraft location The command module is now displayed at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry, along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the spacesuit worn by Frank Borman. Jim Lovell's Apollo 8 spacesuit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA's Glenn Research Center. . Bill Anders' spacesuit is on display at the Science Museum in London, England. In film Apollo 8's historic mission has been shown and referred to in several forms, both documentary and fiction. The various television transmissions and 16 mm footage shot by the crew of Apollo 8 was compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary, Debrief: Apollo 8, which was hosted by Burgess Meredith. Released on DVD as a bonus feature for The Discovery Channel's miniseries, 'When We Left Earth' . In addition, Spacecraft Films released a three-disc DVD set covering the mission in 2003. Apollo 8: Leaving the Cradle. 2003, Spacecraft Films. Portions of the Apollo 8 Mission can be seen in the 1989 documentary For All Mankind, which won the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival for Outstanding Documentary. Apollo 8 was mentioned in the film Apollo 13, though only briefly. Portions of the Apollo 8 mission are dramatized in the miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode "1968". The S-IVB stage of Apollo 8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device in the 1970 UFO episode "Conflict". See also Apollo program List of Apollo astronauts Space Race References External links NASA Apollo 8 Mission Report (PDF) Apollo 8: Go for TLI – NASA movie at archive.org Apollo 8 has a message for the people of the good Earth – NASA audio of Christmas Genesis transmission Apollo 8 Launch ApolloTV.net Video Article about the 40th Anniversary of Apollo 8 (Newsletter of the Houston section of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, December 2008 Issue) (PDF)

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Eubulides

Eubulides () of Miletus was a philosopher of the Megarian school who lived in the 4th century BC. He was a successor of Euclid of Megara, Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 108 the founder of the school. He is famous for his paradoxes. He was a contemporary of Aristotle, against whom he wrote with great bitterness. Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 109; Athenaeus, vii.; Aristocles, in Eusebius Praeparatio Evangelica xv. 2. He taught logic to Demosthenes, Plutarch, Vit. X Orat.; Apuleius, Orat. de Mag.; Photius Bibliotheca and he is also said to have taught Apollonius Cronus, the teacher of Diodorus Cronus, and the historian Euphantus. He may have been the author of a book about Diogenes of Sinope. Diogenes Laërtius, vi. 20 Eubulides is most famous for inventing the forms of several famous paradoxes, some of which, however, are also ascribed to Diodorus Cronus. Diogenes Laërtius, ii. 111 Paradoxes of Eubulides Seven paradoxes are commonly ascribed to Eubulides: The Liar (pseudomenos) paradox:A man says: "What I am saying now is a lie." If the statement is true, then he is lying, even though the statement is true. If the statement is a lie, then he is not actually lying, even though the statement is a lie. Thus, if the speaker is lying, he tells the truth, and vice versa. The Masked Man (egkekalummenos) paradox:"Do you know this masked man?" "No." "But he is your father. So - do you not know your own father?" The Electra (Elektra) paradox:Electra doesn't know that the man approaching her is her brother, Orestes. Electra knows her brother. Does Electra know that the man is her brother? The Overlooked Man (dialanthanôn) paradox:Alpha ignored the man approaching him and treated him as a stranger. The man was his father. Did Alpha ignore his own father and treat him as a stranger? The Heap (sôritês) paradox:A single grain of sand is certainly not a heap. Nor is the addition of a single grain of sand enough to transform a non-heap into a heap: when we have a collection of grains of sand that is not a heap, then adding but one single grain will not create a heap. And yet we know that at some point we will have a heap. The Bald Man (phalakros) paradox:A man with a full head of hair is obviously not bald. Now the removal of a single hair will not turn a non-bald man into a bald one. And yet it is obvious that a continuation of that process must eventually result in baldness. The Horns (keratinês) paradox:What you have not lost, you have. But you have not lost horns. Therefore you have horns. The first paradox (the Liar) is probably the most famous, and is similar to the famous paradox of Epimenides the Cretan. The second, third and fourth paradoxes are variants of a single paradox and relate to the problem of what it means to "know" something and the identity of objects involved in an affirmation. The fifth and sixth paradoxes are also a single paradox and relate to the vagueness of language. The final paradox attacks presumptions involved in a proposition, and is related to the syllogistic fallacy. These paradoxes were very well known in ancient times, some alluded to by Eubulides' contemporary Aristotle Aristotle, Sophistici Elenchi, 24, 25, 22. and even partially by Plato. Plato, Euthydemus Aulus Gellius mentions how the discussion of such paradoxes was considered (for him) after-dinner entertainment at the Saturnalia, Aulus Gellius, xviii. 2. 9. but Seneca, on the other hand, considered them a waste of time: "Not to know them does no harm, and mastering them does no good." Seneca, Epistles, 45. 8. What value Eubulides and the other Megarian philosophers placed on these paradoxes is unclear, but the Megarians were very interested in the logic of whole propositions, in contrast to Aristotle's logic of predicates. Notes References Rescher N., Paradoxes: Their Roots, Range, and Resolution. Open Court Publishing. (2001).

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Johnny_Unitas

John Constantine "Johnny" Unitas (May 7, 1933 – September 11, 2002), nicknamed The Golden Arm and often called Johnny U, was a professional American football player in the 1950s through the 1970s, spending the majority of his career with the Baltimore Colts. He was a record-setting quarterback and the National Football League's most valuable player in 1959, 1964 and 1967. His record of throwing a touchdown pass in 47 consecutive games (between 1956-1960) remains unsurpassed as of 2008. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest NFL quarterbacks of all time. Early life Unitas was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1933, and grew up in the Mount Washington neighborhood. His father died when Johnny was four years old, and he was raised by his Lithuanian immigrant mother who worked two jobs to support the family. CNNSI.com - Pro Football - Hall of Fame quarterback Johnny Unitas dead at 69 - Thursday September 12, 2002 02:54 PM His unusual surname was a result of a phonetic transliteration of a common Lithuanian last name Jonaitis. Attending St Justin's High School in Pittsburgh, Unitas played halfback and quarterback. After high school, Unitas looked for an opportunity to play college football. He was passed over by Notre Dame and Indiana. Pitt offered a scholarship, but Unitas failed the entrance exam. The University of Louisville finally came through with a scholarship, and Unitas left home for Kentucky. He played quarterback for Louisville during his college career. College career In his four-year career as a Louisville Cardinal, Unitas completed 245 passes for 3,139 yards and 27 touchdowns. It is recorded that the 6'1" Johnny Unitas weighed 145 pounds on his first day of practice at the University of Louisville. Unitas' first start was in the fifth game of the 1951 season against St. Bonaventure. He threw 11 consecutive passes and three touchdowns to give the Cardinals a 21-19 lead. Though Louisville lost the game 22-21 on a disputed field goal, it had found a talented quarterback. Unitas completed 12 of 19 passes for 240 yards and four touchdowns in a 35-28 victory over Houston. The team finished the season 5-5 — 4-1 with Unitas as the starting quarterback. As a freshman, Unitas completed 46 of 99 passes for 602 yards and nine touchdowns (44). By the 1952 season, the university decided to de-emphasize sports. The new president at Louisville, Dr. Phillip Davidson, reduced the amount of athletic aid, and tightened academic standards for athletes. As a result, 15 returning players could not meet the new standards and lost their scholarships. In 1952 Coach Camp switched the team to one-platoon football. Unitas played safety or linebacker on defense, quarterback on offense, and kick/punt returner on special teams. The Cards won their first game against Wayne State, and destroyed Florida State 41-14 in the second game. Unitas completed 16 of 21 passes for 198 yards and three touchdowns. It was said that Unitas put on such a show at the Florida State game that he threw a pass under his legs for 15 yards. The rest of the season was a struggle for the Cards, who finished 3-5. Unitas completed 106 of 198 passes for 1,540 yards and 12 touchdowns in his sophomore year. The team won their first game in 1953, against Murray State, and lost the rest for a record of 1-7. One of the most memorable games of the season came in a 59-6 loss against Tennessee. Unitas completed 9 of 19 passes for 73 yards, rushed 9 times for 52 yards, returned 6 kickoffs for eighty-five yards, 1 punt for three yards, and had 86 percent of the team's tackles. The only touchdown the team scored was in the fourth quarter when Unitas made a fake pitch to the running back and ran the ball 23 yards for a touchdown. Unitas was hurt later in the fourth quarter while trying to run the ball, and on his way off the field received a standing ovation. When he got to the locker room he was so worn that his jersey and shoulder pads had to be cut off, because he could not lift his arms. Louisville ended the season with 20-13 loss to Eastern Kentucky in which Unitas was intercepted twice by Roy Kidd. In his junior year, Unitas completed 49 of 95 passes for 470 yards and three touchdowns. Unitas was elected captain for the 1954 season, but due to an early injury did not see much playing time. His first start of the season was the third game against Florida State. Of the 34-man team, 21 were freshmen. The 1954 Louisville Cardinals went 3-6, with the last win at home against Morehead State. Unitas was slowed by so many injuries his senior year that he did not lead the team in passing yards. He threw for 527 yards, second to Jim Houser's 560. Professional career After college, Unitas was drafted in the ninth round by the Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL, but was released before the season began since there were four quarterbacks trying to fill out three quarterback spots. Coincidentally, Ted Marchibroda beat out Unitas by taking the third quarterback spot. By then he was married with a child and worked construction in Pittsburgh to support his family. On the weekends, he played on a local semipro team called the Bloomfield Rams for $6 a game, where he also played three positions, quarterback, safety and punter. In 1956 Unitas joined the Baltimore Colts of the NFL under legendary coach Weeb Ewbank, after being asked at the last minute to join Bloomfield Rams lineman Jim Deglau, a Croatian steel worker much like Unitas, at the latter's scheduled Colts tryout. They borrowed money from friends to pay for the gas to make the trip. Deglau, a semi-pro player and family friend, told a reporter after Unitas' death, "[His] uncle told him not to come. [He] was worried that if he came down and the Colts passed on him, it would look bad (to other NFL teams)." . The Colts signed Unitas, much to the chagrin of the Cleveland Browns, who had hoped to claim the rejected Steeler quarterback. . When starting quarterback George Shaw suffered a broken leg against the Chicago Bears in the season's fourth game, Unitas made a nervous debut. His first pass was intercepted and returned for a touchdown. Then he botched a hand-off on his next play, a fumble recovered by the Bears. Unitas rebounded quickly from that 58–27 loss, leading the Colts to an upset of Green Bay and their first win over Cleveland. He threw nine touchdown passes that year, including one in the season finale that started his record 47-game streak. His 55.6-percent completion mark was a rookie record. In 1957, his first season as the Colts full-time starter at quarterback, Unitas finished first in the NFL in passing yards (2,550) and touchdown passes (24) as he helped lead the Colts to a 7-5 record, the first winning record in franchise history. At season's end, Unitas was named the NFL's Most Valuable Player by the Newspaper Enterprise Association (NEA). The Colts won the NFL championship under Unitas' leadership in 1958, by defeating the New York Giants 23–17 in sudden death overtime. It was the first overtime game in NFL history, and is often referred to as the "greatest game ever played." The game, nationally televised by NBC, has been credited for sparking the rise in popularity of professional football during the 1960s. In 1959, Unitas was named the NFL's MVP by the Associated Press (AP) and UPI for the first time, leading the NFL in passing yards (2,899), touchdown passes (32) and completions (193).Unitas then led the Colts to a repeat championship, beating the Giants again 31-16 in the title game. As the 1950s turned into the 1960s, the Colts fortunes (and win totals) declined. Injuries to key players such as Alan Ameche, Raymond Berry and Lenny Moore were a contributing factor to this. sportsecyclopedia.com Unitas' streak of 47 straight games with at least one touchdown pass ended against the Los Angeles Rams in week 11 of the 1960 season. profootballresearchers.org After three middle-of-the-pack seasons, Colts owner Carroll Rosenbloom fired Weeb Ewbank and replaced him with Don Shula, the then-youngest head coach in NFL history (33 years of age when he was hired). The Colts finished 8-6 in Shula's first season at the helm, good enough for only third-place in the NFL's Western Conference but they did end the season on a strong note by winning their final 3 games. The season was very successful for Unitas personally as he led the NFL in passing yards with a career-best total of 3,481 and also led in completions with 237. The 1964 season would see the Colts return to the top of the Western Conference. After dropping their season opener to the Vikings, the Colts ran off 10 straight victories and finished the season with a 12-2 record. The season was one of Unitas' best as he finished with 2,824 yards passing, a league-best 9.26 yards per pass attempt, 19 touchdown passes and only 6 interceptions. He was named the NFL's Most Valuable Player by the AP and UPI for a second time. However, the season would end on a disappointing note for the Colts as they were upset by the Cleveland Browns in the 1964 NFL Championship Game, losing 27-0. More postseason heartbreak would follow in 1965. The Colts and Packers finished in a tie for first place in the Western Conference and a one-game playoff was played in Green Bay to decide who would be the conference representative in the 1965 NFL Championship Game. The Colts lost in overtime 13-10 due in large part to a game-tying field goal by Don Chandler that many say was incorrectly ruled good. The season had been another fine one for Unitas, as he threw for 2,530 yards, 23 touchdowns and finished with a league-high 97.1 passer rating, but he was lost for the balance of the season due to a knee injury in a week 12 loss to the Bears. Backup quarterback Gary Cuozzo also suffered a season-ending injury the following week and it would be running back Tom Matte who filled in as the emergency QB for the regular-season finale and the playoff loss to the Packers. After once again finishing 2nd in the Western Conference in 1966, the Colts rebounded to finish 11-1-2 in 1967 tying the Los Angeles Rams for the NFL's best record. In winning his third MVP awards from the AP and UPI in 1967 (and his second from the NEA), Unitas had a league-high 58.5 completion percentage and passed for 3,428 yards and 20 touchdowns. ESPN Classic - Unitas surprised them all Once again the season ended on a sour note for the Colts, as they were shut out of the newly-instituted four team NFL playoff after losing the divisional tiebreaker to the Rams due to a 34-10 loss to them in the regular season finale. Unitas missed most of the 1968 season with a chronically sore elbow but the Colts still marched to a league-best 13-1 record behind backup quarterback (and 1968 NFL MVP) Earl Morrall. Although he was injured through most of the season, Unitas came off the bench to play in Super Bowl III, the famous game wherein Joe Namath guaranteed a New York Jets win despite conventional wisdom. Unitas' insertion was a desperation move in an attempt to retrieve dominance of the NFL over the upstart AFL. Unitas helped put together the Colts' only score, a touchdown late in the game. Despite not playing until the fourth quarter, Unitas still finished with more passing yards than the team's starter, Morrall. In 1970, Unitas led the Colts to Super Bowl V. He was knocked out of the game in the second quarter, after throwing a 75-yard touchdown pass (setting a then-Super Bowl record) that helped lift the team to victory. In 1971 Unitas brought the Colts to the AFC Championship game and lost to Miami 21-0. Unitas was involved in only one other head-to-head meeting with Namath after their 1970 regular season meeting (won by the Colts, 29-22, on a day when Namath's wrist was broken on the final play of the game). That last meeting was a memorable one. On September 24, 1972, at Memorial Stadium, Unitas threw for 376 yards and three touchdowns, but Namath upstaged him again, bombing the Colts for 496 yards and six touchdowns in a 44-34 Jets victory --- their first over Baltimore since the 1970 merger. Unitas was traded to the San Diego Chargers in 1973, and retired from football in 1974. He finished his 17 NFL seasons with 2,830 completions in 5,186 passes for 40,239 yards and 290 touchdowns, with 253 interceptions. He also rushed for 1,777 yards and 13 touchdowns. Unitas set many passing records during his career. He was the first quarterback to throw for more than 40,000 yards, despite playing during an era when NFL teams played shorter seasons of 12 or 14 games (as opposed to today's 16-game seasons). His 47-game touchdown streak between 1956 and 1960 is a record that still stands and is considered by many the Mount Everest-like football equivalent to Joe DiMaggio's 56-game baseball hitting streak. After his playing days were finished, Unitas settled in Baltimore where he raised his family, while also pursuing a career in broadcasting, doing color commentary for NFL games on CBS in the 1970s. After Robert Irsay moved the Colts franchise to Indianapolis, in 1984, a move reviled to this day in Baltimore as "Bob Irsay's Midnight Ride," Unitas was so outraged that he cut all ties to the relocated team (though his #19 jersey is still retired by the Colts). Other prominent old-time Colts followed his lead. He asked the Pro Football Hall of Fame on numerous occasions (including on Roy Firestone's Up Close) to remove his display unless it was listed as belonging to the Baltimore Colts. The Hall of Fame has never complied with the request. Unitas donated his Colts memorabilia to the Babe Ruth Museum in Baltimore; it is now on display in the Sports Legends Museum at Camden Yards. Unitas actively lobbied for another NFL team to come to Baltimore. After the NFL returned to Baltimore as the Ravens for the 1996 season, Unitas and most of the other old-time Colts regarded the Ravens as the true successors of the Baltimore Colts. Unitas was frequently seen on the Ravens' sidelines at home games and received a thunderous ovation every time he was pictured on each of the huge widescreen SACO SmartVision boards at M&T Bank Stadium. He was often seen on the 30 yard line on the Ravens side. When the NFL celebrated its first 50 years, Unitas was voted the league's best player. Retired Bears quarterback Sid Luckman said of Unitas, "He was better than me. Better than (Sammy) Baugh. Better than anyone." In December 2005, the state of Indiana attempted to raise funds for a new football stadium by issuing a Colts specialty license plate and auctioning off plates whose registrations represented distinctive Colts position-number pairings (e.g. "QB 18" for Peyton Manning). When the state offered Unitas's "QB 19" for bid, the Unitas family asserted its intellectual property rights (including the Right of Publicity and its various trademark interests), eventually resolving the situation confidentially. Personal life Unitas was married by his uncle to his high school sweetheart Dorothy Hoelle on November 20, 1954; they had five children. One hour after he divorced Dorothy in Reno on June 26, 1972, Unitas married Sandra Lemon; they had three children and stayed together until his death. Death On September 11, 2002, Unitas died suddenly of a myocardial infarction (heart attack) while working out at the Kernan Physical Therapy Center in Timonium, Maryland. After his death, many fans of the Baltimore Ravens football team petitioned the renaming of the Ravens' home stadium (owned by the State of Maryland) after Unitas. These requests, however, were unsuccessful since the lucrative naming rights had already been leased by the Ravens to the Buffalo, New York, based company M&T Bank. However, a statue of Unitas was erected as the centerpiece of the plaza in front of the Stadium and the plaza was officially named "Unitas Plaza". Large banners depicting Unitas in his Baltimore Colts heyday now flank the entrance to the stadium. Towson University, in Towson, Maryland, just north of Baltimore, named its football and lacrosse complex in honor of Unitas after his death in 2002. He was a major fund-raiser for the university, which his children attended. Toward the end of his life, Unitas brought media attention to the many permanent physical disabilities that he and his fellow players suffered during the early years of football, before padding and other safety features designed to prevent such injuries had been invented. Unitas himself lost almost total use of his right hand, which had become mangled by the end of his playing career, with the middle finger and thumb noticeably disfigured from being repeatedly broken. He is buried at Dulaney Valley Memorial Gardens in Timonium, Maryland. The gravesite of Johnny Unitas, Timonium, Maryland. Legacy Unitas held the record for most Pro Bowl appearances (10) by a quarterback until Brett Favre tied him in 2008. Unitas set the standard for most wins as a starting quarterback with 119 regular season victories (since surpassed by Fran Tarkenton, Dan Marino, John Elway, and Brett Favre). Unitas was voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1979. Johnny Unitas' #16 is the only number retired by the football program at the University of Louisville. Unitas Tower, a dormitory at the University of Louisville, is named for Johnny Unitas. A statue of Johnny Unitas sits in the north end zone of Papa John's Cardinal Stadium at the University of Louisville. It is tradition for each Cardinal player to touch the statue as he enters the field. Since 1987, the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award has been awarded to the top senior quarterback of the current year in college football. The award is presented annually in Louisville. In 1999, he was ranked No. 5 on "The Sporting News'" list of the 100 Greatest Football Players, behind only Joe Montana among quarterbacks. However, in 2004, "TSN" did a special feature on the 50 Greatest Quarterbacks, and Unitas was ranked No. 1 and Montana No. 2. Also in 1999, ESPN's Sportscentury: 50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century ranked Unitas #32, whereas Montana was #25. Just before his death, Johnny Unitas became the community liaison for athletics in Towson, Maryland. The football stadium at Towson University was renamed Johnny Unitas Stadium in 2002. Unitas died less than a week after throwing his last pass in the grand opening of the stadium. Johnny set the record for consecutive games with a touchdown pass at 47 games. This remains unsurpassed as of 2008. Unitas' grandson, J.C. Unitas, is currently a junior quarterback at Villanova University. Unitas once owned virtually every passing record in NFL history, most of which were surpassed by Fran Tarkenton of the Minnesota Vikings. In Pop Culture Unitas worked for Bethlehem Steel in addition to playing for the Baltimore Colts, back when football did not pay nearly as much money as it does nowadays, and forced players to hold everyday jobs as well. In rapper Everlast's song called Life's A Breeze, Unitas is mentioned in the lyrics: "Manufactured sounds and images / Got me scramblin' like football scrimmages / Johnny Unitas / In God I trust / I don't need to get paper every time I bust." Unitas's first pass as a professional was caught by , who was inducted into the Indiana Central University (now the University of Indianapolis) Hall of Fame in 1986. Unitas's first touchdown pass was caught by Lloyd Colteryahn in a preseason game in 1956. The Philadelphia Daily News wrote an article in 2003 announcing his 70th birthday. Of course, Unitas had been deceased since the previous year. After realizing the mistake, the newspaper ran a correction stating: "Johnny Unitas remains dead and did not celebrate his 70th birthday." An episode of the TV show The Adventures of Pete & Pete entitled "Space, Geeks & Johnny Unitas", centered around Unitas, the 1958 NFL Championship game and the cosmic connection between him, it and the Alpha Centauri star system. Appeared as a color-commentator in the 1976 Disney film Gus. In the 1991 film, Point Break, Gary Busey's character mentions Unitas while referring to Johnny Utah, played by Keanu Reeves. "And on top of that, they got me babysitting some quarterback punk, named Johnny Unitas or something." He guest-starred as himself in The Simpsons episode "Homie the Clown" (first aired February 12, 1995). In The Simpsons episode "Mother Simpson" (first aired November 19, 1995), Abe Simpson says "Now, Johnny Unitas ... there's a haircut you could set your watch to!" when comparing Joe Namath's hair to Unitas' trademark flattop. In 1999, Unitas was an extra in Runaway Bride. He can be seen about 25 minutes into the movie sitting on the bench outside the bakery. In 1999, Unitas was featured in the movie Any Given Sunday as the head coach of the fictional Dallas Knights. In 2003, http://www.town.ocean-city.md.us/clerk/minutes/rs020303.html 19th Street in the city of Ocean City, Maryland, was sub-named Johnny Unitas Way. The street sign is blue and has the Colts' horseshoe logo. For the game following his death, Indianapolis Colts quarterback Peyton Manning requested to wear a pair of black cleats as a tribute to Johnny's signature black boots. The league denied his request and threatened Manning with a $25,000 fine. Manning decided not to wear them. Ravens QB Chris Redman wore the cleats without asking permission and was fined only $5000. Stephen Decatur High School went through a remodeling in 2002 and named the student commons Johnny Unitas Square. Unitas is featured in the video game All-Pro Football 2K8, and is on the fictional New York team, along with Walter Payton. Unitas is a Gold Star player, the highest rating in the game. Novelist Tom Clancy stated on the Charlie Rose Show on November 10, 2000 that in The Hunt for Red October he made the captain of the fictional Red October submarine Marko Ramius a Lithuanian citizen in honor of Unitas, who happened to attend the same church as Clancy years ago. There was a 12" tall foam rubber fully-posable Johnny Unitas action figure for kids in the late 1960s/early 70's. References See also List of NFL on CBS commentator pairings Sources Bolus, Jim, and Billy Reed. Cardinal Football. Champaign, IL: Sports Pub Inc., 1999. Callahan, Tom. Johnny U: the life and times of John Unitas. New York: Crown Publishers, 2006. Lazenby, Roland. Johnny Unitas: the best there ever was. Chicago: Triumph Books, 2002. Schaap, Dick (1999). "Johnny Unitas: Sunday's Best". In ESPN SportsCentury. Michael MacCambridge, Editor. New York: ESPN-Hyperion Books. pp. 154–65. External links Official Web site Johnny Unitas Memorial at Find A Grave Obituary The Pennsylvania Football News All-Century Team Baltimore Colts Mania Tribute to Johnny U A Game-by-Game List of Unitas' 47-game touchdown streak from ProFootballHOF.com imdb.com entry Pictures of John Unitas football cards

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Nahum

Russian Orthodox icon of the Prophet Nahum, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration church, Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia). Nahum () was a minor prophet whose prophecy is recorded in the Hebrew Bible. His book comes in chronological order between Micah and Habakkuk in the Bible. "The Chronology of Biblical Prophets", Adapted from Hauer, C.E. & Young, W. A., An Introduction to the Bible: A Journey into Three Worlds, p.123, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1994 He wrote about the end of the Assyrian Empire, and its capital city, Nineveh, in a vivid poetic style. Introduction to Nahum at the International Bible Society website Little is known about Nahum’s personal history. His name means "comforter," and he was from the town of Alqosh, (Nah 1:1) which scholars have attempted to identify with several cities, including the modern `Alqush of Assyria and Capharnaum of northern Galilee. Nahum at The Catholic Encyclopedia He was a very nationalistic Hebrew however and lived amongst the Elkoshites in peace. His writings could be taken as prophecy or as history. One account suggests that his writings are a prophecy written in about 615 BC, just before the downfall of Assyria, while another account suggests that he wrote this passage as liturgy just after its downfall in 612 BC. Heaton, E. W., A Short Introduction To The Old Testament Prophets, p. 35, Oneworld Publications, P.O. Box 830, 21 Broadway, Rockport, NA 01966, ISBN 1-85168-114-0 Nahum at aboutbibleprophecy.com Historical context Archaeological digs have uncovered the splendor of Nineveh in its zenith under Sennacherib (705-681 BC), Esarhaddon (681-669 BC), and Ashurbanipal (669-633 BC). Massive walls were eight miles in circumference. Destruction of Judean Fortress Portrayed in Dramatic Eighth-Century B.C. Pictures at the Biblical Archaeology Review website It had a water aqueduct, palaces and a library with 20,000 clay tablets, including accounts of a creation in Enuma Elish and a flood in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Nineveh at www.saudiaramcoworld.com Creation Myths in The Ancient Near East at darkwing.uoregon.edu The Babylonian chronicle of the fall of Nineveh tells the story of the end of Nineveh. Naboplassar of Babylon joined forces with Cyaxares, king of the Medes, and laid siege for three months. Fall of Nineveh Chronicle at Livius - Articles on Ancient History Assyria lasted a few more years after the loss of its fortress, but attempts by Egyptian Pharaoh Neco II to rally the Assyrians failed due to opposition from king Josiah of Judah, The End of Judah at the Quartz Hill School of Theology website and it seemed to be all over by 609 BC. Assyria 1365-609 B.C. at The Metropolitan Museum of Art website The tomb of Nahum is supposedly inside the synagogue at Alqosh, although there are other places outside Iraq that lay claim also to being the original 'Elkosh' from which Nahum hailed. Alquosh was abandoned by its Jewish population in 1948, and the synagogue that purportedly houses the tomb is in a poor structural state, to the extent that the tomb itself is in danger of destruction. The tomb underwent basic repairs in 1796. A team of US/UK construction engineers, led by Huw Thomas, is currently planning ways to save the building and the tomb. RENOVATION - AL QUSH SYNAGOGUE AND THE TOMB OF NAHUM at tombofnahum.com Money has been allocated for renovation in 2008. 2008 is the proposed year. in secular sources Ninaveh is first mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi(2200 B.C).Hammurabi calls himself the king who made the name of the goddes Ishthar famous in the temple of Ishthar in Ninaveh . Liturgical commemoration The Prophet Nahum is venerated as a saint in Eastern Christianity. On the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, his feast day is December 1 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, December 1 currently falls on December 14 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is commemorated with the other minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. References External links Nahum article from The Catholic Encyclopedia Renovation - Al Qush Synagogue and the Tomb of Nahum Prophet Nahum Orthodox icon and synaxarion

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Gotham_City

Gotham City is a fictional city appearing in DC Comics, and is best known as the home of Batman. Batman's place of residence was first identified as Gotham City in Batman #4 (Winter 1940). Gotham City is based on many large cities, especially New York City, but also Baltimore, London, and Chicago. The longstanding nickname "Gotham" was first attached to New York by Washington Irving in his magazine Salmagundi. Burrows, Edwin G. and Mike Wallace. Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898. (Oxford University Press, 1999), 417. Creation Writer Bill Finger is credited with the creation of Gotham City. Finger commented on the naming of the city and reasoning for changing Batman's locale from Manhattan to a fictional city: "Originally I was going to call Gotham City 'Civic City'. Then I tried Capital City, then Coast City. Then I flipped through the phone book and spotted the name 'Gotham Jewelers' and said, 'That's it', Gotham City. We didn't call it New York because we wanted anybody in any city to identify with it." Fictional history In Swamp Thing #53, Alan Moore wrote a fictional history for Gotham City that other writers have generally followed. According to Moore's tale, a Norwegian mercenary founded Gotham City and the British later took it over -- a story that parallels the founding of New York by the Dutch (as New Amsterdam) and later takeover by the British. During the American Revolutionary War, Gotham City was the site of a major battle (paralleling the Battle of Brooklyn and the Battle of Long Island in the American Revolution). Rumors held it to be the site of various occult rites. Shadowpact #5 by Bill Willingham expanded upon Gotham's occult heritage by depicting a being who has slept for 40,000 years beneath the land upon which Gotham City was built. Strega, the being's servant, says that the "dark and often cursed character" of the city was influenced by the being who now uses the name "Doctor Gotham." In Gotham Underground #2 by Frank Tieri, Tobias Whale claims that 19th century Gotham was run by five rival gangs, until the first "masks" appeared, eventually forming a gang of their own. It is not clear if these were vigilantes or costumed criminals. Many storylines have added more events to Gotham's history, at the same time greatly affecting the city and its people. Perhaps the greatest in impact was a long set of serial storylines, which started with Ra's al Ghul releasing a debilitating virus called the "Clench" during the Contagion storyline. As that arc wrapped, the city was beginning to recover, only to suffer an earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter Scale in Cataclysm. This resulted in the federal government cutting Gotham off from the rest of the United States in No Man's Land. This trio of storylines allowed writers the freedom to redefine the nature and mood of the city. The result suggested a harder city with a more resilient, resourceful, and cynical populace; a more dramatic and varied architecture; and more writing possibilities by attributing new locales to the rebuilding of the city. The name "Gotham City" is generally associated with DC Comics, although it also appears in the first Mr. Scarlet story by France Herron and Jack Kirby from Wow Comics #1. Kirby historian Greg Theakston notes that this was published December 13, 1940, shortly before Batman #4 was published. The Complete Jack Kirby 1940-41 (published by Pure Imagination) Atmosphere In terms of atmosphere, Batman writer and editor Dennis O'Neil has said that, figuratively, "Batman's Gotham City is Manhattan below Fourteenth Street at eleven minutes past midnight on the coldest night in November." O'Neil, Dennis. Afterword. Batman: Knightfall, A Novel. New York: Bantam Books, 1994. 344. Gotham City's atmosphere took on a lighter tone in the comics of the 1950s and part of the 1960s, similar to the tone of Batman stories of that era. However, by the early 1970s the tone of the city, along with that of the stories, had become grittier. Today, the portrayal of Gotham is a dark and foreboding metropolis rife with crime, grime, corruption, and a deep-seated sense of urban decay. Architecture Gotham's new skyline. Planned by Lex Luthor after the events of No Man's Land. Different artists have depicted Gotham in different ways. They often base their interpretations on various real architectural periods and styles with exaggerated characteristics, such as massively multi-tiered flying buttresses on Gothic cathedrals. Also, the huge Art Deco and Art Nouveau statuary was seen in Tim Burton's movie version. Cyberpunk, Japanese, and Greek elements were presented in Joel Schumacher's series of films. Within the Batman mythos, the person cited as being influential in promoting the unique architecture of Gotham City during the pre-American Civil War era was Judge Solomon Wayne, Bruce Wayne's ancestor. His campaign to reform Gotham came to a head when he met a young architect named Cyrus Pinkney. Wayne commissioned Pinkney to design and to build the first "Gotham Style" structures in what became the center of the city's financial district. The "Gotham Style" idea of the writers matches parts of the Gothic Revival in style and timing. In a 1992 storyline, a man obsessed with Pinkney's architecture blew up several Gotham buildings in order to reveal the Pinkney structures they had hidden; the editorial purpose behind this was to transform the city depicted in the comics to resemble the designs created by Anton Furst for the 1989 Batman film. After No Man's Land, Lex Luthor took the challenge of rebuilding Gotham City after the events of Cataclysm. Gotham's old Art-deco and Gothic structures were replaced with modern glass skyscrapers and buildings. Police and corruption A common theme in stories set in Gotham is the rampant and recurring corruption within the city's civil authorities and infrastructure, most notably within the Gotham City Police Department. During stories set early in Batman's career (most notably Batman: Year One), Commissioner Gillian B. Loeb was depicted as having his hands in many pockets. However, Batman found evidence for conspiracy charges, forcing Loeb to resign his position. Later stories depicted subsequent commissioners as also being corruptible, or open to various forms of influence. In other stories, Batman has had to take on crooked cops, either acting in collusion with supervillains, working for the mob, or on their own. Later stories, featuring James Gordon as the new Commissioner, show the two characters often uniting to purge corruption from the force. Gordon was the commissioner for about 9 to 10 years of continuity, then retired, handing the police force over to his replacement, Commissioner Akins. Recent stories have returned Gordon to the position of Commissioner, unfortunately to find corruption taking a greater hold since his departure. Gotham Underground Unified Crime Family Black Mask- During the events of Batman: War Games, Black Mask gains control over all gangs in Gotham City. He works with The Society to kill Batman. He is eventually killed by Catwoman and a power vacuum leads to a series of gang wars. Recently a new Black Mask has returned in an effort to reunify the Gotham gangs. Battle For the Cowl #1 Great White- Warren "The Great White Shark" White becomes the successor to Black Mask's crime empire, successfully running all crime in Gotham from inside Arkham Asylum. Batman: Face the Face During Intergang's bid for power, Great White is beaten and hidden behind a door in Blackgate prison in order to keep him out of the way. After freeing Arkham's inmates the new Black Mask takes control over Warren and his men. Crime Families Falcone Crime Family (Italian)- Run by Carmine "The Roman" Falcone, who maintained a stranglehold over all of Gotham City's crime before the rise of 'masks.' He is murdered by Two-Face and his daughter, Sofia Gigante takes control, Batman: The Long Halloween however upon her death and the murder of many other family member, the family loses its grasp over the city. Batman: Dark Victory Galante crime family (Italian)- Control the East side of Gotham. Taken over by Tobias Whale Gotham Underground #1 Maroni Crime Family- headed by Luigi "Big Lou" Maroni until his death, where his son, Sal Maroni takes control of the family. He is responsible for scarring Harvey Dent and is eventually murdered while in prison. Odessa Crime Family (Russian)- Arms dealers, taken over by Tobias Whale Gotham Underground #1 Riley Crime Family (Irish)- Run by Sam Riley, Peyton Riley's father, until his death. It is implied Johnny Sabatino kills him. Sabatino Crime Family (Italian)- The first crime family of Gotham. Johnny Sabatino was married off to Peyton Riley as a sign of peace between the Irish and Italian mobs. Their marriage was loveless and he tries to kill her. Peyton returns with Scarface and tries to kill Johnny and they both fall into the water after a struggle and disappear. Detective Comics #844 Gangs Ghost Dragons- Run by King Snake. Lynx was assigned as their field leader and eventually killed King Snake to gain control over the gang. Lynx was accidentally beheaded by one of her own gang members. Intergang- Lead by Bruno Mannheim, Intergang employs Johnny Stitches to take control over the Gotham City underworld. They successfully take down Penguin's gang and buy out Tobias Whale to gain full control. Gotham Underground #9 It is yet to be seen how they will deal with Black Mask's claim to dominance. Penguin's Gang- Run through Penguin's Iceberg Lounge. Penguin was once the premier gang power in Gotham. Ousted by Intergang but was restored by Batman. Gotham Underground #9 He is currently fighting for dominance over Two-Face's gang. Battle For the Cowl #1 Geography Gotham City map (1999)Cartography by Eliot R. Brown for No Man's Land and Gotham City Secret Files and Origins Gotham City's geography, like other fictional cities' geographies in the DC Universe, has varied over the decades, because of changing writers, editors and storylines. At various times the depiction has Gotham on the shores of "Lake Gotham". The majority of appearances, however, place Gotham on the eastern coast of the United States. Historically, "Gotham" is a nickname for New York, first used by Washington Irving in the early 19th century. For most of the publication history of Batman in comics, Gotham has been assumed to be a New York City analogue; Frank Miller has said that "Metropolis is New York in the daytime; Gotham City is New York at night." DC Comics president and publisher Paul Levitz says that Gotham is "New York from 14th Street down, the older buildings, more brick-and-mortar as opposed to steel-and-glass. Or, you know, Boston." New York Times journalist William Safire describes Gotham City as "New York below 14th Street, from SoHo to Greenwich Village, the Bowery, Little Italy, Chinatown, and the sinister areas around the base of the Manhattan and Brooklyn Bridges. ON LANGUAGE; Jersey's Vanishing 'New', William Safire, The New York Times, July 30, 1995 However, longtime Batman artist Neal Adams considers Gotham to be based on Chicago (whose nickname is "New Gotham"), pointing to its history of corruption and organized crime, and adding, "One of the things about Chicago is Chicago has alleys (which are virtually nonexistent in New York). Back alleys, that's where Batman fights all the bad guys." Film adaptations have varied: Tim Burton's Gotham was based primarily on New York, while the films directed by Christopher Nolan have shown a Gotham more closely based on Chicago. In Nolan's films "Batman Begins" and "The Dark Knight", the license plates of the cars registered in Gotham strongly resemble those of Illinois but display "Gotham" as the state. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0372784/trivia Maps shown in various comics have depicted the city in different places. Many of the maps directly use Manhattan, Vancouver, and other real coastlines as their basis, while others are completely original. One map showing Gotham City in relation to Metropolis, the home of Superman, published in New Adventures of Superboy #22 (October 1981), placed Gotham City and Metropolis on opposite sides of a Delaware Bay, with Gotham City in New Jersey and Metropolis in Delaware. On "The Batman" Gotham is shown as being near a large coast and far enough away from Metropolis to fly a plane there. In Swamp Thing vol. 2, #53 (October 1986) the geography of Rhode Island was the basis of another map of Gotham City. The current definitive maps of Gotham City are those based on the ones produced for the No Man's Land story arc. Christopher Nolan commissioned a map of Gotham for his movie Batman Begins that also used the No Man's Land map as a basis. The airport was moved to the Northeast, Narrows Island was inserted between Midtown and Downtown, and Wayne Tower was moved to Midtown, about where the "54" marker on the map to the left is located. The distance between Gotham City and Metropolis has varied over the years, ranging everywhere from being hundreds of miles apart to being twin cities on opposite sides of a large bay. Blüdhaven, a city that for several years was home to Nightwing, is located near Gotham City. Additionally, the Seven Soldiers of Victory series Klarion the Witch Boy, calls New York City the "Cinderella City", referring to nearby Metropolis and Gotham as its "ugly stepsisters". In Nightwing #153 (2009), the final issue of the series, Nightwing states that it takes forty minutes by plane and six hours by train to get from New York to Gotham. Man-Bat #3 refers to Gotham City being in the Central Time zone. According to the Planetary/Batman one-shot, a Gotham City also exists in the Wildstorm universe. It is similar to its DC Universe counterpart, but is not usually home to costumed vigilantes. In Captain Atom: Armageddon Gotham City does not exist in the Wildstorm universe. One older theory was proposed by Mark Gruenwald, who later went on to be a major writer/editor at Marvel Comics, and published in the 1970s in the DC house fanzine, The Amazing World of DC Comics in an issue dedicated to the Justice League. Gruenwald suggested that Gotham City is located somewhere in the state of New Jersey while Metropolis is located in close proximity to Washington, D.C. Gotham City, NJ driver license Detective Comics #503 (June 1983) includes several references suggesting Gotham City is in or near New Jersey. A location on the Jersey Shore is described as "twenty miles north of Gotham." Robin and Batgirl drive from a "secret New Jersey airfield" to Gotham City and then drive on the "Hudson County Highway". Hudson County is the name of an actual New Jersey county. The Atlas of the DC Universe, published in 1990 by Mayfair Games Inc. as a supplement to the DC Heroes role-playing game (under license from DC Comics), places Gotham City in southern New Jersey (and Metropolis in Delaware). This source was never directly recognized in a published DC Comic, although it is based upon the previously mentioned map from New Adventures of Superboy #22, and fits Mark Gruenwald's placement. A Gotham City driver's license shown in Batman: Shadow of the Bat annual #1 (1993), contains the line "Gotham City, NJ", placing Gotham City in New Jersey. In the Batgirl series, as well as in the Vertigo Comics' Sandman series, Gotham is implied to be an entire state, analogous to New York, with Gotham City as its capital. In both cases, the book refers to "Upstate Gotham". One viral website for the movie The Dark Knight depicts Gotham City Rail train routes in a map Gotham City Rail that shows some of the city's streets as well as Gotham International Airport, which is depicted as being in an adjacent county or city. Of the five feature-length Batman films, only the third, "Batman Forever," (1995) was filmed partly in New York City, with additional locations in California, Oregon and Israel. Of the others, "Batman" (1989) was filmed in London. "Batman Returns" (1992) was filmed on the back lots and sound stages of Warner Brothers in Burbank. "Batman and Robin" (1997) was filmed in California, Texas, Canada, Vermont and Austria. "Batman Begins" (2005) was filmed in London, Chicago, Iceland and Waukegan, IL. "The Dark Knight", (2008), the film depending most on exteriors, was filmed entirely on location in Chicago, including recognizable shots using the Sears Tower, the Trump Tower, LaSalle St. and Navy Pier (for the Joker's seemingly fatal joke involving the two boats). Based on the films, Chicago seems to have the best claim as Gotham City, followed by California and London. http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20081112/OPINION/811129997 Notable residents Many comic book series and characters are set in Gotham. The most notable characters are Batman and Robin. Some of the most prominent characters directly connected to Batman whose adventures are set in Gotham are Nightwing, Huntress, Barbara Gordon and most recently Batwoman. Other DC characters have also been depicted to be living in Gotham, including Jason Blood, Ragman, The Question, Plastic Man, Zatara and Zatanna, Simon Dark, and Tommy Monaghan, the anti-hero Hitman. The superhero teams Section 8 and the Justice Society of America are also shown operating in Gotham City. Within the DC Universe continuity, Batman is not the first hero in Gotham. Stories featuring Alan Scott, the Golden Age Green Lantern, set before and during World War II depict Scott living in Gotham, and later depictions Detective Comics #784-786 show him running his Gotham Broadcasting Corporation. Additionally, the Justice Society of America, Doctor Fate, and the Golden Age Black Canary have been depicted as operating in Gotham. Black Canary's daughter, the Modern Age Black Canary, is based in Gotham through much of the Birds of Prey series. Arella (formerly Angela Roth), a supporting character in Teen Titans and mother of Titan member Raven, is shown in flashback to have resided in Gotham City as a teenager. Apart from Gotham's superhero residents, the residents of the city feature in a back-up series in Detective Comics called Tales of Gotham City Detective Comics #488-490, 492, 494, 495, 504, 507. http://darkmark6.tripod.com/batfamily.html and in two limited series called Gotham Nights. Additionally, the Gotham City Police Department is the focus of the series Gotham Central, as well as the mini-series Gordon's Law, Bullock's Law, and GCPD. Mayors in the comic books Several mayors of Gotham have appeared in the comic book series that collectively form the "Batman Family" of titles: Officers of the law in the comics Notable areas, landmarks, institutions and businesses Gotham City map behind James Gordon's desk, in The Long Halloween (art by Tim Sale) Gotham City is a major economic center within the United States of the DC Universe; its important industries include: manufacturing; shipping; finance; fine arts, represented by its numerous museums, galleries, and jewelers; and the production of giant novelty props. In addition to its commercial seaport, it also supports a naval shipyard. Major businesses based in Gotham City include its most noteworthy corporation: Wayne Enterprises, which specializes in various industrial aspects and advanced technological research and development. Its charitable division, The Wayne Foundation, is a major supporter to the city's major charity, arts and research endeavors. Noteworthy newspapers in Gotham City include the Gotham Gazette and the Gotham Globe. In the Silver Age comics, the editor-in-chief of Metropolis newspaper The Daily Planet, Perry White, had once worked for the Gazette early in his career. Gotham sports Baseball: The city's baseball team, the Gotham Goliaths, is a pun on the actual New York Giants/San Francisco Giants. Other proposed team names include the Gotham City Eagles (cross-town rivals as seen on Batman), the Gotham Knights (in Greg Rucka's novel Batman: No Man's Land, sometimes referred to as the Black Sox in Garth Ennis's Hitman), the Gotham Giants (The Daily Planet Guide to Gotham City), the Gotham Griffins, and the Gotham Monarchs (a Metropolis franchise that moved to the city after No Man's Land) . The comic based on The Batman, The Batman Strikes, calls Gotham's baseball team the Gotham Guardians. Basketball: The Gotham Gators are the city's professional basketball team (as seen on The Batman). In the 52 (comic book) website, Gotham's basketball team is known as the Guardsmen (article Bring on the Thunder!). There is also a women's team known as the Gotham Valkyries (The Daily Planet Guide to Gotham City) or in other publications the Gotham Amazons. American football: Gotham has two pro teams Gotham Razorbacks, and the Gotham Knights (as seen on Batman: The Animated Series Episode #024 - "Fear of Victory"). Gotham Goliaths and Gotham Wildcats have also been used as franchise names (The Daily Planet Guide to Gotham City). Ice hockey: The local ice hockey franchise is known as the Gotham Blades (The Daily Planet Guide to Gotham City). Arkham Asylum Arkham Asylum is the primary but involuntary residence of many of Batman's foes. Dennis O'Neil named Arkham Asylum as an homage to the works of H. P. Lovecraft. For years, artists have rendered it predominantly as an old and sometimes crumbling structure, but at times some artists have depicted it as a more modern facility (notably, the storyline The Last Arkham involved Jeremiah Arkham tearing down the old asylum and replacing it with a modern structure more akin to a supermax prison). Its exterior and interior appearances often change to match the moods and needs of the creative team. In some stories, the rooms have the stereotypical white padded walls of a mental hospital, in others the brick or stone cells of an old-fashioned asylum, and in still others the glass and steel private rooms of a modern hospital. The suggestion often made is that its history in the city reaches back to the early part of the 20th century, and that its manager is always a member of the Arkham family. Its current manager is Jeremiah Arkham, the nephew of founder Amadeus Arkham. Perhaps the most notable trait of Arkham is that many writers have placed a seeming revolving door on it, whereby Batman's villains either escape or are freed very shortly after being admitted, allowing writers to use them without complications. Characters often comment on this situation, either comically or seriously remarking on the need for better security and care at Arkham. In other media 1960s The 1960s live-action Batman television series never specified Gotham's location. One episode refers to Gotham Rock, implying a location analogous to Boston. A Tourist's Guide to Gotham City The related theatrical movie, showed Batman to be flying over suburban Los Angeles, the Hollywood Hills, palm trees, a harbor, a beach and a view of the Los Angeles City Hall. No attempt was made to cover the fact that the movie was filmed in Los Angeles. Although the setting for the series was Gotham City (as with virtually all Batman serials), several New York City locations are noted throughout the series. Among them are the New York Public Library Central Research Building on West 42nd Street, Central Park, and Foley Square in Lower Manhattan. Portions of the 1966 film also were shot on location in NYC. 1989 movie Gotham City's skyline, as it appears in the 1989 Batman movie. In the opening lines of the Sam Hamm screenplay to the 1989 film version, Gotham is described as Hell erupted through the pavement and built a city (similar to a Pandæmonium, or the capital of Hell, from the terms of John Milton). The logic in screenplay is when elevators were utilized for taller structures, the buildings over a few stories were built around the existing structures of Gotham Town. These skyscapers cast a shadow over the city coupled with the smoke from Gotham's industry kept the city in perpetual dusk. A map of Gotham City used in the film Batman (1989) was actually an inverted map of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. In the same movie, a map of the Axis Chemical plant was actually a map of the Capitol Hill neighborhood in Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. Anton Furst did the production design for the first Batman film directed by Tim Burton Equally important to the success of the film is Burton's dark and surreal visual style. He creates a Gotham City that is scary, cartoonish and imposing all at the same time. . Anton Furst's set designs for the Batman movie were an attempt to imagine what might have happened to New York City had there been no planning commission and had it been run by pure extortion and crime. Hence, there were no height restrictions, the skyscrapers were cantilevered toward the street rather than away, there were lots of bridges over the streets. In return, the city appeared to be extremely dark and claustrophobic. Burton even stated himself that his take on Gotham was "As if Hell came sprouting out of the concrete and kept right on growing." The individual buildings in Furst's version of Gotham were based on a whole host of influences. The cathedral was based on Antoni Gaudí's Sagrada Família, the Flugelheim Museum exterior was based on the work of Shin Takamatsu, and some of the other influences were Otto Wagner, Norman Foster, and Albert Speer. Comic Book Resources Forums - View Single Post - Gotham City Architecture Influences In essence, Furst deliberately mixed clashing architectural styles to make Gotham City the ugliest and bleakest metropolis imaginable. For Wayne Manor, Knebworth House, a Gothic Tudor mansion 28 miles north of London was used for the exterior. The interior however, is Hatfield House, Hertfordshire. The flag of Gotham City closely resembles the state flag of Indiana. It can be seen briefly in Harvey Dent's office. Batman Returns Gotham during Christmas, as seen in Batman Returns. For Tim Burton's second Batman film, Batman Returns Batman Returns - Gotham City (1992), Bo Welch took over the production design SETS APPEAL: DESIGNING 'BATMAN RETURNS' duties from Anton Furst. Welch for the most part, based his designs on Furst's concepts. Lensed seemingly entirely indoors or on covered sets, pic is a magnificently atmospheric elaboration on German expressionism. Its look has been freshly imagined by production designer Bo Welch, based on the Oscar-winning concepts of the late Anton Furst in the first installment. Welch's Gotham City looms ominously over all individuals, and every set--from Penguin's aquarium-like lair and Shreck's lavish offices to Bruce Wayne's vaguely "Citizen Kane"-like mansion and simple back alleys--is brilliantly executed to maximum evocative effect. Whereas Anton Furst's designs showed a considerable amount of sinister visual grandeur, Bo Welch's designs had a more whimsical approach. And the sinister visual grandeur of the late Anton Furst has given way to the more whimsical approach The sets by Bo Welch are amazing, a Teutonic, "Metropolis"-like Gotham -- perfect to house the larger than life characters. The three-way story, involving Keaton's Batman, DeVito's Penguin and Pfeiffer's Catwoman, takes place in a wonderland of moody sets by Bo Welch. Welch blended "Fascist architecture with World's Fair architecture" for Gotham City. Judy Sloane (August 1995). "Bo Welch Interview", Film Review, pp. 66. Retrieved on 2008-08-14. Russian architecture and German Expressionism were also studied. At least 50% of the Warner Brothers lot was taken up with Gotham City sets. The massive Gotham City sets were all constructed to be mobile, and were often shifted between days of filming. Michelle Pfeiffer (Catwoman) routinely got lost on her way to filming each day. Schumacher film series When Joel Schumacher took over directing the Batman films from Tim Burton, Barbara Ling handled the production design for both of Schumacher's films (1995's Batman Forever Batman Forever - Gotham In collaboration with production designer Barbara Ling and her crew, Schumacher has kept the series' dark and monumental look (the legacy of Frank Miller's brilliant graphic novel "Batman: The Dark Knight Returns") and, as advertised, lightened the project's overall tone. and 1997's Batman & Robin Batman & Robin - Gotham City Barbara Ling's no-holds-barred production design makes Gotham look more surreal than ever. ). Ling's vision of Gotham City was a luminous and marvelously outlandish evocation of Modern expressionism<ref>[http://members.aol.com/MPreston88/MPres1.html ``Batman & Robin's look is luminous and marvelously outlandish throughout. Barbara Ling's production design is outstanding, a stunning evocation of modern Expressionism.]</ref> and Constructivism. Batman & Robin DVD extras Its futuristic-like concepts (to a certain extent, akin to the 1982 film Blade Runner Departing from former "Batman" director Tim Burton's gothic approach to New York, Schumacher and production designer Barbara Ling compulsively layer the background with a futuristic city design that seems to aim for "Blade Runner" by way of "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles". ) appeared to be sort of a cross between Manhattan and the "Neo-Tokyo" of Akira. Ling admitted her influences for the Gotham City design came from "neon-ridden Tokyo and the Machine Age. Gotham is like a World's Fair on ecstasy." Barbara Ling, Bigger, Bolder, Brighter: The Production Design of Batman & Robin, 2005, Warner Home Video Batman Forever was going to be shot in Cincinnati, using the old subway tunnel. The exterior of the Gotham City Hippodrome (the arena where the "Flying Graysons" performed their trapeze act) is based on the exterior of Union Terminal, a famous 1930s Art Deco train station in Cincinnati. Batman Forever (1995) - Trivia Exterior scenes of Wayne Manor for Batman Forever were filmed at the Webb Institute of Naval Architecture in Long Island, New York. The production team had to change the school's "W" on the entrance gate because it had an anchor behind it. The exterior set for Two-Face's hide out in Batman Forever was the same set used in the first disappearance of Max Shreck in Batman Returns. The Arkham Asylum that was seen in Batman Forever was designed as a tall, spiraling castle-like structure, with narrow hallways lined with brightly-lit glass bricks. During Mr. Freeze’s attempt to freeze Gotham in the film Batman & Robin Gotham City's Gothic architecture and counterculture population has been taken to new - and silly - extremes, to the point where it's literally embarrassing to watch. (1997), the targeting screen for his giant laser locates it somewhere on the New England shoreline, possibly as far north as Maine. The soundtrack for Batman & Robin featured a song named after the city and sung by R. Kelly. Nolan film series Gotham City as shown in Batman Begins. Director Christopher Nolan worked with production designer Nathan Crowley to create the look of Gotham City. Nolan designed Gotham City to be a large, modern metropolitan area that would reflect the various periods of architecture that the city had gone through. Elements were drawn from Tokyo, Hong Kong, New York City, but mainly Chicago. The location of Gotham is ambiguous, although it is a seaside port. Alfred comments that the caverns beneath Wayne Manor that are to be converted into the Batcave were once used by a Wayne ancestor to hide escaping slaves in the Underground Railroad. The automobile license plates shown throughout the film and in its sequel are reminiscent of Illinois' license plate design. The Chicago Board of Trade Building represents Wayne Tower in Batman Begins. In Batman Begins the Chicago Board of Trade Building was the visual inspiration for the film's Wayne Tower design . The art-deco building was represented as the hub of Gotham's water and elevated railway systems and also housed Gotham's opera house. 35 East Wacker was depicted as Gotham's main courthouse. Several other Chicago skyscrapers where shown such as the Sears Tower, Hyatt Center, Two Prudential Plaza, the Chicago Water Tower and the twin Marina City towers. The former Rothschild estate, Mentmore Towers in Buckinghamshire, was used to portray Wayne Manor's exterior and interior. The Narrows was based on the slummish nature of the now-demolished walled city of Kowloon in Hong Kong. One notable change in this version of Arkham Asylum from the comics was the location. While the location has varied in the comics, it is generally located some distance outside of Gotham City, often in a rural or forested location. However, Batman Begins has it in the middle of Gotham City, located in the Narrows. Wayne Tower is represented by the Richard J. Daley Center in The Dark Knight. In The Dark Knight, the modern Richard J. Daley Center is suggested as the new headquarters for Wayne Enterprises. As Wayne Manor was being reconstructed in the events of the Dark Knight, a digitally enhanced Hotel 71 was used as Bruce Wayne's penthouse. 330 North Wabash was used as Gotham City Hall and housed Mayor Garcia's office. The then under construction Trump Tower was featured heavily later in the movie and was named the Prewitt Building. Other Chicago landmarks seen in The Dark Knight include Chicago Board of Trade Building, Sears Tower, Aon Center, Two Prudential Plaza, NBC Tower, the Marina City towers, Navy Pier, the Randolph Street Metra Station, and lower Wacker Drive. It is revealed that downtown Gotham, or much the city, is on an island, similar to New York City's Manhattan Island, suggested by the Gotham Island Ferry. However, while Gordon is discussing evacuation plans with the Mayor, land routes to the east are mentioned. The Narrows itself was left in chaos after the events of Batman Begins and is therefore not mentioned during The Dark Knight. In conversation with Harvey Dent, Bruce Wayne indicates that Wayne manor was located "inside" the Gotham City limits, in the Palisades, also the name for a region of Northern New Jersey across the Hudson River from New York City. In terms of population, Lucius Fox says that the city houses "30 million people". Batman: The Animated Series In the episode "Joker's Favor", a driver's license lists a Gotham area resident's hometown as "Gotham Estates, NY". This implies that Gotham City borders or is within the state of New York, and has suburbs (such as Gotham Estates) within commuting distance. In another episode, when Bruce Wayne leaves for England, it shows Gotham City located on New York's Long Island, clearly in the same location as Queens. Another episode of The Animated Series however, implies that Gotham resides in a state of the same name; a prison workshop is shown stamping license plates that read "Gotham - The Dark Deco State" (as a reference to the artistic style of the series, this plate was intended as a gag). In addition, the episode "Harlequinade" states that Gotham City has a population of approximately 10 million people. During the events of the direct-to-video film, Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero, a computer screen displaying Barbara Gordon's personal information shows Gotham City, NY, but also displays her area code as being 212 - a common Manhattan area code. The series also has drawings which New Yorkers can easily recoginze as Times Square, Radio City Music Hall, the Statue of Liberty, and the Museum of Natural History. They refer to it as Gotham Square Garden but it is MSG. There is also a Statue Of Liberty, however, it has a shield and crown. Batman BeyondBatman Beyond envisions a Gotham City fifty years into the future. In it, a futuristic architecture which mixes Gothic and Asian influences, reminiscent of the film Akira, with elevated streets looping around buildings, has replaced the Gothic architecture based on early 20th century American city. The Batman Gotham City in The Batman shares many similarities to Gotham depicted in Batman Begins, resembling a darker in architecture. Elements of art deco, albeit toned down, are prevalent as well. The sky is almost always colored red or green when depicted at night. Landmarks in the series include Lady Gotham, with an outstretched arm holding a sword and the other holding a shield. Wayne Manor is positioned in Gotham City itself, and has a taller, less stately appearance, resembling New York's Waldorf Astoria hotel in parts. Batman: The Series In an upcoming live-action Batman series being produced by Warner Brothers. Gotham City has been bidded for filming for several cities including Toronto, Los Angeles, Detroit, Tampa Bay, and New York City. Landmarks in other media Arkham Asylum as it appeared on Batman: The Animated Series.Batman: The Animated SeriesThe Statue of Justice — The statue varies from the comics in that she is shown holding a shield and a torch. Stonegate Prison — The city's main prison as opposed to "Blackgate" in the comics.Batman BeyondCrime Alley — Bruce Wayne used his influence to keep the street preserved during the rebuilding of Gotham, making it the only part of the present-day Gotham City to remain.Batman (1989 film) Axis Chemicals — The factory where Jack Napier fell into a vat of chemicals and became the Joker. The name differs from Ace Chemical Processing Inc. in the comics.Batman BeginsThe Narrows — An island in the middle of the Gotham River, situated between Uptown and Downtown Gotham. It is home to a severely dilapidated and crumbling neighborhood, as well as the infamous Arkham Asylum. The area is so dangerous cops only go there in force. It is connected to the main parts of the city by nine drawbridges, as evidenced by the map commissioned by Christopher Nolan. The novelization, however, stated the Narrows had three bridges and a tunnel connecting it to Gotham proper. The tunnel (called the Battery Tunnel) appeared in Batman Begins (video game).The Dark KnightThe Palisades - Mentioned by Bruce Wayne as being the site of Wayne Manor, apparently on the outskirts of the city, to the extent that Harvey Dent isn't sure if it's within Gotham City. Analogous to the New Jersey Palisades, located opposite New York. In the comics, and in particular, in the Gotham Map created for the No Man's Land story arc, this area is known as Bristol Hills. Smallville In the TV series Smallville, Gotham is mentioned by Linda Lake in the episode "Hydro", who jokes she can see Gotham from her view. It is also mentioned in "Reunion", where one of Oliver Queen's friends mentions having to get back to Gotham. References Sources Brady, Matthew and Williams, Dwight. Daily Planet Guide to Gotham City. Honesdale, Pennsylvania: West End Games under license from DC Comics, 2000. Brown, Eliot. "Gotham City Skyline". Secret Files & Origins Guide to the DC Universe 2000. New York: DC Comics, 2000. Grant, Alan. "The Last Arkham". Batman: Shadow of the Bat #1. New York: DC Comics, 1992. Loeb, Jeph. Batman: The Long Halloween. New York: DC Comics, 1997. Miller, Frank. Batman: Year One. New York: DC Comics, 1988. Morrison, Grant. Arkham Asylum. New York: DC Comics, 1990. O'Neil, Dennis. "Destroyer". Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight #27. New York: DC Comics, 1992. External links Bat Locations, a detailed list of locations used for the 1960s Batman show. Batman: Collected Issues of the Dark Knight - Gotham Map, an interactive map of Gotham City. Gotham City History and Notable Locations from the Batman 1960s TV show, a list of locations that appeared in the 1960s Batman'' show. Gotham City's article at Pop-Cult Guides, complete with sourced maps and lists of locations, etc. Gotham City - DC Database Category: Gotham City - DC Database Feature: Gotham City, A Visual History

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Graphics_Interchange_Format

The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) is a bitmap image format that was introduced by CompuServe in 1987 and has since come into widespread usage on the World Wide Web due to its wide support and portability. The format supports up to 8 bits per pixel, allowing a single image to reference a palette of up to 256 distinct colors chosen from the 24-bit RGB color space. It also supports animations and allows a separate palette of 256 colors for each frame. The color limitation makes the GIF format unsuitable for reproducing color photographs and other images with continuous color, but it is well-suited for simpler images such as graphics or logos with solid areas of color. GIF images are compressed using the Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW) lossless data compression technique to reduce the file size without degrading the visual quality. This compression technique was patented in 1985. Controversy over the licensing agreement between the patent holder, Unisys, and CompuServe in 1994 inspired the development of the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) standard; since then all the relevant patents have expired. History An example of a non-animated GIF image. CompuServe introduced the GIF format in 1987 to provide a color image format for their file downloading areas, replacing their earlier run-length encoding (RLE) format, which was black and white only. GIF became popular because it used LZW data compression, which was more efficient than the run-length encoding that formats such as PCX and MacPaint used, and fairly large images could therefore be downloaded in a reasonably short time, even with very slow modems. The original version of the GIF format was called 87a. In 1989, CompuServe devised an enhanced version, called 89a, that added support for multiple images in a stream, interlacing and storage of application-specific metadata. The two versions can be distinguished by looking at the first six bytes of the file (the "magic number" or "signature"), which, when interpreted as ASCII, read "GIF87a" and "GIF89a", respectively. GIF was one of the first two image formats commonly used on Web sites, the other being the black and white XBM. JPEG came later with the Mosaic browser. The GIF89a feature of storing multiple images in one file, accompanied by control data, is used extensively on the Web to produce simple animations. The optional interlacing feature, which stores image scan lines out of order in such a fashion that even a partially downloaded image was somewhat recognizable, also helped GIF's popularity, as a user could abort the download if it was not what was required. Pronunciation The creators of the format pronounced GIF with a soft "g", , as in "George". However, many people pronounce GIF with a hard "G", as in a 'gift' , reflecting the way it is pronounced in its own acronym (Graphics Interchange Format). According to the creator of the GIF format, Steve Wilhite, the pronunciation deliberately echoes that of an American peanut butter brand, Jif, and the employees of CompuServe would often say "Choosy developers choose GIF", spoofing this brand's television commercials. This pronunciation was also identified by CompuServe in their documentation of a graphics display program called CompuShow. Both pronunciations are given as correct by the Oxford English Dictionary and the American Heritage Dictionary. Usage Despite the GIF format's limitations, it can be used to display animation, as this animation of Newton's Cradle demonstrates. An example of a short GIF animation made with a digital camera. The file is over 2MB in size. GIFs are suitable for sharp-edged line art (such as logos) with a limited number of colors. This takes advantage of the format's lossless compression, which favors flat areas of uniform color with well defined edges (in contrast to JPEG, which favors smooth gradients and softer images). GIFs can also be used to store low-color sprite data for games. GIFs can be used for small animations and low-resolution film clips. In view of the general limitation on the GIF image palette to 256 colors, it is not usually used as a format for digital photography. Digital photographers use image file formats capable of reproducing a greater range of colors, such as TIFF, RAW or the lossy JPEG, which is more suitable for compressing photographs. The PNG format is a popular alternative to GIF images since it uses better compression techniques and does not have a limit of 256 colors, but PNGs do not support animations. The MNG and APNG formats, both derived from PNG, support animations, but aren't widely used. Palettes An example of a GIF image saved with a 'web-safe' palette and dithered using the Floyd-Steinberg method. Note that due to the reduced number of colors in the image, there are severe display issues. GIF is palette based: although any palette selection can be one of millions of shades, the maximum number that can be used in a frame is 256. These are stored in a "palette", a table that associates each palette selection number with a specific RGB value. The limitation to 256 colors seemed reasonable at the time of GIF's creation because few people could afford the hardware to display more. Simple graphics, line drawings, cartoons, and grey-scale photographs typically need fewer than 256 colors. In addition, one of the colors in the palette can optionally be set as fully transparent. A transparent pixel takes on the color of the pixel in the same positions from the background, which may have been determined by a previous frame of animation. There exist ways to dither or diffuse photographs by using pixels of 2 or more different colors to approximate an in-between color, but this transformation inevitably loses some detail. The algorithms used to select the palette and to perform the dithering vary widely in output quality. Additionally, dithering significantly reduces the image's compressibility and thus works contrary to GIF's main purpose. In the early days of graphical web browsers, graphics cards with 8-bit buffers (allowing only 256 colors) were common and it was fairly common to make GIF images using the websafe palette. This ensured predictable display but severely limited the choice of colors. Now that 32-bit graphics cards, which support 24-bit color, are the norm, palettes can be made up of the optimum colors for individual images. True color There are at least two rarely-used methods GIF 24 Bit (truecolor) extensions Itsagif Layers that can generate a GIF that, if decoded according to the GIF89a standard, will produce an animation that ends with a 24-bit RGB truecolor image. GIF89a was designed based on the principle of rendering images (known as frames when used for animation) to a logical, fixed-size screen. Each image could optionally have no delay after it is rendered, and could have its own 256-color palette. Also, each image need not fill the entire logical screen, and the animation can cease after the last frame; it need not begin again. The multi-frame, zero-delay, and unique-palette features, optionally combined with transparency, allow for each image to replace only a portion of the previous image's pixel data. When used without looping, a more-than-256-color final result can be achieved. For example, a GIF can be encoded to render as a series of overlapping full-screen images, each image filling in color that wasn't in the previous one. Transparent pixels can be used to preserve colors from previous images. This method is demonstrated by Pedagoguery Software's Itsagif software for Windows and older Macintosh OSes. A similar method that doesn't use transparency is to encode the GIF to render as a series of less-than-full-screen images adjacent to each other, rather than overlapping. This method is explained in detail by Andreas Kleinert in his GIF 24 Bit (truecolor) extensions document, and is demonstrated on Philip Howard's True-Color GIF Example Web page, which uses his angif C library. The demo uses blocks of size 16 by 16 pixels, allowing for up to 256 unique colors, 1 per pixel, the maximum each block's palette can support. These methods are not widely supported by GIF-generating software, and Web browsers and other image viewers may not contain completely compliant GIF89a implementations, so their ability to display such GIFs accurately may be limited. Example .gif file Sample 3x5 pixels image. Bytes Dh to 30Ch define a palette of 256 colors. Microsoft Windows Vista's Paint program saves a small black and white image as the following .gif file. Due to overhead code such as an unnecessarily large color table this .gif file is not efficient for the image with only 15 pixels. byte# hexadecimal text or (hex) value Meaning 0: 47 49 46 38 39 61 GIF89a Header Logical Screen Descriptor 6: 03 00 3 - width pixels 8: 05 00 5 - height pixels A: F7 - GCT follows for 256 colors with resolution 3 x 8bits/primary B: 00 0 - background color #0 C: 00 - default aspect ratio R G B Global Color Table D: 00 00 00 0 0 0 - color #0 black 10: 80 00 00 128 0 0 - #1 : : 85: 00 00 00 0 0 0 - color #40 black : : 30A: FF FF FF 255 255 255 - color #255 white 30D: 21 F9 04 Graphic Control Extension 310: 01 - transparency is possible 311: 00 00 - delay for animation: not used 313: 10 16 - color #16 is transparent 314: 00 - end 315: 2C Image Descriptor 316: 00 00 00 00 (0,0) - scan pixels from left top... 31A: 03 00 05 00 (3,5) - ...to right bottom. 31E: 00 - end 31F: 08 8 LZW min. code size 320: 0B 11 11 bytes LZW encoded image data follow 321: 00 51 FC 1B 28 70 A0 C1 83 01 01 32C: 00 - end 32D: 3B GIF file terminator Image coding The image pixel colors, scanned horizontally from top left, are converted by LZW encoding to codes that are then mapped into bytes for storing in the file. For the sample image above the reversible mapping between 9-bit codes and bytes is shown below. 9-bit binary Bytes (hex) (hex) 00000000 00 100 0101000|1 51 028 111111|00 FC 0FF 00011|011 1B 103 0010|1000 28 102 011|10000 70 103 10|100000 A0 106 1|1000001 C1 107 10000011 83 00000001 01 101 0000000|1 01 A slight compression is evident: pixel colors defined initially by 15 bytes are exactly represented by 12 code bytes including control codes. The encoding process that produces the 9-bit codes is shown below. A local string accumulates pixel color numbers from the palette, with no output action as long as the local string can be found in a code table. There is special treatment of the first two pixels that arrive before the table grows from its initial size by additions of strings. After each output code, the local string is initialized to the latest pixel color (that could not be included in the output code). Table 9-bit string --> code code Action #0 | 000h Initialize root table of 9-bit codes palette | : colors | : #255 | 0FFh clr | 100h end | 101h | 100h Clear Pixel Local | color Palette string | BLACK #40 28 | 028h 1st pixel always to output WHITE #255 FF | String found in table 28 FF | 102h Add 1st string always to table FF | Initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF | String not found in table | 0FFh - output code for previous string FF FF | 103h - add latest string to table FF | - initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF | String found in table BLACK #40 FF FF 28 | String not found in table | 103h - output code for previous string FF FF 28 | 104h - add latest string to table 28 | - initialize local string WHITE #255 28 FF | String found in table WHITE #255 28 FF FF | String not found in table | 102h - output code for previous string 28 FF FF | 105h - add latest string to table FF | - initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF | String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF | String not found in table | 103h - output code for previous string FF FF FF | 106h - add latest string to table FF | - initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF | String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF | String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF FF | String not found in table | 106h - output code for previous string FF FF FF FF| 107h - add latest string to table FF | - initialize local string WHITE #255 FF FF | String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF | String found in table WHITE #255 FF FF FF FF | String found in table No more pixels 107h - output code for last string 101h End Image decoding Decoding begins by mapping the stored bytes back to 9-bit codes. These are decoded to recover the pixel colors as shown below. A table identical to the one used in the encoder is built by adding strings by this rule: Is incoming code found in table? YES: add string for local code followed by first byte of string for incoming code NO: add string for local code followed by copy of its own first byte shift 9-bit ----> Local Table Pixel code code code --> string Palette color Action 100h 000h | #0 Initialize root table of 9-bit codes : | palette : | colors 0FFh | #255 100h | clr 101h | end 028h | #40 BLACK Decode 1st pixel 0FFh 028h | Incoming code found in table | #255 WHITE - output string from table 102h | 28 FF - add to table 103h 0FFh | Incoming code not found in table 103h | FF FF - add to table | - output string from table | #255 WHITE | #255 WHITE 102h 103h | Incoming code found in table | - output string from table | #40 BLACK | #255 WHITE 104h | FF FF 28 - add to table 103h 102h | Incoming code found in table | - output string from table | #255 WHITE | #255 WHITE 105h | 28 FF FF - add to table 106h 103h | Incoming code not found in table 106h | FF FF FF - add to table | - output string from table | #255 WHITE | #255 WHITE | #255 WHITE 107h 106h | Incoming code not found in table 107h | FF FF FF FF - add to table | - output string from table | #255 WHITE | #255 WHITE | #255 WHITE | #255 WHITE 101h | End LZW code lengths Shorter code lengths can be used for smaller palettes than the 256 (maximum) colors in the example. The code table initially contains codes that are one bit longer than the palette size in order to give additional space for two special codes clr and end and for strings that are added during the process. When the table is full the code length increases to give space for more strings, up to a maximum code 4095 = FFF(hex). As the decoder builds its table it tracks these increases in code length and it is able to unpack incoming bytes accordingly. Non-compressed .gif The standard allows a coder to insert a 'clr' code at any time in the image data, which implicitly allows .gif files to be created without LZW compression. The coding table then need never grow beyond the 'end' code value. At the cost of larger file size this gives advantages of simpler coding with a 1:1 correspondence of pixels and palette codes while keeping compatibility with ordinary .gif displays. It has been used to avoid infringing patents covering LZW. For the example 3x5 image above the following 9-bit codes represent 'clr' followed by image pixels in scan order and 'end'. 9-bit codes: 100 028 0FF 0FF 0FF 028 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 0FF 101 After the above codes are mapped to bytes the non-compressed file differs from the compressed file thus: : 320: 14 20 20 bytes non-compressed image data follow 321: 00 51 FC FB F7 0F C5 BF 7F FF FE FD FB F7 EF DF BF 7F 01 01 335: 00 - end : Animated .gif An animated .gif file comprises a number of images or frames to be displayed successively, each described by its own GCE (Graphic Control Extension), preceded by a header whose content by default applies to all the frames. After the header the data is stream-oriented instead of being at fixed indices, so the location of the start of a GCE depends on the length of preceding GCE(s). Within a GCE the LZE-coded image data is arranged in blocks each of up to 255 bytes; the size of block is declared by a byte that precedes it. Below is the structure of the animation Rotating earth (large).gif: byte# hexadecimal text or (hex) value Meaning 0: 47 49 46 38 39 61 GIF89a Header Logical Screen Descriptor 6: 90 01 400 - width pixels 8: 90 01 400 - height pixels A: F7 - GCT follows for 256 colors with resolution 3 x 8bits/primary B: 00 0 - background color #0 C: 00 - default aspect ratio D: Global Color Table : 30D: 21 FF 0B Application Extension 310: 4E 45 54 53 43 41 50 45 32 2E 30 NETSCAPE2.0 31B: 03 01 - data follows 31D: FF FF - loop animation 31F: 00 - end 320: 21 F9 04 Graphic Control Extension frame #1 323: 08 - no transparency 324: 09 00 - 0.09 sec duration 325: 00 - no transparent color 327: 00 - end 328: 2C Image Descriptor 329: 00 00 00 00 (0,0) - scan pixels from left top... 32D: 90 01 90 01 (400,400) - ...to right bottom 331: 00 - end 332: 08 8 LZW min code size 333: FF 255 255 bytes LZW encoded image data follow 334: data 433: FF 255 255 bytes LZW encoded image data follow data : 92BA: 00 end 92BB: 21 F9 04 Graphic Control Extension frame #2 : : 153B7B:21 F9 04 Graphic Control Extension frame #44 : 15CF35:3B 1 429 301 File terminates The GCEs allow the duration for which each frame is displayed to be specified in hundredths of second. Some economy of data is possible where a frame need only rewrite a portion of the pixels of the display, because the Image Descriptor can define a smaller rectangle to be rescanned instead of the whole image. Displays that do not support animated .gifs show only the first frame. Unisys and LZW patent enforcement In 1977 and 1978, Jacob Ziv and Abraham Lempel published a pair of papers on a new class of lossless data-compression algorithms, now collectively referred to as "LZ77" and "LZ78". In 1983, Terry Welch developed a fast variant of LZ78 which was named LZW. History of the Portable Network Graphics (PNG) Format by Greg Roelofs Sad day... GIF patent dead at 20 Welch filed a patent application for the LZW method in June 1983. The resulting patent, , granted in December 1985, was assigned to Sperry Corporation who subsequently merged with Burroughs Corporation in 1986 and formed Unisys. Further patents were obtained in the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan and Canada. In June 1984, an article by Welch was published in the IEEE magazine which publicly described the LZW technique for the first time. The GIF Controversy: A Software Developer's Perspective LZW became a popular data compression technique and, when the patent was granted, Unisys entered into licensing agreements with over a hundred companies. Unisys Clarifies Policy Regarding Patent Use in On-Line Service Offerings - archived by League for Programming Freedom The popularity of LZW led CompuServe to choose it as the compression technique for their GIF format, developed in 1987. At the time, CompuServe was not aware of the patent. Unisys became aware that the GIF format used the LZW compression technique and entered into licensing negotiations with CompuServe in January 1993. The subsequent agreement was announced on December 24, 1994. Unisys stated that they expected all major commercial on-line information services companies employing the LZW patent to license the technology from Unisys at a reasonable rate, but that they would not require licensing, or fees to be paid, for non-commercial, non-profit GIF-based applications, including those for use on the on-line services. Following this announcement, there was widespread condemnation of CompuServe and Unisys, and many software developers threatened to stop using the GIF format. The PNG format (see below) was developed in 1995 as an intended replacement. However, obtaining support from the makers of Web browsers and other software for the PNG format proved difficult and it was not possible to replace the GIF format, although PNG has gradually increased in popularity. In August 1999, Unisys changed the details of their licensing practice, announcing the option for owners of Billboard and Intra net Web sites to obtain licenses on payment of a one-time license fee of $5000 or $7500. LZW Software and Patent Information - clarification of 2 September 1999 Such licenses were not required for website owners or other GIF users who had used licensed software to generate GIFs. Nevertheless, Unisys was the subject of thousands of online attacks and abusive emails from users believing that they were going to be charged $5000 or sued for using GIFs on their websites. Unisys Not Suing (most) Webmasters for Using GIFs - Slashdot investigation into the controversy Despite giving free licenses to hundreds of non-profit organizations, schools and governments, Unisys was completely unable to generate any good publicity and continued to be vilified by individuals and organizations such as the League for Programming Freedom who started the "Burn All GIFs" campaign. Burn All GIFs - A project of the League for Programming Freedom The US LZW patent expired on June 20, 2003. The counterpart patents in the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Italy expired on June 18, 2004, the Japanese counterpart patents expired on June 20, 2004 and the counterpart Canadian patent expired on July 7, 2004. License Information on GIF and Other LZW-based Technologies Consequently, while Unisys has further patents and patent applications relating to improvements to the LZW technique, the GIF format may now be used freely. PNG and other alternatives Portable Network Graphics (PNG) was designed as a replacement for the GIF format in order to avoid infringement of Unisys' patent on the LZW compression technique. PNG offers better compression and more features than GIF. The format is more suitable than GIF in instances where true-color imaging and alpha transparency are required. MNG was originally developed as a PNG-based solution for animations, but has not been widely adopted. The GIF format is still preferred for animation over PNG, although true Animated Portable Network Graphics are under development by Mozilla and are supported in Firefox 3. APNG Specification - MozillaWiki Mozilla Labs » Blog Archive » Better animations in Firefox 3 Although it took time for the PNG format to be supported, new web browsers support the PNG format and GIF images can usually be replaced by PNG images if desired. However, Internet Explorer versions 6 and earlier do not support PNG's alpha channel transparency feature without using Microsoft-specific HTML extensions. AlphaImageLoader Filter Using standard HTML tags for PNG images in Internet Explorer can produce a look different from that intended. Internet Explorer 7 supports alpha channel transparency without needing extensions. No versions of Internet Explorer, however, support the gamma feature of PNG images, and the display of these images may be of the wrong tint. PNG image files are generally smaller than GIF files of the same image quality, due to the more efficient compression techniques used in PNG encoding. PNG files can indeed be much larger than GIF files in situations where a GIF and a PNG file were created from a high-quality master image, as PNG is capable of storing more color depth and transparency information than GIF. However, for identical 8-bit (or lower) image data, PNG-format image files are almost always smaller than the equivalent GIF. Misinformation about PNG efficiency can generally be traced back to poor PNG support in older versions of some image manipulation programs, (for example Adobe Photoshop did not optimize PNGs for reduced color palettes by default). A working solution is pngcrush. Generally it can be noted that also a proper support for (animated) GIF is difficult: complicated canvas, redundant color entries, dictionary resets. Also note the complicated interaction between color quantization, compression (especially in animations) and dithering noted in the former reference with is obsolete with PNG. In 2004, a proposed extension to the PNG format called APNG was suggested. It was to provide the ability to animate PNG files, while retaining backwards compatibility in decoders that cannot understand the animation chunk. Older decoders would simply render the first frame of the animation. MNG, a variant of PNG that supports animation, reached version 1.0 in 2001, but few applications support it. Animated GIF remains widely used as many applications are capable of creating the files, and it remains the only animated image format capable of being rendered in nearly all modern web browsers without the use of a plug-in. Nevertheless, embedded Flash objects, MPEGs and other video formats are used in place of animated GIFs in many websites. Other approaches, such as individual frames served by AJAX, or SVG images may be animated via JavaScript. See also Comparison of graphics file formats Comparison of layout engines (graphics) Image file formats Software patent Lempel-Ziv-Welch References External links GIF89a specification The GIF Pronunciation Page LZW GIF decoding by Arturo San Emeterio Campos LZW and GIF explained Replacing a Dictionary with a Square Root – suggestions for compressing GIFs without using LZW compression Web Graphics discusses and illustrates the differences between GIF, JPEG and PNG formats

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A_Scanner_Darkly

A Scanner Darkly is a 1977 science fiction novel by Philip K. Dick. The semi-autobiographical story is set in a dystopian Orange County, California in the then-future of June 1994. It includes an extensive portrayal of drug culture and drug use. Synopsis The protagonist is Bob Arctor, member of a household of drug-users, who is also living a parallel life as Agent Fred, an undercover police agent assigned to spy on Arctor's household. Arctor/Fred shields his true identity from those in the drug subculture and, ironically, from the police themselves. (The requirement that narcotics agents remain anonymous, to avoid collusion and other forms of corruption, becomes a critical plot point late in the book.) While supposedly only posing as a drug user, Arctor becomes addicted to "Substance D" (also referred to as "Slow Death," "Death," or "D"), a powerful psychoactive drug derived from a small blue flowering plant, Mors ontologica. An ongoing conflict is Arctor's love for Donna, a drug dealer through whom he intends to identify high-level dealers of Substance D. Arctor's persistent use of the drug causes the two hemispheres of his brain to function independently, or "compete". Through a series of drug and psychological tests, Arctor's superiors at work discover that his addiction has made him incapable of performing his job as a narcotics agent. Donna takes Arctor to "New-Path," a rehabilitation clinic, just as Arctor begins to experience the symptoms of Substance D withdrawal. It is revealed that Donna has been a narcotics agent all along, working as part of a police operation to infiltrate New-Path and determine its funding source. Without his knowledge, Arctor has been selected to penetrate the secretive organization. As part of the rehab program, Arctor is renamed "Bruce" and forced to participate in cruel group-dynamic games intended to break the will of the patients. The story ends with Bruce working at a New-Path farming commune, where he is suffering from a serious neurocognitive deficit after withdrawing from Substance D. Although considered by his handlers to be nothing more than a walking shell of a man, "Bruce" manages to spot rows of blue flowers growing hidden among rows of corn; and realizes the blue flowers are the source of Substance D. The book ends with Bruce hiding a flower in his shoe to give to his "friends" - undercover police agents posing as recovering addicts at the Los Angeles New-Path facility - on Thanksgiving. In the novel, use of Substance D over an extended period can cause the user's consciousness to separate into two distinct parts. The drug also appears to facilitate the inducement of shared delusions, made manifest as folie à deux. The source of Substance D remains a mystery throughout most of the novel, though various theories are proposed. It is speculated that Substance D is imported from the U.S.S.R. as a Communist scheme to destroy American resistance to Communism; that it was sent to Earth by aliens intent on either enlightening mankind or reducing humans to a zombie-like slave race; that it is involved in a government or corporate plot. At the end of the book, we find out that Substance D is an organic substance, derived from little blue flowers that are grown on large plantations, hidden between rows of corn as cover. Ironically, the drug is harvested by the brainwashed inmates of Substance D drug rehabilitation centers who are suffering from neurocognitive deficits as a result of their drug addiction. The title is a reference to a passage in the Bible in 1 Corinthians 13, which states: For we know in part, and we prophesy in part. But when that which is perfect is come, then that which is in part shall be done away. When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child: but when I became a man, I put away childish things. For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face: now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known Verses 9-12, King James Version . The book's protagonist is required to view clips of his life on a "scanner", a holographic recorder/projector. In Chapter 13 of the book, the protagonist muses that he has seen his life with a scanner, but came no closer to properly perceiving his life than St. Paul with his primitive mirror (or "glass"). True understanding, he suggests, will come only when "death" is defeated. Dick, Phillip K. A Scanner Darkly, Gollancz, 2006 at 169-171. The initials of Scanner Darkly are also the initials of "Substance D". In Chapter Eleven of the novel, the novel's central character, Bob Arctor/Fred/Bruce, thinks to himself: What does a scanner see? I mean, really see? Into the head? Down into the heart? Does a passive infrared scanner … see into me — into us — clearly or darkly? Philip K. Dick also gives the name of the species of the flower, which helps to show the relevant meaning of the story and the nature of both the drug and the character's struggle. The name is Mors ontologica, Dick, Phillip K. A Scanner Darkly, Gollancz, 2006, p. 254 which translates as "ontological death", that is, "death of being". Themes Dick twists American society into a very surreal setting, by expanding on several social problems of growing interest during the 1960s, including: police surveillance - in the novel, highly technologically advanced, blurred frontiers between the underworld drug commerce and law enforcement agencies (cf. 2 brain hemispheres), Drug use - in the novel, involving widespread drug-use-induced mental collapse that is treated in numerous and widespread rehab clinics that amount to a nationwide, non-governmental but federal-government-entangled, institution, The blue flowers are a central, recurring symbol in German romanticism, closely tied to the associated youth movements, The intentional destruction of another human being to achieve a "greater good" In addition, Dick's common themes appear here: the construction of reality in consciousness, an admirable, fascinating, but unattainable and marginally insane dark-haired woman (Donna), humanity in extreme situations. The character types seen in A Scanner Darkly are nearly universal to his work and tend to follow similar roles: the downtrodden protagonist finds himself at odds with a large and complicated plot, not specifically against him, but in which he becomes inadvertently entangled, who is then alternately aided by, confused by, and maliciously harmed by the dark-haired woman, is helped indirectly by the fatherly old man (whose warnings often go unheeded or come too late), and faces the spokesman of the evil conspiracy, who is mysterious, powerful, well-informed, and more or less undeniable, leaving the downtrodden hero with little or bittersweet success. Generally, multiple explanations for the nature of the events, the outcome of the story, and the nature and identity of the evil spokesman are available, especially if drug use or other psychic complications blur the lines of reality. Generally speaking, the narrator participates in the perspective of the characters, so whether what they experience is a drug-induced delusion or a bona fide event is left vague for the reader. Ultimately, the reader is left to wonder what actually happened in the real world of the story and is left with few clues, in much the way a person rehabilitated from extended drug use might look back at the recent months of his life and wonder what was real, what was misinterpreted, and what was false. The theme of construction of reality in consciousness is central to the novel. The most obvious example is the dilemma of the main character who simultaneously assumes two identities and often loses track of reality. Also, many of the characters excessively taunt each other, are rendered paranoid by drug use, and understand the world through conspiracy theories. Because of the surreal, almost absurdist style of the novel, readers are left wondering if their own perceptions reflect reality or paranoia. Also, the device known of as the "scramble suit," a layering of simulacrum used by narcotics agents as a means of distorting their appearance to avoid recognition and identification, serves as a metaphor for the mutual lack of trust amongst not only the users and dealers, but between most people as a whole, adding to Dick's recurring preoccupation with constructing an immensely paranoid atmosphere as well as the inherent deception of most situations in the book. Dick also uses Fred/Arctor to explore the symbiotic relationship between police officer and criminal; how each is defined by and reliant upon the existence of the other. The New-Path clinic's duality reflects this ambivalent relationship. Dick explains in the author's note how he, himself was one of the people who "played the game." Of course, he meant drug misuse and how it affects humans. He says that such misuse left him with permanent pancreatic disorders. Autobiographical nature A Scanner Darkly is a roman à clef (a fictionalized account of real events) based on Dick's experiences in the 1970s drug culture. Dick said in an interview, "Everything in A Scanner Darkly I actually saw." So I Don't Write About Heroes: An Interview with Philip K. Dick Uwe Anton, Werner Fuchs, Frank C. Bertrand, SF EYE #14, Spring 1996, pp. 37-46 Between mid-1970 (when his fourth wife Nancy left him) and mid-1972 (when he entered the X-Kalay program; see below) Dick lived semi-communally with a rotating group of mostly teenage drug users at his home in Marin County. Dick explained, "[M]y wife Nancy left me in 1970 ... I got mixed up with a lot of street people, just to have somebody to fill the house. She left me with a four bedroom, two-bathroom house and nobody living in it but me. So I just filled it with street people and I got mixed up with a lot of people who were into drugs." During this period, the author ceased writing completely and became fully dependent upon amphetamines, which he had been using intermittently for many years. "I did take amphetamines for years in order to be able to — I was able to produce 68 final pages of copy a day," Dick said. The character of Donna was inspired by an older teenager who became associated with Dick sometime in 1970; though they never became lovers, the woman was his principal female companion until early 1972, when Dick left for Canada to deliver a speech to a Vancouver science fiction convention. This speech, "The Android and the Human", served as the basis for many of the recurring themes and motifs in the ensuing novel. Another turning point in this timeframe for Dick is the alleged burglary of his home and theft of his papers. Because of his firsthand experience, Dick captures the language, conversation, and culture of drug users in the 1960s with a rare clarity. This is further explained in the moving afterword, where Dick dedicates the book to those of his friends — he includes himself — who suffered debilitation or death as a result of their drug use. Mirroring the epilogue are the involuntary goodbyes that occur throughout the story — the constant turnover and burn-out of young people that lived with Dick during those years. In the afterword, he states that the novel is about “some people who were punished entirely too much for what they did” (referring to the disproportional damage that drug use causes on the user) and that "drug misuse is not a disease, it is a decision, like the decision to move out in front of a moving car." After delivering "The Android and the Human", Dick became a participant in X-Kalay (a Canadian Synanon-type recovery program), effortlessly convincing program caseworkers that he was nursing a heroin addiction to do so. Dick's recovery program participation was portrayed in his 1988 book The Dark-Haired Girl (a collection of letters and journals from this period, most of a romantic nature). Presumably, this was a source for the vividness and accuracy with which the novelistic clinic is portrayed. It was at X-Kalay, while doing publicity for the facility, that he devised the notion of rehab centers being used to secretly harvest drugs (thus inspiring the book's New-Path clinics). Writing process and publication A Scanner Darkly was one of the few Dick novels to gestate over a long period of time. By February 1973, in an effort to prove that the effect of his amphetamine usage was merely psychosomatic, the newly clean-and-sober author had already prepared a full outline. A first draft was in development by March. This labor was soon supplanted by a new family and the completion of Flow My Tears, The Policeman Said (left unfinished in 1970), which was finally released in 1974 and received the prestigious John W. Campbell Award. Additional preoccupations were the alleged mystical experiences of early 1974 that would eventually serve as a basis for VALIS and the unpublished Exegesis journal, a screenplay for an unproduced film adaptation of 1969's Ubik, an occasional lecture, and the Roger Zelazny collaboration Deus Irae. Because of its semi-autobiographical nature, some of Scanner was torturous to write. Tessa Dick, Philip's wife at the time, once stated that she often found her husband weeping as the sun rose after a night-long writing session. Tessa has given interviews stating that "when he was with me, he wrote A Scanner Darkly [in] under two weeks. But we spent three years rewriting it" and that she was "pretty involved in his writing process [for A Scanner Darkly]." Tessa confirmed in a later interview that she "participated in the writing of A Scanner Darkly" and said that she "consider[s] [her]self the silent co-author." Philip wrote a contract giving Tessa half of all the rights to the novel, which stated that Tessa "participated to a great extent in writing the outline and novel A Scanner Darkly with me, and I owe her one half of all income derived from it." There was also the challenge of transmuting the events into "science fiction," as Dick felt that he could not sell a mainstream novel. Providing invaluable aid in this field was Judy-Lynn Del Rey, head of Ballantine Books' SF division which had optioned the book. Del Rey suggested the timeline change to 1994 and helped to emphasize the more futuristic elements of the novel, such as the "scramble suit" employed by Fred (which, incidentally, emerged from one of the mystical experiences). Yet much of the dialogue spoken by the characters used hippie slang, dating the events of the novel to their "true" time-frame of 1970-72. Upon its publication in 1977, A Scanner Darkly was hailed by ALA Booklist as "his best yet!" Brian Aldiss lauded it as "the best book of the year," while Robert Silverberg praised the novel's "demonic intensity" and deemed it "a masterpiece of sorts." Sales were typical for the SF genre in America, but hardcover editions were issued in Europe, where all of Dick's works were warmly received. It received no Nebula and Hugo Awards but was awarded the French equivalent (Graouilly d'Or) upon its publication there in 1979. thephildickian.com - Award Winning Authors Adaptations The animated film A Scanner Darkly was authorized by Dick's estate. It was released in July of 2006 and stars Keanu Reeves as Fred/Bob Arctor and Winona Ryder as Donna. Robert Downey Jr. and Woody Harrelson co-star as Arctor's drugged-out housemates. The film was directed by Richard Linklater, and the animation was directed by Bob Sabiston. The animation was accomplished via the process of rotoscoping using Bob Sabiston's own Rotoshop software, a process employed in Linklater's earlier movie, Waking Life. First shot in live-action, the footage was then painted over, with attention to stylistic consistency — a lengthy undertaking that caused the film to miss its initial September 2005 release date by an entire year. The film is a fairly faithful adaptation, with the majority of the scenes, characters, and dialogue taken nearly verbatim from the novel, though much of the novel's 1970s “hip dialogue” was updated to make the movie more comprehensible to modern viewers. Scenes from the movie were used to create a graphic novel adaptation of the movie. An audio book of A Scanner Darkly, read by Paul Giamatti, was released in the summer of 2006. Alternative covers http://www.philipkdick.com/covers/scanner.jpg http://www.philipkdick.com/covers/tb-scanner.jpg http://www.philipkdick.com/covers/scanner11.jpg http://www.philipkdick.com/covers/scanner7.jpg Notes References Bell, V. (2006) "Through a scanner darkly: Neuropsychology and psychosis in A Scanner Darkly". The Psychologist, 19 (8), 488-489. online version Bertrand, Frank C. 1981. "Kant's 'Noumenal Self' and Doppelganger in P. K. Dick's A Scanner Darkly", Philosophical Speculations in Science Fiction and Fantasy # 2, pp. 69–80. Kosub, Nathan 2006. “Clearly, Clearly, Dark-Eyed Donna: Time and A Scanner Darkly”, Senses of Cinema: An Online Film Journal Devoted to the Serious and Eclectic Discussion of Cinema, October-December; 41: [no pagination]. Prezzavento, Paolo 2006. "Allegoricus semper interpres delirat: Un oscuro scrutare tra teologia e paranoia", Trasmigrazioni, eds. Valerio Massimo De Angelis and Umberto Rossi, Firenze, Le Monnier, 2006, pp. 225–36. Sutin, Lawrence. (2005). Divine Invasions: A Life of Philip K. Dick. Carroll & Graf. External links Encounters with Reality: P.K. Dick's A Scanner Darkly Analysis at PhilipKDickFans.com A Scanner Darkly Reviewed at The Open Critic

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Lunar_eclipse

Schematic diagram of the shadow cast by the Earth. Within the central umbra shadow, the Moon is totally shielded from direct illumination by the Sun. In contrast, within the penumbra shadow, only a portion of sunlight is blocked. As seen by an observer on Earth on the imaginary celestial sphere, the Moon crosses the ecliptic every orbit at positions called nodes twice every month. When the full moon occurs in the same position at the node, a lunar eclipse can occur. These two nodes allow two to five eclipses per year, parted by approximately six months. (Note: Not drawn to scale. The Sun is much larger and farther away than the Moon.) As viewed from Earth, the Earth's shadow can be imagined as two concentric circles. As the diagram illustrates, the type of lunar eclipse is defined by the path taken by the Moon as it passes through Earth's shadow. If the Moon passes through the outer circle but does not reach the inner circle, it is a penumbral eclipse; if only a portion of the Moon passes through the inner circle, it is a partial eclipse; and if entire Moon passes through the inner circle at some point, it is a total eclipse. A lunar eclipse is an eclipse which occurs whenever the moon passes behind the earth such that the earth blocks the suns rays from striking the moon. This can occur only when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned exactly, or very closely so, with the Earth in the middle. Hence, there is always a full moon the night of a lunar eclipse. The type and length of an eclipse depend upon the Moon's location relative to its orbital nodes. The next total lunar eclipse occurs on December 21, 2010. The next eclipse of the Moon is a penumbral eclipse on July 7, 2009. Types of lunar eclipses The shadow of the Earth can be divided into two distinctive parts: the umbra and penumbra. Within the umbra, there is no direct solar radiation. However, as a result of the Sun's large angular size, solar illumination is only partially blocked in the outer portion of the Earth's shadow, which is given the name penumbra. A penumbral eclipse occurs when the Moon passes through the Earth's penumbra. The penumbra causes a subtle darkening of the Moon's surface. A special type of penumbral eclipse is a total penumbral eclipse, during which the Moon lies exclusively within the Earth's penumbra. Total penumbral eclipses are rare, and when these occur, that portion of the Moon which is closest to the umbra can appear somewhat darker than the rest of the Moon. A partial lunar eclipse occurs when only a portion of the Moon enters the umbra. When the Moon travels completely into the Earth's umbra, one observes a total lunar eclipse. The Moon's speed through the shadow is about one kilometer per second (2,300 mph), and totality may last up to nearly 107 minutes. Nevertheless, the total time between the Moon's first and last contact with the shadow is much longer, and could last up to 3.8 hours. The relative distance of the Moon from the Earth at the time of an eclipse can affect the eclipse's duration. In particular, when the Moon is near its apogee, the farthest point from the Earth in its orbit, its orbital speed is the slowest. The diameter of the umbra does not decrease much with distance. Thus, a totally-eclipsed Moon occurring near apogee will lengthen the duration of totality. A selenelion or selenehelion occurs when both the Sun and the eclipsed Moon can be observed at the same time. This can only happen just before sunset or just after sunrise, and both bodies will appear just above the horizon at nearly opposite points in the sky. This arrangement has led to the phenomenon being referred to as a horizontal eclipse. It happens during every lunar eclipse at all those places on the Earth where it is sunrise or sunset at the time. Indeed, the reddened light that reaches the Moon comes from all the simultaneous sunrises and sunsets on the Earth. Although the Moon is in the Earth's geometrical shadow, the Sun and the eclipsed Moon can appear in the sky at the same time because the refraction of light through the Earth's atmosphere causes objects near the horizon to appear higher in the sky than their true geometric position. The Moon does not completely disappear as it passes through the umbra because of the refraction of sunlight by the Earth's atmosphere into the shadow cone; if the Earth had no atmosphere, the Moon would be completely dark during an eclipse. The red colouring arises because sunlight reaching the Moon must pass through a long and dense layer of the Earth's atmosphere, where it is scattered. Shorter wavelengths are more likely to be scattered by the small particles, and so by the time the light has passed through the atmosphere, the longer wavelengths dominate. This resulting light we perceive as red. This is the same effect that causes sunsets and sunrises to turn the sky a reddish colour; an alternative way of considering the problem is to realise that, as viewed from the Moon, the Sun would appear to be setting (or rising) behind the Earth. The amount of refracted light depends on the amount of dust or clouds in the atmosphere; this also controls how much light is scattered. In general, the dustier the atmosphere, the more that other wavelengths of light will be removed (compared to red light), leaving the resulting light a deeper red colour. This causes the resulting coppery-red hue of the Moon to vary from one eclipse to the next. Volcanoes are notable for expelling large quantities of dust into the atmosphere, and a large eruption shortly before an eclipse can have a large effect on the resulting colour. Danjon scale The following scale (the Danjon scale) was devised by André Danjon for rating the overall darkness of lunar eclipses: L=0: Very dark eclipse. Moon almost invisible, especially at mid-totality. L=1: Dark Eclipse, gray or brownish in colouration. Details distinguishable only with difficulty. L=2: Deep red or rust-colored eclipse. Very dark central shadow, while outer edge of umbra is relatively bright. L=3: Brick-red eclipse. Umbral shadow usually has a bright or yellow rim. L=4: Very bright copper-red or orange eclipse. Umbral shadow is bluish and has a very bright rim. Eclipse cycles Every year there are usually at least two partial lunar eclipses, although total eclipses are significantly less common. If one knows the date and time of an eclipse, it is possible to predict the occurrence of other eclipses using an eclipse cycle like the Saros cycle. Unlike a solar eclipse, which can only be viewed from a certain relatively small area of the world, a lunar eclipse may be viewed from anywhere on the night side of the Earth. Recent and upcoming lunar eclipse events March 3, 2007, lunar eclipse - The first total lunar eclipse of 2007 occurred on March 03, 2007, and was partially visible from the Americas, Asia and Australia. The complete event was visible throughout Africa and Europe. The event lasted 01h:15m, began at 20:16 UTC, and reached totality at 22:43 UTC. August 2007 lunar eclipse - August 28, 2007, saw the second total lunar eclipse of the year. The initial stage began at 07:52 UTC, and reached totality at 09:52 UTC. This eclipse was viewable form Eastern Asia, Australia and New Zealand the Pacific, and the Americas. February 2008 lunar eclipse - The only total lunar eclipse of 2008 occurred on February 21, 2008, beginning at 01:43 UTC, visible from Europe, the Americas, and Africa. The next partial eclipse of the Moon will occur on December 31, 2009. The next total eclipse of the Moon will occur on December 21, 2010. 2002-2005 2006-2009 2009-2013 2013-2016 2016-2020 See also List of lunar eclipses List of central lunar eclipses List of 16th century lunar eclipses List of 17th century lunar eclipses List of 18th century lunar eclipses List of 19th century lunar eclipses List of 20th century lunar eclipses List of 21st century lunar eclipses List of 22nd century lunar eclipses List of 23rd century lunar eclipses List of 24th century lunar eclipses List of 25th century lunar eclipses Eclipse Solar eclipse Umbra Orbit of the Moon Columbus' lunar eclipse Moon illusion References Bao-Lin Liu, Canon of Lunar Eclipses 1500 B.C.-A.D. 3000, 1992 Jean Meeus and Hermann Mucke Canon of Lunar Eclipses. Astronomisches Büro, Vienna, 1983 Espenak, F., Fifty Year Canon of Lunar Eclipses: 1986-2035. NASA Reference Publication 1216, 1989 External links Lunar Eclipse time sequence U.S. Navy Lunar Eclipse Computer NASA Eclipse home page Search among the 12,064 lunar eclipses over five millennium and display interactive maps Lunar Eclipses for Beginners Shadow and Substance for animation of future and past eclipses Tips on photographing the lunar eclipse from New York Institute of Photography E-mail notification on upcoming eclipses

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Karl_Amadeus_Hartmann

Karl Amadeus Hartmann (August 2, 1905 – December 5, 1963) was a German composer. Some have lauded him as the greatest German symphonist of the 20th century, although he is now largely overlooked, particularly in English-speaking countries. Life Born in Munich, the son of Friedrich Richard Hartmann, well known there for his flower paintings, and the youngest of four brothers of whom the elder three also became painters, Hartmann was himself torn, early in his career, between music and the visual arts. He was much affected in his early political development by the events of the unsuccessful Workers’ Revolution in Bavaria that followed the collapse of the German monarchy at the end of World War I (see Bavarian Soviet Republic), and he remained an idealistic socialist all his life. He studied composition at the Munich Academy in the 1920s with Joseph Haas, a pupil of Max Reger, and later he received enormous intellectual stimulus and encouragement from the conductor Hermann Scherchen, an ally of the Schoenberg school, with whom he had a nearly lifelong mentor-protegé relationship. He voluntarily withdrew completely from musical life in Germany during the Nazi era, while remaining in Germany, and refused to allow his works to be played there. An early symphonic poem, Miserae (1933–1934, first performed in Prague, 1935) was condemned by the Nazi regime; but his work continued to be performed, and his fame grew, abroad. During World War II, though already an experienced composer, Hartmann submitted to a course of private tuition in Vienna by Schoenberg’s pupil Anton Webern (with whom he often disagreed on a personal and political level). Although stylistically their music had little in common, he clearly felt that he needed, and benefitted from, Webern’s acute perfectionism. After the fall of Hitler, Hartmann was one of the few prominent surviving anti-fascists in Bavaria whom the postwar Allied administration could appoint to a position of responsibility. In 1945, he became a Dramaturg at the Bavarian State Opera and there, as one of the few internationally-recognized figures who had survived untainted by any collaboration with the Nazi regime, he became a vital figure in the rebuilding of (West) German musical life. Perhaps his most notable achievement was the Musica Viva concert series which he founded and ran for the rest of his life in Munich. Beginning in November 1945, the concerts reintroduced the German public to 20th-century repertoire which had been banned since 1933 under National Socialist aesthetic policy. Hartmann also provided a platform for the music of the young composers who came to the fore in the late 1940s and early 1950s, helping to establish such figures as Hans Werner Henze, Luigi Nono, Luigi Dallapiccola, Carl Orff, Iannis Xenakis, Olivier Messiaen, Luciano Berio, Bernd Alois Zimmermann and many others. Hartmann also involved sculptors and artists such as Jean Cocteau, Le Corbusier, and Joan Miró in exhibitions at Musica Viva. He continued to base his activities in Munich for the remainder of his life, and his administrative duties came to absorb much of his time and energy. This reduced his opportunities for composition, and his last years were dogged by serious illness. In 1963, he died from stomach cancer at the age of 58, leaving his last work – an extended symphonic Gesangsszene for voice and orchestra on words from Jean Giraudoux’s apocalyptic drama Sodom and Gomorrah – unfinished. Output and Style Hartmann completed a number of fine works, most notably eight symphonies. Perhaps the most well-known is his Symphony No. 1, titled "Essay for a requiem" (Versuch eines Requiems). This work began in 1936 as a cantata for alto solo and orchestra, loosely based on a few select poems by Walt Whitman. It soon became known as "Our Life: Symphonic Fragment" (Unser Leben: Symphonisches Fragment) and was intended as a comment on the generally miserable conditions for artists and liberal minded individuals under the early Nazi regime. After the defeat of the Third Reich in World War II, the real victims of the regime had become clear, and the cantata's title was changed to "Symphonic Fragment: Attempt at a Requiem" to honor the millions killed in the Holocaust. Hartmann revised the work in 1954-1955 as his Symphony No. 1, and finally published it in 1956. As this example indicates, Hartmann was a highly self-critical composer and many of his works went through successive stages of revision. He also suppressed most of his substantial orchestral works of the late 1930s and the war years, either allowing them to remain unpublished or, in several cases, reworking them - or portions of them - into the series of numbered symphonies that he produced in the late 1940s and early 1950s. As a composer, Hartmann attempted a difficult synthesis of many different idioms, including musical Expressionism and jazz stylization, into organic symphonic forms in the tradition of Bruckner and Mahler. His early works contain music that is both satirical and politically engaged. But he admired the polyphonic mastery of J.S. Bach, the profound expressive irony of Mahler, the neoclassicism of Igor Stravinsky and Paul Hindemith. He, also in the 1930s, developed close ties with Béla Bartók and Zoltán Kodály in Hungary, and this is reflected in his own music to some extent. In the 1940s, he began to take an interest in Schoenbergian Twelve-tone technique; though he studied with Webern his own idiom was closer to Alban Berg. In the 1950s, started to explore the metrical techniques pioneered by Boris Blacher and Elliott Carter. He especially makes use of the forms of three-part Adagio slow movements, Fugue, Variations and Toccata. List of Works Operas Wachsfigurenkabinett, five short operas (1929-30; three not completed), libretti by Erich Bormann Das Leben und Sterben des heiligen Teufels Der Mann, der vom Tode auferstand (unfinished; completed by Günter Bialas and Hans Werner Henze) Chaplin-Ford-Trott, 'scenic jazz cantata' (unfinished; completed by Wilfried Hiller) Fürwahr? (unfinished; completed by Henze) Die Witwe von Ephesus Des Simplicius Simplicissimus Jugend (1934-35; revised 1956-57 as Simplicius Simplicissimus), libretto by Hermann Scherchen, Wolfgang Petzer and Hartmann after Jakob von Grimmelhausen Symphonic Works (i) Up to 1945 – mostly later suppressed Miserae, Symphonic Poem (1933-4) Symphony L’Oeuvre (1937-8; material re-used in Symphony No.6) Symphonic Concerto for string orchestra and soprano (1938; later partly used in Symphony No.4) Sinfonia Tragica (1940, rev. 1943; first movement re-used in Symphony No.3) Symphoniae Drammaticae (1941-43), consisting of: Overture China kampft (1942, rev. 1962 as Symphonische Ouvertüre) Symphonische Hymnen (1941-3) Symphonic Suite Vita Nova for reciter and orchestra (1941-2, unfinished) Adagio for large orchestra (1940-44, revised as Symphony No.2) Symphony Klagegesang (1944; portions re-used in Symphony No.3) (ii) After 1945 Symphony No.1, Versuch eines Requiem for alto and orchestra (1950) – revised version of Symphonisches Fragment Symphony No.2 (1946) – revised version of Adagio Symphony No.3 (1948-9) – adapted from portions of Symphony Klagegesang and Sinfonia Tragica Symphony No.4 for string orchestra (1947-8) – adapted from Symphonic Concerto for strings Symphony No.5, Symphonie concertante (1950) – adapted from Concerto for wind and double basses Symphony No.6 (1951-3) – adapted from Symphony L’Oeuvre Symphony No.7 (1957-8) Symphony No.8 (1960-62) Concertos Lied for trumpet and wind instruments (1932) Concerto for wind instruments and solo trumpet (1933); recomposed as Concerto for wind instruments and double basses (1948-9), whence Symphony No.5 Cello Concerto (1933, lost, probably unfinished) Symphonie-Divertissement for bassoon, tenor trombone, double bass and chamber orchestra (c. 1934, unfinished) Kammerkonzert for clarinet, string quartet and string orchestra (1930-35) Concerto funebre for violin and string orchestra (1939, rev. 1959) (originally entitled Musik der Trauer) Concerto for piano, wind instruments and percussion (1953) Concerto for viola, piano, wind instruments and percussion (1954-6) Vocal Works Cantata (1929) for 6-part a cappella choir on texts by Johannes R. Becher and Karl Marx Profane Messe (1929) for a cappella chorus on a text by Max See Kantate for soprano and orchestra on texts by Walt Whitman (1936); later retitled Lamento and in 1938 revised as Symphonisches Fragment, whence Symphony No.1 Friede Anno '48 (1936-37) for soprano solo, mixed chorus and piano; revised 1955 as Lamento for soprano and piano Gesangsszene (1962-63) for baritone and orchestra on a text from Sodom and Gomorrah by Jean Giraudoux Chamber and Instrumental 2 Kleine Suites for piano (c. 1924-6) 2 Sonatas for unaccompanied violin (1927) 2 Suites for Unaccompanied violin (1927) Jazz Toccata and Fugue for piano (1927-8) Tanzsuite for clarinet, bassoon, horn, trumpet and trombone (1931) Kleines Konzert for string quartet and percussion (1932) Burleske Musik for wind instruments, percussion and piano (1931) Sonatina for piano (1931) Toccata variata for wind instruments, piano and percussion (1931-2) Piano Sonata No.1 (1932) String Quartet No.1, Carillon (1933) Piano Sonata No.2, 24.IV.45 (1945) String Quartet No.2 (1945-6) Sources The Lebrecht Weekly External links Comprehensive website with biography, chronology and works Text about K. A. Hartmann Biography at Schott Music

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Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol

The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol, or LDAP (), is an application protocol for querying and modifying directory services running over TCP/IP. LDAP: Framework, Practices, and Trends A directory is a set of objects with attributes organized in a logical and hierarchical manner. The most common example is the telephone directory, which consists of a series of names (either of persons or organizations) organized alphabetically, with each name having an address and phone number attached. An LDAP directory tree often reflects various political, geographic, and/or organizational boundaries, depending on the model chosen. LDAP deployments today tend to use Domain name system (DNS) names for structuring the topmost levels of the hierarchy. Deeper inside the directory might appear entries representing people, organizational units, printers, documents, groups of people or anything else that represents a given tree entry (or multiple entries). Its current version is LDAPv3, which is specified in a series of Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Standard Track Requests for comments (RFCs) as detailed in RFC 4510. Origin and influences Telecommunication companies introduced the concept of directory services to information technology and computer networking, as their understanding of directory requirements was well-developed after some 70 years of producing and managing telephone directories. The culmination of this input was the comprehensive X.500 specification The X.500 series - ITU-T Rec. X.500 to X.521 , a suite of protocols produced by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the 1980s. wow.. X.500 directory services were traditionally accessed via the X.500 Directory Access Protocol (DAP), which required the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocol stack. LDAP was originally intended to be a lightweight alternative protocol for accessing X.500 directory services through the simpler (and now widespread) TCP/IP protocol stack. This model of directory access was borrowed from the DIXIE and Directory Assistance Service protocols. Standalone LDAP directory servers soon followed, as did directory servers supporting both DAP and LDAP. The latter has become popular in enterprises, as LDAP removed any need to deploy an OSI network. Today, X.500 directory protocols including DAP can also be used directly over TCP/IP. The protocol was originally created by Tim Howes of the University of Michigan, Steve Kille of Isode Limited, and Wengyik Yeong of Performance Systems International, circa 1993. Further development has been done via the Internet Engineering Task Force. In the early engineering stages of LDAP, it was known as Lightweight Directory Browsing Protocol, or LDBP. It was renamed as the scope of the protocol was expanded to include not only directory browsing and searching functions, but also directory update functions. LDAP has influenced subsequent Internet protocols, including later versions of X.500, XML Enabled Directory (XED), Directory Service Markup Language (DSML), Service Provisioning Markup Language (SPML), and the Service Location Protocol (SLP) Protocol overview A client starts an LDAP session by connecting to an LDAP server, by default on TCP port 389. The client then sends an operation request to the server, and the server sends responses in turn. With some exceptions, the client need not wait for a response before sending the next request, and the server may send the responses in any order. The client may request the following operations: Start TLS — use the LDAPv3 Transport Layer Security (TLS) extension for a secure connection Bind — authenticate and specify LDAP protocol version Search — search for and/or retrieve directory entries Compare — test if a named entry contains a given attribute value Add a new entry Delete an entry Modify an entry Modify Distinguished Name (DN) — move or rename an entry Abandon — abort a previous request Extended Operation — generic operation used to define other operations Unbind — close the connection (not the inverse of Bind) In addition the server may send "Unsolicited Notifications" that are not responses to any request, e.g. before it times out a connection. A common alternate method of securing LDAP communication is using an SSL tunnel. This is denoted in LDAP URLs by using the URL scheme "ldaps". The default port for LDAP over SSL is 636. The use of LDAP over SSL was common in LDAP Version 2 (LDAPv2) but it was never standardized in any formal specification. This usage has been deprecated along with LDAPv2, which was officially retired in 2003. LDAP is defined in terms of ASN.1, and protocol messages are encoded in the binary format BER. It uses textual representations for a number of ASN.1 fields/types, however. Directory structure The protocol accesses LDAP directories, which follow the 1993 edition of the X.500 model: A directory is a tree of directory entries. An entry consists of a set of attributes. An attribute has a name (an attribute type or attribute description) and one or more values. The attributes are defined in a schema (see below). Each entry has a unique identifier: its Distinguished Name (DN). This consists of its Relative Distinguished Name (RDN) constructed from some attribute(s) in the entry, followed by the parent entry's DN. Think of the DN as a full filename and the RDN as a relative filename in a folder. Be aware that a DN may change over the lifetime of the entry, for instance, when entries are moved within a tree. To reliably and unambiguously identify entries, a UUID might be provided in the set of the entry's operational attributes. An entry can look like this when represented in LDAP Data Interchange Format (LDIF) (LDAP itself is a binary protocol): dn: cn=John Doe,dc=example,dc=com cn: John Doe givenName: John sn: Doe telephoneNumber: +1 888 555 6789 telephoneNumber: +1 888 555 1232 mail: john@example.com manager: cn=Barbara Doe,dc=example,dc=com objectClass: inetOrgPerson objectClass: organizationalPerson objectClass: person objectClass: top dn is the name of the entry; it's not an attribute nor part of the entry. "cn=John Doe" is the entry's RDN, and "dc=example,dc=com" is the DN of the parent entry, where dc denotes Domain Component. The other lines show the attributes in the entry. Attribute names are typically mnemonic strings, like "cn" for common name, "dc" for domain component, "mail" for e-mail address and "sn" for surname. A server holds a subtree starting from a specific entry, e.g. "dc=example,dc=com" and its children. Servers may also hold references to other servers, so an attempt to access "ou=department,dc=example,dc=com" could return a referral or continuation reference to a server which holds that part of the directory tree. The client can then contact the other server. Some servers also support chaining, which means the server contacts the other server and returns the results to the client. LDAP rarely defines any ordering: The server may return the values of an attribute, the attributes in an entry, and the entries found by a search operation in any order. This follows from the formal definitions - an entry is defined as a set of attributes, and an attribute is a set of values, and sets need not be ordered. Operations The client gives each request a positive Message ID, and the server response has the same Message ID. The response includes a numeric result code which indicates success, some error condition or some other special cases. Before the response, the server may send other messages with other result data - for example each entry found by the Search operation is returned in such a message. Expand discussion of referral responses to various operations, especially modify, for example where all modifies must be directed from replicas to a master directory. StartTLS The StartTLS operation establishes Transport Layer Security (the descendant of SSL) on the connection. That can provide data confidentiality (to protect data from being observed by third parties) and/or data integrity protection (which protects the data from tampering). During TLS negotiation the server sends its X.509 certificate to prove its identity. The client may also send a certificate to prove its identity. After doing so, the client may then use SASL/EXTERNAL. By using the SASL/EXTERNAL, the client requests the server derive its identity from credentials provided at a lower level (such as TLS). Though technically the server may use any identity information established at any lower level, typically the server will use the identity information established by TLS. Servers also often support the non-standard "LDAPS" ("Secure LDAP", commonly known as "LDAP over SSL") protocol on a separate port, by default 636. LDAPS differs from LDAP in two ways: 1) upon connect, the client and server establish TLS before any LDAP messages are transferred (without a Start TLS operation) and 2) the LDAPS connection must be closed upon TLS closure. LDAPS was used with LDAPv2, because the StartTLS operation had not yet been defined. The use of LDAPS is deprecated, and modern software should only use StartTLS. Bind (authenticate) The Bind operation authenticates the client to the server. Simple Bind can send the user's DN and password in plaintext, so the connection should be protected using Transport Layer Security (TLS). The server typically checks the password against the userPassword attribute in the named entry. Anonymous Bind (with empty DN and password) resets the connection to anonymous state. SASL (Simple Authentication and Security Layer) Bind provides authentication services through a wide range of mechanisms, e.g. Kerberos or the client certificate sent with TLS. Bind also sets the LDAP protocol version. Normally clients should use LDAPv3, which is the default in the protocol but not always in LDAP libraries. Bind had to be the first operation in a session in LDAPv2, but is not required in LDAPv3 (the current LDAP version). Search and Compare The Search operation is used to both search for and read entries. Its parameters are: baseObject The DN (Distinguished Name) of the entry at which to start the search, scope What elements below the baseObject to search. This can be BaseObject (search just the named entry, typically used to read one entry), singleLevel (entries immediately below the base DN), or wholeSubtree (the entire subtree starting at the base DN). filter Criteria to use in selecting elements within scope. For example, the filter (&(objectClass=person)(|(givenName=John)(mail=john*))) will select "persons" (elements of objectClass person) who either have the given name "John" or an e-mail address that begins with the string "john". derefAliases Whether and how to follow alias entries (entries which refer to other entries), attributes Which attributes to return in result entries. sizeLimit, timeLimit Maximum number of entries to return, and maximum time to allow search to run. typesOnly Return attribute types only, not attribute values. The server returns the matching entries and potentially continuation references. These may be returned in any order.The final result will include the result code. The Compare operation takes a DN, an attribute name and an attribute value, and checks if the named entry contains that attribute with that value. Update Data Add, Delete, and Modify DN - all require the DN of the entry that is to be changed. Modify takes a list of attributes to modify and the modifications to each: Delete the attribute or some values, add new values, or replace the current values with the new ones. Add operations also can have additional attributes and values for those attributes. Modify DN (move/rename entry) takes the new RDN (Relative Distinguished Name), optionally the new parent's DN, and a flag which says whether to delete the value(s) in the entry which match the old RDN. The server may support renaming of entire directory subtrees. An update operation is atomic: Other operations will see either the new entry or the old one. On the other hand, LDAP does not define transactions of multiple operations: If you read an entry and then modify it, another client may have updated the entry in the mean time. Servers may implement extensions INTERNET-DRAFT LDAP Transactions draft-zeilenga-ldap-txn-15.txt which support this, however. Extended operations The Extended Operation is a generic LDAP operation which can be used to define new operations. Examples include the Cancel, Password Modify and Start TLS operations. Abandon The Abandon operation requests that the server abort an operation named by a message ID. The server need not honor the request. Unfortunately, neither Abandon nor a successfully abandoned operation send a response. A similar Cancel extended operation has therefore been defined which does send responses, but not all implementations support this. Unbind The Unbind operation abandons any outstanding operations and closes the connection. It has no response. The name is of historical origin, and is not the opposite of the Bind operation. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4511#section-4.3 Clients can abort a session by simply closing the connection, but they should use Unbind. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4511#section-5.3 Unbind allows the server to gracefully close the connection and free resources that it would otherwise keep for some time until discovering the client had abandoned the connection. It also instructs the server to cancel operations that can be canceled, and to not send responses for operations that cannot be canceled. http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4511#section-3.1 LDAP URLs An LDAP URL format exists which clients support in varying degree, and which servers return in referrals and continuation references (see RFC 4516): ldap://host:port/DN?attributes?scope?filter?extensions Most of the components, which are described below, are optional. host is the FQDN or IP address of the LDAP server to search. port is the network port of the LDAP server. DN is the distinguished name to use as the search base. attributes is a comma-separated list of attributes to retrieve. scope specifies the search scope and can be "base" (the default), "one" or "sub". filter is a search filter. For example (objectClass=*) as defined in RFC 4515. extensions are extensions to the LDAP URL format. For example, "ldap://ldap.example.com/cn=John%20Doe,dc=example,dc=com" refers to all user attributes in John Doe's entry in ldap.example.com, while "ldap:///dc=example,dc=com??sub?(givenName=John)" searches for the entry in the default server (note the triple slash, omitting the host, and the double question mark, omitting the attributes). As in other URLs, special characters must be percent-encoded. There is a similar non-standard ldaps: URL scheme for LDAP over SSL. This should not be confused with LDAP with TLS, which is achieved using the StartTLS operation using the standard ldap: scheme. Schema The contents of the entries in a subtree are governed by a schema. The schema defines the attribute types that directory entries can contain. An attribute definition includes a syntax, and most non-binary values in LDAPv3 use UTF-8 string syntax. For example, a "mail" attribute might contain the value "user@example.com". A "jpegPhoto" attribute would contain photograph(s) in binary JPEG/JFIF format. A "member" attribute contains DNs of other directory entries. Attribute definitions also specify whether the attribute is single-valued or multi-valued, how to search/compare the attribute (e.g. case-sensitive vs. case-insensitive and whether substring matching is supported), etc. The schema defines object classes. Each entry must have an objectClass attribute, containing named classes defined in the schema. The schema definition of the classes of an entry defines what kind of object the entry may represent - e.g. a person, organization or domain. The object class definitions also list which attributes are obligatory and which are optional. For example, an entry representing a person might belong to the classes "top" and "person". Membership in the "person" class would require the entry to contain the "sn" and "cn" attributes, and allow the entry also to contain "userPassword", "telephoneNumber", and other attributes. Since entries may belong to multiple classes, each entry has a complex of optional and mandatory attribute sets formed from the union of the object classes it represents. ObjectClasses can be inherited, and a single entry can have multiple objectClasses to define the available and required attributes of the entry itself. A parallel to the schema of an objectClass is a class definition and an instance in Object-oriented programming, representing LDAP objectClass and LDAP entry, respectively. The schema also includes various other information controlling directory entries. Most schema elements have a name and a globally unique Object identifier (OID). Directory servers may publish the directory schema controlling an entry at a base DN given by the entry's subschemaSubentry operational attribute. (An operational attribute describes operation of the directory rather than user information and is only returned from a search when it is explicitly requested.) Server administrators can define their own schemas in addition to the standard ones. A schema for representing individual people within organizations is termed a white pages schema. Variations A lot of the server operation is left to the implementor or administrator to decide. Accordingly, servers may be set up to support a wide variety of scenarios. For example, data storage in the server is not specified - the server may use flat files, databases, or just be a gateway to some other server. Access control is not standardized, though there has been work on it and there are commonly used models. Users' passwords may be stored in their entries or elsewhere. The server may refuse to perform operations when it wishes, and impose various limits. Most parts of LDAP are extensible. Examples: One can define new operations. Controls may modify requests and responses, e.g. to request sorted search results. New search scopes and Bind methods can be defined. Attributes can have options that may modify their semantics. Other data models As LDAP has gained momentum, vendors have provided it as an access protocol to other services. The implementation then recasts the data to mimic the LDAP/X.500 model, but how closely this model is followed varies. For example, there is software to access SQL databases through LDAP, even though LDAP does not readily lend itself to this. http://www.openldap.org/doc/admin24/backends.html#SQL X.500 servers may support LDAP as well. Similarly, data which were previously held in other types of data stores are sometimes moved to LDAP directories. For example, Unix user and group information can be stored in LDAP and accessed via PAM and NSS modules. LDAP is often used by other services for authentication. Usage Naming structure Since an LDAP server can return referrals to other servers for requests the server itself will not/can not serve, a naming structure for LDAP entries is needed so one can find a server holding a given DN. Since such a structure already exists in the Domain name system (DNS), servers' top level names often mimic DNS names, as they do in X.500. If an organization has domain name example.org, its top level LDAP entry will typically have the DN dc=example,dc=org (where dc means domain component). If the LDAP server is also named ldap.example.org, the organization's top level LDAP URL becomes ldap://ldap.example.org/dc=example,dc=org. Below the top level, the entry names will typically reflect the organization's internal structure or needs rather than DNS names. Terminology The LDAP terminology one can encounter is rather cumbersome. Some of this is due to misunderstandings, other examples are due to its historical origins, others arise when used with non-X.500 services that use different terminology. For example, "LDAP" is sometimes used to refer to the protocol, other times to the protocol and the data. An "LDAP directory" may be the data or also the access point. An "attribute" may be the attribute type, or the contents of an attribute in a directory, or an attribute description (an attribute type with options). An "anonymous" and an "unauthenticated" Bind are different Bind methods that both produce anonymous authentication state, so both terms are being used for both variants. The "uid" attribute should hold user names rather than numeric user IDs. See also Directory service Key server (cryptographic) LDAP Data Interchange Format (LDIF) LDAP Application Program Interface List of LDAP software Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL) Transport Layer Security (TLS) X.500 References ITU-T Rec. X.680, "Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1) - Specification of Basic Notation", 1994 Basic encoding rules (BER) - ITU-T Rec. X.690, "Specification of ASN.1 encoding rules: Basic, Canonical, and Distinguished Encoding Rules", 1994 RFC 4346 - The TLS Protocol Version 1.1 RFC 4422 - Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL) SASL mechanisms registered at IANA External links Understanding LDAP A simple, light introductory tutorial for LDAP. LDAP schema design Configuration Building Powerful Central Authentication LDAP Authentication (for Linux/Unix and Windows via Samba) Linux LDAP HOWTO A comprehensive Linux LDAP Configuration Guide Tools LDAP Libraries for C#. http://code.google.com/p/ruby-activeldap/ ldapuseradd toolset LDAP forums LDAP mailinglist at umich.edu "#ldap" IRC channel in the freenode IRC network IETF LDAPbis mailing list - The IETF LDAP (v3) Revision (LDAPbis) Working Group, now concluded, was chartered with revising the LDAPv3 specifications. The WG produced a number of RFCs, including the revised LDAP Technical Specification detailed in RFC 4510. The WG mailing list remains available for technical discussions regarding the LDAP Technical Specification. IETF LDAPext mailing list - The IETF LDAP Extensions (LDAPext) Working Group, now concluded, was charted with producing a set of LDAP extensions. The WG mailing list remains available for technical discussions regarding the LDAP extension specifications. LDAPcon International Conference on LDAP RFCs LDAP is currently specified in a series of Request for Comments documents: RFC 4510 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) Technical Specification Roadmap (replaced the previous LDAP Technical specification, RFC 3377, in its entirety) RFC 4511 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): The Protocol RFC 4512 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): Directory Information Models RFC 4513 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): Authentication Methods and Security Mechanisms RFC 4514 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): String Representation of Distinguished Names RFC 4515 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): String Representation of Search Filters RFC 4516 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): Uniform Resource Locator RFC 4517 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): Syntaxes and Matching Rules RFC 4518 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): Internationalized String Preparation RFC 4519 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): Schema for User Applications The following RFCs detail LDAP-specific Best Current Practices: RFC 4520 (also BCP 64) - Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) Considerations for the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) (replaced RFC 3383) RFC 4521 (also BCP 118) - Considerations for Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) Extensions The following is a partial list of RFCs specifying LDAPv3 extensions: RFC 2247 - Use of DNS domains in distinguished names RFC 2307 - Using LDAP as a Network Information Service RFC 2589 - LDAPv3: Dynamic Directory Services Extensions RFC 2649 - LDAPv3 Operational Signatures RFC 2696 - LDAP Simple Paged Result Control RFC 2798 - inetOrgPerson LDAP Object Class RFC 2829 - Authentication Methods for LDAP RFC 2830 - LDAPv3: Extension for Transport Layer Security RFC 2849 - The LDAP Data Interchange Format (LDIF) RFC 2891 - Server Side Sorting of Search Results RFC 3045 - Storing Vendor Information in the LDAP root DSE RFC 3062 - LDAP Password Modify Extended Operation RFC 3296 - Named Subordinate References in LDAP Directories RFC 3671 - Collective Attributes in LDAP RFC 3672 - Subentries in LDAP RFC 3673 - LDAPv3: All Operational Attributes RFC 3687 - LDAP Component Matching Rules RFC 3698 - LDAP: Additional Matching Rules RFC 3829 - LDAP Authorization Identity Controls RFC 3866 - Language Tags and Ranges in LDAP RFC 3909 - LDAP Cancel Operation RFC 3928 - LDAP Client Update Protocol RFC 4370 - LDAP Proxied Authorization Control RFC 4373 - LBURP RFC 4403 - LDAP Schema for UDDI RFC 4522 - LDAP: Binary Encoding Option RFC 4523 - LDAP: X.509 Certificate Schema RFC 4524 - LDAP: COSINE Schema (replaces RFC 1274) RFC 4525 - LDAP: Modify-Increment Extension RFC 4526 - LDAP: Absolute True and False Filters RFC 4527 - LDAP: Read Entry Controls RFC 4528 - LDAP: Assertion Control RFC 4529 - LDAP: Requesting Attributes by Object Class RFC 4530 - LDAP: entryUUID RFC 4531 - LDAP Turn Operation RFC 4532 - LDAP Who am I? Operation RFC 4533 - LDAP Content Sync Operation RFC 4876 - Configuration Profile Schema for LDAP-Based Agents RFC 5020 - LDAP entryDN Operational Attribute LDAPv2 was specified in the following RFCs: RFC 1777 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (replaced RFC 1487) RFC 1778 - The String Representation of Standard Attribute Syntaxes (replaced RFC 1488) RFC 1779 - A String Representation of Distinguished Names (replaced RFC 1485) LDAPv2 was moved to historic status by the following RFC: RFC 3494 - Lightweight Directory Access Protocol version 2 (LDAPv2) to Historic Status

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Abydos,_Egypt

Abydos (Egyptian Abdju, 3bdw, , ), one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, is about west of the Nile at latitude 26° 10' N. The Egyptian name of both the eighth Nome of Upper Egypt and its capital city was Abdju, technically, 3bdw as in the hieroglyphs shown to the right, the hill of the symbol or reliquary, in which the sacred head of Osiris was preserved. The Greeks named it Abydos, after their city on the Hellespont; the modern Arabic name is el-'Araba el Madfuna ( al-ʿarabah al-madfunah). Considered one of the most important archaeological sites of Ancient Egypt (near the town of al-Balyana), the sacred city of Abydos was the site of many ancient temples, including a Umm el-Qa'ab, a royal necropolis where early pharaohs were entombed. These tombs began to be seen as extremely significant burials and in later times it became desirable to be buried in the area, leading to the growth of the town's importance as a cult site. Horus presents royal regalia to a worshiping pharaoh Today, Abydos is notable for the memorial temple of Seti I, which contains an inscription from the nineteenth dynasty known to the modern world as the Abydos King List. It is a chronological list showing cartouches of most dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from the first, Narmer or Menes, until Ramesses I, Seti's father. The Great Temple and most of the ancient town are buried under the modern buildings to the north of the Seti temple. Many of the original structures and the artifacts within them are considered irretrievable and lost, many may have been destroyed by the new construction. History Location of Abydos on the map of Egypt Abydos was occupied by the rulers of the Predynastic period, William Flinders Petrie, Abydos, ii. 64 whose town, temple, and tombs have been found there. The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the thirtieth dynasty, and the cemetery was used continuously. The pharaohs of the first dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as founder of the first dynasty, and his successor, Aha. Wilkinson (1999), p. 3 Some pharaohs of the second dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well. Funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great 'forts', were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the second dynasty, the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy. From the fifth dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, foremost of the Westerners, came to be seen as a manifestation of the dead pharaoh in the underworld. Pepi I (sixth dynasty) constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult. During the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and became regarded as one, with Osiris being assigned the epithet, Foremost of the Westerners. In the twelfth dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III. Associated with this tomb was a cenotaph, a cult temple, and a small town known as Wah-Sut, that was used by the workers for these structures. Harvey, EA24, p.3 Part of the Abydos King List The building during the eighteenth dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I. Then Thutmose III built a far larger temple, about 130 × . He also made a processional way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, featuring a great gateway of granite. Seti I, in the nineteenth dynasty, founded a temple to the south of the town in honor of the ancestral pharaohs of the early dynasties; this was finished by Ramesses II, who also built a lesser temple of his own. Merneptah added the Osireion just to the north of the temple of Seti. Harvey, EA24, p.3 Ahmose II in the twenty-sixth dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within approximately . depth of the ruins discovered in modern times; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by more than 4000 measurements and 1000 levellings. Petrie, Abydos, ii. The latest building was a new temple of Nectanebo I, built in the thirtieth dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times of the Greek occupancy of Egypt, that began three hundred years before the Roman occupancy that followed, the structure began to decay and no later works are known. Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii. Cult Centre Tomb relief depicting the vizier Nespeqashuty and his wife, KetjKetj, making the journey of the dead to the holy city of Abydos - from Deir el-Bahri, Late Period, twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt, reign of Psammetichus I From earliest times, Abydos was a cult centre, first of the local deity, Khentiamentiu, and from the end of the Old Kingdom, the rising cult of Osiris and Isis. A tradition developed that the Early Dynastic cemetery was the burial place of Osiris and the tomb of Djer was reinterpreted as that of Osiris. Decorations in tombs throughout Egypt, such as the one displayed to the right, record journeys to and from Abydos, as important pilgrimages made by individuals who were proud to have been able to make the important trip. Major constructions Great Osiris Temple Successively from the first dynasty to the twenty-sixth dynasty, nine or ten temples were built on one site at Abydos. The first was an enclosure, about 30 × ., surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Incorporating one wall of this first structure, the second temple of about . square was built within a wall about . thick. An outer temenos (enclosure) wall surrounded the grounds. This outer wall was thickened about the second or third dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the fourth dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are found in these ashes and probably were the substitutes for live sacrifices decreed by Khufu (or Cheops) in his temple reforms. At an undetermined date, a great clearance of temple offerings had been made and a modern discovery of a chamber into which they were gathered has yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles that show the splendid work of the first dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple hieroglyphs inlaid into a green glaze and tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces found. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this great pharaoh. The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger scale by Pepi I in the sixth dynasty. He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about 40 × . inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the eleventh dynasty Mentuhotep I added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, Mentuhotep II entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about square, and added subsidiary chambers. Soon thereafter in the twelfth dynasty, Senusret I laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area and the new temple itself was about three times the earlier size. Temple of Seti Temple of Seti I, Abydos The temple of Seti I was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This surviving building is best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal purpose of it was the adoration of the early pharaohs, whose cemetery, for which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it. The long list of the pharaohs of the principal dynasties—recognized by Seti—are carved on a wall and known as the "Abydos King List" (showing the cartouche name of many dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from the first, Narmer or Menes, until his time)- with the exception of those noted above. There were significant names deliberately left out of the list. So rare as an almost complete list of pharaoh names, the Table of Abydos, re-discovered by William John Bankes, has been called the "Rosetta Stone" of Egyptian archaeology, analogous to the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian writing, beyond the Narmer Palette. Misty Cryer, "Travellers in Egypt - William John Bankes" (2006), TravellersinEgypt.org, web: TravEgypt-WJB: re-discovered Table of Abydos. There also were seven chapels built for the worship of the pharaoh and principal deities. At the back of the temple is an enigmatic structure known as The Osirion thought to be connected with the worship of Osiris (Caulfield, Temple of the Kings); and probably from those chambers led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Merenptah (Murray, The Osireion at Abydos). The temple was originally . long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part still in good condition is about . long and . wide, including the wing at the side. Except for the list of pharaohs and a panegyric on Ramesses II, the subjects are not historical, but mythological. The work is celebrated for its delicacy and artistic refinement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages. The sculptures had been published mostly in hand copy, not facsimile, by Auguste Mariette in his Abydos, i. Ramesses II temple The adjacent temple of Ramesses II was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside that lauded his achievements, of which the lower parts remain. The outside of the temple was decorated with scenes of the Battle of Kadesh. His list of pharaohs, similar to that of Seti I, formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the British Museum. Tombs Seti I, wearing the Deshret crown of Lower Egypt, is ready to rope the sacred bull for sacrifice The Royal necropolis of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile into the great desert plain, in a place now known as Umm el-Qa'ab, The Mother of Pots, because of the shards remaining from all of the devotional objects left by religious pilgrims. The earliest burial is about × . inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed with timber and matting. Others also built before Menes are × . The probable tomb of Menes is of the latter size. Afterward the tombs increase in size and complexity. The tomb-pit is surrounded by chambers to hold offerings, the sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small pits, tombs for the servants of the pharaoh surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual. Some of the offerings included sacrificed animals, such as the asses found in the tomb of Merneith. Evidence of human sacrifices exists in the early tombs, but this practice was changed into symbolic offerings later. By the end of the second dynasty the type of tomb constructed changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either side, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies, covered a space of over . The contents of the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; but enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointments, and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The seals of various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements. Petrie, Royal Tombs, i. and ii. The cemetery of private persons began during the first dynasty with some pit-tombs in the town. It was extensive in the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties and contained many rich tombs. A large number of fine tombs were made in the eighteenth to twentieth dynasties, and members of later dynasties continued to bury their dead here until Roman times. Many hundreds of funeral steles were removed by Mariette's workmen, without any record of the burials being made. Mariette, Abydos, ii. and iii. Later excavations have been recorded by Edward R. Ayrton, Abydos, iii.; Maclver, El Amrah and Abydos; and Garstang, El Arabah. "Forts" Some of the tomb structures, referred to as "forts" by modern researchers, lay behind the town. Known as Shunet ez Zebib, it is about 450 × . over all, and one still stands . high. It was built by Khasekhemwy, the last pharaoh of the second dynasty. Another structure nearly as large adjoined it, and probably is older than that of Khasekhemwy. A third "fort" of a squarer form is now occupied by the Coptic convent; its age cannot be ascertained. Ayrton, Abydos, iii. Other Some of the hieroglyphs on the site have been interpreted in certain esoteric mysticist and "ufological" circles as showing a helicopter, a battle tank or submarine, and a fighterplane or even a U.F.O., but these are commonly explained as the result of erosion and later adjustments to the original inscriptions. This concept was adopted in the plot of the Stargate series. http://www.ufocom.org/pages/v_us/m_archeo/Abydos/abydos.html http://www.catchpenny.org/abydos.html http://members.tripod.com/~A_U_R_A/abydos.html See also Abydos offering formula Notes References Mariette, Auguste, Abydos, ii. and iii. William Flinders Petrie, Abydos, i. and ii. William Flinders Petrie, Royal Tombs, i. and ii. External links Encyclopædia Britannica Online, "Abydos" search: EncBrit-Abydos, importance of Abydos. The Mortuary Temple of Seti I at Abydos

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International_Astronomical_Union

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) is a collection of professional astronomers, at the Ph.D. level and beyond, active in professional research and education in astronomy. About the IAU Headquartered in Paris, France, it acts as the internationally recognized authority for assigning designations to celestial bodies (stars, planets, asteroids, etc.) and any surface features on them, and is a member of the International Council for Science (ICSU). The main aim of the IAU is to promote and safeguard the science of astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation. The IAU maintains friendly relations with organizations that include amateur astronomers in their membership. Working groups include the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), which maintains the astronomical naming conventions and planetary nomenclature for planetary bodies. The IAU is also responsible for the system of astronomical telegrams which are produced and distributed on its behalf by the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams. The Minor Planet Center (MPC), a clearinghouse for all non-planetary or non-moon bodies in the solar system, also operates under the IAU. History The IAU was founded in 1919, as a merger of various international projects including the Carte du Ciel, the Solar Union and the International Time Bureau (Bureau International de l'Heure). The first appointed President was Benjamin Baillaud. Pieter Johannes van Rhijn served as president from 1932 to 1958. In the IAU Information Bulletin No. 100 IAU Information Bulletin No. 100, July 2007 , twelve of the fourteen past General Secretaries since 1964, each one in office for the three years between General Assemblies, recall the IAU history with its difficulties, e.g. with Soviet bloc officials, with the Greek military junta, and the reasons behind the unpopular decision to hold an additional Extraordinary General Assembly in Poland on the occasion of Nicolaus Copernicus' 500th birthday in February 1973, shortly after the regular GA in Australia. :de:Cornelis de Jager, 16th GS, 1970-1973: I had to organise in one year two General Assemblies, one in Sydney, Australia, and another one, a so-called Extraordinary General Assembly, a month or so later in Poland. I was strongly against the decision to have that latter meeting... When, in 1967, I attended my first meeting of the Executive Board, with Otto Heckmann as President... I learned that the 1973 GA would be held in Sydney... A severe complication then arose. During the time of Heckmann’s presidency it so happened that we got a request from and a visit by the grand old lady of Polish astronomy, Ms. :pl:Wilhelmina Iwanowska. She brought to our memory that 1973 would be the year of the 500th birthday anniversary of Copernicus. She proposed that the IAU would in that year have a General Assembly in Poland... At that time Ms. Iwanowska, who certainly was a clever politician, made a slip. She replied that in any case very few astronomers from eastern Europe – we used to call it the Soviet bloc – were planning to make that long and costly trip. It left us with an unanswered question: was that perhaps the main reason? I recall how difficult the situation was for Heckmann, our German President. He was a truly honest and sensitive man who – slightly more than twenty years after the war – very well realized what Germany had done to Poland. He found it difficult to refuse a request from Poland and that was the main reason for him to consent. I was strongly against, but the voice of an Assistant General Secretary is not as important as the President’s. So the decision was taken. Many astronomers disagreed. I learned during my term (1970-1973) how much opposition arose when the news spread around. Several astronomers, mainly from the US, angrily wrote to me that they would never, repeat: never again join a General Assembly, and that was what they actually did. - IAU Information Bulletin No. 100, July 2007, p. 9, Composition The IAU has 9,664 As of 30 April 2008, http://www.iau.org/administration/membership/individual/ individual members, all of whom are professional astronomers and most of whom hold PhDs. There are also 65 As of 30 April 2008, http://www.iau.org/administration/membership/national/ national members who represent countries affiliated with the IAU. 87% of individual members are male, while 13% are female, among them the union's current president, astronomer Catherine J. Cesarsky. The sovereign body of the IAU is its General Assembly, which comprises all members. The Assembly determines IAU policy, approves the Statutes and By-Laws of the Union (and amendments proposed thereto) and elects various committees. The right to vote on matters brought before the Assembly varies according to the type of business under discussion. The Statutes consider such business to be divided into two categories: issues of a "primarily scientific nature" (as determined by the Executive Committee), upon which voting is restricted to individual members, and all other matters (such as Statute revision and procedural questions), upon which voting is restricted to the representatives of national members. On budget matters (which fall into the second category), votes are weighted according to the relative subscription levels of the national members. A second category vote requires a turnout of at least two thirds of national members in order to be valid. An absolute majority is sufficient for approval in any vote, except for Statute revision which requires a two-thirds majority. An equality of votes is resolved by the vote of the President of the Union. General Assemblies Since 1922, the IAU General Assembly meets every three years, with the exception of the period between 1938 to 1948, due to World War II. After a Polish request in 1967, and by controversial decision of the contemporary President of the IAU, an Extraordinary IAU General Assembly was held in February 1973 in Warsaw, Poland, to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the birth of Nicolaus Copernicus, shortly after the regular 1973 GA was held in Australia. Meeting Year VenueIst IAU General Assembly (1st) 1922Rome, ItalyIInd IAU General Assembly (2nd)1925Cambridge, England, United KingdomIIIrd IAU General Assembly (3rd)1928Leiden, NetherlandsIVth IAU General Assembly (4th)1932Cambridge, Massachusetts, United StatesVth IAU General Assembly (5th)1935Paris, FranceVIth IAU General Assembly (6th)1938Stockholm, SwedenVIIth IAU General Assembly (7th)1948Zürich, SwitzerlandVIIIth IAU General Assembly (8th)1952Rome, ItalyIXth IAU General Assembly (9th)1955Dublin, IrelandXth IAU General Assembly (10th)1958Moscow, Soviet UnionXIth IAU General Assembly (11th)1961Berkeley, California, United StatesXIIth IAU General Assembly (12th)1964Hamburg, West GermanyXIIIth IAU General Assembly (13th)1967Prague, CzechoslovakiaXIVth IAU General Assembly (14th)1970Brighton, England, United KingdomXVth IAU General Assembly (15th)1973Sydney, AustraliaXVIth IAU General Assembly (16th)1976Grenoble, FranceXVIIth IAU General Assembly (17th)1979Montreal, Quebec, CanadaXVIIIth IAU General Assembly (18th)1982Patras, GreeceXIXth IAU General Assembly (19th)1985New Delhi, IndiaXXth IAU General Assembly (20th)1988Baltimore, Maryland, United StatesXXIst IAU General Assembly (21st)1991Buenos Aires, ArgentinaXXIInd IAU General Assembly (22nd)1994The Hague, NetherlandsXXIIIrd IAU General Assembly (23rd)1997Kyoto, JapanXXIVth IAU General Assembly (24th)2000Manchester, England, United KingdomXXVth IAU General Assembly (25th)2003Sydney, AustraliaXXVIth IAU General Assembly (26th)2006Prague, Czech RepublicXXVIIth IAU General Assembly (27th)2009Rio de Janeiro, BrazilXXVIIIth IAU General Assembly (28th)2012Beijing, China The XXVIth General Assembly and the definition of a planet The XXVIth General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union was held from August 14 to August 25, 2006 in Prague, Czech Republic. On 15 August the Assembly decided to restore to individual members the right to vote on scientific matters, which had been removed from them at the XXVth Assembly in 2003. Among the business before the Assembly was a proposal to adopt a formal definition of planet. During the General Assembly the text of the definition evolved from the initial proposal that would have created 12 known planets in the solar system (adding initially the asteroid Ceres, Pluto's present moon Charon, Eris and would retain Pluto as a planet) to the final definition of a planet resolution that was passed on August 24 by the Assembly, which classified Ceres, Eris and Pluto as dwarf planets, and reduced the number of planets in the solar system to 8. The voting procedure followed IAU's Statutes IAU's Statutes and Working Rules IAU's Working Rules . The General Assembly lasted 12 days and had 2412 participants IAU General Assembly Welcome page , most of them for only part of the duration of the Assembly. 424 of the 9785 individual IAU members attended the Closing Ceremony 24 August 2006. Following the August 24th, 2006, parts of the scientific community did not agree with this ruling, especially the specific wording of the resolution, and criticized IAU's authority to name celestial bodies. In the ensuing public debate, a number of laypersons expressed (at times strong) disagreement with the vote. Another, less vocal, fraction of the scientific community backs the resolution, including the discoverer of the dwarf planet Eris, Mike Brown. See also Astronomical naming conventions Planetary nomenclature References Statutes of the IAU, VII: General Assembly, ss. 13-15 External links Website of the International Astronomical Union XXVIth General Assembly 2006 XXVIIth General Assembly 2009 be-x-old:Міжнародны астранамічны зьвяз

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Card_game

A card game is any game using playing cards as the primary things with which the game is played, be they traditional or game-specific. Countless card games exist, including families of related games (such as poker). Some games have formally standardized rules, while rules for others can vary by region, culture, and person. The deck A card game is played with a deck of cards intended for that game that are identical in size and shape. Each card has two sides, the face and the back. The backs of the cards in a deck are indistinguishable, preventing any player who cannot see the card's face from knowing its value. The faces of the cards in a deck may all be unique, or may include duplicates, depending on the game. In either case, any card is readily identifiable by its face. The set of cards that make up the deck are known to all of the players using that deck. The form and composition of European-style playing card decks have evolved over more than 600 years, and a variety of cultural decks have resulted. The deck most often seen in English-speaking cultures, and common in other countries where the deck has been introduced, is the Anglo-American poker deck. This deck contains 52 unique cards in the four French suits (Spades, Hearts, Diamonds and Clubs) and thirteen ranks running from two (deuce) to ten, Jack, Queen, King, and Ace. Commercial poker decks commonly include two to four Jokers, which are used in some games as special cards (the role of the Joker varies by game and region). Other decks, though less popular globally, are mainstays of a particular culture's card games. For example, a 32-card deck (no values 2-6) is known as a piquet deck and is used for many European card games including Belote, the most popular card game in France. A similar deck using German suits (leaves, hearts, bells and acorns) is used for the card game Skat, which is the national card game of Germany and also immensely popular in neighboring countries like Switzerland and Austria. Variants of the 78-card Tarot deck, largely known in the U.S. for its use in occultist divination, are common through most of continental Europe to play a family of card games known as Tarot, Tarock or Tarocco, depending on the language. The French game of this family is second only to Belote in its popularity there. The 48-card hanafuda deck is popular in Japan, and derived from a 48-card deck introduced in the 1500s by Portuguese explorers. Italian decks typically contain 40 cards in the four French suits or in the four Italian suits (Cups, Coins, Swords and Staves). There are also some card games that require multiple copies of the same deck, or copies of subsets of a deck. For Pinochle and its parent Bezique, a single "deck" is composed of two poker or piquet decks with all values from 2-8 removed; originally this actually required two poker decks, but the game's popularity led to the commercialization of a specific single deck of the needed values. Four-player variants commonly use two such decks; the equivalent of all high-value cards from 4 poker decks. For games such as blackjack, multiple full poker decks are used to discourage card counting, and variants of many other card games use multiple decks shuffled together when a large number of players are participating. In these scenarios, a "deck" refers to one set of the necessary cards, while a "pack" or "shoe" refers to the collection of "decks" as a whole used to play the game. The deal Card game, 1895 In games where cards are distributed among players, 'deal' is the act of that distribution. Dealing is done either clockwise or counterclockwise. If this is omitted from the rules, then it is assumed to be: clockwise for games from North America, Australia, North and West Europe and Russia; counterclockwise for South and East Europe, Asia, South America and also for Swiss games. A player is chosen to deal. That person takes all of the cards in the pack, arranges them so that they are in a uniform stack, and shuffles them. There are various techniques of shuffling, all intended to put the cards into a random order. During the shuffle, the dealer holds the cards so that he or she and the other players cannot see any of their faces. After the shuffle, the dealer sometimes offers the deck to another player to cut the deck. If the deal is clockwise, this is the player to the dealer's right; if counterclockwise, it is the player to the dealer's left. The invitation to cut is made by placing the pack, face downward, on the table near the player who is to cut: who then lifts the upper portion of the pack clear of the lower portion and places it alongside. The formerly lower portion is then replaced on top of the formerly upper portion. Should the player to cut wish to so indicate, a rap by the knuckles on top of the deck, signifies he trusts it to have been fairly shuffled, and that the cards are to be dealt from an uncut deck. The dealer then deals the cards. This is done by dealer holding the pack, face down, in one hand, and removing cards from the top of it with his or her other hand to distribute to the players, placing them face down on the table in front of the players to whom they are dealt. The rules of the game will specify the details of the deal. It normally starts with the player next to the dealer in the direction of play and continues in the same direction around the table. The cards may be dealt one at a time, or in groups. Dependent on the rules all or a determined amount of cards are dealt out. The undealt cards, if any, are left face down in the middle of the table, forming the talon, skat, or stock. The player who received the first card from the deal may be known as eldest hand or forehand. Especially in two-player games, the dealer may also be referred to as the younger hand. Throughout the shuffle, cut, and deal, the dealer should prevent the players from seeing the faces of any of the cards. The players should not try to see any of the faces. Should a player accidentally see a card, other than one's own, proper etiquette would be to admit this. It is also dishonest to try to see cards as they are dealt, or to take advantage of having seen a card. Should a card accidentally become exposed, (visible to all), then, normally, any player can demand a redeal (all the cards are gathered up, and the shuffle, cut, and deal are repeated). When the deal is complete, all players pick up their cards, or 'hand', and hold them in such a way that the faces can be seen by the holder of the cards but not the other players, or vice versa depending on the game. It is helpful to fan one's cards out so that if they have corner indices all their values can be seen at once. In most games, it is also useful to sort one's hand, rearranging the cards in a way appropriate to the game. For example, in a trick taking game it may be easier to have all one's cards of the same suit together, whereas in a rummy game one might sort them by rank or by potential combinations. The rules A new card game starts in a small way, either as someone's invention, or as a modification of an existing game. Those playing it may agree to change the rules as they wish. The rules that they agree on become the "house rules" under which they play the game. A set of house rules may be accepted as valid by a group of players wherever they play. It may also be accepted as governing all play within a particular house, café, or club. When a game becomes sufficiently popular, so that people often play it with strangers, there is a need for a generally accepted set of rules. This need is often met when a particular set of house rules becomes generally recognised. For example, when Whist became popular in 18th-century England, players in the Portland Club agreed on a set of house rules for use on its premises. Players in some other clubs then agreed to follow the "Portland Club" rules, rather than go to the trouble of codifying and printing their own sets of rules. The Portland Club rules eventually became generally accepted throughout England and Western cultures. It should be noted that there is nothing static or "official" about this process. For the majority of games, there is no one set of universal rules by which the game is played, and the most common ruleset is no more or less than that. Many widely-played card games, such as Canasta and Pinochle, have no official regulating body. The most common ruleset is often determined by the most popular distribution of rulebooks for card games. Perhaps the original compilation of popular playing card games was collected by Edmund Hoyle, a self-made authority on many popular parlor games. The U.S. Playing Card Company now owns the eponymous Hoyle brand, and publishes a series of rulebooks for various families of card games that have largely standardized the games' rules in countries and languages where the rulebooks are widely distributed. However, players are free to, and often do, invent "house rules" to supplement or even largely replace the "standard" rules. If there is a sense in which a card game can have an "official" set of rules, it is when that card game has an "official" governing body. For example, the rules of tournament bridge are governed by the World Bridge Federation, and by local bodies in various countries such as the American Contract Bridge League in the U.S., and the English Bridge Union in England. The rules of skat are governed by The International Skat Players Association and in Germany by the Deutsche Skatverband which publishes the Skatordnung. The rules of French tarot are governed by the Fédération Française de Tarot. The rules of Poker's variants are largely traditional, but enforced by the World Series of Poker and the World Poker Tour organizations which sponsor tournament play. Even in these cases, the rules must only be followed exactly at games sanctioned by these governing bodies; players in less formal settings are free to implement agreed-upon supplemental or substitute rules at will. Rule infractions An infraction is any action which is against the rules of the game, such as playing a card when it is not one's turn to play and the accidental exposure of a card. In many official sets of rules for card games, the rules specifying the penalties for various infractions occupy more pages than the rules specifying how to play correctly. This is tedious, but necessary for games that are played seriously. Players who intend to play a card game at a high level generally ensure before beginning that all agree on the penalties to be used. When playing privately, this will normally be a question of agreeing house rules. In a tournament there will probably be a tournament director who will enforce the rules when required and arbitrate in cases of doubt. If a player breaks the rules of a game deliberately, this is cheating. Most card players would refuse to play cards with a known cheat. The rest of this section is therefore about accidental infractions, caused by ignorance, clumsiness, inattention, etc. As the same game is played repeatedly among a group of players, precedents build up about how a particular infraction of the rules should be handled. For example, "Sheila just led a card when it wasn't her turn. Last week when Jo did that, we agreed ... etc." Sets of such precedents tend to become established among groups of players, and to be regarded as part of the house rules. Sets of house rules become formalised, as described in the previous section. Therefore, for some games, there is a "proper" way of handling infractions of the rules. But for many games, without governing bodies, there is no standard way of handling infractions. In many circumstances, there is no need for special rules dealing with what happens after an infraction. As a general principle, the person who broke a rule should not benefit by it, and the other players should not lose by it. An exception to this may be made in games with fixed partnerships, in which it may be felt that the partner(s) of the person who broke a rule should also not benefit. The penalty for an accidental infraction should be as mild as reasonable, consistent with there being no possible benefit to the person responsible. Types of card games Trick-taking games The object of a trick-taking game is based on the play of multiple rounds, or tricks, in each of which each player plays a single card from their hand, and based on the values of played cards one player wins or "takes" the trick. The specific object varies with each game and can include taking as many tricks as possible, taking as many scoring cards (or as few penalty cards) within the tricks won as possible, taking as few tricks as possible, or taking an exact number of tricks. Bridge, Euchre, Spades, Hearts, Oh Hell and the various Tarot card games are popular examples. Matching games The object of Rummy, and various other melding or matching games, is to acquire the required groups of matching cards before an opponent can do so. In Rummy, this is done through drawing and discarding, and the groups are called melds. Mah-Jongg is a very similar game played with tiles instead of cards. Non-Rummy examples of match-type games generally fall into the "fishing" genre and include the children's games Go Fish and Old Maid. Shedding games In a shedding game, players start with a hand of cards, and the object of the game is to be the first player to discard all cards from one's hand. Some matching-type games are also shedding-type games; some variants of Rummy such as Phase 10 and Rummikub, as well as the children's game Old Maid, fall into both categories. Accumulating games The object of an accumulating game is to acquire all cards in the deck. Examples include most "war"-type games, and games involving slapping a discard pile. Egyptian War has both of these features. Fishing games Fishing games are combination matching-shedding games that share a common element; players "fish" for needed cards by taking them from another's hand, asking other players for those cards, or drawing from a central "pool" of untaken cards. Go Fish is the eponymous and classic example of the genre. Comparing games Comparing card games are those where hand values are compared to determine the winner, also known as "vying" or "showdown" games. Poker, blackjack, baccarat and cassino are well known examples of comparing card games. Solitaire (or Patience) games Solitaire games are designed to be played by one player. Most games begin with a specific layout of cards, called a tableau, and the object is then either to construct a more elaborate final layout, or to clear the tableau and/or the draw pile or stock by moving all cards to one or more "discard" or "foundation" piles. Drinking card games Drinking card games are, true to their name, a subset of drinking games using cards, in which the object in playing the game is either to drink or to force others to drink. Many games are simply ordinary card games with the establishment of "drinking rules"; Asshole (Presidents), for instance, is virtually identical to Daihinmin but with additional rules governing drinking. Poker can also be played using a number of drinks as the wager. Some card games are designed specifically to be played as drinking games. Multi-genre games Many games borrow elements from more than one type of game. The most common combination is that of matching and shedding, as in some variants of Rummy, Old Maid and Go Fish. However, many multi-genre games involve different stages of play for each hand. The most common multi-stage combination is a "trick-and-meld" game, such as Pinochle or Belote. Other multi-stage, multi-genre games include Poke, Skitgubbe and Tichu. Vici is an example of a multi-genre card game which combines elements of 5-card hands and bluffing techniques from poker, with gathering and matching strategies from rummy and certain partnering aspects from bridge. Collectible card games (CCGs) Collectible card games are defined by the use of decks of proprietary cards that differ between players. The contents of these decks are a subset of a very large pool of available cards which have differing effects, costs, and art. A player accumulates his or her deck through purchase or trade for desirable cards, and each player uses their own deck to play against the other. Magic: The Gathering and Yu-Gi-Oh! are well-known collectible card games. Such games are also created to capitalize on the popularity of other forms of entertainment, such as Pokémon and Marvel Comics which both have had CCGs created around them. Casino or gambling card games These games revolve around wagers of money. Though virtually any game in which there are winning and losing outcomes can be wagered on, these games are specifically designed to make the betting process a strategic part of the game. Some of these games involve players betting against each other, such as poker, while in others, like blackjack, players wager against the house. Poker games Poker is a family of gambling games in which players bet into a pool, called the pot, that the value of their hand will beat all others according to the ranking system. Variants largely differ on how cards are dealt and the methods by which players can improve a hand. It is one of the most universally-known card games in existence. Other card games Many other card games have been designed and published on a commercial or amateur basis. In some cases, the game uses the standard 52-card deck, but the object is unique. In Eleusis, for example, players play single cards, and are told whether the play was legal or illegal, in an attempt to discover the underlying rules made up by the dealer. Most of these games however typically use a specially-made deck of cards designed specifically for the game (or variations of it). The decks are thus usually proprietary, but may be created by the game's players. Fictional card games Many games, including card games, are fabricated by science fiction authors and screenwriters to distance a culture depicted in the story from present-day Western culture. They are commonly used as filler to depict background activities in an atmosphere like a bar or rec room, but sometimes the drama revolves around the play of the game. Some of these games (such as Pyramid from Battlestar Galactica) become real card games as the holder of the intellectual property develops and markets a suitable deck for the game, while others (such as "Exploding Snap" from the Harry Potter franchise) do not have complete rulesets or descriptions, or depend on cards or other hardware that are infeasible or physically impossible. See also Games of chance Games of skill Playing card R. F. Foster Edmond Hoyle Henry Jones ("Cavendish") David Parlett John Scarne Pagat.com References External links International Playing Card Society Rules for historic card games Collection of rules to many card games

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germany:2 also:13 immensely:1 neighbor:1 like:3 switzerland:1 austria:1 variant:7 tarot:5 largely:5 u:3 occultist:1 divination:1 continental:1 europe:3 tarock:1 tarocco:1 language:2 second:1 popularity:3 hanafuda:1 japan:1 derive:1 portuguese:1 explorer:1 italian:2 typically:2 cup:1 coin:1 sword:1 stave:1 require:3 multiple:4 copy:2 subset:3 pinochle:3 parent:1 bezique:1 single:4 compose:1 remove:2 originally:1 actually:1 lead:2 commercialization:1 needed:1 equivalent:1 high:2 blackjack:3 full:1 discourage:1 counting:1 shuffle:7 together:2 large:2 number:3 participate:1 scenario:1 refers:2 one:16 necessary:2 pack:5 shoe:1 collection:2 whole:1 deal:14 distribute:3 among:3 act:1 distribution:2 dealing:1 clockwise:3 counterclockwise:3 omit:1 assume:1 north:2 america:2 australia:1 west:1 russia:1 south:2 east:1 asia:1 swiss:1 choose:1 take:11 arrange:1 uniform:1 stack:1 various:6 technique:2 shuffling:1 put:1 random:1 order:1 dealer:10 hold:3 sometimes:2 offer:1 another:2 cut:6 right:1 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story:1 present:1 day:1 filler:1 background:1 activity:1 atmosphere:1 bar:1 rec:1 room:1 drama:1 pyramid:1 battlestar:1 galactica:1 real:1 intellectual:1 property:1 develops:1 market:1 suitable:1 explode:1 snap:1 harry:1 potter:1 franchise:1 rulesets:1 description:1 hardware:1 infeasible:1 physically:1 impossible:1 chance:1 skill:1 r:1 f:1 foster:1 edmond:1 henry:1 jones:1 cavendish:1 david:1 parlett:1 john:1 scarne:1 pagat:1 com:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 society:1 historic:1 |@bigram piquet_deck:2 immensely_popular:1 tarot_deck:1 clockwise_counterclockwise:1 card_dealt:2 vice_versa:1 mah_jongg:1 collectible_card:3 magic_gathering:1 yu_gi:1 gi_oh:1 marvel_comic:1 casino_gamble:1 revolve_around:2 science_fiction:1 battlestar_galactica:1 harry_potter:1 external_link:1

Berry_Berenson

Berinthia "Berry" Berenson (a.k.a. Berry Perkins), (14 April 1948–11 September 2001), was an American photographer, actress, and model who was also known as the wife of actor Anthony Perkins. Biography Background Berinthia Berenson was the younger daughter of Robert L. Berenson, an American diplomat turned shipping executive, who was of Lithuanian Jewish descent; his family's original surname was Valvrojenski. Bernard Berenson, "Sketch for a Self-Portrait", NY: Pantheon, 1949 "Robert L. Berenson, Ex-Envoy and Head of Shipping Line, Dies", The New York Times, 3 February 1965, page 35 Her mother was born Countess Maria Luisa Yvonne Radha de Wendt de Kerlor, better known as Gogo Schiaparelli, a socialite of Italian, Swiss, French, and Egyptian ancestry. Elsa Schiaparelli, "Shocking Life", NY: Dutton, 1954 She married, as her second husband, Gino, Marchese Cacciapuoti di Giugliano, an actor and director. Her maternal grandmother was the Italian-born fashion designer Elsa Schiaparelli, Linda Greenhouse, "Schiaparelli Dies in Paris; Brought Color to Fashion", The New York Times, 15 November 1973 and her maternal grandfather was Count Wilhelm de Wendt de Kerlor, a Theosophist and psychic medium. New Yorker article about Elsa Schiaparelli Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica entry Her elder sister, Marisa Berenson, became a well-known model and actress. She also was a great-grandniece of Giovanni Schiaparelli, an Italian astronomer who believed he had discovered the supposed canals of Mars, and a great-grandniece of art expert Bernard Berenson (1865–1959) and his sister Senda Berenson (1868–1954), an athlete and educator who was one of the first two women elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame. "Encyclopaedia Britannica Online entry" Career Following a brief modeling career in the late 1960s, Berenson became a freelance photographer. By 1973, her photographs had been published in Life, Glamour, Vogue and Newsweek. Judy Klemesrud, "And Now, Make Room for the Berenson Sisters", The New York Times, 19 April 1973, page 54 She also appeared in several motion pictures, including Cat People, with Malcolm McDowell. She starred opposite Anthony Perkins in the 1978 Alan Rudolph film Remember My Name and opposite Jeff Bridges in the 1979 film Winter Kills. Marriage On 9 August 1973, in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, Berenson married the actor Anthony Perkins. They had two sons: the actor-musician Oz Perkins (born 2 February 1974) and the folk/rock singer-songwriter Elvis Perkins (born 9 February 1976). Joyce Maynard, "Tony Perkins and Family: A Study in Informal Togetherness", The New York Times, Westchester Weekly Section, 12 January 1977, page 58 They remained married until Perkins' death of AIDS on 12 September 1992. Death Berenson died at age 53 in the 11 September 2001, terrorist attack on American Airlines Flight 11. She was returning to her California home following a holiday on Cape Cod. Quotes "I hope she didn't suffer. It's hard to take in. I have hope and tremendous faith. I think that's what gets you through life ... through tragedies is when you have faith." Marisa Berenson on the death of her sister Berry Berenson in the attacks on September 11. References See also Memorial to Berry Berenson on the September 11 wiki External links CNN Showbiz Today—Cultural figures among the victims Image of Berry Berenson Several news stories about Berry Berenson

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Neapolitan_ice_cream

Block of Neapolitan ice cream. Neapolitan ice cream is chocolate, vanilla, and strawberry ice cream side-by-side in the same container (typically with no packaging in between). Neapolitan ice cream was named in the late 19th century as a reflection of its presumed origins in the cuisine of the Italian city of Naples, and the many Neapolitan immigrants who brought their expertise in frozen desserts with them to the United States. Spumoni was introduced to the United States in the 1870s as Neapolitan-style ice cream. Early recipes used a variety of flavors; however the number of three molded together was a common denominator. More than likely chocolate, vanilla and strawberry became the standard for the reason that they were the most popular flavors in the United States at the time of introduction. Quotes from food historians "Cosmopolitan slice. A slice of ice-cream cake made with mousse mixture and ordinary ice cream, presented in a small pleated paper case. Cosmopolitan ice cream consists of three layers, each of a different color and flavor (chocolate, strawberry, and vanilla), moulded into a block and cut into slices. Neapolitan ice-cream makers were famous in Paris at the beginning of the 19th century, especially Tortoni, creator of numerous ice-cream cakes." "(18th century) confectioners's shops (were) very often run by Italians. Consequently ice creams were often called "Italian ice creams" or "Neapolitan ice creams" throughout the 19th century, and the purveying of such confections became associated with Italian immigrants." "Neapolitan ice cream, different flavored layers frozen together....[was] being first being talked about in the 1870s." A cultural reference from The New York Times in 1887:"...in a dress of pink and white stripes, strongly resembling Neapolitan ice cream." Turn of the century descriptions Tub of Neapolitan ice cream from the United Kingdom. 1885 - "Neapolitan or Pinachee Cream Ice" "You must have a Neapolitan box for this ice and fill it up in 3 or 4 layers with different coloured and flavoured ice creams (a water ice may be used with the custards); for instance, lemon, vanilla, chocolate, and pistachio. Mould in the patent ice cave for about 1½ to 2 hours, turn it out, cut it in slices, and arrange neatly on the dish, on a napkin or dish-paper." 1894 - "Neapolitan Icey Cones" "These are prepared by putting ices of various kinds and colors into a mold known as a Neapolitan ice box, which, when set and turned out, is cut into slices suitable for serving. However small the pieces, the block should be cut so that each person gets some of each kind. They are generally laid on a lace paper on an ice plate. Four or five kinds are usually put in the mold, though three sorts will do. The following will serve as a guide in arranging: First, vanilla cream, then raspberry or cherry or currant water; coffee or chocolate in the middle; the strawberry cream, with lemon or orange or pineapple water to finish. A cream ice flavored with any liqueur, a brown bread cream flavored with brandy, with a couple of bright-colored water ices, form another agreeable mixture. Tea cream may be introduced into almost any combination unless coffee were used. Banana cream, pistachio, or almond cream with cherry water and damson or strawberry water are other options. The Neapolitan Ice Spoon has a double use; the bowl is for putting the mixture into the mold, and the handle is for leveling it. The boxes may be made of tin, which is less expensive than pewter. They are generally sold small enough to make single ices, but these are much more troublesome to prepare. After filling the molds, if there is no cave, "bed" the ice in the usual way. Freeze-dried neapolitan ice cream, shown with air-tight foil partially unwrapped Cake In Australia there is a popular cake known as Neopolitan cake or marble cake, made with the same 3 colours of Neapolitan ice cream swirled through in a marble pattern, usually topped with pink icing. Notes References

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Social_Democratic_Party_(UK)

The Social Democratic Party (SDP) was a political party of the United Kingdom that existed nationwide between 1981 and 1988. It was founded by four senior Labour Party 'moderates', dubbed the "Gang of Four": Roy Jenkins, David Owen, Bill Rodgers and Shirley Williams. At the time of the SDP's creation, Owen and Rodgers were sitting Labour Members of Parliament (MPs); Jenkins had left Parliament in 1977 to serve as President of the European Commission, while Williams had lost her seat in the 1979 general election. The four left the Labour Party in the belief that it had become too left-wing, and had been infiltrated at constituency level by Trotskyist factions whose views and behaviour were at odds with the parliamentary party and the Labour-voting electorate. For the 1983 and 1987 General Elections, the SDP joined the Liberal Party in the SDP-Liberal Alliance. The party merged with the Liberal Party in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats, although a minority left to form a continuing SDP. History Origins The origin of the party can be traced back to the ideological divisions in the Labour Party in the 1950s, but publicly lies in the 1979 Dimbleby Lecture given by Roy Jenkins as he neared the end of his presidency of the European Commission. Jenkins argued the necessity for a realignment in British politics, and discussed whether this could be brought about from within the existing Liberal Party, or from a new group driven by European principles of social democracy. There were long-running claims of corruption and administrative decay within Labour at local level (the North-East of England was to become a cause célèbre), and concerns that experienced and able Labour MPs could be deselected (i.e., lose the Labour Party nomination) by those wanting to put into a safe seat their friends, family or members of their own Labour faction. In some areas, the Militant tendency were held to be systematically targeting weak local party branches in safe seat areas in order to have their own candidates selected, and thus become MPs. Eddie Milne at Blyth (Northumberland) and Dick Taverne in Lincoln were both victims of such intrigues during the 1970s, but in both cases there was enough of a local outcry by party members – and the electorate – for them to fight and win their seats as independent candidates against the official Labour candidates. March 1973 Lincoln by-election In Taverne's case, he had been fighting efforts by the Lincoln Constituency Labour Party to deselect him largely over his support for British membership of the European Communities. In October 1972 he resigned his seat to force a by-election in which he fought as a Democratic Labour candidate against the official party candidate. Taverne won by an unexpectedly large margin. John Ramsden and Richard Jay, "Lincoln: Background to Taverne's Triumph" in "By-elections in British Politics", Macmillan, 1973, pp. 264-315. He founded the short lived Campaign for Social Democracy thereafter, and wrote a book about events surrounding the by-election called The Future of the Left – Lincoln and After (1972). But the CFSD failed to gain nationwide support, and Taverne lost the seat at the October 1974 General Election. Some independent Social Democrats contested the October 1974 and 1979 General Elections, but none were elected. Taverne's Lincoln by-election campaign was also helped to a lesser degree by problems with the Conservative candidate, Monday Club chairman Jonathan Guinness. His suggestion during the by-election that murderers should have razor blades left in their cells so they could decently commit suicide resulted in him being nicknamed "Old Razor Blades" during the campaign. This, combined with considerable Conservative grassroots disquiet over the Club's links to the National Front, persuaded some Conservative voters to switch to Taverne in protest as much as tactically to ensure Labour suffered an embarrassing loss. (Guinness had been elected as Chairman specifically to eradicate such links.) The Manifesto Group and the split from Labour Many original members of the future Social Democratic Party had been members of the Manifesto Group within the Labour Party. This group opposed what they saw as a leftward shift in Labour policy, the increasing prominence within the party of Tony Benn, and the involvement of trade unions in choosing the leader of the Labour Party. They argued that a new type of political force was needed to challenge the Conservative Party. Further, they opposed the creation of an electoral college to elect the leader of the Party, who had previously been elected by members of the Parliamentary Faction – in particular, the arrangement of block voting by constituency parties and trade unions, with the total votes of a constituency party or trade union being given to a candidate based on a first-past-the-post within that CLP or union, or changed at the discretion of delegates (similar to primary elections in the United States). They were also vehemently opposed to unilateral nuclear disarmament, an increasingly popular policy amongst members of the party. The final straw for many in the Manifesto Group was the behaviour of former Chancellor of the Exchequer Denis Healey at a meeting with them during the Labour leadership campaign to replace James Callaghan. He bluntly told those assembled to vote for him and answered their questions uninformatively. At the end, one asked him why they should vote for him, and Healey answered "You have nowhere else to go" (to stop the left-winger Michael Foot from winning). Healey's arrogance convinced many that their days as members of the Labour Party were now over. Ivor Crewe and Anthony King found five defectors who claimed to have voted for Foot in order to saddle Labour with an unelectable leader and make life easier in their new party. One defector, Mike Thomas, said he was tempted to send a telegraph to Healey reading "Have found somewhere else to go". Newspapers of the period reported that the announcement of the new party came as a complete shock to MPs from all sides of the Commons, including members of the Manifesto Group, as "The Gang of Four" had kept their preparations a closely guarded secret. One notable Manifesto Group exception was its secretary, future Defence Secretary George Robertson, who was the only officer to remain. The story got around that he had refused to join the new party because he feared he would not be able to keep his Hamilton seat at a general election; local Scottish National Party supporters nicknamed him "Chicken George". Creation of the SDP The founding members or "Gang of Four" were Roy Jenkins, David Owen, Bill Rodgers and Shirley Williams, all leading figures within the Labour Party, and all "moderates". They announced the new party at a press conference, and outlined their policies in what became known as the Limehouse Declaration. Democratic, Democratic Labour, New Labour and Radical were all mentioned as possible names for the new party, but eventually Social Democratic was settled on because the 'Gang of Four' consciously wanted to mould the philosophy and ideology of the new party on the Social Democracy practised on mainland Europe. Twenty-eight Labour MPs eventually joined the new party, along with one member of the Conservative Party, Christopher Brocklebank-Fowler. Williams and Jenkins were not at the time MPs, but were elected to the Commons in by-elections at Crosby and Glasgow Hillhead respectively. Much of the party's initial membership came from the Social Democratic Alliance. The party enjoyed a considerable honeymoon period with the press, who made considerable joke mileage out of their quirk for proffering claret at their functions. Claret is an "agreeable" wine, and a metaphor for the party's harmonious internal relations compared to those of the strife-torn Labour Party of the period. The policies of the SDP emphasised a middle position between perceived extremes of Thatcherism and the Labour Party. The SDP favoured Thatcherite economic reforms during the 1980s (such as anti-trade union legislation and the privatisation of state industries), but took a more welfarist position than the Conservative Party, being more sceptical of Conservative welfare reforms (particularly regarding the Health Service). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/tim_hames/article532682.ece At the party's first electoral contest, Jenkins narrowly failed to win a by-election at Warrington in July 1981, describing it as his "first defeat, but by far (his) greatest victory". In the Glasgow Hillhead by-election in March 1982, another candidate named Roy Jenkins was nominated by Labour Party activists to contest the seat in order to confuse voters and split his potential vote. SDP polling agents were given special dispensation by the Returning Officer to have placards outside of polling stations to state which one on the ballot papers was the 'real Roy'. Ultimately, the SDP's Jenkins was elected. A leadership election was held later in the year, Jenkins beating Owen in the ballot to become the first party leader. The Alliance The SDP formed the SDP-Liberal Alliance with the Liberal Party late in 1981, under the joint leadership of Roy Jenkins (SDP) and Liberal leader David Steel. The Liberal Party, and in particular its leader, David Steel, had applauded the formation of the SDP from the sidelines from the very start. Senior Liberal MP for Rochdale Cyril Smith caused some embarrassment, however, by publicly stating that the SDP "should be strangled at birth". http://www.totalpolitics.com/quotations/quotations.php?auth_id=357 During an era of public disillusionment with the two main parties – Labour and the Conservatives – and widescale unemployment, the Alliance achieved considerable success in parliamentary by-elections. At one point, the party had an opinion poll rating of over 50%. By 1981, David Steel was able to address the Liberal Party conference with the phrase "Go back to your constituencies, and prepare for government!" http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3185313.stm In early 1982, after public disagreements over who could fight which seats in the forthcoming election, the poll rating dipped, but the party was still well ahead of the Conservatives, and far ahead of Labour. Labour lost one of their ten safest seats in a by-election in early 1983 to Liberal candidate Simon Hughes: the sitting Labour MP Robert Mellish resigned to work for the London Docklands Development Corporation but being opposed to the selection by his left-wing Constituency Labour Party of Peter Tatchell, supported the former leader of Southwark council John O'Grady as "Real Bermondsey Labour" giving an impression of Labour division and infighting. However, following victory in the Falklands War in June 1982, the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher soared from third place in the public opinion polls. The standing of the Alliance and Labour declined. The Alliance did well in the 1983 general election, winning 25% of the national vote, close behind Labour's 28%. Because of the British "first-past-the-post" electoral system, only 23 Alliance MPs were elected, six of whom were members of the SDP. Two more SDP MPs were elected in by-elections in the next four years, but in the 1987 general election, with the SDP under the leadership of David Owen, the Alliance's share of the vote fell slightly, and the SDP's parliamentary party was reduced from eight members to five. Roy Jenkins was amongst those who lost their seats. Mike Hancock had won a by-election at Portsmouth South in 1984 from the Conservatives, and Rosie Barnes had won the bitterly contested Greenwich by-election in 1987 from Labour. Neither victory could disguise the fact that the electorate's "love affair" with the Alliance was beginning to cool: local government election results proved disappointing even after the Portsmouth result. From the outset, the formation of the Alliance had raised questions as to whether it would lead to a merged party, or the two parties were destined to compete with each other. This in turn led to grassroots tensions in some areas between Liberal and SDP branches that impaired their ability to mount joint campaigns successfully. Such cross-party feuding was part of the reason for Jenkins losing his Hillhead seat to Labour candidate George Galloway in 1987. Matters were exacerbated by tensions between local Liberal and SDP branches over joint "Alliance" candidate adoptions. Liberal pride was damaged by the sustained lampooning of the Alliance by ITV's Spitting Image puppet comedy programme portraying Steel as the craven lickspittle of Owen. Both Owen and Steel were to admit years later that Spitting Image did a lot of damage to the Alliance, which was heavily dependent on positive publicity to make up for the lack of activist numbers of the Conservatives and Labour. One Spitting Image sketch had a Machiavellian Owen proposing to a simpering Steel that the parties merged under a new name: "and for our side we'll take 'Social Democratic', and from your side, we'll take ‘Party'", to which a hesitant Steel agreed. Jenkins' critics believe that he saw the SDP as only a vehicle for siphoning off the right wing of the Labour Party into a new centrist party with the existing Liberals. This would provide a more pro-European and stable party of government within a Proportional Representation system of elections, avoiding the destructive policy swings from left to right caused by Labour and the Conservatives. Owen however saw the party as being a replacement for Labour altogether, of the same mould as the German Social Democrats which benefit from not being tied down by Trade Union control, and thus were seen as more approachable by business interests. Tony Blair, the Labour MP from Sedgefield, was a very vocal critic of this SDP-business link. Merger, disestablished and splits After the disappointment of 1987, Steel proposed a formal merger of the two parties. Jenkins and Steel had believed this to be eventually inevitable after the party failed to break through at the 1983 election. The proposal, also supported by Williams and Rodgers, was fiercely opposed by Owen, who argued that such a merger would not be accepted by the electorate, and would not reverse their declining share of the vote. Owen was quoted as saying that Jenkins had intended a merger all along, and should have been honest and joined the Liberals in 1981 with his closest supporters, including Dick Taverne, Tom Ellis, Tom Bradley and Neville Sandelson. Jenkins denied that a merger had been his original intent. But the majority of the SDP's membership (along with those of the Liberals) voted in favour of the union. Owen resigned as leader and was replaced by Robert Maclennan. Steel and Maclennan headed the new "Social and Liberal Democrat Party" from 3 March 1988. An interim working name for the party, the "Democrats", was adopted by conference on 26 September 1988. This proved to be unpopular, and the party was re-named the Liberal Democrats in October 1989, as had been originally proposed at the September 1988 conference by the party's Tiverton branch. Most SDP members, including SDP MP and future Liberal Democrat leader Charles Kennedy, joined Maclennan in the merged party, but Owen created a continuing SDP, along with two other MPs, John Cartwright and Rosie Barnes. There was also a continuing Liberal Party, led by Michael Meadowcroft and David Morrish, mainly based around Liverpool and West Country Liberals who feared a dilution by the former SDP members of the Liberal tradition within the merged party. Some members simply dropped out of politics together out of disillusionment when the time came to renew their membership subscriptions. After a series of highly publicised expulsions, a now Militant-free Labour Party led by Neil Kinnock benefited from the feuding within the former Alliance that was supposed to see an end to "the politics of confrontation". The Liberal Democrats also lost to the continuing SDP its one major backer, Lord Sainsbury. The subsequent election of a new leader, Paddy Ashdown, revived the new party's fortunes in time, and turned it into the most successful "third party" electorally in British politics since the days of Lloyd George. (For information about the continuation of the SDP led by Dr. David Owen from 1988 to 1990, please see Social Democratic Party (UK, 1988), and about the subsequent continuation of the party after 1990, please see Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990).) Aftermath Most members of the SDP who joined the Liberal Democrats have remained in that party. There have been a few exceptions: notably Roger Liddle. Polly Toynbee was among those who left the Labour Party to return to their ranks later. Some Owenites joined the Conservative Party, with one, Danny Finkelstein becoming a close aide of both John Major and William Hague. Their critics believe that this had more to do with the desire to continue to do the most damage towards Labour than true political conviction, but their supporters disagree, arguing that the Conservative Party is the best long term bet for supporters of Owen's social market approach. It has been argued by some that the creation of the SDP led eventually to Tony Blair's movement of the Labour Party back towards the political centre under the banner of "New Labour". But some of those Labour moderates who remained in the party, such as Roy Hattersley, argue that the so-called "split in the centre-left" both aided the Conservatives and delayed the move of the Labour Party to a centrist position. Perhaps more convincingly it has been argued that the impact of the SDP was to show those on the soft left of the Labour Party that they could not rely on a pendulum effect to propel a leftist Labour Party back to power – Labour had to actively engage with the electorate's concerns. Both Kinnock and Blair came from that soft left position. The SDP also accelerated the breakup of the political Labour Movement. SDP politicians did not necessarily come from an anti-trade union position: many were, in fact Labour-right wing union organisers before joining the SDP. But being in a party without a direct trade union link, together with their experience of the unions move to the left in the 1970s, made them more responsive to the anti-union mood of the country and less likely to defend the unions: in time, too, Labour had to respond to that mood. But most important of all, the Social Democratic Party strengthened the political credibility of the Liberals. The national status of Roy Jenkins (former Chancellor and Home Secretary) and David Owen (former Foreign Secretary who had been widely tipped as a future Labour Prime Minister) helped the Liberals become something more than a source of shock by-election results and a party for those living in rural areas such as the Highlands and Cornwall. The SDP also helped the Liberals attract attention from the media for their policies after a long period when the only media interest in the party resulted from the trial of former Liberal leader Jeremy Thorpe. The SDP proved that a brand new party outside of the major two could fight elections anywhere in the country, and win – but in their patronage by Sainsbury's they also proved that a substantial source of income outside of that raised by members was required in order to be able to fight elections on equal terms with the "big two". See also Politics of the United Kingdom Liberal Democrat History Group Leaders of the SDP Portrait Entered office Left office Date of Birth 1 Roy Jenkins 7 July 1981 13 June 1983 11 November 1920 – 5 January 2003 2 David Owen 13 June 1983 14 June 1987 2 July 1938 – present 3 Robert Maclennan 14 June 1987 3 March, 1988 26 June 1936 – present Further reading Ivor Crewe & Anthony King, SDP: The Birth, Life and Death of the Social Democratic Party, OUP 1995 Hugh Stephenson, Claret and Chips: The Rise of the SDP, Michael Joseph 1982 John Stevenson, Third Party Politics since 1945: Liberals, Alliance and Liberal Democrats, ICBH 1993 Patricia Lee Sykes, Losing from the Inside: The Cost of Conflict in the British Social Democratic Party, Transaction Publishers 1990 Roy Jenkins, A Life at the Centre, Macmillan 1991 David Owen, Time to Declare, Penguin 1992 Bill Rogers, Fourth Among Equals, Politico's 2000 Journal of Liberal History, Issue 39 Summer 2003, A Short History of Political Virginity (edition devoted to the SDP) http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/uploads/39-Summer%25202003.pdf Journal of Liberal History, Issue 18 Spring 1998, Ten Years On, The Legacy of the Alliance and Merger http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/uploads/18_Spring_1998.pdf References </math>

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Piano

The piano is a musical instrument which is played by means of a keyboard. Widely used in Western music for solo performance, ensemble use, chamber music, and accompaniment, the piano is also very popular as an aid to composing and rehearsal. Although not portable and often expensive, the piano's versatility and ubiquity have made it one of the most familiar musical instruments. Pressing a key on the piano's keyboard causes a felt covered hammer to strike steel strings. The hammers rebound, allowing the strings to continue vibrating at their resonant frequency. "Hammer Time" by John Kiehl, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. These vibrations are transmitted through a bridge to a sounding board that couples the acoustic energy to the air so that it can be heard as sound. When the key is released, a damper stops the string's vibration. Pianos are sometimes classified as both a percussion and a stringed instrument. According to the Hornbostel-Sachs method of music classification, it is grouped with Chordophones. The word piano is a shortened form of the word pianoforte, which is seldom used except in formal language and derived from the original Italian name for the instrument, clavicembalo [or gravicembalo] col piano e forte (literally harpsichord with soft and loud). This refers to the instrument's responsiveness to keyboard touch, which allows the pianist to produce notes at different dynamic levels by controlling the speed with which the hammers hit the strings. History Early history Early piano replica by the modern builder Paul McNulty, after Walter & Sohn, 1805 The piano is founded on earlier technological innovations. The first string instruments with struck strings were the hammered dulcimers originating from the Persian traditional musical instrument santur. David R. Peterson (1994), "Acoustics of the hammered dulcimer, its history, and recent developments", Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 95 (5), p. 3002. During the Middle Ages, there were several attempts at creating stringed keyboard instruments with struck strings, Pollens, 1995. chp. 1 the earliest being the hurdy gurdy which has uncertain origins. By the 17th century, the mechanisms of keyboard instruments such as the clavichord and the harpsichord were well known. In a clavichord the strings are struck by tangents, while in a harpsichord they are plucked by quills. Centuries of work on the mechanism of the harpsichord in particular had shown the most effective ways to construct the case, soundboard, bridge, and keyboard. Grand piano by Louis Bas of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, France, 1781. Earliest French grand piano known to survive; includes an inverted wrestplank and action derived from the work of Bartolomeo Cristofiori (ca. 1700) with ornately decorated soundboard. The invention of the modern piano is credited to Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, Italy, who was employed by Prince Ferdinand de Medici as the Keeper of the Instruments. He was an expert harpsichord maker and was well acquainted with the previous body of knowledge on stringed keyboard instruments. It is not known exactly when Cristofori first built a piano. An inventory made by his employers, the Medici family, indicates the existence of a piano by the year 1700; another document of doubtful authenticity indicates a date of 1698. The three Cristofori pianos that survive today date from the 1720s. Cristofori's great success was in solving, without any prior example, the fundamental mechanical problem of piano design: the hammer must strike the string, but not remain in contact with it (as a tangent remains in contact with a clavichord string) because this would damp the sound. Moreover, the hammer must return to its rest position without bouncing violently, and it must be possible to repeat a note rapidly. Cristofori's piano action served as a model for the many different approaches to piano actions that followed. While Cristofori's early instruments were made with thin strings and were much quieter than the modern piano, compared to the clavichord (the only previous keyboard instrument capable of minutely controlled dynamic nuance through the keyboard) they were considerably louder and had more sustaining power. Cristofori's new instrument remained relatively unknown until an Italian writer, Scipione Maffei, wrote an enthusiastic article about it (1711), including a diagram of the mechanism. This article was widely distributed, and most of the next generation of piano builders started their work because of reading it. One of these builders was Gottfried Silbermann, better known as an organ builder. Silbermann's pianos were virtually direct copies of Cristofori's, with one important addition: Silbermann invented the forerunner of the modern damper pedal, which lifts all the dampers from the strings at once. Silbermann showed Johann Sebastian Bach one of his early instruments in the 1730s, but Bach did not like it at that time, claiming that the higher notes were too soft to allow a full dynamic range. Although this earned him some animosity from Silbermann, the criticism was apparently heeded. Bach did approve of a later instrument he saw in 1747, and even served as an agent in selling Silbermann's pianos. . "Instrument: piano et forte genandt" [was] an expression Bach also used when acting as Silbermann's agent in 1749." Piano making flourished during the late 18th century in the Viennese school, which included Johann Andreas Stein (who worked in Augsburg, Germany) and the Viennese makers Nannette Streicher (daughter of Johann Andreas Stein) and Anton Walter. Viennese-style pianos were built with wood frames, two strings per note, and had leather-covered hammers. Some of these Viennese pianos had the opposite coloring of modern-day pianos; the natural keys were black and the accidental keys white. It was for such instruments that Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composed his concertos and sonatas, and replicas of them are built today for use in authentic-instrument performance of his music. The pianos of Mozart's day had a softer, clearer tone than today's pianos or English pianos, with less sustaining power. The term fortepiano is nowadays often used to distinguish the 18th-century instrument from later pianos. Development of the modern piano In the period lasting from about 1790 to 1860, the Mozart-era piano underwent tremendous changes that led to the modern form of the instrument. This revolution was in response to a consistent preference by composers and pianists for a more powerful, sustained piano sound, and made possible by the ongoing Industrial Revolution with technological resources such as high-quality steel, called piano wire, for strings, and precision casting for the production of iron frames. Over time, the tonal range of the piano was also increased from the five octaves of Mozart's day to the 7¼ or more octaves found on modern pianos. Broadwood square action Early technological progress owed much to the English firm of Broadwood, who already had a reputation for the splendour and powerful tone of its harpsichords. Broadwood constructed instruments that were progressively larger, louder, and more robustly constructed. They sent pianos to both Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven, and were the first firm to build pianos with a range of more than five octaves: five octaves and a fifth during the 1790s, six octaves by 1810 (Beethoven used the extra notes in his later works), and seven octaves by 1820. The Viennese makers similarly followed these trends, however the two schools used different piano actions: Broadwoods were more robust, Viennese instruments were more sensitive. Erard square action By the 1820s, the center of innovation had shifted to Paris, where the Pleyel firm manufactured pianos used by Frédéric Chopin and the Érard firm manufactured those used by Franz Liszt. In 1821, Sébastien Érard invented the double escapement action, which permitted a note to be repeated even if the key had not yet risen to its maximum vertical position. This facilitated rapid playing of repeated notes - and this musical device was pioneered by Liszt. When the invention became public, as revised by Henri Herz, the double escapement action gradually became standard in grand pianos, and is still incorporated into all grand pianos currently produced. One of the major technical innovations that helped to create the sound of the modern piano was the use of a strong iron frame. Also called the "plate", the iron frame sits atop the soundboard, and serves as the primary bulwark against the force of string tension. The increased structural integrity of the iron frame allowed the use of thicker, tenser, and more numerous strings. In a modern grand the total string tension can exceed 20 tons. The single piece cast iron frame was patented in 1825 in Boston by Alpheus Babcock, combining the metal hitch pin plate (1821, claimed by Broadwood on behalf of Samuel Hervé) and resisting bars (Thom and Allen, 1820, but also claimed by Broadwood and Érard). Babcock later worked for the Chickering & Mackays firm who patented the first full iron frame for grand pianos in 1843. Composite forged metal frames were preferred by many European makers until the American system was fully adopted by the early 20th century. Other innovations for the mechanism included the use of felt hammer coverings instead of layered leather hammers. Felt hammers, which were first introduced by Henri Pape in 1826, were a more consistent material, permitting wider dynamic ranges as hammer weights and string tension increased. The sostenuto pedal (see below), invented in 1844 by Jean Louis Boisselot and improved by the Steinway firm in 1874, allowed a wider range of effects. Other important technical innovations of this era included changes to the way the piano was strung, such as the use of a "choir" of three strings rather than two for all but the lower notes, and the use of different stringing methods. With the over strung scale, also called "cross-stringing", the strings are placed in a vertically overlapping slanted arrangement, with two heights of bridges on the soundboard instead of just one. This permits larger, but not necessarily longer, strings to fit within the case of the piano. Over stringing was invented by Jean-Henri Pape during the 1820s, and first patented for use in grand pianos in the United States by Henry Steinway Jr. in 1859. Duplex scaling: Treble strings of a 182 cm. grand piano. From lower left to upper right: dampers, main sounding length of strings, treble bridge, duplex string length, duplex bridge (long bar perpendicular to strings), hitchpins. With duplexes or aliquot scales, which was patented in 1872 by Theodore Steinway, the different components of string vibrations are controlled by tuning their secondary parts in octave relationships with the sounding lengths. Similar systems developed by Blüthner (1872), as well as Taskin (1788), and Collard (1821) used more distinctly ringing undamped vibrations to modify tone. Some early pianos had shapes and designs that are no longer in use. The square piano had horizontal strings arranged diagonally across the rectangular case above the hammers and with the keyboard set in the long side. This design is attributed to Gottfried Silbermann or Christian Ernst Friderici on the continent, and Johannes Zumpe or Harman Vietor in England and it was improved by changes first introduced by Guillaume-Lebrecht Petzold in France and Alpheus Babcock in the United States. Square pianos were built in great numbers through the 1840s in Europe and the 1890s in America, and saw the most visible changes of any type of piano: the celebrated iron framed over strung squares manufactured by Steinway & Sons were more than two and a half times the size of Zumpe's wood framed instruments from a century before. Their overwhelming popularity was due to inexpensive construction and price, although their performance and tone were often limited by simple actions and closely spaced strings. The mechanism in upright pianos is perpendicular to the keys. The tall, vertically strung upright grand was arranged like a grand set on end, with the soundboard and bridges above the keys, and tuning pins below them. The term was later revived by many manufacturers for advertising purposes. Giraffe, pyramid and lyre pianos were arranged in a somewhat similar fashion in evocatively shaped cases. The very tall cabinet piano was introduced about 1805 and was built through the 1840s. It had strings arranged vertically on a continuous frame with bridges extended nearly to the floor, behind the keyboard and very large sticker action. The short cottage upright or pianino with vertical stringing, made popular by Robert Wornum around 1815, was built into the 20th century. They are informally called birdcage pianos because of their prominent damper mechanism. Pianinos were distinguished from the oblique, or diagonally strung upright made popular in France by Roller & Blanchet during the late 1820s. The tiny spinet upright was manufactured from the mid-1930s until recent times. The low position of the hammers required the use of a "drop action" to preserve a reasonable keyboard height. Modern upright and grand pianos attained their present forms by the end of the 19th century. Improvements have been made in manufacturing processes, and many individual details of the instrument continue to receive attention. History and musical performance Much of the most widely admired piano repertoire, for example, that of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, was composed for a type of instrument that is rather different from the modern instruments on which this music is normally performed today. Even the music of the Romantics, including Liszt, Chopin, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn and Johannes Brahms, was written for pianos substantially different from ours. Modern piano A schematic depiction of the construction of a pianoforte. (Part names are listed in the illustration's file) Types Modern pianos come in two basic configurations (with subcategories): the grand piano and the upright piano. Grand Grand piano In grand pianos, the frame and strings are horizontal, with the strings extending away from the keyboard. There are several sizes of grand piano. A rough generalization distinguishes the "concert grand" (between about and long) from the "parlor grand" or "boudoir grand" (about to ) and the smaller "baby grand". All else being equal, longer pianos with longer strings have larger, richer sound and lower inharmonicity of the strings. Inharmonicity is the degree to which the frequencies of overtones (known as partials, partial tones, or harmonics) depart from whole multiples of the fundamental frequency. Pianos with shorter, thicker, and stiffer strings (e.g., baby grands) have more inharmonicity. The longer strings on a concert grand can vibrate more freely than the shorter, thicker strings on a baby grand, which means that a concert grand's strings will have truer overtones. This allows the strings to be tuned closer to equal temperament in relation to the standard pitch with less "stretching" in the piano tuning (See: Piano tuning). Full-size grands are usually used for public concerts, whereas smaller grands, introduced by Sohmer & Co. in 1884, are often chosen for domestic use where space and cost are considerations. A grand piano action has a repetition lever for each key. If the key is pressed repeatedly and fairly quickly this repetition lever catches the hammer close to the strings, which assists the speed and control of repeated notes and trills. Upright Upright piano Vertical Piano Action Upright pianos, also called vertical pianos, are more compact because the frame and strings are vertical. The hammers move horizontally, and are returned to their resting position by springs which are prone to wear and tear. Upright pianos with unusually tall frames and long strings are sometimes called "upright grand" pianos. Some authors classify modern pianos according to their height and, to modifications of the action that are necessary to accommodate the height. Studio pianos are around 42 to 45 inches tall. This is the shortest cabinet that can accommodate a 'full-sized' action located above the keyboard. Console pianos have a compact action (shorter hammers), and are a few inches shorter than studio models. The top of a Spinet model barely rises above the keyboard. The action is located below, operated by vertical wires that are attached to the backs of the keys. Anything taller than a studio piano is called an upright. Other types Player piano Toy pianos began to be manufactured in the 19th century. In 1863, Henri Fourneaux invented the player piano, which "plays itself" from a piano roll without the need for a pianist. A performance is "recorded" onto rolls of paper with perforations, and the player piano replays the performance using pneumatic devices. Modern equivalents of the player piano include the Bösendorfer CEUS and the Yamaha Disklavier, using solenoids and MIDI rather than pneumatics and rolls. A silent piano is an acoustic piano having an option to silence the strings by means of an interposing hammer bar. They are designed for private silent practice. The transposing piano was invented in 1801 by Edward Ryley. It has a lever under the keyboard used to move the keyboard relative to the strings so that a pianist can play in a familiar key while the music sounds in a different key. The prepared piano, encountered in some contemporary art music, is a grand piano which has objects placed inside it to alter its sound, or which has had its mechanism changed in some other way. The scores for music for prepared piano specify the modifications, for example instructing the pianist to insert pieces of rubber, or paper, or metal screws or washers, in between the strings. These either mute the strings or alter their timbre. Available since the 1980s, digital pianos use digital sampling technology to reproduce the sound of each piano note. Digital pianos can be sophisticated, with features including working pedals, weighted keys, multiple voices, and MIDI interfaces. However, when the damper pedal (see below) is depressed on such an instrument, there are no strings to vibrate sympathetically. Physical models of sympathetic vibration are incorporated into the synthesis software of some higher end digital pianos, such as the Yamaha Clavinova series, or the KAWAI MP8 series. With the advent of powerful desktop computers, highly realistic sampled digital grand pianos have become available as affordable software modules. Some use multi-gigabyte piano sample sets with as many as 90 recordings, each lasting many seconds, for each of the 88 (some have 81) keys under different conditions, augmented by additional samples to emulate sympathetic resonance, key release, the drop of the dampers, and simulations of piano techniques like re-pedaling. Keyboard Keyboard Almost every modern piano has 36 black keys and 52 white keys for a total of 88 keys (seven octaves plus a minor third, from A0 to C8). Many older pianos only have 85 keys (seven octaves from A0 to A7), while some manufacturers extend the range further in one or both directions. Some Bösendorfer pianos extend the normal range downwards to F0, with one other model going as far as a bottom C0, making a full eight octave range. These extra keys are sometimes hidden under a small hinged lid that can be flipped down to cover the keys in order to avoid visual disorientation in a pianist unfamiliar with the extended keyboard. On others, the colours of the extra white keys are reversed (black instead of white). The extra keys are added primarily for increased resonance from the associated strings; that is, they vibrate sympathetically with other strings whenever the damper pedal is depressed and thus give a fuller tone. Only a very small number of works composed for piano actually use these notes. More recently, the Stuart and Sons company has also manufactured extended-range pianos. On their instruments, the range is extended both down the bass to F0 and up the treble to F8 for a full eight octaves. The extra keys are the same as the other keys in appearance. Small studio upright acoustical pianos with only 65 keys have been manufactured for use by roving pianists. Known as "gig" pianos and still containing a cast iron harp, these are comparatively lightweight and can be easily transported to and from engagements by only two people. As their harp is longer than that of a spinet or console piano, they have a stronger bass sound that to some pianists is well worth the trade-off in range that a reduced key-set offers. The Toy piano manufacturer Schoenhut started manufacturing both grands and uprights with only 44 or 49 keys, and shorter distance between the keyboard and the pedals. These pianos are true pianos with action and strings. The pianos were introduced to their product line in response to numerous requests in favor of it. Pedals Standard pedals Piano pedals from left to right: una corda, sostenuto, and sustain pedal. Pianos have had pedals, or some close equivalent, since the earliest days. (In the 18th century, some pianos used levers pressed upward by the player's knee instead of pedals.) Most grand pianos have three pedals: the soft pedal (una corda), sostenuto, and sustain pedal (from left to right, respectively). Most modern upright pianos also have three pedals: soft pedal, practice pedal and sustain pedal, though older or cheaper models may lack the practice pedal. The sustain pedal (or, damper pedal) is often simply called "the pedal", since it is the most frequently used. It is placed as the rightmost pedal in the group. It lifts the dampers from all keys, sustaining all played notes, and altering the overall tone. The soft pedal or una corda pedal is placed leftmost in the row of pedals. In grand pianos, it shifts the entire action, including the keyboard, to the right, so that the hammers hit only one of the three strings for each note (hence the name una corda, or 'one string'). The effect is to soften the note as well as to change the tone. In uprights, this action is not possible, and so the pedal moves the hammers closer to the strings, allowing the hammers to hit the strings with less kinetic energy to produce a softer sound, but with no change in timbre. On grand pianos, the middle pedal is a sostenuto pedal. This pedal keeps raised any damper that was already raised at the moment the pedal is depressed. This makes it possible to sustain some notes (by depressing the sostenuto pedal before notes to be sustained are released) while the player's hands are free to play other notes. This can be useful for musical passages with pedal points and other otherwise tricky or impossible situations. On many upright pianos, there is a middle pedal called the 'practice' or celeste pedal. This drops a piece of felt between the hammers and strings, greatly muting the sounds. There are also non-standard variants. On vertical pianos, the middle pedal can be a bass sustain pedal: that is, when it is depressed, the dampers lift off the strings only in the bass section. This pedal would be used only when a pianist needs to sustain a single bass note or chord over many measures, while playing the melody in the treble section. On the largest Fazioli piano, there is a fourth pedal to the left of the principal three. This fourth pedal works in the same way as the soft pedal of an upright piano, moving the hammers closer to the strings. Unusual pedals An upright pedal piano The rare transposing piano, of which Irving Berlin possessed an example, had a middle pedal that functioned as a clutch which disengages the keyboard from the mechanism, enabling the keyboard to be moved to the left or right with a lever. The entire action of the piano is thus shifted to allow the pianist to play music written in one key so that it sounds in a different key. The pedalier piano, or pedal piano, is a rare type of piano that includes a pedalboard, enabling bass register notes to be played with the feet, as is standard on the organ. There are two types of pedal piano: the pedal board may be an integral part of the instrument, using the same strings and mechanism as the manual keyboard, or, less frequently, it may consist of two independent pianos (each with its separate mechanics and strings) which are placed one above the other, a regular piano played by the hands and a bass-register piano played by the feet. Construction Many parts of a piano are made of materials selected for sturdiness. In quality pianos, the outer rim of the piano is made of a hardwood, normally maple or beech. According to Harold A. Conklin, the purpose of a sturdy rim is so that "the vibrational energy will stay as much as possible in the soundboard instead of dissipating uselessly in the case parts, which are inefficient radiators of sound." View from below of a 182-cm grand piano. In order of distance from viewer: softwood braces, tapered soundboard ribs, soundboard. The metal rod at lower right is a humidity control device The rim is normally made by laminating flexible strips of hardwood to the desired shape, a system that was developed by Theodore Steinway in 1880. The thick wooden braces at the bottom (grands) or back (uprights) of the piano are not as acoustically important as the rim, and are often made of a softwood, even in top-quality pianos, in order to save weight. The requirement of structural strength, fulfilled with stout hardwood and thick metal, makes a piano heavy; even a small upright can weigh 136 kg (300 lb), and the Steinway concert grand (Model D) weighs 480 kg (990 lb). The largest piano built, the Fazioli F308, weighs 691 kg (1520 lb). The pinblock, which holds the tuning pins in place, is another area of the piano where toughness is important. It is made of hardwood, (often maple) and generally is laminated (built of multiple layers) for additional strength and gripping power. Piano strings (also called piano wire), which must endure years of extreme tension and hard blows, are made of high quality steel. They are manufactured to vary as little as possible in diameter, since all deviations from uniformity introduce tonal distortion. The bass strings of a piano are made of a steel core wrapped with copper wire, to increase their mass whilst retaining flexibility. Cast iron plates of Steinway concert grand pianos, model D-274 The plate, or metal frame, of a piano is usually made of cast iron. It is advantageous for the plate to be quite massive. Since the strings are attached to the plate at one end, any vibrations transmitted to the plate will result in loss of energy to the desired (efficient) channel of sound transmission, namely the bridge and the soundboard. Some manufacturers now use cast steel in their plates, for greater strength. The casting of the plate is a delicate art, since the dimensions are crucial and the iron shrinks by about one percent during cooling. The inclusion in a piano of an extremely large piece of metal is potentially an aesthetic handicap, which piano makers overcome by polishing, painting and decorating the plate. Plates often include the manufacturer's ornamental medallion and can be strikingly attractive. In an effort to make pianos lighter, Alcoa worked with Winter and Company piano manufacturers to make pianos using an aluminum plate during the 1940s. The use of aluminum for piano plates, however, did not become widely accepted and was discontinued. The numerous grand parts and upright parts of a piano action are generally hardwood (e.g. maple, beech. hornbeam). However, since World War II, plastics have become available. Early plastics were incorporated into some pianos in the late 1940s and 1950s, but proved disastrous because they crystallized and lost their strength after only a few decades of use. The Steinway firm once incorporated Teflon, a synthetic material developed by DuPont, for some grand action parts in place of cloth, but ultimately abandoned the experiment due to an inherent "clicking" which invariably developed over time. (Also Teflon is "humidity stable" whereas the wood adjacent to the Teflon will swell and shrink with humidity changes, causing problems.) More recently, the Kawai firm has built pianos with action parts made of more modern and effective plastics such as carbon fiber; these parts have held up better and have generally received the respect of piano technicians. Ivorite and ebony keys on a modern Steinway grand piano The part of the piano where materials probably matter more than anywhere else is the soundboard. In quality pianos, this is made of solid spruce (that is, spruce boards glued together at their edges). Spruce is chosen for its high ratio of strength to weight. The best piano makers use close-grained, quarter-sawn, defect-free spruce, and make sure that it has been carefully dried over a long period of time before making it into soundboards. In cheap pianos, the soundboard is often made of plywood. Piano keys are generally made of spruce or basswood, for lightness. Spruce is normally used in high-quality pianos. Traditionally, the black keys were made from ebony and the white keys were covered with strips of ivory, but since ivory-yielding species are now endangered and protected by treaty, plastics are now almost exclusively used. Also, ivory tends to chip more easily than plastic. Legal ivory can still be obtained in limited quantities. The Yamaha firm invented a plastic called "Ivorine" or "Ivorite" that mimics the look and feel of ivory; it has since been imitated by other makers. Care and maintenance A piano tuner Pianos need regular tuning to keep them up to pitch, which is usually the internationally recognized standard concert pitch of A4 = 440 Hz. The hammers of pianos are voiced to compensate for gradual hardening, and other parts also need periodic regulation. Aged and worn pianos can be rebuilt or reconditioned. Often, by replacing a great number of their parts, they can be made to perform as well as new pianos. Older pianos are often more settled and produce a warmer tone. Piano moving should be done by trained piano movers using adequate manpower and the correct equipment for any particular piano's size and weight. Pianos are heavy yet delicate instruments. Over the years, professional piano movers have developed special techniques for transporting both grands and uprights which prevent damage to the case and to the piano's mechanics. Role The piano at the social center in the 19th century (Moritz von Schwind, 1868). The man at the piano is Franz Schubert. The piano is a crucial instrument in Western classical music, jazz, film, television, and most other complex western musical genres. Since a large number of composers are proficient pianists – and because the piano keyboard offers an easy means of complex melodic and harmonic interplay – the piano is often used as a tool for composition. Pianos were, and still are, popular instruments for private household ownership. Hence, pianos have gained a place in the popular consciousness, and are sometimes referred to by nicknames including: "the ivories", "the joanna", "the eighty-eight", and "the black(s) and white(s)", "the little joe(s)". Playing the piano is sometimes referred to as "tickling the ivories". See also General Piano action Innovations in the piano Jazz piano Piano acoustics Piano key frequencies (in equal temperament) Piano trio Prepared piano String piano Related lists List of films about pianists Piano compositions category List of piano makers List of piano brand names List of classical pianists (recorded) Related instruments Hammered dulcimer Harp Clavichord Harpsichord Organ and Pipe organ Electric piano Electronic piano Harmonichord Notes References The authoritative New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (available online by subscription), contains a wealth of information. Main article: "Pianoforte". The Encyclopædia Britannica (available online by subscription) also includes much information on the piano. In the 1988 edition, the primary article can be found in "Musical Instruments". The Piano Book by Larry Fine (4th ed. Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts: Brookside Press, 2001; ISBN 1-929145-01-2) gives the basics of how pianos work, and a thorough evaluative survey of current pianos and their manufacturers. It also includes advice on buying and owning pianos. Giraffes, black dragons, and other pianos: a technological history from Cristofori to the modern concert grand by Edwin M. Good (1982, second ed., 2001, Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press) is a standard reference on the history of the piano. The Early Pianoforte by Stewart Pollens (1995, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press) is an authoritative work covering the ancestry of the piano, its invention by Cristofori, and the early stages of its subsequent evolution. Further reading External links The Piano Page Lots of information from the Piano Technicians Guild History of the Piano Forte, Association of Blind Piano Tuners, UK The Frederick Historical Piano Collection The Pianofortes of Bartolomeo Cristofori, Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art be-x-old:Фартэпіяна

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Kirk_Hammett

Kirk Lee Hammett (born November 18, 1962) is the lead guitarist and a songwriter in the band Metallica and has been a member of the band since 1983. Before joining Metallica he formed and named the band Exodus. In 2003 Hammett was ranked 11th in Rolling Stone's list - The 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time. Biography Early life (1962-1980) Born on November 18, 1962 in San Francisco to a Filipina mother (Chefela) and an Irish Merchant Marine father. He grew up in El Sobrante near Richmond, California. He has a younger sister named Tawny. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0004987/bio Kirk Hammett attended De Anza High School in Richmond, California. As a child and teenager, Hammett showed great interest in his older brother Rick's extensive collection of records. One of his biggest musical influences was Jimi Hendrix, and Hammett was quoted as saying he wanted to be Hendrix. Hammett has also been known to perform parts of Hendrix's songs during his guitar solos. After picking up a 1978 Fender Stratocaster, Hammett attempted to customize his sound with various guitar parts, eventually falling for a 1974 Gibson Flying V. Hammett also studied under Joe Satriani. Exodus (1980-1983) Hammett's musical interests eventually drew him into the fledgling thrash metal genre. In 1980, he formed the group Exodus with vocalist Paul Baloff, guitarist Gary Holt, bassist Geoff Andrews, and drummer Tom Hunting. He played on Exodus' 1982 Demo. Exodus was a crucial early player in the Bay Area thrash movement. Metallica (1983-Present) Hammett was invited to join Metallica following the dismissal of the band's original lead guitarist Dave Mustaine in 1983. This was prior to the release of Kill 'Em All. At the time Hammett was taking private guitar lessons from the now-famous Joe Satriani. Hammett has written and contributed riffs for Metallica songs since the mid-1980s (particularly in the 1990s during the Load era). One of these riffs, used in "Enter Sandman", was written in a hotel room at 3:15 am, and became one of Metallica's most popular songs. It was the first track and first single on Metallica's self-titled "Black Album" and was ranked 399th on Rolling Stones list of the 500 greatest songs of all time. The bridge for "Creeping Death" was originally an Exodus riff that Hammett took with him to Metallica. Hammett is also known for always having his picking hand taped up. During the course of a full tour, due to constantly palm muting and fast picking, the back of his hand takes sizable abuse. http://explicate.blogspot.com/2007/03/kirk-hammett-why-taped-hand.html Hammett's playing style is noted for his extensive use of the wah-wah pedal in his solos. Hammett says "The wah-wah is an extension of my personality." He also once said, "They'll have to cut off my leg if they want me to stop using the wah-wah pedal." Hammett's use of the wah-pedal hadn't been featured in recent Metallica solos, but has seen a resurgence in his solos on the newest album, Death Magnetic. Hammett initially wanted to have guitar solos on Metallica's 2003 album, St. Anger, but drummer Lars Ulrich and producer Bob Rock thought that the solos did not sound right in the songs. He later admitted himself, "We tried to put in solos but they sounded like an afterthought so we left them out". On April 4, 2009, Kirk, along with remaining Metallica members Lars Ulrich, James Hetfield, Robert Trujillo, and former bassist Jason Newsted, was inducted into the Rock And Roll Hall Of Fame. Former bassist Cliff Burton, who died in a bus accident during the Master Of Puppets tour in 1986, was posthumously inducted as well. Personal life Hammett has been married twice. His first marriage to ex-wife Rebecca lasted 3 years, having ended in 1990, during the recording of the Black Album, which consumed the band members' lives for almost an entire year. Hammett now resides in San Francisco with Lani, his second wife, whom he married in 1998. They have two sons, Angel Ray Keala Hammett (September 29, 2006) and Vincenzo Kainalu Hammett (June 28 2008). Hammett's interests include surfing, cooking, horses, archaeology, cars, science fiction magazines and collecting horror film memorabilia. Kirk also commented recently on the T3 gadget website in their audio interview that he was previously addicted to video games, stating that the addiction resulted in the loss of eating, social interaction and guitar. Other appearances In 2005, Hammett played guitar on the Carlos Santana track "Trinity". In 2006, Hammett voiced himself on The Simpsons ("The Mook, the Chef, the Wife and Her Homer"). He also provided various voices on the Adult Swim show Metalocalypse, including a two fingered fan ("The Curse of Dethklok"), The Queen of Denmark ("Happy Dethday"), and a Finnish barkeep ("Dethtroll"). * He also appeared as a guest in an episode of Space Ghost: Coast to Coast titled "Jacksonville" alongside fellow Metallica member James Hetfield. Hammett played guitar on the track "Satan" with Orbital for The Spawn: The Album soundtrack released in July 1997. After performing a set with Metallica at Bonnaroo in June 2008, Hammett played one song with My Morning Jacket and a couple songs with the annual Superjam collaboration, which also included Les Claypool and members of Gogol Bordello playing primarily Tom Waits songs. He also appeared on the "Kichigai" E.P. by punk band Septic Death. He played additional lead guitar on the title track. He appeared as a guest guitarist on K'Naan's "If Rap Gets Jealous" off of the Troubadour (K'naan album) album. He is one of the main characters in Guitar Hero: Metallica along with the rest of the current lineup of Metallica. Equipment In January 2007, ESP Guitar Company announced the release of a 20th anniversary Limited KH-20 Guitar to celebrate 20 years of relationship with Kirk Hammett (based upon the KH-2 guitar with some modification). Only 41 guitars were in production, with the price at $9,999.USD apiece. In September 2007, Randall Amplifiers announced a partnership with Hammett to design a line of signature amps, heads, combos and preamp modules. Randall Amplifiers Announces Partnership With Kirk Hammett of Metallica In 2008 Jim Dunlop started working in partnership with Hammett to create a signature Wah-wah pedal. In January 2009, ESP Guitar Company announced the rare release of the famous "ouija" a limited basis for 2009 only. Guitars ESP M-II "Zorlac" - This was the starting line for the whole KH series. It features a vertical skull & crossbones as opposed to the horizontal ones featured on today's KH's, and an upside down Jackson Guitars style headstock which is what Hammett originally intended. However, Jackson Guitars was not thrilled about this, and threatened law suits if this model ever hit stores. So the headstock was changed to a typical ESP but flipped upside down. http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/zorlac/kirkzorlac.jpg http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/zorlac/zorlackh2.jpg ESP KH-2 (Main touring guitar) - Hammett's signature model guitar is based upon the modifications he made to his M-II. (Nicknamed "Skully" because of the skull and crossbone inlays) http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/Skully/skully1.jpg ESP KH-2 M-II "Boris Karloff Mummy" I - Boris Karloff Mummy I graphic. Hammett owns the rights to the image on it and it will not be released by ESP. http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/mummy1/mummy.jpg ESP KH-2 M-II "Ouija" - This guitar contains 2 spelling errors on it. It sports the words "WILLIAM FUED TALKING BAARD SET" but it in fact should say "WILLIAM FULD TALKING BOARD SET" http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/ouija/ouija1.jpg ESP KH-2 M-II "Boris Karloff Mummy" II - Boris Karloff Mummy II graphic. Same as the Mummy I but with hieroglyph inlays. http://img7.photobucket.com/albums/v18/mjf1982/kirkguitars/Mummy2/2ndmummy2.jpg http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/Mummy2/2ndmummy1.jpg http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/Fyou/fyou1.jpg ESP ESP M-II "Skully" 7-String - Though it belongs to Hammett, James Hetfield mainly used it in the studio for St. Anger, as Hammett does not tour with it http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/metallica/james7string.jpg ESP KH-3 Eclipse - Pushead Spider graphic. It is taken from a classic Les Paul Jr. shape with a floyd rose vibrato and EMG pickups. http://www.guitarraonline.com.ar/set-ups/metallica/KIRKfotoD.jpg ESP M-100 FM ESP KH-4 M-II "Fuck You" - It's the same as a typical KH-2, but with a pearloid pickguard, dot inlays, a Roland midi unit (for roland vg8/vg88), and the words "FUCK YOU" written at the 12th fret. Gibson Les Paul 1968 Custom - Hammett also uses regular Les Pauls at some performances. The custom is used mostly on ballads such as "Fade to Black","Welcome Home (Sanitarium)" and more recently "Nothing Else Matters". http://dararasmi.com/Images/lp68black.jpg Jackson Randy Rhoads Model RR1T - Custom-Made specifically for Hammett. It is usually tuned one step down from standard tuning, and used for the song "Sad But True". http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/RhoadsV/kirkjacksonrhoads2.jpg Jackson Soloist Used for the song "The Thing That Should Not Be". Jackson Guitars Roswell Rhoads used for recording "Load". ESP KH-1 Flying V http://www.guitarraonline.com.ar/set-ups/metallica/KIRKfotoC.jpg ESP KH-2 M-II - Skull & Crossbones II ESP M-II Red Frankenstein graphic ESP M-II Skull & Crossbones I, he likes to call it "Skully" ESP WaveCaster Blue - Wave Machine (Only 3 in existence.) http://www.metallicaworld.co.uk/images/equipment/khwave.jpg Fender Stratocaster 1998 - American black and green Stratocaster Gibson Flying V 1974 - Used mainly for recording the first four albums. In 1989 he replaced the stock pickups with EMG 81s. Was the third guitar he ever owned. http://filepit.freewebs.com/montyjay/kirkguitars/BlackGibsonV/gibv2hum.jpg Kirk Hammett's first guitar was a Montgomery Ward brand guitar, with a shoebox and small speaker for an amplifier. Metallica.com Metallica's "St. Anger" DVD rehearsals features a new guitar which has "Invisible Kid" written on it, which he uses in the song "Invisible Kid". On the 25th anniversary of Metallica's Kill 'Em All, Kirk Hammett appears on the cover of Feb. 2008's Guitar World sporting his new custom ESP. This model is the KH20, the 20th anniversary model from ESP. Guitar World - Covers Archive In the video for "One", Kirk Hammett is seen using what is most likely an ESP Vintage Plus. It appears however to be modified; it has a Floyd Rose tremolo, which could have been Hammett's own work or a custom model. http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=jcGnZ5_0AqI Amplifiers & Cabinets Randall RM100KH signature model (modified version of the MTS series RM100) Randall 4x12 RS412KHX Randall 4x12 RS412KH100 Mesa/Boogie Dual Rectifier Mesa/Boogie Mark IV Mesa/Boogie Triple Rectifier Mesa/Boogie Quad Preamp Mesa/Boogie Simul-class 295 Fender Twin Various models of Marshall and Diezel Pickups, Effects and other Equipment EMG 81 and EMG 60 pickups Rack-mounted Dunlop Cry Baby(Wah) with expression pedals Ibanez Tube Screamer Modded by Keeley Native Instruments Guitar Rig 3 control edition Lovetone Meatball pedal (used on I Disappear) Jim Dunlop Dunlop Tortex .88 Picks(green) Ernie Ball Power Slinky (.11-.48) #2220 electric guitar strings Ernie Ball Skinny Top Heavy Bottom (.10-.52) Custom Levy's strap Radial Tonebone Hot British distortion pedal MXR EVH Flanger Line 6 FM4 Filter Modeler Line 6 DM4 Distortion Modeler Line 6 DL4 Delay Modeler Line 6 MM4 Modulation Modeler Cry Baby Wah Wah Discography Exodus 1982 DemoMetallica Kill 'Em All Ride the Lightning Master of Puppets ...And Justice for All Metallica Live Shit: Binge & Purge Load ReLoad Garage, Inc. S&M St. Anger Death Magnetic See also ESP Kirk Hammett References External links Metallica's Gear Encyclopedia Metallica USA Today article on the documentary Some Kind of Monster Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame: Metallica FuseTV

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Destroyer

USS Winston S.Churchill, a US Navy Arleigh Burke-class destroyer In naval terminology, a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, convoy or battle group and defend them against smaller, short-range but powerful attackers (originally torpedo boats, later submarines and aircraft). Before World War II, destroyers were light vessels without the endurance for unattended ocean operations; typically a number of destroyers and a single destroyer tender operated together. During and after the war, larger and more powerful destroyers capable of independent operation were built, particularly as cruisers ceased to be used in the 1950s and 60s. At the dawn of the 21st Century, destroyers are the heaviest surface combatant ships in general use, with only four nations (the United States, Russia, France and Peru) operating the heavier class cruisers and none operating battleships Although there are currently no active battleships in any navy the United States navy still maintains two Iowa-class battleships, and could reactivate one or both if necessary though unlikely. or true battlecruisers. Although the Russian Kirov class are sometimes classified as battlecruisers due to their displacement they are more accurately described as large missile cruisers. Modern destroyers, also known as guided missile destroyers, are equivalent in tonnage but vastly superior in firepower to cruisers of the World War II era, capable of carrying nuclear missiles. Early history The emergence and development of the destroyer, up until World War II, was related to the invention of the self-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy a superior enemy battle fleet using steam launches to drop torpedoes. Fast boats armed with torpedoes were built and called torpedo boats. By the 1880s, these had evolved into small ships of 50-100 tons, fast enough to evade enemy picket boats, but still weighing a lot. At first, the danger to a battle fleet was considered only to exist when at anchor, but as faster and longer range torpedoes were developed, the threat extended to cruising at sea. In response to this new threat more heavily-gunned picket boats called "catchers" were built which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. They needed the same seaworthiness and endurance, and as they necessarily became larger, they became officially designated "torpedo boat destroyers", soon contracted to destroyer in English. The anti-torpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, including French (contre-torpilleur), Italian (cacciatorpediniere), Spanish (cazatorpedero), Portuguese (contratorpedeiro), Polish (kontrtorpedowiec), Czech (torpédoborec), Greek (antitorpiliko,αντιτορπιλικό) and so on. Once destroyers became more than just catchers guarding an anchorage, it was realized that they were also ideal to take over the role of torpedo boats themselves, so they were fitted with torpedo tubes as well as guns. At that time, and even into World War I, the only function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks and to make such attacks on the battleships of the enemy. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future. An important development came in 1884 with HMS Swift, a large torpedo boat with six 47 mm quick-firing guns and three torpedo tubes. While still not fast enough to engage torpedo boats reliably, she at least had the armament to deal with them. The Imperial Japanese Navy's Kotaka (1887) The Japanese Kotaka (Falcon) of 1885 was "the forerunner of torpedo boat destroyers that appeared a decade later". Designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the London Yarrow shipyards in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. She was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and six torpedo tubes, reached 19 knots (35 km/h), and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat yet. In her trials in 1889, Kotaka demonstrated that she could go beyond a role of coastal defense, and was capable of following larger ships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the Kotaka, "considered Japan to have effectively invented the destroyer". The Spanish Navy's Destructor (1886) Almost immediately after the order of Kotaka was placed, Fernando Villaamil, second officer of the Ministry of the Navy of Spain where he was put in charge of developing the concept of a new ship designed to combat torpedo boats, Biography of Villaamil placed an order for a large torpedo gunboat in November 1885, with the British builder James and George Thompson, of Clydebank, not far from where the Yarrow shipyards would move from London twenty years later. The ship, named Destructor (literally Destroyer), was laid down at the end of the year, launched in 1886, and commissioned in 1887. Her displacement was 380 tons, and she was armed with one 90 mm Hontoria cannon, four 57 mm Nordenfelt cannon, two 37 mm Hotchkiss guns and 3 Schwarzkopf torpedo tubes. Her complement was 60 men. In terms of gunnery, speed (22.5 knots in trials) and dimensions, the specific design to chase torpedo boats and her high seas capabilities, Destructor is widely considered the first destroyer ever built. From an article about the American Greyhounds Quote: Torpedo boats were considered a major threat and the navies of the world set out to defend against them. In 1884 Capitan de Navio Fernando Villaamil was appointed the second officer in the Ministry of the Spanish Navy and was tasked with the design of a new class of warship intended to fight the then new torpedo boats. Once he reached a conclusion, he chose the J & G Thomson shipyards in Clydebank, Scotland, to build the new vessel. On January 19, 1887, the DESTRUCTOR, the first torpedo boat destroyer, was turned over to the Spanish Navy, with great expectations from the European naval community. Twenty-four hours after leaving Falmouth England, the DESTRUCTOR reached the Spanish coast, making through a stormy Bay of Biscay. The ships new design and functions were so different from any past man-of-war, many thought it couldn’t survive at sea. In one day the doubts about the vessel's seaworthiness were answered forever, and her designer and commander had every reason to feel proud. The Spanish Destructor is thought to have influenced the designation and concept of later destroyers developed by the British Navy. Lion, page 18: J&G Thomson's 1892 design for a TBD is, not unsurprisingly, somewhat reminiscent of their "Destructor" built for the Spanish Navy. Lion, page 66: It was already (J&G Thomson Clydebank shipyard), when asked to tender for TBDs for the Royal Navy, building transatlantic liners and cruisers to the navy, and had built an interesting torpedo vessel under the prophetic name of "Destructor" ("Destroyer") for Spain. Its first design (for the British navy in 1892) was clearly a successor of the "Destructor". Shortly afterwards, Britain began experiments with the Rattlesnake class 'torpedo boat catcher', a class of 17 large torpedo boats - the first precursors of destroyers to be built as a class, rather than as single ships. On tests, Rattlesnake proved to be marginally faster than torpedo boats, but not fast enough to be decisive. HMS Havock (1893) The first ships to bear the formal designation "Torpedo boat destroyer" (TBD) were the Havock class of two ships of the Royal Navy, developed in 1892 under the newly appointed Third Sea Lord Rear Admiral "Jackie" Fisher, and launched by Yarrows in London in 1893. Havock had a 240 tons displacement, a speed of 27 knots (50 km/h), and was armed with a single 12-pounder (76 mm) gun, three 6-pounders (57 mm), and three 46 cm torpedo tubes. She also had the range and speed to effectively travel with a battle fleet. The French navy, an extensive user of torpedo boats, built its first destroyer in 1899, with the Durandal-class 'torpilleur d'escadre'. The United States commissioned its first destroyer, USS Bainbridge, Destroyer No. 1, in 1902 and by 1906 there were 16 destroyers in service with the US Navy. Pre World War I Destroyer design evolved around the turn of the 20th century in several key ways. The first was the introduction of the steam turbine. The spectacular unauthorized demonstration of the turbine powered Turbinia at the 1897 Spithead Navy Review, which, significantly, was of torpedo boat size, prompted the Royal Navy to order a prototype turbine powered destroyer, [[Viper class destroyer|HMS Viper]] of 1899. This was the first turbine warship of any kind and achieved a remarkable on sea trials. By 1910 the turbine had been widely adopted by all navies for their faster ships. The second development was the replacement of the boat-style turtleback foredeck by a raised forecastle, which provided better sea-keeping as well as more space below deck. Paulding class 1909 destroyer USS Perkins. The British experimented with oil propulsion for the Tribal class of 1905 but switched temporarily back to coal for the later Beagle class in 1909. Other navies also adopted oil, for instance the USN with the Paulding class of 1909. In spite of all this variety, destroyers adopted a largely similar pattern. The hull was long and narrow, with a relatively shallow draft. The bow was either raised in a forecastle or covered under a turtleback; underneath this were the crew spaces, extending 1/4 to 1/3 the way along the hull. Aft of the crew spaces was as much engine space as the technology of the time would allow: several boilers and engines or turbines. Above deck, one or more quick-firing guns were mounted in the bows, in front of the bridge; several more were mounted amidships and astern. Two torpedo tube mountings (later on, multiple mountings) were generally found amidships. Between 1890 and 1914 destroyers became markedly larger: initially 300 tons was a good size, but by the start of the First World War 1000 tons was not unusual. However, construction remained focused on putting the biggest possible engines into a small hull, resulting in a somewhat flimsy construction. Often hulls were built of steel only 1/8in thick. By 1910 the steam-driven displacement (i.e. not hydroplaning) torpedo boat had become redundant as a separate type. Germany nevertheless continued to build such torpedo boats until the end of WW1, although these were effectively small coastal destroyers. In fact Germany never distinguished between the two types, giving them pennant numbers in the same series and never giving names to destroyers. Ultimately the term torpedo boat came to be attached to a quite different vessel - the very fast hydroplaning motor driven MTB. Life on early destroyers Early destroyers were extremely cramped places to live. In the Havock-class no crew member could ever get undisturbed rest, with officers sleeping on cushioned chairs around the wardroom instead of beds. Spray and condensation made life miserable. The first British class to have separate cabins for officers, or a heating stove for the captain, was the River class of 1902. Early Destroyer tactics and engagements The destroyer's initial purpose was to protect against torpedo boats, but navies soon appreciated the flexibility of the fast, multi-purpose vessel that resulted. Vice-Admiral Sir Baldwin Walker laid down for the Royal Navy: Brett, Bernard: "History of World Sea Power", Deans International (London) 1985. ISBN 0-603-03723-2 Screening the advance of a fleet when hostile torpedo craft are about Searching a hostile coast along which a fleet might pass Watching an enemy's port for the purpose of harassing his torpedo craft and preventing their return Attacking an enemy fleet The destroyer's first major use came in the devastating Japanese attack on the Russian fleet in Port Arthur at the opening of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904. Three destroyer divisions attacked the Russian fleet in port, firing a total of 18 torpedoes, and severely damaging two Russian battleships. World War I USS Wickes DD-75 a Wickes class destroyer While capital ship engagements were scarce in World War I, destroyer units were almost continually engaged in raiding and patrol actions. The first shot of the war at sea was fired on 5 August 1914 by a destroyer of the 2nd Flotilla, Lance, in an engagement with the German auxiliary minelayer Königin Luise. The first British naval casualty was Amphion, the light cruiser leading the 3rd Flotilla, which ran into a mine laid by Königin Luise. Destroyers were involved in the skirmishes that prompted the Battle of Heligoland Bight, and filled a range of roles in the Battle of Gallipoli, acting as troop’s transports and fire support vessels, as well as their fleet-screening role. Over 80 British destroyers and 60 German torpedo-boats took part in the Battle of Jutland, which involved pitched small-boat actions between the main fleets, and several foolhardy attacks by unsupported destroyers on capital ships. Jutland also concluded with a messy night action between the German High Seas Fleet and part of the British destroyer screen. The threat evolved by World War I with the development of the submarine, or U-boat. The submarine had the potential to hide from gunfire and close underwater to fire torpedoes. Early-war destroyers had the speed and armament to intercept submarines before they submerged, either by gunfire or by ramming. Destroyers also had a shallow enough draft that torpedoes would find it difficult to hit them. The desire to attack submarines underwater led to rapid destroyer evolution during the war, which were quickly equipped with strengthened bows for ramming, depth charges and hydrophones for identifying submarine targets. The first submarine casualty to a destroyer was the German U-19, rammed by Badger on 29 October 1914. While U-19 was only damaged, the next month Garry successfully sank U-18. The first depth-charge sinking was on 4 December 1916, when UC-19 U-Boats Destroyed, Paul Kemp (1997), ISBN 1 85409 515 3 was sunk by Llewellyn. The submarine threat meant that many destroyers spent their time on anti-submarine patrol; once Germany adopted unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, destroyers were called on to escort merchant convoys. US Navy destroyers were among the first American units to be dispatched upon the American entry to the war, and a squadron of Japanese destroyers even joined Allied patrols in the Mediterranean. Patrol duty was far from safe; of the 67 British destroyers lost in the war, collisions accounted for 18, while 12 were wrecked. At the end of the war the state-of-the-art was represented by the British W class. Inter-war V class destroyer, HMS Velox The trend during World War I had been towards larger destroyers with heavier armaments. A number of opportunities to fire at capital ships had been missed during the War, because destroyers had expended all their torpedoes in an initial salvo. The British 'V' & 'W' classes of the late war had sought to address this by mounting six torpedo tubes in two triple mounts, instead of the four or two on earlier models. The 'V' and 'W's set the standard of destroyer building well into the 1920s. The next major innovation came with the Japanese Fubuki class or 'special type', designed in 1923 and delivered in 1928. The design was initially noted for its powerful armament of six five-inch (127 mm) guns and three triple torpedo mounts. The second batch of the class gave the guns high-angle turrets for anti-aircraft warfare, and the oxygen-fueled 'Long Lance' Type 93 torpedo. The later Hatsuharu class of 1931 further improved the torpedo armament by storing its reload torpedoes close at hand in the superstructure, allowing reloading within 15 minutes. Most other nations replied with similar larger ships. The US Porter class adopted twin five-inch (127 mm) guns, and the subsequent Mahan class and Gridley class (the latter of 1934) increased the number of torpedo tubes to 12 and 16 respectively. France's Le Fantasque, the fastest destroyer class ever built. In the Mediterranean, the Italian Navy's building of very fast light cruisers of the Condottieri class prompted the French to produce exceptional destroyer designs. The French had long been keen on large destroyers, with their Chacal class of 1922 displacing over 2,000 tons and carrying 130 mm guns; a further three similar classes were produced around 1930. The Le Fantasque class of 1935 carried five guns and nine torpedo tubes, but could achieve speeds of , which remains the record speed for a steamship and for any destroyer. The Italians' own destroyers were almost as swift, most Italian designs of the 1930s being rated at over , while carrying torpedoes and either four or six 120 mm guns. Germany started to build destroyers again during the 1930s as part of Hitler's rearmament program. The Germans were also fond of large destroyers, but while the initial Type 1934 displaced over 3,000 tons, their armament was equal to smaller vessels. This changed from the Type 1936 onwards, which mounted heavy 150 mm guns. German destroyers also used innovative high-pressure steam machinery: while this should have helped their efficiency, it more often resulted in mechanical problems. Once German and Japanese rearmament became clear, the British and American navies consciously focused on building destroyers that were smaller but more numerous than those used by other nations. The British built a series of destroyers (the A Class to I Class) which were about 1,400 tons standard displacement, had four guns and eight torpedo tubes; the American Benson class of 1938 similar in size, but carried five guns and ten torpedo tubes. Realizing the need for heavier gun armament, the British built the Tribal class of 1936 (sometimes called "Afridi" after one of two lead ships). These ships displaced 1,850 tons and were armed with eight guns in four twin turrets and four torpedo tubes. These were followed by the J Class and L class destroyers, with six guns in twin turrets and eight torpedo tubes Anti-submarine sensors included sonar (or ASDIC), although training in their use was indifferent. Anti-submarine weapons changed little, and ahead-throwing weapons, a need recognized in World War I, had made no progress. Operations in the inter-war period During the 1920s and 1930s destroyers were often deployed to areas of diplomatic tension or humanitarian disaster. British and American destroyers were common on the Chinese coast, even supplying landing parties to protect colonial interests. World War II USS McGowan, a Fletcher-class destroyer during World War II Main articles: British World War II destroyers, German World War II destroyers, Italian World War II destroyers, Japanese World War II destroyers By World War II the threat had evolved once again. Submarines were more effective, and aircraft had become important weapons of naval warfare; once again the fleet destroyers were ill-equipped for combating these new targets. They were fitted with new anti-aircraft guns, radar, and forward-launched ASW weapons, in addition to their existing light guns, depth charges, and torpedoes. By this time the destroyers had become large, multi-purpose vessels, expensive targets in their own right rather than expendable vessels for the protection of others; moreover, they were one of the most sunk kinds of ships even though they were mass produced. This led to the introduction of smaller and cheaper specialized anti-submarine warships called corvettes and frigates by the Royal Navy and destroyer escorts by the USN. A similar programme was belatedly started by the Japanese (see Matsu class destroyer). These ships had the size and displacement of the original torpedo boat destroyers that the contemporary destroyer had evolved from. Post-war Polish ORP Błyskawica destroyer currently preserved as a museum ship in Gdynia. Some conventional destroyers were completed in the late 1940s and 1950s which built on wartime experience. These vessels were significantly larger than wartime ships and had fully automatic main guns, unit Machinery, radar, sonar, and antisubmarine weapons such as the Squid mortar. Examples include the British Daring class, US Forrest Sherman-class, and the Soviet Kotlin-class destroyers. Some World War II-vintage ships were modernized for anti-submarine warfare, and to extend their service lives, to avoid having to build (expensive) brand-new ships. Examples include the US FRAM I programme and the British Type 15 frigates converted from fleet destroyers. The missile age The advent of surface-to-air missiles and surface-to-surface missiles, such as the Exocet, in the early 1960s changed naval warfare. Guided missile destroyers (DDG in the US Navy) were developed to carry these weapons and protect the fleet from air, submarine and surface threats. Examples include the Soviet Kashin-class, the British County class, and the American Charles F. Adams-class. Modern destroyers HMCS Algonquin, an Iroquois-class destroyer The Canadian Navy currently operates the Iroquois-class destroyers, a class of four helicopter-carrying, anti-aircraft, guided missile destroyers. Launched in the 1970s, the Iroquois were the first Canadian all gas turbine powered military ships, using two turbines for cruise power, and another two fast-starting "boost" turbines for speeds of up to 29 knots (54 km/h) (such an arrangement is known as COGOG). Previously the Soviet Navy had used all-gas turbine propulsion on their Kashin class destroyers of the 1960s but the Iroquois were the first to be built to this scheme either in Canada or in the US. The design of the Iroquois was a major inspiration for the US's later Spruance class ships. They were originally fitted out for anti-submarine warfare, but the entire class underwent major retrofits as a part of the Tribal Class Update and Modernization Program, or TRUMP, in the 1990s. These refits had the effect of re-purposing the ships for air-defense, and the ships are now referred to as area air-defense destroyers. INS Mysore D60, of the Indian Navy during an exercise with the US Navy. The Indian Navy operates three Delhi-class destroyers. These ships are armed with Kh-35 missiles, which have a range of 130 km, in the anti-ship role. They will be replaced by the Brahmos cruise missiles. Shtil (AKA SA-N-7 Gadfly) system is installed to counter airborne threats. The Barak point-defense missile system has been installed in Delhi and will soon be installed in the other two ships of its class. These destroyers also carry the RBU-6000 rockets in the anti-submarine role and are provided with five 533 mm torpedo launch tubes that can launch the SET-65E, Type 53-65 torpedoes. The destroyers have the capability to carry two Sea King helicopters. The Delhi-class will be augmented by the new Kolkata-class destroyers, the first of which was launched in March 2006. The Italian navy (Marina Militare) currently operates 2 each of the Luigi Durand de la Penne and Orizzonte-class of destroyers. Type 052C destroyer of the People's Liberation Army Navy The Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy has recently commissioned a number of new modern destroyers in addition to the four Sovremenny-class. Three new classes were launched since 2003, known as the Luyang, Luyang II and Luzhou-class. The latter two are armed with long range air defense missiles, the indigenous HQ-9 and the Russian S-300 respectively. It has been speculated that once the PLAN has been satisfied with one of the two designs (either the 052C or 051C), it would be selected for series production as the next generation of advanced air defense destroyers for China. In the US Navy, destroyers operate in support of carrier battle groups, surface action groups, amphibious groups and replenishment groups. The destroyers currently in use by the US Navy are the Arleigh Burke-class. Destroyers (with a DD hull classification symbol) primarily perform anti-submarine warfare duty while guided missile destroyers (DDGs) are multi-mission (anti-submarine, anti-aircraft, and anti-surface warfare) surface combatants. Modern DestroyersThe relatively-recent addition of cruise missile launchers has greatly expanded the role of the destroyer in strike and land-attack warfare. As the expense of heavier surface combatants has generally removed them from the fleet, destroyer tonnage has grown (a modern Arleigh Burke-class destroyer has the same tonnage as a World War II light cruiser). Arleigh Burke is billed by her builders as ton-for-ton the most powerful warship in history. The Royal Navy currently operates 7 ships of the Type 42 class with HMS Southampton reducing to extended readiness in 2008. The destroyers (as well as frigates) are, as always, the workhorses of the fleet, the former optimized for air defense and the latter for surface and subsurface warfare. They are equally at home in large task groups or on independent operations which may include sanctions enforcement, humanitarian relief or anti-drug patrols. British destroyers (of recent times) have an average displacement of around 5000 tonnes, and are armed with a mixture of guns and missiles including 114 mm (4.5 inch) Mk 8 guns, Sea Dart Missiles, 20 mm Close range guns, Vulcan Phalanx close in weapons system (CIWS), and anti submarine torpedo tubes. These ships are due to be replaced by the new Type 45 or Daring-class destroyers which will displace roughly 7,200 tonnes. The Russian Navy and the People's Liberation Army Navy of the People's Republic of China operate the Sovremenny class, a class of large multi-purpose missile destroyers. They are powered by pressure-fired boilers, making them capable of speeds in excess of . Their armament consists of 8 SS-N-22 Sunburn anti-ship missiles, launchers for SA-N-7 Gadfly anti-air missiles and two AK-130 twin-barreled 130 mm automatic naval guns which can fire laser-guided shells. While they also carry 533 mm torpedo tubes and RBU-6000 rocket launchers for use against submarines, their primary mission is to attack surface ships. Their anti-aircraft missiles have a surface attack mode, and both the 130 mm guns and the torpedoes are useful against ships at close range. Future destroyers HMS Daring, a Type 45 Destroyer anti-aircraft destroyer of the Royal Navy, which will enter service on 23 July 2009. Concept drawing for USS Zumwalt, the lead ship of the DD(X) class. The Royal Navy's current Type 42 destroyers are being replaced by the new Type 45 Daring-class from 2009 onwards. A class of 6 ships is envisaged. Displacing around 7,200 tons, they will be equipped with the UK variant of the Principal Anti-Air Missile System (PAAMS) and BAE Systems SAMPSON radar. The ships are assembled at Scotstoun, by BVT Surface Fleet. HMS Daring, the first of her class, was launched on 1 February 2006. The last US Navy Spruance-class destroyer in service, USS Cushing, was decommissioned on September 21 2005. The Zumwalt class are planned to replace them; on November 1, 2001, the US Navy announced the issuance of a revised Request for Proposal (RFP) for the Future Surface Combatant Program. Formerly known as DD 21, the program will now be called DD(X) to more accurately reflect the program purpose, which is to produce a family of advanced technology surface combatants, not a single ship class. DD(X), also called Zumwalt class, is much larger than traditional destroyers, being nearly three thousand tons heavier than a Ticonderoga-class cruiser (c.12,500 tonnes, larger than most heavy cruisers from the World War II era). It will potentially employ advanced weaponry and an all-electric Integrated Power System; however, the construction programme was subsequently reduced to just two vessels, and there is currently only funding for three in total. With the retirement of the Spruance class, the Navy began commissioning an advanced variant of the Arleigh Burke class with expanded ASW capabilities, the Arleigh Burke Flight IIA, beginning with USS Oscar Austin. As of 2006, 22 of these vessels are in service, with at least seven more under construction. The $5.2 billion Command & Control and Air-Defense Capability Replacement project is meant to replace Canada’s Iroquois class destroyers whose primary role shifted to area air-defense after TRUMP refits in the 1990s. Although the area air-defense capability had not previously existed, the Canadian Navy now regards “wide area air defense” as part of Canada’s core naval capabilities. When the project began, Canadian Navy destroyers were expected to need replacing by 2005, they are now expected to serve until 2010. There was some work on a replacement design, known to Navy-watchers as the Province class destroyers, but this was confined largely to studies of a much-improved multi-function three dimensional phased array radar system being developed in conjunction with the Dutch and German navies, known as Active Phased Array Radar. Current speculation is that the ships themselves would be similar to a "stretched" Halifax-class frigate. See also List of destroyer classes United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification Notes References Destroyers, Anthony Preston, Bison Books (London) 1977. ISBN 0-600-32955-0 The First Destroyers / David Lyon - Caxton Editions, 1997 - ISBN 1840673648 Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941, David C. Evans, Mark R.Peattie, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland ISBN 0-87021-192-7 The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War, Christopher Howe, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-35485-7 Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships (1860-1905): Gardiner, Robert (Ed.), Naval Institute Press, 1985. The Atlantic Campaign, Dan van der Vat. DD-963 Spruance-class Navy Designates Next-Generation Zumwalt Destroyer External links The Japanese 1887 Kotaka (Japanese) The Spanish 1886 Destructor (Spanish) MaritimeQuest Minekaze Class Destroyer Class Overview USS Joseph P. Kennedy Photos on board the Destroyer Joseph P. Kennedy DD-780 in Fall River, MA USS Slater Photos on board the Destroyer Escort USS Slater DE-766 Museum in Albany, NY

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Hollow_Earth

Hollow Earth is a belief that the planet Earth has a hollow interior and, possibly, a habitable inner surface. The hypothesis of a Hollow Earth has long been contradicted by overwhelming evidence, as well as by the modern understanding of planet formation, and the scientific community now dismisses the notion as pseudoscience. The concept of a hollow Earth has recurred as a premise for adventure fiction, and also features in some conspiracy theory and folklore. Hollow Earth claims Conventional hollow Earths Early history In ancient times, the idea of subterranean realms seemed arguable, and became intertwined with the concept of "places" such as the Greek Hades, the Nordic svartalfheim, the Christian Hell, and the Jewish Sheol (with details describing inner Earth in Kabalistic literature, such as the Zohar and Hesed L'Avraham). Edmund Halley's hypothesis. Leonhard Euler's purported hollow-Earth thought-experiment, featuring openings at the poles, with an internal star. Edmund Halley in 1692 Halley, Edmund, An Account of the cause of the Change of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle; with an Hypothesis of the Structure of the Internal Parts of the Earth, Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London, No. 195, 1692, pp 563–578 put forth the idea of Earth consisting of a hollow shell about 800 km (500 miles) thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core, about the diameters of the planets Venus, Mars, and Mercury. Atmospheres separate these shells, and each shell has its own magnetic poles. The spheres rotate at different speeds. Halley proposed this scheme in order to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged the atmosphere inside as luminous (and possibly inhabited) and speculated that escaping gas caused the Aurora Borealis. Halley, Edmund, An Account of the Late Surprizing Appearance of the Lights Seen in the Air, on the Sixth of March Last; With an Attempt to Explain the Principal Phaenomena thereof;, Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London, No. 347 (1716), pp 406–428 De Camp and Ley have claimed (in their Lands Beyond) that Leonhard Euler also proposed a hollow-Earth idea, getting rid of multiple shells and postulating an interior sun 1000 km (600 miles) across to provide light to advanced inner-Earth civilization (but they provide no references). However in his Letters to a German princess p. 178 at Google Books Euler describes a thought experiment involving a patently solid Earth. De Camp and Ley also claim that Sir John Leslie expanded on Euler's idea, suggesting two central suns named Pluto and Proserpine (this was unrelated to the dwarf planet Pluto, which was discovered and named some time later). Leslie did propose a hollow Earth in his 1829 Elements of Natural Philosophy (pp. 449–453), but does not mention interior suns. 19th century In 1818, John Cleves Symmes, Jr. suggested that the Earth consisted of a hollow shell about 1300 km (800 miles) thick, with openings about 2300 km (1400 miles) across at both poles with 4 inner shells each open at the poles. Symmes became the most famous of the early Hollow Earth proponents. He proposed making an expedition to the North Pole hole, thanks to efforts of one of his followers, James McBride, but the new President of the United States, Andrew Jackson, halted the attempt. Jeremiah Reynolds also delivered lectures on the "Hollow Earth" and argued for an expedition. Reynolds went on an expedition to Antarctica himself but missed joining the Great U.S. Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842, even though that venture was a result of his agitation. Though Symmes himself never wrote a book about his ideas, several authors published works discussing his ideas. McBride wrote Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres in 1826. It appears that Reynolds has an article that appeared as a separate booklet in 1827: Remarks of Symmes' Theory Which Appeared in the American Quarterly Review. In 1868, a professor W.F. Lyons published The Hollow Globe which put forth a Symmes-like Hollow Earth hypothesis, but didn't mention Symmes. Symmes's son Americus then published The Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres to set the record straight. Recent history The Thule Society, which was closely known by Adolf Hitler, reported much about Tibetan myths of openings into the Earth. There is even the theory that Hitler ordered a research journey for such an opening in Antarctica, based on a speech of Admiral Dönitz in front of the German submarine in 1944, when he claimed "The German submarine fleet is proud of having built an invisible fortification for the Führer, anywhere in the world." During the Nuremberg Trials, Dönitz spoke of "an invisible fortification, in midst of the eternal ice." In 2005, Steven Currey Expeditions planned an expedition to the North Pole region to explore for a possible opening into the inner Earth. Brooks A. Agnew took over as leader on Currey's death in 2006, with the plan of taking 100 scientists and film makers to the supposed Arctic "opening" in 2009. An early twentieth-century proponent of hollow Earth, William Reed, wrote Phantom of the Poles in 1906. He propounded the idea of a hollow Earth, but without interior shells or inner sun. Marshall Gardner wrote A Journey to the Earth's Interior in 1913 and an expanded edition in 1920. He placed an interior sun in the hollow Earth. He even built a working model of the hollow Earth and patented it (#1096102). Gardner made no mention of Reed, but did take Symmes to task for his ideas. In the same time Vladimir Obruchev wrote a fiction novel Plutonia, where the hollow Earth's interior possessed one inner (central) sun and was inhabited by prehistoric species. The interior was connected with the surface by a hole in the Arctic. Other writers have proposed that "ascended masters" of esoteric wisdom inhabit subterranean caverns or a hollow Earth. Antarctica, the North Pole, Tibet, Peru, and Mount Shasta in California, USA, have all had their advocates as the locations of entrances to a subterranean realm referred to as Agartha, with some even advancing the hypothesis that UFOs have their homeland in these places. A book allegedly by a "Dr.Raymond Bernard" which appeared in 1964, The Hollow Earth, exemplifies this idea. The book rehashes Reed and Gardner's ideas and ignores Symmes. Bernard also adds his own ideas: UFOs come from the interior, the Ring Nebula proves the existence of hollow worlds, etc. An article by Martin Gardner revealed that Dr.Walter Siegmeister used the pseudonym `Bernard', but not until the publishing of Walter Kafton-Minkel's Subterranean Worlds: 100,000 years of dragons, dwarfs, the dead, lost races & UFOs from inside the Earth, in 1989, did the full story of Bernard/Siegmeister become well known. The pages of the science fiction pulp magazine Amazing Stories promoted one such idea from 1945 to 1949 as "the Shaver Mystery". The magazine's editor, Ray Palmer, ran a series of stories by Richard Sharpe Shaver supposedly claimed as factual, though presented in the context of fiction. Shaver claimed that a superior pre-historic race had built a honeycomb of caves in the Earth, and that their degenerate descendants, known as "Dero", live there still, using the fantastic machines abandoned by the ancient races to torment those of us living on the surface. As one characteristic of this torment, Shaver described "voices" that purportedly came from no explainable source. Thousands of readers wrote to affirm that they, too, had heard the fiendish voices from inside the Earth. Fantastic stories (supposedly believed as factual within fringe circles) have also circulated that Adolf Hitler and some of his followers escaped to hollow lands within the Earth after World War II via an entrance in Antarctica. (See also Hitler's supposed adherence to concave hollow-Earth ideas, below.) Some writers have proposed building megastructures that have some similarities to a hollow Earth – see Dyson sphere, Globus Cassus. Concave hollow Earths Example of a concave hollow Earth. Humans live on the interior; with the universe in the center. Instead of saying that humans live on the outside surface of a hollow planet, sometimes called a "convex" hollow-Earth hypothesis, some have claimed that our universe itself lies in the interior of a hollow world, calling this a "concave" hollow-Earth hypothesis. The surface of the Earth, according to such a view, might resemble the interior shell of a Dyson sphere. Generally, scientists have taken neither type of speculation seriously. Cyrus Teed, an eccentric doctor from upstate New York, proposed such a concave hollow Earth in 1869, calling his scheme "Cellular Cosmogony". Teed founded a cult called the Koreshan Unity based on this notion, which he called Koreshanity. The main colony survives as a preserved Florida state historic site, at Estero, but all of Teed's followers have now died. Teed's followers claimed to have experimentally verified the concavity of the Earth's curvature, through surveys of the Florida coastline making use of "rectilineator" equipment. Several twentieth-century German writers, including Peter Bender, Johannes Lang, Karl Neupert, and Fritz Braun, published works advocating the hollow Earth hypothesis, or Hohlweltlehre. Stories have even been circulated, although apparently without historical documentation, that Adolf Hitler was influenced by concave hollow-Earth ideas and sent an expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to spy on the British fleet by aiming cameras up into the sky (Wagner, 1999). William Yenne, “Adolf Hitler and the Concave Earth Cult,” Secret Weapons of World War II: The Techno-Military Breakthroughs That Changed History (New York: Berkley Books, 2003), 271–272. The Egyptian mathematician Mostafa Abdelkader authored several scholarly papers working out a detailed mapping of the concave Earth model. See M. Abdelkader, "A Geocosmos: Mapping Outer Space Into a Hollow Earth," 6 Speculations in Science & Technology 81–89 (1983). Abstracts of two of Abdelkader's papers also appeared in Notices of the American Mathematical Society, (Oct. 1981 and Feb. 1982). In one chapter of his book On the Wild Side (1992), Martin Gardner discusses the hollow Earth model articulated by Abdelkader. According to Gardner, this hypothesis posits that light rays travel in circular paths, and slow as they approach the center of the spherical star-filled cavern. No energy can reach the center of the cavern, which corresponds to no point a finite distance away from Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. A drill, Gardner says, would lengthen as it traveled away from the cavern and eventually pass through the "point at infinity" corresponding to the center of the Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. Supposedly no experiment can distinguish between the two cosmologies. Martin Gardner notes that "most mathematicians believe that an inside-out universe, with properly adjusted physical laws, is empirically irrefutable". Gardner rejects the concave hollow Earth hypothesis on the basis of Occam's Razor. In a trivial sense, one can always define a coordinate transformation such that the interior of the Earth becomes "exterior" and the exterior becomes "interior". (For example, in spherical coordinates, let radius r go to R²/r where R is the Earth's radius.) Such transformations would require corresponding changes to the forms of physical laws; the consensus suggests that such theories tend towards sophism. On the Wild Side, 1992, Martin Gardner.\ Contrary evidence Gravity Someone on the inside of a hollow Earth would not experience an outward pull and could not stand on the inner surface; rather, the theory of gravity implies that a person on the inside would be nearly weightless. This was first shown by Newton, whose shell theorem mathematically predicts a gravitational force of zero everywhere inside a spherically symmetric hollow shell of matter, regardless of the shell's thickness. A tiny gravitational force would arise from the fact that the Earth does not have a perfectly symmetrical spherical shape. The centrifugal force from the Earth's rotation would pull a person (on the inner surface) outwards if the person was traveling at the same velocity as the Earth's interior and was in contact with the ground on the interior, but even at the equator this is only 1/300 of ordinary Earth gravity. The mass of the planet also indicates that the hollow Earth hypothesis is unfeasible. Should the Earth be largely hollow, its mass would be much lower and thus its gravity on the outer surface would be much lower than it currently is. In addition, ordinary matter is not strong enough to support a hollow shape of that size against the force of gravity. Seismic information Although not visually observable, the core of the Earth is observable via vibrations (primarily from earthquakes) passing from one side of the planet to the other. Using this method, geologists have been able to establish the structure of mantle, outer core, and inner core known today. A hollow earth would behave entirely differently in terms of seismic observations. Visual evidence The deepest hole drilled to date is the SG-3 borehole which is 12.3 km (7.6 miles) Eagleson, Mary (1994). Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry. Walter de Gruyter, p799. ISBN 3110114518 deep, part of the Kola Superdeep Borehole project, and thus visual knowledge of the Earth's structure extends that far. Hollow Earths in fiction Literature Map of the Interior World, from The Goddess of Atvatabar (1892) In Ludvig Holberg's 1741 novel Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum (Niels Klim's Underground Travels), Nicolai Klim falls through a cave while spelunking and spends several years living on both a smaller globe within and the inside of the outer shell. Giacomo Casanova's 1788 Icosaméron is a 5-volume, 1,800-page story of a brother and sister who fall into the Earth and discover the subterranean utopia of the Mégamicres, a race of multicolored, hermaphroditic dwarfs. An early science-fiction work called Symzonia: A Voyage of Discovery by a "Captain Adam Seaborn" appeared in print in 1820. It obviously reflected the ideas of John Cleves Symmes, Jr. and some have claimed Symmes as the real author. Some researchers say it deliberately satirized Symmes's ideas, and think they have identified the author as an early American author named Nathaniel Ames (see Lang, Hans-Joachim and Benjamin Lease. "The Authorship of Symzonia: The Case for Nathanial Ames" New England Quarterly, June 1975, page 241–252). Faddei Bulgarin's short satirical tale "Improbable Tall-Tale, or Journey to the Center of the Earth" (1825) describes three underworld countries: Ignorantia (populated by spiders), Beastland (populated by apes), and Lightonia (populated by humans, with a capital called Utopia). Edgar Allan Poe used the idea in his 1838 novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket. He also touches on it in his short stories "MS. Found in a Bottle" and "The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall." George Sand used the idea in her 1884 novel Laura, Voyage dans le Cristal where unseen and giant crystals could be found in the interior of the Earth. Jules Verne used the idea of a partially hollow Earth in his 1864 novel, A Journey to the Center of the Earth. Mary Lane's Mizora (1880–81) combines the hollow-Earth theme with feminism. James De Mille's novel A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder, published in 1888 but written prior to the author's death in 1880, depicts a subterranean land with inverted values. William R. Bradshaw's science fiction novel The Goddess of Atvatabar (1892) is a utopian fantasy set within the hollow Earth. Etidorhpa (1895) by John Uri Lloyd. Willis George Emerson's science-fiction novel The Smoky God (1908) recounts the adventures of one Olaf Jansen who traveled into the interior and found an advanced civilization. Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote adventure stories set in the inner world of Pellucidar including, at one point, a visit from his character Tarzan. Burroughs's Pellucidar has oceans on the outer surface corresponding to continents on the inner surface and vice versa. The Russian geologist Vladimir Obruchev uses the concept of the hollow Earth in his scientific novel Plutonia to take the reader through various geological epochs. The Third Eye (1956) by Tuesday Lobsang Rampa mentions contact with advanced beings living in the center of the Earth. A Scrooge McDuck comic book story by Carl Barks called Land Beneath the Ground! (1956) describes an underground world populated by humanoid creatures who create earthquakes. A hollow Earth featured in the children's "Choose Your Own Adventure" novel The Underground Kingdom (1983). The history of the Hollow Earth theory is explored in Umberto Eco's 1988 novel Foucault's Pendulum, alongside a wide range of other pseudo-scientific and conspiracy theories. Rudy Rucker's novel The Hollow Earth appeared in 1990, and features Edgar Allan Poe and his ideas. Amusingly, Rucker claims in an afterword to have transcribed the novel from a manuscript in the University of Virginia library; the call number given is that of a copy of Symzonia! The novel Indiana Jones and the Hollow Earth by Max McCoy (1997) expands on the legend of an advanced civilization in the Earth's interior. Eoin Colfer's Artemis Fowl series of novels has a population of fairies living inside the Earth. However, this is less of a Hollow Earth scenario as the fairies inhabit complexes of tunnels. The short story "Black as the Pit, From Pole to Pole" by Howard Waldrop and Steven Utley continues the journey of Frankenstein's creature through a hollow Earth. In Jeff Long's The Descent (1999), a vast labyrinth of tunnels and passages underlying the Earth is inhabited by a species of once-civilized but now brutal and degenerate hominid, Homo Hadalis. In Geraldine McCaughrean's 'The White Darkness', the characters undertake a journey to find a hole into the hollow Earth. Underland (2002) by Mick Farren has the vampire hero Victor Renquist, travelling to a hollow Earth populated by Nazi scientists, subjugated proto-scientific lizard people, and a fungus addicted race of sub-vampires. Against the Day (2006) by Thomas Pynchon makes extensive mention of the Earth's interior as a place to be explored, positing inner-Earth seas. Pynchon's Mason & Dixon also uses the idea of a Hollow Earth as the planet's final holdout for magic against the calculations of the surface's most eminent men of science. "BPRD Trade Paperback #1 contains a short story Hollow Earth. John Hodgman's book More Information Than You Require says the hollow interior of the Earth as the home of the subterranean Molemen. In the center of this Hollow Earth is a small, red sun. The Cannibal Within, by Mark Mirabello, describes an inner world inhabited by highly evolved "Unknown Superiors" that "breed us like cattle and hunt us like rabbits." Film and video The idea of a hollow Earth, often as the home of another race or species, is a common theme in comics, cartoons and computer/video games. The 1956 movie The Mole People has an introduction by Frank C. Baxter ("Dr. Research") explaining the history of Hollow Earth theories. The 2004 Japanese horror movie Marebito, directed by Takashi Shimizu, references the Hollow Earth hypothesis. The 2008 movie Journey to the Center of the Earth, as well as the similar film Journey to Middle Earth A pulp roleplaying game, Hollow Earth Expedition. Music Japanese psychedelic rock band Far East Family Band named their 1975 debut album Chikyu Kudo Setsu, whose English translation is Hollow Earth Theory, although the official English title was The Cave Down to Earth. The album's sleevenotes refer to familiar stories of entrances at the north and south poles, and of an ancient civilisation dwelling inside the Earth with connections to UFOs Reported in Julian Cope's Japrocksampler, pp. 246–7. . The band Bal-Sagoth has, on their album The Chthonic Chronicles (2006), a song about the hollow Earth called "Invocations Beyond the Outer-World Night". The Hollow Earth Theory is the name of a Emo band from Shrewsbury. Their debut album was entitled "Rise Of Agartha" in reference to the mythical Hollow Earth city. Sunn O))) on their album Monoliths & Dimensions has a song called Aghartha. See also Agartha Etidorhpa Brinsley Le Poer Trench, 8th Earl of Clancarty Cyrus Teed Dyson sphere Expanding Earth theory Flat Earth Subterranean fiction Travel to the Earth's center Journey to the Center of the Earth Vril Hollow moon Bibliography Seaborn, Captain Adam. Symzonia; Voyage of Discovery. J. Seymour, 1820. Kafton-Minkel, Walter. Subterranean Worlds. Loompanics Unlimited, 1989. Standish, David. Hollow Earth. Da Capo Press, 2006. References External links The Hollow Earth – from The UnMuseum At the Earth's Core, by Edgar Rice Burroughs Steve Currey's journey]. The North Pole Inner Earth Expedition official website The North Pole Inner Earth Expedition official signup page

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Abbotsford_House

Abbotsford in 1880. Abbotsford is a historic house in the region of the Scottish Borders in the south of Scotland, near Melrose, on the south bank of the River Tweed. It was formerly the residence of historical novelist and poet, Walter Scott. The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of 100 acres (0.4 km²), called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e., muddy) Hole, and was bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. He first built a small villa (now the western end of the house) and named it Abbotsford, creating the name from a ford nearby where previously abbots of Melrose Abbey used to cross the river. Scott then built additions to the house and made it into a mansion, building into the walls many sculptured stones from ruined castles and abbeys of Scotland. In it he gathered a large library, a collection of ancient furniture, arms and armour, and other relics and curiosities, especially connected with Scottish history. The last and principal acquisition was that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new house was then begun and completed in 1824. The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish Baronial. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. Scott had only enjoyed his residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830 the library and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's works. Abbotsford House (north elevation) Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent possessors were Scott's son-in-law, John Gibson Lockhart, J. R. Hope Scott, Q.C., and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. Abbotsford gave its name to the "Abbotsford Club", a successor of the Bannatyne and Maitland clubs, founded by William Barclay Turnbull in 1834 in Scott's honour, for printing and publishing historical works connected with his writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864. The house was opened to the public in 1833, but continued to be occupied by Scott's descendants until 2004, following the death of Dame Jean Maxwell Scott, the great, great, great granddaughter of the writer the previous year. Ground plan of Abbotsford House. Scottish Borders Council is considering an application by a property developer to build a housing estate on the opposite bank of the River Tweed from Abbotsford, to which Historic Scotland and the National Trust for Scotland object. After 200 years Scott house leaves family - Times Online Scotsman.com News In keeping with its many Walter Scott references, Rose Street in Edinburgh has a bar called the "Kenilworth", along with one named the "Abbotsford". Sir Walter Scott rescued the "jougs" from Threave Castle in Dumfries and Galloway and attached them to the castellated gateway he built at Abbotsford. Napier, George G. (1897). The Home and Haunts of Sir Walter Scott, Bart. James Maclehose, Glasgow. P. 153. References External links Abbotsford - The Home of Sir Walter Scott The Edinburgh Sir Walter Scott Club Abbotsford and Newstead Abbey by Washington Irving, from Project Gutenberg

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Alphabet

A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. An alphabet is a standardized set of letters basic written symbols each of which roughly represents a phoneme in a spoken language, either as it exists now or as it was in the past. There are other systems, such as logographies, in which each character represents a word, morpheme, or semantic unit, and syllabaries, in which each character represents a syllable. Alphabets are classified according to how they indicate vowels: the same way as consonants, as in Greek (true alphabet) abbreviation of consonants, as in Hindi (abugida) not at all, as in Phoenician (abjad) The word "alphabet' came into Middle English from the Late Latin word Alphabetum, which in turn originated in the Ancient Greek Αλφάβητος Alphabetos, from alpha and beta, the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary Alpha and beta in turn came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet, and meant ox and house respectively. There are dozens of alphabets in use today. Most of them are composed of lines (linear writing); notable exceptions are Braille, fingerspelling, and Morse code. Linguistic definition and context The term alphabet prototypically refers to a writing system that has characters (graphemes) which represent both consonant and vowel sounds, even though there may not be a complete one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound. A grapheme is an abstract entity which may be physically represented by different styles of glyphs. There are many written entities which do not form part of the alphabet, including numerals, mathematical symbols, and punctuation. Some human languages are commonly written using a combination of logograms (which represent morphemes or words) and syllabaries (which represent syllables) instead of an alphabet. Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters are two of the best-known writing systems with predominantly non-alphabetic representations. Non-written languages may also be represented alphabetically. For example, linguists researching a non-written language (such as some of the indigenous Amerindian languages) will use the International Phonetic Alphabet to enable them to write down the sounds they hear. Most, if not all, linguistic writing systems have some means for phonetic approximation of foreign words, usually using the native character set. 27 pages. History Middle Eastern Scripts A specimen of Proto-Sinaitic script, one of the earliest (if not the very first) phonemic scripts The history of the alphabet started in ancient Egypt. By 2700 BC Egyptian writing had a set of some 22 hieroglyphs to represent syllables that begin with a single consonant of their language, plus a vowel (or no vowel) to be supplied by the native speaker. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names. Daniels and Bright (1996), pp. 74–75 However, although seemingly alphabetic in nature, the original Egyptian uniliterals were not a system and were never used by themselves to encode Egyptian speech. In the Middle Bronze Age an apparently "alphabetic" system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script is thought by some to have been developed in central Egypt around 1700 BC for or by Semitic workers, but only one of these early writings has been deciphered and their exact nature remains open to interpretation. Coulmas (1989), p. 140-141 Based on letter appearances and names, it is believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs. This script eventually developed into the Proto-Canaanite alphabet, which in turn was refined into the Phoenician alphabet. It also developed into the South Arabian alphabet, from which the Ge'ez alphabet (an abugida) is descended. Note that the scripts mentioned above are not considered proper alphabets, as they all lack characters representing vowels. These early vowelless alphabets are called abjads, and still exist in scripts such as Arabic, Hebrew and Syriac. Phoenician was the first major phonemic script. Daniels and Bright (1996), pp. 92–96. In contrast to two other widely used writing systems at the time, Cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs, it contained only about two dozen distinct letters, making it a script simple enough for common traders to learn. Another advantage of Phoenician was that it could be used to write down many different languages, since it recorded words phonemically. The script was spread by the Phoenicians, whose Thalassocracy allowed the script to be spread across the Mediterranean. In Greece, the script was modified to add the vowels, giving rise to the first true alphabet. The Greeks took letters which did not represent sounds that existed in Greek, and changed them to represent the vowels. This marks the creation of a "true" alphabet, with both vowels and consonants as explicit symbols in a single script. In its early years, there were many variants of the Greek alphabet, a situation which caused many different alphabets to evolve from it. European alphabets Codex Zographensis in the Glagolitic alphabet from Medieval Bulgaria The Cumae form of the Greek alphabet was carried over by Greek colonists from Euboea to the Italian peninsula, where it gave rise to a variety of alphabets used to inscribe the Italic languages. One of these became the Latin alphabet, which was spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their empire. Even after the fall of the Roman state, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It eventually became used for the descendant languages of Latin (the Romance languages) and then for the other languages of Europe. Another notable script is Elder Futhark, which is believed to have evolved out of one of the Old Italic alphabets. Elder Futhark gave rise to a variety of alphabets known collectively as the Runic alphabets. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from 100 AD to the late Middle Ages. Its usage was mostly restricted to engravings on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions have also been found on bone and wood. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet, except for decorative usage for which the runes remained in use until the 20th century. The Glagolitic alphabet was the script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic, and became the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet. The Cyrillic alphabet is one of the most widely used modern alphabets, and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former Soviet Union. Variants include the Serbian, Bulgarian and Russian alphabets. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by Saints Cyril and Methodius, while the Cyrillic alphabet was invented by the Bulgarian scholar Clement of Ohrid, who was their disciple. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by the Greek alphabet and the Hebrew alphabet. Asian alphabets Beyond the logographic Chinese writing, many phonetic scripts are in existence in Asia. The Arabic alphabet, Hebrew alphabet, Syriac alphabet, and other abjads of the Middle East are developments of the Aramaic alphabet, but because these writing systems are largely consonant-based they are often not considered true alphabets. Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia are descended from the Brahmi script, which is often believed to be a descendent of Aramaic. Zhuyin on a cell phone In Korea, the Hangul alphabet was created by Korean scholars under King Sejong in 1443. Understanding of the phonetic alphabet of Mongolian Phagspa script aided the creation of a phonetic script suited to the spoken Korean language. Mongolian Phagspa script was in turn derived from the Brahmi script. Hangul is a unique alphabet in a variety of ways: it is a featural alphabet, where many of the letters are designed from a sound's place of articulation (P to look like widened mouth, L sound to look like tongue pulled in, etc.); its design was planned by the government of the time; and it places individual letters in syllable clusters with equal dimensions, in the same way as Chinese characters, to allow for mixed script writing (one syllable always takes up one type-space no matter how many letters get stacked into building that one sound-block). Zhuyin (sometimes called Bopomofo) is a semi-syllabary used to phonetically transcribe Mandarin Chinese in the Republic of China. After the later establishment of the People's Republic of China and its adoption of Hanyu Pinyin, the use of Zhuyin in Mainland China today is limited, but it's still widely used in Taiwan where the Republic of China still governs. Zhuyin developed out of a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet the phonemes of syllable initials are represented by individual symbols, but like a syllabary the phonemes of the syllable finals are not; rather, each possible final (excluding the medial glide) is represented by its own symbol. For example, luan is represented as ㄌㄨㄢ (l-u-an), where the last symbol ㄢ represents the entire final -an. While Zhuyin is not used as a mainstream writing system, it is still often used in ways similar to a romanization system that is, for aiding in pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cell phones. European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad (as with Urdu and Persian) and sometimes as a complete alphabet (as with Kurdish and Uyghur) Types [[Image:800px-Writing_systems_worldwide1.png|500px|thumb|Alphabets: Latin , Latin and Arabic , <font color="white">Cyrillic</font color> , Latin and Cyrillic , <font color="white">Greek</font color> , <span style="background-color:brown;color:white;"> Georgian]] </span>, Armenian Abjads: Arabic , Hebrew and Arabic Abugidas: North Indic , South Indic , Ethiopic , Thaana Canadian Syllabic , Logographic+syllabic: Pure logographic , Mixed logographic and syllabaries , Featural-alphabetic syllabary + limited logographic Featural-alphabetic syllabary The term "alphabet" is used by linguists and paleographers in both a wide and a narrow sense. In the wider sense, an alphabet is a script that is segmental at the phoneme level that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script, abjads and abugidas. These three differ from each other in the way they treat vowels: abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed; abugidas are also consonant-based, but indicate vowels with diacritics to or a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, on the other hand, consonants and vowels are written as independent letters. The earliest known alphabet in the wider sense is the Wadi el-Hol script, believed to be an abjad, which through its successor Phoenician is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin (via the Old Italic alphabet), Cyrillic (via the Greek alphabet) and Hebrew (via Aramaic). Examples of present-day abjads are the Arabic and Hebrew scripts; true alphabets include Latin, Cyrillic, and Korean hangul; and abugidas are used to write Tigrinya Amharic, Hindi, and Thai. The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida rather than a syllabary as their name would imply, since each glyph stands for a consonant which is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. (In a true syllabary, each consonant-vowel combination would be represented by a separate glyph.) The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script, which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the Phagspa script of the Mongol Empire was based closely on the Tibetan abugida, but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short a was not written, as in the Indic abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the Tigrinya abugida and the Amharic abugida (ironically, the original source of the term "abugida") have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the modifications are no longer systematic and have to be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became logographic. (See below.) Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For tonal languages, further classification can be based on their treatment of tone, though names do not yet exist to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in Somali and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for Vietnamese (a true alphabet) and Thai (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the Pollard script, an abugida, vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to indicate the tone. More rarely, a script may have separate letters for tones, as is the case for Hmong and Zhuang. For most of these scripts, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas; in Zhuyin not only is one of the tones unmarked, but there is a diacritic to indicate lack of tone, like the virama of Indic. The number of letters in an alphabet can be quite small. The Book Pahlavi script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the Rotokas alphabet has only twelve letters. (The Hawaiian alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the ʻokina and five long vowels.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been conflated that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in Arabic, another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented g, d, y, k, or j. However, such apparent simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi papyri, up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions of these twelve letters were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but instead each word had to be learned as a whole that is, they had become logograms as in Egyptian Demotic. The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, Devanagari. When written in Devanagari, Vedic Sanskrit has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the visarga mark for final aspiration and special letters for kš and jñ, though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the khutma letters (letters with a dot added) to represent sounds from Persian and English. The largest known abjad is Sindhi, with 51 letters. The largest alphabets in the narrow sense include Kabardian and Abkhaz (for Cyrillic), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and Slovak (for the Latin alphabet), with 46. However, these scripts either count di- and tri-graphs as separate letters, as Spanish did with ch and ll until recently, or uses diacritics like Slovak č. The largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent is probably Georgian, with 41 letters. Syllabaries typically contain 50 to 400 glyphs (though the Múra-Pirahã language of Brazil would require only 24 if it did not denote tone, and Rotokas would require only 30), and the glyphs of logographic systems typically number from the many hundreds into the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script. It is not always clear what constitutes a distinct alphabet. French uses the same basic alphabet as English, but many of the letters can carry additional marks, such as é, à, and ô. In French, these combinations are not considered to be additional letters. However, in Icelandic, the accented letters such as á, í, and ö are considered to be distinct letters of the alphabet. In Spanish, ñ is considered a separate letter, but accented vowels such as á and é are not. The double L and ch were also considered separate letters to a single l and c, respectively, but in 1994 the Real Academia Española changed them so that ll is between lk and lm in the dictionary and ch is between cg and ci. Real Academia Española. "Spanish Pronto!: Spanish Alphabet." Spanish Pronto! 22 April 2007. January 2009 Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with ligatures, such as æ in Old English and Icelandic; and Ȣ in Algonquian; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the thorn þ in Old English and Icelandic, which came from the Futhark runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the eth ð of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modified d. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, and Italian, which only uses the letters j, k, x, y and w in foreign words. Alphabetic order It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as Hanunoo, are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for collation where a definite order is required. However, a dozen Ugaritic tablets from the fourteenth century BC preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, the ABGDE order later used in Phoenician, has continued with minor changes in Hebrew, Greek, Armenian, Gothic, Cyrillic, and Latin; the other, HMĦLQ, was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in Ethiopic. Millard, A.R. "The Infancy of the Alphabet", World Archaeology 17, No. 3, Early Writing Systems (Feb., 1986): 390–398. page 395. Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years. The historical order was abandoned in Runic and Arabic, although Arabic retains the traditional "abjadi order" for numbering. The Brahmic family of alphabets used in India use a unique order based on phonology: The letters are arranged according to how and where they are produced in the mouth. This organization is used in Southeast Asia, Tibet, Korean hangul, and even Japanese kana, which is not an alphabet. The Phoenician letter names, in which each letter is associated with a word that begins with that sound, continue to be used in Samaritan, Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, and Greek. However, they were abandoned in Arabic, Cyrillic and Latin. Orthography and spelling Each language may establish certain general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes, but, depending on the language, these rules may or may not be consistently followed. In a perfectly phonological alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions: a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling. However, languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language. Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways: A language may represent a given phoneme with a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called digraphs and three-letter groups are called trigraphs. German uses the tesseragraphs (four letters) "tsch" for the phoneme and "dsch" for , although the latter is rare. Kabardian also uses a tesseragraph for one of its phonemes. A language may represent the same phoneme with two different letters or combinations of letters. An example is modern Greek which may write the phoneme in six different ways: "ι", "η", "υ", "ει", "οι" and "υι" (although the last is very rare). A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons. Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence (sandhi). Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word. A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items, such as the Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original Germanic vocabulary. National languages generally elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard. However, with an international language with wide variations in its dialects, such as English, it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet. Some national languages like Finnish, Turkish and Bulgarian have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. Strictly speaking, there is no word in the Finnish, Turkish and Bulgarian languages corresponding to the verb "to spell" (meaning to split a word into its letters), the closest match being a verb meaning to split a word into its syllables. Similarly, the Italian verb corresponding to 'spell', compitare, is unknown to many Italians because the act of spelling itself is almost never needed: each phoneme of Standard Italian is represented in only one way. However, pronunciation cannot always be predicted from spelling in cases of irregular syllabic stress. In standard Spanish, it is possible to tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa; this is because certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. French, with its silent letters and its heavy use of nasal vowels and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. At the other extreme, however, are languages such as English, where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a consistent way. For English, this is because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. However, even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time. Rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a high failure rate for English. Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform in order to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system itself, as when Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to the Roman alphabet. The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the International Phonetic Alphabet. See also ABC-DEF-GHI Abecedarium Acrophony Akshara Alphabet Effect Alphabet song Alphabetical order Alphabetize Character encoding Constructed script English alphabet Lipogram List of alphabets NATO phonetic alphabet Pangram Transliteration Unicode References Bibliography —(Overview of modern and some ancient writing systems). —(Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing). McLuhan, Marshall; Logan, Robert K. (1977). Alphabet, Mother of Invention. Etcetera. Vol. 34, pp. 373–383 — Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing External links Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico Damqatum 3 (2007) Alphabetic Writing Systems Michael Everson's Alphabets of Europe Evolution of alphabets animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the be-x-old:Альфабэт

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michael_everson:1

List_of_intelligence_agencies

The following is a partial list of current intelligence agencies. Agencies by country A Afghanistan National Directorate of Security (NDS) Albania State Intelligence Service (SHISH); successor to SHiK Algeria Département du Renseignement et de la Sécurité Argentina Secretaría de Inteligencia (SI) (Secretariat of Intelligence) (former SIDE) Escuela Nacional de Inteligencia (ENI) (National Intelligence School) Dirección de Observaciones Judiciales (DOJ) (Directorate of Judicial Surveillance) Servicio Federal de Lucha contra el Narcotráfico (SEFECONAR) (Federal Counternarcotics Service) Sistema de Inteligencia Nacional (SIN) (National Intelligence System) Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Criminal (DNIC) (National Directorate of Criminal Intelligence) Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Estratégica Militar (DNIEM) (National Directorate of Strategic Military Intelligence) Inteligencia del Servicio Penitenciario Federal (Federal Penitentiary Service Intelligence) Inteligencia de la Policía Federal Argentina (Argentine Federal Police Intelligence) Inteligencia de la Policía Bonaerense (SIPBA) (Buenos Aires Police Intelligence) Inteligencia de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina (SIGN) (Argentine National Gendarmerie Intelligence) Inteligencia de la Prefectura Naval Argentina (SIPN) (Argentine Naval Prefecture Intelligence) Inteligencia de la Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria (Airport Security Police Intelligence) Unidad de Inteligencia Financiera (UIF) (Financial Intelligence Unit) Jefatura de Inteligencia del Estado Mayor Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas (J-2) (Intelligence Department of the Joint General Staff of the Armed Forces) Central de Reunión de Inteligencia Militar (CRIM) (Military Intelligence Collection Center) Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército (SIE) (Army Intelligence Service) Servicio de Inteligencia Naval (SIN) (Naval Intelligence Service) Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea (SIFA) (Air Force Intelligence Service) Australia Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS) Defence Intelligence Organisation (DIO) Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation (DIGO) Defence Signals Directorate (DSD) Office of National Assessments (ONA) Austria Heeresnachrichtenamt (HNA) (Army Intelligence Office) Abwehramt (AWA) (Military Protective Office) Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung (BVT) (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and Counter-Terrorism) Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung (LVT) (State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution and Counter-Terrorism) Armenia National Security Service (NSS) Azerbaijan Milli Tehlukesizlik Nazirliyi (MTN) (Ministry of National Security) Daxili İşlər Nazirliyi (DIN) (Ministry Of Internal Affairs) B Bahamas Security and Intelligence Branch (SIB) Defence Force Intelligence Branch (DFIB) Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) Bangladesh Directorate General of Forces Intelligence (DGFI) National Security Intelligence (NSI) Directorate of Military Intelligence (Dte. Mil. Int.) Directorate of Naval Intelligence (DNI) Office of Air Intelligence Criminal Investigation Department (CID) Special Branch (SB) Rifles Security Unit (RSU) Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) Belgium Staatsveiligheid / Sûreté de l'État (SV/SE) (State Security Service) Algemene Dienst Inlichting en Veiligheid / Service Général du Renseignement et de la Sécurité (ADIV/SGRS) (General Information and Security Service) Brunei Internal Security Department (Domestic) Brunei Research Department (International) Bosnia and Herzegovina Obavještajno Sigurnosna Agencija (OSA) Državna Agencija za Istrage i Zaštitu (State Investigation and Protection Agency, SIPA) Brazil Agência Brasileira de Inteligência (ABIN) (Brazilian Intelligence Agency) Bulgaria Nacionalna razuznavatelna sluzhba (NRS) (National Intelligence Service) - overseas intelligence gathering service under presidential supervision Nacionalna sluzhba sigurnost (NSS) - national counter-intelligence service under Ministry of Interior supervision Komitet za darzhavna sigurnost (KDS) (Committee for State Security) - former regime's counter-intelligence service C Canada Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) Communications Security Establishment (CSE) Canadian Forces Intelligence Branch (DND) Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC) Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre of Canada (FINTRAC) Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) China Communist Party Central Committee Ministry of State Security (MSS) Chinese: Guojia Anquan Bu (Guoanbu) Guojia Anquan Bu (Guoanbu) Ministry of Public Security People's Armed Police People's Liberation Army 8341 Unit - Central Security Regiment General Staff Department Second Department (Intelligence) Third Department (Intelligence) Fourth Department (Intelligence) General Political Department International Liaison Department People's Liberation Army Navy PLA Navy Intelligence People's Liberation Army Air Force Sixth Research Institute New China News Agency Chile Agencia Nacional de Inteligencia (ANI) (National Intelligence Agency) Colombia Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (DAS) (Administrative Department of Security) Dirección de Inteligencia de la Policía Nacional (DIPOL) Costa Rica Direccion de Inteligencia y Seguridad Nacional (DIS) (Intelligence and National Security Department) Croatia Sigurnosno-obavještajna agencija (SOA) (Security and Intelligence Agency) Vojna sigurnosno-obavještajna agencija (VSOA) (Military Security and Intelligence Agency) Cuba Dirección General de Inteligencia (DGI) (General Directorate of Intelligence) Revolutionary Armed Forces Intelligence Czech Republic Security Information Service (BIS) Úřad pro zahraniční styky a informace (UZSI) (Office for Foreign Relations and Information) Vojenské zpravodajství (Military Intelligence) D-E Denmark Politiets Efterretningstjeneste (PET) (Danish Security and Intelligence Service) Forsvarets Efterretningstjeneste (FE) (Danish Defence Intelligence Service) Democratic Republic of the Congo Agence nationale de renseignements Dominican Republic Direccion Nacional de Inteligencia (DNI) (National Directorate of Intelligence) Ecuador Consejo de Seguridad Nacional (COSENA) Secretaria del Consejo de Seguridad Nacional Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia (DNI) División de Investigación Criminal Sección de Inteligencia Comando Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas Escuela de Inteligencia Militar (Esin) Arma de Inteligencia Militar Egypt Al-Mukhabarat al-'Ammah (Egyptian General Intelligence Directorate) Mukhabarat el-Harbeya (Military Intelligence) Mabahith Amn al-Dawla al-'Ulya (State Security Investigation Bureau ) Estonia Kaitsepolitseiamet (KAPO) (Security Police Board) Riigi Teabeamet (Intelligence Service) Ethiopia Beherawi Mereja na Deheninet Derijit(Hizib Dehininet) (National Intelligence and Security Service) F-G Finland Suojelupoliisi (Supo) (Security Police, literally "Protection Police") Viestikoelaitos (VKoeL) (Finnish Intelligence Research Establishment, literally Signals Test Facility), the signals intelligence agency of the Finnish Army Puolustusvoimien Tiedustelukeskus (PVTK) (Defence Intelligence Center) France Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure (DGSE) (General Directorate of External Security) Direction Centrale du Renseignement Intérieur (DCRI) (Central Directorate of Interior Intelligence) Direction du Renseignement Militaire (DRM) (Directorate of Military Intelligence) Direction de la Protection et de la Sécurité de la Défense (DPSD) (Directorate of Protection and Defense Security) Germany Verfassungsschutz (Protection of the Constitution) Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz (BFV) (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution) Landesämter für Verfassungsschutz (LFV) (State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution) Bundesnachrichtendienst (BND) (Federal Intelligence Service) Militärischer Abschirmdienst (MAD) (Military Protective Service) Greece Ethniki Ypiresia Pliroforion (NIS) (Hellenic National Intelligence Service) Ghana National Security Council (Centre of National Security ) Bureau of National Investigations (BNI) (Internal Intelligence Agency ) Research Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs (External Intelligence Agency ) Criminal Investigations Department (CID) (Ghana Police ) Military Intelligence (MI) (Ghana Armed Forces ) H-I Hong Kong Criminal Intelligence Bureau (CIB) of the Hong Kong Police Force Joint Financial Intelligence Unit (JFIU) of the Hong Kong Police Force and the Customs and Excise Department Hungary Információs Hivatal (IH) (Information Office) Katonai Biztonsági Hivatal (KBH) (Military Security Office) Katonai Felderítő Hivatal (KFH) (Military Reconnaissance Office) Nemzetbiztonsági Hivatal (NBH) (National Security Office) Nemzetbiztonsági Szakszolgálat (NBSZ) (National Security Special Service) Iceland Greiningardeild Ríkislögreglustjóra (GRLS) (National Security Agency) (formerly Eftirgrennslanadeild Lögreglunnar and Útlendingaeftirlitið) Greiningardeild Varnarmálastofnunar Íslands (GVSÍ) (Military Intelligence Service) (formerly: Icelandic Intelligence Service (IIS)) Skattrannsóknarstjóri Ríkisins (National Tax Investigation Police) India Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW) Intelligence Bureau (IB) Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI) Criminal Investigation Department (CID) Directorate of Army Intelligence (India) Directorate of Naval Intelligence (India) Directorate of Air Intelligence (India) Directorate of Military Intelligence (India) Indonesia Badan Intelijen Negara (BIN) Iran Ministry Of Intelligence (MOIS) Iraq General Security Directorate (Iraq) (GSD) Iraqi National Intelligence Service (INIS) Ireland G2 (Military Intelligence) Special Detective Unit (formerly Special Branch) of the Garda Síochána National Surveillance Unit (NSU) of the Garda Síochána Israel ha-Mossad le-Modiin u-le-Tafkidim Myukhadim (Mossad) (Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations) Sherut ha-Bitakhon ha-Klali (Shabak or Shin Bet) (General Security Service) Agaf ha-Modi'in (Aman) (Military Intelligence) Italy Agenzia Informazioni e Sicurezza Interna (AISI): "Agency for Internal Information and Security" (domestic intelligence agency). Agenzia Informazioni e Sicurezza Esterna (AISE): "Agency for External Information and Security" (external intelligence agency). Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza (DIS): "Department of Information for Security" (classified data management, personnel training for both AISI and AISE). Comitato Interministeriale per la Sicurezza della Repubblica (CISR): "Inter-ministerial Committee for the Security of the Republic" (a joint intelligenge superivision committee). J Jamaica Jamaica Defence Force Intelligence Unit Japan Cabinet Secretariat Cabinet Intelligence and Research Office (Naikaku Joho Chosasitu) Cabinet Satellite Intelligence Center (CSICE) Ministry of Defense Bureau of Defense Policy Defense Intelligence Division (DID) Defense Intelligence Headquarters (DIH) Military Intelligence Command (JGSDF) Fleet Intelligence Command (JMSDF) Air Intelligence Wing (JASDF) National Police Agency Security Bureau (SB) Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department Public Security Bureau Ministry of Foreign Affairs Intelligence and Analysis Service (IAS) Ministry of Justice Public Security Intelligence Agency (PSIA) Jordan Da’irat al-Mukhabarat al-’Ammah (GID) (General Intelligence Department) K-M Kenya, Republic of National Security Intelligence Service (NSIS) Korea, Republic of National Intelligence Service (NIS) Latvia Satversmes aizsardzības birojs (SAB) (Bureau of Constitutional Defense) Libya Jamahiriya el-Mukhabarat Lithuania Valstybes Saugumo Departamentas (Apie VSD) (State Security Department) Antrasis operatyvinių tarnybų departamentas (AOTD) prie Krašto apsaugos ministerijos (Apie AOTD) (Second Investigation Department under Ministry of National Defence) Luxembourg Service de Renseignement de l'Etat (State Intelligence Service) Republic of Macedonia Agencija za razuznavanje (Intelligence Agency) IA Malaysia Malaysian Special Branch, a Special Branch Royal Intelligence Corps, an intelligence agency Maldives Maldives National Defence Force (Special Assessment Unit) Maldives Police Service (Police Intelligence Division) Mexico Centro de Investigación y Seguridad Nacional (CISEN) (National Security and Investigation Center) Agencia Federal de Investigacion (AFI) (Federal Investigation Agency) Moldova Serviciul de Informaţii şi Securitate al Republicii Moldova (SIS) (Information and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova) Mongolia General Intelligence Agency of Mongolia (GIA) Montenegro National Security Agency (ANB) Morocco Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire (DST) (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance) Direction Generale pour l'Etude et la Documentation (DGED) (Directorate of Research and Documentation) N Netherlands Algemene Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst (AIVD) (General Intelligence and Security Service) Militaire Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst (MIVD) (Military Intelligence and Security Service) Fiscale Inlichtingen- en Opsporingsdienst-Economische Controledienst (FIOD-ECD) (Fiscal Intelligence and Investigation Service-Financial Control Service) Criminele Inlichtingen Eenheid (CIE) (Police Criminal Intelligence Unit) Nationale Signals Intelligence Organisatie (NSO) (National Signals Intelligence Organistation) Sociale Inlichtingen- en Opsporingsdienst (SIOD) (Social Intelligence and Investigation Service), used for investigations in the social security system New Zealand Government Communications Security Bureau Security Intelligence Service Nigeria State Security Service (SSS) National Intelligence Agency (NIA) Norway Politiets sikkerhetstjeneste (PST) (Police Security Service), formerly Politiets overvåkningstjeneste (POT) (Police Surveillance Agency) Nasjonal sikkerhetsmyndighet (NSM) (National Security Authority) Etterretningstjenesten (NIS) (Norwegian Intelligence Service) Forsvarets sikkerhetstjeneste (FOST) (Defence Security Service) (NDSS) (Norwegian Defence Security Service) P Pakistan Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) Intelligence Bureau (IB) Military Intelligence (MI) Naval Intelligence (NI) Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) Central Intelligence/Investigation Agency (CIA) Special Branch (SB) Panama Policia Secreta Nacional (La Secreta) (1909-60s first government secret agency) Guardia Silenciosa Panameñista (GUSIPA) (1930-40s short-lived secret service) Estado Mayor General ('Inteligencia') (G-2) (1950-80s PNG/PDFs military intelligence) Direccion Nacional de Informacion Policial (National Police intelligence) Servicio Nacional de Inteligencia y Seguridad (SENIS) Peru Servicio de Inteligencia Nacional (SIN) (National Intelligence Service) Philippines Police Intelligence Unit, Philippine National Police Military Intelligence Group Intelligence Service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (ISAFP) National Intelligence Coordinating Agency (NICA) National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) Naval Intelligence and Security Force (NISF) Counter-Intelligence Group (CIG) Special Staff Directorate Philippine Drug Enforcement Agency (PDEA) Poland Agencja Wywiadu (AW) (Foreign Intelligence Agency) Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego (ABW) (Internal Security Agency) Służba Wywiadu Wojskowego (SWW) (Military Intelligence Service) Służba Kontrwywiadu Wojskowego (SKW) (Military Counter-intelligence Service) Centralne Biuro Antykorupcyjne (CBA) (Central Anticorruption Bureau) Portugal Sistema de Informações da República Portuguesa (SIRP) (Intelligence System of the Portuguese Republic) Serviço de Informações de Segurança (SIS) (Security Intelligence Service) R Romania SRI (Romanian Intelligence Service) SIE (External Intelligence Service) SPP (Protection and Security Service) STS (Special Telecommunications Service) DGIA (Directorate General of Defence Intelligence) Direcţia de Informaţii Militare - DIM (Directorate of Military Intelligence) Direcţia de Siguranţă Militară - DSM / J2 (Directorate of Military Security) DGIPI (Directorate General of Information and Internal Protection - Ministry of the Interior) Russian Federation Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti (FSB) (Federal Security Service, is active within the country and deals with national security and counter-espionage) Federalnaya Sluzhba Okhrany (FSO) (Federal Bodyguard Service - corps of bodyguards for government officials; responsible for their personal security) Federalnoye Agentstvo Pravitelstvennoy Svyazi i Informatsiyi (FAPSI) (Federal Agency of Government Communications and Information - dissolved) Glavnoye Razvedyvatelnoye Upravlenie (GRU) Genshtaba (Main Intelligence Directorate of General Staff - external military intelligence service, subordinate to the Army) Sluzhba Vneshney Razvedki (SVR) (Foreign Intelligence Service - external non-military intelligence service, subordinate to President alone) S Saudi Arabia Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah (General Intelligence Directorate) Serbia Civilian agency Bezbednosno Informativna Agencija (BIA) Security Information Agency (under Government and Parliamentary control) Sluzba za istrazivanje i dokumentaciju (SID) Service for inquiry and documentation (Ministry of Foreign Afaires) Military agency Vojno-bezbednosna agencija (VBA) Military security agency (Ministry of Defence) Vojno-obavestajna agencija (VOA) Military intelligence agency (Ministry of Defence) Uprava za izvidjacko-obavestajne poslove (J-2) Reconnaissance and intelligence department (General staffs) Singapore Internal Security Department (ISD) Security and Intelligence Division (SID) Slovakia Slovenská informačná služba (SIS) (Slovak Information Service) Vojenské spravodajstvo (Military Intelligence) Vojenská spravodajská služba (VSS) (Military Intelligence Service) Vojenské obranné spravodajstvo (VOS) (Military Defence Service) Národný bezpečnostný úrad (NBÚ) (National Security Bureau) Slovenia Slovenska Obveščevalno-Varnostna Agencija (SOVA) (Slovenian Intelligence and Security Agency) South Africa National Intelligence Agency (NIA) South African Secret Service (SASS) South African National Defence Force Intelligence Division (SANDF-ID) Crime Intelligence Division, South African Police Service Somalia National Security Service (NSS) Spain Centro Nacional de Inteligencia (CNI) (National Intelligence Centre) Centro Superior de Información de la Defensa (CESID) Cuerpo Nacional de Policia (CNP) Brigada de Investigación Tecnológica (BIT) Comisaría General de la Información (CGI) Civil Guard (Servicio de información de la Guardia Civil) Spanish Army (Centro de Inteligencia de las Fuerzas Armadas) Centro Nacional de Coordinación Antiterrorista (CNCA) (National Coordination Centre for Counter-Terrorism) Customs Service (Servicio de Vigilancia Aduanera) Sudan Jihaaz Al Amn Al Watani Wal Mukhaabaraat (National Security and Intelligence Service) Sweden Militära underrättelse- och säkerhetstjänsten (MUST) (Military Intelligence and Security Directorate) Säkerhetspolisen (SÄPO) (Security Service) Kontoret för särskild inhämtning (KSI) (Office for Special Acquisition) Försvarets Radioanstalt (FRA) (Defence Radio Establishment) Underrättelsekontoret (UNDK) (Intelligence Office) Säkerhetskontoret (SÄKK) (Security Office) Sri Lanka Civil National Intelligence Bureau (NIB) Military Directorate of Military Intelligence Switzerland Strategischer Nachrichtendienst (SND) (Strategic Intelligence Service) Dienst für Analyse und Prävention (DAP) (Analysis and Prevention Service) Militärischer Nachrichtendienst (MND) (Military Intelligence Service) Luftwaffennachrichtendienst (LWND) (Air Force Intelligence Service) Syria Air Force Intelligence Directorate General Security Directorate Political Security Directorate Military Intelligence Service T Taiwan General Strategy National Security Bureau, National Security Council Civil Ministry of Justice Investigation Bureau (MJIB) National Police Agency, Ministry of Interior Semi-military Coast Guard Administration Military All Service Units Military Police Command, Ministry of National Defense Military Intelligence Bureau, General Staff Headquarters, Ministry of National Defense Military Security General Corps, General Staff Headquarters, Ministry of National Defense Political Warfare General Bureau, Ministry of National Defense Single Branch Units Staff Department of Intelligence (S2), Army Command Staff Department of Intelligence (S2), Navy Command Staff Department of Intelligence (S2), Air Force Command Thailand Sahmnakkhaogrong-hangshaat (NIA) (National Intelligence Agency) Armed Forces Security Center Department of Special Investigations Internal Security Operations Command (ISOC) Crime Suppression Division (CSD) Turkey Milli İstihbarat Teşkilatı (MİT) (National Intelligence Organization) Jandarma İstihbarat ve Terörle Mücadele (JİTEM) (Gendarmerie Intelligence and Counter-Terrorism Bureau) Emniyet Genel Müdürlüğü İstihbarat Daire Başkanlığı (Police Intelligence Bureau) Genelkurmay İstihbarat Daire Başkanlığı (Joint Chief of Staff Intelligence Bureau) Kara Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı İstihbarat Başkanlığı (Army Intelligence Bureau) Deniz Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı İstihbarat Başkanlığı (Naval Intelligence Bureau) Hava Kuvvetleri Komutanlığı İstihbarat Başkanlığı (Air Force Intelligence Bureau) Milli Güvenlik Kurulu Genel Sekreterliği (MGK) (National Security Council) sahil güvenlik istihbarat birimi daire başkanlığı Turkmenistan Committee for National Security (KNB) U Ukraine Central Intelligence Directorate Holovne Upravlinnya Rozvidky (HUR) Foreign Intelligence Service of Ukraine Sluzhba Zovnishnioyi Rozvidky Ukrayiny (SZR or SZRU) National Bureau of Investigation (NBI) Security Service of Ukraine Sluzhba Bezpeky Ukrayiny (SBU) United Kingdom Tasking and strategic direction Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC) National Agencies Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or colloquially MI6) Security Service (colloquially MI5) Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) Military all source analysis and direction Defence Intelligence Staff (DIS) United States Office of the Director of National Intelligence Independent Agencies Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) United States Department of Defense Air Force Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Agency (AF ISR) AIA Military Intelligence Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) Marine Corps Intelligence Activity National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) National Reconnaissance Office (NRO) National Security Agency (NSA) Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) United States Department of Energy Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence United States 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agencies List of intelligence gathering disciplines Secret police Secret service External links FAS report List of intelligence agencies on Politicalinformation.net Proposal for a Privacy Protection Guideline on Secret Personal Data Gathering and Transborder Flows of Such Data in the Fight against Terrorism and Serious Crime by Marcel Stuessi

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Leslie_Caron

Leslie Claire Margaret Caron () (born 1 July 1931) is a two-time Academy Award-nominated French film actress and dancer. She was one of the most famous Hollywood musical stars in the 1950s. Caron is best known for the musical films Gigi, Lili, An American in Paris, and Daddy Long Legs, and for the non-musical films The L-Shaped Room, Father Goose, and Fanny. Early years Caron was born in Boulogne-sur-Seine, Seine (now Boulogne-Billancourt, Hauts-de-Seine), France, to Claude Caron, a French chemist, and Margaret Petit, an American dancer. Caron was prepared for a performing career from childhood by her mother. Career from the trailer for Lili (1953) Caron started her career as a ballet dancer. But eventually Gene Kelly discovered her, and cast her to appear opposite him in the classic musical An American in Paris (1951), a role initially to be danced by Cyd Charisse, who was pregnant. This led to a long-term MGM contract and a string of films, which included the musical The Glass Slipper (1955) and the drama Gaby (1956). She also starred in the hit musicals Daddy Long Legs (1955) with Fred Astaire, Gigi (1958) with Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier, and Lili (1953) with Mel Ferrer. In 1953, Caron was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress for her starring role in Lili. In 1963, she was also nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performance in the British drama The L-Shaped Room. In the 1960s and thereafter, Caron worked in European films as well. Caron once said of herself: "I'm not a ballerina. I'm a hoofer." Famous Dance Quotes - Famous Quotes about Dancing Retrieved on 2008-11-11. Her later film assignments included Cary Grant's Father Goose (1964); Ken Russell's Valentino (1977), in the role of silent-screen legend Alla Nazimova; and Louis Malle's Damage (1992). She continues to act, appearing in the acclaimed film Chocolat (2000). She is one of the few leading ladies (or actors of any type for that matter) from the classic era of MGM musicals who is still active in film. (Others are Mickey Rooney, Debbie Reynolds, Dean Stockwell, Rita Moreno, Margaret O'Brien, June Lockhart and others.) Her recent films include Funny Bones (1995) with Jerry Lewis and Oliver Platt, The Last of the Blonde Bombshells (2000) with Judi Dench and Cleo Laine, and Le Divorce (2003) with Kate Hudson and Naomi Watts. Most recently, Caron's guest appearance on Law and Order: Special Victims Unit earned her a 2007 Primetime Emmy Award. On April 27, 2009, Caron traveled to New York as an honored guest at a tribute to Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe at the Paley Center for Media (formerly the Museum of Television and Radio), where spoke to the audience about her work on the Lerner and Loewe film Gigi (and An American in Paris, which had a screenplay by Lerner). Personal life Caron married George Hormel II, a grandson of the founder of Hormel (a meat-packing company) in September 1951. They divorced in 1954. "Mill on the Willow: A History of Mower County, Minnesota" by various authors. Library of Congress No. 84-062356 Her second husband was Peter Hall, British theatre and film director. They wed in 1956 and had two children, Christopher John Hall (TV producer) in 1957 and Jennifer Caron Hall (actress) in 1962. Caron had an affair with Warren Beatty (1961). When she and Hall divorced in 1965, Beatty was named as a co-respondent and was ordered by the London court to pay "the costs of the case." In 1969, Caron married Michael Laughlin, best known as producer of the film Two-Lane Blacktop. They were divorced in 1980. Caron was also romantically linked to Dutch television actor Robert Wolders from 1994 to 1995, and was married to film crew member, Paul Magwood, with whom she had lived since 2003 in Wisconsin but divorced. Leslie Caron at Hollywood.com Retrieved on 2008-11-11. In semi-retirement from films, she owns and operates an affordable bed and breakfast, Auberge La Lucarne aux Chouettes (The Owls' Nest Inn), located in Villeneuve-sur-Yonne, located about 112 km (70 miles) south of Paris. Filmography Film An American in Paris (1951) The Man with a Cloak (1951) The Million Dollar Nickel (1952) (short subject) Glory Alley (1952) The Story of Three Loves (1953) Lili (1953) The Glass Slipper (1955) Daddy Long Legs (1955) Gaby (1956) Gigi (1958) The Doctor's Dilemma (1958) The Man Who Understood Women (1959) The Subterraneans (1960) Austerlitz (1960) Fanny (1961) Three Fables of Love (1962) Guns of Darkness (1962) The L-Shaped Room (1962) Father Goose (1964) A Very Special Favor (1965) Promise Her Anything (1965) Is Paris Burning? (1966) The Head of the Family (1969) Madron (1970) Chandler (1971) Purple Night (1972) Surreal Estate (1976) The Man Who Loved Women (1977) Valentino (1977) Nicole (1978) Goldengirl (1979) All Stars (1980) Chanel Solitaire (1981) Imperative (1982) Dangerous Moves (1984) Courage Mountain (1990) Damage (1992) The Genius (1993) Warriors and Prisoners (1994) A Hundred and One Nights of Simon Cinema (1995) (scenes deleted) Funny Bones (1995) The Reef (1999) From Russia to Hollywood: The 100-Year Odyssey of Chekhov and Shdanoff (1999) (documentary) Chocolat (2000) Le Divorce (2003) Television ITV Play of the Week (1 episode, 1959) Les Fables de La Fontaine (unknown episodes, 1964) Carola (1973) QB VII (unknown episodes, 1974) Docteur Erika Werner (1978) The Contract (1980) Mon meilleur Noël (1 episode, 1981) Tales of the Unexpected (1 episode, 1982) The Unapproachable (1982) Le Château faible (1983) Master of the Game (1984) Le Génie du faux (1985) Falcon Crest (3 episodes, 1987) The Man Who Lived at the Ritz (1988) Lenin: The Train (1990) The Great War and the Shaping of the 20th Century (1 episode, 1996) voice The Ring (1996) The Last of the Blonde Bombshells (2000) Murder on the Orient Express (2001) Law & Order: Special Victims Unit (2006) Episode: "Recall" References External links Leslie Caron at the Notable Names Database Leslie Caron's hotel in Burgundy, France Cinema Retro covers A.M.P.A.S. tribute to Leslie Caron ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | Golden Globe Awards |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | BAFTA Awards |-

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Blitzkrieg

The defining characteristic of what is commonly known as “Blitz” is a highly mobile form of mechanized warfare. This photo was taken during operations along the Terek River in 1942. Blitzkrieg (German, "lightning war") is "a headline word applied retrospectively to describe a military doctrine of an all-mechanized force concentrating on its attack on a small section of the enemy front then, once the latter is pierced, proceeding without regard to its flank." Keegan, John, The Mask of Command, p.259 As British military historian Sir John Keegan has noted, it was an idea which owed its creation to soldiers of several nations: the British theorists of tank warfare Major General J.F.C. Fuller, who pioneered the first massed tank offensive at Cambrai in 1917, German generals Heinz Guderian and Oswald Lutz, and the French general J.E.B. Estienne who, independently of the British, had invented a tank in 1915. Shirer, William, The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940, p.175 In the Soviet Union Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky was developing similar tactics, specifically infiltration tactics were a philosophical solution to a philosophically viewed problem". Both solutions nevertheless proved to be only partial answers to the ever-thickening trench systems. Keegan, The Mask of Command, p.251 It has been alleged Captain Basil Liddell Hart also influenced the creation of Blitzkrieg. In recent years it has been revealed that Liddell Hart fabricated his involvement in creating the Blitzkireg "doctrine". Naveh 1997, pp. 107-110 During the inter-war years, after the embryonic technologies of the airplane and tank had matured and were combined with systematic application of the German tactics of infiltration and bypassing of enemy strong points, leaving them to be reduced by eingreif, or "interlocking", divisions Keegan, The Mask of Command p.260 , the doctrine of armored warfare known as blitzkrieg, as it would later be labeled by Western journalists during the 1939 invasion of Poland Keegan, John, The Second World War p.54 , came into being. However, this was achieved only in the teeth of fierce resistance of traditionalists in the German, Soviet and French High Commands, despite the fact that the French and, particularly, the Soviet armies outnumbered the Germans in both quantity Kennedy, Paul, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp.340, 352 (see Table 33) and quality of tanks. Shirer, William; The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940, p.626 The resistance was overcome in the German army, largely by a chance meeting between Adolf Hitler and General Gerd von Rundstedt, at which the General was able to expound his ideas to the Führer, who quickly adopted the ideas as his own. Keegan, John, The Mask of Command, p.54ff. In France, Marshal Philippe Pétain and other aged generals managed to stifle its development. The Red Army was well on its way to developing similar armored strategy when Stalin's destruction of its officer corps, particularly his murder of Tukhachevsky, ended it. Thus, both the French and Soviet Armies assigned their tanks to a support role for infantry, thereby diffusing the concentrated power that all-tank formations could deliver. As a result, by 1939, the Wehrmacht was the only army in the world to have fully developed the concept of the all-armored division, supported by mechanized infantry and specialized tactical attack aircraft. Despite the numerical superiority and qualitative edge of Russian and French armor, the German General Staff proved, as it had in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, superiority of operational doctrine could overcome an enemy's superiority in Materialschlacht (the "Battle of Material"). It was this methodological diligence that had led the victorious World War I Allies to ban the German General Staff in the Treaty of Versailles. Blitzkrieg operations were particularly effective in the German invasions of Western Europe and initial operations in the Soviet Union. These operations were dependent on surprise penetrations (e.g. the penetration of the Ardennes forest region), general enemy unpreparedness and an inability to react swiftly enough to the attacker's offensive operations. Shirer, William, The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Fall of France in 1940, Ch.29–31, "The Fall of France I, II, (and) III" for a (partially eye-witnessed) account of the strategic and tactical success in the Battle of France Only later, during the invasion of the Soviet Union, would the flaws of "blitzkrieg" come to be realized. In France and Poland, the foot-bound infantry had been, at most, a few hours behind the armored spearheads. In the vast, open Russian steppe, delays of hours would become days. Keegan, John, The Mask of Command, page 265 The Allies, both in the West and the USSR, would learn from both the Wehrmacht's successes and failures in blitzkrieg warfare. Interwar years Reichswehr German operational theories began to evolve immediately after Germany's defeat in the First World War. The Treaty of Versailles limited any German Army to a maximum of 100,000 men, making impossible the deployment of massed which had characterised German strategy before the War. Although the German General Staff was also abolished by the treaty, it nevertheless continued to exist as the Truppenamt or "Troop Office", supposedly only an administrative body. Committees of veteran staff officers were formed within the Truppenamt to evaluate 57 issues of the war. Corum, James S. The Roots of Blitzkrieg : Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform, p.37 Their reports led to doctrinal and training publications, which became the standard procedures by the time of the Second World War. The Reichswehr was influenced by its analysis of pre-war German military thought, in particular its infiltration tactics of the war, and the maneuvre warfare which dominated the Eastern Front. German military history had previously been influenced heavily by Carl von Clausewitz, Alfred von Schlieffen and von Moltke the Elder, who were proponents of manoeuvre, mass, and envelopment. Their concepts were employed in the successful Franco-Prussian War and the attempted “knock-out blow” of the Schlieffen Plan in WW I. Following the war, these concepts were modified by the Reichswehr in the light of WW I experience. Its Chief of Staff, Hans von Seeckt, moved doctrine away from what he argued was an excessive focus on encirclement towards one based on speed. He advocated effecting breakthroughs against the enemy's centre when it was more profitable than encirclement, or where encirclement was not practical. Under his command, a modern update of the doctrinal system called Bewegungskrieg ("maneuver warfare") and its associated leadership system called Auftragstaktik ("mission tactics"; i.e., units are assigned missions; local commanders decide how to achieve those missions) was developed, which influenced German operational planning in the Second World War. Bewegungskrieg required a new command hierarchy that allowed military decisions to be made closer to the unit level. This allowed units to react and make effective decisions faster, which was a critical advantage and a major reason for the success of blitzkrieg. Von Seekt also rejected the notion of mass which von Schlieffen and von Moltke had advocated. While reserves had comprised up to four-tenths of German forces in pre-war campaigns, von Seeckt sought the creation of a small, professional (volunteer) military backed by a defense-oriented militia. In modern warfare, he argued, such a force was more capable of offensive action, could be readied and mobilised more quickly, and would be less expensive to equip with more modern weapons. German leadership had also been criticized for failing to understand the technical advances of the First World War, having given tank production the lowest priority and having conducted no studies of the machine gun prior to that war. Corum, James S. The Roots of Blitzkrieg : Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform, p.23. In response, German officers attended technical schools during this period of rebuilding after the war. The infiltration tactics developed by the German Army during the First World War became the basis for later tactics. German infantry had advanced in small, decentralised groups which bypassed resistance in favour of advancing at weak points and attacking rear-area communications. This was aided by coordinated artillery and air bombardments, and followed by larger infantry forces with heavy guns, which destroyed centres of resistance. These concepts formed the basis of the Wehrmacht's tactics during the Second World War. On Eastern Front of World War I, where combat did not bog down into trench warfare, German and Russian armies fought a war of maneuvre over thousands of miles, giving the German leadership unique experience which the trench-bound Western Allies did not have. Corum, James S. The Roots of Blitzkrieg : Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform, p.7 Studies of operations in the East led to the conclusion that small and coordinated forces possessed more combat worth than large, uncoordinated forces. Foreign influence During this period, all the war's major combatants developed mechanized force theories. However, the official doctrines of the Western Allies differed substantially from those of the Reichswehr. British, French, and American doctrines broadly favoured a more deliberate set-piece battle, using mechanized forces to maintain the impetus and momentum of an offensive. There was less emphasis on combined arms, deep penetration or concentration. In short, their philosophy was not too different from that which they had at the end of World War 1. Although early Reichswehr periodicals contained many translated works from Allied sources, they were rarely adopted. Technical advances in foreign countries were, however, observed and used in part by the Weapons Office of the Reichswehr. Foreign doctrines are widely considered to have had little serious influence. Argued by Corum, Edwards, and House. This is not to include theories which were not adopted as actual doctrine, on which there are varied views. Britain British theorists J.F.C. Fuller and Captain B. H. Liddell Hart have often been associated with the development of blitzkrieg, though this is a matter of controversy. In recent years historians have uncovered that Liddell Hart distorted and falsified facts to make it appear as if his ideas were adopted. Naveh 1997, p. 108. After the war Liddell Hart imposed his own perceptions, after the event, claiming that the mobile tank warfare practiced by the Wehrmacht was a result of his influence. Naveh 1997, p. 108. Blitzkrieg itself is not an official doctrine and historians in recent times have come to the conclusion it did not exist as such: It was the opposite of a doctrine. Blitzkrieg consisted of an avalanche of actions that were sorted out less by design and more by success. In hindsight - and with some help from Liddell Hart - this torrent of action was squeezed into something it never was: an operational design. Naveh 1997, pp. 107-108. Paret 1986, p. 587. By manipulation and contrivance, Liddell Hart distorted the actual circumstances of the Blitzkrieg formation and he obscured its origins. Through his indoctrinated idealization of an ostentatious concept he reinforced the myth of Blitzkrieg. By imposing, retrospectively, his own perceptions of mobile warfare upon the shallow concept of Blitzkrieg, he "created a theoretical imbroglio that has taken 40 years to unravel." Naveh 1997, pp. 108-109. The early 1950s literature transformed Blitzkrieg into a historical military doctrine, which carried the signature of Liddell Hart and Heinz Guderian. The main evidence of Liddell Hart's deceit and "tendentious" report of history can be found in his letters to the German Generals Erich von Manstein and Heinz Guderian, as well as relatives and associates of Erwin Rommel. Liddell Hart, in letters to Guderian, "imposed his own fabricated version of Blitzkrieg on the latter and compelled him to proclaim it as original formula". Naveh 1997, p. 109. Danchev 1998, p. 239 Historian Kenneth Macksey found Liddell Hart's original letters to Guderian, in the General's papers, requesting that Guderian give him credit for "impressing him" with his ideas of armoured warfare. When Liddell Hart was questioned about this in 1968, and the discrepancy between the English and German editions of Guderian's memoirs, "he gave a conveniently unhelpful though strictly truthful reply. ('There is nothing about the matter in my file of correspondence with Guderian himself except...that I thanked him...for what he said in that additional paragraph'.)". Danchev 1998, pp. 235-239. During World War I, Fuller had been a staff officer attached to the newly-developed tank force, and was instrumental in planning the 1917 Battle of Cambrai, the first large-scale armoured offensive. He later developed plans for massive, independent tank operations and was subsequently studied by the German military. It is variously argued that Fuller's wartime plans and post-war writings were an inspiration, or that his readership was low and German experiences during the war received more attention. The Germans' view of themselves as the losers of the war may be linked to the senior and experienced officers' undertaking a thorough review, studying, and rewriting of all their Army doctrine and training manuals. The UK's response was much weaker. Corum, James S. The Roots of Blitzkrieg : Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform, p.39 Both Fuller and Liddell Hart were "outsiders": Liddell Hart was unable to serve as an active soldier because of ill-health, and Fuller's abrasive personality resulted in his premature retirement in 1933. Their views therefore had limited impact within the British Army's official hierarchy. The British War Office did permit the formation of an Experimental Mechanized Force on 1 May 1927, composed of tanks, lorried infantry, self propelled artillery and motorized engineers, but financial constraints prevented the experiment from being extended. Although the British Army's lessons were mainly drawn from the infantry and artillery offensives on the Western Front in late 1918, one "sideshow" theatre had witnessed operations that involved some aspects of what would later become blitzkrieg. In Palestine, General Edmund Allenby had used cavalry to seize railway and communication centres deep in the enemy rear in the Battle of Megiddo in September 1918, while aircraft disrupted enemy lines of communication and headquarters. These methods had induced "strategic paralysis" among the defending Ottoman troops and led to their rapid and complete collapse. A comparatively less-discussed development was the recognition by Allied industrial and political figures (rather than military leaders), that maintenance of momentum required new methods and equipment. The British Ministry of Munitions under Winston Churchill was seeking in 1918 to develop mechanical means of achieving this. They planned to construct large numbers of vehicles with cross-country mobility, but the war ended before their efforts bore fruit. Winston Churchill, The World Crisis 1911–1918, Vol. 2, Odhams Press, UK. France French doctrine was based on the "continuous defence". During World War I, even where defensive lines appeared to have been completely broken, such as during Operation Michael or the Battle of Amiens, the defenders could move reserves to the threatened sector by rail or lorry faster than attackers advancing on foot could exploit a breakthrough. Under Marshal Philippe Petain, French military doctrine concentrated on perfecting the defensive methods of 1918. Colonel Charles de Gaulle was a known advocate of concentration of armor and airplanes. His opinions were expressed in his book, Vers l'Armée de Métier (Towards the Professional Army). Like von Seeckt, he concluded that France could no longer maintain the huge armies of conscripts and reservists with which World War I had been fought, and sought to use tanks, mechanized forces and aircraft to allow a smaller number of highly trained soldiers to have greater impact in battle. His views little endeared him to the French high command, but are claimed by some to have influenced Heinz Guderian. 1925-1940 : un officier anticonformiste - © www.charles-de-gaulle.org Russia In 1916, General Alexei Brusilov had used infiltration tactics and surprise during the Brusilov Offensive. Later, Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky, one of the most prominent officers of the Red Army of the Soviet Union during the inter-war years, developed the concept of deep operations from his experiences of the Polish-Soviet War. These concepts would guide Red Army doctrine throughout World War II. Realising the limitations of infantry and cavalry, Tukhachevsky was an advocate of mechanized formations, and the large-scale industrialisation required. The Reichswehr and the Red Army collaborated in war games and tests in Kazan and Lipetsk beginning in 1926. Set within the Soviet Union, these two centers were used to field test aircraft and armored vehicles up to the battalion level, as well as housing aerial and armored warfare schools through which officers were rotated. This was done in the Soviet Union, in secret, to evade the Treaty of Versailles's occupational agent, the Inter-Allied Commission. Edwards, Roger, Panzer, a Revolution in Warfare : 1939-1945, p.23 Guderian in the Wehrmacht Following Germany's military reforms of the 1920s, Heinz Guderian emerged as a strong proponent of mechanized forces. Within the Inspectorate of Transport Troops, Guderian and colleagues performed theoretical and field exercise work. There was opposition from many officers who gave primacy to the infantry or simply doubted the usefulness of the tank. Among them was Chief of the General Staff Ludwig Beck (1935–38), who was skeptical that armored forces could be decisive. Nonetheless, the panzer divisions were established during his tenure. Guderian's leadership was supported, fostered and institutionalised by his supporters in the Reichswehr General Staff system, which worked the Army to greater and greater levels of capability through massive and systematic Movement Warfare war games in the 1930s. Guderian argued that the tank was the decisive weapon of war. "If the tanks succeed, then victory follows", he wrote. In an article addressed to critics of tank warfare, he wrote "until our critics can produce some new and better method of making a successful land attack other than self-massacre, we shall continue to maintain our beliefs that tanks—properly employed, needless to say—are today the best means available for land attack." Addressing the faster rate at which defenders could reinforce an area than attackers could penetrate it during the First World War, Guderian wrote that "since reserve forces will now be motorized, the building up of new defensive fronts is easier than it used to be; the chances of an offensive based on the timetable of artillery and infantry co-operation are, as a result, even slighter today than they were in the last war." He continued, "We believe that by attacking with tanks we can achieve a higher rate of movement than has been hitherto obtainable, and—what is perhaps even more important—that we can keep moving once a breakthrough has been made." Guderian's remarks are from an unnamed article published in the National Union of German Officers, 15 October 1937 as quoted in Panzer Leader, pp.39–46. Italics removed — the quoted sections are all italics in the original. Guderian additionally required that tactical radios be widely used to facilitate co-ordination and command by having one installed in all tanks. Organization of a 1941 German panzer division. After becoming head of state in 1934, Adolf Hitler ignored the Versailles Treaty provisions. A command for armored forces was created within the German Wehrmacht; the Panzertruppe, as it came to be known later. The Luftwaffe, the German air force, was re-established, and development begun on ground-attack aircraft and doctrines. Hitler was a strong supporter of this new strategy. He read Guderian's book Achtung! Panzer! and upon observing armored field exercises at Kummersdorf he remarked “That is what I want—and that is what I will have.” Guderian, Heinz; Panzer Leader, p.46. Edwards, Roger, Panzer, a Revolution in Warfare : 1939-1945, p.24 Guderian's armored concept Heinz Guderian probably was the first to fully develop and advocate the principles associated with blitzkrieg. He summarized combined-arms tactics as the way to get the mobile and motorized armored divisions to work together and support each other in order to achieve decisive success. In his book, Panzer Leader, he said, Guderian believed that certain development in technology was required to support the entire theory; especially in communications with which the armored divisions, and tanks especially should be equipped (Wireless Communications). Guderian insisted in 1933 to the high command that every tank in the German armored force must be equipped with radio. Guderian, Heinz; Panzer Leader, p.20' Spanish Civil War German volunteers first used armor in live field conditions during the Spanish Civil War of 1936. Armor commitment consisted of Panzer Battalion 88, a force built around three companies of PzKpfw I tanks that functioned as a training cadre for Nationalists. The Luftwaffe deployed squadrons of fighters, dive-bombers, and transports as the Condor Legion. Edwards, Roger; Panzer, a Revolution in Warfare : 1939-1945, p.145. Guderian called the tank deployment “on too small a scale to allow accurate assessments to be made.” Edwards, Roger; Panzer, a Revolution in Warfare : 1939-1945, p.25. The true test of his “armored idea” would have to wait for the Second World War. However, the Luftwaffe also provided volunteers to Spain to test both tactics and aircraft in combat, including the first combat use of the Stuka. During the war, the Condor Legion undertook the bombing of Guernica which had a tremendous psychological effect on the populations of Europe. The results were exaggerated, and the Western Allies concluded that the "city-busting" techniques were now a part of the German way in war. The targets of the German aircraft were actually the rail lines and bridges. But lacking the ability to hit them with accuracy (only three or four Ju 87s saw action in Spain), a method of carpet bombing was chosen resulting in heavy civilian casualties. Corum 2007, p. 200. Methods of operations Schwerpunkt The Germans referred to a schwerpunkt (focal point) in the planning of operations; it was a centre of gravity towards which was made the point of maximum effort, in an attempt to seek a decisive action. Ground, mechanised and tactical air forces were concentrated at this point of maximum effort whenever possible. By local success at the schwerpunkt, a small force achieved a breakthrough and gained advantages by fighting in the enemy's rear. It is summarized by Guderian as “Nicht kleckern, klotzen!” (Don't fiddle, smash!) To achieve a breakout, armored forces would attack the enemy's defensive line directly, supported by motorized infantry, artillery fire and aerial bombardment in order to create a breach in the enemy's line. Through this breach the tanks could break through without the traditional encumbrance of the slow logistics of infantry on foot. The breaching force never lost time by “stabilising its flanks” or by regrouping; rather it continued the assault in towards the interior of the enemy's lines, sometimes diagonally across them. This point of breakout has been labeled a “hinge”, but only because a change in direction of the defender's lines is naturally weak and therefore a natural target for blitzkrieg assault. In this, the opening phase of an operation, air forces sought to gain superiority over enemy air forces by attacking aircraft on the ground, bombing their airfields, and seeking to destroy them in air to air combat. A final element was the use of airborne forces beyond the enemy lines in order to disrupt enemy activities and take important positions (such as Eben Emael). While the taking of the position does not constitute part of blitzkrieg, the disruptive effect this can cause in combination with earlier elements would fit well. Paralysis Having achieved a breakthrough into the enemy's rear areas, German forces attempted to paralyze the enemy's decision making and implementation process. Moving faster than enemy forces, mobile forces exploited weaknesses and acted before opposing forces could formulate a response. Guderian wrote that “Success must be exploited without respite and with every ounce of strength, even by night. The defeated enemy must be given no peace.” Central to this is the decision cycle. Every decision made by German or opposing forces required time to gather information, make a decision, disseminate orders to subordinates, and then implement this decision through action. Through superior mobility and faster decision-making cycles, mobile forces could take action on a situation sooner than the forces opposing them. Directive control was a fast and flexible method of command. Rather than receiving an explicit order, a commander would be told of his superior's intent and the role which his unit was to fill in this concept. The exact method of execution was then a matter for the low-level commander to determine as best fit the situation. Staff burden was reduced at the top and spread among commands more knowledgeable about their own situation. In addition, the encouragement of initiative at all levels aided implementation. As a result, significant decisions could be effected quickly and either verbally or with written orders a few pages in length. Cauldron Battle An operation's final phase, the "Cauldron Battle" (German, Kesselschlacht, literally ‘kettle battle’), was a concentric attack on an encircled force. It was here that most losses were inflicted upon the enemy, primarily through the capture of prisoners and weapons. During the initial phases of Barbarossa, massive encirclements netted nearly 4,000,000 Soviet prisoners, (more than 75% of whom were to die from starvation and mistreatment by their captors) along with masses of equipment, in these "Cauldron Battles". Keegan, John; The Mask of Command, p.265 Use of Air Power A prevalent myth about the Luftwaffe and its Blitzkrieg operations is that it had a doctrine of terror bombing, in which civilians were deliberately targeted in order to break the will or aid the collapse of an enemy. Corum, James. The Luftwaffe: The Operational Air War, 1918-1940. University of Kansas Press. 2007. ISBN 0-7006-0836-2 After the bombing of Guernica in 1937 and of Rotterdam in 1940, it was commonly assumed that terror bombing was a part of Luftwaffe doctrine. During the interwar period the Luftwaffe leadership rejected the concept of terror bombing, and confined the air arms use to battlefield support of interdiction operations. Corum, James. The Luftwaffe: The Operational Air War, 1918-1940. University of Kansas Press. 2007. ISBN 0-7006-0836-2 General Walther Wever compiled a doctrine known as The Conduct of the Aerial War. In this document, which the Luftwaffe adopted, the Luftwaffe rejected Giulio Douhet's theory of terror bombing. Terror bombing was deemed to be "counter-productive", increasing rather than destroying the enemies will to resist. Corum 1997, pp. 143-144. Such bombing campaigns were regarded as diversion from the Luftwaffe's main operations; destruction of the enemy armed forces. Corum 1997, pp. 146. The bombings of Guernica, Rotterdam and Warsaw were tactical missions in support of military operations and were not intended as strategic terror attacks. Corum 1997, p. 7. Operations in history Poland, 1939 In Poland, fast moving armies encircled Polish forces (blue circles), but the blitzkrieg idea never really took hold – artillery and infantry forces acted in time-honoured fashion to crush these pockets. Despite the term blitzkrieg being coined by journalists during the Invasion of Poland of 1939, historians generally hold that German operations during it were more consistent with more traditional methods. The Wehrmacht's strategy was more inline with Vernichtungsgedanken, or a focus on envelopment to create pockets in broad-front annihilation. Panzer forces were deployed among the three German concentrations without strong emphasis on independent use, being used to create or destroy close pockets of Polish forces and seize operational-depth terrain in support of the largely un-motorized infantry which followed. The Luftwaffe gained air superiority by a combination of superior technology and numbers. The understanding of operations in Poland has shifted considerably since the Second World War. Many early postwar histories incorrectly attribute German victory to “enormous development in military technique which occurred between 1918 and 1940”, incorrectly citing that “Germany, who translated (British inter-war) theories into action...called the result Blitzkrieg.” Pitt, Barrie. The Second World War. (BPC Publishing 1966) More recent histories identify German operations in Poland as relatively cautious and traditional. Matthew Cooper wrote that He went on to say that the use of tanks “left much to be desired...Fear of enemy action against the flanks of the advance, fear which was to prove so disastrous to German prospects in the west in 1940 and in the Soviet Union in 1941, was present from the beginning of the war.” Cooper, Matthew. The German Army 1939–1945: Its Political and Military Failure John Ellis further asserted that “...there is considerable justice in Matthew Cooper's assertion that the panzer divisions were not given the kind of strategic mission that was to characterize authentic armored blitzkrieg, and were almost always closely subordinated to the various mass infantry armies.” Ellis, John. Brute Force (Viking Penguin, 1990) In fact, “Whilst Western accounts of the September campaign have stressed the shock value of the panzers and Stuka attacks, they have tended to underestimate the punishing effect of German artillery on Polish units. Mobile and available in significant quantity, artillery shattered as many units as any other branch of the Wehrmacht.” Zaloga, Steven and Majej. The Polish Campaign 1939 (Hippocrene Books, 1985) France 1940 The German invasion of France, with subsidiary attacks on Belgium and the Netherlands, consisted of two phases, Operation Yellow (Fall Gelb) and Operation Red (Fall Rot). Yellow opened with a feint conducted against the Netherlands and Belgium by two armored corps and paratroopers. The Germans had massed the bulk of their armored force in Panzer Group von Kleist, which attacked through the comparatively unguarded sector of the Ardennes and achieved a breakthrough at Sedan with air support. The group raced to the coast of the English Channel at Abbeville, thus isolating the British Expeditionary Force, Belgian Army, and some divisions of the French Army in northern France. The armored and motorized units under Guderian and Rommel initially advanced far beyond the following divisions, and indeed far in excess of that with which German high command was initially comfortable. When the German motorized forces were met with a counterattack at Arras, British tanks with heavy armour (Matilda I & IIs) created a brief panic in the German High Command. The armored and motorized forces were halted, by Hitler, outside the port city of Dunkirk which was being used to evacuate the Allied forces. Hermann Göring had promised his Luftwaffe would complete the destruction of the encircled armies but aerial operations did not prevent the evacuation of the majority of Allied troops (which the British named Operation Dynamo); some 330,000 French and British were saved. Overall, Yellow succeeded beyond almost anyone's wildest dreams, despite the claim that the Allies had 4,000 armored vehicles and the Germans 2,200, and the Allied tanks were often superior in armour and calibre of cannon. Guderian, Heinz; Panzer Leader, p.94 It left the French armies much reduced in strength (although not demoralised), and without much of their own armour and heavy equipment. Operation Red then began with a triple-pronged panzer attack. The XV Panzer Corps attacked towards Brest, XIV Panzer Corps attacked east of Paris, towards Lyon, and Guderian's XIX Panzer Corps completed the encirclement of the Maginot Line. The defending forces were hard pressed to organize any sort of counter-attack. The French forces were continually ordered to form new lines along rivers, often arriving to find the German forces had already passed them. Ultimately, the French army and nation collapsed after barely two months of mobile operations, in contrast to the four years of trench warfare of the First World War. The French president of the Ministerial Council, Reynaud, attributed the collapse in a speech on 21 May 1940: The truth is that our classic conception of the conduct of war has come up against a new conception. At the basis of this...there is not only the massive use of heavy armored divisions or cooperation between them and aeroplanes, but the creation of disorder in the enemy's rear by means of parachute raids. In actual fact, the new technologies had simply been applied to the older strategies of vernichtungsgedanke and since "the once-mighty and confident Allied armies (found) themselves torn asunder in a matter of days, brushed contemptuously aside by a German Army, which, six years previously, had been only 100,000 men strong and denied all modern instruments of offence such as tanks and heavy artillery..." the governments of those nations were eager to find a reason for it. According to Matthew Cooper, the "Blitzkrieg Myth" was more palatable for public consumption than the notion that they had simply been outfought. Cooper, Matthew. "The German Army" Additional credit has since been given to the German understanding of the need to replace planning with coordination in the use of mechanized forces, through their early recognition of the importance of radio communications on the battlefield, and then developing and adopting new and flexible strategy (decision cycle) to maximize their advantage during battle: North Africa, 1940–43 When Italy entered the war in 1940, a large Italian force faced the British Western Desert Force under Richard O'Connor on the frontier between Egypt and Libya. The British force included a substantial mechanised contingent, the Mobile Force (Egypt). The concepts of operations of the Mobile Force had been worked out by its former commander, Percy Hobart, a comparatively little-known theorist of armoured operations. The British Commander in Chief in the Middle East, General Archibald Wavell, had been a staff officer under Allenby in Palestine and had extensively analysed his operations. In Operation Compass, in December 1940, O'Connor's forces effectively destroyed the Italian armies in Libya by several outflanking maneuvers that isolated the Italian front line troops, and ultimately drove across the desert to intercept and capture the retreating Italians at Beda Fomm. At this point, British forces were diverted to campaigns in Greece and elsewhere, being replaced by comparatively inexperienced units, and German armoured forces under Erwin Rommel landed in Africa to reinforce the Italians. Rommel launched a motorized offensive which destroyed many British armoured formations and drove the remaining forces back towards Egypt and the starting point of Operation Compass. The offensive was only halted when Rommel's forces were unable to capture the fortress of Tobruk near the Egyptian border, which possessed an excellent port that could have been used to drastically shorten German supply lines. The pause at Tobruk brought pure motorized operations to a halt. The resulting battles in the open desert terrain have been compared to naval encounters, rather than land battles. The great distances involved imposed logistical limitations on movements, and made it difficult to seize any objective which could cripple the enemy ability to resist. The large British armoured force which mounted Operation Crusader, the final attempt to relieve Tobruk in late 1941, had a vague mission which amounted to seeking out and destroying Rommel's armour. Rommel, having temporarily knocked out many British armoured formations, did launch an armoured raid into the British rear areas in an attempt to induce a strategic collapse among his opponents but this did not occur and he was forced to withdraw. Once again, British forces were diverted from the Middle East (on Japan's entry into the war), and once again the German Afrika Korps mounted a small-scale counterattack which recovered most of the ground lost in Crusader. Rommel's subsequent attack against the British rear at the Battle of Gazala failed, and nearly left his forces stranded and isolated. However, Rommel was able to restore his position, capture Tobruk and advance far into Egypt as a result of British failures at a tactical and operational, rather than strategic level. Supply problems and stiff resistance at the El Alamein position, the last defensive line before Egypt, halted Rommel's forces. Rommel's last major operation in Egypt, the Battle of Alam el Halfa, failed because the Allies had warning of his intentions through ULTRA, and met his advance with dug-in British forces. Lewin 1977, pp. 264-265. Most of the subsequent Allied offensives were set-piece battles, with little attempt at pursuit. Rommel had one final opportunity to use combined arms methods in Tunisia, when a spoiling attack launched at Kasserine resulted in the collapse of the American front. Denied reinforcements to exploit the opening, the Germans rejected the option to advance deep into the Allied rear. The Americans were reinforced and were able to rally, and subsequent German attacks were indecisive. The North African campaign ended with a final Allied set-piece attack which broke through the lines in front of Tunis. Soviet Union: the Eastern Front: 1941–44 Use of armored forces was crucial for both sides on the Eastern Front. Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, involved a number of breakthroughs and encirclements by motorized forces. Its stated goal was “to destroy the Russian forces deployed in the West and to prevent their escape into the wide-open spaces of Russia.” Alan Clark, Barbarossa: The Russian-German Conflict, 1941–45, New York: Quill, 1965, p.78 This was generally achieved by four panzer armies which encircled surprised and disorganized Soviet forces, followed by marching infantry which completed the encirclement and defeated the trapped forces. The first year of the Eastern Front offensive can generally be considered to have had the last successful major mobile operations. After Germany's failure to destroy the Soviets before the winter of 1941, the strategic failure above the German tactical superiority became apparent. Although the German invasion successfully conquered large areas of Soviet territory, the overall strategic effects were more limited. The Red Army was able to regroup far to the rear of the main battle line, and eventually defeat the German forces for the first time in the Battle of Moscow. In the summer of 1942, when Germany launched another offensive in the southern USSR against Stalingrad and the Caucasus, the Soviets again lost tremendous amounts of territory, only to counter-attack once more during winter. German gains were ultimately limited by Hitler diverting forces from the attack on Stalingrad itself and seeking to pursue a drive to the Caucasus oilfields simultaneously as opposed to subsequently as the original plan had envisaged. In the summer of 1943 the Wehrmacht launched another combined forces offensive operation - Zitadelle (Citadel) - against the Soviet salient at Kursk. Soviet defensive tactics were by now hugely improved, particularly in terms of artillery and effective use of air support. All the same the Battle of Kursk was a close run affair though was marked by the Soviet switch to offence and the use of the revived doctrine of deep operations. For the first time the Blitzkrieg was defeated in summer and the opposing forces were able to mount their own, successful, counter operation. By the summer of 1944 the reversal of fortune was complete and Operation Bagration saw Soviet forces inflict crushing defeats on Germany through the aggressive use of armour, infantry and air power in combined strategic assault, known as deep operations. The Jagdtiger, one of the most formidable German tank destroyers. These specialized vehicles traded mobility for firepower and protection, reflecting the defensive nature of German operations in the second half of the war. Western Front, 1944–45 As the war progressed, Allied armies began using combined arms formations and deep penetration strategies that Germany had used in the opening years of the war. Many Allied operations in the Western Desert and on the Eastern Front relied on massive concentrations of firepower to establish breakthroughs by fast-moving armored units. These artillery-based tactics were also decisive in Western Front operations after Operation Overlord and both the British Commonwealth and American armies developed flexible and powerful systems for utilizing artillery support. What the Soviets lacked in flexibility, they made up for in number of multiple rocket launchers, cannon and mortar tubes. The Germans never achieved the kind of response times or fire concentrations their enemies were capable of by 1944. After the Allied landings at Normandy, Germany made attempts to overwhelm the landing force with armored attacks, but these failed for lack of co-ordination and Allied air superiority. The most notable attempt to use deep penetration operations in Normandy was at Mortain, which exacerbated the German position in the already-forming Falaise Pocket and assisted in the ultimate destruction of German forces in Normandy. The Mortain counter-attack was effectively destroyed by U.S. 12th Army Group with little effect on its own offensive operations. The Allied offensive in central France, spearheaded by armored units from George S. Patton's Third Army, used breakthrough and penetration techniques that were essentially identical to Guderian's prewar “armored idea.” Patton acknowledged that he had read both Guderian and Rommel before the war, and his tactics shared the traditional cavalry emphasis on speed and attack. A phrase commonly used in his units was “haul ass and bypass.” Germany's last offensive on its Western front, Operation Wacht am Rhein, was an offensive launched towards the vital port of Antwerp in December 1944. Launched in poor weather against a thinly-held Allied sector, it achieved surprise and initial success as Allied air power was stymied by cloud cover. However, stubborn pockets of defence in key locations throughout the Ardennes, the lack of serviceable roads, and poor German logistics planning caused delays. Allied forces deployed to the flanks of the German penetration, and Allied aircraft were again able to attack motorized columns. However, the stubborn defense of US units and German weakness led to a defeat for the Germans. Asia 1942–1945 The terrain and logistical infrastructure in the areas of Asia in which Japanese forces were engaged presented far fewer opportunities for wide-ranging mechanised operations, but a few battles were noted for fast-moving attacks which resulted in the dislocation of the defences. During the Battle of Malaya in early 1942, Japanese forces with air superiority and spearheaded by a tank regiment, rapidly drove British Commonwealth forces back down the length of the peninsula, aided by outflanking operations launched from the sea. The rapid Japanese capture of Burma in the same year was led by tanks and motorised forces which caused the Allied defence to collapse, although disunity of Allied command was also a factor. In the Battle of Central Burma in 1945, the British Fourteenth Army (enjoying air supremacy) launched an armored and mechanised offensive which captured the major communication centre of Meiktila behind the Japanese lines by surprise. There was no strategic collapse, but the attempted Japanese counter-attack was made at a strategic and tactical disadvantage. The Japanese were forced to break off the battle and withdraw from most of Burma. In the Soviet invasion of Japanese-occupied Manchuria, Soviet forces made their major attack via a route the Japanese had thought impossible for armored forces to cross. The Soviets very rapidly occupied vast areas, and surrounded most Japanese forces in besieged towns. The Japanese were thinly stretched in static garrisons, and had very few resources with which to counter the Soviet attacks. However it must be noted that at this time in the war, the Japanese main islands were severely threatened by Allied advances from the Pacific. Not expecting the attack, with more pressing fronts to deal with, and considering the logistical difficulties of the region, Japanese forces were naturally at a disadvantage and even more susceptible to Blitzkrieg tactics. Limitations and countermeasures Environment The concepts associated with the term blitzkrieg – deep penetrations by armour, large encirclements, and combined arms attacks – were largely dependent upon terrain and weather conditions. Where the ability for rapid movement across “tank country” was not possible, armored penetrations were often avoided or resulted in failure. Terrain would ideally be flat, firm, unobstructed by natural barriers or fortifications, and interspersed with roads and railways. If it was instead hilly, wooded, marshy, or urban, armour would be vulnerable to infantry in close-quarters combat and unable to break out at full speed. Additionally, units could be halted by mud (thawing along the Eastern Front regularly slowed both sides) or extreme snow. Artillery observation and aerial support was also naturally dependent on weather. It should however be noted that the disadvantages of such terrain could be nullified if surprise was achieved over the enemy by an attack through such terrain. During the Battle of France, the German blitzkrieg-style attack on France went through the Ardennes. There is little doubt that the hilly, heavily-wooded Ardennes could have been relatively easily defended by the Allies, even against the bulk of the German armored units. However, precisely because the French thought the Ardennes as unsuitable for massive troop movement, particularly for tanks, they were left with only light defences which were quickly overrun by the Wehrmacht. The Germans quickly advanced through the forest, knocking down the trees the French thought would impede this tactic. Air superiority Ilyushin Il-2, formidable Soviet ground attack aircraft that specialized in destroying German armor Allied air superiority became a significant hindrance to German operations during the later years of the war. Early German successes enjoyed air superiority with unencumbered movement of ground forces, close air support, and aerial reconnaissance. However, the Western Allies' air-to-ground aircraft were so greatly feared out of proportion to their actual tactical success, that following the lead up to Operation Overlord German vehicle crews showed reluctance to move en masse during daylight. Indeed, the final German blitzkrieg operation in the west, Operation Wacht am Rhein, was planned to take place during poor weather which grounded Allied aircraft. Under these conditions, it was difficult for German commanders to employ the “armored idea” to its envisioned potential. Counter-tactics During the Battle of France in 1940, De Gaulle's 4th Armour Division and elements of the British 1st Army Tank Brigade in the British Expeditionary Force both made probing attacks on the German flank, actually pushing into the rear of the advancing armored columns at times. This may have been a reason for Hitler to call a halt to the German advance. Those attacks combined with Maxime Weygand's Hedgehog tactic would become the major basis for responding to blitzkrieg attacks in the future: deployment in depth, permitting enemy forces to bypass defensive concentrations, reliance on anti-tank guns, strong force employment on the flanks of the enemy attack, followed by counter-attacks at the base to destroy the enemy advance in detail. Holding the flanks or “shoulders” of a penetration was essential to channeling the enemy attack, and artillery, properly employed at the shoulders, could take a heavy toll of attackers. While Allied forces in 1940 lacked the experience to successfully develop these strategies, resulting in France's capitulation with heavy losses, they characterized later Allied operations. For example, at the Battle of Kursk the Red Army employed a combination of defense in great depth, extensive minefields, and tenacious defense of breakthrough shoulders. In this way they depleted German combat power even as German forces advanced. In August 1944 at Mortain, stout defense and counterattacks by the US and Canadian armies closed the Falaise Gap. In the Ardennes, a combination of hedgehog defense at Bastogne, St Vith and other locations, and a counterattack by the US 3rd Army were employed. The US doctrine of massing high-speed tank destroyers was not generally employed in combat since few massed German armor attacks occurred by 1944. Furthermore blitzkrieg is very vulnerable to an enemy that puts a great emphasis on anti-tank warfare and on anti-aircraft weaponry, especially if the side employing blitzkrieg is unprepared. An example being the beginning phase of Yom Kippur War; the Israeli tanks were decimated by Egyptian infantry who were heavily equipped with Rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) and AT-3 Sagger missiles and Israeli Air Force suffered tremendous losses due to SA-6 Gainful missiles, against which they did not have proper countermeasures. Only with a radical doctrinal and tactical change (see Battle of the Chinese Farm) were the Israelis able to break through Egyptian lines and win the war. Logistics Although effective in quick campaigns against Poland and France, mobile operations could not be sustained by Germany in later years. Strategies based on maneuver have the inherent danger of the attacking force overextending its supply lines, and can be defeated by a determined foe who is willing and able to sacrifice territory for time in which to regroup and rearm, as the Soviets did on the Eastern Front (as opposed to, for example, the Dutch who had no territory to sacrifice). Tank and vehicle production was a constant problem for Germany; indeed, late in the war many panzer "divisions" had no more than a few dozen tanks. Richard Simpkin, Race to the Swift: Thoughts on Twenty-First Century Warfare, (London: Brassey's, 2000), p.34 As the end of the war approached, Germany also experienced critical shortages in fuel and ammunition stocks as a result of Anglo-American strategic bombing and blockade. Although production of Luftwaffe fighter aircraft continued, they would be unable to fly for lack of fuel. What fuel there was went to panzer divisions, and even then they were not able to operate normally. Of those Tiger tanks lost against the United States Army, nearly half of them were abandoned for lack of fuel. Charles Winchester, “The Demodernization of the German Army in World War 2”, Osprey Publishing. http://www.ospreypublishing.com/content2.php/cid=68 Influence Nathan Bedford Forrest, "to git thar fust with the most" . Jonathan M. House, Toward Combined Arms Warfare: A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization, (U.S. Army Command General Staff College, 1984; reprint University Press of the Pacific, 2002). http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/House/House.asp Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age By Peter Paret, 1986, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198200978 pp802 The 1990s United States theorists of "Shock and awe" claim blitzkrieg as a subset of strategies which they term "rapid dominance". Changing interpretation Beginning in the 1970s, the interpretation of blitzkrieg, particularly with respect to the Second World War, has undergone a shift in the historical community. John Ellis described the shift: <blockquote>Our perception of land operations in the Second World War has...been distorted by an excessive emphasis upon the hardware employed. The main focus of attention has been the tank and the formations that employed it, most notably the (German) panzer divisions. Despite the fact that only 40 of the 520 German divisions that saw combat were panzer divisions (there were also an extra 24 motorised/panzergrenadier divisions), the history of German operations has consistently almost exclusively been written largely in terms of blitzkrieg and has concentrated almost exclusively upon the exploits of the mechanized formations. Even more misleadingly, this presentation of ground combat as a largely armored confrontation has been extended to cover Allied operations, so that in the popular imagination the exploits of the British and Commonwealth Armies, with only 11 armored divisions out of 73 (that saw combat), and of the Americans in Europe, with only 16 out of 59, are typified by tanks sweeping around the Western Desert or trying to keep up with Patton in the race through Sicily and across northern France. Of course, these armored forces did play a somewhat more important role in operations than the simple proportions might indicate, but it still has to be stressed that they in no way dominated the battlefield or precipitated the evolution of completely new modes of warfare. Ellis, John. Brute Force 1990. </blockquote> Ellis, as well as Zaloga in his study of the Polish Campaign in 1939, points to the effective use of other arms such as artillery and aerial firepower as equally important to the success of German (and later, Allied) operations. Panzer operations in the Soviet Union failed to provide decisive results; Leningrad never fell despite an entire Panzer Group being assigned to take it, nor did Moscow. In 1942, panzer formations overstretched at Stalingrad and in the Caucasus, and what successes did take place – such as Manstein at Kharkov or Krivoi Rog – were of local significance only. See also AirLand Battle, blitzkrieg-like doctrine of US Army in 1980s Armored warfare The Blitz, the Luftwaffe air raids on London Deep Battle, the period Soviet concept of warfare Methodical Battle, the period French concept of warfare Rush (computer and video games), an RTS strategy influenced by blitzkrieg Shock and Awe, the 21st century American military doctrine Vernichtungsgedanken, or 'annihilation thoughts', one of blitzkrieg predecessors Mission-type tactics, tactical battle doctrine of delegation and initiative stimulation References Bibliography Chrisp, Peter. (1991) Blitzkrieg!, Witness History Series. New York: Bookwright Press. ISBN 0531183734. Citino, Robert Michael. (1999) The Path to Blitzkrieg : Doctrine and Training in the German Army, 1920-1939. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1555877141. Citino, Robert Michael. (2002) Quest for Decisive Victory : From Stalemate to Blitzkrieg in Europe, 1899-1940, Modern War Studies. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700611762. Condell, Bruce, and David T. Zabecki. (2001) On the German Art of War : Truppenführung, The Art of War. Boulder: L. Rienner. ISBN 1555879969. Cooper, Matthew. (1997) The German Army, 1933-1945 : Its Political and Military Failure. Lantham: Scarborough House. ISBN 0812885198. Corum, James S. (1992) The Roots of Blitzkrieg : Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform, Modern War Studies. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 070060541X. Alex Danchev, Alchemist of War: The Life of Basil Liddell Hart. Nicolson, London. 1998. ISBN 0-75380-873-0 Deighton, Len. (1980) Blitzkrieg : From the Rise of Hitler to the Fall of Dunkirk. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0394510208. Doughty, Robert A. (1990) The Breaking Point : Sedan and the Fall of France, 1940. Hamden: Archon Books. ISBN 0208022813. Erickson, John. (1975) The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin's War Against Germany. London: Cassell 1990 (Reprint). ISBN 0304365416 ISBN 978-0304365418 Edwards, Roger. (1989) Panzer, a Revolution in Warfare : 1939-1945. London/New York: Arms and Armour. ISBN 0853689326. Frieser, Karl-Heinz. (1995) Blitzkrieg-Legende : Der Westfeldzug 1940, Operationen des Zweiten Weltkrieges. München: R. Oldenbourg. ISBN 3486561243. Frieser, Karl-Heinz, and John T. Greenwood. (2005) The Blitzkrieg Legend : The 1940 Campaign in the West. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1591142946. Guderian, Heinz. (1996) Panzer Leader. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306806894. House, Jonathan M. (2001) Combined Arms Warfare in the Twentieth Century, Modern War Studies. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700610812 | 0700610987 Keegan, John. (1989) The Second World War. (1989) New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0143035738 ISBN 978-0143035732. Keegan, John. (1987) The Mask of Command. New York: Viking. ISBN 0140114068 ISBN 978-0140114065. Kennedy, Paul, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, Random House, ASIN B000O2NJSO. Lewin, Donald. Ultra goes to War; The Secret Story. Hutchinson Publications. 1977. ISBN 0091344204 Manstein, Erich von, and Anthony G. Powell. (2004) Lost Victories. St. Paul: Zenith Press. ISBN 0760320543. Megargee, Geoffrey P. (2000) Inside Hitler's High Command, Modern War Studies. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0700610154. Naveh, Shimon (1997). In Pursuit of Military Excellence; The Evolution of Operational Theory. London: Francass. ISBN 0-7146-4727-6. Paret, John. Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age. Oxford University Press. 1986. ISBN 0-19-820097-8 Shirer, William. (1969) The Collapse of the Third Republic: An Inquiry into the Collapse of France in 1940. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 671-20337-1. Stolfi, R. H. S. (1991) Hitler's Panzers East : World War II Reinterpreted. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0806124008. External links House, Jonathan M. (1985) Toward Combined Arms Warfare : A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization. Fort Leavenworth/Washington: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College. Sinesi, Michael Patrick (2001) Modern Bewegungskrieg: German Battle Doctrine, 1920-1940. Thesis submitted to The Faculty of Columbian School of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts; directed by Andrew Zimmerman, Assistant Professor of History. (Microsoft Word document)''.

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Northwest_Passage

Northwest Passage routes The Northwest Passage is a sea route through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways amidst the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary definition The Northwest Passage Thawed The various islands of the archipelago are separated from one another and the Canadian mainland by a series of Arctic waterways collectively known as the Northwest Passages or Northwestern Passages. IHO Codes for Oceans & Seas, and Other Code Systems, including IHO 23-3rd: Limits of Oceans and Seas, Special Publication 23, 3rd ed. (1953), published by International Hydrographic Organization. Sought by explorers for centuries as a possible trade route, it was first navigated by Roald Amundsen in 1903–1906. The Arctic pack ice prevents regular marine shipping throughout the year, but climate change is reducing the pack ice, and this Arctic shrinkage may eventually make the waterways more navigable. However, the contested sovereignty claims over the waters may complicate future shipping through the region: The Canadian government considers the Northwestern Passages part of Canadian Internal Waters, TP 14202 E Interpretation—Transport Canada but various countries maintain they are an international strait or transit passage, allowing free and unencumbered passage. The Northwest Passage and Climate Change from the Library of Parliament—Canadian Arctic Sovereignty Naval Operations in an ice-free Arctic Overview Strait of Anian. Upper left corner. (Frederik de Wit, ca. 1670) Before the Little Ice Age, Norwegian Vikings sailed as far north and west as Ellesmere Island, Skraeling Island and Ruin Island for hunting expeditions and trading with the Inuit groups who already inhabited the region. Between the end of the 15th century and the 20th century, colonial powers from Eurasia dispatched explorers in an attempt to discover a commercial sea route north and west around North America. The Northwest Passage represented a new route to the established trading nations of Asia. In 1493 to defuse trade disputes, Pope Alexander VI split the discovered world in two between Spain and Portugal; thus France, the Netherlands, and England were left without a sea route to Asia, either via Africa or South America. Captain Cook by Vanessa Collingridge (Ebury Press) 2002 ISBN 0091888980 The British called the hypothetical route the "Northwest Passage". The desire to establish such a route motivated much of the European exploration of both coasts of North America. When it became apparent that there was no route through the heart of the continent, attention turned to the possibility of a passage through northern waters. This was driven in some part by scientific naiveté, namely an early belief that seawater was incapable of freezing (as late as the mid 18th century, Captain James Cook had reported, for example, that Antarctic icebergs had yielded fresh water, seemingly confirming the hypothesis), and that a route close to the North Pole must therefore exist. The belief that a route lay to the far north persisted for several centuries and led to numerous expeditions into the Arctic, including the attempt by Sir John Franklin in 1845. In 1906, Roald Amundsen first successfully completed a path from Greenland to Alaska in the Gjøa. Since that date, several fortified ships have made the journey. From west to east the Northwest Passage runs through the Bering Strait (separating Russia and Alaska), Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, and then through several waterways that go through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. There are five to seven routes through the archipelago, including the McClure Strait, Dease Strait, and the Prince of Wales Strait, but not all of them are suitable for larger ships. The passage then goes through Baffin Bay and the Davis Strait into the Atlantic Ocean. There has been speculation that with the advent of global warming the passage may become clear enough of ice to again permit safe commercial shipping for at least part of the year. On August 21, 2007, the Northwest Passage became open to ships without the need of an icebreaker. According to Nalan Koc of the Norwegian Polar Institute this is the first time it has been clear since they began keeping records in 1972. North-West Passage is now plain sailing Satellites witness lowest Arctic ice coverage in history The Northwest Passage opened again on August 25, 2008. Arctic shortcuts open up; decline pace steady Thawing ocean or melting ice simultaneously opened up the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route (Northeast Passage), making it possible to sail around the Arctic ice cap. Arctic ice cap, 2007 Compared to 1979, Daily Mail published "Blocked: The Arctic ice, showing as a pink mass in the 1979 picture, links up with northern Canada and Russia." Arctic ice cap, 1979 Awaited by shipping companies, this 'historic event' will cut thousands of miles off their routes. Warning, however, that the NASA satellite images indicated the Arctic may have entered a "death spiral" caused by global warming, Professor Mark Serreze, a sea ice specialist at National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), USA, said: "The passages are open. It's an historic event. We are going to see this more and more as the years go by." ptinews.com, North Pole becomes an 'island' independent.co.uk, For the first time in human history, the North Pole can be circumnavigated Due to Arctic shrinkage, the Beluga group of Bremen, Germany, announced plans to send the first ship through the Northern Sea Route in 2009, which may shorten the trip from Germany to Japan by . dailymail.co.uk, The North Pole becomes an 'island' for the first time in history as ice melts However, Canada's Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that "ships entering the North-West passage should first report to his government." telegraph.co.uk, Arctic becomes an island as ice melts Historical expeditions Assumed route of the Strait of Anián As a result of their westward explorations and their settlement of Greenland, the Vikings sailed as far north and west as Ellesmere Island, Skraeling Island and Ruin Island for hunting expeditions and trading with Inuit groups. The subsequent arrival of the Little Ice Age is thought to be one of the reasons that further European seafaring into the Northwest Passage ceased until the late 15th century. Strait of Anián In 1539, Hernán Cortés commissioned Francisco de Ulloa to sail along the peninsula of Baja California on the western coast of America. Ulloa concluded that the Gulf of California was the southernmost section of a strait supposedly linking the Pacific with the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. His voyage perpetuated the notion of the Island of California and saw the beginning of a search for the Strait of Anián. The strait probably took its name from Ania, a Chinese province mentioned in a 1559 edition of Marco Polo's book; it first appears on a map issued by Italian cartographer Giacomo Gastaldi about 1562. Five years later Bolognini Zaltieri issued a map showing a narrow and crooked Strait of Anian separating Asia from the Americas. The strait grew in European imagination as an easy sea lane linking Europe with the residence of Khagan (the Great Khan) in Cathay (northern China). It was originally placed at approximately the latitude of San Diego, California, leading some who live in the region to call it "Anian" or "Aniane". Cartographers and seamen tried to demonstrate its reality. Sir Francis Drake sought the western entrance in 1579. The Greek pilot Juan de Fuca, sailing under the Portuguese flag, claimed he had sailed the strait from the Pacific to the North Sea and back in 1592. The Spaniard Bartholomew de Fonte claimed to have sailed from Hudson Bay to the Pacific via the strait in 1640. Northern Atlantic The first recorded attempt to discover the Northwest passage was the east-west voyage of John Cabot in 1497, sent by Henry VII in search of a direct route to the Orient. Captain Cook by Vanessa Collingridge (Ebury Press) 2002 ISBN 0091888980 The next of several British expeditions was launched in 1576 by Martin Frobisher, who took three trips west to what is now the Canadian Arctic in order to find the passage. Frobisher Bay, which he first charted, is named after him. As part of another hunt, in July 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who had written a treatise on the discovery of the passage and was a backer of Frobisher, claimed the territory of Newfoundland for the English crown. On August 8, 1585 the English explorer John Davis entered Cumberland Sound, Baffin Island for the first time. The major rivers on the east coast were also explored in case they could lead to a transcontinental passage. Jacques Cartier's explorations of the Saint Lawrence River were initiated in hope of finding a way through the continent. Indeed, Cartier managed to convince himself that the St. Lawrence was the Passage; when he found the way blocked by rapids at what is now Montreal, he was so certain that these rapids were all that was keeping him from China (in French, la Chine), that he named the rapids for China. To this day, they are the Lachine Rapids. In 1609 Henry Hudson sailed up what is now called the Hudson River in search of the Passage; encouraged by the saltiness of the water, he reached present-day Albany, New York, before giving up. He later explored the Arctic and Hudson Bay. In 1611, while in James Bay, Hudson's crew mutinied. He and his teenage son John, along with eight sick, infirm, or loyal crewmen, were set adrift in a small open boat. He was never seen again. René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle built the sailing ship, Le Griffon, in his quest to find the Northwest Passage in the upper Great Lakes. Le Griffon disappeared in 1679 on the return trip of her maiden voyage. , 78-90. In the spring of 1682, La Salle made his famous voyage down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. La Salle led an expedition from France in 1684 to establish a French colony on the Gulf of Mexico. He was murdered by his followers in 1687. Northern Pacific 1765 de l'Isle globe, showing a fictional Northwest passage.Although most Northwest Passage expeditions originated in Europe or on the east coast of North America and sought to traverse the Passage in the westbound direction, some progress was made in exploration of its western end as well. In 1728 Vitus Bering, a Danish Navy officer in Russian service, used the strait first discovered by Semyon Dezhnyov in 1648 but later accredited to and named after Bering (the Bering Strait), concluding North America and Russia were separate land masses. In 1741 with Lieutenant Aleksei Chirikov he went in search of further lands beyond Siberia. While separated, Chirikov discovered several of the Aleutian Islands while Bering charted the Alaskan region before the scurvy-ravaged ship wrecked off the Kamchatka Peninsula. In 1762, the English trading ship Octavius reportedly hazarded the passage from the west but became trapped in sea ice. In 1775, the whaler Herald found the Octavius adrift near Greenland with the bodies of her crew frozen below decks. Thus the Octavius may have earned the distinction of being the first Western sailing ship to make the passage, although the fact that it took 13 years and occurred after the crew was dead somewhat tarnishes this achievement. (The veracity of the Octavius story is questionable.) The Spanish made numerous voyages to the northwest coast of North America during the late 18th century. Determining whether a North West Passage existed was one of the motivations for this effort. Among the voyages that involved careful searches for a Passage include the 1775 and 1779 voyages of Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra. The journal of Francisco Antonio Mourelle, who served as Quadra's second in command in 1775, fell into English hands and was translated and published in London. Captain James Cook made use of the journal during his explorations of the region. In 1791 Alessandro Malaspina sailed to Yakutat Bay, Alaska, which was rumoured to be a Passage. In 1790 and 1791 Francisco de Eliza led several exploring voyages into the Strait of Juan de Fuca, searching for a possible North West Passage and finding the Strait of Georgia. To fully explore this new inland sea an expedition under Dionisio Alcalá Galiano was sent in 1792. He was explicitly ordered to explore all channels that might turn out to be a North West Passage. Cook and Vancouver In 1776 Captain James Cook was dispatched by the Admiralty in Great Britain under orders driven by a 1745 act which, when extended in 1775, promised a £20,000 prize for whoever discovered the passage. Initially the Admiralty had wanted Charles Clerke to lead the expedition, with Cook (in retirement following his exploits in the Pacific) acting as a consultant. However Cook had researched Bering's expeditions, and the Admiralty ultimately placed their faith in the veteran explorer to lead with Clerke accompanying him. After journeying through the Pacific, in another west–east attempt, Cook began at Nootka Sound in April 1777, and headed north along the coastline, charting the lands and searching for the regions sailed by the Russians 40 years previously. The Admiralty's orders had commanded the expedition to ignore all inlets and rivers until they reached a latitude of 65°N. Cook, however, failed to make any progress in sighting a Northwestern Passage. Various officers on the expedition, including William Bligh, George Vancouver, and John Gore, thought the existence of a route was 'improbable'. Before reaching 65°N they found the coastline pushing them further south, but Gore convinced Cook to sail on into the Cook Inlet in the hope of finding the route. They continued to the limits of the Alaskan peninsula and the start of the chain of Aleutian Islands. Despite reaching 70° N they encountered nothing but icebergs. From 1791 to 1795, the Vancouver Expedition (led by George Vancouver who had accompanied Cook previously) surveyed in detail all the passages from the Northwest Coast and confirmed that there was no such passage south of the Bering Strait. This conclusion was supported by the evidence of Alexander MacKenzie who explored the Arctic and Pacific oceans in 1793. 19th century Das Eismeer (The Sea of Ice), 1823–1824, a painting by Caspar David Friedrich, inspired by William Edward Parry's account from the 1819–1820 expedition. In the first half of the 19th century, some parts of the actual Northwest Passage (north of the Bering Strait) were explored separately by many expeditions, including those by John Ross, William Edward Parry, and James Clark Ross; overland expeditions were also led by John Franklin, George Back, Peter Warren Dease, Thomas Simpson, and John Rae. In 1825 Frederick William Beechey explored the north coast of Alaska, discovering Point Barrow. Sir Robert McClure was credited with the discovery of the real Northwest Passage in 1851 when he looked across McClure Strait from Banks Island and viewed Melville Island. However, this strait was not navigable to ships at that time, and the only usable route linking the entrances of Lancaster Sound and Dolphin and Union Strait was discovered by John Rae in 1854. Franklin expedition In 1845, a well-equipped two-ship expedition led by Sir John Franklin sailed to the Canadian Arctic to chart the final unknown parts of the Northwest Passage. Confidence was high, as there was less than of unexplored Arctic mainland coast left. When the ships failed to return, relief expeditions and search parties explored the Canadian Arctic, resulting in final charting of a possible passage. Traces of the expedition have been found, including notes that indicate that the ships became ice-locked in 1846 near King William Island, about half way through the passage, and were unable to extricate themselves. Franklin died in 1847, and second in command, Captain Francis Rawdon Moria Crozier, took over the command of the Expedition. In 1848, the remaining members of the expedition abandoned the ships and attempted to escape overland by sledge. While starvation and scurvy contributed to the deaths of the crew, another factor may have been significant. The expedition took 8,000 tins of food which were sealed with a lead-based solder. The lead appears to have contaminated the food, poisoning the crew. They would have become weak and disoriented—later stages of lead poisoning include insanity and death. In 1981 Dr. Owen Beattie, an anthropologist from the University of Alberta, examined remains from sites associated with the expedition. Arctic paleoradiology: portable radiographic examination of two frozen sailors from the Franklin Expedition (1845–1845) PMID 3300222 This led to further investigations and the examination of tissue and bone from the frozen bodies of three seamen, John Torrington, William Braine and John Hartnell, exhumed from the permafrost of Beechey Island. Laboratory tests revealed high concentrations of lead in all three. Another researcher suggests that botulism, and not lead poisoning, was the cause of deaths among crew members. Horowitz BZ: Polar poisons; did Botulism doom the Franklin expedition? PMID 14677794 New evidence, confirming reports first made by John Rae in 1854 based on Inuit accounts, shows that cannibalism was a last resort for some of the crew. McClure expedition The North-West Passage (1874), a painting by John Everett Millais representing British frustration at the failure to conquer the passage. During the search for Franklin, Commander Robert McClure and his crew in HMS Investigator traversed the Northwest Passage from west to east in the years 1850 to 1854, partly by ship and partly by sledge. McClure started out from England in December 1849, sailed the Atlantic Ocean south to Cape Horn and entered the Pacific Ocean. He sailed the Pacific north and passed through the Bering Strait, turning east at that point and reaching Banks Island. McClure's ship was trapped in the ice for three winters near Banks Island, at the western end of Viscount Melville Sound. Finally McClure and his crew—who were by that time dying of starvation—were found by searchers who had travelled by sledge over the ice from a ship of Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, and returned with them to Belcher's ships, which had entered the sound from the east. On one of Belcher's ships, McClure and his crew returned to England in 1854, becoming the first people to circumnavigate the Americas and to discover and transit the Northwest Passage, albeit by ship and by sledge over the ice. This was an astonishing feat for that day and age, and McClure was knighted and promoted to captain, and both he and his crew shared £10,000 awarded them by the British Parliament. John Rae The expeditions by Franklin and McClure were in the tradition of British exploration: well-funded ship-borne expeditions using modern technology, and usually including British Naval personnel. By contrast, John Rae was an employee of the Hudson's Bay Company, which was the major driving force behind exploration of the Canadian North. They adopted a pragmatic approach and tended to be land-based. While Franklin and McClure attempted to explore the passage by sea, Rae explored by land, using dog sleds and employing techniques he learned from the native Inuit. The Franklin and McClure expeditions each employed hundreds of personnel and multiple ships. John Rae's expeditions included less than ten people and succeeded. Rae was also the explorer with the best safety record, having lost only one man in years of traversing Arctic lands. In 1854, John Rae—Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online Rae returned with information about the outcome of the ill-fated Franklin expedition. Amundsen expedition The Northwest Passage was not conquered by sea until 1906, when the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, who had sailed just in time to escape creditors seeking to stop the expedition, completed a three-year voyage in the converted 47-ton herring boat Gjøa. At the end of this trip, he walked into the city of Eagle, Alaska, and sent a telegram announcing his success. Although his chosen east–west route, via the Rae Strait, contained young ice and thus was navigable, some of the waterways were extremely shallow making the route commercially impractical. Later expeditions The first traversal of the Northwest Passage via dog sled Knud Johan Victor Rasmussen, biography by Sam Alley. Minnesota State University, Mankato. was accomplished by Greenlander Knud Rasmussen while on the Fifth Thule Expedition (1921–1924). Rasmussen, and two Greenland Inuit, travelled from the Atlantic to the Pacific over the course of 16 months via dog sled. In 1940, Canadian RCMP officer Henry Larsen was the second to sail the passage, crossing west to east, from Vancouver to Halifax. More than once on this trip, it was unknown whether the St. Roch a Royal Canadian Mounted Police "ice-fortified" schooner would survive the ravages of the sea ice. At one point, Larsen wondered "if we had come this far only to be crushed like a nut on a shoal and then buried by the ice." The ship and all but one of her crew survived the winter on Boothia Peninsula. Each of the men on the trip was awarded a medal by Canada's sovereign, King George VI, in recognition of this notable feat of Arctic navigation. Later in 1944, Larsen's return trip was far more swift than his first; the 28 months he took on his first trip was significantly reduced, setting the mark for having traversed it in a single season. The ship followed a more northerly partially uncharted route, and it also had extensive upgrades. On July 1, 1957, the United States Coast Guard cutter Storis departed in company with U.S. Coast Guard cutters Bramble (WLB-392) and SPAR (WLB-403) to search for a deep draft channel through the Arctic Ocean and to collect hydrographic information. Upon her return to Greenland waters, the Storis became the first U.S.-registered vessel to circumnavigate North America. Shortly after her return in late 1957, she was reassigned to her new home port of Kodiak, Alaska. In 1969, the SS Manhattan made the passage, accompanied by the Canadian icebreaker Sir John A. Macdonald. The Manhattan was a specially reinforced supertanker sent to test the viability of the passage for the transport of oil. While the Manhattan succeeded, the route was deemed not to be cost effective, and the Alaska Pipeline was built instead. In June 1977, sailor Willy de Roos left Belgium to attempt the Northwest Passage in his steel yacht Williwaw. He reached the Bering Strait in September and after a stopover in Victoria, British Columbia, went on to round Cape Horn and sail back to Belgium, thus being the first sailor to circumnavigate the Americas entirely by ship. Willy de Roos' big journey at the CBC archives In 1984, the commercial passenger vessel MS Explorer (which sank in the Antarctic Ocean in 2007) became the first cruise ship to navigate the Northwest Passage. In July 1986, Jeff MacInnis and Wade Rowland set out on an 18 foot catamaran called Perception on a 100 day sail, West to East, across the Northwest Passage. CBC, November 2, 1988 link CBC panel discussion. This pair is the first to sail the passage, although they had the benefit of doing over a couple summers. In July 1986, David Scott Cowper set out from England in a lifeboat, the Mabel El Holland, and survived 3 Arctic winters in the Northwest Passage before reaching the Bering Strait in August 1989. He then continued around the world via the Cape of Good Hope to arrive back on 24 September 1990, becoming the first vessel to circumnavigate the world via the Northwest Passage. Cruising, London, Summer 1992, p35 In 2000, the Canadian twin-hulled patrol boat Nadon (renamed St Roch II) ran the Northwest Passage from west to east in nine weeks and was never obstructed by ice. On the way it docked at Tuktoyaktuk in the Canadian Arctic and Nuuk in Greenland. This added to the alarm about global warming. The Northwest Passage - without ice Ice-free Northwest Passage fuels Arctic warming fears On September 1, 2001, Northabout, an aluminium sailboat with diesel engine, Northabout built and captained by Jarlath Cunnane, completed the Northwest Passage east-to-west from Ireland to the Bering Strait. The voyage from the Atlantic to the Pacific was completed in 24 days. The Northabout then cruised in Canada for two years before it returned to Ireland in 2005 via the Northeast Passage thereby completing the first east-to-west circumnavigation of the pole by a single sailboat. The Northeast Passage return along the coast of Russia was slower, starting in 2004, with an ice stop and winter over in Khatanga, Siberia—hence the return to Ireland via the Norwegian coast in October 2005. On January 18, 2006, the Cruising Club of America awarded Jarlath Cunnane their Blue Water Medal, an award for "meritorious seamanship and adventure upon the sea displayed by amateur sailors of all nationalities." On July 18, 2003, a father and son team, Richard and Andrew Wood, with Zoe Birchenough, sailed the yacht Norwegian Blue into the Bering Strait. Two months later she sailed into the Davis Strait to become the first British yacht to transit the Northwest Passage from west to east. She also became the only British vessel to complete the Northwest Passage in one season, as well as the only British sailing yacht to return from there to British waters. Norwegian Blue Sails the Northwest Passage On May 19, 2007, a French sailor, Sébastien Roubinet, and one other crew member left Anchorage, Alaska, in Babouche, a ice catamaran designed to sail on water and slide over ice. The goal was to navigate west to east through the Northwest Passage by sail only. Following a journey of more than , Roubinet reached Greenland on September 9, 2007, thereby completing the first Northwest Passage voyage made without engine in one season. International waters dispute The Canadian government claims that some of the waters of the Northwest Passage, particularly those in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, are internal to Canada, giving Canada the right to bar transit through these waters. Most maritime nations, Nathan VanderKlippe. Northwest Passage gets political name change, CanWest News Services, Ottawa Citizen, April 9, 2006. including the United States and the nations of the European Union, Climate Change and Canadian Sovereignty in the Northwest Passage consider them to be an international strait, where foreign vessels have the right of "transit passage". The Northwest Passage Thawed In such a régime, Canada would have the right to enact fishing and environmental regulation, and fiscal and smuggling laws, as well as laws intended for the safety of shipping, but not the right to close the passage. UNCLOS part III, STRAITS USED FOR INTERNATIONAL NAVIGATION In 1985, the U.S. icebreaker Polar Sea passed through from Greenland to Alaska, the ship submitted to inspection by the Canadian Coast Guard before passing through. The United States government, when asked by a Canadian reporter, indicated that they did not legally ask permission as they were not required to. The Canadian government issued a declaration in 1986 reaffirming Canadian rights to the waters. However, the United States refused to recognize the Canadian claim. In 1988 the governments of Canada and the U.S. signed an agreement, "Arctic Cooperation", that resolved the practical issue without solving the sovereignty questions. Under the law of the sea, ships engaged in transit passage are not permitted to engage in research. The agreement states that all US Coast Guard vessels are engaged in research, and so would require permission from the Government of Canada to pass through. Relations With the United States from the Library of Parliament—Canadian Arctic Sovereignty In late 2005, it was alleged that U.S. nuclear submarines had travelled unannounced through Canadian Arctic waters, sparking outrage in Canada. In his first news conference after the 2006 federal election, Prime Minister-designate Stephen Harper contested an earlier statement made by the U.S. ambassador that Arctic waters were international, stating the Canadian government's intention to enforce its sovereignty there. The allegations arose after the U.S. Navy released photographs of the USS Charlotte surfaced at the North Pole. Most of the activities involving American submarines (including their current and past positions and courses) are classified, so therefore under that policy the U.S. Navy has declined to reveal which route(s) the Charlotte took to reach and return from the Pole. On April 9, 2006, Canada's Joint Task Force North declared that the Canadian military will no longer refer to the region as the Northwest Passage, but as the Canadian Internal Waters. The declaration came after the successful completion of Operation Nunalivut (Inuktitut for "the land is ours"), which was an expedition into the region by five military patrols. In 2006 a report prepared by the staff of the Parliamentary Information and Research Service of Canada suggested that because of the September 11 attacks the United States might be less interested in pursuing the international waterways claim in the interests of having a more secure North American perimeter. This report was based on an earlier paper, The Northwest Passage Shipping Channel: Is Canada’s Sovereignty Really Floating Away? by Andrea Charron, given to the 2004 Canadian Defence and Foreign Affairs Institute Symposium. Later in 2006 former United States Ambassador to Canada, Paul Cellucci agreed with this position; however, the current ambassador, David Wilkins, states that the Northwest Passage is in international waters. Dispute Over NW Passage Revived from The Washington Post On July 9, 2007 Prime Minister Harper announced the establishment of a deep-water port in the far North. In the government press release the Prime Minister is quoted as saying, “Canada has a choice when it comes to defending our sovereignty over the Arctic. We either use it or lose it. And make no mistake, this Government intends to use it. Because Canada’s Arctic is central to our national identity as a northern nation. It is part of our history. And it represents the tremendous potential of our future." On July 10, 2007, Rear Admiral Timothy McGee of the United States Navy, and Rear Admiral Brian Salerno of the United States Coast Guard announced that the United States would also be increasing its ability to patrol the Arctic. Effects of climate change Arctic shrinkage as of 2007 compared to previous years According to the testimony of Viking sagas such as the Saga of Erik the Red and Grœnlendinga saga, from approximately AD 1000 to 1200 (a conservative interval that also happens to include the dates allotted to some of the larger Norse ships), the Arctic appears to have been much warmer even than now, as full-fledged farming created a sustainable economy for the Norse and Icelandic settlers of Greenland. This warm period is known as the Medieval Warm Period and just preceded the Little Ice Age which ultimately led to the demise of the Norse colonies in Greenland. This fact, combined with persistent rumours of a Lost Ship of the Desert (in California's Colorado Desert) variously described as a Viking longboat or a Spanish Galleon, has led some to conjecture that the Northwest Passage may have been not only navigable during this period, but indeed explored by Norse explorers. The sea level in the Arctic during the Medieval Warm period was different from that of the present day. Because of glacial rebound land levels of the land masses about the Northwest Passage have risen upwards of in the centuries after the Viking times. In the summer of 2000, several ships took advantage of thinning summer ice cover on the Arctic Ocean to make the crossing. It is thought that global warming is likely to open the passage for increasing periods of time, making it attractive as a major shipping route. However the passage through the Arctic Ocean would require significant investment in escort vessels and staging ports. Therefore the Canadian commercial marine transport industry does not anticipate the route as a viable alternative to the Panama Canal even within the next 10 to 20 years. On September 14, 2007, the European Space Agency stated that, based on satellite images, ice loss had opened up the passage "for the first time since records began in 1978". According to the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, the latter part of the 20th century and the start of the 21st had seen marked shrinkage of ice cover. The extreme loss in 2007 rendered the passage "fully navigable". However, the ESA study was based only on analysis of satellite images and could in practice not confirm anything about the actual navigation of the waters of the passage. The ESA suggested the passage would be navigable "during reduced ice cover by multi-year ice pack" (namely sea ice surviving one or more summers) where previously any traverse of the route had to be undertaken during favourable seasonable climatic conditions or by specialist vessels or expeditions. The agency's report speculated that the conditions prevalent in 2007 had shown the passage may "open" sooner than expected. BBC News "Plain Sailing on the Northwest Passage" An expedition in May 2008 reported that the passage was not yet continuously navigable even by an icebreaker and not yet ice-free. Globe and Mail "Tripping through the Northwest Passage" Scientists at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union on December 13, 2007, revealed that NASA satellites observing the western Arctic. showed a 16% decrease in cloud coverage during the summer of 2007 compared to 2006. This would have the effect of allowing more sunlight to penetrate Earth's atmosphere and warm the Arctic Ocean waters, thus melting sea ice and contributing to the opening the Northwest Passage. Andrea Thompson, Extra Sunshine Blamed for Part of Arctic Meltdown Foxnews, Friday, December 14, 2007 In recent years at least one scheduled cruise liner has successfully run the Northwest Passage , helped by satellite images telling where sea ice was. 2008 sealift On November 28, 2008, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reported that the Canadian Coast Guard confirmed the first commercial ship sailed through the Northwest Passage. In September 2008, the MV Camilla Desgagnés, owned by Desgagnés Transarctik Inc. and, along with the Arctic Cooperative, is part of Nunavut Sealift and Supply Incorporated (NSSI), Meet your Nunavut Carrier transported cargo from Montreal to the hamlets of Cambridge Bay, Kugluktuk, Gjoa Haven and Taloyoak. A member of the crew is reported to have claimed that "there was no ice whatsoever". Shipping from the east is to resume in the fall of 2009. 1st commercial ship sails through Northwest Passage Although sealift is an annual feature of the Canadian Arctic this is the first time that the western communities have been serviced from the east. The western portion of the Canadian Arctic is normally supplied by Northern Transportation Company Limited (NTCL) from Hay River. The eastern portion by NNSI and NTCL from Churchill and Montreal. NTCL Ports served See also Territorial claims in the Arctic Northern Sea Route North West Passage Territorial Park Arctic Bridge List of Arctic expeditions Arctic exploration Notes References Berton, Pierre. The Arctic Grail The Quest for the North West Passage and the North Pole, 1818–1909. New York: Viking, 1988. ISBN 0670824917 Day, Alan Edwin. Historical Dictionary of the Discovery and Exploration of the Northwest Passage. Historical dictionaries of discovery and exploration, no. 3. Lanham, Md: Scarecrow Press, 2006. ISBN 0810854864 Griffiths, Franklyn. Politics of the Northwest Passage. Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1987. ISBN 0773506136 Waterman, Jonathan. Arctic Crossing A Journey Through the Northwest Passage and Inuit Culture. New York: Knopf, 2001. ISBN 0375404090 Williams, Glyndwr. Voyages of Delusion The Quest for the Northwest Passage. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003. ISBN 0300098669 External links Russia's Deep-Sea Flag-Planting at North Pole Strikes a Chill... - Washington Post Russia plants flag staking claim to Arctic region - CBC World A new race for the North Pole Russia plants flag, Canada sends troops World Socialist Web Canada to strengthen Arctic claim - BBC News Canadian PM vows to defend Arctic - CNN.com CTV.ca Arctic sovereignty an important issue: Harper Cold Wars in the Arctic: Canada Takes on Russia in Race - DerSpeigel... Canada Raises Stakes In Battle To Claim The Arctic - GlobalSecurity.org Arctic Meltdown: The Economic and Security Implications of Global Warming - Foreign Affairs, Council on Foreign Affairs Arctic region likely to become the center of World War III - Pravda Irish Expedition completes the elusive Northwest Passage Arctic Passage at PBS' Nova site has articles, photographs and maps about the Northwest Passage, particularly the 1845 Franklin and 1903 Amundsen expeditions Exploration of the Northwest Passage The Sir John Franklin Mystery 'The Great Game in a cold climate' Mission to Utjulik The Voyage of the Manhattan U.S. nuclear submarines travel in Canadian Arctic waters without permission Canada considers the Northwest Passage its internal waters, but the United States insists it is an international strait. Information Memorandum for Mr. Kissinger—The White House 1970 CBC Digital Archives—Breaking the Ice: Canada and the Northwest Passage Nova Dania: Quest for the NW Passage—New England Antiquities Research Association Vol. 39 #2 An article on the Northwest Passage from The Canadian Encyclopedia Virtual exhibit of documents about arctic exploration "Frozen Ocean: Search for the North-west Passage"

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Board_game

A board game is a game in which counters or pieces that are placed on, removed from, or moved across a "board" (a premarked surface usually specific to that game). As do other form of entertainment, board games can represent nearly any subject. There are many different types and styles of board games, including those, at the most-basic level, that that have no inherent theme—such as Checkers—as well as more-complicated games with definite subjects, or even narratives, such as Cluedo. History Senet is among the oldest known board games. Another game board found in the Jiroft civilization. Board games have been played in most cultures and societies throughout history; some even pre-date literacy skill development in the earliest civilizations. A number of important historical sites, artifacts and documents exist which shed light on early board games. Some of these include: The Jiroft civilization game boards Senet has been found in Predynastic and First Dynasty burials of Egypt, c. 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively. Senet is the oldest board game known to have existed, and was pictured in a fresco found in Merknera's tomb (3300-2700 BC). Okno do svita deskovych her Mehen is another ancient board game from Predynastic Egypt. Go is an ancient strategic board game originating in China Patolli is a board game originating in Mesoamerica, and was played by the ancient Mayans. The contained, among others, the Royal Game of Ur. They were excavated by Leonard Woolley, but his books document little on the games found. Most of the games he excavated are now housed in the British Museum in London. The Buddha games list is the earliest known list of games. Timeline c. 3500 BC: Jiroft civilization The layout on the holes on the "eagle" is a boards also identical to the layout of some twenty-square boards and dis veru rong used in ancient Egypt, where the game, known as Aseb, was sometimes put on the other side of case-style Senet boards. c. 3500 BC: Senet found under Predynastic Egyptian burials; also depicted in the tomb of Merknera. c. 3000 BC: The Mehen board game from Predynastic Egypt, was played with lion-shaped gamepieces and marbles. c. 3000 BC: Ancient backgammon set, found in the Burnt City in Iran c. 2560 BC: Board of the Royal Game of Ur (found at Ur Tombs) c. 2500 BC: Paintings of Senet and Han being played depicted in the tomb of Rashepes c. 2000 BC: Drawing in a tomb at Benihassan depicting two unknown board games being played (depicted in Falkner). It has been suggested that the second of these is Tau. c. 1500 BC: Liubo carved on slab of blue stone. Also painting of board game of Knossos. c. 1400 BC: Game boards including alquerque, Nine Men's Morris, and a possible Mancala board etched on the roof of the Kurna temple. (Source: Fiske, and Bell) 548 BC The earliest written references to Go/Weiqi come from the Zuo Zhuan, which describes a man who likes the game. c. 500 BC: The Buddha games list mentions board games played on 8 or 10 rows. c. 500 BC: The earliest reference to Chaturaji or Pachisi written in the Mahabharata, the Indian epic. c. 200 BC: A Chinese Go/Weiqi board pre-dating 200 BC was found in 1954 in Wangdu County. This board is now in Beijing Historical Museum. John Fairbairn's Go in Ancient China . 116-27 BC: Marcus Terentius Varro's Lingua Latina X (II, par. 20) contains earliest known reference to Latrunculi Varro: Lingua Latina X (often confused with Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum, Ovid's game mentioned below). 1 BC-8 AD: Ovid's Ars Amatoria contains earliest known reference to Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum. 220-265: Backgammon enters China under the name t'shu-p'u (Source: Hun Tsun Sii). c. 400 onwards: Tafl games played in Northern Europe. c. 600 The earliest references to Chaturanga written in Subandhu's Vasavadatta and Banabhatta's Harsha Charitha early Indian books. c. 600: The earliest reference to Chatrang written in Karnamak-i-Artakhshatr-i-Papakan. c. 1930: Monopoly stabilises into the version that is currently popular. 1957: Risk is released. c. 1980: German-style board games begin to develop as a genre. Many board games are now available as computer games, which can include the computer itself as one of several players, or as sole opponent. The rise of computer use is one of the reasons said to have led to a relative decline in board games. Many board games can now be played online against a computer and/or other players. Some websites allow play in real time and immediately show the opponents' moves, while others use email to notify the players after each move (see the links at the end of this article). Some board games make use of components in addition to—or instead of—a board and playing pieces. Some games use CDs, video cassettes, and, more recently, DVDs in accompaniment to the game. Psychology While there has been a fair amount of scientific research on the psychology of older board games (e.g., chess, Go, mancala), less has been done on contemporary board games such as Monopoly, Scrabble, and Risk. . Much research has been carried out on chess, in part because many tournament players are publicly ranked in national and international lists, which makes it possible precisely to compare their levels of expertise. The works of Adriaan de Groot, William Chase, and Herbert Simon have established that knowledge, more than the ability to anticipate moves, plays an essential role in chess-playing. This seems to be the case in other traditional games such as Go and Oware (a type of mancala game), but data is lacking in regard to contemporary board games. Bruce Halpenny, a games inventor said when interviewed about his game, “With crime you deal with every basic human emotion and also have enough elements to combine action with melodrama. The player’s imagination is fired as they plan to rob the train. Because of the gamble they take in the early stage of the game there is a build up of tension, which is immediately released once the train is robbed. Release of tension is therapeutic and useful in our society, because most jobs are boring and repetitive.” Stealing the show. Toy Retailing News - Volume 2 Number 4 - December 1976 - page 2 Luck, strategy and diplomacy One way to categorize board games is to distinguish those based primarily upon luck from those that involve significant strategy. Some games, such as chess, are entirely deterministic, relying only on the strategy element for their interest. Children's games, on the other hand, tend to be very luck-based, with games such as Sorry!, Candy Land and Snakes and ladders having virtually no decisions to be made. Most board games involve both luck and strategy. A player may be hampered by a few poor rolls of the dice in Risk or Monopoly, but over many games a player with a superior strategy will win more often. While some purists consider luck to not be a desirable component of a game, others counter that elements of luck can make for far more diverse and multi-faceted strategies as concepts such as expected value and risk management must be considered. The third important factor in a game is diplomacy, or players making deals with each other. A game of solitaire, for obvious reasons, has no player interaction. Two player games usually do not have diplomacy, with Lord of the Rings being a notable exception where players compete against an automatic opponent (see cooperative games). Thus, this generally applies only to games played with three or more people. An important facet of Settlers of Catan, for example, is convincing people to trade with you rather than with other players. In Risk, one example of diplomacy's effectiveness is when two or more players team up against others. Easy diplomacy consists of convincing other players that someone else is winning and should therefore be teamed up against. Difficult diplomacy (such as in the aptly named game Diplomacy) consists of making elaborate plans together, with possibility of betrayal. Luck is introduced to a game by a number of methods. The most popular is using dice, generally six-sided. These can determine everything from how many steps a player moves their token, as in Monopoly, to how their forces fare in battle, such as in Risk, or which resources a player gains, such as in Settlers of Catan. Other games such as Sorry! use a deck of special cards that, when shuffled, create randomness. Scrabble does something similar with randomly picked letters. Other games use spinners, timers of random length, or other sources of randomness. Trivia games have a great deal of randomness based on the questions a person gets. German-style board games are notable for often having rather less of a luck factor than many North American board games. Common terms Carcassonne tokens, or meeples Although many board games have a jargon all their own, there is a generalized terminology to describe concepts applicable to basic game mechanics and attributes common to nearly all board games. Game board (or simply board)—the (usually quadrilateral) surface on which one plays a board game; the namesake of the board game, gameboards are a necessary and sufficient condition of the genre. Most games use a standardized and unchanging board (chess, Go, and backgammon all have such a board), but many games use a modular board whose component tiles or cards can assume varying layouts from one session to another, or even as the game is played. Game piece (or counter or token or bit)—a player's representative on the game board. Each player may control one or more game pieces. In some games that involve commanding multiple game pieces, such as chess, certain pieces have unique designations and capabilities within the parameters of the game; in others, such as Go, all pieces controlled by a player have the same essential capabilities. In some modern board games, such as Clue, there are other pieces that are not a player's representative, i.e. weapons. In some games, pieces may not represent or belong to a particular player. Jump—to bypass one or more game pieces and/or spaces. Depending on the context, jumping may also involve capturing or conquering an opponent's game piece. (See also: Game mechanic: capture) Space (or square)—a physical unit of progress on a gameboard delimited by a distinct border. Alternately, a unique, atomic position on the board on which a game piece may be located while in play (in Go, for example, the pieces are placed on intersections of lines on the grid, not in the areas bounded by the grid lines as is seen in chess). (See also: Game mechanic: Movement) Hex In hexagon-based board games, this is the common term for a standard space on the board. This is most often used in wargaming, though some abstract strategy games such as Abalone use hexagonal layouts. Categories There are a number of different categories that board games can be broken up into. The following is a list of some of the most common: Abstract strategy games like chess, checkers, Arimaa, irensei, Pacru or go German-style board games, or Eurogames, like The Settlers of Catan or Puerto Rico Race games like parchisi or backgammon Roll-and-move games, like Monopoly or Life Trivia games, like Trivial Pursuit Wargames, ranging from Risk to Advanced Squad Leader Word games, like Scrabble See also Card game DVD games List of board games List of game manufacturers Tabletop game References Further reading <small> Austin, Roland G. "Greek Board Games." Antiquity 14. September 1940: 257–271 Bell, Robert Charles. The Boardgame Book. London: Bookthrift Company, 1979. Bell, Robert Charles. Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 1980. ISBN 0-486-23855-5 Reprint: New York: Exeter Books, 1983. Falkener, Edward. Games Ancient and Oriental, and How To Play Them. Longmans, Green and Co., 1892. Fiske, Willard. Chess in Iceland and in Icelandic Literature—with historical notes on other table-games). Florentine Typographical Society, 1905. Murray, Harold James Ruthven. A History of Board-Games Other Than Chess. Gardners Books, 1969. Parlett, David. Oxford History of Board Games. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-212998-8 Rollefson, Gary O., "A Neolithic Game Board from Ain Ghazal, Jordan," Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 286. (May, 1992), pp. 1-5. Sackson, Sid. A Gamut of Games. Arrow Books, 1983. ISBN 0-09-153340-6 Reprint: Dover Publications, 1992. ISBN 0-486-27347-4 Schmittberger, R. Wayne. New Rules for Classic Games. John Wiley & Sons, 1992. ISBN 0-471-53621-0 Reprint: Random House Value Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0-517-12955-8 External links Board Game Geek

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Dave_Barry

David "Dave" Barry (born July 3, 1947) is an American author and columnist, who wrote a nationally syndicated humor column for the The Miami Herald from 1983 to 2005. He has also written numerous books of humor and parody, as well as comedic novels. Biography Barry was born in Armonk, New York, where his father--also named David Barry--was a Presbyterian minister. He was educated at Pleasantville High School where he was elected "Class Clown" in 1965. He earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English from Haverford College in 1969. In his book, Dave Barry's Greatest Hits, he stated that during college he was in a band called "The Federal Duck." As the son of a minister and an alumnus of a Quaker-affiliated college, Barry avoided military service during the Vietnam War by registering as a religious conscientious objector. http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Dave_Barry/id/2046079 Barry married his first wife, Beth, in 1976 and they had one child, Robert, in 1980. The couple divorced in 1993. In 1996, Barry married Miami Herald sportswriter Michelle Kaufman; they had a daughter, Sophie, in 2000. All are mentioned regularly in Barry's columns, though his divorce was not discussed. While with the Miami Herald, he created a band with his friends from the Herald, and named it the "Urban Professionals", where he played lead guitar. At the Tupperware Headquarters in Orlando, Florida, he played his hit song, "The Tupperware Song". Barry, Dave. Dave Barry's Greatest Hits, p. 110 He currently plays lead guitar in the band The Rock Bottom Remainders, whose other members include Stephen King, Amy Tan, Ridley Pearson and Mitch Albom. http://www.davebarry.com/about.html Journalism career In 1975, Barry joined Burger Associates, a consulting firm. He taught effective writing to business people. In his own words, he "spent nearly eight years trying to get various businesspersons to ... stop writing things like 'Enclosed please find the enclosed enclosures,' but ... eventually realized that it was hopeless." Around the same time, Barry worked as a general assignment reporter for the Daily Local News in West Chester, Pennsylvania, located near his collegiate alma mater, Haverford College. In 1981 he wrote a humorous guest column in the Philadelphia Inquirer which attracted the attention of Gene Weingarten, then an editor at Tropic, the Sunday magazine of the Miami Herald in Miami, Florida. In 1983, Barry was hired by Weingarten as a humor columnist. Barry won a Pulitzer Prize for Commentary in 1988, "for his consistently effective use of humor as a device for presenting fresh insights into serious concerns." For a 1992 American Booksellers Association convention, several authors including Barry formed a band for charity called The Rock Bottom Remainders ("remainder" is a publishing term for a book that doesn't sell). The members of the band, which has at various times included Stephen King, Amy Tan, Ridley Pearson, Mitch Albom, Kathi Goldmark, Roy Blount Jr., Barbara Kingsolver and Matt Groening, "are not musically skilled, but they are extremely loud," according to Barry. Several high-profile musicians including Al Kooper, Warren Zevon and Roger McGuinn have performed with the band, and Bruce Springsteen sat in at least once. The band's road tour resulted in the book Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America with Three Chords and an Attitude, which is now out of print. CBS broadcast the situation comedy Dave's World for four seasons, from 1993 to 1997, based on the books Dave Barry Turns 40 and Dave Barry's Greatest Hits, starring Harry Anderson as Barry, and DeLane Matthews as his wife, Beth. In an early episode, Barry was cast in a cameo role. The program was canceled shortly after being moved from Monday to the Friday night death slot. Barry's first novel, Big Trouble, was made into a motion picture; directed by Barry Sonnenfeld, it starred Tim Allen, Rene Russo and Dave's World alumnus Patrick Warburton, with a cameo by Barry. The movie was originally due for release in September 2001, but was postponed shortly after the September 11, 2001 attacks because the story involved smuggling a nuclear weapon onto an airplane. Articles written by Barry have appeared in publications such as Boating, Home Office Computing and Reader's Digest, in addition to the Chicken Soup for the Soul inspirational book series. Two of his articles have been included in the Best American Sportswriting series. One of his columns was used as the introduction to the book Pirattitude!: So You Wanna Be a Pirate? Here's How! (ISBN 0-451-21649-0), a follow-up of Barry's hand in creating International Talk Like a Pirate Day. His books have frequently appeared on the New York Times Best Seller List. Barry helps organize the Herald Hunt, formerly the Tropic Hunt, an annual puzzlehunt in Miami. He has run several mock campaigns to be elected president of the U.S. He has run on a Libertarian platform, being an avid Libertarian. At times, he's written for their National Newsletter. Presidency 2000:The Independent, Write-In, and other Candidates, Politics1.com On October 31, 2004, Dave Barry announced that he would be taking an indefinite leave of absence of at least a year from his weekly humor column with the Herald in order to spend more time with his family. He said that he would continue writing humor and children's books and working on filming the screen adaptation of his book, Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys, which was released in 2005; it premiered at several film festivals, and is available on DVD, though a theatrical release seems unlikely. On December 28, 2005, Barry said in an interview with Editor and Publisher that he will not resume his weekly column, although he would continue such features such as his yearly gift guide, year in review, his weblog, as well as an occasional article or column. Style Barry has defined a sense of humor as "a measurement of the extent to which we realize that we are trapped in a world almost totally devoid of reason. Laughter is how we express the anxiety we feel at this knowledge." When distinguishing fact from hyperbole, Barry frequently asserts: "I am not making this up". Among his favorite topics are exploding or flaming items (cows, whales, vacuum cleaners, toilets, Pop-Tarts, Barbie dolls, etc.), dogs lacking intelligence, live blogging, the television series 24 and amusing government studies. He labels various posts on his blog with long acronyms, such as OIYDWYMTTY(NY)G ("or if you don't want your mom to think you're (not 'your') gay") and WBAGNFARB ("would be a good name for a rock band"), poking fun at long internet abbreviations. He also enjoys making fun of South Florida where he resides. In Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway, he suggested that many of America's problems could be solved if South Florida were literally sawed off from the mainland and disowned by the United States. He also has made fun of the region in Homes and Other Black Holes as well as other books of his. Even his novels, Big Trouble and Tricky Business, capitalize heavily in the absurdities that exist only in South Florida. In Big Trouble, for example, the ridiculous nuances of South Florida are expressed through the experiences of the two hit men, Henry and Leonard. They experience an irritating sports talk show host and a highly incompetent airport security detail before deciding that they never want to return to Florida again. Barry also uses Big Trouble to poke fun at the existence of a Russian arms black market, the corrupt political system (Puggy makes a living off being paid to vote), and the incredibly loose labor laws in the region. The phrase "would be a good name for a rock band" is an observation Barry often applies to phrases that pop up in his writing, such as "The Moos of Derision", "Decomposing Tubers" and "Hearty Polyp Chuckles". In keeping with this, Barry's website contains a fairly sizable list of phrases that he claims would be good names for a rock band. In his humor books, Barry often cites a humorous phrase or image, which he then mercilessly repeats throughout. Notable examples include the Hawley-Smoot Tariff in Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States, Buffalo Bob in Dave Barry Turns 50, and giant prehistoric zucchini in Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway. He continues to reference these things, occasionally with fake subtlety (e.g., "The H*****-S**** T*****") long after he believes the reader no longer finds them funny. His novels typically feature numerous initially unrelated subplots, many related to criminal activity which slowly intertwine over the course of the story. Many critics explicitly compare this style to that of Elmore Leonard, though with a more comedic tone. Religious views Barry is the son of a Presbyterian minister, and decided "early on" that he was an atheist. He said "the problem with writing about religion is that you run the risk of offending sincerely religious people, and then they come after you with machetes." Works Films Big Trouble (2002) Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys (2005) Fiction Big Trouble (1999) Tricky Business (2002) Peter and the Starcatchers (2004, with Ridley Pearson) ISBN 0-7868-3790-X Peter and the Shadow Thieves (2006, with Ridley Pearson) ISBN 0-7868-3787-X Peter and the Secret of Rundoon (2007, with Ridley Pearson) ISBN 0-7868-3788-8 Escape From the Carnivale (2006, with Ridley Pearson) ISBN 0-7868-3789-6 The Shepherd, the Angel, and Walter the Christmas Miracle Dog (2006) Cave of the Dark Wind (2007, with Ridley Pearson) ISBN 0-7868-3790-X Science Fair (2008, with Ridley Pearson) Peter and the Sword of Mercy (2009, with Ridley Pearson) Non-fiction The Taming of the Screw (1983) Babies and Other Hazards of Sex: How to Make a Tiny Person in Only 9 Months With Tools You Probably Have Around the Home (1984) Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead (1985) Claw Your Way to the Top: How to Become the Head of a Major Corporation in Roughly a Week (1986) Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex (1987) Homes and Other Black Holes (1988) Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States (1989) Dave Barry Turns 40 (1990) Dave Barry's Only Travel Guide You'll Ever Need (1991) Dave Barry's Guide to Life(1991) includes Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex, Babies and Other Hazards of Sex, The Taming of the Screw and Claw Your Way to the Top Dave Barry Does Japan (1992) Dave Barry's Gift Guide to End All Gift Guides (1994) Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys (1996) Dave Barry in Cyberspace (1996) Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs (1997) Dave Barry Turns 50 (1998) Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway: A Vicious and Unprovoked Attack on Our Most Cherished Political Institutions (2001) "My Teenage Son's Goal in Life is to Make Me Feel 3,500 Years Old" and Other Thoughts On Parenting From Dave Barry (2001) "The Greatest Invention In The History Of Mankind Is Beer" And Other Manly Insights From Dave Barry (2001) Dave Barry's Money Secrets (2006) Dave Barry on Dads (2007) Dave Barry's History of the Millennium (So Far) (2007) Collected columns Dave Barry's Bad Habits: A 100% Fact-Free Book (1987) Dave Barry's Greatest Hits (1988) Dave Barry Talks Back (1991) The World According to Dave Barry (1994) includes Dave Barry Talks Back and Dave Barry's Greatest Hits Dave Barry is NOT Making This Up (1995) Dave Barry Is from Mars and Venus (1997) Dave Barry Is Not Taking This Sitting Down (2000) Dave Barry: Boogers Are My Beat (2003) Collaborations Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America With Three Chords and an Attitude (1994) with Stephen King, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, Al Kooper, Ridley Pearson, Roy Blount, Jr., Joel Selvin, Amy Tan, Dave Marsh, Tad Bartimus, Matt Groening, Greil Marcus, Tabitha King, Barbara Kingsolver, Michael Dorris Naked Came the Manatee (1998) with Carl Hiaasen, Elmore Leonard, James W. Hall, Edna Buchanan, Les Standiford, Paul Levine, Brian Antoni, Tananarive Due, John Dufresne, Vicki Hendricks, Carolina Hospital, Evelyn Mayerson Audio recordings A Totally Random Evening With Dave Barry (1992) See also Exploding whale Notes External links The Official Dave Barry Website The Official Dave Barry Blog Dave Barry and Ridley Pearson on new book: Science Fair on Fora.tv Oct. 20, 2008 Dave Barry, The Miami Herald Complete Guide to Guys official website Rock Bottom Remainders, "Don't Quit Your Day Job" Records "The Last Laugh" (Final column) Dave Barry Interview Podcast - Horace J. Digby Report

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Metonic_cycle

Heliocentric Solar SystemThe Metonic cycle or Enneadecaeteris in astronomy and calendar studies is a particular approximate common multiple of the tropical year and the synodic (lunar) month. The Greek astronomer Meton of Athens observed that a period of 19 tropical years is almost exactly equal to 235 synodic months, and rounded to full days counts 6940 days. The difference between the two periods (of 19 tropical years and 235 synodic months) is only 2 hours. Taking a year to be 1/19th of this 6940-day cycle gives a year length of 365 + 1/4 + 1/76 days (the unrounded cycle is much more accurate), which is slightly more than 12 synodic months. To keep the 12-month lunar year in pace with the solar year, an intercalary 13th month would have to be added on seven occasions during the nineteen-year period. Meton introduced a formula for intercalation in circa 432 BC. The cycle's most significant contemporary use is to help in flight planning (trajectory calculations and launch window analysis) for lunar spacecraft missions as well as serving as the basis for the Hebrew calendar's 19 year cycle. Another use is in computus, the calculation of the date of the Christian feast of Easter. Mathematical basis 19 tropical years differ from 235 synodic months by about 2 hours. The Metonic cycle's error is one full day every 219 years, or 12.4 parts per million. 19 tropical years = 6939.602 days 235 synodic months = 6939.688 days This cycle is an approximation of reality. The period of the Moon's orbit around the Earth and the Earth's orbit around the Sun (ignoring also exact definition of the year) are independent and have no known physical resonance. Examples of a real harmonic lock would be Mercury, with its 3:2 spin-orbit resonance or other orbital resonance. A lunar year of 12 synodic months is about 354 days on average, 11 days short of the 365-day solar year. Therefore, in a lunisolar calendar, every 3 years or so there is a difference of more than a full lunar month between the lunar and solar years, and an extra (embolismic) month should be inserted (intercalation). The Athenians appear not to have had a regular means of intercalating a 13th month; instead, the question of when to add a month was decided by an official. Application in traditional calendars Traditionally (in the ancient Attic and Babylonian calendars, as well as in the Hebrew calendar), the years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are the long (13-month) years of the Metonic cycle. This cycle can be used to predict eclipses, forms the basis of the Greek and Hebrew calendars, and is used in the computation of the date of Easter each year. The Chaldean astronomer Kidinnu (4th century BC) knew of the 19-year cycle, but the Babylonians may have learned of it earlier. They measured the moon's motion against the stars, so the 235:19 relation may originally have referred to sidereal years, instead of tropical years as it has been used in various calendars; however, ancient astronomers did not make a clear distinction between sidereal and tropical years before Hipparchus discovered precession of the equinoxes c. 130 BC. The Bahá'í calendar, established in the middle of the 19th century, is also based on cycles of 19 years. Further details The Metonic cycle incorporates two less accurate subcycles, for which 8 years = 99 lunations (an Octaeteris) to within 1.5 days, i.e. an error of one day in 5 years; and 11 years = 136 lunations within 1.5 days, i.e. an error of one day in 7.3 years. Adding the 11 year cycle to 17 or 18 Metonic cycles creates the more accurate cycles of 334 years in 4131 lunations and 353 years in 4366 lunations (see lunisolar calendar). Meton of Athens approximated the cycle to a whole number (6940) of days, obtained by 125 long months of 30 days and 110 short months of 29 days. In the following century Callippus developed the Callippic cycle. This was a more accurate approximation, obtained by taking one day away from every fourth of Meton's cycles, so creating a 76-year cycle with a mean year of exactly 365.25 days. Later the solar Julian calendar was designed to have a year of this length by using leap days. The 19-year cycle is also close (to somewhat more than half a day) to 255 draconic months, so it is also an eclipse cycle, which lasts only for about 4 or 5 recurrences of eclipses. See also Antikythera mechanism Bahá'í calendar Hebrew calendar Saros cycle Runic calendar References

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Demographics_of_Malawi

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Malawi, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Malawi derives its name from the Maravi, a Bantu people who came from the southern Congo about 600 years ago. On reaching the area north of Lake Malawi, the Maravi divided. One branch, the ancestors of the present-day Chewas, moved south to the west bank of the lake. The other, the ancestors of the Nyanjas, moved down the east bank to the southern part of the country. By AD 1500, the two divisions of the tribe had established a kingdom stretching from north of the present-day city of Nkhotakota to the Zambezi River in the south, and from Lake Malawi in the east, to the Luangwa River in Zambia in the west. Migrations and tribal conflicts precluded the formation of a cohesive Malawian society until the turn of the 20th century. In more recent years, ethnic and tribal distinctions have diminished. Regional distinctions and rivalries, however, persist. Despite some clear differences, no significant friction currently exists between tribal groups, and the concept of a Malawian nationality has begun to take hold. Predominantly a rural people, Malawians are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent. The Chewas constitute 90% of the population of the central region; the Nyanja tribe predominates in the south and the Tumbuka in the north. In addition, significant numbers of the Tongas live in the north; Ngonis--an offshoot of the Zulus who came from South Africa in the early 1800s--live in the lower northern and lower central regions; and the Yao, who are mostly Muslim, predominate in the Southern Region of the country and live in a wide band from Blantyre and Zomba north to Lake Malawi and east to the border with Mozambique. Bantus of other tribes came from Mozambique as refugees. Demographics of Malawi, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 10,385,849 (July 2000 est.) 13,931,831 (July 2008 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 45% (male 2,335,440; female 2,324,012) 15-64 years: 52% (male 2,671,580; female 2,766,560) 65 years and over: 3% (male 117,932; female 170,325) (2000 est.) Population growth rate 2.38% (2006 est.) Birth rate 38.49 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate 22.44 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 122.28 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Ratio of medical doctors to general population 1 Doctor/65,000 Malawians Life expectancy at birth total population: 37.58 years male: 37.2 years female: 37.98 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 5.33 children born/woman (2000 est.) 5.67 children born/woman (2008 est.) Nationality noun: Malawian(s) adjective: Malawian Ethnic groups Chewa Nyanja Tumbuka Yao Lomwe Sena Tonga Ngoni Ngonde Religions Christian: 75% Protestant: 55% Roman Catholic: 20% Muslim: 20% Indigenous beliefs: 5% Languages English (official), Chichewa (official), other languages important regionally Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 58% male: 72.8% female: 43.4% (1999 est.) See also Malawi References

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Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry

The hypothetical types of biochemistry are the different types of speculative biochemistries of alien life forms that differ radically from those known on Earth. It includes biochemistries that use elements other than carbon to construct primary cellular structures and/or use solvents besides water. Theories about extraterrestrial life based on these alternative biochemistries are common in science fiction. Chirality Perhaps the least unusual "alternative" biochemistry would be one with differing chirality of its biomolecules. In known Earth-based life, amino acids are almost universally of the L form and sugars are of the D form. Molecules of opposite chirality have identical chemical properties to their mirrored forms, so life that used D amino acids and/or L sugars may be possible. Atoms other than carbon Scientists have speculated about the pros and cons of using atoms other than carbon to form the molecular structures necessary for life, but no one has proposed a theory employing such atoms to form all the molecular machinery necessary for life. Since humans are carbon-based beings and have never encountered any life that exists outside the earth’s environment, excluding the possibility of all other elements may be considered carbon chauvinism. Silicon biochemistry Artist's impression of a silicon-based life-form The most commonly proposed basis for an alternative biochemical system is the silicon atom, since silicon has many chemical properties similar to carbon and is in the same periodic table group, the carbon group. But silicon has a number of handicaps as a carbon alternative. Because silicon atoms are much bigger, having a larger mass and atomic radius, they have difficulty forming double or triple covalent bonds, which are important for a biochemical system. Silanes, which are chemical compounds of hydrogen and silicon that are analogous to the alkane hydrocarbons, are highly reactive with water, and long-chain silanes spontaneously decompose. Molecules incorporating polymers of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms instead of direct bonds between silicon, known collectively as silicones, are much more stable. It has been suggested that silicone-based chemicals would be more stable than equivalent hydrocarbons in a sulfuric-acid-rich environment, as is found in some extraterrestrial locations. In general, however, complex long-chain silicone molecules are still more unstable than their carbon counterparts. Another obstacle is that silicon dioxide (a common ingredient of many sands), the analog of carbon dioxide, is a non-soluble solid at the temperature range where water is liquid, making it difficult for silicon to be introduced into water-based biochemical systems even if the necessary range of biochemical molecules could be constructed out of it. The added problem with silicon dioxide is that it would be the product of aerobic respiration. If a silicon-based life form were to breathe using oxygen, as life on Earth does, it would possibly produce silicon dioxide as a by product of this, assuming that the only difference between the two types of life is the presence of silicon in place of carbon. Finally, of the varieties of molecules identified in the interstellar medium , 84 are based on carbon and 8 are based on silicon. Moreover, of those 8 compounds, four also include carbon within them. The cosmic abundance of carbon to silicon is roughly 10 to 1. This may suggest a greater variety of complex carbon compounds throughout the cosmos, providing less of a foundation upon which to build silicon-based biologies, at least under the conditions prevalent on the surface of planets. Earth, as well as other terrestrial planets, is exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor. However, terrestrial life is carbon-based. The fact that carbon, though rare, has proven to be much more successful as a life base than the much more abundant silicon may be evidence that silicon is poorly suited for biochemistry on Earth-like planets. Even so, silica is used by some existing Earth life, such as the silicate skeletal structure of diatoms. See biogenic silica. This suggests that extraterrestrial life-forms may have silicon based structure-molecules and carbon based proteins for metabolic purposes, therefore enabling the ability to feed on a rather common resource on a terrestrial planet like Earth for building up the silicone based part of their body. It is also possible that silicon compounds may be biologically useful under temperatures or pressures very different from the surface of a terrestrial planet, either in conjunction with or in a role less directly analogous to carbon. A. G. Cairns-Smith has proposed that the first living organisms to exist on Earth were clay minerals - which were probably based on silicon. Nitrogen and phosphorus biochemistry Nitrogen and phosphorus also offer possibilities as the basis for biochemical molecules. Like carbon, phosphorus can form long chain molecules on its own, which would potentially allow it to form complex macromolecules if it were not so reactive. However, in combination with nitrogen, it can form much more stable covalent bonds and create a wide range of molecules, including rings. Earth's atmosphere is approximately 78 % nitrogen, but this would probably not be of much use to a phosphorus-nitrogen (P-N) life-form since molecular nitrogen (N2) is nearly inert and energetically expensive to "fix" due to its triple bond. (On the other hand, certain Earth plants such as legumes can fix nitrogen using symbiotic anaerobic bacteria contained in their root nodules.) A nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or ammonia (NH3) atmosphere would be more useful. Nitrogen also forms a number of oxides, such as nitrogen monoxide, dinitrogen oxide, and dinitrogen tetroxide, and all would be present in a nitrogen-dioxide-rich atmosphere. In a nitrogen dioxide atmosphere, P-N plant analogues could absorb nitrogen dioxide from the air and phosphorus from the ground. The nitrogen dioxide would be reduced, with analogues to sugar being produced in the process, and waste oxygen would be released into the atmosphere. Animals based on phosphorus and nitrogen would consume the plants, use atmospheric oxygen to metabolize the sugar analogues, exhaling nitrogen dioxide and depositing phosphorus, or phosphorus-rich material, as solid waste. In an ammonia atmosphere, P-N plants would absorb ammonia from the air and phosphorus from the ground, then oxidize the ammonia to produce P-N sugars and release hydrogen waste. P-N animals are now the reducers, breathing in hydrogen and converting the P-N sugars to ammonia and phosphorus. This is the opposite pattern of oxidation and reduction from a nitrogen dioxide world, and indeed from the known biochemistry of Earth. It would be analogous to Earth's atmospheric carbon supply being in the form of methane instead of carbon dioxide. Debate continues, as several aspects of a phosphorus-nitrogen cycle biology would be energy deficient. Also, nitrogen and phosphorus are unlikely to occur in the ratios and quantity required in the real universe. Carbon, being preferentially formed during nuclear fusion, is more abundant and is more likely to end up in a preferred location. Moreover, if an ammoniated atmosphere would be possible and stable at first view (in a reductive environment), it is doubtful that an atmosphere rich in nitrogen dioxide could even exist. Since the nitrogen oxides are all endoenergetic compared with molecular nitrogen and oxygen; and they are very oxidizing, and would decompose by stellar radiation and by catalysis on rocks of surface when they are produced. Other exotic biochemical elements Arsenic, which is chemically similar to phosphorus, while poisonous for most Earth life, is incorporated into the biochemistry of some organisms. Biochemical Periodic Table - Arsenic Some marine algae incorporate arsenic into complex organic molecules such as arsenosugars and arsenobetaines. Fungi and bacteria can produce volatile methylated arsenic compounds. Both arsenate reduction and arsenite oxidation have been observed in microbes (Chrysiogenes arsenatis). Additionally, some prokaryotes can use arsenate as a terminal electron acceptor during anaerobic growth and some can utilize arsenite as an electron donor to generate energy. It has been speculated that the earliest life on Earth may have used arsenic in place of phosphorus in the backbone of its DNA. Chlorine is sometimes proposed as a biological alternative to oxygen, either in carbon-based biologies or hypothetical non-carbon-based ones. But chlorine is much less abundant than oxygen in the universe, and so planets with a sufficiently chlorine-rich atmosphere are likely to be rare, if they exist at all. Chlorine will instead likely be bound up in the form of salts and other inert compounds. Sulfur is also able to form long-chain molecules, but suffers from the same high reactivity problems that phosphorus and silanes do. The biological use of sulfur as an alternative to carbon is purely theoretical. However, the biological use of sulfur as an alternative to oxygen is widespread—strains of sulfur-reducing bacteria have been discovered in exotic locations on Earth, and also not so exotic locations, such as aging water systems. http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/water/dwg/sulferb.pdf These bacteria can utilize elemental sulfur instead of oxygen, reducing sulfur to hydrogen sulfide. Examples of this type of metabolism are green sulfur bacteria and purple sulfur bacteria. Examples of micro-organisms that metabolize elemental sulfur can be traced back 3.5 billion years on Earth. Early Archaean Microorganisms Preferred Elemental Sulfur, Not Sulfate Science AAAS, by Philippot, et al., (14 September 2007) Non-water solvents In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. It is sometimes assumed that water is the only suitable chemical to fill this role. Some of the properties of water that are important for life processes include a large temperature range over which it is liquid, a high heat capacity useful for temperature regulation, a large heat of vaporization, and the ability to dissolve a wide variety of compounds. Water is also amphoteric, meaning it can both donate and accept a proton allowing it to act as an acid or a base. This property is crucial in many organic and biochemical reactions, where water serves as a solvent, a reactant, or a product. There are other chemicals with similar properties that have sometimes been proposed as alternatives. Additionally, water is the only compound listed here that is less dense as a solid (ice) than as a liquid. This is why bodies of water freeze over but do not freeze solid (from the bottom up). If ice was denser than liquid water (as is true for nearly all other compounds) then large bodies of liquid would slowly freeze solid, which would not be conducive to the formation of life. Ammonia Ammonia is perhaps the most commonly proposed alternative. Numerous chemical reactions are possible in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has some chemical similarities with water. Ammonia can dissolve most organic molecules at least as well as water does, and in addition it is capable of dissolving many elemental metals. Given this set of chemical properties it has been theorized that ammonia-based life forms might be possible. However, ammonia does have some problems as a basis for life. The hydrogen bonds between ammonia molecules are weaker than those in water, causing ammonia's heat of vaporization to be half that of water, its surface tension to be three times smaller, and reducing its ability to concentrate non-polar molecules through a hydrophobic effect. For these reasons, science questions how well ammonia could hold prebiotic molecules together in order to allow the emergence of a self-reproducing system. Ammonia is also combustible and oxidizable and could not exist sustainably in a biosphere that oxidizes it. It would, however, be stable in a reducing environment. A biosphere based on ammonia would likely exist at temperatures or air pressures that are extremely unusual for terrestrial life. Terrestrial life usually exists within the melting point and boiling point of water at normal pressure, between 0 °C (273 K) and 100 °C (373 K); at normal pressure ammonia's melting and boiling points are between −78 °C (195 K) and −33 °C (240 K). Such extremely cold temperatures create problems, as they slow biochemical reactions tremendously and may cause biochemical precipitation out of solution due to high melting points. Ammonia could be a liquid at normal temperatures, but at much higher pressures; for example, at 60 atm, ammonia melts at −77 °C (196 K) and boils at 98 °C (371 K). Ammonia and ammonia-water mixtures remain liquid at temperatures far below the freezing point of pure water, so such biochemistries might be well suited to planets and moons orbiting outside the water-based habitability zone. Such conditions could exist, for example, under the surface of Saturn's largest moon Titan. As of 2006-03-02, the page appears unavailable. Hydrogen fluoride Hydrogen fluoride, like water, is a polar molecule, and due to its polarity it can dissolve many ionic compounds. Its melting point is -84 °C and its boiling point is 19.54 °C (at atmospheric pressure); the difference between the two is little more than 100 °C. HF also makes hydrogen bonds with its neighbor molecules as do water and ammonia. All of these things would make HF a candidate to host life on other planets. Not much research has been done on liquid HF in regards to its ability to dissolve and react with non-polar molecules. It is possible that the biota in an HF ocean could use the fluorine as an electron acceptor to photosynthesize energy. HF is very dangerous to the systems of molecules that earth-life is made of, but the paraffins are stable with it. But presence of great amounts of free HF in a planetary scale, like water on Earth, is doubtful, even next to impossible: certainly water would be present in it, forming a solution of fluorhydric acid that would change all its properties. The hypothetical planet would also surely contain silicates that would react with HF to form inert compounds as silicon fluorides, as soon as HF would be present; thus preventing its concentration in great quantities in an hypothetical planetary environment. Cosmic abundance of fluorine is quite low, and bonds in inert compounds rapidly in interstellar nebulae, just after been out of dying stars, because it's the most reactive element. Other solvents Other solvents sometimes proposed include formamide, methanol, hydrogen sulfide and hydrogen chloride. Hydrogen Chloride suffers from the low cosmic abundance of Chlorine, while Hydrogen sulfide suffers from its high reactivity. And the two firsts couldn't be thought to be found in vast quantities in a planetary scale, only could be part of an internal physiology of organisms. A mixture of hydrocarbons, such as the methane/ethane lakes detected on Titan by the Cassini spacecraft, could act as a solvent over a wide range of temperatures but would lack polarity. Isaac Asimov, the biochemist and science fiction writer, suggested that poly-lipids could form a substitute for proteins in a non-polar solvent such as methane or liquid hydrogen. A proposal has been made that life on Mars may actually exist and be using a mixture of water and hydrogen peroxide as its solvent. A 61.2 percent (by weight) mix of water and hydrogen peroxide has a freezing point of -56.5 degrees Celsius, and also tends to super-cool rather than crystallize. It is also hygroscopic, an advantage in a water-scarce environment. Other types of speculations Non-green photosynthesizers Physicists have noted that, while photosynthesis on Earth generally involves green plants, a variety of other colored plants could also support photosynthesis, essential for most life on Earth, and that other colors might be preferred in places that receive a different mix of solar radiation than that received on Earth. NASA - NASA Predicts Non-Green Plants on Other Planets These studies indicate that no photosynthetic plants would be blue-colored, because blue light provides some of the highest photosynthetic yields in the light spectrum (therefore it is important for blue light to be absorbed rather than reflected). The physicists base their conclusions not on chemistry, but on the physical quality of different frequencies of light produced by known types of stars. The first plants on Earth may have been a sightly different colour, due to the fact that the Sun was, in the first geological eons, a little less bright ; and its light was filtrated by passing thru an atmosphere with a different composition. One terrestrial example of energy conversion based on something other than ordinary light involves fungi that convert high energy (compared to visible light) gamma rays into useful energy using the pigment melanin. In most organisms, melanin, a black pigment, instead protects the organisms against ultraviolet and solar radiation. Ordinarily fungi derived their energy from decomposing other biomass, rather than by converting radiation into energy for itself. Alternative atmospheres The gasses present in the atmosphere on Earth have varied greatly over its history. Traditional plant photosynthesis has terraformed the atmosphere by sequestering carbon from carbon dioxide, increasing the proportion of molecular oxygen, and by participating in the nitrogen cycle. Modern oxygen breathing animals would have been biochemically impossible until earlier photosynthetic life transformed Earth's atmosphere, giving rise to the Cambrian explosion. The Ediacaran Fauna Precambrian life had to have biochemistries that did not require oxygen. Changes in the gas mixture in the atmosphere, even in an atmosphere made up predominantly of the same molecules of Earth's atmosphere, impacts the biochemistry and morphology of life. For example, periods of high oxygen concentrations determined from ice core samples have been associated with fauna of a larger scale in the fossil record, while periods associated with of low oxygen concentrations have been associated with fauna of a smaller scale in the fossil record. Science, "The Rise of Oxygen over the Past 205 Million Years and the Evolution of Large Placental Mammals" (30 September 2005) Also, while it is customary to think of plants, which are on one side of the oxygen and nitrogen cycles as being sessile, and animals which are on the other as being motile, this is not a biological imperative. There are animals which are sessile for all or most of their lives (such as corals), and there are plants (such as tumbleweeds and venus fly traps) that exhibit more mobility than is customarily associated with plants. On a slowly rotating planet, for example, it might be adaptive for photosynthesis to be performed by "plants" that can move to remain in the light, while non-photosynthetic "animals," much like Earth's fungi, might have a lesser need to move from place to place on their own. This would be a sort of mirror image of Earth's ecology. Variable environments Many Earth plants and animals also undergo major biochemical changes during their life cycles as a response to changing environmental conditions, for example, by having a spore or hibernation state that can be sustained for years or even millennia between more active life stages. Thus, it would be biochemically possible to sustain life in environments that are only periodically consistent with life as we know it. Similarly, frogs in cold climates can survive for extended periods of time with most of their body water in a frozen state Christmas in Yellowstone , while desert frogs in Australia can become inactive and dehydrate in dry periods, losing up to 75 % of their fluids, yet return to life by rapidly rehydrating in wet periods. Main and Bentley, Ecology, "Water Relations of Australian Burrowing Frogs and Tree Frogs" (1964) Either type of frog would appear biochemically inactive (i.e. not living) in dormant periods to anything other than the most acute means of sensing this activity. More exotic speculations Interstellar dust-based life In 2007 V. N. Tsytovich and colleagues discovered the possibility of life-like behaviors being exhibited by dust particles suspended in a plasma, similar to conditions in interstellar space. Computer models showed that when the dust became charged the particles could self-organize into microscopic helical structures capable of replicating themselves, interacting with other neighboring structures, and evolving into more stable forms. Similar forms of life were speculated on in Fred Hoyle's classic novel The Black Cloud. In fiction In the realm of science fiction there have occasionally been forms of life proposed that, while often highly speculative and unsupported by rigorous theoretical examination, are nevertheless interesting and in some cases even somewhat plausible. Novels, short stories and comics An example of silicon based life forms takes place in the novel Sentenced to Prism by Alan Dean Foster in which the protagonist Evan Orgell finds himself trapped on a planet whose entire ecosystem is mostly silicon-based. Perhaps the most extreme example in science fiction is James White's Sector General: a series of novels and short stories about multienvironment hospital for the strangest life-forms imaginable, some of them breathing methane, chlorine, water and sometimes also oxygen. Some of the species metabolise directly hard radiation and their environment doesn't differ much from the atmosphere of a star, while others live in near absolute zero temperatures. All of the life forms are classified according to their metabolism, internal and external features, and more extreme abilities (telepathy, empathy, hive mind, etc) with four letter codes. Humans from Earth share the DBDG specification with small furry beings called Nidians. One of the major sentient species in Terry Pratchett's Discworld universe are the "earth"-based (ranging from Detritus to Diamond) Trolls. Pratchett has also written the science fiction novel The Dark Side of the Sun which features a range of extraordinary life-forms, including a telepathic body of water, creatures called "Sundogs", which are capable of interstellar travel from birth, and a sentient planet: effectively a giant silicon-based computer. Fred Hoyle's classic novel The Black Cloud features a life form consisting of a vast cloud of interstellar dust, the individual particles of which interact via electromagnetic signalling analogous to how the individual cells of multicellular terrestrial life interact. Outside of science-fiction, life in interstellar dust has been proposed as part of the panspermia hypothesis. The low temperatures and densities of interstellar clouds would seem to imply that life processes would operate much more slowly there than on Earth. Inorganic dust-based life has been speculated upon based on recent computer simulations. Similarly, Arthur C. Clarke's "Crusade" revolves around a planetwide life-form based on silicon and superfluid helium located in deep intergalactic space, processing its thoughts very slowly by human standards, that sends probes to look for similar life in nearby galaxies. It concludes that it needs to make planets more habitable for similar life-forms, and sends out other probes to foment supernovae in order to do so. Clarke implies that this is what accounts for most supernovae having occurred in the same region of space and warns that the effort will eventually reach Earth. Robert L. Forward's Camelot 30K describes an ecosystem existing on the surface of Kuiper belt objects that is based on a fluorocarbon chemistry with OF2 as the principal solvent instead of H2O. The organisms in this ecology keep themselves warm by secreting a pellet of uranium-235 inside themselves and then moderating its nuclear fission using a boron-rich carapace around it. Kuiper belt objects are known to be rich in organic compounds such as tholins, so some form of life existing on their surfaces is not entirely implausible–though perhaps not going so far as to develop natural internal nuclear reactors, as have Forward's. Fluorine is also of low cosmic abundance, so its use in this manner is unlikely. In Forward's Rocheworld series, a relatively Earth-like biochemistry is proposed that uses a mixture of water and ammonia as its solvent. In Dragon's Egg and Starquake, Forward proposes life on the surface of a neutron star utilizing "nuclear chemistry" in the degenerate matter crust. Since such life utilised strong nuclear forces instead of electromagnetic interactions, it was posited that life might function millions of times faster than typical on Earth. Gregory Benford and David Brin's Heart of the Comet features a comet with a conventional carbon-and-water-based ecosystem that becomes active near the perihelion when the Sun warms it. Brin's own novel Sundiver is an example of science fiction proposing a form of life existing within the plasma atmosphere of a star using complex self-sustaining magnetic fields. Similar sorts of plasmoid life have sometimes been proposed to exist in other places, such as planetary ionospheres or interstellar space, but usually only by fringe theorists (see ball lightning for some additional discussion). Gregory Benford had a form of plasma-based life exist in the accretion disk of a primordial black hole in his novel Eater. The suggestion that life could even occur within the plasma of a star has been picked up by other science fiction writers, as in David Brin's Uplift Saga. Any place in which reactions occur–even an incredible environment as a star–presents a possible medium for some chain of events that could produce a system able to replicate itself. The Outsiders in Larry Niven's Known Space universe are cryogenic creatures based on liquid helium. They derive thermoelectric energy from a temperature gradient by basking half their body in sunlight, keeping the other half in shadow and exposed to interstellar vacuum. Stephen Baxter has imagined perhaps some of the most unusual exotic life-forms in his Xeelee series of novels and stories, including supersymmetric photino-based life that congregate in the gravity wells of stars, and the Qax, who thrive in any form of convection cells, from swamp gas to the atmospheres of gas giants. In his novel Diaspora, Greg Egan posits the existence of entire virtual universes implemented on Turing Machines encoded by Wang Tiles in gargantuan polysaccharide 'carpets.' The sentient ocean that covers much of the surface of Solaris in Stanislaw Lem's eponymous novel also seems, from much of the fictional research quoted and discussed in the book, to based on some element other than carbon. In her novel Brain Plague, Joan Slonczewski describes a species of intelligent microrganisms with arsenic based chemistries that live symbiotically with human hosts. Sergeant Schlock is one of the lead characters in the webcomic Schlock Mercenary. His species, Carbosilicate Amorphs, evolved from self-repairing distributed data storage devices, and as such, redundantly distribute their 'brain' throughout their body. They are highly resistant to Hard Vacuum, explosive decompression, projectile weapons, chemical-based explosives, and dismemberment. Their only specialty organ is their eyes, which they harvest as fruit from the Ghanj-Rho eye-tree on their home planet. While the Amorphs have the ability to move fast, quietly, Schlock Mercenary archives - Tuesday, September 5, 2006 and sprout appendages at will, they excel at 'closer-than-melee-range combat, primarily "meme-toxins" against other Amorphs. A more farcical example comes from the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, where the Hooloovoo are a hyperintelligent shade of the colour blue. Alien warriors recruited by the god Klael in David Eddings' "Tamuli" trilogy are noted by their human opponents to breathe marsh-gas (methane). Within Eddings' universe, this limits their capacity for exertion in an oxygen atmosphere, and also determines the tactics used to fight them and eventually to destroy them in their encampments. Star Trek A Horta, a fictional silicon based life-form in the Star Trek universe. A well-known example of a non–carbon-based life-form in science fiction is the Horta in the original Star Trek episode "Devil in the Dark". A highly intelligent silicon-based creature made almost entirely of pure rock, it tunnels through rock as easily as humans move through air. The entire species dies out every 50,000 years save for one who tends all the eggs, which take the form of silicon nodules scattered throughout the caverns and tunnels of its home planet, Janus VI. The inadvertent destruction of many of these eggs by a human mining colony led the mother Horta to respond by killing the colonists and sabotaging their equipment; it was only through a Vulcan mind meld that the race's benevolence and intelligence were discovered and peaceful relations established. Dr. Leonard McCoy famously described the Horta as, "It's life, Jim, but not as we know it." Star Trek would later offer other corporeal life-forms with an alternative biochemistry. The Tholians of "The Tholian Web" are depicted and described, in that episode and later in the Star Trek: Enterprise episode "In a Mirror, Darkly" as being primarily of mineral-based composition and thriving only in superheated conditions. Another episode from TOS'''s third season, "The Savage Curtain," depicted another rock creature called an Excalbian, which is believed in fanon to also have been silicon-based. SciFi.com StarTrek Excalbian. Memory Alpha Later on, in Star Trek: The Next Generation, the Crystalline Entity appeared in two episodes, "Datalore" and "Silicon Avatar". This was an enormous spacefaring crystal lattice that had taken thousands of lives in its quest for energy. It may have been unaware of this, however, but it was destroyed before communications could be established at a level sufficient to ascertain it. In another episode, "Home Soil", intelligent crystals that formed a "microbrain" were discovered during a terraforming mission, and they described the humans they encountered as "ugly bags of mostly water." "The Disease", an episode of Star Trek: Voyager featured some artificially-engineered silicon-based parasites, and an Enterprise episode, "Observer Effect", also presented a lethal silicon-based virus. In another Voyager episode, "Hope and Fear", a xenon-based life-form was mentioned. In the Enterprise episode The Communicator, an alien species is encountered whose blood chemistry, while not explicitly stated, is sufficiently different from terrestrial organisms that it is not red and iron is toxic to it. Star Wars In the Star Wars movie The Empire Strikes Back, two life-forms were encountered by the characters that were non-carbon based entities. Although details of their physiology were not mentioned on screen, the Space slug, (a giant worm-like creature that lived on asteroids in the freezing vacuum of space), and the Mynock, (pesky bat-like vermin that would attach themselves to spaceship hulls and chew through power conduits to feed off the raw energy), are said to be silicon-based organisms in expanded universe sources. Also from The Empire Strikes Back, the bounty hunter Zuckuss is a member of the Gand race, an ammonia-based life-form. However, it is worth noting that the Gand are divided into two subspecies, only one of which breathes at all, the other drawing all their required sustenance from food intake and producing speech by means of essentially modulated flatulence. Appearing only in the expanded universe is the Spice Spider of Kessel, a creature made of glitterstim spice and silicon that spun crystalline webs harvested by miners as glitterstim spice, an illegal psychoactive narcotic. The spider used the webs to catch bogeys, tiny energy creatures that it consumed for energy. Energy Spider. The Completely Unofficial Star Wars Encyclopedia Alien In the movie Alien the science officer Ash notes that the facehugger creature replaces its cells with polarised silicon in order to give it "prolonged resistance to adverse environmental conditions". Both stages of the alien cycle also have a highly corrosive blood, normally understood to be some kind of acid, which would be inconsistent with any known terrestrial biochemistry. Other film and television In the movie The Monolith Monsters, a silicon meteor reproduces itself, draining silicates from everything it touches. It needs water to start its cycle and contains molecular structures typical of many kinds of rocks, mixed together. A geologist says that its structure is nearly impossible. The meteor is killed by salt water, which can stop the cycle. In "Firewalker", a second-season episode of The X-Files, a silicon-based plant that infects humans parasitically through its spores is discovered living deep in a volcano. Also from The X-Files, the first-season episode 'Ice' deal with an ammonia-based vermiform parasite. A key plot point in the comedy Evolution involves nitrogen-based life forms, and using selenium-based shampoo to poison them (with the bonus of a product placement for Head & Shoulders). In the Stargate SG-1 fourth season episode "Scorched Earth", a Human society known as the Enkarans are threatened on their new homeworld by an alien ship that is terraforming the planet to be suitable for the sulfur-based Gadmeer species. In the Stargate Atlantis fifth season episode "Remnants", a device is found which purpose was to seed a planet with silicon-based life. In Ben 10, both the Omnitrix alien Diamondhead and the alien Bounty hunter Tetrax are members of the Petrosapien species, which are a form of silicon-based life. In Dragon Ball Z, shortly before the destruction of Planet Namek, Frieza tells Goku that he does not need to breathe. This would allow him to survive the destruction of the planet and suggest that he is not a carbon-based life-form.Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008) introduces thirteen "extra dimensional beings" with crystal skeletons, who founded a city that became the basis of the El Dorado myth. Though their flesh has died and rotted away, their minds still live on within their skeletons, which communicate telepathically. An episode (the Chrysalids) of the series Space 1999 presents humanoids in a planet protectect by a field, which are living in a chlorine atmosphere. Computer and video games In the Command & Conquer real-time strategy games, both the gameplay and storyline revolve heavily around the introduction to Earth of an extraterrestrial mutagen called Tiberium via meteor, which displays strikingly lifelike behaviours such as self-replication, evolution, and homeostasis, without necessarily undergoing anything like common carbon-based metabolic cycles, and which appears to be colonising the Earth, converting it into an environment unsuited to carbon-based biology. Earth creatures (such as animals, plants and even humans) exposed to Tiberium can either be killed because of the radiation or be transformed into Tiberium-based life-forms, to whom Tiberium radiation is curative rather than toxic. It is later revealed that Tiberium was introduced to earth by the Scrin, an extremely advanced race of Tiberium-based aliens bent on mining the planet after the Tiberium deposits have reached maturity. In the Halo video game series, a race of Covenant aliens named "Grunts" by humans require a breathing apparatus while fighting the humans in an Earth-like atmosphere. According to the novelizations of the video game, the Grunts' apparatus allows them to breathe the methane they need to survive. In the Master of Orion series of space strategy games, there exists an extraterrestrial race called Silicoids, whose appearance (and presumably composition) is similar to crystalline mineral structures. The game posits that this grants them immunity to the effects of hostile environments and pollution, at the expense of impeding their reproductive rate and their ability to interact with other intelligent species. In the Metroid Prime Series, Phazon is a highly radioactive, self regenerating mineral with organic properties that is generated by the sentient planet Phaaze. In Metroid Prime Hunters, Spire is a rock-like, silicon based alien. He is the last Diamont (presumably a play on the word diamond, which is composed of carbon). In the Star Control series, the Chenjesu, are intelligent, peaceful silicon-based life-forms that were the backbone of the Alliance of Free Stars. Also, there are the Slylandro who are gas beings resideng in the upper atmosphere of a gas giant. In the game of Xenosaga'', artificial life forms known as Realians have been created using silicon-based chemistry. They resemble humans in every aspect, except they are considered to be lower than humans on the social ladder. In "Mass Effect" the alien turians and quarians , are both dextro-amino acid-based organisms, as opposed to humans, a deoxyribonucleic acid life-form. There are also the volus, an amonia based species that must wear pressure suits to survive in environments suited to the other races. References See also Alternative biology Astrobiology Carbon-based life Carbon chauvinism Extraterrestrial life Iron-sulfur world theory Non-cellular life Nucleic acid analogues Planetary habitability External links Astronomy FAQ Ammonia-based life Silicon-based life

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Geography_of_Ecuador

Map of Ecuador Topographic map of Ecuador Ecuador is a country in western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean at the Equator, for which the country is named.Ecuador encompasses a wide range of natural formations and climates, from the desert-like southern coast to the snowcapped peaks of the Andes mountain range to the plains of the Amazon Basin. Cotopaxi in Ecuador is one of the world's highest active volcanos. It also has a large series of cliffs that follow the southern border and spill into the northwest area of Peru. Area and borders Ecuador is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and has 2,337 km of coastline. It has 2010 km of land boundaries, with Colombia in the north (590 km border) and Peru in the east and south (1,420 km border). Ecuador continues to contest the boundary with Peru, which was established by the Rio Protocol of 1942 and ceded to Peru a large portion of territory east of the Andes. Ecuador has a total area is 283,560 km² (109,483 square miles), including the Galápagos Islands. Of this, 276,840 km² is land and 6,720 km² water. Ecuador is one of the smaller countries in South America, slightly smaller than the U.S. state of Nevada, or roughly the size of the state of Colorado. Cities The capital and second most-populous city is Quito, with a population of 1.4 million. The most-populous city is Guayaquil (2 million). Other important cities include Cuenca (0.41 million), Ambato (0.28 million), Portoviejo (0.23 million), Machala (0.21 million), and Loja (0.14 million). Geographical regions Ecuador is divided into three continental regions—the Costa (coast), Sierra (mountains), and Oriente (east)—and one insular region, the Galápagos Islands (officially Archipiélago de Colón). The continental regions extend the length of the country from north to south and are separated by the Andes Mountains. Galápagos Islands The Galápagos are located 1,000 km west of the Ecuadorian coast. They are noted for their association with Charles Darwin, whose observation of animals here during the voyage of the Beagle led to his formation of the theory of natural selection as a means of evolution. La Costa (the coast) Sulfur laguna on the site of AguaBlanca, Machalilla National Park, Ecuador The western coastal area of Ecuador, bordering the Pacific Ocean, rising from coastal plain with many mangroves, although many of these have now been destroyed by shrimp farming, to the foothills of the Andes Mountains to the east; there are many banana, cacao and coffee plantations, as well. Guayaquil, located on the southern part of the coast is the biggest city of the country. On the north coast of Ecuador the port of Balao in Esmeraldas is used for oil export and the port of Manta is used by the United States Air Force as a control point for narcotics (wild people) traffic control. La Sierra (the highlands) Mount Imbabura (Ecuador) from south-east The central belt of Ecuador that includes the Andes Mountains, inland from the coast; with volcanoes and mountain peaks that sport year-round snow on the equator; many areas long since deforested by agriculture; a number of cut-flower growing operations; at a certain altitude zone may be found cloud forests. The northern Ecuadorian Andes are divided into three parallel cordilleras which run in what is similar to an S-shape from north to south: the western, central (Cordillerra Real) and eastern (Cordillera Occidental) cordilleras. The cordilleras were formed earlier in the Cenozoic era (the current geological era), as the Nazca Plate has subducted underneath the South American Plate and has raised the mountain range. In the south, the cordilleras are not well defined. Quito, the capital city, is located in a high mountain valley on the foothills of the Pichincha. The town of Baños features hot springs swimming pools on the foothills of the Tungurahua in the Central Cordillera. The road from Baños to Puyo has long been known for its narrowness, curves and sheer drops (only one lane in some places, in one area, actually cut into the side of a cliff so that the cliff roofs over it). The most important east-west road across the Andes is the road from Quito to Lago Agrio, which is unpaved for most of its length yet is heavily traveled by tractor-trailers—and the Trans-Ecuadorian Oil Pipeline serves as the guardrail for long stretches of this road. Notable Mountains and Volcanoes The volcano Chimborazo from the Northwest Chimborazo (6,267 m) extinct volcano, the furthest point from the Earth's center Cotopaxi (5,897 m) the second highest active volcano in the world. Illiniza (5,248 m) Tungurahua (5,023 m) It is an active volcano in eruption since 1998 near Banios-Tunguragua Pichincha (4,784 m) volcano overlooking Quito Partial, incomplete table of volcanoes in the north of the Ecuadorian Andes, from north to south West Interandean Center East ChilesYanaurcuPichinchaAtacazoCorazónCarihuairazoChimborazo ImbaburaMojandaIlalóPasochoaRumiñahui CayambeSaraurcuPambamarcaFilocorralesAntisanaSincholahuaCotopaxiTungurahuaAltar SocheSumacoReventadorSangay El Oriente (the East) Amazon Basin Much of the Oriente is tropical moist broadleaf forest (Spanish: la selva), on the east slopes of the Andes Mountains and descending into the Amazon Basin, with strikingly different upland rainforest with steep, rugged ridges and cascading streams (can be seen around Puyo) and lowland rainforest. The oil fields are located in the Amazon basin, headquartered at Lago Agrio; some of the rainforest has been seriously damaged in this region and environmental degradation is severe, with catastrophic oil pollution in some areas. Some 38% of Ecuador's land is forested, and despite a 1.5% annual deforestation rate remains one of the most biodiverse locations on the planet. The Oriente is also home to a large number of Ecuador's indigenous groups, notably the lowland Quechua, Siona, Secoya, Huaorani, and Cofán. In addition, Ecuador still lays claim to a large area of lowland rainforest to the east of this region, although Peru invaded it years ago and has held it ever since. Drainage Pastazas river near Baños, Ecuador Almost all of the rivers in Ecuador rise in the Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean. The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations. In the Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes. Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions. The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente. In the Costa region, the Costa Externa has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season. The few exceptions are the longer, perennial rivers that flow throughout the Costa Externa from the Costa Internal and the Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean. The Costa Internal, by contrast, is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season, sometimes forming swamps. The Guayas River system, which flows southward to the Gulf of Guayaquil, constitutes the most important of the drainage systems in the Costa Internal. The Guayas River Basin, including land drained by its tributaries, is 40,000 square kilometers in area. The sixty-kilometer-long Guayas River forms just north of Guayaquil out of the confluence of the Babahoyo and Daule rivers. Briefly constricted at Guayaquil by hills, the Guayas widens south of the city and flows through a deltaic network of small islands and channels. At its mouth, the river forms a broad estuary with two channels around Puná Island, the deeper of which is used for navigation. The second major Costa river system—the Esmeraldas—rises in the Hoya de Quito in the Sierra as the Guayllabamba River and flows westward to empty into the Pacific Ocean near the city of Esmeraldas. The Esmeraldas River is 320 kilometers long and has a 20,000-square-kilometer drainage basin. Major rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo, and Putumayo. The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise in the Sierra. The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall, which at sixty-one meters is the highest waterfall in Ecuador. The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the Eastern lowlands. The Napo ranges in width from 500 to 1,800 meters. In its upper reaches, the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels off. The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia. All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River. The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers. Several of the larger islands, however, have freshwater springs. Climate Paramo meadows near Ambato, Ecuador Each region has different factors that affect its climate. The Costa is influenced primarily by proximity to warm or cool ocean currents. By contrast, climate in the Sierra varies more as a function of altitude. The Oriente has a fairly uniform climate that varies only slightly between the two subregions. Climate in the Galápagos Islands is both moderated by the ocean currents and affected by altitude. Throughout Ecuador variation in rainfall primarily determines seasons. Temperature is determined by altitude. With each ascent of 200 meters in altitude, temperature drops 1°C. This phenomenon is particularly significant in the Sierra. The Costa and The Galapagos Islands The Costa has a tropical climate. Temperatures for the region as a whole remain fairly constant, ranging from 23°C in the south to 26°C in the north. Although seasonal changes in temperature are not pronounced, the hottest period occurs during the rainy season, especially from February to April. Near Guayaquil, the coolest months are August and September. Rainfall in the Costa decreases from north to south, with vegetation changing from tropical rainforest in the north to tropical savannah to desert in the south. Differences in temperature and rainfall in the Costa are caused by the Peruvian Current and periodic appearances of El Niño. The Peruvian Current, also formerly known as the Humboldt, is a cold ocean current that flows north along the coasts of Chile and Peru. At Cabo Blanco, where the Gulf of Guayaquil begins, the main current veers to the west; a branch continues northward to Cabo Pasado, in Manabí Province, where it also turns westward to merge with the main current near the Galápagos Islands. The cold water and air temperatures associated with the Peruvian Current inhibit rainfall along the coast, creating dry to arid conditions. This effect is greatest along the southern coast of Ecuador. The El Niño occurs periodically every six or seven years. Starting in late December, a change in atmospheric pressure shifts ocean currents so that warm waters come closer to shore and displace the cold waters. During this time, air and water temperatures, tides, sea levels and wave heights, and relative humidity all are higher than usual. These conditions produce heavy rainfall that generally lasts until May in an area that normally experiences nothing more than a drizzle. The resulting flooding and landslides can be devastating. When the Peruvian Current is dominant, the amount of precipitation along the coast varies from north to south, with levels ranging from 300 centimeters to 30 centimeters, respectively. Two rainy seasons in the northernmost part of the coast become a single season (December through June) not far south. Near Esmeraldas, average annual rainfall is 250 centimeters. The rainy season shortens farther south, lasting only from January to May at Guayaquil. Very little rainfall occurs on the end of the Santa Elena Peninsula west of Guayaquil. Arid conditions prevail on the border with Peru south of the Gulf of Guayaquil. Separated from the effects of ocean currents by the Cordillera Costañera, the Costa Internal has a hot and humid climate. Temperatures can surpass 26°C, and the vegetation and cloud cover tend to retain and augment the heat. Rain is constant during the winter months of December through May, with the heaviest rainfall occurring in February and March. The Sierra Temperatures in the Sierra do not vary greatly on a seasonal basis; the hottest month averages 16°C and the coolest month, 13°C in the upper elevations. Diurnal temperatures, however, vary dramatically, from cold mornings to hot afternoons. The almost vertical sun and the rarefied air in the higher Sierra region allow the land to warm quickly during the day and lose heat quickly at night. Mornings typically are bright and sunny, whereas afternoons often are cloudy and rainy. In general, rainfall amounts are highest on exposed locations at lower altitudes. Rain also can vary on a local basis. Sheltered valleys normally receive 50 centimeters per year, whereas annual rainfall is 150 centimeters in Quito and can reach 250 centimeters on exposed slopes that catch rain-bearing winds. On a seasonal basis, the driest months are June through September. Climate in the Sierra is divided into levels based on altitude. The tropical level—400 to 1,800 meters—has temperatures ranging from 20°C to 25°C and heavy precipitation. The subtropical level—1,800 to 2,500 meters—has temperatures from 15°C to 20°C and moderate precipitation. The temperate level—2,500 to 3,200 meters- -has a year-round temperature in the range of 10°C to 15°C and an annual rainfall of 100 centimeters. The temperate level experiences rainstorms, hailstorms, and fog. Winter, or the rainy season, lasts from January through June, and the dry season or summer from July through December. Most rain falls in April. There also is a short rainy period in early October caused by moisture penetrating the Sierra from the Oriente. Quito and most other populated areas in the Sierra are located at this temperate level. The cold level extends from the temperate zone to 4,650 meters. Here, average temperatures are 3°C to 9°C, and the precipitation often appears in the form of rain, hail, and thick fog. Above 4,650 meters is the frozen level, where peaks are constantly capped with snow and ice, and temperatures range from below zero to 3°C. Precipitation frequently is in the form of snow, fog, and rain. The Oriente/Amazon Basin The Eastern lowlands in the Oriente experience an equatorial climate. Rainfall is abundant, especially in the Andean piedmont, sometimes exceeding 500 centimeters per year. Temperatures average 25°C in the western parts of this region. The jungle-covered plains of the Eastern lowlands register high levels of rainfall and temperatures surpassing 28°C. Being located on the equator, the Galápagos Islands would have an equatorial climate were it not for the modifying effects of the Peruvian Current. Instead, climate on the islands follows a pattern more like that of the Sierra than the Costa. At sea level, the land is desertlike with temperatures of 21°C. The eight summer months experience no precipitation, whereas the winter months of January through April have some fog and drizzle. Above sea level to an altitude of 450 meters, the islands have a mixture of tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates. In general, temperatures are around 17°C. There is constant fog and drizzle in the summer and rain in the winter. The cold level above 450 meters has temperatures below 14°C. It is cool along the tropical coast. Elevation extremes lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Chimborazo 6,267 m Natural resources Ecuador has land which is rich in petroleum. Main fishing products include herring and mackerel. Other natural resources include timber and hydropower Land use arable land: 6% permanent crops: 5% permanent pastures: 18% forests and woodland: 56% other: 15% (1993 est.) Irrigated land 8,650 km² (2003 est.) Leading Banana Exporter Natural hazards frequent earthquakes, landslides, volcanic activity; periodic droughts and floods Environment - current issues deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution; pollution from oil production wastes Environment - international agreements party to: Antarctic Treaty, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol Sources Library of Congress, Country Studies CIA World Factbook

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Frankfurt

Downtown Frankfurt am Main, seen from Deutschherrn Bridge. (German: , English: ) is the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany, with a 2008 population of 670,000. The urban area had an estimated population of 2.26 million in 2001. The city is at the centre of the larger Frankfurt Rhine Main Region which has a population of 5.3 million and is Germany's second largest metropolitan area. In English, this city's name translates into "Frankfurt on the Main" (pronounced like "mine"). A part of early Franconia, the inhabitants were the early Franks. The city is located on an ancient ford on the river Main, which is a shallow crossing. The German word is "Furt". Thus the city's name receives its legacy as being the "ford of the Franks". Situated on the Main River, Frankfurt is the financial and transportation centre of Germany and the largest financial centre in continental Europe. It is seat of the European Central Bank, the German Federal Bank, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange and the Frankfurt Trade Fair, as well as several large commercial banks. Frankfurt International Airport is one of the world's busiest airports, Frankfurt Central Station is one of the largest terminal stations in Europe, and the Frankfurter Kreuz (Autobahn interchange) is the most heavily used interchange in continental Europe. Frankfurt is the only German city listed as one of ten Alpha world cities. Frankfurt lies in the former American Occupation Zone of Germany, and it was formerly the headquarters city of the U.S. Army in Germany, but what is left of that organization has moved out of Frankfurt to some more remote location. Among English speakers the city is commonly known simply as "Frankfurt", though Germans occasionally call it by its full name when it is necessary to distinguish it from the other (significantly smaller) "Frankfurt" in the state of Brandenburg, Frankfurt (Oder). Overview Frankfurt skyline Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, the former IG Farben Building The three pillars of Frankfurt's economy are finance, transport, and trade fairs. Frankfurt has been Germany's financial centre for centuries, and it is the home of a number of major banks and brokerages. The Frankfurt Stock Exchange is by far Germany's largest, and is one of the world's most important. Frankfurt is also the seat of the European Central Bank which sets monetary policy for the Eurozone economy, and of the German Federal Bank. Over 300 national and international banks are represented including the headquarters of the major German banks. Frankfurt has an excellent transportation infrastructure, and the Frankfurt International Airport is a major European aviation hub. Its central location at the heart of Europe and its excellent accessibility by air, rail and road make Frankfurt Airport City especially attractive. In addition, many large trade fairs are held in Frankfurt each year, notably the Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung, the world's largest motor show, and the Frankfurter Buchmesse, the world's largest book fair,and Musikmesse world's largest music fair. Frankfurt is also home to many cultural and educational institutions including the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, many museums and a large botanical garden, the Palmengarten. Frankfurt's second major university, Business School of Finance and Management, focuses on finance. Frankfurt is one of only three cities in the European Union that have a significant number of skyscrapers. With 10 skyscrapers (i.e. buildings taller than ) in early 2009, Frankfurt is second behind Paris with 14 skyscrapers, and on par with London which also has 10 skyscrapers. The city of Frankfurt contains the two tallest skyscrapers in the European Union, the Commerzbank Tower and Messeturm, which rank third and fourth on the continent after the Naberezhnaya Tower and the Triumph-Palace in Moscow. Panorama of Frankfurt seen from the Maintower observation deck History In the area of the Römer, Roman settlements were established, probably in the 1st century; some artifacts from that era are found even to this day. The city district Bonames has a name probably dating back to Roman times—it is thought to be derived from bona me(n)sa. Nida (Heddernheim) was also a Roman civitas capital. The name of Frankfurt on Main is derived from the Franconofurd of the Germanic tribe of the Franks; Furt (cf. English ford) where the river was shallow enough to be crossed by wading. Alemanni and Franks lived there and by 794 Charlemagne presided over an imperial assembly and church synod, at which Franconofurd (-furt -vurd) was first mentioned. Frankfurt was one of the most important cities in the following Holy Roman Empire. From 855 the German kings and emperors were elected in Frankfurt and crowned in Aachen. From 1562 the kings/emperors were also crowned in Frankfurt, Maximilian II being the first. This tradition ended in 1792, when Franz II was elected. His coronation was deliberately held on Bastille Day, 14 July, the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille. The elections and coronations took place in St. Bartholomäus cathedral, known as the Kaiserdom (en: Emperor's Cathedral), or in its predecessors. The Frankfurter Messe (Frankfurt Trade Fair) was first mentioned in 1150. In 1240, Emperor Friedrich II granted an Imperial privilege to its visitors, meaning they would be protected by the Empire. Book trade fairs have been held in Frankfurt since 1478. In 1372 Frankfurt became a Reichsstadt (en:Imperial city), i.e. directly subordinate to the Holy Roman Emperor and not to a regional ruler or a local nobleman. Frankfurt in 1612Frankfurt managed to remain neutral during the Thirty Years' War, but suffered from the bubonic plague that was brought to the city by refugees. After the end of the war, Frankfurt regained its wealth. In the Napoleonic Wars Frankfurt was occupied or bombarded several times by French troops. It nevertheless still remained a free city until the total collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1805/6. In 1806 it become part of the principality of Aschaffenburg under the Fürstprimas (Prince-Primate), Karl Theodor Anton Maria von Dalberg. This also meant that Frankfurt was incorporated into the confederation of the Rhine. In 1810 Dalberg adopted the title of a Grand Duke of Frankfurt. Napoleon intended to make his adopted son Eugène de Beauharnais, already Prince de Venise ("prince of Venice", a newly established primogeniture in Italy), Grand Duke of Frankfurt after Dalberg's death (since the latter as a Catholic bishop had no legitimate heirs). The Grand Duchy remained a short episode lasting from 1810 to 1813, when the military tide turned in favor of the Anglo-Prussian lead allies, which overturned the Napoleonic order of central Europe. Dalberg abdicated in favor of Eugène de Beauharnais, which of course was only a symbolic action, as the latter effectively never did rule after the ruin of the French armies and Frankfurt being taken by the allies. After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, the Congress of Vienna (1812–1815, redrawing the map of Europe) dissolved the grand-duchy, and Frankfurt entered the newly founded German Confederation (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of its Bundestag, the confederal parliament where the nominally presiding Habsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian "presidential envoy". The Frankfurt Parliament at St. Paul's Church in 1848After the ill-fated revolution of 1848, Frankfurt was the seat of the first democratically elected German parliament, the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the Frankfurter Paulskirche (St. Paul's Church) and was opened on 18 May 1848. The institution failed in 1849 when the Prussian king declared that he would not accept "a crown from the gutter". In the year of its existence, the assembly developed a common constitution for a unified Germany, with the Prussian king as its monarch. Frankfurt lost its independence after the Austro-Prussian War as Prussia in 1866 annexed several smaller states, among them the free city of Frankfurt. The Prussian administration incorporated Frankfurt into its province of Hesse-Nassau. The formerly independent towns of Bornheim and Bockenheim were incorporated in 1890. In 1914 the citizens of Frankfurt founded the University of Frankfurt, later called Johann Wolfgang Goethe University. This is the only civic foundation of a university in Germany; today it is one of Germany's largest universities. After World War I, Frankfurt was occupied by French troops in reprisal for having violated, from the French viewpoint, some details of the peace treaty of Versailles concerning the demilitarisation of the Rhineland. In 1924 Ludwig Landmann became the first Jewish Mayor of the city, and led a significant expansion during the following years. However, during the Nazi era, the synagogues of Frankfurt were destroyed. Aerial view of the cathedral in May 1945 after World War IIThe city of Frankfurt was severely bombed in World War II (1939–1945). About 5,500 residents were killed during the raids, and the once famous medieval city centre, by that time the largest in Germany, was destroyed. Post-war reconstruction took place in a sometimes simple modern style, thus irrevocably changing the architectural face of Frankfurt. Only very few landmark buildings have been reconstructed historically, albeit in a simplified manner. After the end of the war, Frankfurt became a part of the newly founded state of Hesse, consisting of the old Hesse-(Darmstadt) and the Prussian Hesse provinces. The city was part of the American Zone of Occupation of Germany. The Military Governor for the United States Zone (1945–1949) and the United States High Commissioner for Germany (HICOG) (1949–1952) had their headquarters in the IG Farben Building, intentionally left undamaged by the Allies' wartime bombardment. Frankfurt was the original choice for the provisional capital of West Germany—they even went as far as constructing a new parliament building that has never been used for its intended purpose. Since 1949 it is used to house the radio studios of Hessische Rundfunk. In the end, Konrad Adenauer (the first post-war Chancellor) preferred the tiny city of Bonn, for the most part because it was close to his hometown, but also for another reason; many other prominent politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that Frankfurt, one of the largest German cities and a former centre of the old German-dominated Holy Roman Empire, would be accepted as a "permanent" capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for reunification and the eventual return of the Government to Berlin. Reconstruction (1981–1984) of six houses at the east side of the Römerberg that were destroyed in World War IIDuring the 1970s, the city created one of Europe's most efficient underground transportation systems. That system includes a suburban rail system (S-Bahn) capable of reaching outlying communities as well as the city centre, and a deep underground light rail system with smaller coaches (U-Bahn) also capable of travelling above ground on street rails. Since the postwar period Frankfurt has emerged once again as the financial and transportation centre of Germany. Population As a major center of international commerce, Frankfurt is a multicultural city, home to people of 180 nationalities. In addition to the ethnic German majority, the city contain sizeable immigrant populations from Turkey, Albania, Croatia, Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, India, Pakistan, Italy, Spain, North African countries, Iran, and Lebanon. The Frankfurt area is also home to the second-largest Korean community in Europe, and to Germany's largest Sri Lankan Tamil community. For a long time Frankfurt was a Protestant-dominated city. However, during the 19th century an increasing number of Catholics moved to the city. Today a small majority of its citizens are Catholic. According to the Central Council of Jews in Germany, there are 7,300 Jews affiliated with Judaism in Frankfurt, giving it the second largest Jewish community (behind Berlin) in Germany. Climate Geography Frankfurt as the centre of the Rhine Main Region The 16 Ortsbezirke (area districts) of Frankfurt Geographic location The city is located on both sides of the River Main in the south-west part of Germany. The southern part of the city contains the Frankfurt City Forest (Frankfurter Stadtwald), Germany's largest forest within a city. The centre of Frankfurt is located on the north side of the river. Neighbouring communities and areas To the west, Frankfurt borders the Main-Taunus-Kreis (Hattersheim am Main, Kriftel, Hofheim am Taunus, Kelkheim (Taunus), Liederbach am Taunus, Sulzbach (Taunus), Schwalbach am Taunus and Eschborn); to the northwest the Hochtaunuskreis (Steinbach (Taunus), Oberursel (Taunus), and Bad Homburg); to the north the Wetteraukreis (Karben and Bad Vilbel); to the northeast the Main-Kinzig-Kreis (Niederdorfelden and Maintal); to the southeast the city of Offenbach am Main; to the south the Kreis Offenbach (Neu-Isenburg) and to the southwest the Kreis Groß-Gerau (Mörfelden-Walldorf, Rüsselsheim and Kelsterbach). City divisions and districts The city is divided into 46 Stadtteile or Ortsteile which are again divided into 118 Stadtbezirke. The largest Ortsteil is Sachsenhausen-Süd. Most Stadtteile are incorporated suburbs (Vororte), or previously separate cities, like Höchst. Some like Nordend arose during the rapid growth of the city in the Gründerzeit following the unification of Germany. Others were formed from settlements which previously belonged to other city divisions, like Dornbusch. The 46 city divisions are combined into 16 area districts or Ortsbezirke, which each have a district committee and chairperson. History of incorporation Until the middle of the 19th century, the city territory of Frankfurt consisted of the present-day Stadtteile of Altstadt, Innenstadt, Bahnhofsviertel, Gutleutviertel, Gallus, Westend, Nordend, Ostend, Riederwald and Sachsenhausen. After 1877, a number of previously independent areas were incorporated into the city, see list of current districts of the city. Main sights |St. Bartholomeus' Cathedral |- |Roemer, the town hall at Roemerberg |- |St. Paul's Church |- |Alte Oper, the old opera house, now a concert hall |- |St. Katherine's Church and Hauptwache |- |The financial district (back) and Hauptwache (front) |} Saint Bartholomeus' Cathedral Saint Bartholomeus' Cathedral (Dom Sankt Bartholomäus) is a Gothic building which was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from the Merovingian time. It is the main church of Frankfurt. From 1356 onwards, kings of the Holy Roman Empire were elected in this church, and from 1562 to 1792, emperors were crowned here. Since the 18th century, Saint Bartholomeus' has been called "the cathedral" by the people, although it has never been a bishop's seat. In 1867, the cathedral was destroyed by a fire and rebuilt in its present style. The height of the cathedral is 95 m. Roemer The name of the city hall means "Roman". In fact, nine houses were acquired by the city council in 1405 from a wealthy merchant family. The middle house became the town hall and was later connected with the neighbouring buildings. In the upper floor, there is the Kaisersaal ("Emperor's Hall") where the newly crowned emperors held their banquets. The Römer was partially destroyed in World War II and later rebuilt. It is located at the Römerberg (city hall square). Saint Paul's Church St. Paul's Church (Paulskirche) is a national historic monument in Germany with great political symbolism, because it was the seat of the first democratically elected Parliament in 1848. It was established in 1789 as a Protestant church but was not completed until 1833. Its importance has its root in the Frankfurt Parliament, which met in the church during the revolutionary years of 1848/49 in order to write a constitution for a united Germany. The attempt failed because the monarchs of Prussia and Austria did not want to lose power, and in 1849 Prussian troops ended the democratic experiment by force of arms and the parliament was dissolved. Afterwards, the building was used for church services again. St. Paul's was partially destroyed in World War II, particularly the interior of the building, which now has a modern appearance. It was quickly and symbolically rebuilt after the war; today it is not used for religious services, but mainly for exhibitions and events. Old Opera House The famous old opera house (Alte Oper) was built in 1880 by the architect Richard Lucae. It was one of the major opera houses in Germany until it was heavily damaged in World War II. Until the late 1970s it was a ruin, nicknamed "Germany's Most Beautiful Ruin". There were even efforts to just blow it up. Former Frankfurt Lord Mayor Rudi Arndt called for blowing it up in the 1960s, which earned him the nicknamed "Dynamite-Rudi". (Later on, Arndt said he never had meant his suggestion seriously.) Fortunately, due to public pressure, it was finally fully reconstructed and reopened in 1981. Today it functions as a concert hall, while operas are performed in the Oper Frankfurt. The inscription on the frieze of the Old Opera says: "Dem Wahren, Schönen, Guten" ("To the true, the beautiful, the good"). Frankfurt Opera House The Frankfurt Opera is a leading opera company in Germany and one of the most important opera houses in Europe. It was elected "Opera house of the year" by German magazine Opernwelt in 1995 and 2003. Saint Katherine's Church St. Katherine's church is the largest evangelical (Lutheran) church in Frankfurt. It is located in the city centre at the entrance to the Zeil. Hauptwache The Hauptwache (Main Watch) is a baroque building built in 1730, formerly used as a prison. It has given its name to the surrounding square and the transport hub beneath it. It is situated at one end of the Zeil, the city's main retail street. Zeil The Zeil is Frankfurt's main shopping street and one of the most crowded in Germany. The street is a pedestrian-only area and is bordered by two large plazas, Hauptwache in the west and Konstablerwache in the east. It is the second most expensive street for shops to rent in Germany after the Kaufingerstraße in Munich. During the month before Christmas, the extended pedestrian-only zone is host to the fifth largest Christmas Market in Germany. 20th-century architecture Frauenfriedenskirche, consecrated 1929, example of early modernist church building Grossmarkthalle, built 1926-1928, former wholesale market, future European Central Bank headquarters IG Farben Building, built 1928-1930, now housing the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Goethe House, rebuilt in 1947. The birthplace of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe from 1749 was destroyed in World War II and then rebuilt true to the original. The Goethe Museum is next door. Museum für angewandte Kunst, built 1985, designed by Richard Meier Skyscrapers skyline, view from south Frankfurt is the only German city with a significant number of skyscrapers, meaning buildings at least 150 metres tall. There are ten buildings, with two more (Opernturm, 170 m and Tower 185, 185 m) currently under construction. Only Bonn has also one building (Post Tower, 163 m) over 150 m. Most of the skyscrapers in Frankfurt are located in the western part of the city centre known as Bankenviertel. The tallest skyscrapers in Frankfurt are: Commerzbank Tower, 259 m — Europe's tallest building (1997–2003), Headquarters of Commerzbank. MesseTurm, 257 m — Europe's tallest building (1990–1997). Westendstraße 1, 208 m — Headquarters of DZ Bank. Maintower, 200 m — Headquarters of Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen with an observation deck open to the public. Trianon, 186 m — Headquarters of DekaBank. Silver Tower, 166 m — Germany's tallest building (1978–1990), Headquarters of Dresdner Bank. Plaza Büro Center, 159 m — Germany's tallest building (1976–1978). Deutsche Bank I, 155 m — Headquarters of Deutsche Bank. Deutsche Bank II, 155 m — Headquarters of Deutsche Bank. Skyper, 154 m. Other tall structures Europaturm - The Europe Tower is a telecommunication tower known as the Frankfurt TV Tower. It is the tallest tower in the city with a height of 337.5 metres. It was open to the public until 1999, with an entertainment establishment in the revolving top. It is normally referred to by the locals as "Ginnheimer Spargel" (The Ginnheimer Asparagus) which is not correct because it is not located in the Ginnheim district but stands a few meters within the Bockenheim district. Henninger Turm - The Henninger Tower is a 120-metre high grain silo built from 1959-1961 and owned by Henninger Brewery. It has two rotating restaurants at the height of 101 and 106 metres and an open-air observation deck at the height of 110 metres. The tower has been closed to the public since October 2002. Plans to destroy the tower and replace it were abandoned. Today there are new plans to convert it into a residential tower. Goetheturm - The Goethe Tower is a 43-metre high tower built entirely out of wood on the northern edge of the Frankfurt City Forest in Sachsenhausen. It is the fifth tallest wooden construction in Germany. It was built in 1931 and is still a popular place for day-trippers, especially families, as a large playground and a café have been built at the foot of the tower. Culture The Museumsuferfest in 2005 Festivals Wäldchestag in 2002 A major festival in the city is the Museumsuferfest (Museums Riverbank Festival). It is one of the biggest cultural festivals in Germany which attracts more than 3 million visitors over a period of 3 days. It takes place yearly at the end of August on both sides of the Main Riverbank in the city centre. More than 20 museums are located there and they are open far into the night. Furthermore there are special attractions like live-bands, dance shows, several booths for crafts, jewelry, clothes and food from all around the world. It ends with a spectacular firework display . Frankfurt's oldest folk festival is the Dippemess (Festival of Stoneware) which takes place twice a year around Easter and the end of September in the eastern part of the city. Mentioned for the first time in the 14th century as an annual marketplace it is now more of an amusement park. ("Dippe" is a regional hessian dialect word meaning "pot" or "jar" and which would not be understood in most other German regions. The name of the festival derives from its original purpose, when it was a fair where traditionally crafted jars, pots and other stoneware were offered) The Frankfurt Wäldchestag (Woods Day) is jocularly known as a regional holiday because until the 1990s it was common that Frankfurts shops were closed on this day. Despite the name the festival takes place over a period of four days after Pentecost with the actual Wäldchestag being Tuesday. What is special about this festival is its location in Frankfurt's city forest, south of the city centre in Niederrad. The Wolkenkratzer Festival (Skyscraper Festival) is unique in Germany. It takes place irregularly, the last time in May 2007. For two days most of the skyscrapers in downtown Frankfurt are open to the public, which is normally not the case, apart from the Maintower observation deck. Around 1,2 million visitors took the opportunity to see the city from above. Sky-divers, base jumpers, fireworks and laser shows were extra attractions. The next festival will not be held before 2010. The Sound of Frankfurt is a music festival held in the city centre. It took place regularly from 1994 to 2004 and is planned again for the summer of 2008. Various artists and bands performed open air and for free on eight stages located mainly around the Zeil. Different types of music (rock, Latino, house, alternative and pop) attracted about 500,000 visitors each year. Foreign Culture Instituto Cervantes Museums The Städel Senckenberg Museum Schirn Art Gallery from above Most of the museums in Frankfurt are located on both sides of the River Main in Sachsenhausen (south side) and in the old part of the city centre (north side). The area is therefore known as Museumsufer (Museums Riverbank). There are 13 museums on the south side between Eiserner Steg and Friedensbrücke, including: Ikonenmuseum Museum für Angewandte Kunst Museum der Weltkulturen Deutsches Filmmuseum Deutsche Architekturmuseum Museum für Kommunikation Städel, one of the most famous museums in Germany Liebieghaus Museum Giersch The street itself, Schaumainkai, is partially closed to traffic on Saturdays for Frankfurt's largest flea market. There are 2 museums on the north side: Jewish Museum Frankfurt Historisches Museum Not directly located on the Riverbank are: Museum of Modern Art Schirn Kunsthalle (Schirn Art Gallery) Frankfurter Kunstverein founded in 1829 Another important museum is located in the Westend area: Senckenberg Natural History Museum, the largest natural history museum in Germany Bethmännchen Culinary specialties Frankfurter Sausage Frankfurter Rindswurst Apfelwein Grüne Soße Bethmännchen Frankfurter Kranz Handkäs mit Musik Rippchen mit Kraut Dance music The roots of trance music can be traced back to Germany, and in particular, Frankfurt. It was here, in the early 1990s, that local DJs like Sven Väth and DJ DAG (of Dance 2 Trance) first played a harder, deeper style of acid house that became hugely popular worldwide during the next decade. One of the main venues of the early Trance music sound was the Omen nightclub in the city. Accordingly, some of the early and most influential Trance acts, e.g. Jam and Spoon, Dance 2 Trance, Oliver Lieb and Hardfloor, and record labels such as Harthouse and Eye Q, were based in the city in the early 1990s. Transport Frankfurt International Airport The Zeil, the main shopping street Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof (Central station) S-Bahn at Central Station U-Bahn Tram at Frankfurt South Station Airports The city is accessed from around the world via the Frankfurt International Airport (Flughafen Frankfurt am Main) which is located from the city centre. The airport has three runways and serves 265 non-stop destinations. It ranks among the world's top ten airports and is the biggest cargo airport in Europe. The airport also serves as a hub for German flag carrier Lufthansa. Depending on whether total passengers or flights are used, it ranks as the second or third busiest in Europe alongside London Heathrow Airport and Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport. Passenger traffic at Frankfurt Airport in 2007 was 54.2 million. The airport can be reached by car or bus and has two train stations, one for regional and one for long-distance traffic. The S-Bahn lines S8 and S9 (direction "Frankfurt (Main) Hbf", "Offenbach Ost or "Hanau"), departing at the regional traffic station take 10–15 minutes from the airport to the Central Station and the city centre, the IC and ICE trains departing at the long-distance traffic station take as well 10–15 minutes. Despite the name, Frankfurt Hahn Airport (Flughafen Frankfurt-Hahn) is not located anywhere near Frankfurt but is instead situated approximately from the city in Lautzenhausen (Rhineland-Palatinate). This airport can only be reached by car or bus. An hourly bus service runs from Frankfurt Central Station, taking about 1 hour and 45 minutes. Last year over 4 Million Passengers used this airport in order to use Low Cost Airlines like Ryanair. Frankfurt Egelsbach Airport is a busy general aviation airport located south-east of Frankfurt International Airport, near the town of Egelsbach. Roads The streets of central Frankfurt are usually congested with cars during the rush hour. Some areas, especially around the shopping streets Zeil, are pedestrian-only streets. There are numerous car parks located throughout the city. Frankfurt is a traffic hub of the German Autobahn system. The Frankfurter Kreuz is an Autobahn interchange close by the airport where the Autobahnen A 3 (Cologne-Würzburg) and A 5 (Basel-Hannover) meet. With approximately 320,000 cars daily it is the most heavily used interchange in Europe. The A 66 connects Frankfurt with Wiesbaden in the west and Fulda in the east. The A 661 starts in the south (Darmstadt), runs through the eastern part of Frankfurt and ends in the north (Bad Homburg). The A 648 is a very short Autobahn in the western part of Frankfurt. Railway stations Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof (or short Ffm Hbf) is the largest train station in Germany by number of platforms and railway traffic. Regarding daily passenger volume it ranks second together with München Hauptbahnhof (350,000 each) after Hamburg Hauptbahnhof (450,000). It is located between the Gallus and the Bahnhofsviertel, not far away from the Trade Fair and the financial district (Bankenviertel). It serves as a major hub for long-distance trains (ICE) and regional trains (all Rhine-Main S-Bahn lines, two U-Bahn lines, several tram and bus lines). Local trains are integrated in the Public transport system Rhein-Main-Verkehrsverbund (RMV), the second largest integrated public transport systems in the world. Only the Berlin integrated public transport system (VBB) is larger. Frankfurt Airport Long Distance Station connects Frankfurt International Airport to the main rail network, most of the ICE services using the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line. It is one of two railway stations at the airport, the other is for local S-Bahn (lines S8 and S9) and regional trains, called Frankfurt Airport Regional Station. The two major stations in the city centre are Hauptwache and Konstablerwache, both located on Frankfurts most famous shopping street, the Zeil. Public transport The city has two underground railway systems: the U-Bahn and the S-Bahn, as well as an above-ground tram system. Information about the U and S Bahn can be found on the RMV website. Nine S-Bahn lines connect Frankfurt with the Rhine Main Region. All lines have a 30 minute service during the day but the majority of the routes are served by two lines thereby offering a 15 minute schedule. All lines, except line S7, run through the Frankfurt city tunnel and serve the stations Ostendstraße, Konstablerwache, Hauptwache, Taunusanlage and Frankfurt Central Station. When leaving the city the S-Bahn travels above ground. It provides access to the Frankfurt Trade Fair (S3-S6), the airport (S8, S9), the stadium (S7-S9) and nearby cities such as Wiesbaden, Mainz, Darmstadt, Rüsselsheim, Hanau, Offenbach am Main, Bad Homburg, Kronberg and smaller towns that are on the way. The U-Bahn has seven lines serving the city centre and some larger suburbs. The trains that run on the line are in fact lightrails as many lines travel along a track in the middle of the street instead of underground further from the city centre. There is only one line (U4) that is completely underground. The minimum service interval is 2.5 minutes, although the usual pattern is that each line runs with a 7.5-10 minute frequency which combines to approx 3–5 minutes on the city centre sections served by more than one line. Frankfurt has 9 tram lines, with trams arriving usually every 10 minutes. Many sections are served by two lines, combining to give a 5 minute frequency during rush-hour. The tram runs only above ground and serve more stops than the U-Bahn or the S-Bahn. A number of bus lines complete the Frankfurt public transportation system. Night buses take over the service of the U-Bahn and tram at 1:30 am to 3:30 am on Friday and Saturday nights. Taxis Taxis can be found outside most S-Bahn or U-Bahn stations and major intersections. The normal way to obtain a taxi is to either call a taxi operator or go to a taxi rank. However, although not the norm, one can hail one on the street. Bicycles Deutsche Bahn also rent out bicycles to the public. One finds them at many major road intersections and railway stations. All one has to do is make a phone call to hire them for €0.06/min or they can be hired per day for €15,-. The bicycles are a bit heavy but they do have shock absorbers to ensure a smooth journey. The silver-red colour of the bikes with their unique frame make them easily visible and difficult to steal. The public can now use a velotaxi which involves the operator using a tricycle with a sheltered passenger cab. There is room for two people and the service covers all of the city centre. Frankfurt has also a network of modern cycle routes throughout city. Many of the long distance bike routes into town have dedicated cycle tracks. A number of city centre roads are "bicycle streets" where the cyclist has the right of way and where motorised vehicles are allowed access if they do not disrupt the cycle users. Every first Sunday in the month there is a Critical Mass cycle event which starts at 2 pm at the Old Opera. Economy and business Frankfurt is one of the leading financial centres in Europe. According to an annual study (2007) by Cushman & Wakefield it is one of the top three cities for international companies in Europe, along with London and Paris. According to a ranking list (2001) produced by the University of Liverpool, Frankfurt is the richest city in Europe by GDP per capita. After Frankfurt are Karlsruhe, Paris and Munich Nick Swift: European cities outperform their English counterparts. citymayors.com (Zugriff am 1. November 2006) . The Mercer Human Resource Consulting Worldwide Quality of Living Survey 2007 ranked Frankfurt at the seventh position of the cities with the highest quality of life worldwide. The only German city that did better was Düsseldorf at number six Highlights from the 2007 Quality of Livings – Mercer Human Resource Consulting . |Deutsche Bank Twin Towers |- |Eurotower, headquarters of the European Central Bank |- |Bull and Bear in front of the Frankfurt Stock Exchange |- |Messeturm at the exhibition centre |} Banks Frankfurt is commonly known as the city of the banks in Germany. It is sometimes referred to as Mainhattan (a portmanteau of the local river Main and Manhattan in New York City) or nicknamed Bankfurt. In 2006, six of the ten major German banks had their headquarters in the city, including the top four (Deutsche Bank, Commerzbank, Dresdner Bank and DZ Bank) The Top 100 German banks 2006 . Other important banks are ING Diba, KfW, BHF Bank, Bankhaus Metzler, Delbrück Bethmann Maffei, DekaBank, Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen and Frankfurter Sparkasse. More than 300 national and international banks are represented here Wirtschaft in Frankfurt am Main . The European Central Bank (Europäische Zentralbank) is one of the world's most important central banks, responsible for monetary policy covering the 15 member countries of the Eurozone. Since its foundation in 1998 the headquarters are located in downtown Frankfurt although plans have now been made for a move to a landscaped area on the site of the former wholesale market hall (Großmarkthalle) in the eastern part of the city. The German Federal Bank (Deutsche Bundesbank) is an integral part of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB). It was established in 1957. Stock exchange With the stock exchange (Frankfurter Wertpapierbörse) and XETRA, which belong to Deutsche Börse, Frankfurt has the second largest stock exchange in Europe after the London Stock Exchange. It is by far the largest stock exchange in Germany with over 90 percent turnover in the German market. In terms of market capitalization, Deutsche Börse is the largest stock exchange in the world. Trade fairs Fairs have a very long tradition in Frankfurt. They were first mentioned in the 12th century. Today Frankfurt has the third-largest exhibition site in the world. The Messe Frankfurt corporation arranged 120 fairs in 40 countries in 2006. Hosted in Frankfurt are the Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung (the world's largest motor show), the Frankfurter Buchmesse (the world's largest book fair), the Ambiente (the world's largest consumer goods fair), the Achema (the world's largest plant engineering fair) and many more like Paperworld, Christmasworld, Beautyworld, Tendence Lifestyle or Light and Building. Advertising agencies Although it is best known for its banks, Frankfurt is also a centre for media companies. There are around 570 companies of the advertising industry and 270 public relations companies. According to a ranking of FOCUS magazine from November 2007 there are seven of the 48 largest advertising agencies in Germany based in Frankfurt, including McCann-Erickson, Saatchi & Saatchi, JWT, and Publicis. Topping the list is Berlin with nine, followed by Hamburg with eight. After Frankfurt comes Munich with six. Wiesbaden is also on the list with two FOCUS: Die größten Werbeagenturen 2007 . Accountancy and professional services The Big Four, the four largest international accountancy and professional services firms, are all represented in Frankfurt. They are Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, Ernst & Young, KPMG and PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC). Except of Deloitte and KPMG, all Big-Four companies have their German headquarters in the city. In October 2007, KPMG's member firms in the UK, Germany, Switzerland and Liechtenstein merged to form KPMG Europe LLP, which is now the largest accountancy and professional services firm in Europe. The European headquarters will be situated in Frankfurt. Management consulting Some of the largest international management consulting firms are represented in Frankfurt, including Accenture, McKinsey & Company, Boston Consulting Group, Booz & Company, Oliver Wyman, Bain & Company and Roland Berger Strategy Consultants. Electronic communication Frankfurt is also an important location for the internet. It is home to Germany's largest internet exchange point, DE-CIX, and is where domain names are registered for the top-level-domain ".de". Lawyers Frankfurt has the highest concentration of lawyers in Germany, with one lawyer per 99 inhabitants. Most of the large international law firms maintain offices in Frankfurt, among them Baker & McKenzie, Clifford Chance, Cleary Gottlieb Steen & Hamilton, Debevoise & Plimpton, Mayer Brown, Norton Rose, Shearman & Sterling, and Taylor Wessing. Working in Frankfurt With over 922 jobs per 1,000 inhabitants, Frankfurt has the highest concentration of jobs in Germany. The high number of around 600,000 jobs with only 663,000 inhabitants of the city itself is explained by the high number of commuters who work in the city, which raises the per capita GDP of the resident population significantly. On work days and Saturdays there are around one million people within the city limits. On other days, the statistics regarding Frankfurt's wealth are reduced, in favor of the communities and towns of the so-called "Speckgürtel" (literally bacon belt, meaning the suburban area), such as Bad Homburg, Königstein im Taunus, Kronberg im Taunus and Bad Soden am Taunus, many of whose inhabitants work in Frankfurt. Despite that, Frankfurt also had, as of 2003, the highest levels of crime per 100,000 inhabitants in Germany. However, this statistic is a result of the commuter population, for it is calculated based on the 650,000-inhabitant figure, and also includes crimes committed at the airport, such as smuggling. Frankfurt is actually therefore a very safe city, corroborated by surveys among the inhabitants. Frankfurt International Airport is the single largest place of work in Germany. Other businesses Frankfurt is home to chemical industries, software businesses and call centers. Business development and other important departments of the Deutsche Bahn are located at the DB-Headquarters in Gallus. Because of Hoechst AG, Frankfurt is considered the "Apothecary of the World". Höchst's industrial park in Frankfurt is one of the three largest locations for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry in Europe. Frankfurt is also home to several large German industrial associations, such as the Chemical Industry Association; the Association for German Machine- and Equipment-building; the Electrotechnical, Electronic, and Information Technology Association e. V. with its affiliated electrotechnical standards commission; and the Association of German Automobile Producers, which is currently moving to Frankfurt. The Union of German Automobile Producers meets in Frankfurt every two years to coincide with the International Automobile Exhibition, mentioned above. Furthermore, the Trade Association of German Booksellers has its headquarters in Frankfurt, and organizes the Frankfurt Book Fair. In terms of labour unions, Frankfurt is home to the headquarters of IG Metall and IG Bau, two of Germany's largest labour unions. Businesses with regional headquarters or based in and near Frankfurt include: German Football Association Fiat Maserati (in Wiesbaden) Ferrari (in Wiesbaden) Alfa Romeo Lancia Hyundai (in Offenbach) KIA Jaguar (in Kronberg) Opel (in Rüsselsheim) Ferrero First Solar Property and real estate Frankfurt has the highest concentration of home owners in Germany. This is partly attributed to number of financial workers in the city but also because of its cosmopolitan nature with a quarter of the city's population being foreigners. For this reason Frankfurt's property market often operates differently than the rest of the country where the prices are generally much flatter than Frankfurt. German property prices are pulled down nationally because of the former East Germany, however, economically sound cities like Frankfurt and other cities in the west of Germany, have a buoyant housing market, which attracts a lot of buyers from the Far East. Establishments and organization Frankfurt is home of the German National Library, the Hessian State Supreme Court, and the Hessian State Employment Court, and has its own police academy. The fire department, founded in 1874, and the volunteer fire department have eight fire stations. Until their dissolution at the end of 2003, Frankfurt was the location of the Federal Disciplinary Court. The German office of the International Finance Corporation, part of the World Bank group, and the Committee of European Insurances and Occupational Pensions Supervisors (Ceiops), the European insurance control, have their headquarters in Frankfurt. Frankfurt hosts 88 consulates. Only New York and Hamburg have more foreign representation, excluding capital cities. Russia and China have recently opened general consulates in Frankfurt. The Consulate General of the United States in Frankfurt in Eckenheim is the largest American consulate in the world. Media Editorial department building of Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung Two important daily newspapers are published in Frankfurt. The conservative Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung was founded in 1949 and is the German newspaper with the widest circulation abroad, with its editors claiming to deliver the newspaper to 148 countries every day. The FAZ has a circulation of over 380,000 copies daily. The other important newspaper, the Frankfurter Rundschau, was first published in 1945 and has a daily circulation of over 181,000 copies. Frankfurt is also home to the German headquarters of Reuters, one of the world's most important news agencies. Several magazines also originate from Frankfurt. The Journal Frankfurt is the best-known magazine for events, parties, and "insider tips". An "ecological magazine", Öko-Test, publishes materials for the Green Party of Germany in Bockenheim. Bockenheim is known for the quiz magazine of the same name, and is home to the editorial office of the satire magazine, Titanic. Frankfurt's first radio station was the Südwestdeutsche Rundfunkdienst AG (Southwest German Radio Service), founded in 1924. Its successor service is the public broadcaster Hessischer Rundfunk (Hessian Broadcast). Its "Funkhaus am Dornbusch" station is one of the most important radio and television broadcasters. There is also the ARD-Stern that broadcasts from individual senders via a high-service network. Bloomberg TV and RTL have regional studios on the Neuen Mainzer Straße, downtown. Other broadcasters in Frankfurt include Main FM and Radio X. The largest private radio station in the region FFH, is located nearby in Bad Vilbel. Since August 1945, the American Forces Network had broadcasted from Frankfurt. Due to troop reductions, the AFN's Frankfurt location has been abandoned. Since October 2004, the AFN has broadcast its European programs from Mannheim. Education and research In Frankfurt am Main, there are two universities and several specialist schools. Johann Wolfgang Goethe University The oldest and most well-known university in the city is the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, with locations in Bockenheim, Westend, and Riedberg, and the university hospital in Niederrad. Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences The Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschule Frankfurt am Main) was created out of several older organizations in 1971, and offers over 38 study areas, in the arts, sciences, engineering and law. Some of the most important research projects: Planet Earth Simulator, Fraline-IT-School-Service, quantitativ analysis of methan in human corpses with the help of a mass spectrometer, Softwareengeneering (e.g. fraDesk), analysis of qualitative and quantitative gas in human lungs, long-term studies on photovoltaicmodules (only to name a few). Frankfurt School of Finance & Management Alongside the university is the banking academy Frankfurt School of Finance & Management, formerly known as the (Institution of Higher Learning for Banking Economics), with its campus in the Ostend (Eastend) neighborhood. Since 2001, it has been a specialist institution for the teaching Economics and Management, or FOM. Städelschule and Conservatories Frankfurt has the State Institution of Higher Learning for Artistic Education known as the Städelschule, founded in 1817 by Johann Friedrich Städel, that was taken over by the city in 1942 and turned into a state art school. Other music institutions are the Frankfurt University of Music and Performing Arts, and the Dr. Hoch's Konservatorium which was founded in 1878. Other notable schools Until September 2003, Frankfurt was also home to a school for library science and administration. The Philosophical-Theological Institution of Saint George (Philosophisch-Theologische Hochschule Sankt Georgen, a private institution with membership in the German Jesuit Association, has been located in Sachsenhausen since 1950. The city is also home of three Max Planck Society institutes: the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History (MPIeR), Max Planck Institute for Biophysics, and the Max Planck Institute for Brain Research. The Frankfurt Institute for Advanced Studies, sponsored by several institutional and private sources, is involved in theoretical research in physics, chemistry, neuroscience, and computer science. Frankfurt is host to the Römisch-Germanische-Kommission (RGK), the German Archaeological Institute branch for prehistoric archaeology in Germany and Europe. The RGK is involved in a variety of research projects. Its library, with over 130,000 volumes, is one of the largest specialised archaeological libraries in the world. Education and media Over the past years the city of Frankfurt has been increasingly investing into the IT-infrastructure of its schools. As a result, schools in Frankfurt now rank among the best equipped schools nationwide as far as availability of PCs and other media facilities are concerned. In order to assure maintenance and support of the school PCs, the city of Frankfurt in cooperation with the University of Applied Sciences has launched the project Fraline - IT-Schul-Service, an initiative employing students to provide basic school IT-support. Sport Frankfurt hosts the following sports teams or clubs: Eintracht Frankfurt, football (soccer) FSV Frankfurt, football (soccer) 1. FFC Frankfurt, football (soccer) Frankfurter FC Germania 1894, football (soccer) Frankfurt Lions, ice hockey Deutsche Bank Skyliners, basketball Frankfurt used to host these former teams or clubs: 1. Bockenheimer FC 1899, football (soccer) Frankfurt Galaxy, American Football Frankfurt is host to the classic cycle race Rund um den Henninger-Turm. The city hosts also the annual Frankfurt Marathon. Twin Towns - Sister Cities Frankfurt twinned with, or has sister city relationships with: {{cite web|url=http://www.frankfurt.de/sixcms/detail.php?id=502645|title=Frankfurt -Partner Cities|publisher=© 2008 Stadt Frankfurt am Main|accessdate=2008-12-05}} Lyon, France (since 1960) Birmingham, United Kingdom (since 1966) Milan, Italy (since 1971) {{cite web|url=http://www.comune.milano.it/portale/wps/portal/CDM?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/ContentLibrary/In%20Comune/In%20Comune/Citt%20Gemellate|title=Milano - Città Gemellate|publisher=© 2008 Municipality of Milan (Comune di Milano)|accessdate=2008-12-05}} Cairo, Egypt (since 1979) Tel Aviv, Israel (since 1980) Guangzhou, China (since 1988) Toronto, Canada (since 1989) Prague, Czech Republic (since 1990) Budapest, Hungary (since 1990) Leipzig, Germany (since 1991) Kraków, Poland (since 1991) Chennai, India (since 2005) Granada, Nicaragua (since 1991) Deuil-la-Barre, France, partnered with Nieder-Eschbach (Frankfurt am Main) (since 1967; incorporated in 1972) Gallery See also Free City of Frankfurt Frankfurt Trade Fair Frankfurt Book Fair Frankfurt Conservatory - Music Academy Frankfurt Transit Frankfurt School List of mayors of Frankfurt References Frankfurt — City Guide, Kraichgau Verlag (ISBN 3-929228-21-1) External links Official website Architecture of Frankfurt Frankfurt Zoo Frankfurt Panoramas:, , , Frankfurt before and after World War II Frankfurt webcam links Frankfurt photogallery Visual Frankfurt be-x-old:Франкфурт-на-Майне

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Politics_of_Greece

The Politics of Greece takes place in a large parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Greece is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Hellenic Parliament. Since the restoration of democracy the party system is dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy (Νέα Δημοκρατία - Nea Dimokratia) and the socialist Panhellenic Socialist Movement (Πανελλήνιο Σοσιαλιστικό Κίνημα - Panellinio Sosialistiko Kinima). The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The 1975 constitution, which describes Greece as a "presidential parliamentary republic", includes extensive specific guarantees of civil liberties and vests the powers of the head of state in a president elected by parliament. The Greek governmental structure is similar to that found in many Western democracies, and has been described as a compromise between the French and German models. The prime minister and cabinet play the central role in the political process, while the president performs some executive and legislative functions in addition to ceremonial duties. Voting in Greece is compulsory but is not enforced. Executive branch |President |Karolos Papoulias |Panhellenic Socialist Movement |12 March 2005 |- |Prime Minister |Kostas Karamanlis |New Democracy |10 March 2004 |} The Cabinet of Greece includes the heads of all executive ministries, appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister. The President of the Republic is elected by the Parliament for a five-year term (election last held 7 March 2005), and a maximum of two terms in office. When a presidential term expires, Parliament votes to elect the new President. In the first two votes, a ⅔ majority (200 votes) is necessary. The third and final vote requires a 3/5 (180 votes) majority. If the third vote is fruitless, Parliament is dissolved and elections are proclaimed by the outgoing President within the next 30 days. In the new Parliament, the election for President is repeated immediately with a 3/5 majority required for the initial vote, an absolute majority for the second one (151 votes) and a simple majority for the third and final one. The system is so designed as to promote consensus Presidential candidates among the main political parties. The president has the power to declare war, to grant pardon and to conclude agreements of peace, alliance, and participation in international organizations; upon the request of the government a simple parliamentary majority is required to ratify such actions, agreements, or treaties. An absolute or a three-fifths majority is required in exceptional cases (for example, the accession into the EU needed a 3/5 majority). The president can also exercise certain emergency powers, which must be countersigned by the appropriate cabinet minister. Changes to the constitution in 1986 limited the president's political powers. As a result, the president may not dissolve parliament, dismiss the government, suspend certain articles of the constitution, issue a proclamation or declare a state of siege without countersigning by the prime minister or the appropriate cabinet minister. To call a referendum, he must obtain approval from parliament. The prime minister is elected by the people and he or she is usually the leader of the party controlling the absolute majority of Parliament members. According to the Constitution, the prime minister safeguards the unity of the government and directs its activities. He or she is the most powerful person of the Greek political system and he or she recommendates to the President the appointment or the dismissal of the ministers.. Greek parliamentary politics hinge upon the principle of the "", the "declared confidence" of Parliament to the Prime Minister and his/her administration. This means that the President of the Republic is bound to appoint as Prime Minister a person who will be approved by a majority of the Parliament's members (i.e. 151 votes). With the current electoral system, it is the leader of the party gaining a plurality of the votes in the Parliamentary elections who gets appointed Prime Minister. An administration may, at any time, seek a "vote of confidence"; conversely, a number of Members of Parliament may ask that a "vote of reproach" be taken. Both are rare occurrences with usually predictable outcomes as voting outside the party line happens very seldom. On 7 March, 2004, Kostas Karamanlis, president of the New Democracy party and nephew of the late Constantine Karamanlis, was elected as the new Prime Minister of Greece, thus marking his party's first electoral victory in nearly 11 years. Karamanlis took over Government from Kostas Simitis, who had been in office since January 1996. Legislative branch Greece elects a legislature by universal suffrage of all citizens over the age of 18. The Greek Parliament (Vouli ton Ellinon) has 300 members, elected for a four-year term by a system of reinforced proportional representation in 48 multi-seat constituencies, 8 single-seat constituencies and a single nationwide list. 288 of the 300 seats are determined by constituency voting, and voters may select the candidate or candidates of their choice by marking their name on the party ballot. The remaining 12 seats are filled from nationwide party lists on a top-down basis and based on the proportion of the total vote each party received. Greece uses a complex reinforced proportional representation electoral system which discourages splinter parties and makes a parliamentary majority possible even if the leading party falls short of a majority of the popular vote. Under the current electoral law, any single party must receive at least a 3% nationwide vote tally in order to elect Members of Parliament (the so-called "3% threshold"). The law in its current form favors the first past the post party to achieve an absolute (151 parliamentary seats) majority, provided it receives a 41%+ nationwide vote. This is touted to enhance governmental stability. The electoral law can be changed by simple parliamentary majority, but a law so changed only becomes enforced in the election following the upcoming one, unless it is voted by the Greek Parliament with a majority of ⅔ of the total number of the deputies. Political parties and leaders Judicial branch In Greece the judicial branch is divided into civil and administrative courts. Civil courts judge civil and penal cases, whereas administrative courts judge administrative cases, namely disputes between the citizens and the State. The judicial system of Greece comprises three Supreme Courts: the Court of Cassation (Άρειος Πάγος), the Council of State (Συμβούλιο της Επικρατείας) and the Chamber of Accounts (Ελεγκτικό Συνέδριο). These high courts are composed of professional judges, graduates of the National School of Judges. The way the judges are gradually promoted, until they become members of the Supreme Courts, is defined by the Constitution and the existing laws. The presidents and the vice-presidents of the three Supreme Courts are chosen by the Cabinet of Greece among the serving members of each of the Supreme Courts. The Court of Cassation is the supreme civil and penal court, whereas the Council of State is the supreme administrative court. The Chamber of Accounts has an exclusive jurisdiction over certain administrative areas (for example it judges disputes arising from the legislation regulating the pensions of civil servants) and its decisions are irrevocable. This means that they are not judged at second instance by the Council of State. Sometimes, the Supreme Courts take contradictory decisions or they judge differently the constitutionality of a legal provision. These disputes are resolved by the Supreme Special Court, whose composition and jurisdiction is regulated by the Constitution (article 100). As its name reveals, this court is not permanent and it sits when a special case belonging to its jurisdiction arises. When the Supreme Special Court sits, it comprises eleven members: the Presidents of the three Supreme Courts, four members of the Court of Cassation and four members of the Council of State. When it judges the constitutionality of a law or resolves the disputes between Supreme Courts, its composition comprises two more members: two professors of the Law Schools of Greece. The Supreme Special Court is the only court which can declare an unconstitutional legal provision as "powerless" (something like "null and void"), while the three Supreme Courts can only declare an unconstitutional legal provision as "inapplicable" to that particular case. The Supreme Special Court is also the Supreme Electoral Court, judging pleas against the legality of the legislative elections. Administrative divisions Greece is divided in 13 peripheries, further divided into 51 prefectures, the "Nomoi". The prefectures are each headed by a prefect (the "Nomarch"), who is elected by direct popular vote. The thirteen regional administrative districts (peripheries), each including a number of prefectures are headed by a regional governor (the "Peripheriarch"), appointed by the Minister of the Interior. In northern Greece and in greater Athens, three areas have an additional administrative position between the nomarch and peripheriarch. This official, known as the Chair of the prefectural local authorities or "superprefect" (the "Hypernomarch"), is elected by direct popular vote together with the nomarchs she or he supervises. Although municipalities and villages have elected officials, they do not have an adequate independent revenue base and must depend on the central government budget for a large part of their financial needs. Consequently they are subject to numerous central government controls. This also leads to extremely low municipal taxes (usually around 0.2% or less). Greece also includes one autonomous region, the Monastic Community of the Holy Mountain, Mount Athos. International organization participation Greece is member of the Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, CE, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EU, FAO, G- 6, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, SECI, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNOMIG, UPU, WCO, WEU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger Committee Politicians of Greece Alekos Alavanos Dimitris Avramopoulos Dora Bakoyannis Maria Damanaki Manolis Glezos Konstantinos Karamanlis Konstantinos Mitsotakis Costas Karamanlis Georgios Karatzaferis Nikos Konstantopoulos Vassilis Leventis Andreas Papandreou George Papandreou, junior George Papandreou, senior Aleka Papariga Karolos Papoulias Antonis Samaras Costas Simitis Costis Stephanopoulos Dimitris Tsovolas Hatzigakis Sotirios Political issues Education Under the Greek constitution, Article 16 of the Constitution of Greece. education is the responsibility of the state. Most Greeks attend public primary and secondary schools. There are a few private schools, which must meet the standard curriculum of and are supervised by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education oversees and directs every aspect of the public education process at all levels, including hiring all teachers and professors and producing all required textbooks. A recent issue concerning education in Greece is the institutionalisation of private universities. According to the constitution ibid, Section 5: "Education at university level shall be provided exclusively by institutions which are fully self-governed public law legal persons". only state-run universities operate on the land. However,in the recent years many foreign private universities have established branches in Greece, offering Bachelor's level degrees, thus creating a legal contradiction between the Greek constitution and the EU laws allowing foreign companies to operate anywhere in the Union. Additionally, every year, tens of thousands of Greek students are not accepted to the state-run University system, become "educational immigrants" to other countries' Higher Education institutions, where they move to study. This has created a chronic problem for Greece, in terms of loss of capital as well as human resources, since many of those students opt to seek employment in the countries they studied, after completing their studies. It is characteristic that in 2006, Greece, with 11.5 million inhabitants, was fourth in the world in terms of student export in absolute numbers, with 60,000 students abroad, while the first country in this regard, People's Republic of China of over 1,3 billion inhabitants, had 100,000 students abroad. In terms of students abroad as a percent of the general population, Greece is by far the leading country, with 5,250 students per million, compared to second Malaysia's 1,780 students per million inhabitants. Citing these problems as a result of the state's monopoly on Higher Education, New Democracy committed to amending the constitution, in order to allow private universities to operate in Greece on a non-profit basis. This proposal was rejected by then-ruling PASOK in the late nineties, and thus could not muster the support necessary to be put to vote on the constitutional amendment of 2001. However, PASOK has since changed its stance, and now also supports a constitutional provision for the creation of private Universities on a non-profit basis. This proposal continues to encounter the fierce opposition of the Left parties and part of the academic community, both professors and students. At the outset of 2006, prime minister Kostas Karamanlis announced the initiative of his government for a new amendment of the Constitution. According to his assertion one of the main issues of this amendment (the second within less than 10 years) is going to be the creation of "non-state owned" universities. Religion The Greek Orthodox Church is under the protection of the State, which pays the clergy's salaries, and Orthodox Christianity is the "prevailing" religion of Greece according to the Constitution. The Greek Orthodox Church is self-governing but under the spiritual guidance of the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople. About 98% of Greek citizens are nominal followers of the Orthodox Church. Freedom of religious beliefs is guaranteed by the Constitution, but "proselytism" is officially illegal. According to the most recent Eurostat "Eurobarometer" poll, in 2005, Eurobarometer, http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf 81% of Greek citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 16% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and only 3% that "they do not believe there is a God, spirit, nor life force". This would make Greece one of the most religious countries in the European Union of 25 members, after Malta and Cyprus. The Muslim minority, concentrated in Thrace, was given legal status by provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 and is Greece's only officially recognized religious minority. There are small Roman Catholic communities on some of the Cyclades, remnants of the long Venetian rule over the islands. The recent influx of (mostly illegal) immigrants from Eastern Europe and the Third World has an expectedly varied multi-religious profile (Roman Catholic, Muslim, Hindu etc). During the 2001 constitutional amendment, complete separation of church and state was proposed, but the two major parties, ND and PASOK, decided not to open this controversial matter, which clashes with both the population and the clergy. For example, numerous protests occurred over the removal of the Religious Denomination entry from the National ID card in 2000. Media In comparative NGO studies, Greece ranks among the highest in press freedom worldwide. The Greek media, collectively, is a very influential institution — usually aggressive, sensationalist. As with many countries, most of the media are owned by businessmen with commercial interests in other sectors of the economy. There are often accusations of newspapers, magazines, and radio and TV channels being used to promote their commercial enterprises as well as to seek political influence. In 1994, the Ministry of Press and Media was established to deal with media and communication issues. ERT S.A., a public corporation supervised by the Minister of Press, operates three national television channels and five national radio channels. The Minister of Press also serves as the primary government spokesperson. The Secretary General of Press and Information prepares the semi-official Athens News Agency (ANA) Bulletin. Along with AP and Reuters, this is a primary source of information for the Greek press. The Ministry of Press and Information also issues the semi-official Macedonian News Agency (MPE) Bulletin, which is distributed throughout the Balkan region. For international news, CNN is a particular influence in the Greek market; the major TV channels often use it as a source. State and private TV stations also use Eurovision and Visnews as sources. While few papers and stations have overseas correspondents, those few correspondents abroad can be very influential. In 1988, a new law provided the legal framework for the establishment of private radio stations and, in 1989, private TV stations. According to the law, supervision of radio and television is exercised by the National Radio and Television Council. In practice, however, official licensing has been delayed for many years. Because of this, there has been a proliferation of private radio and TV stations, as well as European satellite channels, including Euronews. More than 1,000 radio stations were operating before March 2002, when the government implemented plans to reallocate TV frequencies and issue licenses as authorized by the 1993 Media Law, effectively reducing this number. Military Service 12 months for all males of 18 years of age; Compulsory with fines and imprisonment if denied, but neither fine nor imprisonment has been imposed since 1994, where the last warrant against a draft-dodger was issued. Members of families with 3 children serve a reduced time of 9 months. Military service can also be substituted with a longer public service, which by the standards of Amnesty International, ought to be considered punitive as it is twice as long as the regular tour of duty. Limited steps have been taken to turn the Greek military into a semi-professional army in the last years, leading to the gradual reduction of the service from 18 to 12 months and the inclusion of a greater number of professional military personnel in most vertices of the force. Recent developments, though, within the anti-conscription movement in Greece, such as the high death rate from suicides during service and work-related accidents, such as the Manitsa incident, combined with a high rate of draft-dodging, have advanced the idea that mandatory coscription should be abolished and an all-professional/all-volunteer army should be put in place. Military spending Greece directs approximately 4.3% of its GDP to military expenditures, the 2nd highest percentage in Europe (behind Russia and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia). Military Spending - Rank Order,Military expenditure (2005 figures) In absolute numbers the Greek military budget ranked 28th in the world in 2005. By the same measure, Greek military budget ranked 6th in the Mediterranean basin (behind France, Italy, Turkey, Israel and Spain) and 2nd (behind Turkey) in its immediate vicinity, the Balkans. All rankings according to the World ranking of military budgets It must be noted that Greek arms purchasing is among the highest in the world: Greece ranked 3rd in the world in 2004. Article from in.gr (08/06/05) (in Greek) These figures are explained US Arms Clients Profiles - Greece in the light of the arms race between Greece and Turkey with key issues being the Cyprus dispute and disagreement over sovereignty of certain islets of the Aegean. For more information see Greco-Turkish relations. Reversly, the foreign relations of Greece as well as many internal policy decisions are largely affected by its arms purchases. The United States, being the major arms seller to Greece has been known to actively intervene in military spending decisions made by the Greek government. ibid: The Greek publication Elevtherotipia reported that former Ambassador Nicholas Burns had taken part in attempting to dissuade Greek officials from purchasing the Eurofighter in favor of a U.S. military aircraft. The US has at times actively stepped in to help avoid large scale crisis, as in the case of the Imia-Kardak crisis. The reduction of military spending has long been an issue in Greek politics. The incumbent prime minister, Kostas Karamanlis has proposed a reduction to military spending through a "Defence Eurozone", Hellenic Radio (ERA): News in Greek, 03-09-13 referring to the European Security and Defence Policy. The previous PASOK administration, also planned on reducing military spending Athens News Agency: Press Review in Greek, 01-11-15 prior to its failure to be re-elected in 2004, while PASOK politicians usually refer to money saved from reducing military spending as a "peace dividend" ("μέρισμα ειρήνης"). Speech of PASOK former finance minister Nikos Christodoulakis The parties of the Left, KKE and Synaspismos, have been vocal in condemning military spending. Regarding the purchase of 30 F-16 and 333 Leopard tanks in 2005, both parties criticized the New Democracy administration for spending money on weapons while doing nothing to relieve the lower classes and said that high military spending "does not correspond to the real needs of the country but is carried out according to NATO planning and to serve weapon manufacturers and the countries that host them". HR-NET index of BBC broadcasts in Greek, 05-07-19 News Notes External links Greek election results, via the Greek Ministry of Internal Affairs ekloges.gr Greek Elections Official website of the Prime Minister of Greece Greece the first country in the globe in terms of student export Greek Politics Community Forums Greek news website covering a wide range of topics, focusing on the effect of globalization on Greece and its national problems

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Electric_current

Electric current is the flow of electric charge. The electric charge that flows is carried by, for example, mobile electrons in a conductor, ions in an electrolyte or both in a plasma. The SI unit of electric current intensity is the ampere. Electric current is measured using an ammeter. Physics Electric current through various media Metals A solid conductive metal contains a large population of mobile, or free, electrons. These electrons are bound to the metal lattice but not to any individual atom. Even with no external electric field applied, these electrons move about randomly due to thermal energy but, on average, there is zero net current within the metal. Given a plane through which the wire passes, the number of electrons moving from one side to the other in any period of time is on average equal to the number passing in the opposite direction. As George Gamow put in his science popularizing book, One, Two, Three...Infinity (1947), "The metallic substances differ from all other materials by the fact that the outer shells of their atoms are bound rather loosely, and often let one of their electrons go free. Thus the interior of a metal is filled up with a large number of unattached electrons that travel aimlessly around like a crowd of displaced persons. When a metal wire is subjected to electric force applied on its opposite ends, these free electrons rush in the direction of the force, thus forming what we call an electric current." A typical wire for electrical conduction is the stranded copper wire. When a metal wire is connected across the two terminals of a DC voltage source such as a battery, the source places an electric field across the conductor. The moment contact is made, the free electrons of the conductor are forced to drift toward the positive terminal under the influence of this field. The free electrons are therefore the current carrier in a typical solid conductor. For an electric current of 1 ampere, 1 coulomb of electric charge (which consists of about 6.242 × 1018 electrons) drifts every second through any plane through which the conductor passes. For a steady flow, the current I in amperes can be calculated with the following equation: where is the electric charge in coulombs transferred is the time in seconds More generally, electric current can be represented as the time rate of change of charge, or . Other media In metallic solids, electricity flows by means of electrons, from lower to higher electrical potential. In other media, any stream of charged objects may constitute an electric current. In a vacuum, a beam of ions or electrons may be formed. In other conductive materials, the electric current is due to the flow of both positively and negatively charged particles at the same time. In still others, the current is entirely due to positive charge flow. For example, the electric currents in electrolytes are flows of electrically charged atoms (ions), which exist in both positive and negative varieties. In a common lead-acid electrochemical cell, electric currents are composed of positive hydrogen ions (protons) flowing in one direction, and negative sulfate ions flowing in the other. Electric currents in sparks or plasma are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, the electric current is entirely composed of flowing ions. In a semiconductor it is sometimes useful to think of the current as due to the flow of positive "holes" (the spots that should have an electron to make the conductor neutral). This is the case in a p-type semiconductor. Current density Current density is a measure of the density of an electric current. It is defined as a vector whose magnitude is the electric current per cross-sectional area. In , the current density is measured in amperes per square meter. Drift speed The mobile charged particles within a conductor move constantly in random directions, like the particles of a gas. In order for there to be a net flow of charge, the particles must also move together with an average drift rate. Electrons are the charge carriers in metals and they follow an erratic path, bouncing from atom to atom, but generally drifting in the direction of the electric field. The speed at which they drift can be calculated from the equation: where is the electric current is number of charged particles per unit volume (or charge carrier density) is the cross-sectional area of the conductor is the drift velocity, and is the charge on each particle. Electric currents in solids typically flow very slowly. For example, in a copper wire of cross-section 0.5 mm2, carrying a current of 5 A, the drift velocity of the electrons is of the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near-vacuum inside a cathode ray tube, the electrons travel in near-straight lines at about a tenth of the speed of light. Any accelerating electric charge, and therefore any changing electric current, gives rise to an electromagnetic wave that propagates at very high speed outside the surface of the conductor. This speed is usually a significant fraction of the speed of light, as can be deduced from Maxwell's Equations, and is therefore many times faster than the drift velocity of the electrons. For example, in AC power lines, the waves of electromagnetic energy propagate through the space between the wires, moving from a source to a distant load, even though the electrons in the wires only move back and forth over a tiny distance. The ratio of the speed of the electromagnetic wave to the speed of light in free space is called the velocity factor, and depends on the electromagnetic properties of the conductor and the insulating materials surrounding it, and on their shape and size. The nature of these three velocities can be illustrated by an analogy with the three similar velocities associated with gases. The low drift velocity of charge carriers is analogous to air motion; in other words, winds. The high speed of electromagnetic waves is roughly analogous to the speed of sound in a gas; while the random motion of charges is analogous to heat - the thermal velocity of randomly vibrating gas particles. Electromagnetism According to Ampère's law, an electric current produces a magnetic field. Electric current produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire. Electric current can be directly measured with a galvanometer, but this method involves breaking the circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient. Current can also be measured without breaking the circuit by detecting the magnetic field associated with the current. Devices used for this include Hall effect sensors, current clamps, current transformers, and Rogowski coils. Ohm's law Ohm's law predicts the current in an (ideal) resistor (or other ohmic device) to be the applied voltage divided by resistance: where is the current, measured in amperes is the potential difference measured in volts is the resistance measured in ohms Conventions Current flow Diagram showing conventional current notation. Electric charge moves from the positive side of the power source to the negative. A flow of positive charge gives the same electric current as an opposite flow of negative charge. Thus, opposite flows of opposite charges contribute to a single electric current. For this reason, the polarity of the flowing charges can usually be ignored during measurements. All the flowing charges are assumed to have positive polarity, and this flow is called conventional current. Conventional current represents the net effect of the current flow, without regard to the sign of the charge of the objects carrying the current. In solid metals such as wires, the positive charge carriers are immobile, and only the negatively charged electrons flow. Because the electron carries negative charge, the electron motion in a metal is in the direction opposite to that of conventional (or electric) current. Reference direction When solving electrical circuits, the actual direction of current through a specific circuit element is usually unknown. Consequently, each circuit element is assigned a current variable with an arbitrarily chosen reference direction. When the circuit is solved, the circuit element currents may have positive or negative values. A negative value means that the actual direction of current through that circuit element is opposite that of the chosen reference direction. Occurrences Natural examples include lightning and the solar wind, the source of the polar auroras (the aurora borealis and aurora australis). The artificial form of electric current is the flow of conduction electrons in metal wires, such as the overhead power lines that deliver electrical energy across long distances and the smaller wires within electrical and electronic equipment. In electronics, other forms of electric current include the flow of electrons through resistors or through the vacuum in a vacuum tube, the flow of ions inside a battery or a neuron, and the flow of holes within a semiconductor. Electrical safety The most obvious hazard is electrical shock, where a current passes through part of the body. It is the amount of current passing through the body that determines the effect, and this depends on the nature of the contact, the condition of the body part, the current path through the body and the voltage of the source. While a very small amount can cause a slight tingle, too much can cause severe burns if it passes through the skin or even cardiac arrest if enough passes through the heart. The effect also varies considerably from individual to individual. Accidental electric heating can also be dangerous. An overloaded power cable is a frequent cause of fire. A battery as small as an AA cell placed in a pocket with metal coins can lead to a short circuit heating the battery and the coins which may inflict burns. NiCad, NiMh cells, and lithium batteries are particularly risky because they can deliver a very high current due to their low internal resistance. See also Alternating current Current density Direct current Electrical conduction for more information on the physical mechanism of current flow in materials Electricity Four-current History of electrical engineering Hydraulic analogy SI electromagnetism units References External links All about circuits - a useful site introducing electricity and electronics be-x-old:Электрычны струм

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Dublin

Dublin ( or – '' (or simply '') and '' are the two names of the city, the former being the one currently in official and common usage. – or ) is both the largest city and capital of Ireland. It is located near the midpoint of Ireland's east coast, at the mouth of the River Liffey and at the centre of the Dublin Region. Originally founded as a Viking settlement, it evolved into the Kingdom of Dublin and became the island's primary city following the Norman invasion. Today, it is ranked 10th (up from 13th in 2008) in the Global Financial Centres Index http://www.lefigaro.fr/assets/pdf/bourse-patrimoine/financial.pdf GFCI Index 2008 and has one of the fastest growing populations of any European capital city. TalkingCities The Irish Experience . Dublin is a historical and contemporary cultural centre for the island of Ireland as well as a modern centre of education, the arts, administrative function, economy and industry. Name The name Dublin is derived from the Irish name Dubh Linn (meaning "black pool"). Historically, in the traditional Gaelic script used for the Irish language, bh was written with a dot over the b, rendering 'Du Linn' or 'Dulinn'. Those without a knowledge of Irish omitted the dot and spelled the name variously as Dyflin (a phonetic rendering in Old Norse), Develyn or Dublin. The common name for the city in Modern Irish is (meaning "town of the hurdled ford"). It was first written as such in 1368 in the Annals of Ulster.<ref>Rev. J. Ryan, Pre-Norman Dublin'; JRSAI 1949, p.64.</ref> is a place-name referring to a fording point of the Liffey in the vicinity of Heuston Station. was later applied to an early Christian monastery which is believed to have been situated in the area of Aungier Street currently occupied by Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church. The subsequent Viking settlement was on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey, to the East of Christchurch, in the area known as Wood Quay. The Dubh Linn was a lake used by the Vikings to moor their ships and was connected to the Liffey by the Poddle. The Dubh Linn and Poddle were covered during the early 1700s, and as the city expanded they were largely forgotten about. The Dubh Linn was situated where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle. History Dublin Castle The writings of the Greek astronomer and cartographer Ptolemy provide perhaps the earliest reference to human habitation in the area now known as Dublin. In around A.D. 140 he referred to a settlement he called . The settlement 'Dubh Linn' dates perhaps as far back as the first century BC and later a monastery was built there, though the town was established in about 841 A Popular History of Ireland - Thomas D'Arcy McGee (1825-1868) by the Norse. The modern city retains the Anglicised Irish name of the former and the original Irish name of the latter. After the Norman invasion of Ireland, Dublin became the key centre of military and judicial power, with much of the power centering on Dublin Castle until independence. From the 14th to late 16th centuries, English crown control over Ireland was limited to a section of territory, known as the Pale, which included Dublin at its southern end, and Dundalk at its northern extremity. The Parliament was located in Drogheda for several centuries, but was switched permanently to Dublin after Henry VII conquered the County Kildare in 1504. The sacking of Drogheda, and massacre of her citizens, by Oliver Cromwell, in 1649, resulted in Dublin becoming the dominant port city in Ireland. Dublin also had local city administration via its Corporation from the Middle Ages. This represented the city's guild-based oligarchy until it was reformed in the 1840s on increasingly democratic lines. The Custom House on the north bank of the River Liffey From the 17th century the city expanded rapidly, helped by the Wide Streets Commission. Georgian Dublin was, for a short time, the second city of the British Empire after London and the fifth largest European city. Much of Dublin's most notable architecture dates from this time and is considered a golden era for the city. In 1759, the founding of the Guinness brewery at St. James's Gate resulted in a considerable economic impact for the city, which is felt to this day. For much of the time since its foundation, the Guinness brewery was the largest employer in the city. In 1742 Handel's "Messiah" was performed for the first time in New Musick Hall in Fishamble Street with 26 boys and five men from the combined choirs of St.Patrick's and Christ Church cathedrals participating. After 1800, with the seat of government moving to Westminster, Dublin entered a period of decline. Dublin was still the centre of administration and a transport hub for much of Ireland. Dublin did not feature in the Industrial revolution, which was concentrated in Belfast, and had a minor role Derry, Cork The Easter Rising of 1916 took place in several parts of the city, bringing much physical destruction to the city centre. The Anglo-Irish War and Irish Civil War contributed even more destruction, leaving some of its finest buildings in ruins. The Irish Free State government rebuilt the city centre and located the Dáil (parliament) in Leinster House. Carlisle Bridge c. 1840, showing the extent of the Wide Streets Commission interventions, with unified commercial terraces marching from the river towards the GPO. The formation of the new state resulted in changed fortunes for Dublin. It benefitted more from independence than any Irish city, though it took a long time to become obvious. Through The Emergency (World War II), until the 1960s, Dublin remained a capital out of time: the city centre in particular remained at an architectural standstill, even nicknamed the last 19th Century City of Europe. This made the city ideal for historical film production, with many productions including The Blue Max and My Left Foot capturing the cityscape in this period. This became the foundation of later successes in cinematography and film-making. With increasing prosperity, modern architecture was introduced to the city, though a vigorous campaign started in parallel to restore the Georgian greatness of Dublin's streets, rather than lose the grandeur forever. Since 1997, the landscape of Dublin has changed immensely, with enormous private sector and state development of housing, transport, and business. (See also Development and Preservation in Dublin). Some well-known Dublin street corners are still named for the pub or business which used to occupy the site before closure or redevelopment. Since the beginning of Anglo-Norman rule in the 12th century, the city has functioned as the capital of the island of Ireland in the varying geopolitical entities: the Lordship of Ireland (1171–1541) the Kingdom of Ireland (1541–1800) the island as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922) the Irish Republic (1919–1922), It should be noted that this state was unilaterally declared and was not recognised by any other country apart from Russia. The control did not extend to all of the island, particularly Unionist areas in the north east. From 1922, following the partition of Ireland, it became the capital of the Irish Free State (1922–1949) and now is the capital of the Republic of Ireland. One of the memorials to commemorate that time is the Garden of Remembrance. In a 2003 European-wide survey by the BBC, questioning 11,200 residents of 112 urban and rural areas, Dublin was the best capital city in Europe to live in. BBC record of Survey A person from either the city or county of Dublin is often referred to as a "Dub". Culture Literature, theatre and the arts National Museum of Ireland The city has a world-famous literary history, having produced many prominent literary figures, including Nobel laureates William Butler Yeats, George Bernard Shaw and Samuel Beckett. Other influential writers and playwrights from Dublin include Oscar Wilde, Jonathan Swift and the creator of Dracula, Bram Stoker. It is arguably most famous, however, as the location of the greatest works of James Joyce. Dubliners is a collection of short stories by Joyce about incidents and characters typical of residents of the city in the early part of the 20th century. His most celebrated work, Ulysses, is also set in Dublin and full of topical detail. Additional widely celebrated writers from the city include J.M. Synge, Seán O'Casey, Brendan Behan, Maeve Binchy, and Roddy Doyle. Ireland's biggest libraries and literary museums are found in Dublin, including the National Print Museum of Ireland and National Library of Ireland. Dublin Street Art There are several theatres within the city centre, and various world famous actors have emerged from the Dublin theatrical scene, including Noel Purcell, Brendan Gleeson, Stephen Rea, Colin Farrell, Colm Meaney and Gabriel Byrne. The best known theatres include the Gaiety, the Abbey, the Olympia and the Gate. The Gaiety specialises in musical and operatic productions, and is popular for opening its doors after the evening theatre production to host a variety of live music, dancing, and films. The Abbey was founded in 1904 by a group that included Yeats with the aim of promoting indigenous literary talent. It went on to provide a breakthrough for some of the city's most famous writers, such as Synge, Yeats himself and George Bernard Shaw. The Gate was founded in 1928 to promote European and American Avante Guarde works. The largest theatre is the Mahony Hall in The Helix at Dublin City University in Glasnevin. Dublin is also the focal point for much of Irish Art and the Irish artistic scene. The Book of Kells, a world-famous manuscript produced by Celtic Monks in A.D. 800 and an example of Insular art, is on display in Trinity College. The Chester Beatty Library houses the famous collection of manuscripts, miniature paintings, prints, drawings, rare books and decorative arts assembled by American mining millionaire (and honorary Irish citizen) Sir Alfred Chester Beatty (1875-1968). The collections date from 2700 B.C. onwards and are drawn from Asia, the Middle East, North Africa and Europe. Work by local artists is often put on public display around St. Stephen's Green, the main public park in the city centre. In addition large art galleries are found across the city, including the Irish Museum of Modern Art, the National Gallery, the Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery, The City Arts Centre, The Douglas Hyde Gallery, The Project Arts Centre and The Royal Hibernian Academy. Three branches of the National Museum of Ireland are located in Dublin: Archaeology in Kildare Street, Decorative Arts and History in Collins Barracks and Natural History in Merrion Street. National Museum of Ireland Nightlife and entertainment Temple Bar, the city's centre for nightlife and entertainment. There is a vibrant nightlife in Dublin and it is reputedly one of the most youthful cities in Europe - with estimates of 50% of inhabitants being younger than 25. Furthermore in 2007, and again in 2009, Dublin was voted the friendliest city in Europe. BreakingNews.ie - Dublin voted friendliest European city (13 March 2007) Irish Times - Dublin voted friendliest city (4 May 2009) Like the rest of Ireland, there are pubs right across the city centre. The area around St. Stephen's Green - especially Harcourt Street, Camden Street, Wexford Street and Leeson Street - is a centre for some of the most popular nightclubs and pubs in Dublin. The internationally best-known area for nightlife is the Temple Bar area just south of the River Liffey. To some extent, the area has become a hot spot for tourists, including stag and hen parties from Britain. Article on stag/hen parties in Tenby, mentioning Dublin, Accessed Feb 15 2009. It was developed as Dublin's cultural quarter (an idea proposed by local politician Charlie Haughey), and does retain this spirit as a centre for small arts productions, photographic and artists' studios, and in the form of street performers and intimate small music venues. The LGBT scene in Dublin is centred on a number of superpubs and clubs such as The Dragon and The George on South Great George's Street. The city also hosts Irelands largest gay pride festival, Dublin Pride. Live music is popularly played on streets and at venues throughout Dublin in general and the city has produced several musicians and groups of international success, including U2, The Dubliners, Horslips, The Boomtown Rats, Thin Lizzy, Sinéad O'Connor and My Bloody Valentine. The two best known cinemas in the city centre are the Savoy Cinema and the Cineworld Cinema, both north of the Liffey. Alternative and special-interest cinema can be found in the Irish Film Institute in Temple Bar, in the Screen Cinema on d'Olier Street and in the Lighthouse Cinema in Smithfield. Across suburban Dublin are located large modern multiscreen cinemas. Situated on the Liffey at the Eastlink tollbridge, The O2, Dublin (originally called, and still often known as, the Point Theatre) has housed world renowned performers in all fields of music. Sports Croke Park, Europe's fourth-largest stadium and home to the Gaelic Athletic Association.The headquarters of almost all of Ireland's sporting organisations are in Dublin, and the most popular sports in Dublin are those that are most popular throughout Ireland: Gaelic football, soccer, rugby union and hurling. Dublin will be the European Capital of Sport in 2010. Dublin City Council - 2011 UEFA Cup Final comes to new Dublin stadium The city is host to the 4th largest stadium in Europe, Croke Park Fixtures - UEFA European Championship Listings 2006] Croke Park, the 82,500 capacity headquarters of the Gaelic Athletic Association. It traditionally hosts Gaelic football and hurling games during the summer months, as well as international rules football in alternating years. It also hosts concerts, with acts such as U2 and Robbie Williams having played there in recent years. The Dublin board of the Gaelic Athletic Association play their league games at Parnell Park. The nickname for the Dublin Gaelic football team is "The Dubs". Lansdowne Road stadium (owned by the Irish Rugby Football Union) was the venue for home games of both the Irish Rugby Union Team and the Republic's national soccer team. Until recently, it had a mixed standing and seating capacity of 49,000. As part of a joint venture between the IRFU, the FAI and the Government, it is being redeveloped and is expected to be replaced with a 50,000 all-seater stadium by 2009. On 29 January 2009, Uefa confirmed Lansdowne Road will host the 2011 Europa League Final (UEFA Cup). LRSDC.ie - Homepage of Lansdowne Road Development Company (IRFU and FAI JV) During the redevelopment, rugby union and soccer home internationals are played at Croke Park. Donnybrook Rugby Ground is the traditional home of the Leinster Rugby team though due to its inferior capacity they now play all Magners League and Heineken Cup games across Dublin 4 in the R.D.S. Dublin is home to six FAI League of Ireland clubs, Shamrock Rovers, Bohemians , Shelbourne, St Patrick's Athletic, and Sporting Fingal. Dalymount Park in Phibsboro, the traditional Home of Irish Soccer, is now used only for home games of local club Bohemians. Shamrock Rovers play in the Tallaght Stadium, play at Tolka Park in Drumcondra, while play at Richmond Park in Inchicore on the south west edge of the city. The other senior clubs, who play in the First Division, are , based at the UCD Bowl, Belfield, and newly-formed , who play at Morton Stadium, Santry. The National Aquatic Centre in Blanchardstown is the first building to open in the Sports Campus Ireland. There are several race courses in the Dublin area including Shelbourne Park (Greyhound racing) and Leopardstown (Horse racing). The world famous Dublin Horse Show takes place at the RDS, Ballsbridge, which hosted the Show Jumping World Championships in 1982. The national boxing arena is located in The National Stadium on the South Circular Road, though larger fights take place in the Point Depot in the docklands area. There are also Basketball, Handball, Hockey and Athletics stadia — most notably Morton Stadium in Santry, which held the athletics events of the 2003 Special Olympics. Rugby League as a sport in Dublin has attained popularity in recent years. The North Dublin Eagles play in Ireland's Carnegie League. Recent popularity has been increased with the Irish Wolfhound's success in the Rugby League World Cup which was held in Australia in 2008. The Dublin Marathon has been run since 1980, and the Women's Mini Marathon has been run since 1983 and is said to be the largest all female event of its kind in the world. - Facts and Figures 16th February 2009 Shopping Clerys' department store on O'Connell Street. Dublin is a popular shopping spot for both Irish people and tourists. Dublin city centre has several shopping districts, including Grafton Street, Henry Street, Stephen's Green Shopping Centre, Jervis Shopping Centre, and the newly refurbished Ilac Shopping Centre. On Grafton Street, the most famous shops include Brown Thomas and its sister shop BT2. Brown Thomas also contains "mini-stores" such as Hermès, Chanel and Louis Vuitton on its Wicklow Street frontage. Dublin city is the location of large department stores, such as Clerys on O'Connell Street, Arnotts on Henry Street, Brown Thomas on Grafton Street and Debenhams (formerly Roches Stores) on Henry Street. Grafton Street is nearly as renowned for its buskers and street-performers as for the fine shopping that this grand shopping street provides. A variety of musicians, mimes, and comedy performers compete with for attention with the shops and cafes for attention on Grafton Street particularly on Saturday afternoons. A major €750m development for Dublin city centre has been given the green light. The development of the so-called Northern Quarter will see the construction of 47 new shops, 175 apartments and a four-star hotel. Dublin City Council gave Arnotts planning permission for the plans to change the area bounded by Henry Street, O'Connell Street, Abbey Street and Liffey Street. Following appeals to An Bord Pleanála, the scale of the development, which was to have included a sixteen-storey tower, was reduced. The redevelopment will also include 14 new cafes along with a 149-bed hotel. Prince's Street, which runs off O'Connell Street, will become a full urban street and pedestrian thoroughfare. Construction, which began in November 2008, led to the loss of 580 retail jobs. It is hoped that the Northern Quarter will open for business in 2013. Since the mid 1990s, suburban Dublin has seen the completion of several modern retail centres. These include Dundrum Town Centre, the largest commercial centre in Europe (on the Luas Green Line), Blanchardstown Centre, The Square in Tallaght (on the Luas Red Line), Liffey Valley Shopping Centre in Clondalkin, Northside Shopping Centre in Coolock, and Pavilions Shopping Centre in Swords. Northside and Southside A north-south division has traditionally existed in Dublin for some time, with the dividing line being the River Liffey. The Northside is traditionally seen by some as working-class (with the exception of a few suburbs) while the Southside is seen as middle and upper middle class (again, with the exception of a few suburbs). One theory explaining this is that since much trade came in by ship on the river Liffey and docked on the North bank, this resulted in dockers and associated labourers making their homes on the Northside while the wealthier merchants and other professionals tended to make their offices and homes on the Southside. A noted theory on the division dates back some centuries, certainly to the point when the Earl of Kildare built his residence on the then less-regarded Southside. When asked why he was building on the Southside, he replied "Where I go, fashion follows me", and he was promptly followed by most other Irish peers. Dublin postal districts have odd numbers for districts on the Northside - for example, Phibsboro is in Dublin 7 - and even numbers for the Southside - for example, Sandymount and Ringsend both have postal code D4(Dublin 4). An exception to the rule is Dublin 8, which straddles the river. Education and research Trinity College, Dublin Dublin is the primary centre of education in Ireland, with three universities and many other higher education institutions. There are 20 third-level institutes in the city. Dublin will be European Capital of Science in 2012. Dublin City Council - 2011 UEFA Cup Final comes to new Dublin stadium The University of Dublin is the oldest university in Ireland dating from the 16th century. Its sole constituent college, Trinity College, was established by Royal Charter in 1592 under Elizabeth I and was closed to Roman Catholics until Catholic Emancipation; the Catholic hierarchy then banned Roman Catholics from attending it until 1970. It is situated in the city centre, on College Green, and has 15,000 students. The National University of Ireland (NUI) has its seat in Dublin, which is also the location of the associated constituent university of University College Dublin (UCD), the largest university in Ireland with over 22,000 students. Dublin City University (DCU) is the most recent university and specialises in business, engineering, and science courses, particularly with relevance to industry. It has around 10,000 students. The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) is a medical school which is a recognised college of the NUI, it is situated at St. Stephen's Green in the city centre. The National University of Ireland, Maynooth, another constituent university of the NUI, is in neighbouring Co. Kildare, about from the city centre. The Irish public administration and management training centre has its base in Dublin, the Institute of Public Administration provides a range of undergraduate and post graduate awards via the National University of Ireland and in some instances, Queen's University Belfast. Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT) is a modern technical college and is the country's largest non-university third-level institution; it specialises in technical subjects but also offers many arts and humanities courses. It is soon to be relocated to a new campus at Grangegorman. Two suburbs of Dublin, Tallaght and Blanchardstown have Institutes of Technology: Institute of Technology, Tallaght, and Institute of Technology, Blanchardstown. Portobello College has its degrees conferred through the University of Wales. Portobello College Dublin The National College of Art and Design (NCAD) and Dun Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology (DLIADT) support training and research in art, design and media technology. Dublin Business School (DBS) is Ireland's largest private third level institution with over 9,000 students. The college is located on Aungier Street. The National College of Ireland (NCI) is also based in Dublin. There are also various other smaller specialised colleges, including private ones, such as Griffith College Dublin, The Gaiety School of Acting and the New Media Technology College The Economic and Social Research Institute, a social science research institute, is based on Sir John Rogerson's Quay, Dublin 2. The Institute of European Affairs is also in Dublin. Population The City of Dublin is the area administered by Dublin City Council, but the term normally refers to the contiguous urban area which includes the adjacent local authority areas of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin. Together the four areas form the traditional County Dublin. This area is sometimes known as 'Urban Dublin' or the 'Dublin Metropolitan Area'. The population of the administrative area controlled by the City Council was 505,739 at the census of 2006. At the same census, the County Dublin population was 1,186,159, and that of the Greater Dublin Area 1,661,185. The city's population is expanding rapidly, and it is estimated by the CSO that it will reach 2.1 million by 2021. Today, approximately 40% of the population of the Republic of Ireland live within a radius of the city centre. Call for improved infrastructure for Dublin 2 April 2007 Demographics Dublin has a long history of emigration that continued into the early 1990s. Since then there has been net immigration and Dublin now has a significant population of immigrants. Foreign nationals in the city are primarily young and single Most new immigrants young and single 15 February 2009 and the greatest numbers come from the European Union, especially the United Kingdom, Poland and Lithuania. There is also a considerable number from outside Europe, particularly China, Nigeria, Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand. 10% of the Republic of Ireland's population is now made up of foreign nationals, and Dublin is home to a greater proportion of new arrivals than other parts of the country - for example, 60% of Ireland's Asian population lives in Dublin even though less than 40% of the overall population live in the Greater Dublin Area. Foreign nationals now 10% of Irish population 26 July 2007 According to the Central Statistics Office, the ethnic breakdown of Dublin City and County at the 2006 census was: Central Statistics Office Ireland data from 2006 census for Ireland Ethnic groupPercentWhite (Irish)83.1%White (Other)8.06%Asian2.63% (0.9% Chinese)Black1.81%Mixed Race and Other1.46%Irish Traveller0.4% Economy and infrastructure Dublin panoramic view from the Guinness Storehouse Industry, employment and standard of living Dublin has been at the centre of Ireland's phenomenal economic growth and subsequent current economic contraction over the last 10–15 years, a period (often of double-digit growth) referred to as the Celtic Tiger years. Living standards in the city have risen dramatically, although the cost of living has also soared In 2008, Dublin was listed as the fifth-richest city in the world. City Mayors - The world's richest cities by purchasing power in 2008 According to one source, Dublin is now the worlds 16th most expensive city (8th most expensive city in Europe, excluding Russian cities). Global/Worldwide Cost of Living Survey Rankings 2007/2008, Cities, International, Europe 2007 It was also listed as the third most expensive city in the world in which to live. City Mayors - The world's most expensive cities in 2008 However, it has the second highest wages for a city in the world, ahead of both New York City and London, though behind Zürich. London is the most expensive city in the world while Swiss cities are home to highest earners Historically, brewing has probably been the industry most often associated with the city: Guinness has been brewed at the St. James's Gate Brewery since 1759. Since the advent of the Celtic Tiger years, however, a large number of global pharmaceutical, information and communications technology companies have located in Dublin and the Greater Dublin Area. For example, Microsoft, Google, Amazon, eBay, PayPal, Yahoo! and Pfizer (among others) now have European headquarters and/or operational bases in the city and its suburbs. Intel and Hewlett-Packard have large manufacturing plants in Leixlip, County Kildare, to the west. Banking, finance and commerce are also important in the city - the IFSC alone handles over €1 trillion a year. Many international firms have established major headquarters in the city (eg. Citibank, Commerzbank). Also located in Dublin is the Irish Stock Exchange (ISEQ), Internet Neutral Exchange (INEX) and Irish Enterprise Exchange (IEX). The economic boom years have led to a sharp increase in construction, which is now also a major employer, though, as of 2007, unemployment is on the rise as the housing market has begun to see supply outstrip demand. Redevelopment is taking place in large projects such as Dublin Docklands, Spencer Dock and others, transforming once run-down industrial areas in the city centre. Dublin City Council seems to now have loosened the former restrictions on "high-rise" structures. The tallest building, Liberty Hall, is only tall; already under construction in the city is Heuston Gate, a building (134 m including spire). The Britain Quay Tower and the Point Village Watchtower have been approved. Construction has started on the latter. Also the U2 Tower will be the tallest building on the Island of Ireland when it is finished. In 2005, around 800,000 people were employed in the Greater Dublin Area, of whom around 600,000 were employed in the services sector and 200,000 in the industrial sector. Dublin is one of the constituent cities in the Dublin-Belfast corridor region which has a population of just under 3 million. Economic growth is expected to slow in the coming years, while the Irish central bank predicted medium-term growth rates of around 3–5% last year. Central Bank predicts less growth Transport Dublin Heuston railway station Dublin is also the main hub of the country's road network. The M50 motorway (the busiest road in Ireland), a semi-ring road runs around the south, west and north of the city, connecting the most important national primary routes in the state that fan out from the capital to the regions. As of 2008, a toll of €2 applies on what is called the West-Link, two adjacent concrete bridges that tower high above the River Liffey near the village of Lucan. The West-Link Toll Bridge was replaced by the eFlow barrier-free tolling system in August 2008, with a three-tiered charge system based on electronic tags and car pre-registration. To complete the ring road, an eastern bypass is also proposed for the city of Dublin. The first half of this project is the Dublin Port Tunnel which opened in late 2006 and mainly caters to heavy vehicles. The plan to build the eastern bypass around Dublin has been effectively shelved by the Department of Transport as there are no funds available for the expected €1 billion project. The capital is also surrounded by an inner and outer orbital route. The inner orbital route runs roughly around the heart of the Georgian city and the outer orbital route runs largely along the natural circle formed by Dublin's two canals, the Grand Canal and the Royal Canal, as well as the North and South Circular Roads. Dublin is served by an extensive network of nearly 200 bus routes which serve all areas of the city and suburbs. The majority of these are controlled by Dublin Bus ( Bus Átha Cliath ) which was established in 1987 , but a number of smaller companies have begun operating in recent years. Dublin Bus had 3408 staff and 1067 buses providing over half a million journeys per weekday in 2004. Fares are generally calculated on a stage system based on distance travelled. There are several different levels of fares, which apply on most services. Certain routes (particularly Xpresso) use a different fare system. The Dublin Suburban Rail network is a system of five rail lines serving mainly commuters in the Greater Dublin Area, though some trains go even further to commuter towns such as Drogheda and Dundalk. One of these is an electrified line that runs along Dublin Bay and is known as the Dublin Area Rapid Transit (DART) line. A two-line light rail/tram network called the Luas opened in 2004 and has proved popular in the (limited) areas it serves, although the lack of a link between the two lines is widely criticised. Five new luas lines are planned, the last of which will be opened in 2014, with the two existing lines set to be joined up by 2012. The typical blue&yellow double Dublin Bus. There are plans to begin building work on the Dublin Metro (subway / underground) system set out in the Irish government's 2005 Transport 21 plan within the next few years. Although not confirmed, it is believed that the metro will be fully segregated from all traffic which will mean it will not disrupt traffic when in operation, unlike an on-street Luas Tram or the DART. The Metro North will bring rail access to areas and institutions currently lacking it, such as the Mater Hospital, Drumcondra (Croke Park, inter-city and suburban rail stop), Dublin City University, Ballymun, Swords and Dublin Airport. The Metro West will serve the large suburbs of Tallaght, Clondalkin and Blanchardstown. Dublin is at the centre of Ireland's transport system. Dublin Port is the country's busiest sea port and Dublin Airport is the busiest airport on the island. Communications and media Dublin is the centre of both media and communications in Ireland, with many newspapers, radio stations, television stations and telephone companies having their headquarters there. Radio Telefís Éireann (RTÉ) is Ireland's national state broadcaster, and has its main offices and studios in Donnybrook, Dublin. Fair City is the broadcaster's capital-based soap, located in the fictional Dublin suburb of Carraigstown. TV3, Channel 6, City Channel and Setanta Sports are also based in Dublin. Dublin is home to national commercial radio networks Today FM and Newstalk, as well as local stations. The main infrastructure and offices of An Post and telecommunications companies, such as the former state telephone company Eircom, as well as mobile/cellular operators Meteor, Vodafone and O2 are all located in the capital. Dublin is also the headquarters of important national newspapers such as The Irish Times and Irish Independent. Government City The Four Courts The City is governed by Dublin City Council (formerly called Dublin Corporation), which is presided over by the Lord Mayor of Dublin, who is elected for a yearly term and resides in the Mansion House. Dublin City Council is based in two major buildings. Council meetings take place in the headquarters at Dublin City Hall, the former Royal Exchange taken over for city government use in the 1850s. Many of its administrative staff are based in the Civic Offices on Wood Quay. The City Council is a unicameral assembly of 52 members, elected every five years from Local Election Areas. The party with the majority of seats (or a coalition of parties who form a majority) decides who sits on what committee, what policies are followed, and who becomes Lord Mayor. Chaired by the Lord Mayor, the Council passes an annual budget for spending on housing, traffic management, refuse, drainage, planning, etc. The Dublin City Manager is responsible for the implementation of decisions of the City Council. The current ruling coalition, after the 2004 local elections, is the Democratic Alliance, made up of Labour, Fine Gael, and the Greens. Fianna Fáil, Sinn Féin, the Progressive Democrats and three non-party councillors act as opposition. The current Lord Mayor is Eibhlin Byrne, who was elected on 30 June 2008. In 2008, the national government announced plans for local government reform, with the biggest change being plans for an elected Mayor of Dublin with executive powers. The plan also includes local plebiscites, petition rights, participatory budgeting and city meetings. RTÉ News - Elected mayors in plans for local govt National The national parliament of Ireland, the Oireachtas, consists of the President of Ireland and two houses, Dáil Éireann (Chamber of Deputies) and Seanad Éireann (Senate). All three are based in Dublin. The President of Ireland lives in Áras an Uachtaráin, the former residence of the Governor-General of the Irish Free State in the city's largest park, Phoenix Park. Both houses of the Oireachtas meet in Leinster House, a former ducal palace on the south side. The building has been the home of Irish parliaments since the creation of the Irish Free State on 6 December 1922. Government BuildingsFormerly the Royal College of Science. The Government Buildings houses the Department of the Taoiseach, the Council Chamber (used for the weekly Cabinet meetings), the Department of Finance and the Office of the Attorney General. It consists of a main building (completed 1911) with two wings (completed 1921) and was designed by Thomas Manley Dean and Sir Aston Webb as the Royal College of Science. In 1921 the House of Commons of Southern Ireland met here. Given its location next to Leinster House, the Irish Free State government took over the two wings of the building to serve as a temporary home for some ministries, while the central building became the College of Technology (part of UCD) until 1989. Department of the Taoiseach: Guide to Government Buildings (2005) Both it and Leinster House, meant to be a temporary home of parliament, became permanent homes. The old Irish Houses of Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland are in College Green. Climate Dublin enjoys a maritime temperate climate characterised by mild winters, cool summers, and a lack of temperature extremes with moderate rainfall. However, contrary to popular belief, Dublin does not experience as high rainfall as the west of Ireland, which receives over twice that of the capital city. Dublin has fewer rainy days, on average, than London. The average maximum January temperature is 8 °C, the average maximum July temperature is 19 °C. The sunniest months, on average, are May and June. The wettest months, on average, is December with 76 mm of rain. The driest month is February, with 50 mm. The total average annual rainfall (and other forms of precipitation) is 732.7 mm, lower than Sydney, New York City and even Dallas. Due to Dublin's northerly latitude, it experiences long summer days, around 17 hours of daylight between official sunrise and sunset times for the longest day of the year in June and short winter days, as short as 7 and a half hours between official sunrise and sunset times for the shortest day of the year in December. These are lengthened slightly when you take Dawn and Dusk into consideration. In summer, Dawn can come as early as 04:00 before the official sunrise time of 04:56 on the longest day of the year. Dusk is lengthened also, sometimes up to 23:00 after the sun has set just before 22:00 on the longest day of the year. This is due to the fact that the sun always sets in the west and for Ireland, this is the Atlantic Ocean. Generally, areas which lie at the edge of time zones on coastal positions have a longer dawn and dusk than those at the centre and which share land borders. Like the rest of Ireland it is relatively safe from common natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis. Strong winds from Atlantic storm systems ("windstorms") can affect Dublin, though usually less severe than other parts of Ireland. Severe winds are most likely during mid-winter, but can occur anytime, especially between October and February. During one of the stormiest periods of recent times, a gust of was recorded at Casement Aerodrome on 24 December 1997. The city is not noted for its temperature extremes due to its mild climate. Typically, the coldest months are December, January and February. Temperatures in summer in recent years have been rising to substantially above average figures, e.g. 31 °C in July 2006, over 12 °C higher than the average maximum. Recent heat waves include the European heat wave of 2003 and European heat wave of 2006. The main precipitation in winter is rain. The city can experience some snow showers during the months from October to May, but lying snow is uncommon (on average, only 4.5 days). Hail occurs more often than snow (on average, around 9.5 days), and is most likely during the winter and spring months. Another rare type of weather is thunder and lightning, most common in late summer - though still only averages 4.1 days per year. Sister cities Dublin has the following sister cities Dublin City Council website - Facts about Dublin - Twinned cities : Barcelona, Spain (1998) http://w3.bcn.es/XMLServeis/XMLHomeLinkPl/0,4022,229724149_257345983_1,00.html Liverpool, England, United Kingdom (1997) http://www.liverpool.gov.uk/Community_and_living/Twinning/index.asp San Jose, California, United States of America (1986) http://www.sjeconomy.com/sistercities/dublin.asp See also Dublin English List of Dublin people List of European metropolitan areas by GRP References Further reading John Flynn and Jerry Kelleher, Dublin Journeys in America (High Table Publishing, 2003) ISBN 0-9544694-1-0 Hanne Hem, Dubliners, An Anthropologist's Account, Oslo, 1994 Pat Liddy, Dublin A Celebration - From the 1st to the 21st century (Dublin City Council, 2000) ISBN 0-946841-50-0 Maurice Craig, The Architecture of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1880 (Batsford, Paperback edition 1989) ISBN 0-7134-2587-3 Frank McDonald, Saving the City: How to Halt the Destruction of Dublin (Tomar Publishing, 1989) ISBN 1-871793-03-3 Edward McParland, Public Architecture in Ireland 1680–1760'' (Yale University Press, 2001) ISBN 0-300-09064-1 External links Dublin City Council - Official website of the local authority for Dublin Dublin Tourist Board - Official tourism site Dublin Transportation Office - City transport guides be-x-old:Дублін

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World_of_A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire

Westeros is one of the three continents described in George R. R. Martin's fantasy series A Song of Ice and Fire. It is loosely based on medieval Europe. World Geography The continent of Westeros with castles and towns marked. The story of A Song of Ice and Fire takes place mainly on the continent of Westeros. It is roughly equivalent in area to South America. The Citadel: So Spake Martin - February 1999 However, there is a large amount of land to the far north that remains unmapped, due to the extremely cold temperatures and hostile inhabitants known as wildlings. The northern lands of Westeros are less densely populated than the south despite its roughly equivalent size. The five major cities of Westeros are, in order of size: King's Landing, Oldtown, Lannisport, Gulltown, and White Harbour. Two other continents share the world in which Westeros resides. The vast continent of Essos lies to the east, across the narrow sea. The closest foreign nations to Westeros are the Free Cities, a collection of independent city-states along the western edge of this eastern continent. The lands along the southern coastline of the eastern continent, collectively called the Lands of the Summer Sea, include Ghis and the ruins of Valyria, the former home of Westeros's Targaryen kings. To the south of Westeros lies the continent of Sothoryos. Little is known about the continent save that it is inhabited by dark-skinned people and is "jungly, plague-ridden and largely unexplored". User mail #202. Verbatim citation by GRRM. Regions of Westeros Westeros was originally divided into several independent kingdoms before the consolidation of the War of Conquest. After this war the different regions were united under the rule of House Targaryen in what is known as the Seven Kingdoms. After it was conquered, House Targaryen divided it into four principal regions -- North, South, East, and West, and named one of its bannermen as the Wardens and Lord Protectors of each region. As of the beginning of the series, House Lannister is the Warden of the West, House Stark is the Warden of the North, House Tyrell holds the south and House Arryn holds the East. The North The North is the area north of The Neck, and has been ruled by House Stark from Winterfell, first as Kings of the North and later under Aegon, for thousands of years. It is colder and much less populated than the South. Most of its residents still follow the Old Gods, but some, mainly around the area of White Harbor, have taken the faith of the Seven. Its northern border is the Wall, home of the Night's Watch. The North is separated from the South by the Neck, an isthmus of swampland. The Neck is home to small, marsh-dwelling crannogmen and ruled by House Reed, bannermen of Winterfell. The narrowness of the region and the difficulty of the terrain make it a natural border for the North, protecting it from invasion. Bastards born in the North are given the surname Snow. The Iron Islands The Iron Islands are a group of seven islands in Ironman's Bay, which are Pyke, Great Wyk, Old Wyk, Harlaw, Saltcliffe, Blacktyde and Orkmont lying off the western coast of the continent. The inhabitants of these harsh isles are known as Ironmen in the rest of Westeros, 'The Ironborn' amongst themselves. They are ruled by House Greyjoy of Pyke, chosen to rule the Ironmen after Black Harren's line was extinguished during the Conquest. Prior to the arrival of Aegon the Conqueror, the Ironmen ruled over the Riverlands and much of the western coast of Westeros. The Ironmen are men of the sea, and their naval supremacy was once unmatched. After the Andals invaded the Iron Islands they intermarried with the native population. Their descendents stopped worshipping the Andal religion of The Seven in favour of the worship of the Drowned God. Bastards born in the Iron Islands are given the surname Pyke. The Riverlands The Riverlands are the fertile areas between the forks of the Trident. They are the domain of the Tullys of Riverrun.The Riverlands have had a turbulent history after the fall of the old Riverkings at the hands of the other southern kingdoms being ruled by one of them at one time or another. At the time of the conquest the Riverlands were ruled by House Hoare of the Iron Islands, and thus the Tullys were never kings of the Riverlands, but were rebel riverlords who left Harren the Black in favor of Aegon the Conqueror. Bastards born in the Riverlands are given the surname Rivers. The Vale of Arryn The Vale is the area surrounded almost completely by the Mountains of the Moon. The Vale is under the rulership of House Arryn, one of the oldest lines of Andal nobility and, before Aegon's conquest, Kings of Mountain and Vale. Their seat, the Eyrie, is a castle high in the mountains, small but unassailable. The only way to the top is a treacherous goat path. Due to the Vale's harsh winters, travel is only possible through the mountains in summer. Rebellious mountain clans make travel even more dangerous. Notable Houses of this region include Hunter, Corbray, Redfort, and Royce. Bastards born in the Vale are given the surname Stone. The Westerlands The Westerlands are the lands to the west of the Riverlands and north of the Reach. They are ruled by House Lannister of Casterly Rock, formerly Kings of the Rock. People of this region are often called 'Westermen'. Lannisport, lying hard by Casterly Rock, is the chief town of the region and one of the great ports and cities of Westeros.The Westerlands are rich in precious metals, which is the source of their wealth. Bastards born in the Westerlands are given the surname Hill. The Reach The Reach is the fertile ground ruled by House Tyrell from Highgarden. The Tyrells were stewards to House Gardener, the Kings of the Reach before Aegon's conquest. After the last Gardener King was killed on the Field of Fire, the Tyrells surrendered Highgarden to Aegon and were rewarded with both the castle and the position of overlords of the Reach. Bannermen of the Tyrells frequently fight with the Dornishmen of the south. The borderlands between the two regions, called the Dornish Marches, are populated on the north side by marcher lords loyal to the Tyrells. The most prominent city in the Reach is Oldtown. It is the oldest city in Westeros, home to the Maester's Citadel, and the previous seat of the Faith. Bastards born in the Reach are given the surname Flowers. The Stormlands The Stormlands are the areas between King's Landing and the Sea of Dorne. In the east they are bordered by Shipbreaker Bay and the Dornish Sea to the south. Before Aegon's conquest they were ruled by the Storm Kings, and afterwards by Baratheons, bastard relatives to the Targaryens. The Dornish Marches are located within this region, having been conquered by the Storm Kings, and are ruled by house Caron and lesser marcher lords. The marches were common battlegrounds between the Stormlands, the Reach and Dorne until the last century, when Dorne joined the Seven Kingdoms. Bastards born in the Stormlands are given the surname Storm. Dorne Dorne is the southernmost land of Westeros. It stretches from the high mountains of the Dornish marches to the southern coast of the continent. It is the hottest kingdom in Westeros and features the only desert on the continent. Dornishmen have a reputation for hot-bloodedness as well. They differ both culturally and ethnically from other Westerosi due to the historical mass immigration of Rhoynish people. Their food, appearance, and architecture resemble those of Mediterranean cultures such as Greece and Turkey more than the Western European feel of the other kingdoms. They have adopted many Rhoynish customs as well, including equal primogeniture. Dorne was the only kingdom in Westeros to successfully resist Aegon's conquest. It joined the Seven Kingdoms through marriage over a century after the Targaryen invasion. This accomplishment has allowed Dorne to retain a small measure of independence. Lords of the ruling House Martell still style themselves "Prince" and "Princess" in the Rhoynish fashion. Bastards born in Dorne are given the surname Sand. The Crownlands The Crownlands are lands ruled directly by the crown on the Iron Throne. These lands include King's Landing and the surrounding areas including the towns of Rosby and Duskendale. They are south of the Vale, southeast of the Riverlands, east of the Westlands, and north of the Reach and Stormlands. The Crownlands overlook Blackwater Bay and contains the largest city in Westeros which is Kings Landing. Bastards born in the Crownlands are given the surname Waters. Dragonstone is an island fortress located in the Narrow Sea. It rules a few other islands in the Narrow Sea which are The Driftmark and Claw Isle, it also controls the fortress of Sharp Point which is located on the mainland. These Islands where originally annexed by the Valyrian Freehold and ruled by a Valyrian noblehouse House Targaryen. After Aegons conquest it became a princedom for the Dragon Princes who were heirs to the Iron Throne and indirectly part of the Crownlands. After the War of the Usurper it became the seat of Stannis Baratheon. Seasons Westeros is at the mercy of erratic seasons that may last for many years, but whose duration is unpredictable. At the beginning of A Song of Ice and Fire the continent has enjoyed a decade-long summer, and many fear that an equally long and harsh winter will follow. It is unclear to which degree the eastern continent is subject to the same conditions. George R. R. Martin explicitly and more than once stated that the explanation of the Planet's climate will be revealed at the end of the series, so he cannot disclose any further details on the issue before that point. He also stated that the explanation will be magical in nature and will not involve any sci-fi elements.. 209 AL - Spring 209 AL – Great Spring Sickness 211 AL - Summer 254 AL – Winter 281 AL – the Year of the False Spring 288–298 AL – the long summer Biology and Anthropology Sentient species Humans - appear to be mostly equivalent to humans on Earth. Some noticeable differences include the propensity for families in noble houses to share a common trait; for example, the Lannisters appear to have all been blondes for thousands of years, although this could be a result of genetic inbreeding. Also, humans in Westeros are often larger than would be expected from a roughly medieval civilization. Many men are over six feet tall, and abnormally large men frequently approach and exceed seven feet. Some bloodlines of humans are known for having unusual physical traits. Targaryens often have platinum hair and violet eyes, while descendants of the Ghiscari often have both red and black hair. Natives of Westeros have predominantly European features, with regional variations. Natives of the Summer Islands and the continent of Sothoryos The Citadel: So Spake Martin - Geographical Information have predominantly African features. Natives of other areas have a variety of features from many real-world populations. Giants - huge, shaggy humanoids of slightly below human intelligence, vaguely resembling bipedal apes. Giants are a dwindling species found only in the lands to the extreme north, beyond the Wall. They ride mammoths into battle, wielding crude clubs that are little more than logs. They speak the language of the First Men, but at least some can understand common Westerosi speech. Children of the Forest - the original inhabitants of Westeros are frequently mentioned, but have not been seen in thousands of years. They are thought to be diminutive humanoid creatures; dark and beautiful, with mysterious powers over dreams and nature. They are said to have used obsidian weapons and weirbows in battle. Little of their legacy exists at present beyond their worship of nameless nature gods still practiced by some in the North, and the remaining Weirwoods. George R. R. Martin has stressed repeatedly that they are not elves. He said of the matter: "The children are... well, children. Elves have been done to death." http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/Month/2008/04/ Others - a mysterious and malevolent race of creatures found beyond the Wall. They have only been seen at night, and are always accompanied by intense cold. The Others appear as tall, gaunt humanoids with glowing blue eyes. They wear armor that shifts in color with every step, and wield thin crystal swords with blades so cold they can shatter iron. Others move silently, but their voices sound like cracking ice. It is hinted that they have their own language. Creatures they kill soon reanimate as wights: undead zombies with similarly glowing eyes. However, the Others exhibit a weakness to weapons made of obsidian (also known as dragonglass), which can pierce their armor easily. In death, they seem to melt into a pool of extremely cold liquid. Wights do not exhibit the same weakness to obsidian, but are vulnerable to fire. The origin of the Others, as well as the motive for their actions, remains unclear. Animals Some species of animals inhabiting the planet are very similar to Pleistocene megafauna of Earth. Aurochs - large relatives of the bull. They are frequently used as a symbol of size, strength, and stupidity. An aurochs was used as a mount by the mythical Clarence Crabb as a display of his prowess. Direwolves - relatives of the wolf, but unlike their real-world equivalent they are much larger and stronger than regular wolves, reaching the size of a pony when fully grown. They are almost never seen south of the Wall. Lizard-Lions - massive, swamp-dwelling reptiles found in the Neck, these creatures are most likely large crocodilians. Mammoths - inhabitants of the far north and apparently the only pachyderm in Westeros other than the elephants mentioned in a book describing the Dornish Wars. They are used as mounts by Giants. Other animals appear to be altered versions of contemporary animals or have no real-world equivalent. Krakens - huge squids said to be able to pull down whaling ships. Manticores - small creatures that look like scarabs when folded up. Their faces are malign and vaguely human. They have a poisonous sting that is fatal to humans. Manticores are probably from across the narrow sea. Ravens - physically similar to common ravens of Earth, ravens in Westeros are used to carry messages between castles. The maester of each castle usually tends to its stock of ravens. The Citadel raises a breed of large, white ravens that are said to be more intelligent. Ravens sometimes imitate human speech. Shadowcats - large predatory cats with black fur and white stripes who seem to be native to mountainous regions. Their pelts are prized. Zorses - Black and white-striped horses, most likely similar to zebras, brought over and used as mounts by some foreigners in Westeros. (Note: "Zorse" is the name used for zebra-horse crossbreeds in real life. They are sterile, like mules.) Dragons Dragons lived once all over the world but had become extinct in Westeros before they were brought back during Aegon's Conquest by the Targaryens from Valyria via Dragonstone, and raised in captivity. Dragons are scaled, reptilian creatures with animal-level intelligence. They have leathery wings for forelegs, like bats, though some accompanying artwork for A Song of Ice and Fire portrays them with four legs and a detached set of wings. They have long necks and tails, with spiny crests running down their backs. Great heat emanates from their bodies, to the point that they steam during cold nights. They breathe extremely hot fire and cook their meat before eating it. Dragons have no gender differentiation, but lay large, scaled eggs to reproduce. They grow throughout their lives, and the limits of their size and age are unknown. The largest and oldest Targaryen dragon, Balerion, lived about 300 years and could swallow an aurochs whole, but dragons raised in captivity at the Targaryen's Dragonpit are thought to be smaller than their wild brethren. In Feast for Crows, it is revealed that keeping a dragon in captivity limits its size. Archmaester Marwyn suggests that maesters of the citadel used false counsel to gradually kill off the dragons. By the beginning of A Song of Ice and Fire, dragons had been extinct from Westeros, and possibly the world, for over 100 years. It is thought that magic faded and winters grew colder while they were gone. History See also: Wars in A Song of Ice and Fire The rough timeline here is given in relation to Aegon's Landing, using negative numbers for events before Aegon's Landing. Dawn Age (before -12,000) In the Dawn Age, Westeros is inhabited by the fairy-like Children of the Forest, and possibly by Giants in the far North. ca. -12,000 The First Men come to Westeros from the eastern continent, via a land bridge then connecting the two land masses. The First Men introduce bronze, leather shields, and horses. After initial fights, which include the destruction of the land bridge, they reconcile with the Children and sign the Pact on the Isle of Faces, which brings about a four thousand year peace in Westeros. The First Men adopt the gods of the Children, the nameless gods of the forest. The fortress of Moat Cailin is built circa 10,000 years ago. The Long Night (Age of Heroes, ca. -8000) At the time of a terrible winter that seems to last for a generation, a demonic race called the Others invade from the north and nearly destroy all men in Westeros. The Others are finally defeated at the War for the Dawn by an alliance of men wielding fire and obsidian weapons led by a great hero, who in an eastern tradition is named 'Azor Ahai', and wields a great sword of fire, Lightbringer. This is the time when the Wall is built, a giant fortification in the north of the continent protecting the races of men from the menaces of the north. The Sworn Brotherhood of the Night's Watch is created to man and guard it. According to other legends, this is also the time when the castle of Storm's End is built in the south, and the designer of the Wall, Bran the Builder, also constructs Winterfell and becomes the first King in the North. After ca. -8,000 The thirteenth Lord Commander of the Night's Watch is seduced by a wildling woman from beyond the Wall and becomes the Night's King, with the Watch as his personal army. The Starks in Winterfell and the King-beyond-the-Wall, Joramun, join forces to defeat the Night's King and restore honour to the Watch. This may be the same Joramun who also finds the Horn of Winter, which it is said he uses to awaken giants from the earth. ca. -6,000 Seven holy beings appear in the Hills of Andalos on the eastern continent, apparently avatars of a supreme god. The people of the hills become their worshippers. The Andals, as they become known, invade Westeros with steel weapons and the new religion of the Faith of the Seven. They fight both the First Men and the Children of the Forest, finally extinguishing the latter everywhere south of the Wall. After centuries of fighting, the Andals establish six kingdoms in the south, while the north remains in the hands of the First Men, due in large part to the strategically located fortress of Moat Cailin resisting multiple attempts to take it and thereafter serving as the door between North and South. ca. -5,000 The shepherds of the lands of Valyria on the eastern continent discover dragons lairing in the Fourteen Fires, a great ring of volcanoes across the neck of the Valyrian Peninsula. They tame the dragons and use them to forge a great empire, throwing down the eastern rival of Ghis in warfare five times before it finally capitulates. The Valyrian Freehold is forged. ca. -1,700 A warrior of Dorne forges a great and powerful sword from a fallen meteorite. The sword, Dawn, becomes the greatest heirloom of House Dayne. The castle of Starfall is named for this occasion. ca. -1,100 Four Valyrian candles are brought to the Citadel in Oldtown. ca. -700 The Valyrian Freehold's slow westward expansion brings it to the lands watered by the great River Rhoyne, a vast waterway near the west coast of the eastern landmass. They destroy the city of Arnar when it refuses to surrender. Nymeria, warrior-queen of the Rhoynar city-states, evacuates her people in ten thousand ships that cross the Narrow Sea and land in Dorne. Winning an alliance with Lord Mors Martell, the Rhoynar unify the fractious land under the rule of Sunspear and establish House Martell as the ruling house of Dorne. Mors adopts the Rhoynish title 'Prince' rather than 'King'. The Rhoynar bring no greater political turmoil, though the southernmost kingdoms are heavily influenced by their customs, including equal primogeniture. ca. -500 The Valyrian Freehold conquers much of what is now the area of the southern Free Cities. A religious sect, the Moonsingers, lead many thousands of refugees north to a remote northern lagoon protected by encircling mountains and mists, and there found the Secret City of Braavos. They later build the Titan of Braavos, a great statue which also serves as defensive fortification. ca. -300 The Quill and Tankard tavern opens in Oldtown. ca. -200 The Valyrian Freehold annexes the island of Dragonstone in the narrow sea between the western cities and Westeros. A Valyrian noble family, the Targaryens, take control of the island. ca. -100 The Doom of Valyria takes place. The nature of the Doom is unclear, save that heavy volcanic activity is involved. The Valyrian Peninsula is shattered and the city of Valyria is laid waste, although not completely destroyed. The dragons of Valyria are virtually wiped out. The Valyrian Freehold fractures apart. The western coastal cities become independent, naming themselves the Free Cities. Braavos reveals itself to the other cities, eventually becoming the most powerful of them through their vast fleet and economic power. The cities of Slaver's Bay become independent again, although Ghiscari power begins building again in the south. The warrior-nomads of the vast eastern plains become more emboldened by the fall of Valyria and their dominant tribe, the Dothraki, begins raiding the surrounding lands. The Targaryens remain safe on Dragonstone, the guardians of possibly the last three dragons in the western world. 1 After the Landing - The War of Conquest Two centuries after the Doom of Valyria, Aegon Targaryen invades, subdues, and unites the majority of Westeros under his banner and constructs a new capital city at King's Landing. He is unable to conquer Dorne and allows it to remain sovereign. With the destruction of the Storm King, Argilac the Arrogant, and the death of the last King of the Reach, control of the castle of Storm's End passes to Aegon's bastard half-brother Orys Baratheon, and of Highgarden to Lord Harlen Tyrell. Edmyn Tully of Riverrun is named Lord of the Riverlands and Vickon Greyjoy of Pyke becomes Lord of the Iron Islands. 37 On Aegon's death, the Faith of the Seven revolts against the Targaryens. King Aenys assigns his brother and heir, Maegor, to deal with the crisis. 48 Death of King Maegor, the Cruel. King Jaehaerys ends the rebellion through diplomacy, promising amnesty if the Faith Militant disbands. They agree. Jaehaerys becomes known as 'The Conciliator'. 129-131 The Dance of Dragons, the first major Westerosi civil war, between Aegon II Targaryen and his half-sister Rhaenyra Targaryen for control of the Iron Throne. Many lesser branches of House Targaryen and most of their dragons are extinguished in the conflict. After Rhaenyra's death, the war continues in the name of her son, Aegon III. When Aegon II dies without issue, the war ends by default with Aegon III being crowned. The last Targaryen dragon dies during Aegon III's reign, earning him the name 'Dragonbane'. The dragon leaves behind three stone eggs, which the Targaryens fail to hatch. 157-161 The reign of King Daeron I, the Boy King, who conquers Dorne, but is unable to hold it. Forty thousand die during the war. Daeron's brother, King Baelor, makes his peace with Dorne by walking the Boneway barefoot and rescuing his cousin Aemon the Dragonknight from a viper pit. 161-171 The reign of Baelor the Blessed, septon and king. Baelor builds the Great Sept in King's Landing, which afterwards is called the Great Sept of Baelor. Baelor locks his sisters in the Maidenvault of the Red Keep so the sight of them will not tempt him to carnal thoughts. Despite this, his sister Daena the Defiant has an affair with her cousin Aegon (later Aegon IV) and gives birth to a bastard son, Daemon Blackfyre. ca. 170 Prince Daeron, second cousin of King Baelor, and Princess Myriah Martell of Dorne are married and have their first son, Prince Baelor. 172-184 Reign of Aegon IV Targaryen, the Unworthy. On his deathbed Aegon IV legitimises his 'Great Bastards': Daemon Blackfyre, Aegor 'Bittersteel' Rivers, Brynden 'Bloodraven' Rivers and Shiera Seastar. He is succeeded by his son, King Daeron II, but his legitimacy is called into question due to his mother's close relationship with Aemon the Dragonknight. 195-196 The Blackfyre Rebellion is fought, which ends at the Battle of Redgrass Field. Daemon Blackfyre is killed by Bloodraven, but several of his sons escape to the Free Cities with Bittersteel. 197 Dorne formally joins the Seven Kingdoms through the marriage of Daeron II's sister to Prince Moran Martell. ca. 200 Raymun Redbeard, the King-beyond-the-Wall, invades the North thanks to the lax behaviour of the Night's Watch, whose Lord Commander is later nicknamed Sleepy Jack for his failure. Lord Willam Stark of Winterfell and Lord Harmond Umber, the Drunken Giant, catch the wildlings between their forces on the shores of the Long Lake and destroy them. Lord Willam is killed and is succeeded by his brother, Artos the Implacable. 209 The events of The Hedge Knight take place. Prince Baelor 'Breakspear' Targaryen, the heir to the throne, is killed in a tourney mishap. A few months later, King Daeron II and Baelor's two sons die in the Great Spring Sickness. Daeron II's second son, Aerys I, becomes king. Prince Baelor's nephew Aegon becomes squire to a hedge knight, Ser Duncan the Tall, in the hope of improving his mettle. ca. 211 The events of The Sworn Sword take place. House Webber and House Osgrey of the Reach become allies. Bloodraven has become the King's Hand by this time, angering Prince Maekar, brother to Aerys and the late Baelor. 221-233 The reign of King Maekar after Aerys dies with no issue. During Maekar's reign his eldest son Daeron dies of the pox and his second son Aerion 'Brightflame' dies after drinking wildfire. His third son, Aemon, journeys to Oldtown to become a maester. Maekar dies battling an outlaw king. Aemon refuses the crown and removes himself to the Wall. Prince Aegon becomes Aegon V, the Unlikely as he is the fourth son of a fourth son. Bloodraven is exiled to the Wall, later becoming Lord Commander. ca. 255-260 The War of the Ninepenny Kings erupts when the Band of Nine, including Maelys Blackfyre, conquers the Free City of Tyrosh and the Stepstones before plotting an attack on the Seven Kingdoms. Ser Barristan Selmy kills Maelys. Ser Brynden Tully distinguishes himself in the war. 259-262 The Tragedy of Summerhall. The Targaryen summer palace burns down. King Aegon V and others are killed. Prince Rhaegar Targaryen is born to Aegon's grandson Prince Aerys and his sister-wife Rhaella. Jaehaerys II succeeds Aegon but dies only a few years later. Aerys II becomes king, naming the young Tywin Lannister as his Hand. ca. 270-280 King Aerys spurns Tywin Lannister's offer of his daughter Cersei for Prince Rhaegar, instead marrying Rhaegar to Princess Elia Martell of Dorne. The Defiance of Duskendale takes place when House Darklyn refuses to pay taxes to the Iron Throne. Aerys, eager to sort out the situation himself, ends up being taken prisoner. Duskendale is besieged for six months before Ser Barristan Selmy manages to free the king. House Darklyn is destroyed and House Rykker takes over the town. It is said that it was the Defiance that began Aerys' descent into madness. Around this time Prince Rhaegar begins corresponding with Aemon Targaryen, maester of Castle Black, and ponders if he is 'The Prince Who Was Promised', who shall be reborn to fight the great darkness when it returns. Later they conclude the prince is actually Rhaegar's baby son, Aegon. 281 The Year of False Spring. Defeat of the Kingswood Brotherhood by a number of knights commanded by a detachment of the Kingsguard. Arthur Dayne kills the leader of the Brotherhood. Jaime Lannister distinguishes himself in the battle and is knighted. Lord Whent holds a great tourney at Harrenhal, where Prince Rhaegar Targaryen distinguishes himself in battle, but names Lyanna Stark of Winterfell (betrothed to Robert Baratheon) Queen of Love and Beauty rather than his own wife. Eddard Stark meets and befriends Howland Reed of Greywater Watch. Jaime becomes a member of the Kingsguard and is disinherited from being his father's heir. Tywin Lannister resigns the Handship in angry protest and returns to Casterly Rock. 282-283 - The War of the Usurper Rhaegar Targaryen abducts Lyanna Stark from King's Landing. Lyanna's brother, Brandon Stark, and her father demand that Aerys discipline his son, but instead the Mad King kills them both. Eddard Stark, Robert Baratheon and their mentor, Jon Arryn, raise the standard of rebellion. Robert claims the throne through his descent from his great-grandfather, Aegon V Targaryen. The War of the Usurper, also called Robert's Rebellion, begins. Hoster Tully agrees to join the rebellion as well. The Tyrells remain loyal to the king and besiege Robert's castle of Storm's End, held by his brother Stannis. The Hand of the King, Jon Connington of Griffon's Roost, is defeated in the Battle of the Bells and is sent into exile in the Free Cities. The rebel army defeats the royalists at the Battle of the Trident. Prince Rhaegar is killed. The Lannisters apparently march to the aid of King Aerys, but instead turn against him and sack the city. King Aerys is killed by Jaime Lannister. Princess Elia Martell and her children, Aegon and Rhaenys Targaryen, are brutally murdered by Lannister bannermen, causing a rift between Eddard Stark and Robert Baratheon. Ned Stark and Howland Reed defeat the Kingsguard holding Lyanna prisoner, only to find her dying. Ned and Robert are reconciled. Robert becomes King of Westeros, marrying Cersei Lannister. Ned returns home to Winterfell with his bastard son, Jon Snow. Loyal Targaryen retainers carry Aerys' two youngest children, Prince Viserys and Princess Daenerys, to safety in the Free Cities. 289 The Greyjoy Rebellion. Balon Greyjoy names himself King of the Iron Islands. He is defeated and two of his sons are killed. King Robert accepts his surrender and Balon's remaining son, Theon, becomes a ward and hostage of Eddard Stark. 298 The events of A Song of Ice and Fire begin. The first four novels span a period of two years or more, concluding in the year 300 AL. Faiths The Old Gods The worship of numerous and nameless nature spirits was brought to the First Men by the Children of the Forest. After the introduction of the Andals' Seven to Westeros, the spirits were dubbed the Old Gods and the practice of their worship became limited to the North. The religion of the Old Gods has no organization, clergy, evangelical movements, or holy texts, but some traditions are passed down by their followers. Various actions, such as incest and kinslaying, are considered offensive to the gods. Weirwood trees with faces carved into them, called heart trees, are considered sacred. Prayer, oaths, and marriages are often performed in the presence of a heart tree. The faces were carved into the weirwoods by the Children of the Forest, but their meaning or purpose is not completely understood to humans. Once all noble houses had a godswood with a heart tree in its center, but many families that no longer follow the Old Gods converted their godswoods into secular gardens. The Seven The Seven is/are a septune god, a single deity with the following seven aspects: Father, Warrior, Smith, Mother, Maiden, Crone and Stranger. The religion is often simply called "The Faith." It includes a book of scripture called The Seven-Pointed Star. Adherents of the Faith use seven-pointed stars, crystal prisms, rainbows, and the number seven to represent the deity, and rites of worship heavily involve the use of light and crystals. The Andals brought the Seven with them into Westeros, and through their conquest it became the dominant religion of the continent. The Faith of the Seven has a highly organized church structure that is strongly integrated into the government and culture of Westeros. It is headed by the High Septon, a figure of papal authority, and a council of yet-undetermined size comprising the "Most Devout", which seems to be a vague analogue of the College of Cardinals, by whom a High Septon is elected. A High Septon abandons his name when elected. The places of worship of the Seven are called "septs", and every sept houses representational art portraying each of the seven aspects. In rural septs, they may simply be carved masks or simple charcoal drawings on a wall, while in wealthy septs, they are embodied by statues inlaid with precious metals and stones. The High Septon and the Most Devout are situated in the Great Sept of Baelor in King's Landing, a vast building of white marble with seven crystal towers, which serves as the seat of the Faith. Prior to being headquartered in King's Landing, before the advent of the Targaryens, the seat of the Faith was the ornate Starry Sept in Oldtown, constructed in black marble with stained glass windows set in pointed arches. Male clergy of the Faith are called "septons" and female clergy called "septas", and there are various orders of devotion amongst them, each concentrating their devotion on one aspect of the Seven. For example, there are septons sworn to the Smith, and they wear small metal hammers on a thong around their necks. Monastic orders of septons can live in 'septries' (plural of 'septry'), self sustaining enclaves of sworn brothers who are called "Brown Brothers." Septons without a sept wander the countryside ministering to the smallfolk in exchange for food and shelter. They are sometimes disparaged as "begging brothers", and they wear a small metal bowl around their necks. The Silent Sisters, a special order of women with vows of chastity and silence, serve the Stranger, commonly understood to represent Death. Among their duties are handling the dead and preparing corpses for funerals and burials. There are convents of septas called 'motherhouses,' including a large one in Oldtown. There are orders of septas, called white, grey or blue septas, but it is unrevealed to which aspect of the deity each of them is devoted. Septas often serve as governesses in the households of the high nobility. A trial of a woman conducted by the Faith will have septas sitting among the seven judges. High ranking septas are counted as members of the "Most Devout", revealing that they have a voice in the selection of a High Septon, but it is unknown if a septa can be raised as High Septon. The Silent Sisters are not regarded as septas. Militant orders of the Faith have also existed at times in its history, the Warriors Sons, a knightly order composed of the noble classes, and the Poor Fellows, drawn from the common folk. They are known as the "Swords" and "Stars" respectively, and were brutally repressed by Maegor the Cruel. Believers in the Faith pray to specific aspects of the Seven for help and guidance depending on their circumstances: to the Warrior for courage and skill in battle, to the Father for justice, to the Mother for mercy, to the Smith for making whole what is broken, to the Crone for wisdom, to the Maid for innocence and pleasure in life, and to the Stranger for death. Candles are lit before the altars symbolizing each of the seven aspects, and hymns are often sung. Weddings are conducted standing between the altars of the Father and the Mother. Grandiose rites of worship contain choirs comprising seventy-seven septas. During trials by combat, the Seven are expected to intervene on the side of the just combatant. In order to become a knight, a squire must spend a nightlong vigil in a sept and become anointed in the name of the Seven; for this reason, there are few knights in areas where the Faith is not kept (the North, for instance). The Drowned God Worshipped solely by the Ironmen in Westeros, the Drowned God's domain is the sea. The religion of the Drowned God is old, dating back to before the Andal invasion. The Andal invaders of the Iron Islands converted to the local religion rather than supplant it with the Seven as they did in the South. The Drowned God religion supports the Ironmen's naval, Viking-like culture. They believe that the Drowned God created them to rape, reave, and carve out kingdoms. The Drowned God himself is believed to have brought flame from the sea and sailed the world with fire and sword. The eternal enemy of the Drowned God is called the Storm God. Drowning and resurrection feature prominently in the prayers and rituals of the Drowned God religion. Drowning is the traditional method of execution for the Ironmen, but it is also considered a holy act, and the most faithful have no fear of it. Newborn are "drowned" shortly after birth, being submerged into or anointed with saltwater. Clergymen, called Drowned Men, are drowned a second time in earnest and brought back to life with a crude form of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Drowned Men wear roughspun robes of mottled green, grey, and blue. They carry driftwood cudgels to use in battle, and skins of saltwater to perform ritual anointments. A common prayer is, "What is dead can never die, but rises again, harder and stronger." Mother Rhoyne In Dorne, the orphans of the Greenblood continue to worship their Rhoynish gods from across the narrow sea. Their chief god is Mother Rhoyne, a personification of their ancestral home, the river Rhoyne. She is also called Mother River. The religion has other, lesser gods as well, including the Old Man of the River, a turtle god who fought King Crab to gain dominion underwater. R'hllor R'hllor is a prominent god across the narrow sea, but has only a few followers in Westeros. He is also called the Lord of Light, the Heart of Fire, and the God of Flame and Shadow. His symbol is a fiery heart. The followers of R'hllor worship him as the god of light, heat, and life. His enemy is the "great Other", whose name is not spoken, the god of darkness, cold, and death. R'hllor and the great other wage an eternal war over the fate of the world. Followers of R'hllor believe that Azor Ahai, the messianic figure prophesized to return in ancient books of Asshai, will tip the balance of this war. Azor Ahai is also called the Prince that was Promised, the Warrior of Light, and the Son of Fire. Prophecy holds that he will wield a flaming sword called Lightbringer, the Red Sword of Heroes, and raise dragons of stone. Clergy of the R'hllor religion are called 'red priests,' due to the loose, crimson robes they wear. In the east, children are often given to temples of R'hllor to be raised into the priesthood. Every evening, red priests light fires and sing prayers at their temples, asking R'hllor to bring back the dawn. "The night is dark and full of terrors", is a common phrase in prayers to R'hllor. Priests believe that R'hllor will occasionally answer his followers' prayers by granting magical favors. They often gaze into flames in an effort to see visions of the future. Trials by combat are an accepted practice in the R'hllor faith; prayers before the combat ask R'hllor to give strength to the just party. The Others Some of the wildling who live north of the Wall worship the ice-creatures known as the Others as gods. They often refer to the Others as the "cold gods" who come with the snows, and believe that they must appease them to ensure their own survival. One wildling, Craster, left all of his male children for the Others. Some of his wives claimed the Others were Craster's sons. Also, the infamous 13th commander of the Night's Watch, the Night King, was said to have sacrificed to the Others. The red priestess Melisandre claimed the Others are servants of R'hllor's arch-nemesis, "The Great Other". Specific Places See also: Cities in A Song of Ice and Fire, Strongholds of A Song of Ice and Fire The Citadel The Citadel is the place the order of Maesters call home, where they forge their chains with years of study. The Citadel is located in the Reach, in Oldtown, the oldest city in Westeros. King's Landing King's Landing is the capital of Westeros and the Seven Kingdoms. It is situated on the Blackwater river on the spot where Aegon the Conqueror landed in Westeros to begin his conquest. The main city is surrounded by a wall, manned by a city watch known as the Gold Cloaks. Within the walls, the city's natural landscape is dominated by three hills, named after Aegon and his two sisters. Poorer smallfolk build shanty settlements outside the city. King's Landing is extremely populous, but rather unsightly and dirty. The stench of the city's waste can be smelled far beyond its walls. The royal castle, called the Red Keep, sits on Aegon's Hill. The Keep holds the Iron Throne, the seat of the monarch. Aegon commissioned the throne's construction from the swords of his defeated enemies. According to legend, he kept the blades sharp because he believed that no ruler should ever sit comfortably. Centuries later, kings still cut themselves on the throne. It is a common belief that someone who cuts themselves on the throne is not fit to rule (thus the throne 'rejects' them). The city also holds the Great Sept of Baelor, where the Most Devout convene with the High Septon. It is the holiest sept of the Seven. The slums of King's Landing are called Flea Bottom, where residents are so poor they regularly subsist on "bowls of brown", a mystery stew that can include the meat of rats and murder victims. King's Landing has an estimated population of more than 500,000, as stated by Tyrion when he meets Oberyn Martell on his arrival to King's Landing. George R. R. Martin has also stated that the city is larger than Medieval London or Paris but smaller than Medieval Constantinople or Ancient Rome (each had a population of about 1,000,000). Harrenhal Located on the northern shore of Gods Eye, a lake in the central part of Westeros, Harrenhal was built by Harren the Black to be the greatest castle ever constructed. Made of black stone, with numerous massive towers and a great hall large enough to hold an army, the castle was a monument to Harren's hubris. But Harren had scarcely finished his work when Aegon the Conqueror began his invasion. Harrenhal's thick, high walls were useless against Aegon's dragons. Dragonfire cracked and melted the castle's stone, killing Harren and his sons. Harren's line was obliterated and his kingdom conquered. Since Harren's disaster, the castle has been occupied by a variety of houses. Some residents over the ages have met bad ends, giving the castle the reputation of being cursed. This, combined with the logistical and economic difficulties inherent in keeping such an enormous castle maintained and garrisoned, has made the castle something of a white elephant. At the start of the War of the Five Kings, the castle was in poor shape, with only a fraction of it maintained. After Tywin Lannister seized the castle his daughter, Queen Cersei, gave ownership to Janos Slynt, but her brother and the Hand of the King, Tyrion Lannister quickly revoked the award and sent Slynt to the Wall. Tyrion gave the castle instead to Petyr Baelish, who has held nominal ownership of Harrenhal ever since, without ever setting foot in it. Over the course of the war, Harrenhal changed hands numerous times, and was the site of many atrocities. After the Brave Companions mercenary company betrayed the castle's Lannister garrison, Roose Bolton took over. After Bolton abandoned the castle, Gregor Clegane demolished the Brave Companions and retook the castle for the Lannisters. Winterfell Winterfell is the name given to the ancient castle of House Stark (and an aptronym being the German word for winter coat). It has been the seat of the Starks for thousands of years. Hot water from the spring beneath the castle is piped through its walls to heat various rooms. Some of the rooms and towers are abandoned and not upkept. Winterfell possesses a godswood of , with an ancient weirwood tree marking its center. It is also surrounded by a moat. The castle has deep catacombs where the bodies of Starks are buried. Statues mark the crypts of the former lords of Winterfell and the old Kings of the North. At the beginning of A Game of Thrones, Lord Eddard Stark was the Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North. Robb Stark, his oldest son, was his heir. Maester Luwin was a trusted counselor, healer and tutor to the Stark boys, and Septa Mordane was the family's priestess and governess to the Stark girls. Ser Rodrik Cassel was the master-at-arms, and his nephew Jory Cassel the captain of the guard. During the War of the Five Kings, Winterfell was attacked, captured, and burned, its household killed. Jory Cassel was killed by the Lannisters in King's Landing while trying to protect Lord Eddard Stark, and Septa Mordane was also killed at King's Landing when Lord Eddard was executed in public at the king's command. Theon Greyjoy, heir to the Iron Islands, then betrayed the Starks. Theon had lived most of his life in Winterfell as a ward of Lord Stark, and raised with the Stark children later accompanying Robb Stark into battle. He then turned on Robb and lured out Winterfell's garrison and then took the castle by stealth with a small company of his ironmen. When the garrison returned, led by Ser Rodrik Cassel, Ramsay Bolton arrived and surprise attacked the garrison, killing it to a man. Maester Luwin was killed during the sack of Winterfell, but lived just long enough to see the two youngest Stark boys escape from the ruins. Ramsay had the castle burned and killed the remaining Stark household, blaming the entire incident on Theon, whom he captured. The great Stark castle is now an abandoned ruin, broken but not destroyed, though its godswood and the ancient Stark tombs still remain. Footnotes External links A list of maps updated through A Feast for Crows

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Economy_of_Brazil

Brazil has a moderate free market and export-oriented economy. Measured nominally, its gross domestic product surpasses a trillion dollars, the tenth in the world and the second in the Americas; measured by purchasing power parity, $1.9 trillion, making it the eighth largest economy in the world and the second largest in the Americas, after the United States. The World Factbook CIA In Reais (Brazilian currency), its GDP is estimated at R$2.6 trillion reais in 2007. Brazil is a member of diverse economic organizations, such as Mercosul, SACN, G8+5, G20 and the Cairns Group. Its trade partners number in the hundreds, with 80% of exports mostly of manufactured or semimanufactured goods. Brazil's main trade partners are: the EU (26% of trade), Mercosur and Latin America (25%), Asia (16%), the United States (14.3%), and others (18.7%). The owner of a sophisticated technological sector, Brazil develops projects that range from submarines to aircraft and is involved in space research: the country possesses a satellite launching center and was the only country in the Southern Hemisphere to integrate the team responsible for the construction of the International Space Station (ISS). Countries Participating in the ISS ISS EarthKam It is also a pioneer in many fields, including ethanol production. Brazil is also a pioneer in the fields of deep water oil research from where 73% of its reserves are extracted. According to government statistics, Brazil was the first capitalist country to bring together the ten largest car assembly companies inside its national territory. History When the Portuguese explorers arrived in the 15th century, the native tribes of current-day Brazil, totaling about 2.5 million people, had lived virtually unchanged since the Stone Age. From Portugal's colonisation of Brazil (1500-1822) until the late 1930s, the market elements of the Brazilian economy relied on the production of primary products for exports. Within the Portuguese Empire, Brazil was a colony subjected to an imperial mercantile policy, which had three main large-scale economic production cycles - sugar, gold and, from the early 19th century on, coffee. The economy of Brazil was heavily dependent on African slave labour until the late 19th century (about 3 million imported African slaves in total). Since then, Brazil experienced a period of strong economic and demographic growth accompanied by mass immigration from Europe (mainly from Portugal, Italy, Spain and Germany) until the 1930s. In the Americas, the United States, Brazil, Canada and Argentina (in descending order) were the countries that received most immigrants. In Brazil's case, statistics show that 4.5 million people emigrated to the country between 1882 and 1934. Currently, with a population of 190 million and abundant natural resources, Brazil is one of the ten largest markets in the world, producing tons of steel, 26 million tons of cement, 3.5 million television sets, and 3 million refrigerators. In addition, about 70 million cubic meters of petroleum were being processed annually into fuels, lubricants, propane gas, and a wide range of petrochemicals. Furthermore, Brazil has at least 161,500 kilometers of paved roads and more than 63 million megawatts of installed electric power capacity. Its real per capita GDP has surpassed US$10,500 in 2008, due to the strong and continued appreciation of the real for the first time this decade. Its industrial sector accounts for three fifths of the Latin American economy's industrial production. The country’s scientific and technological development is argued to be attractive to foreign direct investment, which has averaged US$ 30 billion per year the last years, compared to only US$ 2 billion/year last decade, About Brazil Brazilian Government thus showing a remarkable growth. The agricultural sector, locally called the agronegócio (agrobusiness) , has also been remarkably dynamic: for two decades this sector has kept Brazil amongst the most highly productive countries in areas related to the rural sector. The agricultural sector and the mining sector also supported trade surpluses which allowed for massive currency gains (rebound) and external debt paydown. Components of the economy The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 66.8%, followed by the industrial sector at 29.7% (2007 est.). Agriculture represents 3.5% of GDP (2008 est.). Brazilian labor force is estimated at 100.77 million of which 10% is occupied in agriculture, 19% in the industry sector and 71% in the service sector. Agriculture and food production Agriculture productionCombine harvester on a plantation Main products Coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus, beefAgriculture growth rate 9.2% (2008) Labor force 15% of total labor forceGDP of sector 3.5% of total GDP A performance that puts agribusiness in a position of distinction in terms of Brazil’s trade balance, in spite of trade barriers and subsidizing policies adopted by the developed countries. In the space of fifty five years (1950 to 2005), the population of Brazil grew by 51 million to approximately 187 million inhabitants, Popclock IBGE an increase of over 2% per year. In order to meet this demand, it was necessary to take the development of cattle and crop raising activities a step further. Since then, an authentic green revolution has taken place, allowing the country to create and expand a complex agribusiness sector. However, some of this is at the expense of the environment, including the Amazon. The importance given to the rural producer takes place in the shape of the Agricultural and Cattle-raising Plan and through another specific program geared towards family agriculture (Pronaf), which guarantee financing for equipment and cultivation and encourage the use of new technology, as shown by the use of agricultural land zoning. With regards to family agriculture, over 800 thousand rural inhabitants are assisted by credit, research and extension programs. The special line of credit for women and young farmers is an innovation worth mentioning, providing an incentive towards the entrepreneurial spirit. With The Land Reform Program, on the other hand, the country’s objective is to provide suitable living and working conditions for over one million families who live in areas allotted by the State, an initiative capable of generating two million jobs. Through partnerships, public policies and international partnerships, the government is working towards the guarantee of an infrastructure for the settlements, following the examples of schools and health outlets. The idea is that access to land represents just the first step towards the implementation of a quality land reform program. Brazilian exports in 2006 Over 600,000 km² of land are divided into approximately five thousand areas of rural property; an agricultural area currently with three borders: the Central-western region (savanna), the Northern region (area of transition) and parts of the Northeastern region (semi-arid). At the forefront of grain crops, which produce over 110 million tonnes/year, is the soybean, yielding 50 million tonnes. In the bovine cattle-raising sector, the “green ox”, which is raised in pastures, on a diet of hay and mineral salts, conquered markets in Asia, Europe and the Americas, particularly after the “mad cow disease” scare period. Brazil has the largest cattle herd in the world, with 198 million heads, Indicators Brazilian Government responsible for exports surpassing the mark of US$ 1 billion/year. A pioneer and leader in the manufacture of short-fiber timber cellulose, Brazil has also achieved positive results within the packaging sector, in which it is the fifth largest world producer. In the foreign markets, it answers for 25% of global exports of raw cane and refined sugar; it is the world leader in soybean exports and is responsible for 80% of the planet’s orange juice, and since 2003, has had the highest sales figures for beef and chicken, among the countries that deal in this sector. Agriculture Brazilian Government Industry Industrial production Main industries Automobile industry, petrochemicals, machinery, electronics, cement and construction, aircraft, textiles, food and beverages, mining, consumer durables, tourismIndustrial growth rate 8.8% (2008 est.)Labor force 21% of total labor forceGDP of sector 29.7% of total GDP Brazil has the second most advanced industrial sector in the Americas. Accounting for one-third of GDP, Brazil's diverse industries range from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables. With increased economic stability provided by the Plano Real, Brazilian and multinational businesses have invested heavily in new equipment and technology, a large proportion of which has been purchased from U.S. firms. Brazil has a diverse and sophisticated services industry as well. During the early 1990s, the banking sector accounted for as much as 16% of the GDP. Although undergoing a major overhaul, Brazil's financial services industry provides local businesses with a wide range of products and is attracting numerous new entrants, including U.S. financial firms. The São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro stock exchanges are undergoing a consolidation and the previously monopolistic reinsurance sector is being opened up to third party companies. 31 December 2007, there were an estimated 21,304,000 broadband lines in Brazil. Over 75% of the broadband lines were via DSL and 10% via cable modems. Proven mineral resources are extensive. Large iron and manganese reserves are important sources of industrial raw materials and export earnings. Deposits of nickel, tin, chromite, uranium, bauxite, beryllium, copper, lead, tungsten, zinc, gold, and other minerals are exploited. High-quality cooking-grade coal required in the steel industry is in short supply. Largest companies In 2008, 34 Brazilian companies were listed in the Forbes Global 2000 list - an annual ranking of the top 2000 public companies in the world by Forbes magazine. The 10 leading companies are: World Rank Company Logo Industry Revenue (billion $) Profits (billion $) Assets (billion $) Market Value (billion $)21 Petrobras Oil & Gas Operations 97.52 15.04 149.98 266.6749 Vale Mining 43.23 14.26 84.70 171.39 81 Banco Bradesco Banking 36.12 4.11 192.65 59.80 101 Banco do Brasil Banking 28.61 2.60 202.00 41.54 103 Banco Itaú Banking 28.97 2.05 167.06 28.22203 Unibanco Banking 15.29 1.94 84.04 27.37322 Eletrobrás Utilities 9.20 0.54 56.62 18.08514 Usiminas Materials 5.82 1.18 8.63 19.14519 Oi Telecommunications Services 7.90 0.61 12.36 11.69 606 Gerdau Materials 11.03 0.63 12.39 8.13 Energy The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported oil. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but Brazil became energy independent in 2006. Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of hydroelectric power, with a current capacity of about 108,000 megawatts. Existing hydroelectric power provides 80% of the nation's electricity. Two large hydroelectric projects, the 15,900 megawatt Itaipu Dam on the Paraná River (the world's largest dam) and the Tucurui Dam in Pará in northern Brazil, are in operation. Brazil's first commercial nuclear reactor, Angra I, located near Rio de Janeiro, has been in operation for more than 10 years. Angra II was completed in 2002 and is in operation too. An Angra III is almost completed, planned inauguration is 2008. The three reactors would have combined capacity of 9,000 megawatts when completed. The government also plans to build 17 more nuclear plants by the year 2020. Economic status {| width="25%" style="toc: 25em; font-size: 85%; lucida grande, sans-serif; text-align: left;" class="infobox" |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Statistical Table |- {{#if:Image:Congresso1.jpg| |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Inflation (IPCA) |- !align="left" valign="top"|2002 |valign="top"| 12.53% |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2003 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 9.30% |- !align="left" valign="top"|2004 |valign="top"|7.60% |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2005 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 5.69% |- !align="left" valign="top"|2006 |valign="top"| 3.14% |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2007 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 4.46% |- !align="left" valign="top"|2008 |valign="top"| 4.26% |- !align="center" valign="top" colspan="2"|Source: Inflation Ipea |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Gross Fixed Capital Formation (% of GDP) |- !align="left" valign="top"|2001 |valign="top"| 19.47% |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2002 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 18.32% |- !align="left" valign="top"|2003 |valign="top"|17.78% |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2004 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 19.58% |- !align="left" valign="top"|2005 |valign="top"| 19.99% |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="center" valign="top" colspan="2"|Source: Gross Fixed Capital Formation Ipea |- !align="center" bgcolor="lightblue" colspan="2"|Average Exchange Rate (BRL for 1 USD) |- !align="left" valign="top"|2002 |valign="top"| 2.549 |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2003 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 3.020 |- !align="left" valign="top"|2004 |valign="top"| 2.977 |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2005 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 2.825 |- !align="left" valign="top"|2006 |valign="top"| 2.234 |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2007 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 1.976 |- ! style="background:#f0f0f0;" align="left" valign="top"|2008 | style="background:#f0f0f0;" valign="top"| 1.637 |- !align="center" valign="top" colspan="2"|Source: Average Exchange Rate Ipea |- |} Sustainable growth After having been discovered in 1500, it was only in 1808 that Brazil obtained a permit from the Portuguese colonial government to set up its first factories and manufacturers. In the 21st century, Brazil reached the status of 8th largest economy in the world. If at the beginning the export list was basically raw and primitive goods, such as sugar, rubber and gold, today 84% of exports consists of manufactured and semi-manufactured products. The period of great economic transformation and growth occurred between 1875 and 1975. In the last decade, domestic production increased by 32.3% and agribusiness (agriculture and cattle-raising), which grew by 47% or 3.6% per year, was the most dynamic sector – even after having weathered international crises that demanded constant adjustments to the Brazilian economy. Sustainable growth Brazilian Government Control and reform Among measures recently adopted in order to balance the economy, Brazil carried out reforms to its Social security (state and retirement pensions) and Tax systems. These changes brought with them a noteworthy addition: a Law of Fiscal Responsibility which controls public expenditure by the Executive Branches at federal, state and municipal levels. At the same time, investments were made towards administration efficiency and policies were created to encourage exports, industry and trade, thus creating “windows of opportunity” for local and international investors and producers. With these alterations in place, Brazil has reduced its vulnerability: it doesn't import the oil it consumes; it has halved its domestic debt through exchange rate-linked certificates and has seen exports grow, on average, by 20% a year. The exchange rate does not put pressure on the industrial sector or inflation – at 4% a year -, and does away with the possibility of a liquidity crisis. As a result, the country, after 12 years, has achieved a positive balance in the accounts which measure exports/imports, plus interest payments, services and overseas payment. Thus, respected economists say that the country won't be deeply affected by the current world economic crisis . http://brazil.melhores.com.br/ Betting on Brazil Control and reform Brazilian Government Consistent policies Support for the productive sector has been simplified at all levels; active and independent, Congress and the Judiciary Branch carry out the evaluation of rules and regulations. Among the main measures taken to stimulate the economy are the reduction of up to 30% on Manufactured Products Tax (IPI), and the investment of $ 8 billion on road cargo transportation fleets, thus improving distribution logistics. Further resources guarantee the propagation of business and information telecenters. The Policy for Industry, Technology and Foreign Trade, at the forefront of this sector, for its part, invests $ 19.5 billion in specific sectors, following the example of the software and semiconductor, pharmaceutical and medicine product, and capital goods sectors. Consistent policies Brazilian Government References See also External links Sao Paulo Stock Exchange official website Brazil's Central Bank official website UK House of Commons' Committee on Trade and Industry report, "Memorandum submitted by the Corporation of London" Betting on Brazil: positive news and analyses on Brazilian economic issues UK House http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/button_math.pngof Commons' Committee on Trade and Industry report"Trade with Brazil and Mercosur" European Commission Brazil Country Strategy Paper 2007-2013 World Bank Public Policy Journal, "The Informality Trap: Tax Evasion, Finance, and Productivity in Brazil" Brazilian Public Debt Brazil Economic Scan Further reading Baer, Werner. The Brazilian Economy: Growth and Development. 5th. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 2001

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Cinquain

While "quintain" is the general term applied to poetic forms using a 5-line pattern, there are specific forms within that category that are defined by specific rules and guidelines. The term "CINQUAIN" (pronounced SING-cane, the plural is "cinquains") as applied by modern poets most correctly refers to a form invented by the American poet Adelaide Crapsey. The first examples of these were published in 1915 in The Complete Poems, roughly a year after her death. Her cinquain form was inspired by Japanese haiku and Tanka (a form of Waka). Crapsey's cinquains utilized an increasing syllable count in the first four lines, namely two in the first, four in the second, six in the third, and eight in the fourth, before returning to two syllables on the last line. In addition, though little emphasized by critics, each line in the majority of Crapsey cinquains has a fixed number of stressed syllables, as well, following the pattern one, two, three, four, one. The most common metrical foot in her twenty-eight published examples is the iamb, though this is not exclusive. Also, in contrast to the Eastern forms upon which she based them, Crapsey always titled her cinquains, effectively utilizing the title as a sixth line. The Crapsey cinquain has subsequently seen a number of variations by modern poets, including: Reverse cinquain, a form with one 5-line stanza in a syllabic pattern of two, eight, six, four, two. Mirror cinquain, a form with two 5-line stanzas consisting of a cinquain followed by a reverse cinquain. Butterfly cinquain, a nine-line syllabic form with the pattern two, four, six, eight, two, eight, six, four, two. Crown cinquain, a sequence of five cinquain stanzas functioning to construct one larger poem. Garland cinquain, a series of six cinquains in which the last is formed of lines from the preceding five, typically line one from stanza one, line two from stanza two, and so on. The didactic cinquain is also closely related to the Crapsey cinquain. It is an informal cinquain widely taught in elementary schools and has been featured in, and popularized by, children's media resources, including Junie B. Jones and PBS Kids. This form is also embraced by young adults and older poets for its expressive simplicity. The proscriptions of this type of cinquain refer to word count, not syllables and stresses. Ordinarily, the first line is a one-word title, the subject of the poem; the second line is a pair of adjectives describing that title; the third line is a three word phrase that gives more information about the subject; the fourth line consists of four words describing feelings related to that subject; and the fifth line is single word synonym or other reference for the subject from line one. According to the same Japanese influence as the Crapsey cinquain, a number of more contemporary poets have devised other five line forms striving after the same tone and appeal. Tetractys is five-line poem of 22 syllables with a title, arranged in the following order: 2,4,6,8,2.with each line standing as a phrase on its own. It can be inverted, doubled, etc., and was created by the late English poet Ray Stebbings. Cinqku is a five line blending of the Cinquain and Tanka forms, created by American poet Denis Garrison. It consists of five lines with a total of 17 syllables, no title, and a surprise or turn occurring in either line 4 or line 5. Lanterne is a five line quintain verse shaped like a Japanese lantern with a syllabic pattern of one, two, three, four, one. Each line is usually able to stand on its own as a line, and the lanterne will not have a title. External links Examples of Cinqku Prosody of the cinqku Examples of Lanternes Examples of tetractys Stebbing website Example of five line fibonacci form

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Lionhead_Studios

Lionhead Studios is a United Kingdom-based computer game development company led by industry veteran Peter Molyneux, and acquired by Microsoft Game Studios in April 2006. Lionhead started as a breakaway from the developer Bullfrog, which was also founded by Molyneux. Lionhead's first game was Black & White, a god game with elements of artificial life, strategy, and beat 'em up games. Black & White was published by Electronic Arts in 2001. Lionhead Studios is named after Mark Webley's hamster, who died not long after the naming of the studio. Black and White was followed up with the release of an expansion pack named Black & White: Creature Isle. Lionhead then released the popular Fable, from satellite developer Big Blue Box. In 2005, Lionhead released The Movies and Black & White 2. On 6 April 2006, it was announced that Lionhead Studios was to be purchased by Microsoft to further bolster their range of Xbox 360 games. Corporate Structure For a period of three years, Lionhead set up a network of "satellite" developers, including Big Blue Box Studios (developers of Fable), Intrepid Games (developers of B.C., since suspended due to a massive overrun) and Black & White Studios (who have taken responsibility for the continuation of the Black & White series). Lionhead proper was working on three games, Fable, B&W2 and The Movies, potentially including Dimitri. The "satellite" system has ceased to exist in any meaningful form since mid-2004, however, with Big Blue Box having been more or less integrated into the main company, and Intrepid essentially having been disbanded. Lionhead was a privately held company until October 2004 (shortly before the suspension of BC) when a consortium of investors, including Ingenious Ventures, IDG VE and technology firm Add Partners, made a significant investment into the developer. This at a time when the company was in severe financial straits, as they had over-run development on two projects, Black & White 2 and Fable, and also canceled B.C. and a project with Jeff Minter named Unity. Between September 2005 and April 2006, Lionhead successfully released two titles, Black & White 2 and The Movies, as well as an updated version of Fable (entitled Fable: The Lost Chapters). To date, these titles have not achieved a massive impact in sales, and this left the company vulnerable to a takeover bid. They have since finished the highly anticipated Fable 2 and an unknown game, for which only subtle hints have been dropped, which may have been a continuation of Dimitri. In April 2006 Lionhead Studios was acquired by Microsoft, signalling the end of independent development, and a focus on Microsoft's proprietary gaming platforms. Lionhead will be a fairly independent part of Microsoft Game Studios, which has also acquired Rare Ltd. and Bungie Studios (Bungie Studios became an independent studio in late 2007, shortly after the release of Halo 3) Delays Lionhead has received a lot of media attention for delays to their games, in part due to the large amount of publicity and hype generated for their games. Various reports on this indicate a company tendency to re-design games mid-development and a tendency toward over-ambition, though few reports are official. The company is always on the cutting edge of developing new technology, especially in the area of NPC AI, which adds considerably to their development schedules. Peter Molyneux, who often refers to himself as either the lead designer or creative director of Lionhead, often promises specific release dates early on in the development of his titles. This causes particular problems and disappointment among fans as many release dates are pushed back, sometimes more than once. Black & White missed several deadlines until it was finally released in 2001. A similar problem occurred with the release of The Movies which was intended for a 2004 release date but was eventually delayed to 2005. Peter Molyneux Controversy Leading up to several Lionhead Studio game releases Peter Molyneux has repeatedly engaged in what many consider deceptive marketing. Several products such as "Black and White 2" and "Fable" were marketed pre-launch to contain features lacking in the final product, while other features were presented in such a way that many drew false impressions from their presentation. One example was the repeated advertisement of content that did not appear in the game "Black and White 2" which for some even contained erroneous packaging listing off features such as "Research" and "11 lands" among other things that never made it into the final game. Games Release DateTitle(s)Genre(s)Platform(s)2001Black & WhiteReal-time strategy, God gameMicrosoft Windows, Mac OS X2002Black & White: Creature IsleReal-time strategy, God gameMicrosoft Windows, Mac OS X2004FableAction role-playing gameMicrosoft Windows, Mac OS X, Xbox2005Fable: The Lost ChaptersAction role-playing gameMicrosoft Windows, Mac OS X, Xbox2005Black & White 2Real-time strategy, God gameMicrosoft Windows, Mac OS X2005The MoviesBusiness simulation gameMicrosoft Windows, Mac OS X2006Black & White 2: Battle of the GodsReal-time strategy, God gameMicrosoft Windows2006The Movies: Stunts & EffectsBusiness simulation gameMicrosoft Windows, Mac OS X2008 Fable IIAction role-playing gameXbox 360TBAThe Dimitri ProjectTBATBA Suspended B.C. (Xbox) Canceled Unity (GameCube) Black & White: Titan (Xbox, PlayStation 2) Black & White (PlayStation, Dreamcast) The Movies (GameCube, Xbox, Playstation 2) Trivia Peter Molyneux is on the available coaches list in Major League Baseball 2K7 External links Lionhead Studios Official Lionhead news site About Lionhead Interview with Head of Lion Studios Peter Molyneux by BBC Blast

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Gun

In military parlance, a gun is a muzzle or breech-loaded projectile-firing weapon. There are various definitions depending on the nation and branch of service. A "gun" may be distinguised from other firearms in being a crew served weapon such as a howitzer or mortar, as opposed to a small arm like a rifle or pistol, but there are exceptions, such as the USAF's GUU5/P. At one time, Land-based Artillery tubes were called Cannon and Sea-based Naval Cannon were called Guns. The term "gun" morphed into a generic term for any tube launched projectile firing weapon used by sailors including boarding parties and Marines. In modern parlance, a gun is a projectile weapon using a hollow, tubular barrel with a closed end—the breech—as the means for directing the projectile as well as other purposes—an expansion chamber for propellant, stabilizing the projectile's trajectory, aiming, etc.—and assumes a generally, flat trajectory for the projectile. The generic form of a trigger-initiated, hand-held, and hand-directed tool with an extending bore has additionally been applied to implements resembling guns in either form or concept. Examples of this application include items such as staple guns, nail guns, and glue guns. Occasionally, this tendency is ironically reversed, such as the case of the American M3 submachine gun which carries the nickname "Grease Gun". The projectile may be a simple, single-piece item like a bullet, a casing containing a payload like a shotshell or explosive shell, or complex projectile like a sub-caliber projectile and sabot. The propellant may be air, an explosive solid, or an explosive liquid. Some variations like the Gyrojet and certain other types combine the projectile and propellant into a single item. Most guns are described by the type of barrel used, the means of firing, the purpose of the weapon, the caliber, or the commonly accepted name for a particular variation. Barrel types include rifled—a series of spiraled grooves or angles within the barrel—when the projectile requires an induced spin to stabilize it and smoothbore when the projectile is stabilized by other means or is undesired or unnecessary. Typically, interior barrel diameter and the associated projectile size is a means to identify gun variations. Barrel diameter is reported in several ways. The more conventional measure is reporting the interior diameter of the barrel in decimal fractions of the inch or in millimeters. Some guns—such as shotguns—report the weapon's gauge or—as in some British ordnance—the weight of the weapon's usual projectile. USS Iowa (BB-61) fires a full broadside during a target exercise near Vieques Island, Puerto Rico, 1 July 1984. Terminology The use of the term "cannon" is interchangeable with "gun" as words borrowed from the French language during the early 15th century, from Old French canon, itself a borrowing from the Italian cannone, a "large tube" augmentive of Latin canna "reed or cane". Online Etymological Dictionary Recent scholarship indicates that the term "gun" may also have its origins in the Norse woman's name "Gunnildr", which was often shortened to "Gunna". Kelly, Jack. (2004). Gunpowder Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics:The History of the Explosive that Changed the World. Basic Books. pg.31 The earliest recorded use of the term "gonne" was in a Latin document circa 1339. Other names for guns during this era were "schioppi" (Italian translation-"thunderers"), and "donrebusse" (Dutch translation-"thunder gun") which was incorporated into the English language as "blunderbuss". Ibid:pg.31 Artillerymen were often referred to as "gonners" and "artillers". Ibid:pg.30 Early guns and the men who used them were often associated with the devil and the gunner's craft was considered a black art, a point reinforced by the smell of sulfur on battlefields created from the firing of guns along with the muzzle blast and accompanying flash. Ibid:pg.32 In military use, the term "gun" refers primarily to direct fire weapons that capitalize on their velocity for penetration or range. In modern parlance, these weapons are breech-loaded and built primarily for long range fire with a low or almost flat ballistic arc. A variation is the howitzer or gun-howitzer designed to offer the ability to fire both low or high-angle ballistic arcs. In this use, example guns include naval guns. A less strict application of the word is to identify one artillery weapon system or non-machine gun projectile armament on aircraft. The word cannon is retained in some cases for the actual gun tube but not the weapon system. The title gunner is applied to the member of the team charged with operating, aiming, and firing a gun. Autocannon are automatic guns designed primarily to fire shells and are mounted on a vehicle or other mount. Machine guns are similar, but usually designed to fire simple projectiles. In some calibers and some usages, these two definitions overlap. A related military use of the word is in describing gun-type fission weapon. In this instance, the "gun" is part of a nuclear weapon and contains an explosively propelled sub-critical slug of fissile material within a barrel to be fired into a second sub-critical mass in order to initiate the fission reaction. Potentially confused with this usage are small nuclear devices capable of being fired by artillery or recoilless rifle. In civilian use, a related item used in agriculture is a captive bolt gun. Such captive piston guns are often used to humanely stun farm animals for slaughter. Captive Bolt Stunning Equipment and the Law - How it applies to you (pdf) Shotguns are normally civilian weapons used primarily for hunting. These weapons are typically smooth bored and fire a shell containing small lead or steel balls. Variations use rifled barrels or fire other projectiles including solid lead slugs, a Taser XREP projectile capable of stunning a target, or other payloads. In military versions, these weapons are often used to burst door hinges or locks in addition to antipersonnel uses. Types of guns Marlin Model 1894C — a carbine in .357 Magnum Military firearms Long gun Arquebus Blunderbuss Musket Musketoon Wall gun Grenade launcher Personal defense weapon Rifle Lever action rifle Bolt action rifle Assault rifle Battle rifle Carbine Service rifle Sniper rifle Shotgun Combat shotgun Semi-automatic shotgun Submachine gun Tu Huo Qiang Machine guns Gatling gun Mitrailleuse Machine gun General-purpose machine gun Heavy machine gun Light machine gun Medium machine gun Squad automatic weapon Minigun .50 BMG Submachine gun Metal storm Autocannon Autocannon Chain gun Artillery guns Artillery gun Carronade Howitzer Tank guns Tank gun .50 BMG Hunting guns Elephant gun Express rifle Shotgun Muzzleloader Breechloader Guns for training and entertainment Airsoft gun BB gun Paintball gun Spud gun Water gun See also Firearm Gun culture Gun law Gun politics Gun safety Railgun Stun gun Citations and notes References Lee, R.G., Introduction to battlefield weapons, systems & technology, Royal Military College of Science, Shrivenham, UK, Brassey's Publishers, Oxford, 1981

Gun |@lemmatized military:6 parlance:3 gun:63 muzzle:2 breech:3 load:2 projectile:18 fire:13 weapon:19 various:1 definition:2 depend:1 nation:1 branch:1 service:2 may:4 distinguised:1 firearm:3 crew:1 serve:1 howitzer:4 mortar:1 oppose:1 small:3 arm:1 like:5 rifle:11 pistol:1 exception:1 usaf:1 p:1 one:2 time:1 land:1 base:2 artillery:5 tube:4 call:2 cannon:4 sea:1 naval:2 term:6 morph:1 generic:2 launch:1 use:15 sailor:1 include:5 board:1 party:1 marine:1 modern:2 hollow:1 tubular:1 barrel:9 closed:1 end:1 mean:4 direct:3 well:1 purpose:3 expansion:1 chamber:1 propellant:3 stabilize:3 trajectory:2 aim:2 etc:1 assume:1 generally:1 flat:2 form:2 trigger:1 initiate:2 hand:2 held:1 tool:1 extend:1 bore:2 additionally:1 apply:3 implement:1 resemble:1 either:1 concept:1 example:2 application:2 item:4 staple:1 nail:1 glue:1 occasionally:1 tendency:1 ironically:1 reverse:1 case:3 american:1 submachine:3 carry:1 nickname:1 grease:1 simple:2 single:2 piece:1 bullet:1 contain:3 payload:2 shotshell:1 explosive:4 shell:3 complex:1 sub:3 caliber:3 sabot:1 air:1 solid:2 liquid:1 variation:5 gyrojet:1 certain:1 type:5 combine:1 describe:2 firing:2 commonly:1 accept:1 name:3 particular:1 series:1 spiraled:1 groove:1 angle:2 within:2 require:1 induced:1 spin:1 smoothbore:1 undesired:1 unnecessary:1 typically:2 interior:2 diameter:3 associate:2 size:1 identify:2 report:3 several:1 way:1 conventional:1 measure:1 decimal:1 fraction:1 inch:1 millimeter:1 shotgun:6 gauge:1 british:1 ordnance:1 weight:1 usual:1 uss:1 iowa:1 bb:2 full:1 broadside:1 target:2 exercise:1 near:1 vieques:1 island:1 puerto:1 rico:1 july:1 terminology:1 interchangeable:1 word:4 borrow:1 french:2 language:2 early:3 century:1 old:1 canon:1 borrowing:1 italian:2 cannone:1 large:1 augmentive:1 latin:2 canna:1 reed:1 cane:1 online:1 etymological:1 dictionary:1 recent:1 scholarship:1 indicate:1 also:2 origin:1 norse:1 woman:1 gunnildr:1 often:5 shorten:1 gunna:1 kelly:1 jack:1 gunpowder:1 alchemy:1 bombard:1 pyrotechnic:1 history:1 change:1 world:1 basic:1 book:1 pg:4 record:1 gonne:1 document:1 circa:1 era:1 schioppi:1 translation:2 thunderer:1 donrebusse:1 dutch:1 thunder:1 incorporate:1 english:1 blunderbuss:2 ibid:3 artilleryman:1 refer:1 gonners:1 artillers:1 men:1 devil:1 gunner:2 craft:1 consider:1 black:1 art:1 point:1 reinforce:1 smell:1 sulfur:1 battlefield:2 create:1 along:1 blast:1 accompany:1 flash:1 refers:1 primarily:4 capitalize:1 velocity:1 penetration:1 range:2 build:1 long:2 low:2 almost:1 ballistic:2 arc:2 design:3 offer:1 ability:1 high:1 less:1 strict:1 system:3 non:1 machine:8 armament:1 aircraft:1 retain:1 actual:1 title:1 member:1 team:1 charge:1 operating:1 autocannon:3 automatic:3 mount:2 vehicle:1 similar:1 usually:1 usage:2 two:1 overlap:1 related:2 fission:2 instance:1 part:1 nuclear:2 explosively:1 propelled:1 critical:2 slug:2 fissile:1 material:1 second:1 mass:1 order:1 reaction:1 potentially:1 confused:1 device:1 capable:2 recoilless:1 civilian:2 agriculture:1 captive:3 bolt:3 piston:1 humanely:1 stun:4 farm:1 animal:1 slaughter:1 equipment:1 law:2 pdf:1 normally:1 hunt:2 smooth:1 lead:2 steel:1 ball:1 rifled:1 taser:1 xrep:1 version:1 burst:1 door:1 hinge:1 lock:1 addition:1 antipersonnel:1 us:1 marlin:1 model:1 carbine:2 magnum:1 arquebus:1 musket:1 musketoon:1 wall:1 grenade:1 launcher:1 personal:1 defense:1 lever:1 action:2 assault:1 battle:1 sniper:1 combat:1 semi:1 tu:1 huo:1 qiang:1 gatling:1 mitrailleuse:1 general:1 heavy:1 light:1 medium:1 squad:1 minigun:1 bmg:2 metal:1 storm:1 chain:1 carronade:1 tank:2 elephant:1 express:1 muzzleloader:1 breechloader:1 training:1 entertainment:1 airsoft:1 paintball:1 spud:1 water:1 see:1 culture:1 politics:1 safety:1 railgun:1 citation:1 note:1 reference:1 lee:1 r:1 g:1 introduction:1 technology:1 royal:1 college:1 science:1 shrivenham:1 uk:1 brassey:1 publisher:1 oxford:1 |@bigram breech_load:2 howitzer_mortar:1 trajectory_projectile:1 submachine_gun:3 decimal_fraction:1 puerto_rico:1 etymological_dictionary:1 muzzle_blast:1 gun_howitzer:1 nuclear_weapon:1 fissile_material:1 recoilless_rifle:1 grenade_launcher:1 assault_rifle:1 sniper_rifle:1 rifle_shotgun:2 semi_automatic:1 gatling_gun:1

Politics_of_American_Samoa

Politics of American Samoa takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency, whereby the Governor is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. American Samoa is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, US Department of the Interior. Its constitution was ratified 1966 and came into effect 1967. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The party system is a copy of the United States party system. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. There is also the traditional village politics of the Samoa Islands, the "faamatai" and the "faasamoa", which continues in American Samoa and in independent Samoa, and which interacts across these current boundaries. The Fa'asamoa is the language and customs, and the Fa'amatai the protocols of the "fono" (council) and the chiefly system. The Fa'amatai and the Fono take place at all levels of the Samoan body politic, from the family, to the village, to the region, to national matters. The "matai" (chiefs) are elected by consensus within the fono of the extended family and village(s) concerned. The matai and the fono (which is itself made of matai) decide on distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of communal lands. The majority of lands in American Samoa and independent Samoa are communal. A matai can represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands, and to both American Samoa and independent Samoa. Government The United States Congress, in the joint resolution of February 20, 1929, , provided that (until the Congress shall provide for the Government of the islands of American Samoa) all civil, judicial, and military powers shall be vested in such person or persons and exercised in such manner as the President of the United States shall direct. In , the President of the United States directed that the Secretary of the Interior should take such action as may be necessary and appropriate for the administration of civil government in American Samoa. The Secretary of the Interior promulgated the Constitution of American Samoa which was approved by a Constitutional Convention of the people of American Samoa and a majority of the voters of American Samoa voting at the 1966 election, and came into effect in 1967. The government operates under a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency, whereby the Governor of American Samoa is the head of government. Legislative power is vested in the American Samoa Fono. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Executive branch The power of the executive is formally vested The governor and the lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms. Legislative branch The Legislature, or Fono, has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 18 members, elected for a two year term, seventeen in single-seat constituencies and one by a public meeting on Swain Island. The Senate also has 18 members, elected for a four year term by and from the chiefs of the islands. Judicial branch The High Court of American Samoa is the highest court below the United States Supreme Court in American Samoa, with the District Courts below it. The High Court is located in the capital of Pago Pago. It consists of a Chief Justice and an Associate Justice, appointed by the United States Secretary of the Interior. Political parties and elections An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in American Samoa. At the 2 November 2004 election Eni F. H. Faleomavaega of the Democratic Party (United States) defeated the Republican candidate and was re-elected. International organization participation ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC See also Political party strength in American Samoa

Politics_of_American_Samoa |@lemmatized politics:2 american:16 samoa:20 take:3 place:2 framework:2 presidential:2 representative:3 democratic:3 dependency:2 whereby:2 governor:4 head:2 government:7 pluriform:1 multi:1 party:6 system:4 unincorporated:1 unorganized:1 territory:1 united:8 state:8 administer:1 office:1 insular:1 affair:1 u:1 department:1 interior:4 constitution:2 ratify:1 come:2 effect:2 executive:5 power:5 exercise:2 legislative:3 vest:4 two:3 chamber:2 legislature:4 copy:1 judiciary:2 independent:5 also:3 traditional:1 village:3 island:5 faamatai:1 faasamoa:1 continue:1 interact:1 across:2 current:1 boundary:1 fa:3 asamoa:1 language:1 custom:1 amatai:2 protocol:1 fono:6 council:1 chiefly:1 level:1 samoan:1 body:1 politic:1 family:5 region:1 national:1 matter:1 matai:4 chief:3 elect:5 consensus:1 within:1 extended:2 concern:1 make:1 decide:1 distribution:1 exchange:1 tenancy:1 communal:2 land:2 majority:2 represent:1 small:1 group:1 great:1 reach:1 congress:2 joint:1 resolution:1 february:1 provide:2 shall:3 civil:2 judicial:2 military:1 person:2 manner:1 president:2 direct:2 secretary:3 action:1 may:1 necessary:1 appropriate:1 administration:1 promulgate:1 approve:1 constitutional:1 convention:1 people:1 voter:1 voting:1 election:6 operate:1 branch:3 formally:1 lieutenant:1 ticket:1 popular:1 vote:1 four:2 year:3 term:3 house:1 member:2 seventeen:1 single:1 seat:1 constituency:1 one:1 public:1 meeting:1 swain:1 senate:1 high:3 court:5 supreme:1 district:1 locate:1 capital:1 pago:2 consist:1 justice:2 associate:2 appoint:1 political:2 overview:1 result:1 include:1 november:1 eni:1 f:1 h:1 faleomavaega:1 defeat:1 republican:1 candidate:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 escap:1 interpol:1 subbureau:1 ioc:1 spc:1 see:1 strength:1 |@bigram dependency_whereby:2 pluriform_multi:1 unorganized_territory:1 judiciary_independent:2 body_politic:1 lieutenant_governor:1 legislative_branch:1 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 escap_associate:1 interpol_subbureau:1

Evidence-based_medicine

Evidence-based medicine (EBM) aims to apply evidence gained from the scientific method to certain parts of medical practice. It seeks to assess the quality of evidence relevant to the risks and benefits of treatments (including lack of treatment). According to the Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine, "Evidence-based medicine is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients." EBM recognizes that many aspects of medical care depend on individual factors such as quality- and value-of-life judgments, which are only partially subject to scientific methods. EBM, however, seeks to clarify those parts of medical practice that are in principle subject to scientific methods and to apply these methods to ensure the best prediction of outcomes in medical treatment, even as debate about which outcomes are desirable continues. Process and progress Using techniques from science, engineering, and statistics, such as meta-analysis of medical literature, risk-benefit analysis, and randomized controlled trials (RCTs), EBM aims for the ideal that healthcare professionals should make "conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence" in their everyday practice. Ex cathedra statements by the "medical expert" are considered to be least valid form of evidence. All "experts" are now expected to reference their pronouncements to scientific studies. The systematic review of published research studies is a major method used for evaluating particular treatments. The Cochrane Collaboration is one of the most well known and well respected examples of systematic reviews. A 2007 analysis of 1016 systematic reviews from all 50 Cochrane Collaboration Review Groups found that 44% of the reviews concluded that the intervention was "likely to be beneficial", 7% concluded that the intervention was "likely to be harmful", and 49% concluded that evidence "did not support either benefit or harm". 96% recommended further research. A 2001 review of 160 Cochrane systematic reviews (excluding complementary treatments) in the 1998 database revealed that, according to two readers, 41.3% concluded positive or possibly positive effect, 20% concluded evidence of no effect, 8.1% concluded net harmful effects, and 21.3% of the reviews concluded insufficient evidence. A review of 145 alternative medicine Cochrane reviews using the more up-to-date 2004 database revealed that 38.4% concluded positive effect or possibly positive (12.4%) effect, 4.8% concluded no effect, 0.69% concluded harmful effect, and 56.6% concluded insufficient evidence. Committee on the Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine by the American Public. (2005). Complementary and Alternative Medicine in the United States. National Academies Press. Generally, there are three distinct, but interdependent, areas of EBM. The first is to treat individual patients with acute or chronic pathologies by treatments supported in the most scientifically valid medical literature. Thus, medical practitioners would select treatment options for specific cases based on the best research for each patient they treat. The second area is the systematic review of medical literature to evaluate the best studies on specific topics. This process can be very human-centered, as in a journal club, or highly technical, using computer programs and information techniques such as data mining. Increased use of information technology turns large volumes of information into practical guides. Finally, evidence-based medicine can be understood as a medical "movement" in which advocates work to popularize the method and usefulness of the practice in the public, patient communities, educational institutions, and continuing education of practicing professionals. Classification Two types of evidence-based medicine have been proposed. Evidence-based guidelines Evidence-based guidelines (EBG) is the practice of evidence-based medicine at the organizational or institutional level. This includes the production of guidelines, policy, and regulations. This approach has also been called evidence based healthcare. Amazon.com: Evidence-Based Healthcare: J. A. Muir Gray: Books Evidence-based individual decision making Evidence-based individual decision (EBID) making is evidence-based medicine as practiced by the individual health care provider. There is concern that current evidence-based medicine focuses excessively on EBID. History While some find traces of evidence-based medicine's origin in ancient Greece, Sackett DL, Rosenberg W, Gray JA, et al. Evidence based medicine: what is it and what it isn't. BMJ. 1996; 312:71-2. EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE: Interpreting Studies and Setting Policy others trace its roots to ancient Chinese medicine. Sackett DL, Straus S, Richardson S, Rosenberg W, Haynes B. Evidence based medicine: how to practice and teach EBM. 2nd ed. London: Churchill Livingston. The Impact Of Evidence-Based Medicine And Evolving Technology On The Standard Of Care In Emergency Medicine, Edward P. Monico, M.D., J.D., Department of Surgery, Section of Emergency Medicine, Yale University Although testing medical interventions for efficacy has existed since the time of Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine in the 11th century, D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [449]. Walter J. Daly and D. Craig Brater (2000), "Medieval contributions to the search for truth in clinical medicine", Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 (4), p. 530–540 [536], Johns Hopkins University Press. it was only in the 20th century that this effort evolved to impact almost all fields of health care and policy. Professor Archie Cochrane, a Scottish epidemiologist, through his book Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services (1972) and subsequent advocacy, caused increasing acceptance of the concepts behind evidence-based practice. Cochrane's work was honoured through the naming of centres of evidence-based medical research — Cochrane Centres — and an international organization, the Cochrane Collaboration. The explicit methodologies used to determine "best evidence" were largely established by the McMaster University research group led by David Sackett and Gordon Guyatt. The term "evidence based" was first used in 1990 by David Eddy. The term "evidence-based medicine" first appeared in the medical literature in 1992 in a paper by Guyatt et al. Guyatt G, Cairns J, Churchill D, et al. [‘Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group’] "Evidence-based medicine. A new approach to teaching the practice of medicine." JAMA 1992;268:2420-5. PMID 1404801 Relevant journals include the British Medical Journal's Clinical Evidence, the Journal Of Evidence-Based Healthcare and Evidence Based Health Policy. All of these were co-founded by Anna Donald, an Australian pioneer in the discipline.. Qualification of evidence Evidence-based medicine categorizes different types of clinical evidence and ranks them according to the strength of their freedom from the various biases that beset medical research. For example, the strongest evidence for therapeutic interventions is provided by systematic review of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials involving a homogeneous patient population and medical condition. In contrast, patient testimonials, case reports, and even expert opinion have little value as proof because of the placebo effect, the biases inherent in observation and reporting of cases, difficulties in ascertaining who is an expert, and more. Systems to stratify evidence by quality have been developed, such as this one by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force for ranking evidence about the effectiveness of treatments or screening: Level I: Evidence obtained from at least one properly designed randomized controlled trial. Level II-1: Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without randomization. Level II-2: Evidence obtained from well-designed cohort or case-control analytic studies, preferably from more than one center or research group. Level II-3: Evidence obtained from multiple time series with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled trials might also be regarded as this type of evidence. Level III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees. The UK National Health Service uses a similar system with categories labeled A, B, C, and D. The above Levels are only appropriate for treatment or interventions; different types of research are required for assessing diagnostic accuracy or natural history and prognosis, and hence different "levels" are required. For example, the Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine suggests levels of evidence (LOE) according to the study designs and critical appraisal of prevention, diagnosis, prognosis, therapy, and harm studies: Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine Levels of Evidence and Grades of Recommendation Level A: Consistent Randomised Controlled Clinical Trial, cohort study, all or none (see note below), clinical decision rule validated in different populations. Level B: Consistent Retrospective Cohort, Exploratory Cohort, Ecological Study, Outcomes Research, case-control study; or extrapolations from level A studies. Level C: Case-series study or extrapolations from level B studies. Level D: Expert opinion without explicit critical appraisal, or based on physiology, bench research or first principles. A newer system is by the Grade Working Group and takes in account more dimensions that just the quality of medical evidence. "Extrapolations" are where data is used in a situation which has potentially clinically important differences than the original study situation. Thus, the quality of evidence to support a clinical decision is a combination of the quality of research data and the clinical 'directness' of the data. Despite the differences between systems, the purposes are the same: to guide users of clinical research information about which studies are likely to be most valid. However, the individual studies still require careful critical appraisal. Note: The all or none principle is met when all patients died before the Rx became available, but some now survive on it; or when some patients died before the Rx became available, but none now die on it. Categories of recommendations In guidelines and other publications, recommendation for a clinical service is classified by the balance of risk versus benefit of the service and the level of evidence on which this information is based. The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force uses: Level A: Good scientific evidence suggests that the benefits of the clinical service substantially outweighs the potential risks. Clinicians should discuss the service with eligible patients. Level B: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that the benefits of the clinical service outweighs the potential risks. Clinicians should discuss the service with eligible patients. Level C: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that there are benefits provided by the clinical service, but the balance between benefits and risks are too close for making general recommendations. Clinicians need not offer it unless there are individual considerations. Level D: At least fair scientific evidence suggests that the risks of the clinical service outweighs potential benefits. Clinicians should not routinely offer the service to asymptomatic patients. Level I: Scientific evidence is lacking, of poor quality, or conflicting, such that the risk versus benefit balance cannot be assessed. Clinicians should help patients understand the uncertainty surrounding the clinical service. Statistical measures in evidence-based medicine Evidence-based medicine attempts to express clinical benefits of tests and treatments using mathematical methods. Tools used by practitioners of evidence-based medicine include: Likelihood ratios. The pretest odds of a particular diagnosis, multiplied by the likelihood ratio, determines the post-test odds. (Odds can be calculated from, and then converted to, the [more familiar] probability.) This reflects Bayes' theorem. The differences in likelihood ratio between clinical tests can be used to prioritize clinical tests according to their usefulness in a given clinical situation. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC-ROC) reflects the relationship between sensitivity and specificity for a given test. High-quality tests will have an AUC-ROC approaching 1, and high-quality publications about clinical tests will provide information about the AUC-ROC. Cutoff values for positive and negative tests can influence specificity and sensitivity, but they do not affect AUC-ROC. Number needed to treat or Number needed to harm are ways of expressing the effectiveness and safety of an intervention in a way that is clinically meaningful. In general, NNT is always computed with respect to two treatments A and B, with A typically a drug and B a placebo (in our example above, A is a 5-year treatment with the hypothetical drug, and B is no treatment). A defined endpoint has to be specified (in our example: the appearance of colon cancer in the 5 year period). If the probabilities pA and pB of this endpoint under treatments A and B, respectively, are known, then the NNT is computed as 1/(pB-pA). The NNT for breast mammography is 1/285, so 285 mammograms need to be performed to diagnose one breast cancer. As another example, an NNT of 4 means if 4 patients are treated, only one would respond. An NNT of 1 is the most effective and means each patient treated responds, e.g., in comparing antibiotics with placebo in the eradication of Helicobacter pylori. An NNT of 2 or 3 indicates that a treatment is quite effective (with one patient in 2 or 3 responding to the treatment). An NNT of 20 to 40 can still be considered clinically effective. Quality of clinical trial publications Evidence-based medicine attempts to objectively evaluate the quality of clinical research by critically assessing techniques reported by researchers in their publications. Trial design considerations. High-quality studies have clearly-defined eligibility criteria, and have minimal missing data. Generalizability considerations. Studies may only be applicable to narrowly-defined patient populations, and may not be generalizable to clinical practice. Followup. Sufficient time for defined outcomes to occur can influence the study outcomes and the statistical power of a study to detect differences between a treatment and control arm. Power. A mathematical calculation can determine if the number of patients is sufficient to detect a difference between treatment arms. A negative study may reflect a lack of benefit, or simply a lack of sufficient quantities of patients to detect a difference. Limitations of available evidence It is recognised that not all evidence is made accessible, that this can limit the effectiveness of any approach, and that effort to reduce various publication and retrieval biases is required. Failure to publish negative trials is the most obvious gap, and moves to register all trials at the outset, and then to pursue their results, are underway. Changes in publication methods, particularly related to the Web, should reduce the difficulty of obtaining publication for a paper on a trial that concludes it did not prove anything new, including its starting hypothesis. Treatment effectiveness reported from clinical studies may be higher than that achieved in later routine clinical practice due to the closer patient monitoring during trials that leads to much higher compliance rates.<ref name="BandolierStatins2004"> "Patient Compliance with statins" Bandolier Review 2004</ref> Effectiveness There are mixed reports about whether evidence-based medicine is effective. Using the classification scheme above—dividing evidence-based medicine into evidence-based guidelines (EBG) and evidence-based individual decision (EBID)-- may explain the conflict. It is difficult to find evidence that EBID improves health care, whereas there is growing evidence of improvements in the efficacy of health care when evidence-based medicine is practiced at the organizational level. One of the virtues of healthcare accreditation is that it offers an opportunity to assess the overall functioning of a hospital or healthcare organisation against the best of the currently-available evidence and to assist the hospital or healthcare organisation to move towards a more effective application of evidence-based medical. Limitations of evidence-based medicine Critics of EBM say lack of evidence and lack of benefit are not the same. Also, EBM applies to populations, not necessarily to individuals. In other words a treatment that may not work generally for the population may actually be appropriate for a given individual. In The limits of evidence-based medicine, Tonelli argues that "the knowledge gained from clinical research does not directly answer the primary clinical question of what is best for the patient at hand." Tonelli suggests that proponents of evidence-based medicine discount the value of clinical experience. However, many proponents of EBM argue that the best practice of EBM does not discount clinicians' own experience. For instance David Sackett writes that "the practice of evidence based medicine means integrating individual clinical expertise with the best available external clinical evidence from systematic research". Although evidence-based medicine is becoming regarded as the "gold standard" for clinical practice and treatment guidelines, there are a number of reasons why most current medical and surgical practices do not have a strong literature base supporting them: In some cases, such as in open-heart surgery, conducting randomized, placebo-controlled trials would be unethical, although observational studies may address these problems to some degree. Certain groups have been historically under-researched (racial minorities and people with many co-morbid diseases), and thus the literature is sparse in areas that do not allow for generalizing. The types of trials considered "gold standard" (i.e. randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials) may be expensive, so that funding sources play a role in what gets investigated. For example, public authorities may tend to fund preventive medicine studies to improve public health as a whole, while pharmaceutical companies fund studies intended to demonstrate the efficacy and safety of particular drugs. The studies that are published in medical journals may not be representative of all the studies that are completed on a given topic (published and unpublished) or may be misleading due to conflicts of interest (i.e. publication bias). Thus the array of evidence available on particular therapies may not be well-represented in the literature. A 2004 statement by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (that they will refuse to publish clinical trial results if the trial was not recorded publicly at its outset) may help with this, although this has not yet been implemented. The quality of studies performed varies, making it difficult to compare them and generalize about the results. An additional problem is that large randomized controlled trials are useful for examining discrete interventions for carefully defined medical conditions. The more complex the patient population (e.g. severity of condition, co-morbid conditions, etc) in the study, the more difficult it is to assess the treatment effect (i.e., treatment mean - control group mean), relative to the random variation (within-group variation of both the treatment and control groups). Because of this, a number of studies obtain non-significant results, either because there is insufficient power to show a difference, or because the groups are not well-enough "controlled". Ironically, the fewer restrictions there are on who can participate in a study (i.e., the greater the generalizability of the results to the type of patient being seen in a real-world setting) the less able is the study to detect real differences between groups for a given sample size. Furthermore, evidence-based guidelines do not remove the problem of extrapolation to different populations or longer timeframes. Even if several top-quality studies are available, questions always remain about how far, and to which populations, their results are "generalizable". Furthermore, skepticism about results may always be extended to areas not explicitly covered: for example, a drug may influence a "secondary endpoint" such as test result (blood pressure, glucose, or cholesterol levels) without having the power to show that it decreases overall mortality or morbidity in a population. Insurance companies use evidence-based guidelines sometimes as a basis for denying coverage for a treatment held by the physicians involved to be effective, but for which randomized controlled trials have not yet been published. In some cases, these denials were based upon questions of induction and efficacy as discussed above. For example, if an older generic statin drug has been shown to reduce mortality, is it enough that a newer but much more expensive statin drug lowers cholesterol more effectively, even if mortality reductions have not had enough time to be shown? http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/health/drugs/2004-12-26-crestor-cover_x.htm If a new, costly therapy that works on tumor blood vessels causes two kinds of cancer to go into remission, is it justified as an expense in a third kind of cancer, before this has specifically been proven? http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/02/12/MNGD0H7AGT1.DTL&hw=stanford&sn=013&sc=110 . Kaiser Permanente did not change its methods of evaluating whether or not new therapies were too "experimental" to be covered until it was successfully sued twice: once for delaying IVF treatments for two years after the courts determined that scientific evidence of efficacy and safety had reached the "reasonable" stage; and in another case where Kaiser refused to pay for liver transplantation in infants when it had already been shown to be effective in adults, on the basis that use in infants was still "experimental." http://xnet.kp.org/permanentejournal/winter01/HSnewtec.html Here again, the problem of induction plays a key role in arguments. Evidence-based policy as a government policy goal In his 1996 inaugural speech as President of the Royal Statistical Society, Adrian Smith held out evidence-based medicine as an exemplar for all public policy. He proposed that "evidence-based policy" should be established for education, prisons and policing policy and all areas of government. The Users’ Guides to the Medical Literature are a series of journal articles Guyatt GH, Rennie D. Users' guides to the medical literature. JAMA. 1993; 270:2096-2097. , and more recently a comprehensive textbook Users' Guides to the Medical Literature: A Manual of Evidence-Based Clinical Practice. Guyatt GH, Rennie D, eds. Chicago, IL: AMA Press; 2002. , that provide invaluable tips for clinicians wishing to incorporate evidence-based medicine into their practices. See also Adverse drug reaction Adverse effect (medicine) Clinical trials with surprising outcomes Consensus (medical) Dynamic treatment regimes Epidemiology Evidence-based design Evidence-based management Evidence-based medical ethics Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries Evidence based policy Evidence based practice Guideline (medical) History of medicine Hospital accreditation Medical algorithm Medical research Medicine Nocebo Placebo (origins of technical term) Policy-based evidence making Quality control Source criticism Systematic review References External links -'Institute of Medicine Forum on Evidence Based Medicine' The IOM Roundtable on Evidence-Based Medicine brings together key stakeholders from multiple sectors—patients, health providers, payers, employers, manufacturers, policy makers, and researchers—for cooperative consideration of the ways that evidence can be better developed and applied to drive improvements in the effectiveness and efficiency of medical care in the United States. Cochrane.org - 'The Cochrane Collaboration: The reliable source for evidence in healthcare' (systematic reviews of the effects of health care interventions), Cochrane Library Major source of rigorous EBM evaluations. AHRQ.gov - 'U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF)', Agency for Health Care Research and Quality. Major source of EBM evaluations 'What Is Evidence-Based Medicine?' - American College of Cardiology CMAJ.ca - 'Evidence-based medicine: a commentary on common criticisms', Dr. Sharon E. Straus, Dr. Finlay A. McAlister, Canadian Medical Association Journal, Vol 163, No 7, pp 837 – 841 (October 3, 2000) MJA.com.au - 'Evidence-based medicine: useful tools for decision making', Jonathan C. Craig, Les M. Irwig, Martin R. Stockler, Medical Journal of Australia, vol 174, p 248-253 (2001) ISPUB.com - 'Evidence-biased medicine: Intention-to-treat analysis less conservative?'. The Internet Journal of Epidemiology. 4(1). 2007 GPNoteBook.co.uk - 'Evidence-based medicine (EBM)', General Practice Notebook Free content JR2.ox.ac.uk - 'Bandolier: Evidence-based thinking about health care', Bandolier (journal) Free reviews online SHEF.ac.uk - 'Netting the Evidence: A ScHARR Introduction to Evidence Based Practice on the Internet' (resource directory), University of Sheffield Extensive bibliographies and links to online articles TRIP Database - 'TRIP Database - EBM search engine' (resource directory), TRIP Knowledge Service. Free. BMJ.com - 'Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't: It's about integrating individual clinical expertise and the best external evidence', (editorial) British Medical Journal, vol 312, p 71-72 (January 13, 1996) BMJ.com - 'Evidence based medicine: Socratic dissent', (Education and debate) British Medical Journal, vol 310, p 1126-1127 (April 29, 1995) CEBM.net - Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (UK) Some free content BMJ.BMJjournals.com - 'Parachute use to prevent death and major trauma related to gravitational challenge: systematic review of randomised controlled trials', Gordon C S Smith, Jill P Pell, British Medical Journal'', Vol 327, pp 1459–1461 (20 December 2003) (Classic argument that situations still exist where RCTs are unnecessary.) EBOnCall.org - 'Evidence compendia' (evidence-based summaries of 38 on-call medical conditions), Evidence-Based On-Call (EBOC) Free ProfessorEBM – ‘Interactive teaching modules, with evidence-based summaries of internal medicine topics. Free content and links to classic journal articles. DBSkeptic.com The limits of evidence-based medicine

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Indira_Gandhi

|A young Indira Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi, during one of his fasts Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi ( Indirā Priyadarśinī Gāndhī; née: Nehru; (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was the Prime Minister of the Republic of India for three consecutive terms from 1966 to 1977 and for a fourth term from 1980 until her assassination in 1984, a total of fifteen years. She was India's first and, to date, only female Prime Minister. Born in the politically influential Nehru Family, she grew up in an intensely political atmosphere. Despite the same last name, she is of no familial relation to the statesman Mohandas Gandhi. Her grandfather, Motilal Nehru, was a prominent Indian nationalist leader. Her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a pivotal figure in the Indian independence movement and the first Prime Minister of Independent India. Returning to India from Oxford in 1941, she became involved in the Indian Independence movement. In the 1950s, she served her father unofficially as a personal assistant during his tenure as the first Prime Minister of India. After her father's death in 1964, she was appointed as a member of the Rajya Sabha by the President of India and became a member of Lal Bahadur Shastri's cabinet as Minister of Information and Broadcasting. Gandhi, Indira. (1982) My Truth The then Congress Party President K. Kamaraj was instrumental in making Indira Gandhi the Prime Minister after the sudden demise of Shastri. Gandhi soon showed an ability to win elections and outmaneuver opponents through populism. She introduced more left-wing economic policies and promoted agricultural productivity. A decisive victory in the 1971 war with Pakistan was followed by a period of instability that led her to impose a state of emergency in 1975; she paid for the authoritarian excesses of the period with three years in opposition. Returned to office in 1980, she became increasingly involved in an escalating conflict with separatists in Punjab that eventually led to her assassination by her own bodyguards in 1984. Early life Growing up in India Indira Nehru Gandhi was born on 19 November 1917 to Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and his young wife, Kamala Nehru. She was their only child. The Nehru family can trace their ancestry to the Brahmins of Jammu and Kashmir and Delhi. Motilal Nehru, grandfather of Indira Nehru was a wealthy lawyer of Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. Motilal Nehru was one of the most prominent members of the Indian National Congress in pre-Gandhi times and would go on to author the Nehru Report, the people's choice for a future Indian system of government as opposed to the British system. Her father Jawaharlal Nehru was a well-educated barrister and was a popular leader of the Indian Independence Movement. At the time of Indira's birth, Nehru entered the independence movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Growing up in the sole care of her mother, who was sick and alienated from the Nehru household, Indira developed strong protective instincts and a loner personality. Her grandfather and father continually being enmeshed in national politics also made mixing with her peers difficult. She had conflicts with her father's sisters, including Vijayalakshmi Pandit, and these continued into the political world. In her father's autobiography, Toward Freedom, he writes that the police frequently came to the family home while he was in prison and took away pieces of furniture as payment toward the fines the Government imposed on him. He says, "Indira, my four-year-old daughter, was greatly annoyed at this continuous process of despoliation and protested to the police and expressed her strong displeasure. I am afraid those early impressions are likely to color her future views about the police force generally." Indira created the Vanara Sena movement for young girls and boys which played a small but notable role in the Indian Independence Movement, conducting protests and flag marches, as well as helping Congress politicians circulate sensitive publications and banned materials. In an often-told story, she smuggled out from her father's police-watched house an important document in her schoolbag that outlined plans for a major revolutionary initiative in the early 1930s. Studying in Europe In 1936, her mother, Kamala Nehru, finally succumbed to tuberculosis after a long struggle. Indira was 18 at the time and thus never experienced a stable family life during her childhood. While studying at Somerville College, University of Oxford, England, during the late 1930s, she became a member of the radical pro-independence London based India League. Katherine Frank, pages 139 In early 1940, Indira spent time in a rest home in Switzerland to recover from chronic lung disease. As she had during her childhood, she maintained her long-distance relationship with her father in the form of long letters. They argued about politics. Katherine Frank, pages 144 In her years in continental Europe and the UK, she met a young Parsi man active in politics, Feroze Gandhi (no relation to Mohandas Gandhi). Katherine Frank, pages 136 After returning to India, Feroze Gandhi grew close to the Nehru family, especially to Indira's mother Kamala Nehru and Indira herself. Feroze helped nurse the ailing Kamala too. Marriage to Feroze Gandhi When Indira and Feroze Gandhi returned to India, they were in love and had decided to get married, despite doctors' advice. Katherine Frank, pages 164 Indira liked Feroze's openness, sense of humour and self-confidence. Nehru did not like the idea of his daughter marrying so early and sought Mahatma Gandhi's help to dissuade their love relationship. The lady in love was adamant and the marriage took place in March 1942 according to Hindu rituals. Feroze and Indira were both members of the Indian National Congress, and when they took part in the Quit India Movement in 1942, they were both arrested. Tribute to Feroze Gandhi, Satya Prakash Malaviya, The Hindu, 20-Oct-2002 After independence, Feroze went on to run for election and became a member of parliament from Uttar Pradesh. After the birth of their two sons, Rajiv Gandhi and Sanjay Gandhi, the couple lead a separated life due to some conflict, until 1958. Shortly after his re-election, Feroze suffered a heart attack, which dramatically healed their broken marriage. But the love did not last for many years as Feroze died in September 1960. The Nehru family - Motilal Nehru is seated in the center, and standing (L to R) are Jawaharlal Nehru, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Krishna Hutheesing, Indira, and Ranjit Pandit; Seated: Swaroop Rani, Motilal Nehru and Kamala Nehru (circa 1927). Early leadership President of the Indian National Congress Indira and Mahatma Gandhi circa the 1930s During 1959 and 1960, Gandhi ran for and was elected the President of the Indian National Congress. Her term of office was uneventful. She also acted as her father's chief of staff. Nehru was known as a vocal opponent of nepotism, and she did not contest a seat in the 1962 elections. Minister of Information and Broadcasting Nehru died on 27 May 1964, and Indira, at the urgings of the new Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, contested elections and joined the Government, being immediately appointed Minister for Information and Broadcasting. Katherine Frank, pages 278 She went to Madras when the riots over Hindi becoming the national language in non-Hindi speaking state of Tamilnadu. There she spoke to government officials, soothed the anger of community leaders and supervised reconstruction efforts for the affected areas. Shastri and senior Ministers were embarrassed, owing to their lack of such initiative. Minister Gandhi's actions were probably not directly aimed at Shastri or her own political elevation. She reportedly lacked interest in the day-to-day functioning of her Ministry, but was media-savvy and adept at the art of politics and image-making. "During the succession struggles after 1965 between Mrs. Gandhi and her rivals, the central Congress [party] leadership in several states moved to displace upper caste leaders from state Congress [party] organizations and replace them with backward caste persons and to mobilize the votes of the latter castes to defeat its rivals in the state Congress [party] and in the opposition. The consequences of these interventions, some of which may justly be perceived as socially progressive, have nevertheless often had the consequences of intensifying inter-ethnic regional conflicts... Ibid #2 pages 154 While the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was ongoing, Gandhi was vacationing in the border region of Srinagar. Although warned by the Army that Pakistani insurgents had penetrated very close to the city, she refused to relocate to Jammu or Delhi and instead rallied local government and welcomed the media attention. The Pakistan attack was successfully repelled, and Prime Minister Shastri in January 1966 signed a peace agreement with Pakistan's Ayub Khan, mediated by the Soviets in Tashkent. A few hours later, Shastri was dead of a heart attack. Katherine Frank, pages 284 The Indian National Congress President K. Kamaraj was then instrumental in making Indira Gandhi as Prime Minister, despite the opposition from Morarji Desai who was later defeated by the members of the Congress Parliamentary Party, where Indira Gandhi beat Morarji Desai by 355 votes to 169 to become the fifth Prime Minister of India and the first woman to hold that position. Prime Minister Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the second President of India, administering the oath of office to Indira Gandhi on 24 January 1966. First term Domestic policy When Mrs. Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966 the Congress was split in two factions, the socialists led by Mrs. Gandhi, and the conservatives led by Morarji Desai. Rammanohar Lohia called her Gungi Gudiya which means 'Dumb Doll' Katherine Frank, pages 303. Also lists other put-downs commonly used to describe the forty-year-old Indira Gandhi, both in the press and by her Congress colleagues. Lyndon Johnson referred to her as 'this girl'. . The internal problems showed in the 1967 election where the Congress lost nearly 60 seats winning 297 seats in the 545 seat Lok Sabha. She had to accommodate Desai as Deputy Prime Minister of India and Finance Minister of India. In 1969 after many disagreements with Desai, the Indian National Congress split. She ruled with support from Socialist and Communist Parties for the next two years. In the same year, in July 1969 she nationalized banks. War with Pakistan in 1971 The Pakistan army conducted widespread atrocities against the civilian populations of East Pakistan. U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere, March 31, 1971, Confidential, 3 pp East Pakistan: Even the Skies Weep, Time Magazine, October 25, 1971. An estimated 10 million refugees fled to India, causing financial hardship and instability in the country. To solve the refugee problem, Indira Gandhi declared war on Pakistan, helping the East Pakistanis gain their independence. The United States under Richard Nixon supported Pakistan, and mooted a UN resolution warning India against going to war. Nixon apparently disliked Indira personally, referring to her as a "witch" and "clever fox" in his private communication with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (now released by the State Department). Nixon's dislike of 'witch' Indira, BBC News, 29-Jun-2005 . Indira signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, resulting in political support and a Soviet veto at the UN. India was victorious in the 1971 war, and Bangladesh was born. Foreign policy She invited the new Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to Shimla for a week-long summit. After the near-failure of the talks, the two heads of state eventually signed the Shimla Agreement, which bound the two countries to resolve the Kashmir dispute by negotiations and peaceful means. Due to her antipathy for Nixon, relations with the United States grew distant, while relations with the Soviet Union grew closer. Indira Gandhi was criticized by some for not making the Line of Control a permanent border while a few critics even believed that Pakistan-administered Kashmir should have been extracted from Pakistan, whose 93, 000 prisoners of war were under Indian control. But the agreement did remove immediate United Nations and third party interference, and greatly reduced the likelihood of Pakistan launching a major attack in the near future. By not demanding total capitulation on a sensitive issue from Bhutto, she had allowed Pakistan to stabilize and normalize. Trade relations were also normalized, though much contact remained frozen(sealed) for years. Devaluation of the Rupee During the late 1960s, Indira's administration decreed a 40% devaluation in the value of the Indian Rupee from 4 to 7 to the US Dollar to boost trade. Nuclear weapons program A national nuclear program was started by Mrs. Gandhi in 1967, in response to the nuclear threat from the People's Republic of China and to establish India's stability and security interests as independent from those of the nuclear superpowers. In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test, unofficially code named as "Smiling Buddha", near the desert village of Pokhran in Rajasthan. Describing the test as for peaceful purposes, India became the world's youngest nuclear power. Green Revolution Richard Nixon and Indira Gandhi in 1971. They had a deep personal antipathy that coloured bilateral relations. Special agricultural innovation programs and extra government support launched in the 1960s finally transformed India's chronic food shortages into surplus production of wheat, rice, cotton and milk. Rather than relying on food aid from the United States - headed by a President whom Mrs. Gandhi disliked considerably (the feeling was mutual: to Nixon, Indira was "the old witch" Nixon's dislike of 'witch' Indira, BBC News, 2005-06-29 ), the country became a food exporter. That achievement, along with the diversification of its commercial crop production, has become known as the "Green Revolution". At the same time, the White Revolution was an expansion in milk production which helped to combat malnutrition, especially amidst young children. 'Food security', as the program was called, was another source of support for Mrs. Gandhi in the years leading up to 1975. Established in the early 1960s, the Green Revolution was the unofficial name given to the Intense Agricultural District Program (IADP) which sought to insure abundant, inexpensive grain for urban dwellers upon whose support Gandhi—as indeed all Indian politicians—heavily depended. Ibid. #3 pages 295 The program was based on four premises: 1) New varieties of seed(s), 2) Acceptance of the necessity of the chemicalization of Indian agriculture, i.e. fertilizers, pesticides, weed killers, etc., 3) A commitment to national and international cooperative research to develop new and improved existing seed varieties, 4) The concept of developing a scientific, agricultural institutions in the form of land grant colleges. Farmer, B.H.,Perspectives on the 'Green Revolution Modern Asian Studies, xx No.1 (February, 1986) pages 177 Lasting about ten years, the program was ultimately to bring about a tripling of wheat production, a lower but still impressive increase of rice; while there was little to no increase (depending on area, and adjusted for population growth) of such cereals as millet, gram and coarse grain, though these did, in fact, retain a relatively stable yield. 1971 election victory, and second term (1971-1975) Indira's government faced major problems after her tremendous mandate of 1971. The internal structure of the Congress Party had withered following its numerous splits, leaving it entirely dependent on her leadership for its election fortunes. Garibi Hatao (Stop Poverty) was the theme for Gandhi's 1971 bid. The slogan and the proposed anti-poverty programs that came with it were designed to give Gandhi an independent national support, based on rural and urban poor. This would allow her to bypass the dominant rural castes both in and of state and local government; likewise the urban commercial class. And, for their part, the previously voiceless poor would at last gain both political worth and political weight. The programs created through Garibi Hatao, though carried out locally, were funded, developed, supervised, and staffed by New Delhi and the Indian National Congress party. "These programs also provided the central political leadership with new and vast patronage resources to be disbursed... throughout the country." Rath, Nilakantha, "Garibi Hatao": Can IRDP Do It?"(EWP,xx,No.6) February 1981. . Scholars and historians now agree as to the extent of the failure of Garibi Hatao in alleviating poverty - only about 4% of all funds allocated for economic development went to the three main anti-poverty programs, and precious few of these ever reached the 'poorest of the poor' - and the empty sloganeering of the program was mainly used instead to engender populist support for Gandhi's re-election. Corruption charges and verdict of electoral malpractice On 12 June 1975 the High Court of Allahabad declared Indira Gandhi's election to the Lok Sabha void on grounds of electoral malpractice. In an election petition filed by Raj Narain (who later on defeated her again in 1977 parliamentary election from Rae Bareily, after she got convicted of using corrupt electoral practices in 1971 against him), he had alleged several major as well as minor instances of using government resources for campaigning. Katherine Frank, pages 372 The court thus ordered her to be removed from her seat in Parliament and banned from running in elections for six years. The Prime Minister must be a member of either the Lok Sabha (lower house in the Parliament of India) or the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of the Parliament). Thus, this decision effectively removed her from office. Raj Narain alongwith Indira Gandhi dominated Indian politics post independence. She always struggled against him. But Mrs Gandhi rejected calls to resign and announced plans to appeal to the Supreme Court. The verdict was delivered by Mr Justice Sinha at Allahabad High Court. It came almost four years after the case was brought by Raj Narain, the premier's defeated opponent in the 1971 parliamentary election. Mrs Gandhi, who gave evidence in her defence during the trial, was found guilty of dishonest election practices, excessive election expenditure, and of using government machinery and officials for party purposes. The judge rejected more serious charges of bribery against her. Indira insisted the conviction did not undermine her position, despite having been unseated from the lower house of parliament, Lok Sabha, by order of the High Court. She said: "There is a lot of talk about our government not being clean, but from our experience the situation was very much worse when [opposition] parties were forming governments". And she dismissed criticism of the way her Congress Party raised election campaign money, saying all parties used the same methods. The prime minister retained the support of her party, which issued a statement backing her. After news of the verdict spread, hundreds of supporters demonstrated outside her house, pledging their loyalty.Indian High Commissioner BK Nehru said Mrs Gandhi's conviction would not harm her political career."Mrs Gandhi has still today overwhelming support in the country," he said. "I believe the prime minister of India will continue in office until the electorate of India decides otherwise". Indira began an appeal against her conviction for corrupt electoral practices. She controversially declared a state of emergency, claiming there was a plot to disrupt democracy. Thousands were arrested, including about 20 MPs, and the Indian media was censored. In August 1975 the Lok Sabha passed legislation to clear Gandhi of her corruption convictions retroactively, as she had strong-armed her opponents out of Parliament, and had arrested many of them. Protests and civil disobedience When Indira appealed the decision and declared she would continue to serve the people "till her last breath", Katherine Frank, pages 373 the opposition parties and their supporters, eager to gain political capital from the situation, rallied en masse calling for her resignation. The sheer number of strikes by unions and protesters paralyzed life in many states. To strengthen this movement, J. P. Narayan called upon the police to disobey orders if asked to fire on unarmed crowds. Public disenchantment with her government combined with hard economic times, and huge crowds of protesters surrounded the Parliament building and her residence in Delhi, demanding her resignation. A still from Anand Patwardhan's first documentary Waves of Revolution, about the unrest in Bihar, distributed clandestinely within India and smuggled out in sections to create awareness abroad. Indira had already been accused of authoritarianism. By using her strong parliamentary majority, her ruling Congress Party had amended the Constitution and altered the balance of power between the Centre and the States in favour of the Central Government. She had twice imposed "President's Rule" under Article 356 of the Constitution by declaring states ruled by opposition parties as "lawless and chaotic", and thus seizing control. In addition, elected officials and the administrative services resented the growing influence of Sanjay Gandhi, who had become Gandhi's close political adviser at the expense of men like P. N. Haksar, Gandhi's previous adviser during her rise to power. In response to her new tendency for authoritarian use of power, public figures and former freedom-fighters like Jaya Prakash Narayan, Satyendra Narayan Sinha and Acharya Jivatram Kripalani toured India, speaking actively against her and her government. State of Emergency (1975-1977) Gandhi moved to restore order by ordering the arrest of most of the opposition participating in the unrest. Her Cabinet and government then recommended that President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declare a state of emergency, because of the disorder and lawlessness following the Allahabad High Court decision. Accordingly, Ahmed declared a State of Emergency caused by internal disorder, based on the provisions of Article 352 of the Constitution, on 26 June 1975. Rule by decree Within a few months, President's Rule was imposed on the two opposition party ruled states of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu thereby bringing the entire country under direct Central rule.<ref> Kochanek, Stanely, "Mrs. Gandhi's Pyramid: The New Congress, (Westview Press, Boulder, CO 1976) pages 98</ref> Police were granted powers to impose curfews and indefinitely detain citizens and all publications were subjected to substantial censorship by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Inder Kumar Gujral, a future prime minister himself, resigned as Minister for Information and Broadcasting to protest Sanjay Gandhi's interference in his work. Finally, impending legislative assembly elections were indefinitely postponed, with all opposition-controlled state governments being removed by virtue of the constitutional provision allowing for a dismissal of a state government on recommendation of the state's governor. Indira used the emergency provisions to grant herself extraordinary powers. "Unlike her father [Nehru], who preferred to deal with strong chief ministers in control of their legislative parties and state party organizations, Mrs. Gandhi set out to remove every Congress chief minister who had an independent base and to replace each of them with ministers personally loyal to her...Even so, stability could not be maintained in the states..." Brass, Paul R., The Politics of India Since Independence,(Cambridge University Press, England 1995) pages 40 It is alleged that she further moved President Ahmed to issue ordinances that did not need to be debated in Parliament, allowing her to rule by decree. Simultaneously, Gandhi's government undertook a campaign to stamp out dissent including the arrest and detention of thousands of political activists; Sanjay was instrumental in initiating the clearing of slums around Delhi's Jama Masjid under the supervision of Jag Mohan, later Lt. Governor of Delhi, which allegedly left thousands of people homeless and hundreds killed, and led to communal embitterment in those parts of the nation's capital; and the family planning program which forcibly imposed vasectomy on thousands of fathers and was often poorly administered. Elections After extending the state of emergency twice, in 1977 Indira Gandhi called for elections, to give the electorate a chance to vindicate her rule. Gandhi may have grossly misjudged her popularity by reading what the heavily censored press wrote about her. In any case, she was opposed by the Janata Party. Janata, led by her long-time rival, Desai and with Jai Prakash Narayan as its spiritual guide, claimed the elections were the last chance for India to choose between "democracy and dictatorship." Indira's Congress party was beaten soundly. Indira and Sanjay Gandhi both lost their seats, and Congress was cut down to 153 seats (compared with 350 in the previous Lok Sabha), 92 of which were in the south. Removal, arrest, and return Mrs. Gandhi with M.G. Ramachandran, Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu. In the post-emergency elections in 1977, only the Southern states returned Congress majorities. 1984 USSR commemorative stamp Desai became Prime Minister and Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, the establishment choice of 1969, became President of the Republic. Gandhi found herself without work, income or residence until winning a by-election in 1978. The Congress Party split during the election campaign of 1977. Veteran Gandhi supporter like Jagjivan Ram and her most loyal Bahuguna & Nandini Satpathy parted ways. All three of them were very close to Indira but were compeled due to politicking and circumstances created by Sanjay Gandhi. The rumour then was that Sanjay had intentions of dislodging Indira's power . The Congress (Gandhi) Party was now a much smaller group in Parliament, although the official opposition. Unable to govern owing to fractious coalition warfare, the Janata government's Home Minister, Choudhary Charan Singh, ordered the arrest of Indira and Sanjay Gandhi on several charges, none of which would be easy to prove in an Indian court. The arrest meant that Indira was automatically expelled from Parliament. However, this strategy backfired disastrously. Her arrest and long-running trial, however, gained her great sympathy from many people who had feared her as a tyrant just two years earlier. The Janata coalition was only united by its hatred of Indira (or "that woman" as some called her). With so little in common, the government was bogged down by infighting and Gandhi was able to use the situation to her advantage. She began giving speeches again, tacitly apologizing for "mistakes" made during the Emergency. Desai resigned in June 1979, and Charan Singh was appointed Prime Minister by Reddy after Mrs. Gandhi promised that Congress would support his government from outside. After a short interval, she withdrew her initial support and President Reddy dissolved Parliament in the winter of 1979. In elections held the following January, Congress was returned to power with a landslide majority. In the 1980s, the Indira Gandhi Government provided money, weapons and military training to LTTE and other Tamil millitant groups in Sri Lanka. Lost opportunities for the Tamils Third term Currency crisis During the early 1980s, Indira's administration failed to arrest the 40 percent fall in the value of the Indian Rupee from 7 to 12 to the US Dollar. Operation Blue Star and assassination Indira Gandhi's blood-stained saree and her belongings at the time of her assassination, preserved at the Indira Gandhi Memorial Museum in New Delhi. Gandhi's later years were bedeviled with problems in Punjab. In June 1984, Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale 's separatist Sikh freedom fighter group were camping within the walls of Golden Temple, Sikhism's holiest shrine. Ibid, pages 105. Despite the presence of thousands of civilians in the Golden Temple complex at the time; the army opened fire resulting in civilian casualties. This attempt of Gandhi was highly condemned by international media. Government and independent accounts differ in the number of military and civilian casualties. Government estimates include four officers, seventy-nine soldiers, and 492 sikhs; independent accounts are much higher, perhaps 500 or more troops and 3, 000 sikhs, including many women and children caught in the crossfire. Guha, Ramachandra India after Gandhi pg.563 While the exact figures related to civilian casualties are disputed, lack of decent records, the timing and method of the attack were widely criticized. Most of the criticism was directed was against Indira Gandhi using this as a personal attack on Sikhs. She justified this up by saying the attack was led to flush out terrorist Bhindaranwale who was creating "animosity" by preaching ideas of independence for sikhs, and idea of forming a separate state called Khalistan. Indira Gandhi had numerous bodyguards, two of whom were Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, both Sikhs. On 31 October 1984 they assassinated Indira Gandhi with their service weapons in the garden of the Prime Minister's Residence at No. 1, Safdarjung Road in New Delhi. As she was walking to be interviewed by the British actor Peter Ustinov filming a documentary for Irish television, she passed a wicket gate, guarded by Satwant and Beant. According to information available immediately following the incident, Beant Singh shot her three times using his side-arm and Satwant Singh fired 30 rounds indiatimepass http://www.indiatimepass.com/famous_indians/Indra-gandhi.html , using a Sten submachine gun. Beant Singh was shot dead and Satwant Singh was shot and arrested by her other bodyguards. Indira died on her way to the hospital, in her official car, but she was not declared dead until many hours later. She was taken to the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, where doctors operated on her. Official accounts at the time stated as many as 29 entry and exit wounds and some reports stated 31 bullets were extracted from her body. She was cremated on 3 November, near Raj Ghat. After her death, sectarian unrest created by congress politicians loyal to Indira Gandhi engulfed New Delhi and several other cities in India. Gandhi's friend and biographer Pupul Jayakar would later reveal Indira's tension, and her premonition about what might happen in the wake of Operation Blue Star. Personal life Nehru-Gandhi family Indira Gandhi's personal library. Portrait of Feroze and Indira Gandhi. Initially Sanjay had been her chosen heir; but after his death in a flying accident, his mother persuaded a reluctant Rajiv Gandhi to quit his job as a pilot and enter politics in February 1981. After Indira Gandhi's death, Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister. In May 1991, he too was assassinated, this time at the hands of Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam militants. Rajiv's widow, Sonia Gandhi, led the United Progressive Alliance to a surprise electoral victory in the 2004 Lok Sabha elections. Sonia Gandhi declined the opportunity to assume the office of Prime Minister but remains in control of the Congress' political apparatus; Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, formerly finance minister, now heads the nation. Rajiv's children, Rahul Gandhi and Priyanka Gandhi Vadra, have also entered politics. Sanjay Gandhi's widow, Maneka Gandhi - who fell out with Indira after Sanjay's death and was famously thrown out of the Prime Minister's house Khushwant Singh's autobiography - the Tribune - as well as Sanjay's son, Varun Gandhi, are active in politics as members of the main opposition BJP party. Indira Gandhi in popular culture Her assassination is mentioned by Tom Clancy in his novel Executive Orders. Although never mentioned by name, Indira Gandhi is clearly the prime minister in A Fine Balance by Rohinton Mistry. In Salman Rushdie's novel Midnight's Children, Indira is responsible for the eponymous characters' downfall, referred to throughout the novel as "The Widow." This portrayal of Indira Gandhi raised controversy in some circles for its harsh depiction both of her and of her policies. She is also clearly referred to in Rushdie's The Satanic Verses as a prime minister with an "airline pilot son" (itself a reference to Rajiv). In Shashi Tharoor's The Great Indian Novel, the character of Priya Duryodhani clearly refers to Indira Gandhi. Aandhi, a Hindi feature film directed by Gulzar, is a partly fictionalized adaptation of some events in Indira's life, particularly her (played by Suchitra Sen) difficult relationship with her husband (played by Sanjeev Kumar). In Yann Martel's Life of Pi, Indira Gandhi is noted several times as "Mrs. Gandhi" when referring to the political climate of India in the mid 1970s. In Jeffrey Archer's The Prodigal Daughter, she is mentioned by Floretyna Kane when she refers to great women leaders Controversies Indira Gandhi, late Prime Minister of India, implemented a forced sterilization programme in the 1970s.Officially, men with two children or more had to submit to sterilization, but many unmarried young men, political opponents and ignorant men were also believed to have been sterilized. This program is still remembered and criticized in India, and is blamed for creating a wrong public aversion to family planning, which hampered Government programmes for decades. http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Independent/Indira.html . These considerations would strongly imply that Indira Gandhi had strong philosophical and personal convictions to notions of Eugenics, perhaps even being a member of the India Eugenics Society . See also Political Families of The World References External links Indira Gandhi Biography Feature on Indira Gandhi by the International Museum of Women. Obituary, NY Times, November 1, 1984 Assassination in India: A Leader of Will and Force; Indira Gandhi, Born to Politics, Left Her Own Imprint on India 1975: Gandhi found guilty of corruption Further reading Ved Mehta, A Family Affair: India Under Three Prime Ministers (1982) ISBN 0-19-503118-0 Pupul Jayakar, Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography'' (1992) ISBN 9780679424796 Katherine Frank, Indira: the life of Indira Nehru Gandhi (2002) ISBN 0-395-73097-X Ramachandra Guha, India after Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2007) ISBN 978-0-06-019881-7 hjtjg ]]

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isbn:4 intimate:1 x:1 large:1 hjtjg:1 |@bigram indira_nehru:4 mahatma_gandhi:4 prime_minister:27 mohandas_gandhi:2 motilal_nehru:5 jawaharlal_nehru:4 rajya_sabha:2 indira_gandhi:32 decisive_victory:1 jammu_kashmir:1 uttar_pradesh:2 feroze_gandhi:5 rajiv_gandhi:3 sanjay_gandhi:7 chief_staff:1 indo_pakistani:1 ayub_khan:1 sarvepalli_radhakrishnan:1 lyndon_johnson:1 lok_sabha:7 richard_nixon:2 henry_kissinger:1 bbc_news:2 zulfikar_ali:1 ali_bhutto:1 soviet_union:1 indian_rupee:2 nuclear_weapon:1 smile_buddha:1 urban_dweller:1 fertilizer_pesticide:1 coarse_grain:1 alleviate_poverty:1 supreme_court:1 pledge_loyalty:1 civil_disobedience:1 en_masse:1 tamil_nadu:2 westview_press:1 legislative_assembly:1 janata_party:1 commemorative_stamp:1 sri_lanka:1 catch_crossfire:1 peter_ustinov:1 http_www:2 submachine_gun:1 tamil_eelam:1 manmohan_singh:1 tom_clancy:1 salman_rushdie:1 rushdie_satanic:1 satanic_verse:1 jeffrey_archer:1 ucla_edu:1 external_link:1 obituary_ny:1

Economy_of_French_Polynesia

Economy - overview: Since 1962, when France stationed military personnel in the region, French Polynesia has changed from a subsistence economy to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the tourist industry. Tourism accounts for about one-fourth of GDP and is a primary source of hard currency earnings. The small manufacturing sector primarily processes agricultural products. GDP: nominal - US$5.49 billion (2005) GDP - real growth rate: +1.74% (in 2005) GDP - per capita: nominal - US$21,565 (2005) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 3.1% industry: 19% services: 76.9% (2005) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1.1% (2006) Labor force: 65 870 (December 2005) Labor force - by occupation: agriculture 13%, industry 19%, services 68% (2002) Unemployment rate: 11.8% (1994 est.) Budget: revenues: $865 million expenditures: $644,1 million, including capital expenditures of $185 million (1999) Industries: tourism, pearls, agricultural processing, handicrafts, phosphates Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 477 GWh (2004) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 59.72% hydropower: 40.28% nuclear power: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 443.6 GWh (2004) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2004) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2004) Agriculture - products: fish, coconuts, vanilla, vegetables, fruits, coffee, poultry, beef, dairy products Exports: US$197 million (2007) Exports - commodities: cultured pearls 50%, coconut products, mother-of-pearl, vanilla, shark meat (1997) Exports - partners: Hong Kong 34.0%, Japan 31.7%, Metropolitan France 9.2%, United States 7.4% (2007) Imports: $1.9 billion (2007) Imports - commodities: fuels, foodstuffs, equipment Imports - partners: Metropolitan France 30.4%, Singapore 11.4%, United States 9.7%, China 8.0%, New Zealand 7.6% (2007) Debt - external: $NA Economic aid - recipient: $580 million (2004) Currency: 1 Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique franc (CFPF) = 100 centimes Exchange rates: Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique francs (CFPF) per US$1 - 95.89 (2005), 96.04 (2004), 105.66 (2003), 126.71 (2002), 133.26 (2001), 117.67 (January 2000), 111.93 (1999), 107.25 (1998), 106.11 (1997), 93.00 (1996), 90.75 (1995); note - linked at the exact official rate of 0.055 French francs to one Pacifique franc. Now that France has switched its currency to the euro, this static link remains true, at the rate of about 119.26 Pacifique franc to one euro (1 euro being exactly 6.55957 French francs). Fiscal year: calendar year See also : French Polynesia References

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Blade_Runner_2:_The_Edge_of_Human

Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human (1995) is a novel by K. W. Jeter, and a continuation of both the film Blade Runner, and the novel upon which it was based, Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Plot After the events shown in the movie, Deckard has retired to an isolated shack outside the city. He has sealed the replicant Rachael in a Tyrell transport container, which slows down the replicant aging process to prevent lengthy transportation counting against their four-year lifespan, only releasing her for brief intervals. Deckard is approached by a woman identical to Rachael, who explains she is Sarah Tyrell, human niece of Eldon Tyrell, heiress to the entire Tyrell Corporation and the human template (templant) for the Rachael replicant. Sarah asks Deckard to hunt down the "missing" sixth replicant, as mentioned by Bryant in the movie. She explains this was part of a conspiracy against Tyrell - Bryant had removed the data on the sixth replicant from the files. The U.N. organiser of the colonisation program had forced Tyrell to make replicants more human - and thus the U.N. are truly responsible for the replicant rebellion. The U.N. and the police are attempting to shift the blame to Tyrell, gaining public support to destroy the corporation, and part of the plan involves arranging the deaths of the blade runners, so that the public believe that their last line of defence has failed. Deckard breaks into the police headquarters, but finds Bryant has been replaced by a "persynth" simulation, derived from archives of his behaviour, and that the real Bryant is dead. Deckard flees to a safe-house for blade runners, where he is attacked by a half-completed replicant Pris. Sebastian, the engineer from the original film, is now hiding out in the building and has attempted to rebuild her. After stopping the attack, he and Deckard discuss Eldon Tyrell's death. Meanwhile, Dave Holden - the injured blade runner shot by the Leon replicant at the start of the original movie - is kidnapped from hospital by a man claiming to be the Roy Batty templant, who has been hired as a mercenary to hunt down the sixth replicant. He arranges for Holden to be given organ implants to keep him alive. He also claims that replicants had always been used to supervise and control other replicants, and thus all blade runners - including Holden - are replicants. Batty believes that Deckard is the sixth replicant, and they break into Deckard's apartment. Holden incapacitates Batty and travels to the safe-house to try and convince Deckard to team up with him, but Deckard refuses and Holden leaves. A few moments later, Sarah Tyrell arrives at the safe-house, shoots the incomplete Pris, and demands that Deckard leave with her as Sebastian breaks down in tears. Meanwhile, her guards remove the transport container from Deckard's shack. Outside the safe-house, Holden has been watching from his spinner. He identified Sarah from her spinner's records and, having heard the gunshot, assumed that Sarah shot Deckard or vice versa; when he sees them both leave, he wrongly reasons that one of them shot Sebastian because he - being a replicant engineer - had discovered that Deckard was the replicant. With his organ implants failing, Holden is forced to release Batty to aid him. Sarah takes Deckard back to the Tyrell building, where he is released. Deckard returns to the safe-house where Holden and Batty are already waiting; they both attack Deckard. During the fight, Batty jumps over a gap too wide for a normal human, leading Deckard to claim that Batty must be the sixth replicant. Holden overhears the conversation, and shoots Batty. Deckard refuses to confirm or deny Holden's belief that Batty was the replicant, and returns to Tyrell where he finds what he initially believes to be a sleeping Sarah. He is about to shoot her when Sarah's face appears on a video screen, telling him that the sleeping woman is the replicant Rachael. Deckard states that there is no sixth replicant and that Sarah is the one behind the conspiracy to destroy Tyrell. Sarah confirms this: an act of vengeance against her uncle Eldon, who had the Rachael replicant made, then loved the replicant while ignoring her. The report that no blade runner could find the sixth replicant causes the U.N. to trigger explosive devices planted in the building. Deckard flees with Rachael, and they are rescued by Holden. Deckard and Rachael use assumed identities to leave for an off-world colony, while Holden, still unsure if he is a replicant or not, rejoins the police force. In the course of his work, he visits Deckard's old shack, and finds the transport capsule still there, but deactivated, and with Rachael dead inside - the "Sarah" on the video screen at Tyrell was a persynth, and the woman lying sprawled on the bed, whom Deckard rescued, was the real Sarah. Holden is left wondering whether Deckard was unaware of this, or if he knew, but played along because he also got what he wanted. Characters Rick Deckard: The Tyrell Corporation finally locates him, residing at a cabin in the woods with the frozen Rachael. In exchange for getting Rachael back, Deckard agrees to hunt the missing sixth replicant. Roy Batty: The man which Tyrell used as the template for his combat replicants is in fact a man of considerable instability, suffering from a brain disorder that prevents him from experiencing fear. Sarah Tyrell: The niece of Eldon Tyrell, Sarah locates and hires Deckard to eliminate the final replicant in order to retain her corporation's hold over the market. Dave Holden: Starting off bed-ridden after his attack by the replicant Leon, Holden is rescued by Roy who in turn leads him to some startling revelations. J.R. Isidore: A lowly employee of a vet's office, Isidore also works as an underground replicant sympathizer, having made modifications to replicants in order to help them escape detection. Relationship to other works The book's plot draws from other material related to Blade Runner in a number of ways: Deckard, Pris, Sebastian, Leon, Batty, and Holden all appeared in Blade Runner. Many of the parts of the "conspiracy" are based on errors or plot holes identified by fans of the original movie, such as Leon's ability to bring a gun into the Tyrell building, or the reference to the sixth replicant. The character of John Isidore, and his "pet hospital", is taken from Dick's original novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, although that book contained no suggestion that the shop ran a sideline in modifying replicants. Blade Runner's Sebastian was based on Electric Sheep's Isidore, though Jeter features them as separate characters in The Edge of Human. The idea of replicant models being mass-produced, and in particular a woman identical to Rachael existing, is also from Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?; although in that book, Pris was the replicant double of Rachael, and there was no suggestion that replicants were constructed based on human templates. The etymology of the term "blade runner" is revealed to come from the German phrase bleib ruhig, meaning "keep quiet." It was supposedly developed by the Tyrell Corporation to prevent news about replicants malfunctioning. However, it also contradicts material in some ways: Sebastian was stated as being dead in the movie, yet he is alive in The Edge of Human. Pris was clearly stated as being a replicant in both the movie and the original novel, yet The Edge of Human claims she was human. Pris was clearly destroyed by Deckard in both the movie and the original novel. Sebastian's ability to bring Pris back to life as a replicant introduces numerous problems: the book implies that Sebastian somehow was able to do this without realising that her original body was human. It is likewise unclear why Deckard would have left her, or any suspected replicant he retired, in a state from which they could be repaired. "The Final Cut" of Blade Runner removed all reference to a sixth replicant, as it was normally considered a filming goof. Reception Michael Giltz of Entertainment Weekly gave the book a "C-", feeling that "[o]nly hardcore fans will be satisfied by this tale" and saying that Jeter's "habit of echoing dialogue and scenes from the film is annoying and begs comparisons he would do well to avoid." Review Michael Giltz, Entertainment Weekly, Nov 17, 1995 Tal Cohen of Tal Cohen's Bookshelf called The Edge of Human "a good book", praising Jeter's "further, and deeper, investigation of the questions Philip K. Dick originally asked", but criticized the book for its "needless grandioseness" and for "rel[ying] on Blade Runner too heavily, [as] the number of new characters introduced is extremely small..." Review Tal Cohen, Tal Cohen's Bookshelf, 28 August 1999 Ian Kaplan of BearCave.com gave the book three stars out of five, saying that while he was "not entirely satisified" and felt that the "story tends to be shallow", "Jeter does deal with the moral dilemma of the Blade Runners who hunt down beings that are virtually human in every way." Review Ian Kaplan, BearCave.com, Feb 1996 J. Patton of The Bent Cover praised Jeter for "[not] try[ing] to emulate the late Phillip K. Dick", adding, "This book also has all the grittiness and dark edges that the movie showed off so well, along with a very fast pace that will keep you reading into the wee hours of the night." Review J. Patton, The Bent Cover See also Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon References External links Review by Tal Cohen

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Owain_Glyndŵr

Owain Glyndŵr (), or Owain Glyn Dŵr, anglicised by William Shakespeare into Owen Glendower and also sometimes styled Owain IV of Wales (c. 1354 or 1359 – c. 1416) by modern historians, was a Welsh ruler and the last native Welsh person to hold the title Prince of Wales. He instigated an ultimately unsuccessful but long-running revolt against English rule of Wales. bbc.co.uk Owain Glyn Dwr (c.1354 - c.1416) Historic Figures Glyndŵr was a descendant of the Princes of Powys from his father Gruffydd Fychan II, hereditary Tywysog of Powys Fadog and Lord of Glyndyfrdwy, and of those of Deheubarth through his mother Elen ferch Tomas ap Llywelyn. On September 16 1400, Glyndŵr instigated the Welsh Revolt against the rule of Henry IV of England. Although initially successful, the uprising was eventually put down — Glyndŵr was last seen in 1412 and was never captured, nor tempted by Royal Pardons and never betrayed. His final years are a mystery. Glyndŵr has remained a notable figure in the popular culture of both Wales and England, portrayed in Shakespeare's play Henry IV, Part 1 (as Owen Glendower) as a wild and exotic man ruled by magic and emotion ("at my nativity, The front of heaven was full of fiery shapes, Of burning cressets, and at my birth The frame and huge foundation of the earth Shaked like a coward." — Henry IV, Part 1, Act 3, scene 1). In the late 19th century the "Young Wales" movement recreated him as the father of Welsh nationalism, revising the historical image of him and joining him in popular memory as a national hero on par with King Arthur. In 2000, celebrations were held all over Wales to commemorate the 600th anniversary of the Glyndŵr rising. Owain has since been voted in at 23rd in a poll of 100 Greatest Britons in 2002. Early life Banner of Owain GlyndŵrWales's location within the modern United Kingdom – England, Scotland and Northern Ireland are shaded in pink. Glyndŵr was born in c.1354 (possibly 1359) to a prosperous landed family, part of the Anglo-Welsh gentry of the Welsh Marches (the border between England and Wales) in northeast Wales. This group moved easily between Welsh and English societies and language, occupying important offices for the Marcher Lords while maintaining their position as uchelwyr — nobles descended from the pre-conquest Welsh Royal dynasties — in traditional Welsh society. His father, Gruffydd Fychan II, Hereditary Tywysog of Powys Fadog and Lord of Glyndyfrdwy, died some time before 1370 leaving Glyndŵr's mother Elen ferch Tomas ap Llywelyn of Deheubarth a widow and Owain a young man of maybe 16 years at most. Owain probably had an elder brother called Madog but he may have died young. The young Owain ap Gruffydd was fostered at the home of David Hanmer, a rising lawyer shortly to be a Justice of the Kings Bench. Owain is then thought to have been sent to London to study law at the Inns of Court. He probably studied as a legal apprentice for seven years; enough to get a good grasp of the law as a landowner but not enough to be known as a "Man of Law". He was probably in London during the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. By 1383 he had returned to Wales, where he married David Hanmer's daughter, Margaret, started his large family and established himself as the Squire of Sycharth and Glyndyfrdwy with all the responsibilities that entailed. Glyndŵr entered the English king's military service in 1384 when he undertook garrison duty under the renowned 'Welshman' Sir Gregory Sais, or Sir Degory Sais, on the English–Scottish border at Berwick-on-Tweed. In 1385 he saw action under Richard II in his French wars as his scutifer (shield bearer) and later that year served King Richard under the command of John of Gaunt again in Scotland. In 1386 he was called to give evidence in the Scrope v. Grosvenor trial at Chester. In 1387, Owain was in southeast England under Richard Fitzalan, 11th Earl of Arundel in the Channel at the defeat of a Franco-Spanish-Flemish fleet off the coast of Kent. Upon the death of his father-in-law Sir David Hanmer in late 1387, knighted earlier that very year by Richard II, Glyndŵr returned to Wales as executor of his estate. He then served as a squire to Henry Bolingbroke (later Henry IV of England), son of John of Gaunt, at the short, sharp Battle of Radcot Bridge in December 1387. He had gained three years concentrated military experience in different theatres and seen at first hand some key events and people. King Richard was distracted in growing conflict with the Lords Appellant from this time on. Glyndŵr's opportunities were further limited by the death of Sir Gregory Sais in 1390 and the sidelining of Richard Fitzalan, 11th Earl of Arundel and he gladly returned to his stable Welsh estates, living there quietly for ten years during his forties. The bard Iolo Goch ("Red Iolo"), himself a Welsh Lord, visited him throughout the 1390s and wrote a number of odes to Owain, praising Owain's liberality, and writing of Sycharth "Rare was it there / to see a latch or a lock." The Welsh revolt, 1400 - 1415 In the late 1390s, a series of events occurred that began to push Owain towards rebellion, in what was later to be called the Welsh Revolt, the Glyndŵr Rising or the Last War of Independence. His neighbour, Baron Grey de Ruthyn, had seized control of some land, for which, in 1399, Glyndwr appealed to the English Parliament. In 1400 Lord Grey informed Glyndwr too late of a Royal command to levy feudal troops for Scottish border service, thus being able to call the Welshman a traitor in London Court circles Allday, D. Helen Insurrection in Wales The rebellion of the Welsh led by Qwen Glyn Dwr(Glendower) against the English Crown in 1400 Lavenham Terence Dalton (1981) p51 ISBN 0861380010 . Lord Grey was a personal crony of the recently usurping King Henry IV. Glyndwr lost the legal case, and was under personal threat. The deposed king, Richard II, had support in Wales, and in January 1400 serious civil disorder broke out in the English border city of Chester, after the public execution of an officer of the deposed king Skidmore, Ian Owain Glyndwr Prince of Wales Swansea Christopher Davies 1978 p24 ISBN 0715404725 . These events led to Owain being proclaimed Prince of Wales on September 16, 1400, by a small band of followers which included his eldest son, his brothers-in-law, and the Dean of St. Asaph. After a number of initial confrontations between King Henry IV and Owain's followers in September and October 1400, the revolt began to spread in 1401. The whole of northern and central Wales went over to Owain. King Henry appointed Henry Percy – the famous ‘Hotspur’ – to bring the country to order. Hotspur issued an amnesty in March which applied to all rebels with the exception of Owain and his cousins, Rhys and Gwilym, sons of Tudur ap Gronw, (forefather of King Henry VII of England). Both the Tudors were pardoned after their capture of Edward I’s great castle at Conwy. In June, Owain scored his first major victory in the field at Mynydd Hyddgen on Pumlumon. Retaliation by King Henry IV on the Strata Florida Abbey followed, but eventually lead to Henry's retreat. In 1402, the English parliament issued the Penal Laws against Wales, anti-Welsh legislation designed to establish English dominance in Wales but actually pushing many Welshmen into the rebellion. In the same year, Owain captured his arch enemy, Reginald Grey, 3rd Baron Grey de Ruthyn. He was to hold him for a year until he received a substantial ransom from King Henry. Paying back this debt effectively ruined de Grey financially. In June 1402 Sir Edmund Mortimer, the uncle of the Earl of March, was captured. Glyndŵr offered to release Mortimer for a large ransom but, in sharp contrast to his attitude to de Grey, Henry IV refused to pay. Mortimer could be said to have had a greater claim to the English throne than himself so his speedy release was not an option. In response, Sir Edmund negotiated an alliance with Owain and married one of Owain's daughters. It is also in 1402 that mention of the French and Bretons helping Owain were first heard. The French were certainly hoping to use Wales as they had used Scotland as a base from which to fight the English. 1403 marks the year when the revolt became truly national in Wales. Royal officials reported that Welsh students at Oxford University were leaving their studies for Owain and Welsh labourers and craftsmen were abandoning their employers in England and returning to Wales. Owain could also draw on the seasoned troops from the English campaigns in France and Scotland. Hundreds of Welsh archers and experienced men-at-arms left English service to join the rebellion. In 1404, to demonstrate his seriousness as a ruler, Owain held court at Harlech and appointed the devious and brilliant Gruffydd Young as his Chancellor. Soon afterwards he called his first Parliament (or more properly a or "gathering") of all Wales at Machynlleth where he was crowned Prince of Wales and announced his national programme. He declared his vision of an independent Welsh state with a parliament and separate Welsh church. There would be two national universities (one in the south and one in the north) and return to the traditional law of Hywel Dda. Senior churchmen and important members of society flowed to his banner. English resistance was reduced to a few isolated castles, walled towns and fortified manor houses. Tripartite indenture and the year of the French Owain demonstrated his new status by negotiating the "Tripartite Indenture" with Edmund Mortimer and the Earl of Northumberland. The Indenture agreed to divide England and Wales between the three of them. Wales would extend as far as the rivers Severn and Mersey including most of Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire. The Mortimer Lords of March would take all of southern and western England and Thomas Percy, 1st Earl of Worcester, would take the north of England. Most historians have dismissed the Indenture as a flight of fantasy. Owain Glyndŵr Things were improving on the international front too. Although negotiations with the Scots and the Lords of Ireland were unsuccessful, Owain had reasons to hope that the French and Bretons might be more welcoming. Quickly Owain dispatched Gruffydd Young and his brother-in-law, John Hanmer, to negotiate with the French. The result was a formal treaty that promised French aid to Owain and the Welsh. The immediate effect seems to have been that joint Welsh and Franco-Breton forces attacked and laid siege to Kidwelly Castle. The Welsh could also count on semi-official fraternal aid from their fellow Celts in the then independent Brittany and Scotland. Scots and French privateers were operating around Wales throughout Owain’s war. Scots ships had raided English settlements on the Llyn Peninsula in 1400 and 1401. In 1403 a Breton squadron defeated the English in the Channel and devastated Jersey, Guernsey and Plymouth while the French made a landing on the Isle of Wight. By 1404 they were raiding the coast of England, with Welsh troops on board, setting fire to Dartmouth and devastating the coasts of Devon. 1405 was the "Year of the French" in Wales. A formal treaty between Wales and France was negotiated. On the continent the French pressed the English as the French army invaded English Aquitaine. Simultaneously, the French landed in force at Milford Haven in west Wales. They marched through Herefordshire and on into Worcestershire. They met the English army just ten miles from Worcester. The armies took up battle positions daily and viewed each other from a mile without any major action for eight days. Then, for reasons that have never been clear, both sides withdrew. The rebellion founders Charles VI of France did not continue to support Glyndŵr's revolt By 1406, most French forces had withdrawn after politics shifted in Paris toward the peace party. Even Owain's so-called "Pennal Letter", in which he promised Charles VI of France and Avignon Pope Benedict XIII to shift the allegiance of the Welsh Church from Rome to Avignon, produced no effect. There were other signs the revolt was encountering problems. Early in the year Owain’s forces suffered several defeats. King Henry also showed that the English were engaged in more and more ruthless tactics. More serious for the rebellion, English forces landed in Anglesey from Ireland and would gradually push the Welsh back until the resistance in Anglesey formally ended toward the end of 1406. At the same time, the English were adopting a different strategy. Rather than focusing on punitive expeditions favoured by his father, the young Henry of Monmouth adopted a strategy of economic blockade. Using the castles that remained in English control he gradually began to retake Wales while cutting off trade and the supply of weapons. By 1407 this strategy was beginning to bear fruit. One by one the Lordships began to surrender. In the autumn, Owain’s Aberystwyth Castle surrendered. In 1409 it was the turn of Harlech Castle. Edmund Mortimer died in the final battle and Owain’s wife Margaret along with two of his daughters (including Catrin) and three of his Mortimer granddaughters were taken prisoner and incarcerated in the Tower of London. They were all to die in the Tower before 1415. Owain remained free but now was a hunted guerrilla leader. The revolt continued to splutter on. In 1410, after a suicide raid into Shropshire, many of the leading rebellion figures were captured. In 1412, Owain captured, and later ransomed, a leading Welsh supporter of King Henry's, Dafydd Gam ("Crooked David"), in an ambush in Brecon. These were the last flashes of the revolt. This was the last time that Owain was seen alive by his enemies. As late as 1414, there were rumours that the Herefordshire based Lollard leader, Sir John Oldcastle, was communicating with Owain and reinforcements were sent to the major castles in the north and south. But by then things were changing. King Henry IV died in 1413 and his son King Henry V began to adopt a more conciliatory attitude to the Welsh. Royal Pardons were offered to the major leaders of the revolt and other opponents of his father's regime. Disappearance and legacy Nothing certain is now known of Owain after 1412. Despite enormous rewards being offered, he was never captured nor betrayed. He ignored Royal Pardons. Tradition has it that he either died and was buried at his estate in Sycharth or on the estates of his daughters' husbands — Kentchurch in south Herefordshire or Monnington in west Herefordshire, ironically both in England. Owain's daughter, Alys, had married, secretly, Sir John Scudamore, the King's appointed Sheriff of Herefordshire. Somehow he had weathered the rebellion and remained in office. It was rumoured that Owain finally retreated to their home at Kentchurch. In his book The Mystery of Jack of Kent and the Fate of Owain Glyndŵr, Alex Gibbon argues that the folk hero Jack of Kent, also known as Siôn Cent – the family chaplain of the Scudamore family – was in fact Owain Glyndŵr himself. Gibbon points out a number of similarities between Siôn Cent and Glyndŵr (including physical appearance, age, education, character) and claims that Owain spent his last years living with Alys passing himself off as an aging Franciscan friar and family tutor. There are many folktales of Glyndŵr donning disguises to gain advantage over opponents during the rebellion. A grandchild of the Scudamore's was Sir John Donne of Kidwelly, a successful Yorkist courtier, diplomat and soldier, who after 1485 made an accommodation with his fellow-Welshman Henry VII. Through the Donne family many prominent English families are then descended from Owain, including the De Vere family, successive holders of the title Earl of Oxford and the Cavendish family as Duke of Devonshire. In 2006 The Owain Glyndwr Society's president Adrien Jones said: "Four years ago we visited a direct descendant of Glyndwr (Sir John Scudamore), at Kentchurch Court, near Abergavenny. "He took us to Monnington Straddel, in Herefordshire, where one of Glyndwr's daughters, Alice (Alys), had lived. (He) told us that he (Glyndŵr) spent his last days there and eventually died there. It was a family secret for 600 years and even (Sir John's) mother, who died shortly before we visited, refused to reveal the secret. There's even a mound where he is believed to be buried at Monnington Straddel." Issue Owain Glyndŵr is reported to have sired the following children: Gruffudd ab Owain Glyndŵr Madog ab Owain Glyndŵr Maredudd ab Owain Glyndŵr Tomas ab Owain Glyndŵr Siôn ab Owain Glyndŵr Dafydd ab Owain Glyndŵr Ieuan ab Owain Glyndwr Alys ferch Owain Glyndŵr Margaret ferch Owain Glyndŵr Isabel ferch Owain Glyndŵr Jonet ferch Owain Glyndŵr Catrin ferch Owain Glyndŵr Elizabeth ferch Owain Glyndŵr Gwenllian ferch Owain Glyndŵr Jane ferch Owain Glyndŵr Owain Glyndwr is also reported to have had the following siblings: Gruffudd ap Gruffudd Fychan, probably pre-deceased Owain Tudur ap Gruffudd Fychan, Lord of Gwyddelwern Isabel ferch Gruffudd Fychan Margaret ferch Gruffudd Fychan Lowri ferch Gruffudd Fychan Modern legacy Owain is perhaps best remembered outside Wales as the caricatured Welshman of 'Owen Glendower' in Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part One who claims to be able to "call spirits from the vasty deep". In common with the myth of Merlin this places Owain as a druidic mystic and — bluntly — a windbag. After Owain's death, there was little resistance to English rule until, in the 16th century, the Tudor dynasty, whilst allowing Welshmen to become more prominent in English society, saw Owain's revolt as a catastrophe for Wales. In Henry IV Shakespeare portrays him as wild and exotic; a man ruled by magic and emotion in sharp contrast to the logical and reasonable Hotspur. It was not until the late 19th century that Owain's reputation was to be revived. The "Young Wales" movement recreated him as the father of Welsh nationalism. The discovery of Owain's Great Seal and his letters to the French in the Bibliothèque Nationale helped revise historical images of him as a purely local leader. In the First World War, the Welsh Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, unveiled a statue to him in Cardiff City Hall and a postcard showing Owain at the Battle of Mynydd Hyddgen was sold to raise money for wounded Welsh soldiers. Folk memory in Wales had always held him in high regard and almost every parish has some landmark or story about Owain. He joined the long list of failed resistance to English rule in the British Isles, was remembered as a national hero on a par with King Arthur and numerous small groups have adopted his symbolism to advocate independence or nationalism for Wales. For example, during the 1980s, a group calling themselves "Meibion Glyndwr" claimed responsibility for the burning of English holiday homes in Wales. However, perhaps ironically, Glyndŵr was part English himself. Welsh legend states that when Wales is threatened again then he will rise from the his unknown resting place in order to lead the defence of Wales, quite like the legend of King Arthur. The creation of the National Assembly for Wales brought him back into the spotlight and in 2000 celebrations were held all over Wales to commemorate the 600th anniversary of the rising. Stamps were issued with his likeness and streets, parks, and public squares were named after him throughout Wales. Owain’s personal standard — the quartered arms of Powys and Deheubarth rampant — began to be seen all over Wales, especially at rugby union matches against the English. An energetic campaign exists to make September 16, the date Owain raised his standard, a national holiday in Wales. An annual award for achievement in the arts and literature, the Glyndŵr Award, is named after him. In 2007, popular Welsh musicians the Manic Street Preachers wrote a song entitled '1404' based on Owain Glyndŵr. The song can be found on the CD single for 'Autumnsong'. A statue of Owain Glyndŵr on horseback was installed in 2007 in The Square in Corwen, Denbighshire to commemorate his life and his lasting influence on Wales. The waymarked long distance footpath Glyndwr's Way runs through Mid Wales near to his homelands. In 2008, Glyndŵr University was established in Wrexham, Wales. Originally established as the Wrexham School of Science and Art in 1887, it was until the name change known as the North East Wales Institute or "NEWI"). Glyndŵr was born and lived much of his live around Wrexham and the Welsh Marches. Fiction As well as in Shakespeare, Glyndŵr, has been featured in a number of works of literature and is the subject of several historical novels, including: John Cowper Powys: Owen Glendower Martha Rofheart: Cry 'God for Glendower''' (1973) Edith Pargeter: A Bloody Field by ShrewsburyMalcolm Pryce: A Dragon to Agincourt - Y Lolfa ISBN 0-86243-684-2 He is also a character in Shakespeare's Henry IV, part 1 and was the hero of James Hill's UK TV movie Owain, Prince of Wales, broadcast in 1983 in the early days of Channel 4/S4C. He also has a small role as a past Knight of the Word and a ghost who serves the Lady in Terry Brooks' Word/Void trilogy. In the books, he is John Ross' ancestor. For a study of the various ways Glyndŵr has been portrayed in Welsh-language literature of the modern period, see E. Wyn James, Glyndŵr a Gobaith y Genedl: Agweddau ar y Portread o Owain Glyndŵr yn Llenyddiaeth y Cyfnod Modern (Aberystwyth: Cymdeithas Lyfrau Ceredigion, 2007). A chef takes the name of Glyndŵr in Gorgon's Wood, an episode of Jonathan Creek. Bibliography J.E. Lloyd, Owen Glendower. Although written in 1931 this book is still considered a classic. R. Rees Davies, The Revolt of Owain Glyn Dŵr (1995) Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-285336-8 Geoffrey Hodge, Owain Glyn Dwr: The War of Independence in the Welsh Borders (1995) Logaston Press ISBN 1-873827-24-5 Family of Owain Glyndŵr. http://www.gbnf.com/genealog3/maytree/html/d0140/I08621.HTM Burke's Peerage & Baronetage, 106th Edition, Charles Mosley Editor-in-Chief, 1999. pp.714, 1295 Jon Latimer, Deception in War'', (2001), John Murray, pp.12–13. References External links The Owain Glyndwr Society Two letters of Owain Glyndwr, from Adam of Usk "Glyndwr flag flies at city castle" – BBC News 12 September 2005 "Glyndwr's burial mystery 'solved'" – BBC News Owain at 100 Welsh Heroes Medieval Soldier:Soldier of the Month December 2007 Cefn Caer

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Beacon

A Scandinavian beacon being lit. A Beacon is an intentionally conspicuous device designed to attract attention to a specific location. Beacons help guide navigators to their destinations. Types of navigation beacon include radar reflectors, radio beacons, and sonic or visual signals. Visual beacons range from small, single-pile structures to large lighthouses or light stations and are located on land or in water. Lighted beacons are called lights; unlighted beacons are called daybeacons. Classically, beacons are fires lit at well-known locations on hills or high places, used either as lighthouses for navigation at sea, or for signalling over land that enemy troops are approaching, and alerting the defense. As signals, beacons are an ancient form of optical telegraphy, and were always parts of a relay league. Systems of this kind have existed for centuries over much of the world. Indeed, in Scandinavia many hill forts were parts of beacon networks to warn against invading pillagers. In Wales, the Brecon Beacons were named for beacons used to warn of approaching English raiders. In England, the most famous examples are the beacons used in Elizabethan England to warn of the approaching Spanish Armada. Many hills in England are named Beacon Hill after these beacons. Beacons and bonfires are used to mark occasions and celebrate events. In Israel beacons were used to show the beginning of the month. Beacons have often been abused by pirates. A fire at a wrong position was used to direct a ship against cliffs or beaches, so the cargo could be looted after the ship sank or ran aground. In The Lord of the Rings, a series of seven beacons is used as a signaling device between Gondor and Rohan. In the film adaptation of The Return of the King, Gandalf has Pippin light the beacon closest to Minas Tirith. The series is then lit, thereby notifying Rohan's King Théoden that Gondor calls for help in the battle against Sauron. See also Aerodrome beacon Distress radiobeacons (ELTs, PLBs & EPIRBs) Strobe beacon Beacon, New York

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Mathematician

Leonhard Euler is widely considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and/or research is the field of mathematics. Problems in Mathematics The publication of new discoveries in mathematics continues at an immense rate in hundreds of scientific journals. One of the most exciting recent developments was the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem by Andrew Wiles, following 350 years of the brightest mathematical minds attempting to settle the problem. There are many famous open problems in mathematics, many dating back tens, if not hundreds or over two thousand years. Some examples include the ancient problems related to perfect (and multiply perfect) numbers, the Riemann hypothesis (from 1859) and Goldbach's conjecture (1742). The Millennium Prize Problems highlight longstanding, important problems in mathematics and offers a US$1,000,000 reward for solving any one of them. One of these problems, the Poincaré conjecture (1904), was proven by Russian mathematician Grigori Perelman in a paper released in 2003; peer review was completed in 2006, and the proof was accepted as valid. Elusive Proof, Elusive Prover: A New Mathematical Mystery Motivation Mathematicians are people who do research in fields such as number theory, topology, modern algebra, differential topology, functional analysis etc. Most problems and theorems come from within mathematics itself, or are inspired by theoretical physics. To a lesser extent, problems have come from economics, games and computer science. Some problems are simply created for the challenge of solving them. Mathematics has challenged and fascinated ingenious minds for thousands of years, and today it is a prerequisite for physics, computer science, chemistry and many other sciences. There are no Nobel Prizes awarded to mathematicians. The award that is generally viewed as having the highest prestige in mathematics is the Fields Medal. This medal, sometimes described as the "Nobel Prize of Mathematics", is awarded once every four years to as many as four young (under 40 years old) awardees at a time, who are talented mathematicians. Other prominent prizes include the Abel Prize, the Nemmers Prize, the Wolf Prize, the Schock Prize, and the Nevanlinna Prize. Differences Mathematics differs from natural sciences in that physical theories in the sciences are tested by experiments, while mathematical statements are supported by proofs which may be verified objectively by mathematicians. If a certain statement is believed to be true by mathematicians (typically because special cases have been confirmed to some degree) but has neither been proven nor dis-proven, it is called a conjecture, as opposed to the ultimate goal: a theorem that is proven true. Physical theories may be expected to change whenever new information about our physical world is discovered. Mathematics changes in a different way: new ideas don't falsify old ones but rather are used to generalize what was known before to capture a broader range of phenomena. For instance, calculus (in one variable) generalizes to multivariable calculus, which generalizes to analysis on manifolds. The development of algebraic geometry from its classical to modern forms is a particularly striking example of the way an area of mathematics can change radically in its viewpoint without making what was proved before in any way incorrect. While a theorem, once proved, is true forever, our understanding of what the theorem really means gains in profundity as the mathematics around the theorem grows. A mathematician feels that a theorem is better understood when it can be extended to apply in a broader setting than previously known. For instance, Fermat's little theorem for the nonzero integers modulo a prime generalizes to Euler's theorem for the invertible numbers modulo any nonzero integer, which generalizes to Lagrange's theorem for finite groups. Doctoral degree statistics for mathematicians in the United States The number of Doctoral degrees in mathematics awarded each year in the United States has ranged from 750 to 1230 over the past 35 years. In the early seventies, degree awards were at their peak, followed by a decline throughout the seventies, a rise through the eighties, and another peak through the nineties. Unemployment for new doctoral recipients peaked at 10.7% in 1994 but was as low as 3.3% by 2000. The percentage of female doctoral recipients increased from 15% in 1980 to 30% in 2000. As of 2000, there are approximately 21,000 full-time faculty positions in mathematics at colleges and universities in the United States. Of these positions about 36% are at institutions whose highest degree granted in mathematics is a bachelor's degree, 23% at institutions that offer a master's degree and 41% at institutions offering a doctoral degree. The median age for doctoral recipients in 1999-2000 was 30, and the mean age was 31.7. Women in mathematics Emmy Noether While the majority of mathematicians are male, there have been some demographic changes since World War II. Some prominent female mathematicians are Hypatia of Alexandria (ca. 400 AD), Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), Maria Gaetana Agnesi (1718–1799), Emmy Noether (1882–1935), Sophie Germain (1776–1831), Sofia Kovalevskaya (1850–1891), Rózsa Péter (1905–1977), Julia Robinson (1919–1985), Olga Taussky-Todd (1906–1995), Émilie du Châtelet (1706–1749), and Mary Cartwright (1900–1998). The Association for Women in Mathematics is a professional society whose purpose is "to encourage women and girls to study and to have active careers in the mathematical sciences, and to promote equal opportunity and the equal treatment of women and girls in the mathematical sciences." The American Mathematical Society and other mathematical societies offer several prizes aimed at increasing the representation of women and minorities in the future of mathematics. Quotations about or by mathematicians The following are quotations about mathematicians, or by mathematicians. A mathematician is a device for turning coffee into theorems. —Attributed to both Alfréd Rényi Biography of Alfréd Rényi and Paul Erdős Die Mathematiker sind eine Art Franzosen; redet man mit ihnen, so übersetzen sie es in ihre Sprache, und dann ist es alsobald ganz etwas anderes. (Mathematicians are [like] a sort of Frenchmen; if you talk to them, they translate it into their own language, and then it is immediately something quite different.) —Johann Wolfgang von Goethe Some humans are mathematicians; others aren't. —Jane Goodall (1971) In the Shadow of Man Each generation has its few great mathematicians...and [the others'] research harms no one. —Alfred W. Adler (1930- ), "Mathematics and Creativity" Alfred Adler, "Mathematics and Creativity," The New Yorker, 1972, reprinted in Timothy Ferris, ed., The World Treasury of Physics, Astronomy, and Mathematics, Back Bay Books, reprint, June 30, 1993, p, 435. In short, I never yet encountered the mere mathematician who could be trusted out of equal roots, or one who did not clandestinely hold it as a point of his faith that x squared + px was absolutely and unconditionally equal to q. Say to one of these gentlemen, by way of experiment, if you please, that you believe occasions may occur where x squared + px is not altogether equal to q, and, having made him understand what you mean, get out of his reach as speedily as convenient, for, beyond doubt, he will endeavor to knock you down. —Edgar Allan Poe, The purloined letter Mathematics, rightly viewed, possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty – a beauty cold and austere, like that of sculpture, without appeal to any part of our weaker nature, without the gorgeous trappings of painting or music, yet sublimely pure, and capable of a stern perfection such as only the greatest art can show. —Bertrand Russell, The Study of Mathematics A mathematician, like a painter or poet, is a maker of patterns. If his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas. —G. H. Hardy, A Mathematician's Apology Another roof, another proof. —Paul Erdős Some of you may have met mathematicians and wondered how they got that way. —Tom Lehrer When in doubt, expand it out. —Albert Einstein It is impossible to be a mathematician without being a poet in soul. —Sofia Kovalevskaya See also American Mathematical Society Astronomers, Physicists, Philosophers, Scientists List of amateur mathematicians List of female mathematicians List of mathematicians Mathematical Association of America Mathematical joke Mental calculator Notes References A Mathematician's Apology, by G. H. Hardy. Memoir, with foreword by C. P. Snow. Reprint edition, Cambridge University Press, 1992; ISBN 0-521-42706-1 First edition, 1940 Paul Halmos. I Want to Be a Mathematician. Springer-Verlag 1985. Dunham, William. The Mathematical Universe. John Wiley 1994. External links Occupational Outlook – Mathematicians. Information on the occupation of mathematician from the US Department of Labor. Sloan Career Cornerstone Center: Careers in Mathematics. Although US-centric, a useful resource for anyone interested in a career as a mathematician. Learn what mathematicians do on a daily basis, where they work, how much they earn, and more. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. A comprehensive list of detailed biographies. The Mathematics Genealogy Project. Allows to follow the succession of thesis advisors for most mathematicians, living or dead. Unsolved Problems. A list of sixteen major unsolved problems in mathematics at MathWorld. Middle School Mathematician Project Short biographies of select mathematicians assembled by middle school students.

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Erin_Brockovich

Erin Brockovich-Ellis (born June 22, 1960) is an American legal clerk and environmental activist who, despite the lack of a formal law school education, was instrumental in constructing a case against the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) of California in 1993. Since the release of the movie that shares her story and name, she has hosted Challenge America with Erin Brockovich on ABC and Final Justice on Lifetime. She is the president of Brockovich Research & Consulting, a consulting firm. She is currently working as a consultant for the New York law firm Weitz & Luxenberg, which has a focus on personal injury claims for asbestos exposure. http://www.abajournal.com/news/erin_brockovich_signs_on_with_nyc_law_firm Background She was born Erin L. E. Pattee in Lawrence, Kansas to Frank Pattee, an industrial engineer and Betty Jo O'Neal-Pattee, a journalist. She attended Lawrence High School then Kansas State University in Manhattan, Kansas. She worked as a management trainee for Kmart in 1981 but quit after a few months and entered some potentially lucrative beauty pageants. After winning Miss Pacific Coast in 1981, she soon gave up pageant life because she found it shallow. She has lived in California since 1982. Brockovich was involved in a car accident in Reno and was seriously injured. Her case was settled out of court for $50,000. Brockovich received an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters, Honoris Causa Degree and was Commencement Speaker at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles on May 5, 2007. http://www.brockovich.com/bio.htm Pacific Gas litigation The case alleged contamination of drinking water with hexavalent chromium, also known as chromium(VI), in the southern California town of Hinkley. At the center of the case was a facility called the Hinkley Compressor Station, part of a natural gas pipeline connecting to the San Francisco Bay Area constructed in 1952. Between 1952 and 1966, PG&E used hexavalent chromium to fight corrosion in the cooling tower. The wastewater dissolved the hexavalent chromium from the cooling towers and was discharged to unlined ponds at the site. Some of the wastewater percolated into the groundwater, affecting an area near the plant approximately two miles long and nearly a mile wide. PG&E Hinkley Chromium Cleanup California Environmental Protection Agency, 9/10/08 The case was settled in 1996 for $333 million, the largest settlement ever paid in a direct action lawsuit in U.S. history. Other work Working under Thousand Oaks, California-based lawyer Edward L. Masry, Brockovich went on to participate in other anti-pollution lawsuits. One accuses Whitman Corporation of chromium contamination in Willits, California. Another lawsuit, which lists 1,200 plaintiffs, alleges contamination near PG&E's Kettleman Hills Compressor Station in Kings County, California, along the same pipeline as the Hinkley site. The Kettleman suit settled for $335 million in 2006. After experiencing problems with mold contamination in her own home in the Conejo Valley, Brockovich became a prominent activist and educator in this area as well. Today, Brockovich is a noted speaker in demand for U.S. and international speaking engagements. In 2003, Brockovich and Masry filed suit against the Beverly Hills Unified School District, in which the district was accused of harming the health and safety of its students by allowing a contractor to operate an oil well on campus. Beverly Hills Mystery People Magazine. May 19, 2003, Accessed May 30, 2009. Brockovich and Masry alleged that 300 cancer cases were linked to the oil well. Subsequent testing and epidemiological investigation failed to corroborate any link, and Los Angeles County Superior Court Judge Wendell Mortimer granted summary judgment against the plaintiffs. "More Brockovich Claims Tossed." Balance. Civil Justice Association of California. Third Quarter 2007, p.2. In May 2007, the School District announced that it was to be paid $450,000 as reimbursement for legal expenses. Beverly Hills Unified school District Press Release. Beverly Hills United School District. October 8, 2007. In April 2009, Brockovich assisted in the filing of a lawsuit against Prime Tanning Corp. of St. Joseph, MO. The lawsuit claims that waste sludge from the production of leather, containing high levels of hexavalent chromium, was distributed to farmers in northwest Missouri to use as fertilizer on their fields. It is believed to be a potential cause of an abnormally high number of brain tumors (70 since 1996) around the town of Cameron, MO, which is currently being investigated by the EPA. Lawsuit alleges fertilizer was contaminated around Cameron, Mo. Biopic Her story is the topic of a feature film, Erin Brockovich, starring Julia Roberts in the title role. The film was nominated for five Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, Best Actor in a Supporting Role, Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Writing in a Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen. Roberts won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of Erin Brockovich. Erin Brockovich herself had a cameo role as a waitress named Julia R. The name Julia R. was selected to parody the fact that Julia Roberts was playing Erin. References External links Official Site of Erin Brockovich The Brockovich Report - BrockovichBlog.com Official MySpace of Erin Brockovich Erin Brockovich biography on the Biography Channel Evening with Erin Brockovich in Sydney, hosted by the Climate Change Coalition 2007 Detail about Hinkley case at lawbuzz.com Did Hinkley Residents Really Win? at salon.com

Erin_Brockovich |@lemmatized erin:11 brockovich:21 elli:1 bear:2 june:1 american:1 legal:2 clerk:1 environmental:2 activist:2 despite:1 lack:1 formal:1 law:2 school:6 education:1 instrumental:1 construct:2 case:7 pacific:3 gas:3 electric:1 company:1 pg:4 e:5 california:8 since:3 release:2 movie:1 share:1 story:2 name:3 host:2 challenge:1 america:1 abc:1 final:1 justice:2 lifetime:1 president:1 research:1 consulting:1 consult:1 firm:2 currently:2 work:4 consultant:1 new:1 york:1 weitz:1 luxenberg:1 focus:1 personal:1 injury:1 claim:3 asbestos:1 exposure:1 http:2 www:2 abajournal:1 com:5 news:1 background:1 l:2 pattee:3 lawrence:2 kansa:2 frank:1 industrial:1 engineer:1 betty:1 jo:1 neal:1 journalist:1 attend:1 high:3 kansas:1 state:1 university:2 manhattan:1 management:1 trainee:1 kmart:1 quit:1 month:1 enter:1 potentially:1 lucrative:1 beauty:1 pageant:2 win:3 miss:1 coast:1 soon:1 give:1 life:1 find:1 shallow:1 live:1 involve:1 car:1 accident:1 reno:1 seriously:1 injured:1 settle:3 court:2 receive:1 honorary:1 doctorate:1 humane:1 letter:1 honoris:1 causa:1 degree:1 commencement:1 speaker:2 loyola:1 marymount:1 los:2 angeles:2 may:4 bio:1 htm:1 litigation:1 allege:4 contamination:4 drinking:1 water:1 hexavalent:4 chromium:7 also:1 know:1 vi:1 southern:1 town:2 hinkley:6 center:1 facility:1 call:1 compressor:2 station:2 part:1 natural:1 pipeline:2 connect:1 san:1 francisco:1 bay:1 area:3 use:2 fight:1 corrosion:1 cooling:1 tower:2 wastewater:2 dissolve:1 cool:1 discharge:1 unlined:1 pond:1 site:3 percolate:1 groundwater:1 affect:1 near:2 plant:1 approximately:1 two:1 mile:2 long:1 nearly:1 wide:1 cleanup:1 protection:1 agency:1 million:2 large:1 settlement:1 ever:1 pay:2 direct:1 action:1 lawsuit:6 u:2 history:1 thousand:1 oak:1 base:1 lawyer:1 edward:1 masry:3 go:1 participate:1 anti:1 pollution:1 one:1 accuse:2 whitman:1 corporation:1 willits:1 another:1 list:1 plaintiff:2 kettleman:2 hill:5 king:1 county:2 along:1 suit:2 experience:1 problem:1 mold:1 home:1 conejo:1 valley:1 become:1 prominent:1 educator:1 well:3 today:1 noted:1 demand:1 international:1 speaking:1 engagement:1 file:1 beverly:4 unified:2 district:5 harm:1 health:1 safety:1 student:1 allow:1 contractor:1 operate:1 oil:2 campus:1 mystery:1 people:1 magazine:1 access:1 cancer:1 link:3 subsequent:1 testing:1 epidemiological:1 investigation:1 fail:1 corroborate:1 superior:1 judge:1 wendell:1 mortimer:1 grant:1 summary:1 judgment:1 toss:1 balance:1 civil:1 association:1 third:1 quarter:1 p:1 announce:1 reimbursement:1 expense:1 press:1 united:1 october:1 april:1 assist:1 filing:1 prime:1 tan:1 corp:1 st:1 joseph:1 mo:3 waste:1 sludge:1 production:1 leather:1 contain:1 level:1 distribute:1 farmer:1 northwest:1 missouri:1 fertilizer:2 field:1 believe:1 potential:1 cause:1 abnormally:1 number:1 brain:1 tumor:1 around:2 cameron:2 investigate:1 epa:1 contaminate:1 biopic:1 topic:1 feature:1 film:2 star:1 julia:4 robert:3 title:1 role:4 nominate:1 five:1 academy:2 award:2 best:6 actress:2 leading:1 actor:1 supporting:1 director:1 picture:1 writing:1 screenplay:1 write:1 directly:1 screen:1 portrayal:1 cameo:1 waitress:1 r:2 select:1 parody:1 fact:1 play:1 reference:1 external:1 official:2 report:1 brockovichblog:1 myspace:1 biography:2 channel:1 even:1 sydney:1 climate:1 change:1 coalition:1 detail:1 lawbuzz:1 resident:1 really:1 salon:1 |@bigram erin_brockovich:9 http_www:2 beauty_pageant:1 honorary_doctorate:1 doctorate_humane:1 honoris_causa:1 los_angeles:2 hexavalent_chromium:4 san_francisco:1 beverly_hill:4 actor_supporting:1 supporting_role:1 external_link:1

Castrato

A castrato is a man with a singing voice equivalent to that of a soprano, mezzo-soprano, or contralto voice produced either by castration of the singer before puberty or one who, because of an endocrinological condition, never reaches sexual maturity. Castrati should not be confused with eunuchs, who are castrated after puberty and do not share the physical characteristics of someone castrated before puberty. Castration before puberty (or in its early stages) prevents a boy's larynx from being transformed by the normal physiological events of puberty. As a result, the vocal range of prepubescence (shared by both sexes) is largely retained, and the voice develops into adulthood in a unique way. As the castrato's body grew, his lack of testosterone meant that his epiphyses (bone-joints) did not harden in the normal manner. Thus the limbs of the castrati often grew unusually long, as did the bones of their ribs. This, combined with intensive training, gave them unrivalled lung-power and breath capacity. Operating through small, child-sized vocal cords, their voices were also extraordinarily flexible, and quite different from the equivalent adult female voice, as well as higher vocal ranges of the uncastrated adult male (see soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, sopranist, countertenor and contralto). Listening to the only surviving recordings of a castrato (see below), one can hear that the lower part of the voice sounds like a "super-high" tenor, with a more falsetto-like upper register above that. Castrati were rarely referred to as such: in the eighteenth century, the euphemism musico (pl musici) was much more generally used, though it usually carried derogatory implications New Grove Dictionary of Opera, vol 3, p.529, sv "musico" ; another synonym was evirato (literally meaning "emasculated"). History of castration Castration as a means of subjugation, enslavement or other punishment has a very long pedigree, dating back to ancient Sumer (see also Eunuch). In a Western context, eunuch singers are known to have existed from the early Byzantine Empire. In Constantinople around 400 AD the empress Aelia Eudoxia had a eunuch choir-master, Brison, who may have established the use of castrati in Byzantine choirs, though whether Brison himself was a singer, and whether he had colleagues who were eunuch singers, is not certain. By the ninth century, eunuch singers were well-known (not least in the choir of Hagia Sophia), and remained so until the sack of Constantinople by the Western forces of the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Their fate from then until their reappearance in Italy more than three hundred years later is by no means clear, though it seems likely that the Spanish tradition of soprano falsettists may have "hidden" castrati (it should be remembered that much of Spain was under Arab domination at various times during the Middle Ages, and that castration has a history going back to the ancient near east - stereotypically Eunuchs are supposed to have served as harem "guards", but more importantly they served as governors and high-level political appointees - they could not start a dynasty which would threaten the ruler from a powerful position).A Byzantine castrato from the 11th century. Castrati in the European Classical tradition Castrati, many of them having Spanish names, first appeared in Italy in the mid-sixteenth century, though at first the terms describing them were not always clear. The phrase Soprano maschio (male soprano), which could also mean falsettist, occurs in the Due Dialoghi della Musica of Luigi Dentini, an Oratorian priest, published in Rome in 1553. On 9 November 1555 Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este (famed as the builder of the Villa d'Este at Tivoli), wrote to Guglielmo Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua (1538-1587), that he has heard that His Grace is interested in his cantoretti, and offering to send him two, so that he could choose one for his own service. This is a rare term, but probably does equate to castrato. Sherr The Cardinal's brother, Alfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara, was another early enthusiast, enquiring about castrati in 1556. There were certainly castrati in the Sistine Chapel choir in 1558, although not described as such: on 27 April of that year, Hernando Bustamante, a Spaniard from Palencia, was admitted (the first castrati so termed who joined the Sistine choir were Pietro Paolo Folignato and Girolamo Rossini, admitted in 1599). Surprisingly, considering the later French distaste for castrati they certainly existed in France at this time also, being known of in Paris, Orléans, Picardy and Normandy, though they were not abundant, the King of France himself having difficulty in obtaining them. By 1574 there were castrati in the Ducal court chapel at Munich, where the Kapellmeister (music director) was the famous Orlando di Lasso. In 1589, by the bull Cum pro nostri temporali munere, Pope Sixtus V re-organised the choir of St Peter's, Rome specifically to include castrati. Thus the castrati came to supplant both boys (whose voices broke after only a few years) and falsettists (whose voices were weaker and less reliable) from the top line in such choirs. Women were banned by the Pauline dictum mulieres in ecclesiis taceant ("let women keep silent in church"; see I Corinthians, ch 14, v 34). Castrati in opera Castrati had parts in the earliest operas: in the first performance of Monteverdi's Orfeo (1607) they played subsidiary roles, including that of Euridice. By 1680, however, they had supplanted "normal" male voices in lead roles, and retained their hegemony as primo uomo for about a hundred years; an opera not featuring at least one renowned castrato in a lead part would be doomed to fail. Because of the popularity of Italian opera throughout 18th-century Europe (except France), singers such as Ferri, Farinelli, Senesino and Pacchierotti became the first operatic superstars, earning enormous fees and hysterical public adulation. Heriot, A: The Castrati in Opera (London, 1956), chs. 1-3 passim The strictly hierarchical organisation of opera seria favoured their high voices as symbols of heroic virtue, though they were frequently mocked for their strange appearance and bad acting. A caricature of Farinelli in a female role, by Pier Leone Ghezzi 1724. In more recent times, perhaps the strongest objection to castrati in Europe originated in the means by which the preparation of future singers frequently led to their premature deaths. To prevent the child from experiencing the intense pain of castration, many were inadvertently administered lethal doses of opium or some other narcotic, or were killed by overlong compression of the carotid artery in the neck (intended to render them unconscious during the castration procedure). During the eighteenth century itself, the music historian Charles Burney was sent from pillar to post in search of places where the operation was carried out: "I enquired throughout Italy at what place boys were chiefly qualified for singing by castration, but could get no certain intelligence. I was told at Milan that it was at Venice; at Venice that it was at Bologna; but at Bologna the fact was denied, and I was referred to Florence; from Florence to Rome, and from Rome I was sent to Naples... it is said that there are shops in Naples with this inscription: 'QUI SI CASTRANO RAGAZZI' ("Here boys are castrated"); but I was utterly unable to see or hear of any such shops during my residence in that city." Scholes, P (ed): Dr Burney's Musical Tours in Europe (London, 1959), vol 1, p 247 The training of the boys was rigorous. The regime of one singing school in Rome (c. 1700) consisted of one hour of singing difficult and awkward pieces, one hour practising trills, one hour practising ornamented passaggi, one hour of singing exercises in their teacher's presence and in front of a mirror so as to avoid unnecessary movement of the body or facial grimaces, and one hour of literary study; all this, moreover, before lunch. After, half-an-hour would be devoted to musical theory, another to writing counterpoint, an hour copying down the same from dictation, and another hour of literary study. During the remainder of the day, the young castrati had to find time to practice their harpsichord playing, and to compose vocal music, either sacred or secular depending on their inclination. see Bontempi, G: Historia Musica (Perugia, 1695), p. 170. This demanding schedule meant that, if sufficiently talented, they were able to make a debut in their mid-teens with a perfect technique and a voice of a flexibility and power no woman or ordinary male singer could match.The castrato Carlo Scalzi, by Joseph Flipart, c. 1737. In the 1720s and 1730s, at the height of the craze for these artificially-preserved voices, it has been estimated that upwards of 4000 boys were castrated annually in the service of art. a claim first made in Pleasants, H., "The Castrati", Stereo Review, July 1966, p. 38) Many came from poor homes and were castrated by their parents in the hope that their child might be successful and lift them from poverty (this was the case with Senesino). There are, though, records of some young boys asking to be operated on to preserve their voices (e.g. Caffarelli, who was from a wealthy family: his grandmother gave him the income from two vineyards to pay for his studies). Caffarelli was also typical of many castrati in being famous for tantrums on and off-stage, and for amorous adventures with noble ladies. Some, as described by Casanova, preferred gentlemen (noble or otherwise). Casanova, G. Memoirs (tr. A. Machen, with additional tr. by A. Symons (London, 1894) vol. 4c, ch. 10; available online at www.gutenberg.net Modern endocrinology would suggest that the castrati's much-vaunted sexual prowess was more the stuff of legend than reality - in addition to lacking a hormonal (but not a socio-psychological) sex drive, a castrato's remaining genitalia will not develop in size or develop the mechanism to achieve an erection. Only a small percentage of boys castrated to preserve their voices had successful careers on the operatic stage; the better "also-rans" sang in cathedral or church choirs, but because of their marked appearance and the ban on their marrying, there was little room for them in society outside a musical context. Decline By the late eighteenth century, changes in operatic taste and social attitudes spelled the end for castrati. They lingered on past the end of the ancien régime (which their style of opera parallels), and two of their number, Pacchierotti and Crescentini, even entranced the iconoclastic Napoleon. The last great operatic castrato was Giovanni Battista Velluti (1781-1861), who performed the last operatic castrato role ever written: Armando in Il Crociato in Egitto by Meyerbeer (Venice, 1824). Soon after this they were replaced definitively as the first men of the operatic stage by the new breed of heroic tenor as incarnated by the Frenchman Gilbert-Louis Duprez, the earliest "king of the high Cs", whose successors are singers like Caruso, Jussi Björling, Franco Corelli and Luciano Pavarotti. After the unification of Italy in 1870, castration for musical purposes was made officially illegal (the new Italian state had adopted a French legal code which expressly forbade the practice). In 1878, Pope Leo XIII prohibited the hiring of new castrati by the church: only in the Sistine Chapel and in other papal basilicas in Rome did a few castrati linger. A group photo of the Sistine Choir taken in 1898 shows that by then only six remained (plus the Direttore Perpetuo, the fine soprano castrato Domenico Mustafà), and in 1902 a ruling was extracted from Pope Leo that no further castrati should be admitted. The official end to the castrati came on St. Cecilia's Day, 22 November 1903, when the new pope, Pius X, issued his motu proprio, Tra le Sollecitudini ('Amongst the Cares'), which contained this instruction: "Whenever . . . it is desirable to employ the high voices of sopranos and contraltos, these parts must be taken by boys, according to the most ancient usage of the Church." The last Sistine castrato to survive was Alessandro Moreschi, the only castrato to have made solo recordings. While an interesting historical record, these give us only a glimpse of the castrato voice - though he had been renowned as "The Angel of Rome" at the beginning of his career, some would say he was past his prime when the recordings were made in 1902 and 1904. Clapton, N.: Alessandro Moreschi and the World of the Castrato (London, 2008), p197-216 He retired officially in March 1913, and died in 1922. Alessandro Moreschi, c. 1880. The Catholic Church's involvement in the castrato phenomenon has long been controversial, and there have recently been calls for it to issue an official apology for its role. As early as 1748, Pope Benedict XIV tried to ban castrati from churches, but such was their popularity at the time that he realised that doing so might result in a drastic decline in church attendance. There have also long been rumours of another castrato sequestered in the Vatican for the personal delectation of the Pontiff until as recently as 1959, but these have been definitively shown to be false. The singer in question was a pupil of Moreschi's, Domenico Mancini, such a skillful imitator of his teacher's voice that even Lorenzo Perosi, Direttore Perpetuo of the Sistine Choir from 1898 to 1956 and a lifelong opponent of castrati, thought he was a castrato. Mancini was in fact a moderately skilful falsettist and professional double-bass player. Clapton, N.: Alessandro Moreschi and the World of the Castrato (London, 2008), p 180-181, 200 Modern castrati and similar voices So-called "natural" or "endocrinological castrati" are born with hormonal anomalies such as Kallmann's syndrome, or have undergone unusual physical or medical events during their early lives that reproduce the vocal effects of castration without the surgeon's knife. Javier Medina, Radu Marian and Jorge Cano are examples of this type of high male voice. The case of Michael Maniaci is somewhat different, in that he has no hormonal or other anomalies, but for some unknown reason, his voice did not "break" in the usual manner, leaving him still able to sing in the soprano register. Other uncastrated male adults sing soprano, generally using some form of falsetto, but in a much higher range than the more common countertenor. Examples are Aris Christofellis, Radu Marian, Jörg Waschinski, and Ghio Nannini. However, it is believed the castrati possessed more of tenorial chest register. One notable exception is the jazz vocalist Jimmy Scott who uses only the low register, matching approximately the range used by female blues singers. Similarly, Turkish singer Cem Adrian has the ability to sing from bass to soprano, as his vocal cords have been reported to be three times the average length. In popular culture The Franco-Italian film Farinelli deals with the life, career, frustration and brother (a director-composer) of the castrato Carlo Broschi (stagename Farinelli). His voice was "reconstructed" by a mixture of counter-tenor and female soprano, and the film takes enormous liberties with history in the pursuit of cinematic effect. The disinterment of Farinelli's body in 2006 for scientific analysis was widely reported. Malcolm Moore, Farinelli's body disinterred to find secrets of castrati, The Daily Telegraph, July 14, 2006. Accessed 27 April 2008. Anne Rice's novel Cry to Heaven, although a romantic novel, is based upon solid research and, notwithstanding the novelization, captures a strong sense of the training and world of castrato singers in 18th century Venice and Naples. Kingsley Amis's novel The Alteration deals in part with Hubert Anvil, a ten-year-old singer in the choir of St. George's Basilica, Coverley, whose mentors decide his voice is too precious to lose and that he should become a castrato (hence the title). The novel's setting is an imaginary Europe where the Reformation never took place. In Russell T Davies' 2005 version of Casanova, Nina Sosanya played Bellino, a woman pretending to be a castrato, whose true sex was, however, eventually revealed when an ultrasound showed that she had ovaries. In Lucy Powell's one man show True or Falsetto? A Secret History of the Castrati, Ernesto Tomasini played the "castrato voice" in a picaresque journey throughout history. Premiered at the Edinburgh Fringe in 2002, the show was subsequently staged in countries like England, Holland and Mexico, among others. Its last revival was a Spanish adaptation that opened in Valencia in 2007. Jeanette Winterson's novel Art & Lies includes a subplot dealing with castration, eroticism, and the Church. Ross King's 2002 novel Domino has a long subplot about castrati in early 18th-century Italy. Michael Upchurch, A Nice Game of Slobberhannes (review of Domino), New York Times, December 29, 2002. Accessed 27 April 2008. In the Pirates of the Caribbean movie trilogy (2003-2007) the character Captain Jack Sparrow often tells other characters as a running joke that his acquaintance Will Turner is a eunuch with a "terrific soprano." In the final film of the trilogy, one of the pirate lords of the Brethren Court is revealed to have a very high-pitched voice, suggesting that he is a real castrato, when the presence of facial hair disproves it. The Simpsons episode The Two Mrs. Nahasapeemapetilons, in which preparations are underway for Apu's arranged marriage, includes the following dialogue exchange: Marge: I've been looking over this list for the ceremony. I've got the extra wine glasses but I'm still short a Tandoori oven, an elephant and four castrati. Bart: What's a castrati? Marge: I don't know but I'm sure it's something spicy. TV.com http://www.tv.com/the-simpsons/the-two-mrs.-nahasapeemapetilons/episode/1470/trivia.html Some famous castrati Baldassare Ferri (1610 - 1680) Antonio Bernacchi (1685 - 1756) Francesco Bernardi (Senesino) (1686 - 1758) Carlo Broschi (Farinelli) (1705 - 1782) Gaetano Majorano (Caffarelli) (1710 - 1783) Giovanni Manzuoli (1720 - 1782) Gaetano Guadagni (1725 - 1792) Gasparo Pacchierotti (1740 - 1821) Luigi Marchesi (1754 - 1829) Girolamo Crescentini (1762 - 1848) Giovanni Velluti (1781 - 1861) Domenico Mustafà (1829 - 1912) Domenico Salvatori (1855 - 1909) Alessandro Moreschi (1858 - 1922) Notes References Bontempi, G: Historia Musica (Perugia, 1695) Casanova, G: Memoirs (tr Machen, A., with additional tr by Symons, A; London, 1894) Haböck, F: Die Kastraten und ihre Gesangskunst (Berlin, 1927) Heriot, A: The Castrati in Opera (London, 1956) Scholes, P (ed): Dr Burney's Musical Tours in Europe (London, 1959) Pleasants, H: The Castrati ("Stereo Review", July 1966) Sherr, R: Guglielmo Gonzaga and the Castrati ("Renaissance Quarterly", vol 33, no 1, Spring 1980, pp 33–56) Rosselli, J: The Castrati as a Professional Group and a Social Phenomenon, 1550-1850, ("Acta Musicologica", LX, Basel, 1988) Moran, N: Byzantine castrati ("Plainsong and medieval Music", vol 11, no 2, Cambridge, 2002, pp 99–112) Tougher, S (ed): Eunuchs in Antiquity and Beyond (London, 2002) Clapton, N: Moreschi, the Last Castrato (London, 2004) External links Castrati Exhibition All you would like to know about Castrati Castrados por amor al arte Singing Voice: Castrati Recordings: Antonio Maria Bononcini's Vorrei pupille belle, sung by Radu Marian 1904 Recording of Alessandro Moreschi singing Bach/Gounod Ave Maria Javier Medina Avila, including an audio sample (Riccardo Broschi: Ombra fedele anch'io) The Last Castrato

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Copacabana_(Rio_de_Janeiro)

Famous Portuguese pavement wave pattern at Copacabana beach. Copacabana is a borough located in the southern zone of the city Rio de Janeiro, known for its 4 km beach which is one of the most famous of the world. The district was originally called Sacopenapã until the mid-18th century. It was renamed after the construction of a chapel holding a replica of the Virgin of Copacabana, the patron saint of Bolivia. It was incorporated into the city on July 6, 1892. Copacabana begins at Princesa Isabel Avenue and ends at Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower Six). Beyond Copacabana, there are two small beaches, one inside Fort Copacabana and other, right after it: Diabo Beach. Arpoador beach, where surfers use to go after its perfect waves, comes in the sequence, followed by the famous borough of Ipanema. According to Riotur, the Tourism Secretariat of Rio de Janeiro, there are 63 hotels and 10 hostels in Copacabana. Riotur Copacabana Beach A view of the Copacabana beach. Copacabana beach stretches from Posto Dois (lifeguard watchtower Two) to Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower Six). Leme is at Posto Um (lifeguard watchtower One).There are historic forts at both ends of Copacabana beach; Fort Copacabana, built in 1914, is at the south end by Posto Seis and Fort Duque de Caxias, built in 1779, at the north end. One curiosity is that the lifeguard watchtower of Posto Seis never existed. FUNCEB - Fundação Cultural Exército Brasileiro Hotels, restaurants, bars, night clubs and residential buildings dot the promenade. Copacabana Beach plays host to millions of revelers during the annual New Year's Eve celebrations and, in most years, has been the official venue of the FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup. In 1970 the Dutch Dredging Company R. Boltje & Zonen-Zwolle using a special dredger (Transmundum III) broadened the beach by 70 meters to a length of over 4 kilometers. Living Standard Copacabana has the 11th highest Human Development Index in Rio, the 2000 census put the HDI of Copacabana at 0.902 which is higher than the HDI of Portugal at 0.897. (of course, whoever made this comparison is not very intelligent as it is just unrealistic to compare the HDI if a neighbourhood against that of an entire country) Compilação de dados, informações e fatos sobre Copacabana - Copacabana.COM Even though the HDI is high, there are four slum areas in Copacabana: Morro dos Cabritos, Pavão-Pavãozinho, Chapéu Mangueira and Babilônia (Leme). The Borough According to the IBGE, 160,000 people live in Copacabana and 44,000 or 27.5% of them are 60 years old or older. spl.camara.rj.gov.br/spl/spl_docdown; jsessionid=D87126B13F258E820EA8A71A891194B3?id=8449 Veja Rio on-line Copacabana covers an area of 7.84 km² which gives the borough a population density of 20,400 people per km². Residential buildings eleven to thirteen stories high built right next to each other dominate the borough. Homes and two-story buildings are rare. Transportation More than 40 different bus routes serve Copacabana, Rio Ônibus as do three subway Metro stations: Cantagalo, Siqueira Campos and Cardeal Arcoverde, with a fourth one (General Osório Station) Being built. Three major arteries parallel to each other cut across the entire boroughe: Atlantic Avenue, which is a 6 lane 4 km avenue by the beachside, Nossa Senhora de Copacabana Avenue and Barata Ribeiro/Raul Pompéia Street both of which are 4 lanes and 3.5 km in length. Barata Ribeiro Street changes its name to Raúl Pompéia Street after the Sá Freire Alvim Tunnel. Twenty-four streets intersect all three major arteries, and seven other streets intersect some of the three, but not all. Notable events A photograph of the Copacabana Palace hotel. On December 31, 1994, the New Year's Eve celebrations featured a Rod Stewart concert, which featured over 3.5 million fans, making it the largest concert crowd ever . More recently, the beach has been a site for huge free concerts unrelated to the year-end festivities. On March 21, 2005, Lenny Kravitz performed there in front of 300,000 people, on a Monday night. On February 18, 2006, a Saturday, the Rolling Stones surpassed that mark by far, attracting over 1.3 million people to the beach. On July 7, 2007, the beach hosted the Brazilian leg of the Live Earth concerts, which attracted 400,000 people. As the headliner, Lenny Kravitz got to play the venue a second time, with Jorge Benjor, Macy Gray, O Rappa and Pharrell as the main opening acts. References External links History of Copacabana (in English) Mapilot Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Tourist Guide with Rio satellite image and search engine with information about Copacabana, Ipanema, Leblon, ... Copacabana Beach Photo Gallery with Video, Map and Informations

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Functor

In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a functor is a special type of mapping between categories. Functors can be thought of as morphisms in the category of small categories. Functors were first considered in algebraic topology, where algebraic objects (like the fundamental group) are associated to topological spaces, and algebraic homomorphisms are associated to continuous maps. Nowadays, functors are used throughout modern mathematics to relate various categories. The word "functor" was borrowed by mathematicians from the philosopher Rudolf Carnap [Mac Lane, p. 30]. Carnap used the term "functor" to stand in relation to functions analogously as predicates stand in relation to properties. [See Carnap, The Logical Syntax of Language, p.13-14, 1937, Routledge & Kegan Paul.] For Carnap then, unlike modern category theory's use of the term, a functor is a linguistic item. For category theorists, a functor is a particular kind of function. Definition Let C and D be categories. A functor F from C to D is a mapping that associates to each object an object , associates to each morphism a morphism such that the following two conditions hold: for every object for all morphisms and That is, functors must preserve identity morphisms and composition of morphisms. A functor from a category to itself is called an endofunctor. Covariance and contravariance There are many constructions in mathematics which would be functors but for the fact that they "turn morphisms around" and "reverse composition". We then define a contravariant functor F from C to D as a mapping that associates to each object an object associates to each morphism a morphism such that for every object , for all morphisms and Note that contravariant functors reverse the direction of composition. Ordinary functors are also called covariant functors in order to distinguish them from contravariant ones. Note that one can also define a contravariant functor as a covariant functor on the dual category . Some authors prefer to write all expressions covariantly. That is, instead of saying is a contravariant functor, they simply write (or sometimes ) and call it a functor. Contravariant functors are also occasionally called cofunctors. Examples Constant functor: The functor C → D is one which maps every object of C to a fixed object X in D and every morphism in C to the identity morphism on X. Such a functor is called a constant or selection functor. Diagonal functor: The diagonal functor is defined as the functor from D to the functor category DC which sends each object in D to the constant functor at that object. Limit functor: For a fixed index category J, if every functor J→C has a limit (for instance if C is complete), then the limit functor CJ→C assigns to each functor its limit. The existence of this functor can be proved by realizing that it is the right-adjoint to the diagonal functor and invoking the Freyd adjoint functor theorem. This requires a suitable version of the axiom of choice. Similar remarks apply to the colimit functor (which is covariant). Power sets: The power set functor P : Set → Set maps each set to its power set and each function to the map which sends to its image . One can also consider the contravariant power set functor which sends to the map which sends to its inverse image . Dual vector space: The map which assigns to every vector space its dual space and to every linear map its dual or transpose is a contravariant functor from the category of all vector spaces over a fixed field to itself. Fundamental group: Consider the category of pointed topological spaces, i.e. topological spaces with distinguished points. The objects are pairs (X, x0), where X is a topological space and x0 is a point in X. A morphism from (X, x0) to (Y, y0) is given by a continuous map f : X → Y with f(x0) = y0. To every topological space X with distinguished point x0, one can define the fundamental group based at x0, denoted π1(X, x0). This is the group of homotopy classes of loops based at x0. If f : X → Y morphism of pointed spaces, then every loop in X with base point x0 can be composed with f to yield a loop in Y with base point y0. This operation is compatible with the homotopy equivalence relation and the composition of loops, and we get a group homomorphism from π(X, x0) to π(Y, y0). We thus obtain a functor from the category of pointed topological spaces to the category of groups. In the category of topological spaces (without distinguished point), one considers homotopy classes of generic curves, but they cannot be composed unless they share an endpoint. Thus one has the fundamental groupoid instead of the fundamental group, and this construction is functorial. Algebra of continuous functions: a contravariant functor from the category of topological spaces (with continuous maps as morphisms) to the category of real associative algebras is given by assigning to every topological space X the algebra C(X) of all real-valued continuous functions on that space. Every continuous map f : X → Y induces an algebra homomorphism C(f) : C(Y) → C(X) by the rule C(f)(φ) = φ o f for every φ in C(Y). Tangent and cotangent bundles: The map which sends every differentiable manifold to its tangent bundle and every smooth map to its derivative is a covariant functor from the category of differentiable manifolds to the category of vector bundles. Likewise, the map which sends every differentiable manifold to its cotangent bundle and every smooth map to its pullback is a contravariant functor. Doing these constructions pointwise gives covariant and contravariant functors from the category of pointed differentiable manifolds to the category of real vector spaces. Group actions/representations: Every group G can be considered as a category with a single object whose morphisms are the elements of G. A functor from G to Set is then nothing but a group action of G on a particular set, i.e. a G-set. Likewise, a functor from G to the category of vector spaces, VectK, is a linear representation of G. In general, a functor G → C can be considered as an "action" of G on an object in the category C. If C is a group, then this action is a group homomorphism. Lie algebras: Assigning to every real (complex) Lie group its real (complex) Lie algebra defines a functor. Tensor products: If C denotes the category of vector spaces over a fixed field, with linear maps as morphisms, then the tensor product defines a functor C × C → C which is covariant in both arguments. Forgetful functors: The functor U : Grp → Set which maps a group to its underlying set and a group homomorphism to its underlying function of sets is a functor. Functors like these, which "forget" some structure, are termed forgetful functors. Another example is the functor Rng → Ab which maps a ring to its underlying additive abelian group. Morphisms in Rng (ring homomorphisms) become morphisms in Ab (abelian group homomorphisms). Free functors: Going in the opposite direction of forgetful functors are free functors. The free functor F : Set → Grp sends every set X to the free group generated by X. Functions get mapped to group homomorphisms between free groups. Free constructions exist for many categories based on structured sets. See free object. Homomorphism groups: To every pair A, B of abelian groups one can assign the abelian group Hom(A,B) consisting of all group homomorphisms from A to B. This is a functor which is contravariant in the first and covariant in the second argument, i.e. it is a functor Abop × Ab → Ab (where Ab denotes the category of abelian groups with group homomorphisms). If f : A1 → A2 and g : B1 → B2 are morphisms in Ab, then the group homomorphism Hom(f,g) : Hom(A2,B1) → Hom(A1,B2) is given by φ g o φ o f. See Hom functor. Representable functors: We can generalize the previous example to any category C. To every pair X, Y of objects in C one can assign the set Hom(X,Y) of morphisms from X to Y. This defines a functor to Set which is contravariant in the first argument and covariant in the second, i.e. it is a functor Cop × C → Set. If f : X1 → X2 and g : Y1 → Y2 are morphisms in C, then the group homomorphism Hom(f,g) : Hom(X2,Y1) → Hom(X1,Y2) is given by φ g o φ o f. Functors like these are called representable functors. An important goal in many settings is to determine whether a given functor is representable. Presheaves: If X is a topological space, then the open sets in X form a partially ordered set Open(X) under inclusion. Like every partially ordered set, Open(X) forms a small category by adding a single arrow U → V if and only if . Contravariant functors on Open(X) are called presheaves on X. For instance, by assigning to every open set U the associative algebra of real-valued continuous functions on U, one obtains a presheaf of algebras on X. Properties Two important consequences of the functor axioms are: F transforms each commutative diagram in C into a commutative diagram in D; if f is an isomorphism in C, then F(f) is an isomorphism in D. On any category C one can define the identity functor 1C which maps each object and morphism to itself. One can also compose functors, i.e. if F is a functor from A to B and G is a functor from B to C then one can form the composite functor GF from A to C. Composition of functors is associative where defined. This shows that functors can be considered as morphisms in categories of categories. A small category with a single object is the same thing as a monoid: the morphisms of a one-object category can be thought of as elements of the monoid, and composition in the category is thought of as the monoid operation. Functors between one-object categories correspond to monoid homomorphisms. So in a sense, functors between arbitrary categories are a kind of generalization of monoid homomorphisms to categories with more than one object. Bifunctors and multifunctors A bifunctor (also known as a binary functor) is a functor in two arguments. The Hom functor is a natural example; it is contravariant in one argument, covariant in the other. Formally, a bifunctor is a functor whose domain is a product category. For example, the Hom functor is of the type Cop × C → Set. A multifunctor is a generalization of the functor concept to n variables. So, for example, a bifunctor is a multifunctor with n=2. Relation to other categorical concepts Let C and D be categories. The collection of all functors C→D form the objects of a category: the functor category. Morphisms in this category are natural transformations between functors. Functors are often defined by universal properties; examples are the tensor product, the direct sum and direct product of groups or vector spaces, construction of free groups and modules, direct and inverse limits. The concepts of limit and colimit generalize several of the above. Universal constructions often give rise to pairs of adjoint functors. See also Types of functors Additive functor: a functor between categories whose hom-sets are abelian groups is additive if it is a group homomorphism of the hom-sets Adjoint functors: functors F and G are adjoint if Hom(FX,Y)≅Hom(X,GY), where the isomorphism is natural in X and Y Derived functor: the image of a short exact sequence under a functor that is only half-exact can be extended to a long exact sequence, the objects of which are images of a derived functor Enriched functor Essentially surjective functor: a functor every object of whose codomain is isomorphic to the image of an object in the domain Exact functor: a functor that takes short exact sequences to short exact sequences Faithful functor: a functor that is injective on the set of morphisms with given domain and codomain Full functor: a functor that is surjective on the set of morphisms with given domain and codomain Smooth functor: a functor F from K-Vect to K-Vect such that Hom(V,W) → Hom(FV,FW) is smooth. Examples include V*, ΛkV, ΣkV and the like. Other Diagram (category theory) Functor category Kan extension References S. Mac Lane. Categories for the Working Mathematician. Springer-Verlag: New York, 1971.

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History_of_the_graphical_user_interface

The graphical user interface, understood as the use of graphic icons and a pointing device to control a computer, has over the last four decades a steady history of incremental refinements built on some constant core principles. Several vendors have created their own windowing systems based on independent code but sharing the same basic elements that define the WIMP paradigm. There have been important technological achievements and enhancements to the general interaction were given in small steps over previous systems and there have been a few significant breakthroughs in terms of use, but the same organizational metaphors and interaction idioms are still in use. Initial developments Early dynamic information devices such as radar displays, where input devices where used for direct control of computer-created data, set the basis for later improvements of graphical interfaces. The concept of a windowing system was introduced by the first real-time graphic display systems for computers: the SAGE Project and Ivan Sutherland's Sketchpad. Augmentation of Human Intellect (NLS) Doug Engelbart's Augmentation of Human Intellect project at SRI in the 1960s developed the On-Line System (NLS), which incorporated a mouse-driven cursor and multiple windows used to work on hypertext. Engelbart had been inspired, in part, by the memex desk based information machine suggested by Vannevar Bush in 1945. Much of the early research was based on how young humans learn. Xerox PARC Engelbart's work directly led to the advances at Xerox PARC. Several people went from SRI to Xerox PARC in the early 1970s. In 1973 Xerox PARC developed the Xerox Alto personal computer. It was the first computer to use the desktop metaphor and graphical user interface (GUI). It was not a commercial product, but several thousand units were built and were heavily used at PARC and at several universities for many years. The Alto greatly influenced the design of personal computers in the following decades, notably the Macintosh and the first Sun workstations. In 1974, work began on Gypsy, the first bitmap What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get (WYSIWYG) cut & paste editor. In 1975, Xerox engineers demonstrated a Graphical User Interface "including icons and the first use of pop-up menus". http://www.parc.com/about/history/ History of PARC The 80s: Early commercial developments Apple Lisa and Macintosh (and later, the Apple IIgs) Short for Graphical User Interface, the GUI was first developed at Xerox PARC by Alan Kay, Douglas Engelbart, and a group of other researchers. A GUI uses windows, icons, and menus to carry out commands such as opening files, deleting files, moving files, etc. and although many GUI Operating Systems are operated by using a mouse, the keyboard can also be used by using keyboard shortcuts or arrow keys. <http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/g/gui.htm> Beginning in 1979, started by Steve Jobs and led by Jef Raskin, the Lisa and Macintosh teams at Apple Computer (which included former members of the Xerox PARC group) continued to develop such ideas. The Macintosh, released in 1984, was the first commercially successful product to use a GUI. A desktop metaphor was used, in which files looked like pieces of paper; directories looked like file folders; there were a set of desk accessories like a calculator, notepad, and alarm clock that the user could place around the screen as desired; and the user could delete files and folders by dragging them to a trash can on the screen. Drop down menus were also introduced. There is still some controversy over the amount of influence that Xerox's PARC work, as opposed to previous academic research, had on the GUIs of Apple's Lisa and Macintosh, but it is clear that the influence was extensive, because first versions of Lisa GUIs even lacked icons. These prototype GUIs are at least mouse driven, but completely ignored the WIMP concept. Rare screenshots of first GUIs of Apple Lisa prototypes are shown here. Note also that Apple was invited by PARC to view their research, and a number of PARC employees subsequently moved to Apple to work on the Lisa and Macintosh GUI. However, the Apple work extended PARC's considerably, adding manipulatable icons and a fixed menu bar and direct manipulation of objects in the file system (see Macintosh Finder) for example. A list of the improvements made by Apple to the PARC interface can be read here (folklore.org) In 1986 the Apple IIgs was launched, a very advanced model of the Apple II successful series, based on 16-bit technology (in fact, virtually two machines into one). It came with a new operating system, the Apple GS/OS, which features a Finder-like GUI, very similar to that of the Macintosh series, able to deal with the advanced graphic abilities of its Video Graphics Chip (VGC). Graphical Environment Manager (GEM) Digital Research (DRI) created the Graphical Environment Manager as an add-on program for personal computers. GEM was developed to work with existing CP/M and MS-DOS operating systems on business computers such as IBM-compatibles. It was developed from DRI software, known as GSX, designed by a former PARC employee. The similarity to the Macintosh desktop led to a copyright lawsuit from Apple Computer, and a settlement which involved some changes to GEM. This was to be the first of a series of 'look and feel' lawsuits related to GUI design in the 1980s. GEM received widespread use in the consumer market from 1985, when it was made the default user interface built in to the TOS operating system of the Atari ST line of personal computers. It was also bundled by other computer manufacturers and distributors, such as Amstrad. Later, it was distributed with the best-selled Digital Research version of DOS for IBM PC compatibles, the DR-DOS 6.0. The GEM desktop faded from the market with the withdrawal of the Atari ST line in 1992 and with the popularity of the Microsoft Windows 3.0 in the PC front by the same years. DeskMate Tandy's DeskMate appeared in the early 1980's on its TRS-80 machines and was ported to its Tandy 1000 range in 1984. Like most PC GUIs of the time it depended on MS-DOS. The application was popular at the time and included a number of programs like Draw, Text and Calendar as well as attracting outside investment such as Lotus 1-2-3 for DeskMate. Amiga Intuition and the Workbench The Amiga computer was launched by Commodore in 1985 with a GUI called Workbench based on an internal engine which drives all the input events called Intuition, and developed almost entirely by RJ Mical. The first versions used a blue/orange/white/black default palette, which was selected for high contrast on televisions and composite monitors. Workbench presented directories as drawers to fit in with the "workbench" theme. Intuition was the widget and graphics library that made the GUI work. It was driven by user events through the mouse, keyboard, and other input devices. Due to a mistake made by the Commodore sales department, the first floppies of AmigaOS which were released with Amiga1000 named the whole OS "Workbench". Since then, users and CBM itself referred to "Workbench" as the nickname for the whole AmigaOS (including Amiga DOS, Extras, etc.). This common consent ended with release of version 2.0 of AmigaOS, which re-introduced proper names to the installation floppies of AmigaDOS, Workbench, Extras, etc.). Early versions of AmigaOS did treat the Workbench as just another window on top of a blank screen, but this is due to the ability of AmigaOS to have invisible screens with a chromakey or a genlock - one of the most advanced features of Amiga platform - even without losing the visibility of Workbench itself. In later AmigaOS versions Workbench could be set as a borderless desktop. Amiga users were able to boot their computer into a command line interface (aka. CLI/shell). This was a keyboard-based environment without the Workbench GUI. Later they could invoke it with the CLI/SHELL command LoadWB which performs the task to load Workbench GUI. Like most GUIs of the day Amiga's Intuition followed Xerox, and sometimes Apple's lead, but a CLI was included which dramatically extended the functionality of the platform, but Cli/Shell of Amiga is not just a simple text based interface like in MS-DOS but it is another graphic process driven by Intuition engine and with same gadgets included in Amiga graphics.library and serving the GUI process and CLI/Shell interface integrates itself with the Workbench, sharing the same privileges with the GUI. The Amiga Workbech still evolved over the 1990's, far beyond from the official withdrawn from Commodore in 1994. See the next section. MS-DOS file managers and utility suites Because most of the very early IBM PC and compatibles lacks any common true graphical capability (they only shared the 80-column basic text mode compatible with the original MDA display adapter), a series of file managers arose, including Microsoft's DOS Shell, which features typical GUI elements as menus, push buttons, lists with scrollbars and mouse pointer. The name Text user interface was later invented to name this kind of interface. Many MS-DOS text mode applications, like the default text editor for MS-DOS 5.0 (and related tools, like QBasic), also shared the same philosophy. The IBM DOS Shell included with IBM DOS 5.0 (circa 1992) supported both text display modes and actual graphics display modes, making it both a TUI and a GUI, depending on the chosen mode. Advanced file managers for MS-DOS were able to redefine character shapes with EGA and better display adapters, giving some basic low resolution icons and graphical interface elements, including an arrow (instead of a coloured cell block) for the mouse pointer. When the display adapter lacks the ability to change the character's shapes, they default to the CP437 character set found in the adapter's ROM. Some popular utility suites for MS-DOS, as Norton Utilities (pictured) and PC Tools used these techniques as well. DESQview was a text mode multitasking program introduced in July 1985. Running on top of MS-DOS, it allowed users to run multiple DOS programs concurrently in windows. It was the first program to bring multitasking and windowing capabilities to a DOS environment in which existing DOS programs could be used. DESQview was not a true GUI but offered certain components of one, such as resizable, overlapping windows and mouse pointing. Applications under MS-DOS with proprietary true GUIs To take the maximum advantage possible in lack of a true common GUI under MS-DOS, the most of the graphical applications which worked with EGA, VGA and better graphic cards had proprietary built-in GUIs, before the MS-Windows age. One of the best known was Deluxe Paint, a popular painting software with a typical WIMP interface. The original Adobe Acrobat Reader executable file for MS-DOS was able to run on both the standard Windows 3.x GUI and the standard DOS command prompt. When it was launched from the command prompt, it provides its own true GUI (on VGA), which provides the full of its functionality to read PDF files. Microsoft Windows (16-bit versions) Windows 1.0 was a GUI for the MS-DOS operating system that had been the OS of choice for IBM PC and compatible computers since 1981. Windows 2.0 followed, but it wasn't until the 1990 launch of Windows 3.0, based on Common User Access that its popularity truly exploded. The GUI has seen minor redesigns since, mainly the networking enabled Windows 3.11 and its Win32s 32-bit patch. The 16-bit line of MS Windows were discontinued with the introduction of Windows 95 and Windows NT 32-bit based architecture in the 1990's. See the next section. The main window of a given application can occupy the full screen in maximized status. The users must then to switch between maximized applications using the Alt+Tab keyboard shortcut; no alternative with the mouse except for de-maximize. When none of the running application windows is maximized, switching can be done by clicking on a partially visible window, as is the common way in other GUIs. In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of the LISA and Apple Macintosh GUI. The court case lasted 4 years before almost all of Apple's claims were denied on a contractual technicality. Subsequent appeals by Apple were also denied. Microsoft and Apple apparently entered a final, private settlement of the matter in 1997. GEOS GEOS was launched in 1986. Originally written for the 8-bit home computer Commodore 64 and shortly after, the Apple II series it was later ported to IBM PC systems. It came with several application programs like a calendar and word processor, and a cut-down version served as the basis for America Online's DOS client. Compared to the competing Windows 3.0 GUI it could run reasonably well on simpler hardware. But it was targeted at 8-bit machines and the 16-bit computer age was dawning. The X Window System The standard windowing system in the Unix world is the X Window System (commonly X11 or X), first released in the mid-1980s. The W Window System (1983) was the precursor to X; X was developed at MIT as Project Athena. Its original purpose was to allow users of the newly emerging graphic terminals to access remote graphics workstations without regard to the workstation's operating system or the hardware. Due largely to the availability of the source code used to write X, it has become the standard layer for management of graphical and input/output devices and for the building of both local and remote graphical interfaces on virtually all Unix, Linux and other Unix-like operating systems. X allows a graphical terminal user to make use of remote resources on the network as if they were all located locally to the user by running a single module of software called the X server. The software running on the remote machine is called the client application. X's network transparency protocols allow the display and input portions of any application to be separated from the remainder of the application and 'served up' to any of a large number of remote users. X is available today as free software. NeWS The PostScript-based NeWS (Network extensible Window System) was developed by Sun Microsystems in the mid 1980's. For several years SunOS included a window system combining NeWS and the X Window System. Although NeWS was considered technically elegant by some commentators, Sun eventually dropped the product. Unlike X, NeWS was always proprietary software. The 1990s: Mainstream usage of the desktop The widespread adoption of the PC platform at homes and small business popularized computers among people with no formal training. This created a fast growing market, opening an opportunity for commercial exploitation and of easy-to-use interfaces and making economically viable the incremental refinement of the existing GUIs for home systems. Also, the spreading of Highcolor and Truecolor capabilities of display adapters providing thousands and millions of colors, along with faster CPUs and accelerated graphic cards, cheaper RAM, storage devices up to an order of magnitude larger (from megabytes to gigabytes) and larger bandwidth for telecom networking at lower cost helped to create an environment in which the common user was able to run complicated GUIs which began to favor aesthetics. Windows 95 and "a computer in every home" (the 32-bit versions) Main article: Windows 95. See also Windows NT. After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new consumer-oriented version of the operating system. Windows 95 was intended to integrate Microsoft's formerly separate MS-DOS and Windows products and includes an enhanced version of DOS, often referred to as MS-DOS 7.0. It also featured a significant redesign of the GUI, dubbed "Cairo", which was eventually used in Windows NT 4.0. Both Win95 and WinNT were 32-bit based technologies, which could exploit the abilities of the Intel 80386 CPU, as the preemptive multitasking and up to 4GiB of linear address memory space. In the marketplace, Windows 95 was an unqualified success, promoting a general upgrade to 32-bit technology, and within a year or two of its release had become the most successful operating system ever produced. Windows 95 saw the beginning of the Browser wars when the World Wide Web began receiving a great deal of attention in the popular culture and mass media. Microsoft at first did not see potential in the Web and Windows 95 was shipped with Microsoft's own online service called The Microsoft Network, which was dial-up only and was used primarily for its own content, not internet access. As versions of Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer were released at a rapid pace over the following few years, Microsoft used its desktop dominance to push its browser and shape the ecology of the web mainly as a monoculture. Windows 95 (and its 32-bits professional counterpart Windows NT) evolved through the years into Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows 2000 and Windows XP, sharing the same basic GUI themes (in the XP, the user can even switch to the classical Windows'' 95/NT look). With Windows 98, the Active Desktop theme was introduced, allowing a HTML approach for the desktop, but this feature was coldly received by customers, who frequently disabled it. At the end, Windows Vista definitively discontinued it, but has a new SideBar on the desktop. Mac OS The Macintosh's GUI has been infrequently revised since 1984, with major updates including System 7, and underwent its largest revision with the introduction of the "Aqua" interface in 2001's Mac OS X. It was a new operating system built primarily on technology from NeXTStep with UI elements of the original Mac OS grafted on. Mac OS X uses a technology called Quartz for graphics rendering and drawing on-screen. Some interface features of Mac OS X are inherited from NeXTStep (such as the Dock, the automatic wait cursor, or double-buffered windows giving a solid appearance and flicker-free window redraws), while others are inherited from the old Mac OS operating system (the single system-wide menu-bar). Mac OS X v10.3 introduced features to improve usability including Exposé which is designed to make finding open windows easier. With Mac OS X v10.4, new features were added, including Dashboard (a virtual alternate desktop for mini specific-purpose applications) and a search tool called Spotlight, which provides users with an option for searching through files instead of browsing through folders. In 2007 with the release of 10.5 Leopard the look of the OS was revised again. Brushed metal was removed in favor of the Unified theme made up of grey gradients. It is very similar to the style iTunes has had since version 6.0. It also incorporates Coverflow into the Finder In addition the dock has been changed to become a reflective shelf with the application icons sitting on it. The menu bar has the option of partial transparency, and all windows have an increased drop shadow. GUIs built on the X Window System In the early days of X Window development, Sun Microsystems and AT&T attempted to push for a GUI standard called OPEN LOOK in competition with Motif. OPEN LOOK was a well-designed standard developed from scratch in conjunction with Xerox, while Motif was a collective effort that fell into place, with a look and feel patterned after Windows 3.11. Many who worked on OPEN LOOK at the time appreciated its design coherence. Motif prevailed in the UNIX GUI battles and became the basis for the Common Desktop Environment (CDE). CDE was based on VUE (Visual User Environment), a proprietary desktop from Hewlett-Packard that in turn was based on the Motif look and feel. In the late 1990s, there was significant growth in the Unix world, especially among the free software community. New graphical desktop movements grew up around Linux and similar operating systems, based on the X Window System. A new emphasis on providing an integrated and uniform interface to the user brought about new desktop environments, such as KDE, GNOME and XFCE which are supplanting CDE in popularity on both Unix and Unix-like operating systems. The XFCE, KDE and GNOME look and feel each tend to undergo more rapid change and less codification than the earlier OPEN LOOK and Motif environments. In the latter part of the first decade of the 21st century X Windows GUIs such as Compiz Fusion, Beryl and KDE 4 began to incorporate the translucency and drop shadow effects first seen on Mac OS X. The Amiga Workbench in the 1990s Later releases added improvements over the original Workbench, like support for high-color Workbench screens, context menus, and embossed 2D icons with pseudo-3D aspect. But often Amiga users preferred alternative interfaces to standard Workbench, such as Directory Opus or ScalOS interface. An interesting article about these replacements is available here (in French language). The use of improved, third-party GUI engines became common amongst users who preferred more attractive interfaces – such as Magic User Interface (MUI), and ReAction. These object-oriented graphic engines driven by "classes" of graphic objects and functions were then standardized into the Amiga environment and changed Amiga Workbench to a complete and modern guided interface, with new standard gadgets, animated buttons, true 24-bit-color icons, increased use of wallpapers for screens and windows, alpha channel, transparencies and shadows as any modern GUI requires. Modern derivatives of Workbench are Ambient for MorphOS, ScalOS, Workbench for AmigaOS 4 and Wanderer/Zune for AROS. There is a brief article on Ambient and descriptions of MUI icons, menus and gadget here (aps.fr) and images of Zune stay at main AROS site. Use of object oriented graphic engines (ReAction) dramatically changes the look and feel of a GUI to match actual styleguides. RISC OS Early versions of what came to be called RISC OS were known as Arthur, which was released in 1987 by Acorn Computers. RISC OS was a colour GUI operating system which used three-button mice, a taskbar (called the icon bar), and a file navigator similar to that of Mac OS. Acorn created RISC OS in the 1980s for their ARM-CPU based computers. The GUI of RISC OS has developed over versions of RISC OS from 1987 to the present day with version 4.39 having a great ability to customise the interface. OS/2 Originally collaboratively developed by Microsoft and IBM to replace DOS, OS/2 version 1.0 (released in 1987) had no GUI at all. Version 1.1 (released 1988) included Presentation Manager (PM), which looked a lot like the later Windows 3.0 UI. After the split with Microsoft, IBM developed the Workplace Shell (WPS) for version 2.0 (released in 1992), a quite radical, object-oriented approach to GUIs. Microsoft later imitated much of this in Windows 95. NeXTSTEP The NeXTSTEP user interface was used in the NeXT line of computers. NeXTSTEP's first major version was released in 1989. It used Display PostScript for its graphical underpinning. The NeXTSTEP interface's most significant feature was the Dock, carried with some modification into Mac OS X, and had other minor interface details that some found made it easier and more intuitive to use than previous GUIs. NeXTSTEP's GUI was the first to feature opaque dragging of windows in its user interface, on a comparatively weak machine by today's standards, ideally aided by high performance graphics hardware. BeOS BeOS was developed on custom AT&T Hobbit-based computers before switching to PowerPC hardware by a team lead by former Apple executive Jean-Louis Gassée as an alternative to the Macintosh OS and GUI. BeOS was later ported to Intel hardware. It used an object-oriented kernel written by Be, and did not use the X Window System, but a different GUI written from scratch. Much effort was spent by the developers to make it an efficient platform for multimedia applications. Be Inc. was acquired by PalmSource, Inc. (Palm Inc. at the time) in 2001. The BeOS GUI still lives in Haiku, an open source reimplementation of the BeOS. Current trends 3D User Interface As of 2008, a recent trend in desktop technology is the inclusion of 3D effects in window management. It's based in experimental research in User Interface Design trying to expand the expressive power of the existing toolkits in order to enhance the physical cues that allow for direct manipulation. New effects common to several projects are scale resizing and zooming, several windows transformations and animations (wobbling windows, smooth minimization to system tray...), composition of images (used for window drop shadows and transparency) and enhancing the global organization of open windows (zooming to virtual desktops, desktop cube, Exposé, etc.) The proof-of-concept BumpTop desktop combines a physical representation of documents with tools for document classification only possible in the simulated environment, like instant reordering and automated grouping of related documents. These effects are popularized thanks to the widespread use of 3D video cards (mainly due to gaming) which allow for complex visual processing with low CPU use, using the 3D acceleration in most modern graphics cards to render the application clients in a 3D scene. The application window is drawn off-screen in a pixel buffer and the graphics card renders it into the 3D scene. This can have the advantage of moving some of the window rendering to the GPU on the graphics card and thus reducing the load on the main CPU, but the facilities that allow this must be available on the graphics card to be able to take advantage of this. Examples of 3D user interface software include XGL and Compiz from Novell, and AIGLX bundled with RedHat Fedora. Quartz Extreme for Mac OS X and Windows Vista's Aero interface use 3D rendering for shading and transparency effects as well as Expose and Windows Flip and Flip 3D, respectively. AmigaOS 4.1 uses Cairo 2D vector based interface integrated with 3D hardware accelerated Porter-Duff image composition engine, while its counterpart clone MorphOS 2.0 features Ambient, a complete 3D GUI based on a subset of OpenGL. Vista uses Direct3D to accomplish this, whereas the other interfaces use OpenGL. Portable devices Portable devices such as mp3 players and cell phones with small screens are a burgeoning area of deployment for GUIs in recent years. Some of these devices have screen resolutions of as little as 160x80 pixels, requiring great economy of space in the interface. See also Windowing system Apple v. Microsoft Bill Atkinson The Blit - A Multiplexed Graphics Terminal by Rob Pike in 1982 Direct manipulation interface Doug Engelbart's On-Line System Graphical user interface Text user interface History of computing hardware History of Microsoft Windows Ivan Sutherland's Sketchpad Jef Raskin Office of the future XGL AIGLX DirectFB Mezzo tiling window manager References GUIdebook External links Jeremy Reimer. "A History of the GUI" Ars Technica. May 5, 2005. "User Interface Timeline" George Mason University Nathan Lineback. "The Graphical User Interface Gallery". Nathan's Toasty Technology Page. Oral history interview with Marvin L. Minsky, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Minsky describes artificial intelligence (AI) research at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), including research in the areas of graphics, word processing, and time-sharing. Oral history interview with Ivan Sutherland, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Sutherland describes his tenure as head of ARPA's Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) from 1963 to 1965, including new projects in graphics and networking. Oral history interview with Charles A. Csuri, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Csuri recounts his art education and explains his transition to computer graphics in the mid 1960s, after receiving a National Science Foundation grant for research in graphics. GUIdebook: Graphical User Interface gallery VisiOn history - The first GUI for the PC mprove: Historical Overview of Graphical User Interfaces Anecdotes about the development of the Macintosh Hardware & GUI

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Acid

An acid (from the Latin acidus meaning sour) is traditionally considered any chemical compound that, when dissolved in water, gives a solution with a hydrogen ion activity greater than in pure water, i.e. a pH less than 7.0. That approximates the modern definition of Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Martin Lowry, who independently defined an acid as a compound which donates a hydrogen ion (H+) to another compound (called a base). Common examples include acetic acid (in vinegar) and sulfuric acid (used in car batteries). Acid/base systems are different from redox reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state. Acids can occur in solid, liquid or gaseous form, depending on the temperature. They can exist as pure substances or in solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic (adjective). Definitions and concepts Arrhenius acids The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius first attributed the property of acidity to hydrogen in 1884. An Arrhenius acid is a substance that increases the concentration of the hydronium ion, H3O+, when dissolved in water. This definition stems from the equilibrium dissociation of water into hydronium and hydroxide (OH-) ions: H2O(l) + H2O (l) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) In pure water the majority of molecules exist as H2O, but a small number of molecules are constantly dissociating and re-associating. Pure water is neutral with respect to acidity or basicity because the concentration of hydroxide ions is always equal to the concentration of hydronium ions. An Arrhenius base is a molecule which increases the concentration of the hydroxide ion when dissolved in water. Note that chemists often write H+(aq) and refer to the hydrogen ion when describing acid-base reactions but the free hydrogen nucleus, a proton, does not exist alone in water, it exists as the hydronium ion, H3O+. Brønsted acids Although the Arrhenius concept is quite useful for describing many reactions, it is also quite limited in its scope. In 1923 chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin Lowry independently recognized that acid-base reactions involve the transfer of a proton. A Brønsted-Lowry acid (or simply Brønsted acid) is a species that donates a proton to a Brønsted-Lowry base. Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory has several advantages over Arrhenius theory. Consider the following reactions of acetic acid (CH3COOH), the organic acid that gives vinegar its characteristic taste: Both theories easily describe the first reaction: CH3COOH acts as an Arrhenius acid because it acts as a source of H3O+ when dissolved in water, and it acts as a Brønsted acid by donating a proton to water. In the second example CH3COOH undergoes the same transformation, donating a proton to ammonia (NH3), but cannot be described using the Arrhenius definition of an acid because the reaction does not produce hydronium. Brønsted-Lowry theory can also be used to describe molecular compounds, whereas Arrhenius acids must be ionic compounds. Hydrogen chloride (HCl) and ammonia combine under several different conditions to form ammonium chloride, NH4Cl. In aqueous solution HCl behaves as hydrochloric acid and exists as hydronium and chloride ions. The following reactions illustrate the limitations of Arrhenius' definition: 1.) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + NH3 → Cl-(aq) + NH4+(aq) 2.) HCl(benzene) + NH3(benzene) → NH4Cl(s) 3.) HCl(g) + NH3(g) → NH4Cl(s) As with the acetic acid reactions, both definitions work for the first example, where water is the solvent and hydronium ion is formed. The next two reactions do not involve the formation of ions but can still be viewed as proton transfer reactions. In the second reaction hydrogen chloride and ammonia in react to form solid ammonium chloride in a benzene solvent and in the third gaseous HCl and NH3 combine to form the solid. Lewis acids A third concept was proposed by Gilbert N. Lewis which includes reactions with acid-base characteristics that do not involve a proton transfer. A Lewis acid is a species that accept a pair of electrons from another species in other words, it is an electron pair acceptor. Brønsted acid-base reactions are proton transfer reactions while Lewis acid-base reactions are electron pair transfers. All Brønsted acids are also Lewis acids, but not all Lewis acids are Brønsted acids. Contrast the following reactions which could be described in terms of acid-base chemistry. In the first reaction a fluoride ion, F-, gives up an electron pair to boron trifluoride to form the product tetrafluoroborate. Fluoride "loses" a pair of valence electrons because the electrons shared in the B—F bond are located in the region of space between the two atomic nuclei and are therefore more distant from the fluoride nucleus than they are in the lone fluoride ion. BF3 is a Lewis acid because it accepts the electron pair from fluoride. This reaction cannot be described in terms of Brønsted theory because there is no proton transfer. The second reaction can be described using either theory. A proton is transferred from an unspecified Brønsted acid to ammonia, a Brønsted base; alternatively, ammonia acts as a Lewis base and transfers a lone pair of electrons to form a bond with a hydrogen ion. The species that loses the proton is the Lewis acid; for example, the oxygen atom in H3O+ gains a pair of electrons when one of the H—O bonds is broken and the electrons shared in the bond become localized on oxygen. Depending on the context, Lewis acids may also be described as a reducing agent or an electrophile. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition; unless otherwise specified acid-base reactions are assumed to involve the transfer of a proton (H+) from an acid to a base. Lewis acids are sometimes described as electrophiles. Dissociation and equilibrium Reactions of acids are often generalized in the form HA H+ + A-, where HA represents the acid and A- is the conjugate base. Acid-base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton (protonation and deprotonation, respectively). Note that the acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as HA+ H+ + A. In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H2O] means the concentration of H2O. The acid dissociation constant is generally used in the context of acid-base reactions. The numerical value of is equal to the concentration of the products over the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H+. The stronger of two acids will have a higher than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, is more frequently used, where . Stronger acids have a smaller than weaker acids. Experimentally determined at 25°C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material. Nomenclature In the classical naming system, acids are named according to their anions. That ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix (and sometimes prefix), according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid. In the IUPAC naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, the IUPAC name would be aqueous hydrogen chloride. The prefix "hydro-" is added only if the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. Classical naming system: Anion PrefixAnion SuffixAcid PrefixAcid SuffixExampleperateperic acidperchloric acid (HClO4)ateic acidchloric acid (HClO3)iteous acidchlorous acid (HClO2)hypoitehypoous acidhypochlorous acid (HClO)idehydroic acidhydrochloric acid (HCl) Acid strength The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H+ and one mole of the conjugate base, X-, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H+. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a higher and a lower than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable. Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations. Polarity and the inductive effect Polarity refers to the distribution of electrons in a bond, the region of space between two atomic nuclei where a pair of electrons is shared. When two atoms have roughly the same electronegativity (ability to attract electrons) the electrons are shared evenly and spend equal time on either end of the bond. When there is a significant difference in electronegativities of two bonded atoms, the electrons spend more time near the nucleus of the more electronegative element and an electrical dipole, or separation of charges, occurs, such that there is a partial negative charge localized on the electronegative element and a partial positive charge on the electropositive element. Hydrogen is an electropositive element and accumulates a slightly positive charge when it is bonded to an electronegative element such as oxygen or bromine. As the electron density on hydrogen decreases it is more easily abstracted, in other words, it is more acidic. Moving from left to right across a row on the periodic table elements become more electronegative (excluding the noble gases), and the strength of the binary acid formed by the element increases accordingly: Formula Name http://www2.lsdiv.harvard.edu/labs/evans/pdf/evans_pKa_table.pdf HF hydrofluoric acid 3.17 H2O water 15.7 NH3 ammonia 38 CH4 methane 48 The electronegative element need not be directly bonded to the acidic hydrogen to increase its acidity. An electronegative atom can pull electron density out of an acidic bond through the inductive effect. The electron-withdrawing ability diminishes quickly as the electronegative atom moves away from the acidic bond. The effect is illustrated by the following series of halogenated butanoic acids. Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine and therefore has a stronger effect. The hydrogen atom bonded to the oxygen is the acidic hydrogen. Butanoic acid is a carboxylic acid. Structure Name http://www.scribd.com/doc/6792576/638478 butanoic acid ≈4.8 4-chlorobutanoic acid 4.5 3-chlorobutanoic acid ≈4.0 2-bromobutanoic acid 2.93 2-chlorobutanoic acid 2.86 As the chlorine atom moves further away from the acidic O—H bond, its effect diminishes. When the chlorine atom is just one carbon removed from the carboxylic acid group the acidity of the compound increases significantly, compared to butanoic acid (a.k.a. butyric acid). However, when the chlorine atom is separated by several bonds the effect is much smaller. Bromine is much more electronegative than either carbon or hydrogen, but not as electronegative as chlorine, so the of 2-bromobutanoic acid is slightly greater than the of 2-chlorobutanoic acid. Perchloric acid (HClO4 is an oxoacid and a strong acid.The number of electronegative atoms adjacent an acidic bond also affects acid strength. Oxoacids have the general formula HOX where X can be any atom and may or may not share bonds to other atoms. Increasing the number of electronegative atoms or groups on atom X decreases the electron density in the acidic bond, making the loss of the proton easier. Perchloric acid is a very strong acid (pKa ≈ -8) and completely dissociates in water. Its chemical formula is HClO4 and it comprises a central chlorine atom with three chlorine-oxygen double bonds (Cl=O) and one chlorine-oxygen single bond (Cl—O). The singly bonded oxygen bears an extremely acidic hydrogen atom which is easily abstracted. In contrast, chloric acid (HClO3) is an acid of moderate strength (pKa = -1.0), while chlorous acid (HClO2, pKa = +2.0) and hypochlorous acid (HClO, pKa = +7.53) acids are definitely weak acids. pKa values for HClOn from C.E.Housecroft and A.G.Sharpe "Inorganic Chemistry" (Pearson, 2d edn 2005), p.171 Carboxylic acids are organic acids that contain an acidic hydroxyl group and a carbonyl (C=O bond). Carboxylic acids can be reduced to the corresponding alcohol; the replacement of an electronegative oxygen atom with two electropositive hydrogens yields a product which is essentially non-acidic. The reduction of acetic acid to ethanol using LiAlH4 (lithium aluminum hydride or LAH) and ether is an example of such a reaction. Atomic radius and bond strength Another factor that contributes to the ability of an acid to lose a proton is the strength of the bond between the acidic hydrogen and the atom that bears it. This, in turn, is dependent on the size of the atoms sharing the bond. For an acid HA, as the size of atom A increases, the strength of the bond decreases, meaning that it is more easily broken, and the strength of the acid increases. Bond strength is a measure of how much energy it takes to break a bond. In other words, it takes less energy to break the bond as atom A grows larger, and the proton is more easily removed by a base. This partially explains why hydrofluoric acid is considered a weak acid while the other hydrohalic acids (HCl, HBr, HI) are strong acids. Although fluorine is more electronegative than the other halogens, its atomic radius is also much smaller, so it shares a stronger bond with hydrogen. Moving down a column on the periodic table atoms become less electronegative but also significantly larger, and the size of the atom tends to dominate its acidity when sharing a bond to hydrogen. Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, is a stronger acid than water, even though oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur. Just a with the halogens, this is because sulfur is larger than oxygen and the H—S bond is more easily broken than the H—O bond. Chemical characteristics Monoprotic acids Monoprotic acids are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA): HA(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A−(aq)         Ka Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3). On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxyl group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH) and benzoic acid (C6H5COOH). Polyprotic acids Polyprotic acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic acid (two potential protons to donate) and triprotic acid (three potential protons to donate). A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H2A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, Ka1 and Ka2. H2A(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HA−(aq)       Ka1 HA−(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A2−(aq)       Ka2 The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., Ka1 > Ka2. For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO4−), for which Ka1 is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO42−), wherein the Ka2 is intermediate strength. The large Ka1 for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid (H2CO3) can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion (HCO3−) and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO32−). Both Ka values are small, but Ka1 > Ka2 . A triprotic acid (H3A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3. H3A(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + H2A−(aq)        Ka1 H2A−(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HA2−(aq)       Ka2 HA2−(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A3−(aq)         Ka3 An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H2PO4−, then HPO42−, and finally PO43−, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion. Even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent, the successive Ka values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. Neutralization Hydrochloric acid (in beaker) reacting with ammonia fumes to produce ammonium chloride (white smoke). Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NaCl(aq) Neutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride, which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt, e.g. sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide. Weak acid/weak base equilibria In order to lose a proton, it is necessary that the pH of the system rise above the pKa of the protonated acid. The decreased concentration of H+ in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H+ concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form, or to protonate its conjugate base (the deprotonated form). Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions. Applications of acids There are numerous uses for acids. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery. Strong acids, sulfuric acid in particular, are widely used in mineral processing. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning. In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters. Acids are used as catalysts; for example, sulfuric acid is used in very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce gasoline. Strong acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids also effect dehydration and condensation reactions. Acids are used as additives to drinks and foods, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. Phosphoric acid, for example, is a component of cola drinks. Biological occurrence In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid. Acid-base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating mammalian breathing. Oxygen gas (O2) drives cellular respiration, the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs, and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of ventilation. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat, releasing CO2 into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO2 exists in equilibrium with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion. CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breath faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO2 and resupplying the cells with O2. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is a carboxylic acid.Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids which which can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e. as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. Ibuprofen, aspirin and penicillin are examples of drugs that are weak acids. Common acids Mineral acids Hydrogen halides and their solutions, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hydrobromic acid (HBr) Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Nitric acid (HNO3) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) Chromic acid (H2CrO4) Fluoroantimonic acid Fluorosulfuric acid Fluoroboric acid Perchloric acid Sulfonic acids Methanesulfonic acid (aka mesylic acid) (MeSO3H) Ethanesulfonic acid (aka esylic acid) (EtSO3H) Benzenesulfonic acid (aka besylic acid) (PhSO3H) Toluenesulfonic acid (aka tosylic acid, or (C6H4(CH3) (SO3H)) Triflic acid Carboxylic acids acetic acid citric acid formic acid gluconic acid lactic acid oxalic acid tartaric acid Vinylogous carboxylic acids ascorbic acid Meldrum's acid References Listing of strengths of common acids and bases Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition. Ebbing, D.D., & Gammon, S. D. (2005). General chemistry (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0618511776 Pavia, D.L., Lampman, G.M., & Kriz, G.S. (2004). Organic chemistry volume 1: Organic chemistry 351. Mason, OH: Cenage Learning. ISNB: 9780759342724 See also Chemistry Acid value Acid salt Base Basic salt Binary acid Vitriol Acid-base extraction Environment Acid rain Ocean acidification Acid sulfate soil External links Science Aid: Acids and Bases Information for High School students UC Berkeley video lecture on acids and bases Curtipot: Acid-Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis - freeware A summary of the Properties of Acids for the beginning chemistry student The UN ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

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environment:3 extracellular:1 certain:1 allow:1 phospholipid:1 bilayer:1 intracellular:1 diffuse:1 target:1 ibuprofen:1 penicillin:1 halide:1 chromic:1 fluorosulfuric:1 fluoroboric:1 methanesulfonic:1 aka:4 mesylic:1 ethanesulfonic:1 esylic:1 benzenesulfonic:1 besylic:1 triflic:1 gluconic:1 lactic:1 oxalic:1 tartaric:1 vinylogous:1 ascorbic:1 meldrum:1 listing:1 zumdahl:1 edition:1 ebbing:1 gammon:1 ed:1 boston:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 isbn:1 pavia:1 lampman:1 kriz:1 volume:1 mason:1 cenage:1 learning:1 isnb:1 see:1 vitriol:1 extraction:1 rain:1 ocean:1 acidification:1 soil:1 external:1 link:1 science:1 aid:1 information:1 school:1 student:2 uc:1 berkeley:1 video:1 lecture:1 curtipot:1 diagram:1 calculation:1 curve:1 simulation:1 analysis:1 freeware:1 summary:1 beginning:1 un:1 ece:1 convention:1 long:1 transboundary:1 air:1 pollution:1 |@bigram acetic_acid:6 sulfuric_acid:11 redox_reaction:1 liquid_gaseous:1 hydronium_ion:4 hydroxide_ion:2 brønsted_acid:7 brønsted_lowry:5 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Alexios_V_Doukas

Alexios V Doukas, surnamed Mourtzouphlos (, d. December 1205, Constantinople) was Byzantine emperor (5 February – 12 April 1204) during the second and final siege of Constantinople by the participants of the Fourth Crusade. He was related to the imperial Doukas family. His nickname "Mourtzouphlos" referred to either his bushy, overhanging eyebrows or his sullen character. The term has the meaning of one being crestfallen, depressed, despondent, downcast, gloomy, sullen and evidently frowning, scowling. A Byzantine nobleman, he had risen to the court position of protovestiarios by the time of the Fourth Crusade. He had been married twice but was now allegedly the lover of Eudokia Angelina, a daughter of Emperor Alexios III Angelos. His participation in the attempted usurpation of John Komnenos in 1200 had caused him to be imprisoned until the accession of Isaac II Angelos, who was restored to the throne after having been deposed and imprisoned by his brother Alexios III, and his son Alexios IV Angelos, who were placed on the throne by the intervention of the Fourth Crusade in July 1203. By the beginning of 1204, Isaac II and Alexios IV had inspired little confidence among the people of Constantinople in their efforts to defend the city from the Latins and Venetians, who were restless and rioted when the money and aid promised by Alexios IV was not forthcoming. Alexios Doukas emerged as a leader of the anti-Latin movement and personally led some skirmishes against the crusaders. When the populace rebelled in late January 1204, the emperors barricaded themselves in the palace and entrusted Alexios Doukas with a mission to seek help from the crusaders. Instead, Alexios Doukas used his access to the palace to arrest the emperors. The young Alexios IV was strangled in prison, while his father Isaac died shortly afterwards, his death variously attributed to fright, sorrow, or foul play. Alexios V Doukas was crowned in early February 1204. After his coronation, Alexios V began to strengthen the defenses of Constantinople and ended negotiations with the Latins. It was too late, however, for the new Emperor to make much of a difference. An attempted surprise attack against the crusader camp failed despite the emperor's personal leadership. During the ensuing fight, he defended the city with courage and tenacity, beating back the crusader assault of 9 April. The crusaders' second attack proved too strong to repel, and Alexios V fled into Thrace on the night of 12 April 1204, accompanied by Eudokia Angelina and her mother Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamatera. Constantinople was under Latin control by the next day. The refugees reached Mosynopolis, the base of the deposed emperor Alexios III Angelos, where they were initially well received, and Alexios V married Eudokia Angelina. Later, however, Alexios III arranged for his new son-in-law to be ambushed and blinded, making him ineligible for the imperial throne. Abandoned by his supporters and enemies alike, Alexios V was captured near Mosynopolis by the advancing Latins under Thierry de Loos in November 1204. Brought back to Constantinople, Alexios V was condemned to death for treason against Alexios IV, and was thrown from the top of the Column of Theodosius. He was the last Byzantine emperor to reign in Constantinople before the establishment of the Latin Empire, which controlled the city for the next 57 years, until it was recovered by the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos. References Jonathan Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades (London, 2003) The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford, 1991), 3 vols. John Julius Norwich, A Short History of Byzantium (London, 1999). Jonathan Phillips, The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople (London and New York, 2004)

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Indian_religions

A Statue of Siva. A Statue of the Buddha. A Statue of Jain deity Bahubali. Indian religions are the related religious traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5 2007 , namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Ayyavazhi, inclusive of their sub-schools and various related traditions. They form a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". Indian religions have similarities in core beliefs, modes of worship, and associated practices, mainly due to their common history of origin and mutual influence. The documented history of Indian religions begins with historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the Samhitas, four canonical collections of hymns or mantras composed in archaic Sanskrit. These texts are the central shruti (revealed) texts of Hinduism. The period of the composition, redaction and commentary of these texts is known as the Vedic period, which lasted from roughly 1500 to 500 BCE. The late Vedic period (9th to 6th centuries BCE) marks the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period. Indiana University "India Studies Program" Passage to India, Module 11. "Upanishads came to be composed already in the ninth and eighth century B.C.E. and continued to be composed well into the first centuries of the Common Era. The Brahmanas and Aranyakas are somewhat older, reaching back to the eleventh and even twelfth century B.C.E." Paul Deussen, Philosophy of the Upanishads, Pg. 51. "these treatises are not the work of a single genius, but the total philosophical product of an entire epoch which extends [from] approximately 1000 or 800 BC, to c.500 BC, but which is prolonged in its offshoots far beyond this last limit of time." This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads, later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas. Jainism and Buddhism arose from the sramana culture. Buddhism was historically founded by Siddartha Gautama, a Kshatriya prince-turned-ascetic, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia. Jainism was established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Parsva (9th century BCE) and Mahavira (6th century BCE). Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins." Page 141 Certain scholarship holds that the practices, emblems and architecture now commonly associated with the Hindu pantheon and Jainism may go back as far as Late Harappan times to the period 2000-1500 BCE. Indiana University, Module 9, "Passage to India" One is left largely with scholarly guesses, but it is intriguing to entertain the possibility that traditions of ritual bathing, some sort of tradition of meditation or Yoga, possible proto-types of Shiva and a mother goddess, and a cult of sacred animals, all of which are prominent features in later Hindu traditions, may indeed be traceable ultimately all the way back to the third millenium B.C.E., and possibly earlier to the Baluchistan and Sind village cultures that go back to time immemorial. Indiana University "India Studies Program", Module 6 The passage to India: "As mentioned earlier in our brief summary of the religions of India, the Jain tradition is one of the oldest traditions in India and may go back as far as Indus Valley times, that is, to the second millenium Before the Common Era (2000-1500 BCE), although the precise origins of the tradition are not yet fully known" Hinduism is divided into numerous denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta and much smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta. Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi are more recent. About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population. Sikhism was founded in the 15th century on the teachings of Guru Nanak and the nine successive Sikh Gurus in Northern India . The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region. Common traits Aum Diwali symbolises the triumph of good over evil. It is celebrated by Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains. Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions, (though the 'subtler' meaning of Dharma or dhamma differs per religion); Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals. Frawley, David. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010. Encarta encyclopedia "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition." Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions." Common traits can also be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. For example, the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three of these distinct traditions, excluding Sikhism. Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions. c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism" All three traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha and various yogas. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness, his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma is usually taken to be the Buddha's teachings. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thoughts/activities of the mind. "yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana Rama is a heroic figure in all of these religions. In Hinduism he is the God-incarnate in the form of a princely king; in Buddhism, he is a Bodhisattva-incarnate; in Jainism, he is the perfect human being. Among the Buddhist Ramayanas are: Vessantarajataka Pollock, P. 661 Literary Cultures in History: , Reamker, Ramakien, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Hikayat Seri Rama etc. There also exists the Khamti Ramayana among the Khamti tribe of Asom wherein Rama is an avatar of a Bodhisattva who incarnates to punish the demon king Ravana (B.Datta 1993). The Tai Ramayana is another book retelling the divine story in Asom. Prehistory "Priest King" of Indus Valley Civilization Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. . Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which lasted from 3300–1300 BCE (mature period, 2600-1900 BCE) and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility, . a concept that has recently been challenged. Sharri R. Clark, The social lives of figurines : recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. PhD dissertation, Harvard 2007 Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice. Vedic tradition Vedic period The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism. The Vedas reflect the liturgy and ritual of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Indo-Aryan speaking peoples in India. Religious practices were dominated by the Vedic priesthood administering domestic rituals/rites and solemn sacrifices. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (such as BAU, ChU, JUB) are also placed in this period. Many elements of Vedic religion reach back to early Bronze Age Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE. Akshardham the largest Hindu temple in the world. Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include: The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice. Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice (See Zoroastrianism): The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni. The Agnistoma or Soma sacrifice (including animal sacrifice) . The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the Uttara fire altar. The Darsapaurnamasa, the fortnightly New and Full Moon sacrifice The Caturmasya or seasonal sacrifices (every four months) a large number of sacrifices for special wishes (Kāmyeṣṭi) The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice. The Purushamedha, or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic Purusha and Ashvamedha The rites referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices, as well as some charms and sorcery (white and black magic). The domestic (grihya) rituals deal with the rites of passage from conception to death and beyond. Vedanta Hindu Swastika The period of Vedanta (Sanskrit : end of Vedas), typically thought to have begun around 600 BCE, marked the end of the evolution of the main Vedic texts; it also accompanied the transformation of the semi-nomadic nature of the Indo-Aryan tribes to agriculture-based polities, as they increasingly formed permanent settlements in the Indo-Gangetic plain and other parts of Northern India. This period was foreshadowed by the Brahmanas that interpreted the four canonical Vedas in various fashions, which finally led to the Upanishads. While the ritualistic status of the four Vedas remained undiminished, the early Upanishads mainly relate to spiritual insights. At this time, the concepts of reincarnation, samsara, karma, and moksha began to be accepted in ancient India outside the sphere of the priestly establishment i.e. the Brahmana class. Some scholars think that these new concepts developed by aborigines outside the caste system, “This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. Certainly Jainism and non-vedics [..] accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith.” Masih, page 37. others detect Sramana or even Ksatriya influence. These concepts were eventually accepted by Brahmin orthodoxy, and were to form much of the core philosophies of the later epics and Hinduism, as well as, against a different philosophical and religious background, in Buddhism and Jainism. Astika and Nastika categorization Adi Shankara Astika and nastika are sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central actor in this world are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and actor are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view the Vedic religion (and Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Buddhism and Jainism are nastika religions. Another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas, as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools, while Charvaka is classified as a nastika school. By this definition, both Buddhism and Jainism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Shramana tradition A statue of Gautama Buddha. A statue of Mahavira. Vedic Brahmanism of Iron Age India co-existed and closely interacted with the parallel non-Vedic shramana traditions. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times." Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times." Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism" These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but separate movements that influenced it and were influenced by it. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times." The shramanas were wandering ascetics. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Shramana tradition, and the early Upanishadic movement was influenced by it. Karel Werner, The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic. Karel Werner, ed., Curzon Press, 1989, page 34. "Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands' ... Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism, and in some later literature." Gavin D. Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University - Press : UK ISBN 0521438780 - “The origin and doctrine of Karma and Samsara are obscure. These concepts were certainly circulating amongst sramanas, and Jainism and Buddhism developed specific and sophisticated ideas about the process of transmigration. It is very possible that the karmas and reincarnation entered the mainstream brahaminical thought from the sramana or the renouncer traditions.” Page 86. Padmanabh S. Jaini 2001 “Collected Paper on Buddhist Studies” Motilal Banarsidass Publ 576 pages ISBN 8120817761: "Yajnavalkya’s reluctance and manner in expounding the doctrine of karma in the assembly of Janaka (a reluctance not shown on any other occasion) can perhaps be explained by the assumption that it was, like that of the transmigration of soul, of non-brahmanical origin. In view of the fact that this doctrine is emblazoned on almost every page of sramana scriptures, it is highly probable that it was derived from them." Page 51. Govind Chandra Pande, (1994) Life and Thought of Sankaracarya, Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 8120811046 : Early Upanishad thinkers like Yajnavalkya were acquainted with the sramanic thinking and tried to incorporate these ideals of Karma, Samsara and Moksa into the vedic thought implying a disparagement of the vedic ritualism and recognising the mendicancy as an ideal. Page 135. A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington 1982 Routledge ISBN 071009258X - "The Upanishads were like a breath of fresh air blowing through the stuffy corridors of power of the vedic brahminism. They were noticed by the Brahmin establishment because the yogis did not owe allegiance to any established religion or mode of thought.. So although, the Upanishads came to be noticed by Brahmin establishment, they were very largely saying what may well have been current among other sramanic groups at that time. It can be said that this atheistic doctrine was evidently very acceptable to the authors of Upanishads, who made use of many of its concepts." Page 27. A History of Yoga By Vivian Worthington 1982 Routledge ISBN 071009258X: "The idea of re-incarnation, so central to the older sramanic creeds is still new to many people throughout the world. The Aryans of the Vedic age knew nothing of it. When the Brahmins began to accept it, they declared it as a secret doctrine. […] It will be seen from this short account of Jains, that they had fully developed the ideas of karma and reincarnation very early in history. The earliest Upanishads were probably strongly influenced by their teachings. Jainism the religion, Samkhya the philosophy and yoga the way to self discipline and enlightenment dominated the spiritual life of Indian during the Dravidian times. They were to be overshadowed for over thousand years by the lower form of religion that was foisted on the local inhabitants by the invading Aryans, but in the end it was Sramanic disciplines that triumphed. They did so by surviving in their own right and by their ideas being fully adopted by the Brahmins who steadily modified their own vedic religion." Page 35. The 24th Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment). The historical Gautama Buddha, who was a Buddha, was born into the Shakya clan of Angirasa and Gautama Rishi lineage, The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas just before the kingdom of Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to Kapilavastu and Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. The Ajivikas and Samkhyas, both of which did not survive, also belonged to the sramana tradition. Rise and spread of Jainism and Buddhism Buddhist Mahabodhi Temple Both Jainism and Buddhism spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire. Scholars Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski write that "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism." P. 93 World Religions By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski Jainism has declined since the 12th century in many regions, but continues to be an influential religion in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Palitana Jain Temples. Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia. . Indian Buddhism started declining following the rise of Puranic Hinduism during the Gupta dynasty, but continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century. Scholar James Bird writes, "But when primitive Buddhism originated from Hindu schools of philosophy, it differed as widely from that of later times, as did the Brahmanism of the Vedas from that of the Puranas and Tantras." P. 66 Historical researches on the origin and principles of the Bauddha and Jaina religions: embracing the leading tenets of their system, as found prevailing in various countries; illustrated by descriptive accounts of the sculptures in the caves of western India, with translations of the inscriptions ... which indicate their connexion with the coins and topes of the Panjab and Afghanistan.by James Bird Period after 200 BCE After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. . Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools. The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nastika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism. . Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition. . Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa. Between 400 CE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued. Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka. There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta, Pala, Malla, Somavanshi, and Sattvahana. Durga Prasad, P. 116, History of the Andhras upto 1565 A. D. Buddhism survived followed by Hindus. National Geographic January 2008, VOL. 213, #1 edition reads, "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings." Post-Vedic development of Hinduism A Statue of Lord Vishnu. The end of the Vedantic period around the 2nd century AD spawned a number of branches that furthered Vedantic philosophy, and which ended up being seminaries in their own right. The output generated by these specialized tributaries was automatically considered a part of the Hindu or even Indian philosophy. Prominent amongst these developers were Yoga, Dvaita, Advaita and the medieval Bhakti movement. The modern day popular movements were the ones founded by Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Raja Ram Mohan Roy among others. In the latter Vedantic period, several texts were also composed as summaries/attachments to the Upanishads. These texts collectively called as Puranas allowed for a divine and mythical interpretation of the world, not unlike the ancient Hellenic or Roman religions. Legends and epics with a multitude of gods and goddesses with human-like characteristics were composed. Two of Hinduism's most revered epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana were compositions of this period. Devotion to particular deities was reflected from the composition of texts composed to their worship. For example the Ganapati Purana was written for devotion to Ganapati (or Ganesh). Popular deities of this era were Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Skanda, and Ganesh (including the forms/incarnations of these deities.) Bhakti Movement Guru Ravidas - a figure from the Bhakti Era The Bhakti Movement began with the emphasis on the worship of God, regardless of one's status - whether priestly or laypeople, men or women, higher social status or lower social status. The movements were mainly centered around the forms of Vishnu (Rama and Krishna) and Shiva. There were however popular devotees of this era of Durga. Vaishnavism The most well-known devotees are the Alwars from southern India. The most popular Vaishnava teacher of the south was Ramanuja, while of the north it was Ramananda. Several important icons were women. For example, within the Mahanubhava sect, the women outnumbered the men Ramaswamy, P. 204 Walking Naked , and administration was many times composed mainly of women. Ramaswamy, P. 210 Walking Naked Mirabai is the most popular female saint in India. Sri Vallabha Acharya (1479 - 1531) is a very important figure from this era. He founded the Shuddha Advaita (Pure Non-dualism) school of Vedanta thought. Shaivism The most well-known devotees are the Nayanars from southern India. The most popular Shaiva teacher of the south was Basava, while of the north it was Gorakhnath. Female saints include figures like Akkamadevi, Lalleshvari and Molla. Recent groups The largest religious gathering ever held on Earth, the 2001 Maha Kumbh Mela held in Prayag attracted around 70 million Hindus from around the world. The modern era has given rise to dozens of Hindu saints with international influence. For example, Brahma Baba established the Brahma Kumaris, one of the largest new Hindu religious movements teaches the discipline of Raja Yoga to millions. Representing traditional Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Prabhupada founded the Hare Krishna movement, also international with many followers. In late 18th century India, Swaminarayan founded the Swaminarayan Sampraday. Anandamurti, founder of the Ananda Marga, has influenced many worldwide. Through all these new Hindu denominations traveling international, many Hindu practices such as yoga, meditation, mantra, divination, vegetarianism have become absorbed by new coverts and others influenced. Sikhism Harmandir Sahib or The Golden Temple of the Sikhs. Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world. Although it began as a relatively neutral faith system that proposed to include the best practices of Hinduism and Islam, over time its Gurus led followers in various rebellions and battles against the Islamic Mughal rulers of the time, most notably against Aurangzeb. Status in the Republic of India In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or special faiths within the larger Hindu fold, Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005 In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post- Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold. Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of Bal Patil vs. Union of India: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar." Although the government of British India counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities. [Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, December 2005 http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098] The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution. In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion. Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed :"Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar." However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be undisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate. (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India) However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion. Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism. Gujarat Freedom of religions Act, 2003 Ultimately on July 31 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned back the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains as well as Supreme Court's extra-judicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court" The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008 In his letter dated July 27 2007 he had said Jainism has been regarded as "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court". See also Indian philosophy History of Yoga Religion in India Religious thinkers of India Ayyavazhi and Hinduism Buddhism and Jainism Indology Notes References External links Statistics Constitution and law Reports

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Economy_of_Kyrgyzstan

The economy of Kyrgyzstan was severely affected by the collapse of the Soviet trading block. In 1990, some 98% of Kyrgyz exports went to other parts of the Soviet Union. Thus, the nation's economic performance in the early 1990s was worse than any other former Soviet republic except war-torn Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Tajikistan. While economic performance has improved in the last few years, difficulties remain in securing adequate fiscal revenues and providing an adequate social safety net. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Kyrgyzstan at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund and EconStats with figures in millions of Kyrgyzstani Soms. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange 1995 16,146 10.80 Soms 2000 65,358 47.77 Soms 2005 100,116 41.01 Soms For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US Dollar is exchanged at 9.40 Soms only. Current GDP per capita of Kyrgyzstan shrank by 54% in the Nineties. Average wages in 2007 hover around $3-4 per day. Finance Industries Agriculture Agriculture remains a vital part of Kyrgyzstan’s economy and a refuge for workers displaced from industry. Subsistence farming has increased in the early 2000s. After sharp reductions in the early 1990s, by the early 2000s agricultural production was approaching 1991 levels. Grain production in the lower valleys and livestock grazing on upland pastures occupy the largest share of the agricultural workforce. Farmers are shifting to grain and away from cotton and tobacco. Other important products are dairy products, hay, animal feed, potatoes, vegetables, and sugar beets. Agricultural output comes from private household plots (55 percent of the total), private farms (40 percent), and state farms (5 percent). Further expansion of the sector depends on banking reform to increase investment, and on market reform to streamline the distribution of inputs. Land reform, a controversial issue in Kyrgyzstan, has proceeded very slowly since initial legislation in 1998.<ref name=cp>Kyrgyzstan country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> The irrigation infrastructure is in poor condition. Agriculture contributes about one-third of the GDP and more than one-third of employment. Forestry Only 4 percent of Kyrgyzstan is classified as forested. All of that area is state-owned, and none is classified as available for wood supply. The main commercial product of the forests is walnuts. Fishing Locally produced dried fish can be purchased by the roadside in Balykchy Kyrgyzstan does not have a significant fishing industry. In 2002 aquaculture contributed 66 percent of the country’s total output of 142 metric tons of fish, but in 2003 the aquaculture industry collapsed, producing only 12 of the country’s total of 26 metric tons. Mining and minerals In the post-Soviet era, mining has been an increasingly important economic activity. The Kumtor Gold Mine, which opened in 1997, is based on one of the largest gold deposits in the world. Several other gold deposits have been developed slowly, and the closing of Kumtor—expected by 2010—will deplete the contribution of the mining sector to gross domestic product. New gold mines are planned at Jerooy and Taldy–Bulak, and a major gold discovery was announced at Tokhtonysay in late 2006. The state agency Kyrgyzaltyn owns all mines, many of which are operated as joint ventures with foreign companies. Uranium and antimony, important mineral outputs of the Soviet era, no longer are produced in significant amounts. Although between 1992 and 2003 coal output dropped from about 2.4 million tons to 411,000 tons, the government plans to increase exploitation of Kyrgyzstan’s considerable remaining deposits (estimated at 2.5 billion tons) in order to reduce dependency on foreign energy sources. A particular target of this policy is the Kara–Keche deposit in northern Kyrgyzstan, whose annual output capability is estimated at between 500,000 and 1 million tons. The small domestic output of oil and natural gas does not meet national needs. Industry and manufacturing In the post-Soviet era, Kyrgyzstan’s industries suffered sharp reductions in productivity because the supply of raw materials and fuels was disrupted, and Soviet markets disappeared. The sector has not recovered appreciably from that reduction; if gold production is not counted, in 2005 industry contributed only 14 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP). Investment and restructuring have remained at low levels, and the electricity industry (traditionally an important part of industry’s contribution to GDP) has stagnated in recent years. Government support is moving away from the machine industries, which were a major contributor to the Soviet economy, toward clothing and textiles. Food processing accounted for 10 to 15 percent of industrial production until encountering a slump in 2004. In recent years, the glass industry has surpassed clothing and textiles in investment received and as a contributor to GDP. In the early 2000s, the construction industry has grown steadily because of large infrastructure projects such as highways and new gold mines. Housing construction, however, has lagged because of low investment. Energy Because it has limited deposits of fossil fuels and low investment in extraction industries, Kyrgyzstan is very dependent on foreign sources of energy. Most natural gas imports come from Uzbekistan, with which Kyrgyzstan has had a series of imperfect barter agreements. Per capita energy consumption is high considering average income, and the government has no comprehensive plan to reduce demand. An estimated 45 percent of electricity generated is diverted illegally or leaks from the transmission system. Hydroelectric plants generate some 92.5 percent of domestically consumed electricity, and only three commercial thermoelectric plants are in operation. Because of its rich supply of hydroelectric power, Kyrgyzstan sends electricity to Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan in return for fossil fuels. A new hydroelectric plant on the Naryn River at Kambar–Ata would supply power to parts of China and Russia, improving Kyrgyzstan’s export situation and domestic energy supply. However, in 2006 that project, which would include one of the largest hydroelectric dams in the world, remained incomplete because of lack of investment. An antiquated infrastructure and poor management make Kyrgyzstan more dependent on foreign energy when water levels are low. In the early 2000s, Kyrgyzstan was exploiting only an estimated 10 percent of its hydroelectric power potential. In 2001 Kyrgyzstan had about 70,000 kilometers of power transmission lines served by about 500 substations. Kyrgyzstan would be a member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization’s Asian Energy Club, which Russia proposed in 2006 to unify oil, gas, and electricity producers, consumers, and transit countries in the Central Asian region in a bloc that is self-sufficient in energy. Other members would be China, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Kyrgyzstan is a partner country of the INOGATE energy programme, which has four key topics: enhancing energy security, convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles, supporting sustainable energy development, and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest. INOGATE website Services Substantial post-Soviet growth in the services sector is mainly attributable to the appearance of small private enterprises. The central bank is the National Bank of the Kyrgyz Republic, which nominally is independent but follows government policy. Although the banking system has been reformed several times since 1991, it does not play a significant role in investment. High interest rates have discouraged borrowing. A stock market opened in 1995, but its main function is trading in government securities. Because of the Akayev regime’s economic reforms, many small trade and catering enterprises have opened in the post-Soviet era. Although Kyrgyzstan’s mountains and lakes are an attractive tourist destination, the tourism industry has grown very slowly because it has received little investment. In the early 2000s, an average of about 450,000 tourists visited annually, mainly from countries of the former Soviet Union. External trade Kyrgyz exports in 2006 Traders' cars parked between the row of shipping containers turned into shops in Dordoy Bazaar Kyrgyzstan's principal exports, which go overwhelmingly to other CIS countries, are nonferrous metals and minerals, woolen goods and other agricultural products, electric energy, and certain engineering goods. In turn, the Republic relies on other former Soviet states for petroleum and natural gas, ferrous metals, chemicals, most machinery, wood and paper products, some foods, and most construction materials. In 1999, Kyrgyz exports to the U.S. totaled $11.2 million, and imports from the U.S. totaled $54.2 million. Kyrgyzstan exports antimony, mercury, rare-earth metals, and other chemical products to the U.S., and it imports grain, medicine and medical equipment, vegetable oil, paper products, rice, machinery, agricultural equipment, and meat from the U.S. Reexport of China-made consumer goods to Kazakhstan and Russia, centered on Dordoy Bazaar in Bishkek, and to Uzbekistan, centered on Karasuu Bazar in Osh Province, is particularly important; it is thought by some economists to be one the country's two largest economic activities. Sebastien Peyrouse, Economic Aspects of China-Central Asia Rapprochment. Central Asia - Caucasus Institute, Silk Road Studies Program. 2007. p.18. The Kyrgyzstan Government has reduced expenditures, ended most price subsidies, and introduced a value added tax. Overall, the government appears committed to transferring to a free market economic system by stabilizing the economy and implementing reforms, which will encourage long-term growth. These reforms led to Kyrgyzstan's accession to the WTO on December 20, 1998. Investment The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Kyrgyzstan was valued at $42 million in 2005 by the World Bank. Data - Finance Other statistics Investment (gross fixed): 17% of GDP (2004 est.) Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.9% highest 10%: 23.3% (2001) Distribution of family income - Gini index: 29 (2001) Agriculture - products: tobacco, cotton, potatoes, vegetables, grapes, fruits and berries; sheep, goats, cattle, wool Industrial production growth rate: 6% (2000 est.) Electricity production: 11,720 GWh (2002) consumption: 10,210 GWh (2002) exports: 1,062 GWh (2002) imports: 375 GWh (2002) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 7.6% hydro: 92.4% other: 0% (2001) nuclear: 0% Oil: production: 2,000 barrel/day (2001 est.) consumption: 20,000 barrel/day (2001 est.) exports: NA imports: NA Natural gas: production: 16 million m³ (2001 est.) consumption: 2.016 billion m³ (2001 est.) exports: 0 m³ (2001 est.) imports:'' 2 billion m³ (2001 est.) Current account balance: $-87.92 million (2004 est.) Exports - commodities: cotton, wool, meat, tobacco; gold, mercury, uranium, natural gas, hydropower; machinery; shoes Imports - commodities: oil and gas, machinery and equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs Reserves of foreign exchange & gold: $498.7 million (2004 est.) Exchange rates: soms per US dollar - 41.731 (2004), 43.6484 (2003), 46.9371 (2002), 48.378 (2001), 47.7038 (2000) See also Kyrgyzstan Economy of Asia References External links Minister wants bigger role for local mining firms

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